LANDS OF UTAH ***





                                 REPORT

                                 ON THE

                        LANDS OF THE ARID REGION

                                 OF THE

                             UNITED STATES,

                                 WITH A

              MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH.

                               WITH MAPS.

                                   BY

                             J. W. POWELL.


                            SECOND EDITION.


                              WASHINGTON:
                      GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
                                 1879.




              CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES (3D SESSION),
                    IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
                            _March 3, 1879_.

The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives,
has this day been concurred in by the Senate:

_Resolved, by the House of Representatives_ (_the Senate concurring_),
That there be printed five thousand copies of the Report on the Lands
of the Arid Region of the United States, by J. W. Powell; one thousand
for the use of the Senate, two thousand for the use of the House of
Representatives, and two thousand for the use of the Department of the
Interior.

Attest:

                                                 GEO. M. ADAMS, _Clerk_.




J. W. POWELL’S REPORT ON SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION.


                                LETTER

                                 FROM

                    THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR,

                             TRANSMITTING

 _Report of J. W. Powell, geologist in charge of the United States
 Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon
 the lands of the Arid Region of the United States._

 APRIL 3, 1878.--Referred to the Committee on Appropriations and
 ordered to be printed.

                                     DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
                                     WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 3, 1878_.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report from Maj. J. W.
Powell, geologist in charge of the United States Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon the lands of
the Arid Region of the United States, setting forth the extent of
said region, and making suggestions as to the conditions under which
the lands embraced within its limit may be rendered available for
agricultural and grazing purposes. With the report is transmitted a
statement of the rainfall of the western portion of the United States,
with reports upon the subject of irrigation by Capt. C. E. Dutton, U.
S. A., Prof. A. H. Thompson, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert.

Herewith are also transmitted draughts of two bills, one entitled “A
bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead
settlements on the public lands which are of value for pasturage
purposes only”, and the other “A bill to authorize the organization of
irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands
requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes”, intended to carry
into effect a new system for the disposal of the public lands of said
region, and to promote the settlement and development of that portion
of the country.

In view of the importance of rendering the vast extent of country
referred to available for agricultural and grazing purposes, I have
the honor to commend the views set forth by Major Powell and the bills
submitted herewith to the consideration of Congress.

                                                      Very respectfully,

                                                            C. SCHURZ,
                                                            _Secretary_.

                              Hon. SAMUEL J. RANDALL,
                              _Speaker of the House of Representatives_.

                        DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, GENERAL LAND OFFICE,
                        WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 1, 1878_.

SIR: I have the honor to submit herewith a report from Maj. J. W.
Powell, in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the
Rocky Mountains, in regard to the Arid Region of the United States,
and draughts of two bills, one entitled “A bill to authorize the
organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the
public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only”, and the
other “A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by
homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for
agricultural purposes”.

Major Powell reviews at length the features of, and furnishes
statistics relative to, the Arid Region of the United States, which is
substantially the territory west of the one hundredth meridian and east
of the Cascade Range, and the bills named are intended, if passed, to
carry into effect the views expressed in his report for the settlement
and development of this region.

He has, in the performance of his duties in conducting the geological
and geographical survey, been over much of the country referred to,
and is qualified by observation, research, and study to speak of the
topography, characteristics, and adaptability of the same.

I have not been able, on account of more urgent official duties, to
give Major Powell’s report and proposed bills the careful investigation
necessary, in view of their great importance, to enable me to express
a decided opinion as to their merits. Some change is necessary in the
survey and disposal of the lands, and I think his views are entitled
to great weight, and would respectfully recommend that such action
be taken as will bring his report and bills before Congress for
consideration by that body.

                                                      Very respectfully,
                                                      J. A. WILLIAMSON,
                                                      _Commissioner_.

                                            Hon. C. SCHURZ,
                                            _Secretary of the Interior_.

  DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
  U. S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION,
  WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 1, 1878_.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the lands of the
Arid Region of the United States. After setting forth the general facts
relating to the conditions under which these lands must be utilized, I
have taken the liberty to suggest a system for their disposal which I
believe would be adapted to the wants of the country.

I wish to express my sincere thanks for the assistance you have given
me in the collection of many of the facts necessary to the discussion,
and especially for the aid you have rendered in the preparation of the
maps.

Permit me to express the hope that the great interest you take in the
public domain will be rewarded by the consciousness that you have
assisted many citizens in the establishment of farm homes thereon.

               I am, with great respect, your obedient servant,
               J. W. POWELL,
               _In charge U. S. G. and G. Survey Rocky Mountain Region_.

                   Hon. J. A. WILLIAMSON,
                   _Commissioner General Land Office, Washington, D. C._




                               PREFACE.


It was my intention to write a work on the Public Domain. The object
of the volume was to give the extent and character of the lands yet
belonging to the Government of the United States. Compared with the
whole extent of these lands, but a very small fraction is immediately
available for agriculture; in general, they require drainage or
irrigation for their redemption.

It is true that in the Southern States there are some millions of
acres, chiefly timber lands, which at no remote time will be occupied
for agricultural purposes. Westward toward the Great Plains, the lands
in what I have, in the body of this volume, termed the Humid Region
have passed from the hands of the General Government. To this statement
there are some small exceptions here and there--fractional tracts,
which, for special reasons, have not been considered desirable by
persons in search of lands for purposes of investment or occupation.

In the Sub-humid Region settlements are rapidly extending westward
to the verge of the country where agriculture is possible without
irrigation.

In the Humid Region of the Columbia the agricultural lands are largely
covered by great forests, and for this reason settlements will progress
slowly, as the lands must be cleared of their timber.

The redemption of the Arid Region involves engineering problems
requiring for their solution the greatest skill. In the present volume
only these lands are considered. Had I been able to execute the
original plan to my satisfaction, I should have treated of the coast
swamps of the South Atlantic and the Gulf slopes, the Everglade lands
of the Floridian Peninsula, the flood plain lands of the great rivers
of the south, which have heretofore been made available only to a
limited extent by a system of levees, and the lake swamp lands found
about the headwaters of the Mississippi and the region of the upper
Great Lakes. All of these lands require either drainage or protection
from overflow, and the engineering problems involved are of diverse
nature. These lands are to be redeemed from excessive humidity,
while the former are to be redeemed from excessive aridity. When
the excessively humid lands are redeemed, their fertility is almost
inexhaustible, and the agricultural capacity of the United States will
eventually be largely increased by the rescue of these lands from
their present valueless condition. In like manner, on the other hand,
the arid lands, so far as they can be redeemed by irrigation, will
perennially yield bountiful crops, as the means for their redemption
involves their constant fertilization.

To a great extent, the redemption of all these lands will require
extensive and comprehensive plans, for the execution of which
aggregated capital or coöperative labor will be necessary. Here,
individual farmers, being poor men, cannot undertake the task. For
its accomplishment a wise prevision, embodied in carefully considered
legislation, is necessary. It was my purpose not only to consider the
character of the lands themselves, but also the engineering problems
involved in their redemption, and further to make suggestions for the
legislative action necessary to inaugurate the enterprises by which
these lands may eventually be rescued from their present worthless
state. When I addressed myself to the broader task as indicated above,
I found that my facts in relation to some of the classes of lands
mentioned, especially the coast swamps of the Gulf and some of the
flood plain lands of the southern rivers, were too meager for anything
more than general statements. There seemed to be no immediate necessity
for the discussion of these subjects; but to the Arid Region of the
west thousands of persons are annually repairing, and the questions
relating to the utilization of these lands are of present importance.
Under these considerations I have decided to publish that portion of
the volume relating to the arid lands, and to postpone to some future
time that part relating to the excessively humid lands.

In the preparation of the contemplated volume I desired to give a
historical sketch of the legislation relating to swamp lands and
executive action thereunder; another chapter on bounty lands and land
grants for agricultural schools, and still another on land grants in
aid of internal improvements--chiefly railroads. The latter chapter has
already been prepared by Mr. Willis Drummond, jr., and as the necessary
map is ready I have concluded to publish it now, more especially as the
granted lands largely lie in the Arid Region. Mr. Drummond’s chapter
has been carefully prepared and finely written, and contains much
valuable information.

To the late Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, I am greatly indebted for access to the records of the
Institution relating to rainfall. Since beginning my explorations and
surveys in the far west, I have received the counsel and assistance
of the venerable professor on all important matters relating to my
investigations; and whatever of value has been accomplished is due in
no small part to his wisdom and advice. I cannot but express profound
sorrow at the loss of a counselor so wise, so patient, and so courteous.

I am also indebted to Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States Coast
Survey, to whom the discussion of the rain gauge records has been
intrusted by the Smithsonian Institution, for furnishing to me the
required data in advance of publication by himself.

Unfortunately, the chapters written by Messrs. Gilbert, Dutton,
Thompson, and Drummond have not been proof-read by themselves, by
reason of their absence during the time when the volume was going
through the press; but this is the less to be regretted from the fact
that the whole volume has been proof-read by Mr. J. C. Pilling, whose
critical skill is all that could be desired.

                                                                J. W. P.

AUGUST, 1878.




                     PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION


The first edition of this report having been exhausted in a few months
and without satisfying the demand which the importance of the subject
created, a second was ordered by Congress in March, 1879. The authors
were thus given an opportunity to revise their text and eliminate a
few formal errors which had crept in by reason of their absence while
the first edition was passing through the press. The substance of the
report is unchanged.

                                                                J. W. P.

JULY, 1879.




                          TABLE OF CONTENTS.


  CHAPTER I.

  PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION:                     Page.

  The Arid Region                                                      5

  Irrigable lands                                                      6

  Advantages of irrigation                                            10

  Coöperative labor or capital necessary for the development of
  irrigation                                                          11

  The use of smaller streams sometimes interferes with the use of the
  larger                                                              12

  Increase of irrigable area by the storage of water                  12

  Timber lands                                                        14

  Agricultural and timber industries differentiated                   18

  Cultivation of timber                                               19

  Pasturage lands                                                     19

  Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land                 21

  The farm unit for pasturage lands                                   21

  Regular division lines for pasturage farms not practicable          22

  Farm residences should be grouped                                   22

  Pasturage lands cannot be fenced                                    23

  Recapitulation                                                      23

  Irrigable lands                                                     23

  Timber lands                                                        23

  Pasturage lands                                                     24


  CHAPTER II.

  THE LAND-SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION:

  Irrigable lands                                                     27

  Timber lands                                                        27

  Pasturage lands                                                     28

  A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts        30

  A bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts         33

  Water rights                                                        40

  The lands should be classified                                      43


  CHAPTER III.

  THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES:

  Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region                               47

  Precipitation of the Arid Region                                    48

  Precipitation of the San Francisco Region                           49

  Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia                   49

  Distribution of rain through the year                               50

  Precipitation of Texas                                              50

  Precipitation of Dakota                                             51

  Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains                  52

  Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region                  53

  Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region          54

  Seasonal precipitation and temperature on the Pacific Coast, etc.   55

  Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico                    56


  CHAPTER IV.

  WATER SUPPLY.--BY G. K. GILBERT:

  Increase of streams                                                 57

  Rise of Great Salt Lake                                             58

  Volcanic theory                                                     67

  Climatic theory                                                     68

  Theory of human agencies                                            71

  Farming without irrigation                                          77


  CHAPTER V.

  CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS:

  The unit of water used in irrigation                                81

  The quantitative value of water in irrigation                       81

  Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply        85

  Method of determining the supply of water                           85

  Methods of determining the extent of irrigable land unlimited by
  water supply                                                        86

  The selection of irrigable lands                                    87

  Increase in the water supply                                        89


  CHAPTER VI.

  THE LANDS OF UTAH:

  Physical features                                                   93

  Timber                                                              98

  Irrigable and pasturage lands                                      103

  Uinta-White Basin                                                  103

  The Cañon Lands                                                    105

  The Sevier Lake District                                           106

  The Great Salt Lake District                                       106

  Grasses                                                            107

  Table of Irrigable lands in Utah Territory                         111


  CHAPTER VII.

  IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.--BY G. K. GILBERT:

  Irrigation by the larger streams                                   117

  Bear River drainage basin                                          119

  Weber River drainage basin                                         121

  Jordan River drainage basin                                        124

  Irrigation by smaller streams                                      126


  CHAPTER VIII.

  IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RIVER.--BY CAPT. C. E.
  DUTTON:

  Altitudes of the San Pete Valley                                   133

  Volume of flowing water in San Pete Valley                         140

  Irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake District                        144


  CHAPTER IX.

  IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER
  AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.--BY PROF. A. H. THOMPSON:

  The Virgin River                                                   152

  Kanab Creek                                                        154

  The Paria River                                                    155

  The Escalante River                                                156

  The Fremont River                                                  157

  The San Rafael River                                               158

  The Price River                                                    159

  Minnie Maud Creek                                                  159

  The Uinta River                                                    160

  Ashley Fork                                                        161

  Henrys Fork                                                        161

  The White River                                                    161

  The Green River                                                    162

  The Grand River                                                    163

  The San Juan River                                                 163

  Other streams                                                      163

  Irrigable lands of the Colorado drainage                           164


  CHAPTER X.

  LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.--BY WILLIS DRUMMOND,
  JR.                                                                165




     REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

                           BY J. W. POWELL.




                              CHAPTER I.

             PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION.


The eastern portion of the United States is supplied with abundant
rainfall for agricultural purposes, receiving the necessary amount
from the evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; but
westward the amount of aqueous precipitation diminishes in a general
way until at last a region is reached where the climate is so arid that
agriculture is not successful without irrigation. This Arid Region
begins about midway in the Great Plains and extends across the Rocky
Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. But on the northwest coast there is
a region of greater precipitation, embracing western Washington and
Oregon and the northwest corner of California. The winds impinging on
this region are freighted with moisture derived from the great Pacific
currents; and where this water-laden atmosphere strikes the western
coast in full force, the precipitation is excessive, reaching a maximum
north of the Columbia River of 80 inches annually. But the rainfall
rapidly decreases from the Pacific Ocean eastward to the summit of the
Cascade Mountains. It will be convenient to designate this humid area
as the Lower Columbia Region. Rain gauge records have not been made
to such an extent as to enable us to define its eastern and southern
boundaries, but as they are chiefly along high mountains, definite
boundary lines are unimportant in the consideration of agricultural
resources and the questions relating thereto. In like manner on the
east the rain gauge records, though more full, do not give all the
facts necessary to a thorough discussion of the subject; yet the
records are such as to indicate approximately the boundary between
the Arid Region, where irrigation is necessary to agriculture, and the
Humid Region, where the lands receive enough moisture from the clouds
for the maturing of crops. Experience teaches that it is not wise to
depend upon rainfall where the amount is less than 20 inches annually,
if this amount is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year;
but if the rainfall is unevenly distributed, so that “rainy seasons”
are produced, the question whether agriculture is possible without
irrigation depends upon the time of the “rainy season” and the amount
of its rainfall. Any unequal distribution of rain through the year,
though the inequality be so slight as not to produce “rainy seasons”,
affects agriculture either favorably or unfavorably. If the spring and
summer precipitation exceeds that of the fall and winter, a smaller
amount of annual rain may be sufficient; but if the rainfall during the
season of growing crops is less than the average of the same length
of time during the remainder of the year, a greater amount of annual
precipitation is necessary. In some localities in the western portion
of the United States this unequal distribution of rainfall through the
seasons affects agriculture favorably, and this is true immediately
west of the northern portion of the line of 20 inches of rainfall,
which extends along the plains from our northern to our southern
boundary.

The isohyetal or mean annual rainfall line of 20 inches, as indicated
on the rain chart accompanying this report, begins on the southern
boundary of the United States, about 60 miles west of Brownsville,
on the Rio Grande del Norte, and intersects the northern boundary
about 50 miles east of Pembina. Between these two points the line is
very irregular, but in middle latitudes makes a general curve to the
westward. On the southern portion of the line the rainfall is somewhat
evenly distributed through the seasons, but along the northern portion
the rainfall of spring and summer is greater than that of fall and
winter, and hence the boundary of what has been called the Arid Region
runs farther to the west. Again, there is another modifying condition,
namely, that of temperature. Where the temperature is greater, more
rainfall is needed; where the temperature is less, agriculture is
successful with a smaller amount of precipitation. But geographically
this temperature is dependent upon two conditions--altitude and
latitude. Along the northern portion of the line latitude is an
important factor, and the line of possible agriculture without
irrigation is carried still farther westward. This conclusion, based
upon the consideration of rainfall and latitude, accords with the
experience of the farmers of the region, for it is a well known fact
that agriculture without irrigation is successfully carried on in the
valley of the Red River of the North, and also in the southeastern
portion of Dakota Territory. A much more extended series of rain-gauge
records than we now have is necessary before this line constituting
the eastern boundary of the Arid Region can be well defined. It is
doubtless more or less meandering in its course throughout its whole
extent from south to north, being affected by local conditions of
rainfall, as well as by the general conditions above mentioned; but in
a general way it may be represented by the one hundredth meridian, in
some places passing to the east, in others to the west, but in the main
to the east.

The limit of successful agriculture without irrigation has been set
at 20 inches, that the extent of the Arid Region should by no means
be exaggerated; but at 20 inches agriculture will not be uniformly
successful from season to season. Many droughts will occur; many
seasons in a long series will be fruitless; and it may be doubted
whether, on the whole, agriculture will prove remunerative. On this
point it is impossible to speak with certainty. A larger experience
than the history of agriculture in the western portion of the United
States affords is necessary to a final determination of the question.

In fact, a broad belt separates the Arid Region of the west from the
Humid Region of the east. Extending from the one hundredth meridian
eastward to about the isohyetal line of 28 inches, the district of
country thus embraced will be subject more or less to disastrous
droughts, the frequency of which will diminish from west to east.
For convenience let this be called the Sub-humid Region. Its western
boundary is the line already defined as running irregularly along
the one hundredth meridian. Its eastern boundary passes west of
the isohyetal line of 28 inches of rainfall in Minnesota, running
approximately parallel to the western boundary line above described.
Nearly one-tenth of the whole area of the United States, exclusive
of Alaska, is embraced in this Sub-humid Region. In the western
portion disastrous droughts will be frequent; in the eastern portion
infrequent. In the western portion agriculturists will early resort to
irrigation to secure immunity from such disasters, and this event will
be hastened because irrigation when properly conducted is a perennial
source of fertilization, and is even remunerative for this purpose
alone; and for the same reason the inhabitants of the eastern part will
gradually develop irrigating methods. It may be confidently expected
that at a time not far distant irrigation will be practiced to a
greater or less extent throughout this Sub-humid Region. Its settlement
presents problems differing materially from those pertaining to the
region to the westward. Irrigation is not immediately necessary, and
hence agriculture does not immediately depend upon capital. The region
may be settled and its agricultural capacities more or less developed,
and the question of the construction of irrigating canals may be a
matter of time and convenience. For many reasons, much of the sub-humid
belt is attractive to settlers: it is almost destitute of forests, and
for this reason is more readily subdued, as the land is ready for the
plow. But because of the lack of forests the country is more dependent
upon railroads for the transportation of building and fencing materials
and for fuel. To a large extent it is a region where timber may be
successfully cultivated. As the rainfall is on a general average nearly
sufficient for continuous successful agriculture, the amount of water
to be supplied by irrigating canals will be comparatively small, so
that its streams can serve proportionally larger areas than the streams
of the Arid Region. In its first settlement the people will be favored
by having lands easily subdued, but they will have to contend against a
lack of timber. Eventually this will be a region of great agricultural
wealth, as in general the soils are good. From our northern to our
southern boundary no swamp lands are found, except to some slight
extent in the northeastern portion, and it has no excessively hilly or
mountainous districts. It is a beautiful prairie country throughout,
lacking somewhat in rainfall; but this want can be easily supplied by
utilizing the living streams; and, further, these streams will afford
fertilizing materials of great value.

The Humid Region of the lower Columbia and the Sub-humid Region of the
Great Plains have been thus briefly indicated in order that the great
Arid Region, which is the subject of this paper, may be more clearly
defined.


                           THE ARID REGION.

The Arid Region is the great Rocky Mountain Region of the United
States, and it embraces something more than four-tenths of the
whole country, excluding Alaska. In all this region the mean annual
rainfall is insufficient for agriculture, but in certain seasons some
localities, now here, now there, receive more than their average
supply. Under such conditions crops will mature without irrigation.
As such seasons are more or less infrequent even in the more favored
localities, and as the agriculturist cannot determine in advance
when such seasons may occur, the opportunities afforded by excessive
rainfall cannot be improved.

In central and northern California an unequal distribution of rainfall
through the seasons affects agricultural interests favorably. A “rainy
season” is here found, and the chief precipitation occurs in the months
of December-April. The climate, tempered by mild winds from the broad
expanse of Pacific waters, is genial, and certain crops are raised by
sowing the seeds immediately before or during the “rainy season”, and
the watering which they receive causes the grains to mature so that
fairly remunerative crops are produced. But here again the lands are
subject to the droughts of abnormal seasons. As many of these lands can
be irrigated, the farmers of the country are resorting more and more
to the streams, and soon all the living waters of this region will be
brought into requisition.

In the tables of a subsequent chapter this will be called the San
Francisco Region.

Again in eastern Washington and Oregon, and perhaps in northern Idaho,
agriculture is practiced to a limited extent without irrigation. The
conditions of climate by which this is rendered possible are not yet
fully understood. The precipitation of moisture on the mountains is
greater than on the lowlands, but the hills and mesas adjacent to the
great masses of mountains receive a little of the supply condensed by
the mountains themselves, and it will probably be found that limited
localities in Montana, and even in Wyoming, will be favored by this
condition to an extent sufficient to warrant agricultural operations
independent of irrigation. These lands, however, are usually supplied
with living streams, and their irrigation can be readily effected, and
to secure greater certainty and greater yield of crops irrigation will
be practiced in such places.


                           IRRIGABLE LANDS.

Within the Arid Region only a small portion of the country is
irrigable. These irrigable tracts are lowlands lying along the streams.
On the mountains and high plateaus forests are found at elevations so
great that frequent summer frosts forbid the cultivation of the soil.
Here are the natural timber lands of the Arid Region--an upper region
set apart by nature for the growth of timber necessary to the mining,
manufacturing, and agricultural industries of the country. Between the
low irrigable lands and the elevated forest lands there are valleys,
mesas, hills, and mountain slopes bearing grasses of greater or less
value for pasturage purposes.

Then, in discussing the lands of the Arid Region, three great classes
are recognized--the irrigable lands below, the forest lands above, and
the pasturage lands between. In order to set forth the characteristics
of these lands and the conditions under which they can be most
profitably utilized, it is deemed best to discuss first a somewhat
limited region in detail as a fair type of the whole. The survey under
the direction of the writer has been extended over the greater part of
Utah, a small part of Wyoming and Colorado, the northern portion of
Arizona, and a small part of Nevada, but it is proposed to take up for
this discussion only the area embraced in Utah Territory.

In Utah Territory agriculture is dependent upon irrigation. To this
statement there are some small exceptions. In the more elevated regions
there are tracts of meadow land from which small crops of hay can be
taken: such lands being at higher altitudes need less moisture, and
at the same time receive a greater amount of rainfall because of the
altitude; but these meadows have been, often are, and in future will
be, still more improved by irrigation. Again, on the belt of country
lying between Great Salt Lake and the Wasatch Mountains the local
rainfall is much greater than the general rainfall of the region.
The water evaporated from the lake is carried by the westerly winds
to the adjacent mountains on the east and again condensed, and the
rainfall thus produced extends somewhat beyond the area occupied by the
mountains, so that the foot hills and contiguous bench lands receive
a modicum of this special supply. In some seasons this additional
supply is enough to water the lands for remunerative agriculture, but
the crops grown will usually be very small, and they will be subject
to seasons of extreme drought, when all agriculture will result in
failure. Most of these lands can be irrigated, and doubtless will be,
from a consideration of the facts already stated, namely, that crops
will thereby be greatly increased and immunity from drought secured.
Perhaps other small tracts, on account of their subsoils, can be
profitably cultivated in favorable seasons, but all of these exceptions
are small, and the fact remains that agriculture is there dependent
upon irrigation. Only a small part of the territory, however, can be
redeemed, as high, rugged mountains and elevated plateaus occupy much
of its area, and these regions are so elevated that summer frosts
forbid their occupation by the farmer. Thus thermic conditions limit
agriculture to the lowlands, and here another limit is found in the
supply of water. Some of the large streams run in deep gorges so far
below the general surface of the country that they cannot be used; for
example, the Colorado River runs through the southeastern portion of
the Territory and carries a great volume of water, but no portion of
it can be utilized within the Territory from the fact that its channel
is so much below the adjacent lands. The Bear River, in the northern
part of the Territory, runs in a somewhat narrow valley, so that only
a portion of its waters can be utilized. Generally the smaller streams
can be wholly employed in agriculture, but the lands which might thus
be reclaimed are of greater extent than the amount which the streams
can serve; hence in all such regions the extent of irrigable land is
dependent upon the volume of water carried by the streams.

In order to determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah it was
necessary to determine the areas to which the larger streams can be
taken by proper engineering skill, and the amount which the smaller
streams can serve. In the latter case it was necessary to determine
first the amount of land which a given amount or unit of water would
supply, and then the volume of water running in the streams; the
product of these factors giving the extent of the irrigable lands. A
continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per second was taken as the
unit, and after careful consideration it was assumed that this unit of
water will serve from 80 to 100 acres of land. Usually the computations
have been made on the basis of 100 acres. This unit was determined in
the most practical way--from the experience of the farmers of Utah who
have been practicing agriculture for the past thirty years. Many of
the farmers will not admit that so great a tract can be cultivated by
this unit. In the early history of irrigation in this country the lands
were oversupplied with water, but experience has shown that irrigation
is most successful when the least amount of water is used necessary to
a vigorous growth of the crops; that is, a greater yield is obtained
by avoiding both scanty and excessive watering; but the tendency to
overwater the lands is corrected only by extended experience. A great
many of the waterways are so rudely constructed that much waste ensues.
As irrigating methods are improved this wastage will be avoided; so in
assuming that a cubic foot of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres
of land it is at the same time assumed that only the necessary amount
of water will be used, and that the waterways will eventually be so
constructed that the waste now almost universal will be prevented.

In determining the volume of water flowing in the streams great
accuracy has not been attained. For this purpose it would be necessary
to make continuous daily, or even hourly, observations for a series of
years on each stream, but by the methods described in the following
chapters it will be seen that a fair approximation to a correct amount
has been made. For the degree of accuracy reached much is due to the
fact that many of the smaller streams are already used to their fullest
capacity, and thus experience has solved the problem.

Having determined from the operations of irrigation that one cubic foot
per second of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres of land when the
greatest economy is used, and having determined the volume of water
or number of cubic feet per second flowing in the several streams of
Utah by the most thorough methods available under the circumstances,
it appears that within the territory, excluding a small portion in the
southeastern corner where the survey has not yet been completed, the
amount of land which it is possible to redeem by this method is about
2,262 square miles, or 1,447,920 acres. Of course this amount does not
lie in a continuous body, but is scattered in small tracts along the
water courses. For the purpose of exhibiting their situations a map
of the territory has been prepared, and will be found accompanying
this report, on which the several tracts of irrigable lands have been
colored. A glance at this map will show how they are distributed.
Excluding that small portion of the territory in the southeast corner
not embraced in the map, Utah has an area of 80,000 square miles, of
which 2,262 square miles are irrigable. That is, 2.8 per cent. of
the lands under consideration can be cultivated by utilizing all the
available streams during the irrigating season.

In addition to the streams considered in this statement there are
numerous small springs on the mountain sides scattered throughout the
territory--springs which do not feed permanent streams; and if their
waters were used for irrigation the extent of irrigable land would be
slightly increased; to what exact amount cannot be stated, but the
difference would be so small as not to materially affect the general
statement, and doubtless these springs can be used in another way and
to a better purpose, as will hereafter appear.

This statement of the facts relating to the irrigable lands of Utah
will serve to give a clearer conception of the extent and condition of
the irrigable lands throughout the Arid Region. Such as can be redeemed
are scattered along the water courses, and are in general the lowest
lands of the several districts to which they belong. In some of the
states and territories the percentage of irrigable land is less than in
Utah, in others greater, and it is probable that the percentage in the
entire region is somewhat greater than in the territory which we have
considered.

The Arid Region is somewhat more than four-tenths of the total area of
the United States, and as the agricultural interests of so great an
area are dependent upon irrigation it will be interesting to consider
certain questions relating to the economy and practicability of
distributing the waters over the lands to be redeemed.


                       ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION.

There are two considerations that make irrigation attractive to
the agriculturist. Crops thus cultivated are not subject to the
vicissitudes of rainfall; the farmer fears no droughts; his labors
are seldom interrupted and his crops rarely injured by storms. This
immunity from drought and storm renders agricultural operations much
more certain than in regions of greater humidity. Again, the water
comes down from the mountains and plateaus freighted with fertilizing
materials derived from the decaying vegetation and soils of the upper
regions, which are spread by the flowing water over the cultivated
lands. It is probable that the benefits derived from this source alone
will be full compensation for the cost of the process. Hitherto these
benefits have not been fully realized, from the fact that the methods
employed have been more or less crude. When the flow of water over the
land is too great or too rapid the fertilizing elements borne in the
waters are carried past the fields, and a washing is produced which
deprives the lands irrigated of their most valuable elements, and
little streams cut the fields with channels injurious in diverse ways.
Experience corrects these errors, and the irrigator soon learns to
flood his lands gently, evenly, and economically. It may be anticipated
that all the lands redeemed by irrigation in the Arid Region will be
highly cultivated and abundantly productive, and agriculture will
be but slightly subject to the vicissitudes of scant and excessive
rainfall.

A stranger entering this Arid Region is apt to conclude that the soils
are sterile, because of their chemical composition, but experience
demonstrates the fact that all the soils are suitable for agricultural
purposes when properly supplied with water. It is true that some of the
soils are overcharged with alkaline materials, but these can in time be
“washed out”. Altogether the fact suggests that far too much attention
has heretofore been paid to the chemical constitution of soils and
too little to those physical conditions by which moisture and air are
supplied to the roots of the growing plants.


     COÖPERATIVE LABOR OR CAPITAL NECESSARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
                              IRRIGATION.

Small streams can be taken out and distributed by individual
enterprise, but coöperative labor or aggregated capital must be
employed in taking out the larger streams.

The diversion of a large stream from its channel into a system of
canals demands a large outlay of labor and material. To repay this all
the waters so taken out must be used, and large tracts of land thus
become dependent upon a single canal. It is manifest that a farmer
depending upon his own labor cannot undertake this task. To a great
extent the small streams are already employed, and but a comparatively
small portion of the irrigable lands can be thus redeemed; hence the
chief future development of irrigation must come from the use of the
larger streams. Usually the confluence of the brooks and creeks which
form a large river takes place within the mountain district which
furnishes its source before the stream enters the lowlands where
the waters are to be used. The volume of water carried by the small
streams that reach the lowlands before uniting with the great rivers,
or before they are lost in the sands, is very small when compared with
the volume of the streams which emerge from the mountains as rivers.
This fact is important. If the streams could be used along their upper
ramifications while the several branches are yet small, poor men could
occupy the lands, and by their individual enterprise the agriculture of
the country would be gradually extended to the limit of the capacity
of the region; but when farming is dependent upon larger streams such
men are barred from these enterprises until coöperative labor can be
organized or capital induced to assist. Before many years all the
available smaller streams throughout the entire region will be occupied
in serving the lands, and then all future development will depend on
the conditions above described.

In Utah Territory coöperative labor, under ecclesiastical organization,
has been very successful. Outside of Utah there are but few instances
where it has been tried; but at Greeley, in the State of Colorado, this
system has been eminently successful.


  THE USE OF SMALLER STREAMS SOMETIMES INTERFERES WITH THE USE OF THE
                                LARGER.

A river emerging from a mountain region and meandering through a valley
may receive small tributaries along its valley course. These small
streams will usually be taken out first, and the lands which they will
be made to serve will often lie low down in the valley, because the
waters can be more easily controlled here and because the lands are
better; and this will be done without regard to the subsequent use of
the larger stream to which the smaller ones are tributary. But when the
time comes to take out the larger stream, it is found that the lands
which it can be made to serve lying adjacent on either hand are already
in part served by the smaller streams, and as it will not pay to take
out the larger stream without using all of its water, and as the people
who use the smaller streams have already vested rights in these lands,
a practical prohibition is placed upon the use of the larger river.
In Utah, church authority, to some extent at least, adjusts these
conflicting interests by causing the smaller streams to be taken out
higher up in their course. Such adjustment is not so easily attained
by the great body of people settling in the Rocky Mountain Region, and
some provision against this difficulty is an immediate necessity. It is
a difficulty just appearing, but in the future it will be one of great
magnitude.


          INCREASE OF IRRIGABLE AREA BY THE STORAGE OF WATER.

Within the Arid Region great deposits of gold, silver, iron, coal,
and many other minerals are found, and the rapid development of these
mining industries will demand _pari passu_ a rapid development of
agriculture. Thus all the lands that can be irrigated will be required
for agricultural products necessary to supply the local market created
by the mines. For this purpose the waters of the non-growing season
will be stored, that they may be used in the growing season.

There are two methods of storing the waste waters. Reservoirs may be
constructed near the sources of the streams and the waters held in
the upper valleys, or the water may be run from the canals into ponds
within or adjacent to the district where irrigation is practiced.
This latter method will be employed first. It is already employed to
some extent where local interests demand and favorable opportunities
are afforded. In general, the opportunities for ponding water in this
way are infrequent, as the depressions where ponds can easily be made
are liable to be so low that the waters cannot be taken from them to
the adjacent lands, but occasionally very favorable sites for such
ponds may be found. This is especially true near the mountains where
alluvial cones have been formed at the debouchure of the streams
from the mountain cañons. Just at the foot of the mountains are many
places where ancient glaciation has left the general surface with many
depressions favorable to ponding.

Ponding in the lower region is somewhat wasteful of water, as the
evaporation is greater than above, and the pond being more or less
shallow a greater proportional surface for evaporation is presented.
This wastage is apparent when it is remembered that the evaporation in
an arid climate may be from 60 to 80 inches annually, or even greater.

Much of the waste water comes down in the spring when the streams are
high and before the growing crops demand a great supply. When this
water is stored the loss by evaporation will be small.

The greater storage of water must come from the construction of great
reservoirs in the highlands where lateral valleys may be dammed and
the main streams conducted into them by canals. On most streams
favorable sites for such water works can be found. This subject cannot
be discussed at any length in a general way, from the fact that each
stream presents problems peculiar to itself.

It cannot be very definitely stated to what extent irrigation can be
increased by the storage of water. The rainfall is much greater in
the mountain than in the valley districts. Much of this precipitation
in the mountain districts falls as snow. The great snow banks are the
reservoirs which hold the water for the growing seasons. Then the
streams are at flood tide; many go dry after the snows have been melted
by the midsummer sun; hence they supply during the irrigating time much
more water than during the remainder of the year. During the fall and
winter the streams are small; in late spring and early summer they are
very large. A day’s flow at flood time is greater than a month’s flow
at low water time. During the first part of the irrigating season less
water is needed, but during that same time the supply is greatest. The
chief increase will come from the storage of this excess of water in
the early part of the irrigating season. The amount to be stored will
then be great, and the time of this storage will be so short that it
will be but little diminished by evaporation. The waters of the fall
and winter are so small in amount that they will not furnish a great
supply, and the time for their storage will be so great that much will
be lost by evaporation. The increase by storage will eventually be
important, and it would be wise to anticipate the time when it will be
needed by reserving sites for principal reservoirs and larger ponds.


                             TIMBER LANDS.

Throughout the Arid Region timber of value is found growing
spontaneously on the higher plateaus and mountains. These timber
regions are bounded above and below by lines which are very irregular,
due to local conditions. Above the upper line no timber grows because
of the rigor of the climate, and below no timber grows because of
aridity. Both the upper and lower lines descend in passing from south
to north; that is, the timber districts are found at a lower altitude
in the northern portion of the Arid Region than in the southern. The
forests are chiefly of pine, spruce, and fir, but the pines are of
principal value. Below these timber regions, on the lower slopes of
mountains, on the mesas and hills, low, scattered forests are often
found, composed mainly of dwarfed piñon pines and cedars. These stunted
forests have some slight value for fuel, and even for fencing, but the
forests of principal value are found in the Timber Region as above
described.

Primarily the growth of timber depends on climatic conditions--humidity
and temperature. Where the temperature is higher, humidity must be
greater, and where the temperature is lower, humidity may be less.
These two conditions restrict the forests to the highlands, as above
stated. Of the two factors involved in the growth of timber, that
of the degree of humidity is of the first importance; the degree of
temperature affects the problem comparatively little, and for most of
the purposes of this discussion may be neglected. For convenience, all
these upper regions where conditions of temperature and humidity are
favorable to the growth of timber may be called the _timber regions_.

Not all these highlands are alike covered with forests. The timber
regions are only in part _areas of standing timber_. This limitation
is caused by fire. Throughout the timber regions of all the arid land
fires annually destroy larger or smaller districts of timber, now
here, now there, and this destruction is on a scale so vast that the
amount taken from the lands for industrial purposes sinks by comparison
into insignificance. The cause of this great destruction is worthy
of careful attention. The conditions under which these fires rage
are climatic. Where the rainfall is great and extreme droughts are
infrequent, forests grow without much interruption from fires; but
between that degree of humidity necessary for their protection, and
that smaller degree necessary to growth, all lands are swept bare by
fire to an extent which steadily increases from the more humid to the
more arid districts, until at last all forests are destroyed, though
the humidity is still sufficient for their growth if immunity from
fire were secured. The amount of mean annual rainfall necessary to the
growth of forests if protected from fire is probably about the same as
the amount necessary for agriculture without irrigation; at any rate,
it is somewhere from 20 to 24 inches. All timber growth below that
amount is of a character so stunted as to be of little value, and the
growth is so slow that, when once the timber has been taken from the
country, the time necessary for a new forest growth is so great that no
practical purpose is subserved.

The evidence that the growth of timber, if protected from fires,
might be extended to the limits here given is abundant. It is a
matter of experience that planted forests thus protected will thrive
throughout the prairie region and far westward on the Great Plains.
In the mountain region it may be frequently observed that forest
trees grow low down on the mountain slopes and in the higher valleys
wherever local circumstances protect them from fires, as in the case
of rocky lands that give insufficient footing to the grass and shrubs
in which fires generally spread. These cases must not be confounded
with those patches of forest that grow on alluvial cones where rivers
leave mountain cañons and enter valleys or plains. Here the streams,
clogged by the material washed from the adjacent mountains by storms,
are frequently turned from their courses and divided into many
channels running near the surface. Thus a subterranean watering is
effected favorable to the growth of trees, as their roots penetrate to
sufficient depth. Usually this watering is too deep for agriculture, so
that forests grow on lands that cannot be cultivated without irrigation.

Fire is the immediate cause of the lack of timber on the prairies,
the eastern portion of the Great Plains, and on some portions of the
highlands of the Arid Region; but fires obtain their destructive force
through climatic conditions, so that directly and remotely climate
determines the growth of all forests. Within the region where prairies,
groves, and forests appear, the local distribution of timber growth is
chiefly dependent upon drainage and soil, a subject which needs not
be here discussed. Only a small portion of the Rocky Mountain Region
is protected by climatic conditions from the invasion of fires, and a
sufficiency of forests for the country depends upon the control which
can be obtained over that destructive agent. A glance at the map of
Utah will exhibit the extent and distribution of the forest region
throughout that territory, and also show what portions of it are in
fact occupied by standing timber. The _area of standing timber_, as
exhibited on the map, is but a part of the Timber Region as there
shown, and includes all of the timber, whether dense or scattered.

Necessarily the area of standing timber has been generalized. It
was not found practicable to indicate the growth of timber in any
refined way by grading it, and by rejecting from the general area
the innumerable small open spaces. If the area of standing timber
were considered by acres, and all acres not having timber valuable
for milling purposes rejected, the extent would be reduced at least
to one-fourth of that colored. Within the territory represented on
the map the Timber Region has an extent of 18,500 square miles; that
is, 23 per cent. belongs to the Timber Region. The general area of
standing timber is about 10,000 square miles, or 12.5 per cent. of
the entire area. The area of milling timber, determined in the more
refined way indicated above, is about 2,500 square miles, or 3¹⁄₈ per
cent. of the area embraced on the map. In many portions of the Arid
Region these percentages are much smaller. This is true of southern
California, Nevada, southern Arizona, and Idaho. In other regions the
percentages are larger. Utah gives about a fair average. In general it
may be stated that the timber regions are fully adequate to the growth
of all the forests which the industrial interests of the country will
require if they can be protected from desolation by fire. No limitation
to the use of the forests need be made. The amount which the citizens
of the country will require will bear but a small proportion to the
amount which the fires will destroy; and if the fires are prevented,
the renewal by annual growth will more than replace that taken by
man. The protection of the forests of the entire Arid Region of the
United States is reduced to one single problem--Can these forests be
saved from fire? The writer has witnessed two fires in Colorado, each
of which destroyed more timber than all that used by the citizens of
that State from its settlement to the present day; and at least three
in Utah, each of which has destroyed more timber than that taken by
the people of the territory since its occupation. Similar fires have
been witnessed by other members of the surveying corps. Everywhere
throughout the Rocky Mountain Region the explorer away from the beaten
paths of civilization meets with great areas of dead forests; pines
with naked arms and charred trunks attesting to the former presence of
this great destroyer. The younger forests are everywhere beset with
fallen timber, attesting to the rigor of the flames, and in seasons of
great drought the mountaineer sees the heavens filled with clouds of
smoke.

In the main these fires are set by Indians. Driven from the lowlands
by advancing civilization, they resort to the higher regions until
they are forced back by the deep snows of winter. Want, caused by
the restricted area to which they resort for food; the desire for
luxuries to which they were strangers in their primitive condition, and
especially the desire for personal adornment, together with a supply
of more effective instruments for hunting and trapping, have in late
years, during the rapid settlement of the country since the discovery
of gold and the building of railroads, greatly stimulated the pursuit
of animals for their furs--the wealth and currency of the savage. On
their hunting excursions they systematically set fire to forests for
the purpose of driving the game. This is a fact well known to all
mountaineers. Only the white hunters of the region properly understand
why these fires are set, it being usually attributed to a wanton
desire on the part of the Indians to destroy that which is of value to
the white man. The fires can, then, be very greatly curtailed by the
removal of the Indians.

These forest regions are made such by inexorable climatic conditions.
They are high among the summer frosts. The plateaus are scored by deep
cañons, and the mountains are broken with crags and peaks. Perhaps at
some distant day a hardy people will occupy little glens and mountain
valleys, and wrest from an unwilling soil a scanty subsistence among
the rigors of a sub-arctic climate. Herdsmen having homes below may
in the summer time drive their flocks to the higher lands to crop the
scanty herbage. Where mines are found mills will be erected and little
towns spring up, but in general habitations will be remote. The forests
will be dense here or scattered there, as the trees may with ease or
difficulty gain a foothold, but the forest regions will remain such, to
be stripped of timber here and there from time to time to supply the
wants of the people who live below; but once protected from fires, the
forests will increase in extent and value. The first step to be taken
for their protection must be by prohibiting the Indians from resorting
thereto for hunting purposes, and then slowly, as the lower country
is settled, the grasses and herbage of the highlands, in which fires
generally spread, will be kept down by summer pasturage, and the dead
and fallen timber will be removed to supply the wants of people below.
This protection, though sure to come at last, will be tardy, for it
depends upon the gradual settlement of the country; and this again
depends upon the development of the agricultural and mineral resources
and the establishment of manufactories, and to a very important extent
on the building of railroads, for the whole region is so arid that its
streams are small, and so elevated above the level of the sea that its
few large streams descend too rapidly for navigation.


          AGRICULTURAL AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES DIFFERENTIATED.

It is apparent that the irrigable lands are more or less remote
from the timber lands; and as the larger streams are employed for
irrigation, in the future the extended settlements will be still
farther away. The pasturage lands that in a general way intervene
between the irrigable and timber lands have a scanty supply of
dwarfed forests, as already described, and the people in occupying
these lands will not resort, to any great extent, to the mountains for
timber; hence timber and agricultural enterprises will be more or less
differentiated; lumbermen and woodmen will furnish to the people below
their supply of building and fencing material and fuel. In some cases
it will be practicable for the farmers to own their timber lands, but
in general the timber will be too remote, and from necessity such a
division of labor will ensue.


                        CULTIVATION OF TIMBER.

In the irrigable districts much timber will be cultivated along the
canals and minor waterways. It is probable that in time a sufficient
amount will thus be raised to supply the people of the irrigable
districts with fuel wherever such fuel is needed, but often such a
want will not exist, for in the Rocky Mountain Region there is a great
abundance of lignitic coals that may be cheaply mined. All these coals
are valuable for domestic purposes, and many superior grades are found.
These coals are not uniformly distributed, but generally this source of
fuel is ample.


                           PASTURAGE LANDS.

The irrigable lands and timber lands constitute but a small fraction
of the Arid Region. Between the lowlands on the one hand and the
highlands on the other is found a great body of valley, mesa, hill,
and low mountain lands. To what extent, and under what conditions
can they be utilized? Usually they bear a scanty growth of grasses.
These grasses are nutritious and valuable both for summer and winter
pasturage. Their value depends upon peculiar climatic conditions;
the grasses grow to a great extent in scattered bunches, and mature
seeds in larger proportion perhaps than the grasses of the more humid
regions. In general the winter aridity is so great that the grasses
when touched by the frosts are not washed down by the rains and snows
to decay on the moist soil, but stand firmly on the ground all winter
long and “cure”, forming a _quasi_ uncut hay. Thus the grass lands are
of value both in summer and winter. In a broad way, the greater or
lesser abundance of the grasses is dependent on latitude and altitude;
the higher the latitude the better are the grasses, and they improve
as the altitude increases. In very low altitudes and latitudes the
grasses are so scant as to be of no value; here the true deserts are
found. These conditions obtain in southern California, southern Nevada,
southern Arizona, and southern New Mexico, where broad reaches of land
are naked of vegetation, but in ascending to the higher lands the grass
steadily improves. Northward the deserts soon disappear, and the grass
becomes more and more luxuriant to our northern boundary. In addition
to the desert lands mentioned, other large deductions must be made from
the area of the pasturage lands. There are many districts in which the
“country rock” is composed of incoherent sands and clays; sometimes
sediments of ancient Tertiary lakes; elsewhere sediments of more
ancient Cretaceous seas. In these districts perennial or intermittent
streams have carved deep waterways, and the steep hills are ever washed
naked by fierce but infrequent storms, as the incoherent rocks are
unable to withstand the beating of the rain. These districts are known
as the _mauvaises terres_ or bad lands of the Rocky Mountain Region.
In other areas the streams have carved labyrinths of deep gorges and
the waters flow at great depths below the general surface. The lands
between the streams are beset with towering cliffs, and the landscape
is an expanse of naked rock. These are the alcove lands and cañon lands
of the Rocky Mountain Region. Still other districts have been the
theater of late volcanic activity, and broad sheets of naked lava are
found; cinder cones are frequent, and scoria and ashes are scattered
over the land. These are the lava-beds of the Rocky Mountain Region. In
yet other districts, low broken mountains are found with rugged spurs
and craggy crests. Grasses and chaparral grow among the rocks, but such
mountains are of little value for pasturage purposes.

After making all the deductions, there yet remain vast areas of
valuable pasturage land bearing nutritious but scanty grass. The lands
along the creeks and rivers have been relegated to that class which
has been described as irrigable, hence the lands under consideration
are away from the permanent streams. No rivers sweep over them and no
creeks meander among their hills.

Though living water is not abundant, the country is partially supplied
by scattered springs, that often feed little brooks whose waters
never join the great rivers on their way to the sea, being able to
run but a short distance from their fountains, when they spread among
the sands to be reëvaporated. These isolated springs and brooks will
in many cases furnish the water necessary for the herds that feed on
the grasses. When springs are not found wells may be sometimes dug,
and where both springs and wells fail reservoirs may be constructed.
Wherever grass grows water may be found or saved from the rains in
sufficient quantities for all the herds that can live on the pasturage.


         PASTURAGE FARMS NEED SMALL TRACTS OF IRRIGABLE LAND.

The men engaged in stock raising need small areas of irrigable lands
for gardens and fields where agricultural products can be raised for
their own consumption, and where a store of grain and hay may be raised
for their herds when pressed by the severe storms by which the country
is sometimes visited. In many places the lone springs and streams are
sufficient for these purposes. Another and larger source of water for
the fertilization of the gardens and fields of the pasturage farms is
found in the smaller branches and upper ramifications of the larger
irrigating streams. These brooks can be used to better advantage for
the pasturage farms as a supply of water for stock gardens and small
fields than for farms where agriculture by irrigation is the only
industry. The springs and brooks of the permanent drainage can be
employed in making farms attractive and profitable where large herds
may be raised in many great districts throughout the Rocky Mountain
Region.

The conditions under which these pasturage lands can be employed are
worthy of consideration.


                  THE FARM UNIT FOR PASTURAGE LANDS.

The grass is so scanty that the herdsman must have a large area for the
support of his stock. In general a quarter section of land alone is of
no value to him; the pasturage it affords is entirely inadequate to the
wants of a herd that the poorest man needs for his support.

Four square miles may be considered as the minimum amount necessary
for a pasturage farm, and a still greater amount is necessary for
the larger part of the lands; that is, pasturage farms, to be of
any practicable value, must be of at least 2,560 acres, and in many
districts they must be much larger.[1]

[1] For the determination of the proper unit for pasturage farms the
writer has conferred with many persons living in the Rocky Mountain
Region who have had experience. His own observations have been
extensive, and for many years while conducting surveys and making long
journeys through the Arid Region this question has been uppermost in
his mind. He fears that this estimate will disappoint many of his
western friends, who will think he has placed the minimum too low, but
after making the most thorough examination of the subject possible he
believes the amount to be sufficient for the best pasturage lands,
especially such as are adjacent to the minor streams of the general
drainage, and when these have been taken by actual settlers the size of
the pasturage farms may be increased as experience proves necessary.


      REGULAR DIVISION LINES FOR PASTURAGE FARMS NOT PRACTICABLE.

Many a brook which runs but a short distance will afford sufficient
water for a number of pasturage farms; but if the lands are surveyed in
regular tracts as square miles or townships, all the water sufficient
for a number of pasturage farms may fall entirely within one division.
If the lands are thus surveyed, only the divisions having water will
be taken, and the farmer obtaining title to such a division or farm
could practically occupy all the country adjacent by owning the water
necessary to its use. For this reason divisional surveys should conform
to the topography, and be so made as to give the greatest number of
water fronts. For example, a brook carrying water sufficient for
the irrigation of 200 acres of land might be made to serve for the
irrigation of 20 acres to each of ten farms, and also supply the water
for all the stock that could live on ten pasturage farms, and ten small
farmers could have homes. But if the water was owned by one man, nine
would be excluded from its benefits and nine-tenths of the land remain
in the hands of the government.


                  FARM RESIDENCES SHOULD BE GROUPED.

These lands will maintain but a scanty population. The homes must
necessarily be widely scattered from the fact that the farm unit
must be large. That the inhabitants of these districts may have the
benefits of the local social organizations of civilization--as schools,
churches, etc., and the benefits of coöperation in the construction of
roads, bridges, and other local improvements, it is essential that the
residences should be grouped to the greatest possible extent. This may
be practically accomplished by making the pasturage farms conform to
topographic features in such manner as to give the greatest possible
number of water fronts.


                   PASTURAGE LANDS CANNOT BE FENCED.

The great areas over which stock must roam to obtain subsistence
usually prevents the practicability of fencing the lands. It will
not pay to fence the pasturage fields, hence in many cases the lands
must be occupied by herds roaming in common; for poor men coöperative
pasturage is necessary, or communal regulations for the occupancy of
the ground and for the division of the increase of the herds. Such
communal regulations have already been devised in many parts of the
country.


                            RECAPITULATION.

The Arid Region of the United States is more than four-tenths of the
area of the entire country excluding Alaska.

In the Arid Region there are three classes of lands, namely, irrigable
lands, timber lands, and pasturage lands.


                           IRRIGABLE LANDS.

Within the Arid Region agriculture is dependent upon irrigation.

The amount of irrigable land is but a small percentage of the whole
area.

The chief development of irrigation depends upon the use of the large
streams.

For the use of large streams coöperative labor or capital is necessary.

The small streams should not be made to serve lands so as to interfere
with the use of the large streams.

Sites for reservoirs should be set apart, in order that no hinderance
may be placed upon the increase of irrigation by the storage of water.


                             TIMBER LANDS.

The timber regions are on the elevated plateaus and mountains.

The timber regions constitute from 20 to 25 per cent. of the Arid
Region.

The area of standing timber is much less than the timber region, as the
forests have been partially destroyed by fire.

The timber regions cannot be used as farming lands; they are valuable
for forests only.

To preserve the forests they must be protected from fire. This will be
largely accomplished by removing the Indians.

The amount of timber used for economic purposes will be more than
replaced by the natural growth.

In general the timber is too far from the agricultural lands to be
owned and utilized directly by those who carry on farming by irrigation.

A division of labor is necessary, and special timber industries will be
developed, and hence the timber lands must be controlled by lumbermen
and woodmen.


                           PASTURAGE LANDS.

The grasses of the pasturage lands are scant, and the lands are of
value only in large quantities.

The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres.

Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land; hence the small
streams of the general drainage system and the lone springs and streams
should be reserved for such pasturage farms.

The division of these lands should be controlled by topographic
features in such manner as to give the greatest number of water fronts
to the pasturage farms.

Residences of the pasturage farms should be grouped, in order to secure
the benefits of local social organizations, and coöperation in public
improvements.

The pasturage lands will not usually be fenced, and hence herds must
roam in common.

As the pasturage lands should have water fronts and irrigable tracts,
and as the residences should be grouped, and as the lands cannot
be economically fenced and must be kept in common, local communal
regulations or coöperation is necessary.




                              CHAPTER II.

              THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION.


The growth and prosperity of the Arid Region will depend largely upon a
land system which will comply with the requirements of the conditions
and facts briefly set forth in the former chapter.

Any citizen of the United States may acquire title to public lands by
purchase at public sale or by ordinary “private entry”, and in virtue
of preëmption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws.

Purchase at public sale may be effected when the lands are offered at
public auction to the highest bidder, either pursuant to proclamation
by the President or public notice given in accordance with instructions
from the General Land Office. If the land is thus offered and
purchasers are not found, they are then subject to “private entry” at
the rate of $1.25 or $2.50 per acre. For a number of years it has not
been the practice of the Government to dispose of the public lands by
these methods; but the public lands of the southern states are now, or
soon will be, thus offered for sale.

Any citizen may preëmpt 160 acres of land, and by settling thereon,
erecting a dwelling, and making other improvements, and by paying $1.25
per acre in some districts, without the boundaries of railroad grants,
and $2.50 within the boundaries of railroad grants in others, may
acquire title thereto. The preëmption right can be exercised but once.
No person can exercise the preëmption right who is already the owner of
320 acres of land.

Any citizen may, under the homestead privilege, obtain title to 160
acres of land valued at $1.25 per acre, or 80 acres valued at the rate
of $2.50, by payment of $5 in the first case and $10 in the last,
and by residing on the land for the term of five years and by making
certain improvements.

The time of residence is shortened for persons who have served in the
army or navy of the United States, and any such person may homestead
160 acres of land valued at $2.50 per acre.

Any citizen may take advantage of both the homestead and preëmption
privileges.

Under the timber culture act, any citizen who is the head of a family
may acquire title to 160 acres of land in the prairie region by
cultivating timber thereon in certain specific quantities; the title
can be acquired at the expiration of eight years from the date of entry.

Any citizen may acquire title to one section of desert land (irrigable
lands as described in this paper) by the payment at the time of entry
of 25 cents per acre, and by redeeming the same by irrigation within
a period of three years and by the payment of $1 per acre at the
expiration of that time, and a patent will then issue.

Provision is also made for the disposal of public lands as town sites.

From time to time land warrants have been issued by the Government as
bounties to soldiers and sailors, and for other purposes. These land
warrants have found their way into the market, and the owners thereof
are entitled to enter Government lands in the quantities specified in
the warrants.

Agricultural scrip has been issued for the purpose of establishing
and endowing agricultural schools. A part of this scrip has been used
by the schools in locating lands for investment. Much of the scrip
has found its way into the market and is used by private individuals.
Warrants and scrip can be used when lands have been offered for sale,
and preëmptors can use them in lieu of money.

Grants of lands have been made to railroad and other companies, and as
these railroads have been completed in whole or in part, the companies
have obtained titles to the whole or proportional parts of the lands
thus granted.

Where the railroads are unfinished the titles are inchoate to an extent
proportional to the incomplete parts.

With small exceptions, the lands of the Arid Region have not been
offered for sale at auction or by private entry.

The methods, then, by which the lands under consideration can be
obtained from the Government are by taking advantage of the preëmption,
homestead, timber culture, or desert land privileges.


                           IRRIGABLE LANDS.

By these methods adequate provision is made for actual settlers on all
irrigable lands that are dependent on the waters of minor streams; but
these methods are insufficient for the settlement of the irrigable
lands that depend on the larger streams, and also for the pasturage
lands and timber lands, and in this are included nearly all the lands
of the Arid Region. If the irrigable lands are to be sold, it should
be in quantities to suit purchasers, and but one condition should be
imposed, namely, that the lands should be actually irrigated before
the title is transferred to the purchaser. This method would provide
for the redemption of these lands by irrigation through the employment
of capital. If these lands are to be reserved for actual settlers,
in small quantities, to provide homes for poor men, on the principle
involved in the homestead laws, a general law should be enacted under
which a number of persons would be able to organize and settle on
irrigable districts, and establish their own rules and regulations for
the use of the water and subdivision of the lands, but in obedience to
the general provisions of the law.


                             TIMBER LANDS.

The timber lands cannot be acquired by any of the methods provided in
the preëmption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws, from
the fact that they are not agricultural lands. Climatic conditions
make these methods inoperative. Under these laws “dummy entries” are
sometimes made. A man wishing to obtain the timber from a tract of land
will make homestead or preëmption entries by himself or through his
employés without intending to complete the titles, being able thus to
hold these lands for a time sufficient to strip them of their timber.

This is thought to be excusable by the people of the country, as
timber is necessary for their industries, and the timber lands cannot
honestly be acquired by those who wish to engage in timber enterprises.
Provision should be made by which the timber can be purchased by
persons or companies desiring to engage in the lumber or wood
business, and in such quantities as may be necessary to encourage the
construction of mills, the erection of flumes, the making of roads, and
other improvements necessary to the utilization of the timber for the
industries of the country.


                           PASTURAGE LANDS.

If divisional surveys were extended over the pasturage lands, favorable
sites at springs and along small streams would be rapidly taken under
the homestead and preëmption privileges for the nuclei of pasturage
farms.

Unentered lands contiguous to such pasturage farms could be controlled
to a greater or less extent by those holding the water, and in this
manner the pasturage of the country would be rendered practicable.
But the great body of land would remain in the possession of the
Government; the farmers owning the favorable spots could not obtain
possession of the adjacent lands by homestead or preëmption methods,
and if such adjacent lands were offered for sale, they could not afford
to pay the Government price.

Certain important facts relating to the pasturage farms may be
advantageously restated.

The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres; the pasturage farms
need small bodies of irrigable land; the division of these lands should
be controlled by topographic features to give water fronts; residences
of the pasturage lands should be grouped; the pasturage farms cannot be
fenced--they must be occupied in common.

The homestead and preëmption methods are inadequate to meet these
conditions. A general law should be enacted to provide for the
organization of pasturage districts, in which the residents should have
the right to make their own regulations for the division of the lands,
the use of the water for irrigation and for watering the stock, and for
the pasturage of the lands in common or in severalty. But each division
or pasturage farm of the district should be owned by an individual;
that is, these lands could be settled and improved by the “colony” plan
better than by any other. It should not be understood that the colony
system applies only to such persons as migrate from the east in a body;
any number of persons already in this region could thus organize. In
fact very large bodies of these lands would be taken by people who are
already in the country and who have herds with which they roam about
seeking water and grass, and making no permanent residences and no
valuable improvements. Such a plan would give immediate relief to all
these people.

This district or colony system is not untried in this country. It is
essentially the basis of all the mining district organizations of the
west. Under it the local rules and regulations for the division of
mining lands, the use of water, timber, etc., are managed better than
they could possibly be under specific statutes of the United States.
The association of a number of people prevents single individuals from
having undue control of natural privileges, and secures an equitable
division of mineral lands; and all this is secured in obedience to
statutes of the United States providing general regulations.

Customs are forming and regulations are being made by common consent
among the people in some districts already; but these provide no means
for the acquirement of titles to land, no incentive is given to the
improvement of the country, and no legal security to pasturage rights.

If, then, the irrigable lands can be taken in quantities to suit
purchasers, and the colony system provided for poor men who wish to
coöperate in this industry; if the timber lands are opened to timber
enterprises, and the pasturage lands offered to settlement under a
colony plan like that indicated above, a land system would be provided
for the Arid Region adapted to the wants of all persons desiring to
become actual settlers therein. Thousands of men who now own herds
and live a semi-nomadic life; thousands of persons who now roam from
mountain range to mountain range prospecting for gold, silver, and
other minerals; thousands of men who repair to that country and return
disappointed from the fact that they are practically debarred from the
public lands; and thousands of persons in the eastern states without
employment, or discontented with the rewards of labor, would speedily
find homes in the great Rocky Mountain Region.

In making these recommendations, the wisdom and beneficence of the
homestead system have been recognized and the principles involved have
been considered paramount.

To give more definite form to some of the recommendations for
legislation made above, two bills have been drawn, one relating to the
organization of irrigation districts, the other to pasturage districts.
These bills are presented here. It is not supposed that these forms are
the best that could be adopted; perhaps they could be greatly improved;
but they have been carefully considered, and it is believed they embody
the recommendations made above.


A BILL to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by
homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for
agricultural purposes.

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled_, That it shall be lawful for
any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead
from the public lands, as provided for in sections twenty-two hundred
and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of
the Revised Statutes of the United States, to settle an irrigation
district and to acquire titles to irrigable lands under the limitations
and conditions hereinafter provided.

SEC. 2. That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section
one of this act to organize an irrigation district in accordance with
a form and general regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of
the General Land Office, which shall provide for a recorder; and said
persons may make such by-laws, not in conflict with said regulations,
as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for
irrigation or other purposes, and for the division of the lands into
such parcels as they may deem most convenient for irrigating purposes;
but the same must accord with the provisions of this act.

SEC. 3. That all lands in those portions of the United States where
irrigation is necessary to agriculture, which can be redeemed by
irrigation and for which there is accessible water for such purpose,
not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed, sufficient for the
irrigation of three hundred and twenty acres of land, shall, for the
purposes set forth in this act, be classed as irrigable lands.

SEC. 4. That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons,
as designated in section one of this act, to select from the public
lands designated as irrigable lands in section three of this act,
for the purpose of settling thereon, an amount of land not exceeding
eighty acres to each person; but the lands thus selected by the persons
desiring to organize an irrigation district shall be in one continuous
tract, and the same shall be subdivided as the regulations and by-laws
of the irrigation district shall prescribe: _Provided_, That no one
person shall be entitled to more than eighty acres.

SEC. 5. That whenever such irrigation district shall be organized the
recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of
the land district in which such irrigation district is situate, and
also the Surveyor-General of the United States, that such irrigation
district has been organized; and each member of the organization of
said district shall file a declaration with the register and receiver
of said land district that he has settled upon a tract of land within
such irrigation district, not exceeding the prescribed amount, with the
intention of residing thereon and obtaining a title thereto under the
provisions of this act.

SEC. 6. That if within three years after the organization of the
irrigation district the claimants therein, in their organized capacity,
shall apply for a survey of said district to the Surveyor-General of
the United States, he shall cause a proper survey to be made, together
with a plat of the same; and on this plat each tract or parcel of
land into which the district is divided, such tract or parcel being
the entire claim of one person, shall be numbered, and the measure of
every angle, the length of every line in the boundaries thereof, and
the number of acres in each tract or parcel shall be inscribed thereon,
and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full; and
this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to the
Surveyor-General of the United States; and it shall be the duty of that
officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove the accuracy
of the survey in such manner as the Commissioner of the General Land
Office may prescribe; and if it shall appear after such examination
and proving that correct surveys have been made, and that the several
tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act, he shall certify
the same to the register of the land district, and shall thereupon
furnish to the said register of the land district, and to the recorder
of the irrigation district, and to the recorder or clerk of the county
in which the irrigation district is situate, and to the Commissioner
of the General Land Office, a copy thereof to each, and the original
shall be retained in the office of the Surveyor-General of the United
States for preservation.

SEC. 7. That each person applying for the benefits of this act shall,
in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods provided
for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and
eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the
Revised Statutes of the United States, so far as they are applicable
and consistent with this act, and shall also furnish such evidence as
the Commissioner of the General Land Office may require that such land
has actually been redeemed by irrigation, and may thereupon obtain a
patent: _Provided_, That no person shall obtain a patent under this act
to any coal lands, town sites, or tracts of public lands on which towns
may have been built, or to any mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper,
or other mineral for the sale or disposal of which provision has been
made by law.

SEC. 8. That the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall
be described as irrigation farms, and designated by the number of the
tract or parcel and the name of the irrigation district.

SEC. 9. That the right to the water necessary to the redemption
of an irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time of
the organization of the irrigation district, and in all subsequent
conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the
land. But if after the lapse of five years from the date of the
organization of the district the owner of any irrigation farm shall
have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to
the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall
thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to water necessary for the
cultivation of said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority
of utilization.

SEC. 10. That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire
a homestead from the public lands as designated in section one of
this act to settle on an irrigation farm contiguous to any irrigation
district after such district has been organized by making the
notifications and declaration provided for in section five of this act,
and by notifying the recorder of such irrigation district, and also by
complying with the rules and regulations of such district; and such
person may thereupon become a member of the district and entitled to
the same privileges as the other members thereof; and it shall be the
duty of the recorder of the irrigation district to notify the register
and receiver of the land district, and also the Surveyor-General of
the United States, that such claim has been made; and such person may
obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and by conforming
to the methods prescribed in this act: _Provided_, That the water
necessary for the irrigation of such farm can be taken without injury
to the rights of any person who shall have entered an irrigation farm
in such district: _And provided further_, That the right to the water
necessary to the redemption of such irrigation farm shall inhere in the
land from the time when said person becomes a member of said district,
and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass
with the title to the land; but if, after the lapse of five years from
the date of said notifications and declaration, the owner of said
irrigation farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of
the same, the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the
unreclaimed lands shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to
the water necessary for the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land
shall be acquired only by priority of utilization.


A BILL to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by
homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value for
pasturage purposes only.

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled_, That it shall be lawful for
any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead
from the public lands, as provided for in section twenty-two hundred
and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive,
of the Revised Statutes of the United States, to settle a pasturage
district and to acquire titles to pasturage lands under the limitations
and conditions hereinafter provided.

SEC. 2. That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section
one of this act to organize a pasturage district in accordance with a
form and general regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of
the General Land Office, which shall provide for a recorder; and said
persons may make such by-laws, not in conflict with said regulations,
as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for
irrigation or other purposes, and for the pasturage of the lands
severally or conjointly; but the same must accord with the provisions
of this act.

SEC. 3. That all lands in those portions of the United States where
irrigation is necessary to agriculture shall be, for the purposes set
forth in this act, classed as pasturage lands, excepting all tracts
of land of not less than three hundred and twenty acres which can be
redeemed by irrigation, and where there is sufficient accessible water
for such purpose not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed, and all
lands bearing timber of commercial value.

SEC. 4. That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons,
as designated in section one of this act, to select from the public
lands designated as pasturage lands in section three of this act, for
the purpose of settling thereon, an amount of land not exceeding two
thousand five hundred and sixty acres to each person; but the lands
thus selected by the persons desiring to organize a pasturage district
shall be in one continuous tract, and the same shall be subdivided
as the regulations and by-laws of the pasturage district shall
prescribe: _Provided_, That no one person shall be entitled to more
than two thousand five hundred and sixty acres, and this may be in one
continuous body, or it may be in two parcels, one for irrigation, the
other for pasturage purposes; but the parcel for irrigation shall not
exceed twenty acres: _And provided further_, That no tract or tracts
of land selected for any one person shall be entitled to a greater
amount of water for irrigating purposes than that sufficient for the
reclamation and cultivation of twenty acres of land; nor shall the
tract be selected in such a manner along a stream as to monopolize a
greater amount.

SEC. 6. That whenever such pasturage district shall be organized, the
recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of the
land district in which such pasturage district is situate, and also the
Surveyor-General of the United States, that such pasturage district has
been organized; and each member of the organization of said district
shall file a declaration with the register and receiver of said land
district that he has settled upon a tract of land within such pasturage
district, not exceeding the prescribed amount, with the intention of
residing thereon and obtaining a title thereto under the provisions of
this act.

SEC. 6. That if within three years after the organization of the
pasturage district the claimants therein, in their organized capacity,
shall apply for a survey of said district to the Surveyor-General of
the United States, he shall cause a proper survey to be made, together
with a plat of the same; and on this plat each tract or parcel of land
into which the district is divided shall be numbered, and the measure
of every angle, the length of every line in the boundaries thereof,
and the number of acres in each tract or parcel, shall be inscribed
thereon, and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full;
and this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to
the Surveyor-General of the United States; and it shall be the duty
of that officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove
the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the Commissioner of the
General Land Office may prescribe; and if it shall appear after such
examination and proving that correct surveys have been made, and that
the several tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act, he
shall certify the same to the register of the land district, and shall
furnish to the said register of the land district, and to the recorder
of the pasturage district, and to the recorder or clerk of the county
in which the pasturage district is situate, and to the Commissioner of
the General Land Office, a copy thereof to each; and the original shall
be retained in the office of the Surveyor-General of the United States
for preservation.

SEC. 7. That each person applying for the benefits of this act shall,
in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods provided
for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and
eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the
Revised Statutes of the United States, so far as they are applicable
and consistent with this act, and may thereupon obtain a patent:
_Provided_, That no person shall obtain a patent under this act to any
coal lands, town sites, or tracts of public lands on which towns may
have been built, or to any mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or
other mineral for the sale or disposal of which provision has been made
by law.

SEC. 8. That the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall
be described as pasturage farms, and designated by the number of the
tract or parcel and the name of the pasturage district.

SEC. 9. That the right to the water necessary to the redemption of an
irrigation tract of a pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from
the time of the organization of the pasturage district, and in all
subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title
to the tract; but if after a lapse of five years from the date of the
organization of the pasturage district the owner of any pasturage farm
shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the irrigable
tract the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the
unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to
water necessary for the cultivation of such unreclaimed land shall be
acquired only by priority of utilization.

SEC. 10. That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire a
homestead from the public lands designated in section one of this act
to settle on a pasturage farm contiguous to any pasturage district
after such district has been organized, by making the notifications and
declaration provided for in section five of this act, and by notifying
the recorder of such pasturage district, and also by complying with the
rules and regulations of such district; and such person may thereupon
become a member of the district and entitled to the same privileges as
the other members thereof; and it shall be the duty of the recorder
of the pasturage district to notify the register and receiver of the
land district, and also the Surveyor-General of the United States, that
such claim has been made; and such person may obtain a patent to the
same under the conditions and by conforming to the methods prescribed
in this act: _Provided_, That the water necessary for such farm can be
taken without injury to the rights of any person who shall have entered
a pasturage farm in such district: _And provided further_, That the
right to the water necessary to the redemption of the irrigable tract
of such pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from the time when
said person becomes a member of said district, and in all subsequent
conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the
land; but if, after the lapse of five years from the date of such
notifications and declaration, the owner of said irrigable tract shall
have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to
the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed land shall
thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to the water necessary to
the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by
priority of utilization.

       *       *       *       *       *

The provisions in the submitted bills by which the settlers themselves
may parcel their lands may need further comment and elucidation. If
the whole of the Arid Region was yet unsettled, it might be wise for
the Government to undertake the parceling of the lands and employ
skilled engineers to do the work, whose duties could then be performed
in advance of settlement. It is manifest that this work cannot be
properly performed under the contract system; it would be necessary to
employ persons of skill and judgment under a salary system. The mining
industries which have sprung up in the country since the discovery of
gold on the Pacific coast, in 1849, have stimulated immigration, so
that settlements are scattered throughout the Arid Region; mining towns
have sprung up on the flanks of almost every great range of mountains,
and adjacent valleys have been occupied by persons desiring to engage
in agriculture. Many of the lands surveyed along the minor streams have
been entered, and the titles to these lands are in the hands of actual
settlers. Many pasturage farms, or ranches, as they are called locally,
have been established throughout the country. These remarks are true
of every state and territory in the Arid Region. In the main these
ranches or pasturage farms are on Government land, and the settlers are
squatters, and some are not expecting to make permanent homes. Many
other persons have engaged in pasturage enterprises without having
made fixed residences, but move about from place to place with their
herds. It is now too late for the Government to parcel the pasturage
lands in advance of the wants of settlers in the most available way,
so as to closely group residences and give water privileges to the
several farms. Many of the settlers are actually on the ground, and are
clamoring for some means by which they can obtain titles to pasturage
farms of an extent adequate to their wants, and the tens of thousands
of individual interests would make the problem a difficult one for
the officers of the Government to solve. A system less arbitrary
than that of the rectangular surveys now in vogue, and requiring
unbiased judgment, overlooking the interests of single individuals
and considering only the interests of the greatest number, would meet
with local opposition. The surveyors themselves would be placed under
many temptations, and would be accused--sometimes rightfully perhaps,
sometimes unjustly--of favoritism and corruption, and the service would
be subject to the false charges of disappointed men on the one hand,
and to truthful charges against corrupt men on the other. In many ways
it would be surrounded with difficulties and fall into disrepute.

Under these circumstances it is believed that it is best to permit the
people to divide their lands for themselves--not in a way by which each
man may take what he pleases for himself, but by providing methods by
which these settlers may organize and mutually protect each other from
the rapacity of individuals. The lands, as lands, are of but slight
value, as they cannot be used for ordinary agricultural purposes, _i.
e._, the cultivation of crops; but their value consists in the scant
grasses which they spontaneously produce, and these values can be made
available only by the use of the waters necessary for the subsistence
of stock, and that necessary for the small amount of irrigable land
which should be attached to the several pasturage farms. Thus,
practically, all values inhere in the water, and an equitable division
of the waters can be made only by a wise system of parceling the lands;
and the people in organized bodies can well be trussed with this right,
while individuals could not thus be trusted. These considerations have
led to the plan suggested in the bill submitted for the organization of
pasturage districts.

In like manner, in the bill designed for the purpose of suggesting a
plan for the organization of irrigation districts, the same principle
is involved, _viz_, that of permitting the settlers themselves to
subdivide the lands into such tracts as they may desire.

The lands along the streams are not valuable for agricultural purposes
in continuous bodies or squares, but only in irrigable tracts governed
by the levels of the meandering canals which carry the water for
irrigation, and it would be greatly to the advantage of every such
district if the lands could be divided into parcels, governed solely by
the conditions under which the water could be distributed over them;
and such parceling cannot be properly done prior to the occupancy
of the lands, but can only be made pari passu with the adoption of a
system of canals; and the people settling on these lands should be
allowed the privilege of dividing the lands into such tracts as may be
most available for such purposes, and they should not be hampered with
the present arbitrary system of dividing the lands into rectangular
tracts.

Those who are acquainted with the history of the land system of the
eastern states, and know the difficulty of properly identifying or
determining the boundaries of many of the parcels or tracts of land
into which the country is divided, and who appreciate the cumbrous
method of describing such lands by metes and bounds in conveyances, may
at first thought object to the plan of parceling lands into irregular
tracts. They may fear that if the system of parceling the lands into
townships and sections, and describing the same in conveyances by
reference to certain great initial points in the surveys of the lands,
is abandoned, it will lead to the uncertainties and difficulties that
belonged to the old system. But the evils of that system did not belong
to the shape into which the lands were divided. The lands were often
not definitely and accurately parceled; actual boundary lines were
not fixed on the ground and accurate plats were not made, and the
description of the boundary lines was usually vague and uncertain.
It matters not what the shape of tracts or parcels may be; if these
parcels are accurately defined by surveys on the ground and plotted for
record, none of these uncertainties will arise, and if these tracts or
parcels are lettered or numbered on the plats, they may be very easily
described in conveyances without entering into a long and tedious
description of metes and bounds.

In most of our western towns and cities lots are accurately surveyed
and plotted and described by number of lot, number of block, etc.,
etc., and such a simple method should be used in conveying the
pasturage lands. While the system of parceling and conveying by
section, township, range, etc., was a very great improvement on the
system which previously existed, the much more simple method used in
most of our cities and towns would be a still further improvement.

The title to no tract of land should be conveyed from the Government
to the individual until the proper survey of the same is made and the
plat prepared for record. With this precaution, which the Government
already invariably takes in disposing of its lands, no fear of
uncertainty of identification need be entertained.


                             WATER RIGHTS.

In each of the suggested bills there is a clause providing that, with
certain restrictions, the right to the water necessary to irrigate
any tract of land shall inhere in the land itself from the date of
the organization of the district. The object of this is to give
settlers on pasturage or irrigation farms the assurance that their
lands shall not be made worthless by taking away the water to other
lands by persons settling subsequently in adjacent portions of the
country. The men of small means who under the theory of the bill are to
receive its benefits will need a few years in which to construct the
necessary waterways and bring their lands under cultivation. On the
other hand, they should not be permitted to acquire rights to water
without using the same. The construction of the waterways necessary to
actual irrigation by the land owners may be considered as a sufficient
guarantee that the waters will subsequently be used.

The general subject of water rights is one of great importance. In many
places in the Arid Region irrigation companies are organized who obtain
vested rights in the waters they control, and consequently the rights
to such waters do not inhere in any particular tracts of land.

When the area to which it is possible to take the water of any given
stream is much greater than the stream is competent to serve, if the
land titles and water rights are severed, the owner of any tract of
land is at the mercy of the owner of the water right. In general, the
lands greatly exceed the capacities of the streams. Thus the lands
have no value without water. If the water rights fall into the hands
of irrigating companies and the lands into the hands of individual
farmers, the farmers then will be dependent upon the stock companies,
and eventually the monopoly of water rights will be an intolerable
burden to the people.

The magnitude of the interests involved must not be overlooked. All the
present and future agriculture of more than four-tenths of the area
of the United States is dependent upon irrigation, and practically
all values for agricultural industries inhere, not in the lands but
in the water. Monopoly of land need not be feared. The question for
legislators to solve is to devise some practical means by which water
rights may be distributed among individual farmers and water monopolies
prevented.

The pioneers in the “new countries” in the United States have
invariably been characterized by enterprise and industry and an
intense desire for the speedy development of their new homes. These
characteristics are no whit less prominent in the Rocky Mountain Region
than in the earlier “new countries”; but they are even more apparent.
The hardy pioneers engage in a multiplicity of industrial enterprises
surprising to the people of long established habits and institutions.
Under the impetus of this spirit irrigation companies are organized and
capital invested in irrigating canals, and but little heed is given
to philosophic considerations of political economy or to the ultimate
condition of affairs in which their present enterprises will result.
The pioneer is fully engaged in the present with its hopes of immediate
remuneration for labor. The present development of the country fully
occupies him. For this reason every effort put forth to increase the
area of the agricultural land by irrigation is welcomed. Every man who
turns his attention to this department of industry is considered a
public benefactor. But if in the eagerness for present development a
land and water system shall grow up in which the practical control of
agriculture shall fall into the hands of water companies, evils will
result therefrom that generations may not be able to correct, and the
very men who are now lauded as benefactors to the country will, in the
ungovernable reaction which is sure to come, be denounced as oppressors
of the people.

_The right to use water should inhere in the land to be irrigated, and
water rights should go with land titles._

Those unacquainted with the industrial institutions of the far west,
involving the use of lands and waters, may without careful thought
suppose that the long recognized principles of the common law are
sufficient to prevent the severance of land and water rights; but
other practices are obtaining which have, or eventually will have,
all the force of common law, because the necessities of the country
require the change, and these practices are obtaining the color of
right from state and territorial legislation, and to some extent by
national legislation. In all that country the natural channels of the
streams cannot be made to govern water rights without great injury
to its agricultural and mining industries. For the great purposes of
irrigation and hydraulic mining the water has no value in its natural
channel. In general the water cannot be used for irrigation on the
lands immediately contiguous to the streams--_i. e._, the flood plains
or bottom valleys--for reasons more fully explained in a subsequent
chapter. The waters must be taken to a greater or less extent on the
bench lands to be used in irrigation. All the waters of all the arid
lands will eventually be taken from their natural channels, and they
can be utilized only to the extent to which they are thus removed, and
water rights must of necessity be severed from the natural channels.
There is another important factor to be considered. The water when used
in irrigation is absorbed by the soil and reëvaporated to the heavens.
It cannot be taken from its natural channel, used, and returned. Again,
the water cannot in general be properly utilized in irrigation by
requiring it to be taken from its natural channel within the limits
ordinarily included in a single ownership. In order to conduct the
water on the higher bench lands where it is to be used in irrigation,
it is necessary to go up the stream until a level is reached from which
the waters will flow to the lands to be redeemed. The exceptions to
this are so small that the statement scarcely needs qualification.
Thus, to use the water it must be diverted from its natural course
often miles or scores of miles from where it is to be used.

The ancient principles of common law applying to the use of natural
streams, so wise and equitable in a humid region, would, if applied to
the Arid Region, practically prohibit the growth of its most important
industries. Thus it is that a custom is springing up in the Arid
Region which may or may not have color of authority in statutory or
common law; on this I do not wish to express an opinion; but certain
it is that water rights are practically being severed from the natural
channels of the streams; and this must be done. In the change, it is
to be feared that water rights will in many cases be separated from
all land rights as the system is now forming. If this fear is not
groundless, to the extent that such a separation is secured, water
will become a property independent of the land, and this property will
be gradually absorbed by a few. Monopolies of water will be secured,
and the whole agriculture of the country will be tributary thereto--a
condition of affairs which an American citizen having in view the
interests of the largest number of people cannot contemplate with favor.

Practically, in that country the right to water is acquired by priority
of utilization, and this is as it should be from the necessities of
the country. But two important qualifications are needed. The _user
right_ should attach to the _land_ where used, not to the individual or
company constructing the canals by which it is used. The right to the
water should inhere in the land where it is used; the priority of usage
should secure the right. But this needs some slight modification. A
farmer settling on a small tract, to be redeemed by irrigation, should
be given a reasonable length of time in which to secure his water right
by utilization, that he may secure it by his own labor, either directly
by constructing the waterways himself, or indirectly by coöperating
with his neighbors in constructing systems of waterways. Without
this provision there is little inducement for poor men to commence
farming operations, and men of ready capital only will engage in such
enterprises.

The tentative bills submitted have been drawn on the theory thus
briefly enunciated.

If there be any doubt of the ultimate legality of the practices of the
people in the arid country relating to water and land rights, all such
doubts should be speedily quieted through the enactment of appropriate
laws by the national legislature. Perhaps an amplification by the
courts of what has been designated as the _natural right_ to the use of
water may be made to cover the practices now obtaining; but it hardly
seems wise to imperil interests so great by intrusting them to the
possibility of some future court made law.


                    THE LANDS SHOULD BE CLASSIFIED.

Such a system of disposing of the public lands in the Arid Region will
necessitate an authoritative classification of the same. The largest
amount of land that it is possible to redeem by irrigation, excepting
those tracts watered by lone springs, brooks, and the small branches,
should be classed as irrigable lands, to give the greatest possible
development to this industry. The limit of the timber lands should
be clearly defined, to prevent the fraudulent acquirement of these
lands as pasturage lands. The irrigable and timber lands are of small
extent, and their boundaries can easily be fixed. All of the lands
falling without these boundaries would be relegated to the greater
class designated as pasturage lands. It is true that all such lands
will not be of value for pasturage purposes, but in general it would be
difficult to draw a line between absolutely desert lands and pasturage
lands, and no practical purposes would be subserved thereby. Fix the
boundaries of the timber lands that they may be acquired by proper
methods; fix the boundaries of the irrigable lands that they may also
be acquired by proper methods, and then permit the remaining lands to
be acquired by settlers as pasturage lands, to the extent that they may
be made available, and there will be no fear of settlers encroaching on
the desert or valueless lands.

Heretofore we have been considering only three great classes of
lands--namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands, although
practically and under the laws there are two other classes of lands
to be recognized--namely, mineral lands, _i. e._, lands bearing lodes
or placers of gold, silver, cinnabar, etc., and coal lands. Under the
law these lands are made special. Mineral lands are withheld from
general sale, and titles to the mines are acquired by the investment
of labor and capital to an amount specified in the law. Coal lands
are sold for $20 per acre. The mineral lands proper, though widely
scattered, are of small extent. Where the mines are lodes, the lands
lie along the mountains, and are to a greater or less extent valueless
for all other purposes. Where the mines are placers, they may also be
agricultural lands, but their extent is very limited. To withhold these
lands from purchase and settlement as irrigable, timber, and pasturage
lands will in no material way affect the interests of the industries
connected with the last mentioned lands. The General Government
cannot reasonably engage in the research necessary to determine the
mineral lands, but this is practically done by the miners themselves.
Thousands of hardy, skilful men are vigorously engaged in this work,
and as mines are discovered mining districts are organized, and on the
proper representation of these interested parties the mineral lands
are withheld from general sale by the Land Department. Thus, proper
provision is already made for this branch of the work of classification.

In many parts of the Arid Region there are extensive deposits of
coal. These coal fields are inexhaustible by any population which the
country can support for any length of time that human prevision can
contemplate. To withhold from general settlement the entire area of the
workable coal fields would be absurd. Only a small fraction will be
needed for the next century. Only those lands should be classed as coal
lands that contain beds of coal easily accessible, and where there is
a possibility of their being used as such within the next generation
or two. To designate or set apart these lands will require the highest
geological skill; a thorough geological survey is necessary.

In providing for a general classification of the lands of the Arid
Region, it will, then, be necessary to recognize the following classes,
namely: mineral lands, coal lands, irrigable lands, timber lands,
and pasturage lands. The mineral lands are practically classified by
the miners themselves, and for this no further legal provision is
necessary. The coal lands must be determined by geological survey.
The work of determining the areas which should be relegated to the
other classes--namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands--will be
comparatively inexpensive.




                             CHAPTER III.

       THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES.


The Smithsonian Institution conducted for a number of years an
extensive system of measurements of rainfall in the United States,
and at the same time diligently collected pluvial records from every
possible source. The accumulated data thus collected were placed in the
hands of Mr. Charles A. Schott for reduction and discussion, and he
prepared the “Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation in Rain and Snow”,
which appeared in 1868. Since that time much additional material has
been acquired by the continuation of the work to the present time,
and also by a great increase in the number of observation stations,
and so valuable is this new material that it has been determined to
recompile the tables and issue a second edition. By the time the
present report was called for, the preliminary computations for the
tables had developed an important body of facts bearing on the climate
of the Arid Region, and through the courtesy of Prof. Joseph Henry,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and of Mr. Schott, they were
placed at my disposal. Mr. Schott also made such a change in the order
of computation as to give precedence to the states and territories
which form the subject of this investigation, and by this timely favor
made it possible to base the following discussion on the very latest
determinations of rainfall.

The results thus made available exhibit the mean precipitation at
each station of observation west of the Mississippi River for each
month, for each season, and for the year. A number of other data
are also tabulated, including the latitude, longitude, and altitude
of each station, and the extent of each series of observations in
years and months. In selecting material for the present purpose the
shorter records were ignored. The variations from year to year are
so great that an isolated record of a single year is of no value
as an indication of the average rainfall. The mean of two or three
years is almost equally liable to mislead, and only a long series of
observations can afford accurate results. In the following tables no
stations are included (with one exception) which show records of less
than five years’ extent.

Table I shows the precipitation of the Sub-humid Region; Table II, of
the Arid Region; Table III, of the San Francisco Region; and Table IV,
of the Region of the Lower Columbia. The limits of each region have
been given in a former chapter, and need not be repeated. In each table
the first column contains the names of the stations of observation;
the second, their latitudes; the third, their longitudes (west from
Greenwich); and the fourth, their altitudes in feet above the level
of the sea. The next four columns show for each season of the year
the mean observed rainfall in inches, and their sum appears in the
following column as the mean yearly rainfall. In the last column the
extent of each series of observations is given in years and months. In
Table I the stations are arranged by latitudes, in Tables II, III, and
IV, alphabetically.


            TABLE I.--_Precipitation of Sub-humid Region._

 +----------------------+----------+-----------+--------+
 |       Station.       | Latitude.| Longitude.| Height.|
 +----------------------+----------+-----------+--------+
 |                      |  °  ´    | °   ´     |  Feet. |
 |Pembina, Dak          | 48  57   | 97  03    |   768  |
 |Fort Totten, Dak      | 47  56   | 99  16    | 1,480  |
 |Fort Abercrombie, Dak | 46  27   | 96  21    |   --   |
 |Fort Wadsworth, Dak   | 45  43   | 97  10    | 1,650  |
 |Omaha Agency, Nebr    | 42  07   | 96  22    |   --   |
 |Fort Kearney, Nebr    | 40  38   | 98  57    | 2,360  |
 |Fort Riley, Kans      | 39  03   | 96  35    | 1,300  |
 |Fort Hays, Kans       | 38  59   | 99  20    | 2,107  |
 |Fort Larned, Kans     | 38  10   | 98  57    | 1,932  |
 |Fort Belknap, Tex     | 33  08   | 98  46    | 1,600  |
 |Fort Griffin, Tex     | 32  54   | 99  14    |   --   |
 |Fort Chadbourne, Tex  | 31  58   |100  15    | 2,020  |
 |Fort McKavett, Tex    | 30  48   |100  08    | 2,060  |
 |New Braunfels, Tex    | 29  42   | 98  15    |   720  |
 |Fort Clark, Tex       | 29  17   |100  25    | 1,000  |
 |Fort Inge, Tex        | 29  10   | 99  50    |   845  |
 |Fort Duncan, Tex      | 28  39   |100  30    | 1,460  |
 |Fort Brown, Tex       | 25  50   | 97  37    |    50  |
 +----------------------+----------+-----------+--------+

 +----------------------+--------------------------------------+-------+
 |                      |     Mean precipitation, in inches.   |Extent |
 |                      +-------+-------+-------+-------+------+  of   |
 |       Station.       |Spring.|Summer.|Autumn.|Winter.| Year.|record.|
 +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+
 |                      |       |       |       |       |      | Y.  M.|
 |Pembina, Dak          | 4.02  |  7.24 |  2.71 |  1.53 | 15.50|  4  8 |
 |Fort Totten, Dak      | 5.18  |  7.17 |  2.50 |  1.59 | 16.44|  5  5 |
 |Fort Abercrombie, Dak | 4.80  |  8.67 |  3.46 |  1.85 | 18.78| 13  6 |
 |Fort Wadsworth, Dak   | 7.00  | 10.25 |  3.98 |  2.92 | 24.15|  6  5 |
 |Omaha Agency, Nebr    | 8.21  |  8.70 |  5.77 |  2.90 | 25.58|  5  2 |
 |Fort Kearney, Nebr    | 7.81  | 11.13 |  4.83 |  1.45 | 25.22| 14  4 |
 |Fort Riley, Kans      | 5.49  | 10.48 |  5.92 |  2.63 | 24.52| 20 10 |
 |Fort Hays, Kans       | 6.93  |  6.23 |  5.77 |  3.77 | 22.70|  6 11 |
 |Fort Larned, Kans     | 5.17  |  9.63 |  4.95 |  1.67 | 21.42| 10  9 |
 |Fort Belknap, Tex     | 6.41  |  9.44 |  8.34 |  3.86 | 28.05|  5 10 |
 |Fort Griffin, Tex     | 4.95  |  6.25 |  6.14 |  4.17 | 21.51|  5  3 |
 |Fort Chadbourne, Tex  | 5.77  |  6.53 |  7.06 |  3.52 | 22.88|  8  7 |
 |Fort McKavett, Tex    | 5.21  |  6.71 |  7.81 |  4.22 | 23.95|  9  7 |
 |New Braunfels, Tex    | 7.60  |  6.90 |  8.83 |  4.25 | 27.58|  5  1 |
 |Fort Clark, Tex       | 4.14  |  7.57 |  6.55 |  4.35 | 22.61| 12  5 |
 |Fort Inge, Tex        | 5.38  |  9.67 |  6.88 |  3.53 | 25.46|  7  4 |
 |Fort Duncan, Tex      | 3.56  |  8.60 |  6.54 |  2.63 | 21.33| 11  7 |
 |Fort Brown, Tex       | 3.18  |  7.64 | 13.02 |  4.04 | 27.88| 15  0 |
 +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+


            TABLE II.--_Precipitation of the Arid Region._

 +---------------------------------------------------+
 |                            |Latitude.             |
 |                            |      |Longitude.     |
 |                            |      |       |Height.|
 |     Station.               |      |       |       |
 |                            |      |       |       |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |                            | ° ´  |  ° ´  | Feet. |
 |Albuquerque, N. Mex         |35 06 |106 38 | 5,032 |
 |Camp Bowie, Ariz            |32 10 |109 30 | 4,872 |
 |Camp Douglas, Utah          |40 46 |111 50 | 5,024 |
 |Camp Grant, Ariz            |32 54 |110 40 | 4,833 |
 |Camp Halleck, Nev           |40 49 |115 20 | 5,790 |
 |Camp Harney, Oreg           |43 00 |119 00 |  --   |
 |Camp Independence, Cal      |36 50 |118 11 | 4,800 |
 |Camp McDermitt, Nev         |41 58 |117 40 | 4,700 |
 |Camp McDowell, Ariz         |33 46 |111 36 |  --   |
 |Camp Mohave, Ariz           |35 02 |114 36 |   604 |
 |Camp Verde, Ariz            |34 34 |111 54 | 3,160 |
 |Camp Warner, Oreg           |42 28 |119 42 |  --   |
 |Camp Whipple, Ariz          |34 27 |112 20 | 5,700 |
 |Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex  |36 26 |105 30 | 7,900 |
 |Drum Barracks, Cal          |33 47 |118 17 |    32 |
 |Denver, Colo                |39 45 |105 01 | 5,250 |
 |Fort Bayard, N. Mex         |32 46 |108 30 | 4,450 |
 |Fort Benton, Mont           |47 50 |110 39 | 2,730 |
 |Fort Bidwell, Cal           |41 50 |120 10 | 4,680 |
 |Fort Bliss (El Paso), Tex   |31 47 |106 30 | 3,830 |
 |Fort Boisé, Idaho           |43 40 |116 00 | 1,998 |
 |Fort Bridger, Wyo           |41 20 |110 23 | 6,656 |
 |Fort Buford, Dak            |48 01 |103 58 | 1,900 |
 |Fort Colville, Wash         |48 42 |118 02 | 1,963 |
 |Fort Craig, N. Mex          |33 38 |107 00 | 4,619 |
 |Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo     |41 12 |104 50 |  --   |
 |Fort Davis, Tex             |30 40 |104 07 | 4,700 |
 |Fort Defiance, Ariz         |35 43 |109 10 | 6,500 |
 |Fort Fetterman, Wyo         |42 50 |105 29 | 4,973 |
 |Fort Fillmore, N. Mex       |32 14 |106 42 | 3,937 |
 |Fort F. Steele, Wyo         |41 47 |106 57 | 6,841 |
 |Fort Garland, Colo          |37 25 |105 40 | 7,864 |
 |Fort Lapwai, Idaho          |46 18 |116 54 | 2,000 |
 |Fort Laramie, Wyo           |42 12 |104 31 | 4,472 |
 |Fort Lyon, Colo             |38 08 |102 05 | 4,000 |
 |Fort Massachusetts, Colo    |37 32 |105 23 | 8,365 |
 |Fort McPherson, Nebr        |41 00 |100 30 | 3,726 |
 |Fort McIntosh, Tex          |27 35 | 99 48 |   806 |
 |Fort McRae, N. Mex          |33 18 |107 03 | 4,500 |
 |Fort Randall, Dak           |43 01 | 98 37 | 1,245 |
 |Fort Rice, Dak              |46 32 |100 33 |  --   |
 |Fort Sanders, Wyo           |41 17 |105 36 | 7,161 |
 |Fort Selden, N. Mex         |32 23 |106 55 |  --   |
 |Fort Shaw, Mont             |47 30 |111 42 | 6,000 |
 |Fort Stanton, N. Mex        |33 29 |105 38 | 5,000 |
 |Fort Stevenson, Dak         |47 36 |101 10 |  --   |
 |Fort Stockton, Tex          |30 20 |102 30 | 4,950 |
 |Fort Sully, Dak             |44 50 |100 35 | 1,672 |
 |Fort Union, N. Mex          |35 54 |104 57 | 6,670 |
 |Fort Walla Walla, Wash      |46 03 |118 20 |   800 |
 |Fort Wingate, N. Mex        |35 29 |107 45 | 6,982 |
 |Fort Yuma, Cal              |32 44 |114 36 |   200 |
 |Ringgold Barracks, Tex      |26 23 | 99 00 |   521 |
 |Salt Lake City, Utah        |40 46 |111 54 | 4,534 |
 |San Diego, Cal              |32 42 |117 14 |   150 |
 |Santa Fé, N. Mex            |35 41 |106 02 | 6,846 |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+

 +----------------------------+------------------------------+-------+
 |                            |      Mean precipitation,     |       |
 |                            |           in inches.         |       |
 |                            +------------------------------+       |
 |                            |Spring.                       |       |
 |                            |     |Summer.                 |Extent |
 |                            |     |     |Autumn.           |  of   |
 |     Station.               |     |     |    |Winter.      |record.|
 |                            |     |     |    |      |Year. |       |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+
 |                            |     |     |    |      |      | Y.  M.|
 |Albuquerque, N. Mex         | 0.83| 4.35|2.04| 0.89 | 8.11 | 12   2|
 |Camp Bowie, Ariz            | 1.29| 7.35|2.03| 4.59 |15.26 |  6   8|
 |Camp Douglas, Utah          | 7.20| 2.18|3.24| 6.20 |18.82 | 10   3|
 |Camp Grant, Ariz            | 2.08| 6.25|3.27| 3.48 |15.08 |  6  10|
 |Camp Halleck, Nev           | 3.66| 1.19|2.31| 3.82 |10.98 |  5   8|
 |Camp Harney, Oreg           | 2.29| 1.09|1.59| 3.79 | 8.76 |  6   0|
 |Camp Independence, Cal      | 1.09| 0.35|0.62| 4.54 | 6.60 |  8   2|
 |Camp McDermitt, Nev         | 3.02| 0.72|1.13| 3.66 | 8.53 |  6   4|
 |Camp McDowell, Ariz         | 1.11| 4.79|1.73| 3.82 |11.45 |  8   2|
 |Camp Mohave, Ariz           | 0.81| 1.27|0.93| 1.64 | 4.65 |  9   1|
 |Camp Verde, Ariz            | 1.25| 4.65|2.41| 2.54 |10.85 |  6   1|
 |Camp Warner, Oreg           | 4.31| 1.10|2.53| 6.47 |14.41 |  5   3|
 |Camp Whipple, Ariz          | 3.88| 8.07|2.15| 5.18 |19.28 |  7   5|
 |Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex  | 1.57| 2.92|2.42| 1.74 | 8.65 |  5   9|
 |Drum Barracks, Cal          | 2.26| 0.26|0.35| 5.87 | 8.74 |  5   5|
 |Denver, Colo                | 5.02| 3.69|3.16| 1.90 |13.77 |  5   1|
 |Fort Bayard, N. Mex         | 1.54| 7.22|2.28| 3.28 |14.32 |  7   6|
 |Fort Benton, Mont           | 5.34| 4.48|1.65| 1.79 |13.26 |  7   1|
 |Fort Bidwell, Cal           | 4.95| 1.54|3.03|10.71 |20.23 |  8   3|
 |Fort Bliss (El Paso), Tex   | 0.43| 3.49|3.38| 1.23 | 8.53 | 14   3|
 |Fort Boisé, Idaho           | 5.16| 1.15|2.50| 6.67 |15.48 |  9   5|
 |Fort Bridger, Wyo           | 2.99| 2.05|1.68| 1.71 | 8.43 | 12  10|
 |Fort Buford, Dak            | 3.76| 4.06|2.01| 2.01 |11.84 |  7  10|
 |Fort Colville, Wash         | 3.63| 3.04|2.56| 4.83 |14.06 | 11   0|
 |Fort Craig, N. Mex          | 0.70| 5.87|3.43| 1.06 |11.06 | 15   9|
 |Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo     | 4.76| 4.56|3.27| 1.50 |14.09 |  5   1|
 |Fort Davis, Tex             | 1.84| 8.76|4.72| 1.80 |17.12 |  8  11|
 |Fort Defiance, Ariz         | 2.03| 5.91|3.72| 2.55 |14.21 |  8   5|
 |Fort Fetterman, Wyo         | 4.48| 4.12|2.99| 3.51 |15.10 |  5   7|
 |Fort Fillmore, N. Mex       | 0.48| 4.16|3.02| 0.76 | 8.42 |  8   3|
 |Fort F. Steele, Wyo         | 4.57| 3.48|3.05| 4.28 |15.38 |  5   5|
 |Fort Garland, Colo          | 3.28| 6.70|2.37| 2.51 |14.86 | 13   1|
 |Fort Lapwai, Idaho          | 4.11| 2.41|3.38| 4.99 |14.89 |  9   8|
 |Fort Laramie, Wyo           | 5.35| 4.40|2.73| 1.97 |14.45 | 17   8|
 |Fort Lyon, Colo             | 4.33| 5.44|2.30| 0.49 |12.56 |  7   9|
 |Fort Massachusetts, Colo    | 3.12| 5.56|6.28| 2.27 |17.23 |  5   1|
 |Fort McPherson, Nebr        | 6.90| 7.56|3.25| 1.25 |18.96 |  6   9|
 |Fort McIntosh, Tex          | 3.22| 6.56|5.38| 2.35 |17.51 | 14   7|
 |Fort McRae, N. Mex          | 2.43| 6.15|2.32| 0.69 |11.59 |  5   0|
 |Fort Randall, Dak           | 4.72| 6.22|3.40| 1.18 |15.52 | 15   6|
 |Fort Rice, Dak              | 3.63| 4.87|1.54| 1.35 |11.39 |  6   1|
 |Fort Sanders, Wyo           | 3.55| 4.15|2.33| 1.43 |11.46 |  6  10|
 |Fort Selden, N. Mex         | 0.58| 4.83|1.86| 1.22 | 8.49 |  8   5|
 |Fort Shaw, Mont             | 2.18| 2.30|1.34| 1.13 | 6.95 |  7   3|
 |Fort Stanton, N. Mex        | 3.03|10.61|4.86| 2.44 |20.94 |  7   9|
 |Fort Stevenson, Dak         | 3.41| 4.97|2.15| 1.31 |11.84 |  6   2|
 |Fort Stockton, Tex          | 1.24| 5.66|3.31| 1.29 |11.50 |  5   8|
 |Fort Sully, Dak             | 6.52| 7.18|1.70| 1.14 |16.54 |  7   8|
 |Fort Union, N. Mex          | 2.12|11.92|3.79| 1.32 |19.15 | 17   5|
 |Fort Walla Walla, Wash      | 4.69| 2.07|4.98| 7.62 |19.36 |  8   8|
 |Fort Wingate, N. Mex        | 1.96| 6.50|3.42| 5.44 |17.32 |  9   1|
 |Fort Yuma, Cal              | 0.27| 1.30|1.36| 0.98 | 3.91 | 16   6|
 |Ringgold Barracks, Tex      | 3.71| 7.00|6.31| 2.58 |19.60 | 14   2|
 |Salt Lake City, Utah        | 6.25| 6.28|4.71| 7.57 |24.81 |  9   2|
 |San Diego, Cal              | 1.89| 0.36|1.89| 5.17 | 9.31 | 24   2|
 |Santa Fé, N. Mex            | 2.17| 6.82|3.45| 2.47 |14.91 | 19  10|
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+


       TABLE III.--_Precipitation of the San Francisco Region._

 +---------------------------------------------------+
 |                            |Latitude.             |
 |                            |      |Longitude.     |
 |                            |      |       |Height.|
 |     Station.               |      |       |       |
 |                            |      |       |       |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |                            | ° ´  |  ° ´  |  Feet.|
 |Alcatraz Island             |37 49 |122 25 |    -- |
 |Angel Island                |37 51 |122 26 |    30 |
 |Benicia Barracks            |38 03 |122 09 |    64 |
 |Fort Miller                 |37 00 |119 40 |   402 |
 |Fort Point                  |37 48 |122 29 |    27 |
 |Monterey                    |36 37 |121 52 |    40 |
 |Sacramento                  |38 34 |121 26 |    81 |
 |San Francisco; Presidio     |37 47 |122 28 |   150 |
 |San Francisco               |37 48 |122 25 |   130 |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+

 +----------------------------+------------------------------+-------+
 |                            |      Mean precipitation,     |       |
 |                            |           in inches.         |       |
 |                            +------------------------------+       |
 |                            |Spring.                       |       |
 |                            |     |Summer.                 |Extent |
 |                            |     |     |Autumn.           |  of   |
 |     Station.               |     |     |    |Winter.      |record.|
 |                            |     |     |    |      |Year. |       |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+
 |                            |     |     |    |      |      | Y.  M.|
 |Alcatraz Island             | 2.59| 0.01|1.85|12.04 |16.49 |  9   5|
 |Angel Island                | 3.52| 0.02|2.75|12.29 |18.58 |  5  11|
 |Benicia Barracks            | 4.10| 0.13|2.28| 8.39 |14.90 | 18   3|
 |Fort Miller                 | 7.25| 0.00|2.94| 8.81 |19.00 |  6   9|
 |Fort Point                  | 3.66| 0.03|2.28|11.39 |17.36 | 14  11|
 |Monterey                    | 4.43| 0.26|2.24| 8.78 |15.71 | 12   3|
 |Sacramento                  | 5.55| 0.09|2.76|10.84 |19.24 | 18   3|
 |San Francisco; Presidio     | 4.80| 0.49|2.68|12.32 |20.29 | 20   2|
 |San Francisco               | 5.03| 0.22|3.05|13.19 |21.49 | 24   4|
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+


    TABLE IV.--_Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia._

 +---------------------------------------------------+
 |                            |Latitude.             |
 |                            |      |Longitude.     |
 |                            |      |       |Height.|
 |     Station.               |      |       |       |
 |                            |      |       |       |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |                            | ° ´  |  ° ´  | Feet. |
 |Astoria, Oreg               |46 11 |123 48 |    52 |
 |Cape Disappointment, Wash   |46 17 |124 03 |    30 |
 |Fort Dalles, Oreg           |45 33 |120 50 |   350 |
 |Camp Gaston, Cal            |41 01 |123 34 |    -- |
 |Camp Wright, Cal            |39 48 |123 17 |    -- |
 |Fort Crook, Cal             |41 07 |121 29 | 3,390 |
 |Fort Hoskins, Oreg          |45 06 |123 26 |    -- |
 |Fort Humboldt, Cal          |40 45 |124 10 |    50 |
 |Fort Jones, Cal             |41 36 |122 52 | 2,570 |
 |Fort Steilacoom, Wash       |47 11 |122 34 |   300 |
 |Fort Stevens, Oreg          |46 12 |123 57 |    -- |
 |Fort Umpqua, Oreg           |43 42 |124 10 |     8 |
 |Fort Vancouver, Wash        |45 40 |122 30 |    50 |
 |Fort Yamhill, Oreg          |45 21 |123 15 |    -- |
 |Portland, Oreg              |45 30 |122 36 |    45 |
 |Port Townsend, Wash         |48 07 |122 45 |     8 |
 |San Juan Island, Wash       |48 28 |123 01 |   150 |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+

 +----------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+
 |                            |      Mean precipitation,      |       |
 |                            |           in inches.          |       |
 |                            +-------------------------------+       |
 |                            |Spring.                        |       |
 |                            |     |Summer.                  |Extent |
 |                            |     |     |Autumn.            |  of   |
 |     Station.               |     |     |     |Winter.      |record.|
 |                            |     |     |     |      |Year. |       |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+
 |                            |     |     |     |      |      | Y.  M.|
 |Astoria, Oreg               |18.90| 5.72|18.19| 34.80| 77.61|  22  4|
 |Cape Disappointment, Wash   |14.97| 5.97|20.46| 29.84| 71.24|   5  9|
 |Fort Dalles, Oreg           | 3.91| 1.16| 5.78| 11.27| 22.12|  12  8|
 |Camp Gaston, Cal            |14.76| 1.15| 9.92| 31.56| 57.39|  12  0|
 |Camp Wright, Cal            | 8.26| 0.27| 8.17| 27.27| 43.97|   9  8|
 |Fort Crook, Cal             | 6.37| 0.97| 4.55| 11.29| 23.18|   9  0|
 |Fort Hoskins, Oreg          |14.69| 2.65|14.88| 34.48| 66.70|   6  9|
 |Fort Humboldt, Cal          | 9.36| 0.73| 6.49| 18.73| 35.31|  11  2|
 |Fort Jones, Cal             | 5.23| 0.91| 4.19| 11.37| 21.70|   5  0|
 |Fort Steilacoom, Wash       | 8.98| 2.81|10.12| 17.01| 38.92|  12  9|
 |Fort Stevens, Oreg          |17.67| 7.88|18.21| 34.81| 78.57|   6  5|
 |Fort Umpqua, Oreg           |16.83| 2.86|15.64| 32.08| 67.41|   5 10|
 |Fort Vancouver, Wash        | 8.70| 3.78| 9.17| 16.72| 38.37|  16 11|
 |Fort Yamhill, Oreg          |13.10| 2.39|13.20| 26.90| 55.59|   9  3|
 |Portland, Oreg              |13.75| 2.50|11.31| 19.64| 47.20|   7  0|
 |Port Townsend, Wash         | 5.45| 4.22| 2.31|  4.07| 16.05|   5  6|
 |San Juan Island, Wash       | 5.01| 4.60| 7.89| 10.84| 28.34|   9  4|
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+ ----+------+------+-------+


                DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN THROUGH THE YEAR.

In a general way the limit of agriculture without irrigation, or “dry
farming”, is indicated by the curve of 20 inches rainfall, and where
the rainfall is equally distributed through the year this limitation
is without exception. But in certain districts the rainfall is
concentrated in certain months so as to produce a “rainy season”, and
wherever the temperature of the rainy season is adapted to the raising
of crops it is found that “dry farming” can be carried on with less
than 20 inches of annual rain. There are two such districts upon the
borders of the Arid Region, and within its limits there may be a third.

_First District._--Along the eastern border of the Arid Region a
contrast has been observed between the results obtained at the north
and at the south. In Texas 20 inches of rain are not sufficient for
agriculture, while in Dakota and Minnesota a less amount is sufficient.
The explanation is clearly developed by a comparison of the tables
of rainfall with reference to the distribution of rain in different
seasons.


                  TABLE V.--_Precipitation of Texas._

 +---------------------------------------------------+
 |                            |Latitude.             |
 |                            |      |Longitude.     |
 |                            |      |       |Height.|
 |     Station.               |      |       |       |
 |                            |      |       |       |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |                            | ° ´  |  ° ´  | Feet. |
 |Austin                      |30 17 | 97 44 |   650 |
 |Camp Verde                  |30 00 | 99 10 | 1,400 |
 |Fort Belknap                |33 08 | 98 46 | 1,600 |
 |Fort Bliss (El Paso)        |31 47 |106 30 | 3,830 |
 |Fort Brown                  |25 50 | 97 37 |    50 |
 |Fort Chadbourne             |31 58 |100 15 | 2,020 |
 |Fort Clark                  |29 17 |100 25 | 1,000 |
 |Fort Davis                  |30 40 |104 07 | 4,700 |
 |Fort Duncan                 |28 39 |100 30 | 1,460 |
 |Fort Griffin                |32 54 | 99 14 |  --   |
 |Fort Inge                   |29 10 | 99 50 |   845 |
 |Fort Mason                  |30 40 | 99 15 | 1,200 |
 |Fort McIntosh               |27 35 | 99 48 |   806 |
 |Fort McKavett               |30 48 |100 08 | 2,060 |
 |Fort Stockton               |30 20 |102 30 | 4,950 |
 |Galveston                   |29 18 | 94 47 |    30 |
 |Gilmer (near)               |32 40 | 94 59 |   950 |
 |New Braunfels               |29 42 | 98 15 |   720 |
 |Ringgold Barracks           |26 33 | 99 00 |   521 |
 |San Antonio                 |29 25 | 98 25 |   600 |
 +---------------------------------------------------+

 +----------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+
 |                            |      Mean precipitation,      |       |
 |                            |           in inches.          |       |
 |                            +-------------------------------+       |
 |                            |Spring.                        |       |
 |                            |     |Summer.                  |Extent |
 |                            |     |     |Autumn.            |  of   |
 |     Station.               |     |     |     |Winter.      |record.|
 |                            |     |     |     |      |Year. |       |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+
 |                            |     |     |     |      |      | Y.  M.|
 |Austin                      | 8.61| 7.94|10.74|  6.23| 33.52|  18  8|
 |Camp Verde                  | 6.11| 9.81| 8.30|  5.05| 29.27|   5  9|
 |Fort Belknap                | 6.41| 9.44| 8.34|  3.86| 28.05|   5 10|
 |Fort Bliss (El Paso)        | 0.43| 3.49| 3.38|  1.23|  8.53|  14  3|
 |Fort Brown                  | 3.18| 7.64|13.02|  4.04| 27.88|  15  0|
 |Fort Chadbourne             | 5.77| 6.53| 7.06|  3.52| 22.88|   8  7|
 |Fort Clark                  | 4.14| 7.57| 6.55|  4.35| 22.61|  12  5|
 |Fort Davis                  | 1.84| 8.76| 4.72|  1.80| 17.12|   8 11|
 |Fort Duncan                 | 3.56| 8.60| 6.54|  2.63| 21.33|  11  7|
 |Fort Griffin                | 4.95| 6.25| 6.14|  4.17| 21.51|   5  3|
 |Fort Inge                   | 5.38| 9.67| 6.88|  3.53| 25.46|   7  4|
 |Fort Mason                  | 6.36|10.44| 8.22|  3.96| 28.98|   5  1|
 |Fort McIntosh               | 3.22| 6.56| 5.38|  2.35| 17.51|  14  7|
 |Fort McKavett               | 5.21| 6.71| 7.81|  4.22| 23.95|   9  7|
 |Fort Stockton               | 1.24| 5.66| 3.31|  1.29| 11.50|   5  8|
 |Galveston                   |13.15|14.90|16.83| 12.19| 57.07|   6  1|
 |Gilmer (near)               |13.36| 9.93|11.77| 10.93| 45.99|   7  9|
 |New Braunfels               | 7.60| 6.90| 8.83|  4.25| 27.58|   5  1|
 |Ringgold Barracks           | 3.71| 7.00| 6.31|  2.58| 19.60|  14  2|
 |San Antonio                 | 6.77| 8.91| 9.30|  6.32| 31.30|  10  2|
 |                            +-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+
 |      Means                 | 4.62| 6.78| 6.64|  3.69| 21.73|  -- --|
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+ ----+------+------+-------+


                 TABLE VI.--_Precipitation of Dakota._

 +---------------------------------------------------+
 |                            |Latitude.             |
 |                            |      |Longitude.     |
 |                            |      |       |Height.|
 |     Station.               |      |       |       |
 |                            |      |       |       |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |                            | ° ´  |  ° ´  | Feet. |
 | Fort Abercrombie           |46 27 | 96 21 |  --   |
 | Fort Buford                |48 01 |103 58 | 1,900 |
 | Fort Randall               |43 01 | 98 37 | 1,245 |
 | Fort Rice                  |46 32 |100 33 |  --   |
 | Fort Stevenson             |47 36 |101 10 |  --   |
 | Fort Sully                 |44 50 |100 35 | 1,672 |
 | Fort Totten                |47 56 | 99 16 | 1,480 |
 | Fort Wadsworth             |45 43 | 97 10 | 1,650 |
 | Pembina                    |48 57 | 97 03 |   768 |
 +---------------------------------------------------+

 +----------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+
 |                            |      Mean precipitation,      |       |
 |                            |           in inches.          |       |
 |                            +-------------------------------+       |
 |                            |Spring.                        |       |
 |                            |     |Summer.                  |Extent |
 |                            |     |     |Autumn.            |  of   |
 |     Station.               |     |     |     |Winter.      |record.|
 |                            |     |     |     |      |Year. |       |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+
 |                            |     |     |     |      |      | Y.  M.|
 | Fort Abercrombie           | 4.80| 8.67| 3.46| 1.85 |18.78 | 13  6 |
 | Fort Buford                | 3.76| 4.06| 2.01| 2.01 |11.84 |  7 10 |
 | Fort Randall               | 4.72| 6.22| 3.40| 1.18 |15.52 | 15  6 |
 | Fort Rice                  | 3.63| 4.87| 1.54| 1.35 |11.39 |  6  1 |
 | Fort Stevenson             | 3.41| 4.97| 2.15| 1.31 |11.84 |  6  2 |
 | Fort Sully                 | 6.52| 7.18| 1.70| 1.14 |16.54 |  7  8 |
 | Fort Totten                | 5.18| 7.17| 2.50| 1.59 |16.44 |  5  5 |
 | Fort Wadsworth             | 7.00|10.25| 3.98| 2.92 |24.15 |  6  5 |
 | Pembina                    | 4.02| 7.24| 2.71| 1.53 |15.50 |  4  8 |
 |                            +-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+
 |    Means                   | 4.78| 6.74| 2.61| 1.65 | 15.78|   --  |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+

Table V includes every station in Texas that has a record of five
years or more, in all twenty stations. If the means of rainfall for
the state be compared with the means for single stations, it will be
seen that there is a general correspondence in the ratios pertaining
to the different seasons, so that the former can fairly be considered
to represent for the state the distribution through the year. Table VI
presents the data for Dakota in the same way, and the correspondence
between the general mean and the station mean is here exceedingly
close. At each of the nine stations, the greatest rainfall is recorded
in summer, the next greatest in spring, and the least in winter.
Placing the two series of results in the form of percentages, they show
a decided contrast:

  +-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------+
  |             | Spring. | Summer. | Autumn. | Winter. | Year. |
  +-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------+
  | Dakota      |    30   |   43    |   17    |   10    |  100  |
  | Texas       |    21   |   31    |   31    |   17    |  100  |
  +-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------+

In Dakota a rainy season is well marked, and 73 per cent. of the rain
falls in spring and summer, or at the time when it is most needed
by the farmer. In Texas only 52 per cent. of the rain falls in the
season of agriculture. The availability of rain in the two regions is
therefore in the ratio of 73 to 52, and for agricultural purposes 20
inches of rainfall in Texas is equivalent to about 15 inches in Dakota.

For the further exhibition of the subject, Table VII has been
prepared, comprising stations in the Region of the Plains all the
way from our northern to our southern boundary. By way of restricting
attention to the practical problem of the limit of “dry farming”, only
those stations are admitted which exhibit a mean annual rainfall of
more than 15 and less than 25 inches. The order of arrangement is by
latitudes, and in the columns at the right the seasonal rainfalls are
expressed in percentages of the yearly. The column at the extreme right
gives the sum of the spring and summer quotas, and is taken to express
the availability of the rainfall.


   TABLE VII.--_Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains._

 +---------------------------------------------------+
 |                            |Latitude.     | Mean  |
 |                            |      |Extent |yearly |
 |     Station.               |      |  of   | rain- |
 |                            |      |Record.| fall. |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |                            | °  ´ | Y. M. |Inches.|
 |Pembina, Dak.               |48 57 | 4  8  | 15.50 |
 |Fort Totten, Dak.           |47 56 | 5  5  | 16.44 |
 |Fort Abercrombie, Dak.      |46 27 |13  6  | 18.78 |
 |Fort Wadsworth, Dak.        |45 43 | 6  5  | 24.15 |
 |Fort Sully, Dak.            |44 50 | 7  8  | 16.54 |
 |Sibley, Minn.               |44 30 | 7 11  | 24.74 |
 |Fort Randall, Dak.          |43 01 |15  6  | 15.52 |
 |Fort McPherson, Nebr.       |41 00 | 6  9  | 18.96 |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |Fort Riley, Kans.           |39 03 |20 10  | 24.52 |
 |Fort Hays, Kans.            |38 59 | 6 11  | 22.70 |
 |Fort Larned, Kans.          |38 10 |10  9  | 21.42 |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+
 |Fort Griffin, Tex.          |32 54 | 5  3  | 21.51 |
 |Fort Chadbourne, Tex.       |31 58 | 8  7  | 22.88 |
 |Fort McKavett, Tex.         |30 48 | 9  7  | 23.95 |
 |Fort Davis, Tex.            |30 40 | 8 11  | 17.12 |
 |Fort Clark, Tex.            |29 17 |12  5  | 22.61 |
 |Fort Duncan, Tex.           |28 39 |11  7  | 21.33 |
 |Fort McIntosh, Tex.         |27 35 |14  7  | 17.51 |
 |Ringgold Barracks, Tex.     |26 23 |14  2  | 19.60 |
 +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+

 +----------------------------+---------------------------------+
 |                            |  Percentage of annual rainfall. |
 |                            +---------------------------------+
 |                            |Spring.                  |       |
 |                            |     |Summer.            |Spring |
 |     Station.               |     |     |Autumn.      |  and  |
 |                            |     |     |     |Winter.|summer.|
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
 |                            |     |     |     |       |       |
 |Pembina, Dak.               | 26  | 47  | 17  |  10   |  73   |
 |Fort Totten, Dak.           | 31  | 44  | 15  |  10   |  75   |
 |Fort Abercrombie, Dak.      | 26  | 46  | 18  |  10   |  72   |
 |Fort Wadsworth, Dak.        | 29  | 42  | 17  |  12   |  71   |
 |Fort Sully, Dak.            | 39  | 44  | 10  |   7   |  83   |
 |Sibley, Minn.               | 21  | 40  | 29  |  10   |  61   |
 |Fort Randall, Dak.          | 30  | 40  | 22  |   8   |  70   |
 |Fort McPherson, Nebr.       | 36  | 40  | 17  |   7   |  76   |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
 |Fort Riley, Kans.           | 22  | 43  | 24  |  11   |  65   |
 |Fort Hays, Kans.            | 31  | 27  | 25  |  17   |  58   |
 |Fort Larned, Kans.          | 24  | 45  | 23  |   8   |  69   |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
 |Fort Griffin, Tex.          | 23  | 29  | 29  |  19   |  52   |
 |Fort Chadbourne, Tex.       | 25  | 29  | 31  |  15   |  54   |
 |Fort McKavett, Tex.         | 22  | 28  | 32  |  18   |  50   |
 |Fort Davis, Tex.            | 11  | 51  | 28  |  10   |  62   |
 |Fort Clark, Tex.            | 18  | 34  | 29  |  19   |  52   |
 |Fort Duncan, Tex.           | 17  | 40  | 31  |  12   |  57   |
 |Fort McIntosh, Tex.         | 18  | 38  | 31  |  13   |  56   |
 |Ringgold Barracks, Tex.     | 19  | 36  | 32  |  13   |  55   |
 +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+

The graduation of the ratios from north to south is apparent to
inspection, but is somewhat irregular. The irregularity, however, is
not greater than should be anticipated from the shortness of the terms
of observation at the several stations, and it disappears when the
stations are combined in natural groups. Dividing the whole series
into three groups, as indicated by the cross lines in Table VII, and
computing weighted means of the seasonal ratios, we have--


                          TABLE VII (_a_).[2]

[2] In computing the several means of Table VII (_a_) from the seasonal
means of Table VII, the latter were weighted according to the lengths
of the records by which they had been obtained.

 +------------------+--------+-------+---------------------------------+
 |                  |        |       |  Percentage of annual rainfall. |
 |                  |        |       +---------------------------------+
 |                  | Mean   |Total  |Spring.                  |       |
 |  Groups of       |latitude|years  |     |Summer.            |Spring |
 |  stations.       |  of    | of    |     |     |Autumn.      |  and  |
 |                  | group. |record.|     |     |     |Winter.|summer.|
 +------------------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
 |                  |  ° ´   |       |     |     |     |       |       |
 |Eight stations in |        |       |     |     |     |       |       |
 |Dakota, Minnesota,|        |       |     |     |     |       |       |
 | and Nebraska     | 45 20  |  67   |  29 |  43 |  19 |   9   |   72  |
 |Three stations    |        |       |     |     |     |       |       |
 | in Kansas        | 38 45  |  38   |  24 |  41 |  24 |  11   |   65  |
 |Eight stations    |        |       |     |     |     |       |       |
 |     in Texas     | 29 45  |  85   |  19 |  36 |  31 |  14   |   55  |
 +------------------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+


A moment’s inspection will show that the middle group is intermediate
between the northern and southern in all its characters. The spring
quota of rainfall progressively diminishes from north to south, and
so does the summer, while the fall and winter quotas increase. What
is lost in summer is gained in winter, and thereby the inequality of
rainfall from season to season is diminished, so that a rainy season is
not so well defined in Texas as in Dakota. What is lost in spring is
gained in autumn, and thereby the place of the rainy season in the year
is shifted. In Dakota the maximum of rain is earlier than in Texas, and
corresponds more nearly with the maximum of temperature.


  TABLE VIII.--_Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region._

 +-----------------+-------+-------+---------------------------------+
 |                 |       |       |  Percentage of annual rainfall. |
 |                 |       |       +---------------------------------+
 |                 |Extent | Mean  |Spring.                  |       |
 |    Station.     | of    |annual |     |Summer.            |Winter |
 |                 |record.| rain- |     |     |Autumn.      |  and  |
 |                 |       | fall. |     |     |     |Winter.|spring.|
 +-----------------+-------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
 |                 | Y. M. |Inches.|     |     |     |       |       |
 |Alcatraz Island  |  9  5 | 16.49 |  16 |  0  |  11 |   73  |   89  |
 |Angel Island     |  5 11 | 18.58 |  19 |  0  |  15 |   66  |   85  |
 |Benicia Barracks | 18  3 | 14.90 |  28 |  1  |  15 |   56  |   84  |
 |Fort Miller      |  6  9 | 19.00 |  38 |  0  |  16 |   46  |   84  |
 |Fort Point       | 14 11 | 17.36 |  21 |  0  |  13 |   66  |   87  |
 |Monterey         | 12  3 | 15.71 |  28 |  2  |  14 |   56  |   84  |
 |Sacramento       | 18  3 | 19.24 |  29 |  1  |  14 |   56  |   85  |
 |San Francisco;   | 20  2 | 20.29 |  24 |  2  |  13 |   61  |   85  |
 |   Presidio      | 20  2 | 20.29 |  24 |  2  |  13 |   61  |   85  |
 |San Francisco    | 24  4 | 21.49 |  24 |  1  |  14 |   61  |   85  |
 |                 +-------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
 | Weighted means  |  --   |  --   |  25 |  1  |  14 |   60  |   85  |
 +-----------------+-------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+
  Total extent of record = 130 years.  Mean of yearly rainfalls = 15.90.

_Second District._--In the San Francisco Region a rainy season is still
more definitely marked, but occurs at a different time of year. It will
be seen by Tables III and VIII that no rain falls in summer, while the
winter months receive 60 per cent. of the annual precipitation, and
the spring 25 per cent. The general yearly rainfall of the district is
only about 16 inches, but by this remarkable concentration a period of
five months is made to receive 13 inches. The winter temperature of the
district is no less remarkable, and supplies the remaining condition
essential to agriculture. Frosts are rare, and in the valleys all the
precipitation has the form of rain. The nine stations which afford the
rainfall records given above show a mean spring temperature of 57° (see
Table IX). Thirteen inches of rain coming in a frostless winter and
spring have been found sufficient for remunerative agriculture.


   TABLE IX.--_Mean temperatures, by seasons, for the San Francisco
                               Region._

 +-----------------+-------+------------------------------------------+
 |                 |Extent |    Mean temperatures, in degrees Fahr.   |
 |    Station.     |  of   +------------------------------------------+
 |                 |record.| Spring.| Summer.| Autumn.| Winter.| Year.|
 +-----------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+--------+------+
 |                 | Y. M. |         |        |       |        |      |
 |Alcatraz Island  |  8  6 |    55   |    57  |   60  |   54   |   57 |
 |Angel Island     |  3  1 |    58   |    63  |   61  |   52   |   58 |
 |Benicia Barracks | 15  7 |    58   |    67  |   62  |   49   |   59 |
 |Fort Miller      |  7  6 |    64   |    86  |   67  |   49   |   67 |
 |Fort Point       | 10 11 |    55   |    59  |   58  |   52   |   56 |
 |Monterey         | 12  5 |    55   |    60  |   57  |   50   |   55 |
 |Sacramento       | 14  0 |    59   |    71  |   62  |   48   |   60 |
 |San Francisco;   | 19  0 |    54   |    57  |   57  |   50   |   55 |
 |    Presidio     | 19  0 |    54   |    57  |   57  |   50   |   55 |
 |San Francisco    | 11  2 |    55   |    58  |   58  |   50   |   55 |
 |                 +-------+---------+--------+-------+--------+------+
 |    Means        |   --  |    57   |    64  |   60  |   50   |   58 |
 +-----------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+--------+------+

The same winter maximum of rainfall is characteristic of the whole
Pacific coast. The Region of the Lower Columbia, with an average
rainfall of 46 inches, receives 47 per cent. of it in winter and 24
per cent. in spring. Southward on the coast, Drum Barracks (near Los
Angeles) and San Diego receive more than half their rain in winter,
but as the whole amount is only 9 inches agriculture is not benefited.
The eastern bases of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range exhibit the
winter maximum of rainfall, and this feature can be traced eastward
in Idaho and Nevada, but in these districts it is accompanied by no
amelioration of winter temperature. (See Table X.)


   TABLE X.--_Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific
                             coast, etc._

 +------------------------+-------+----------------------+-------------+
 |                        |       |    Percentage of     |    Mean     |
 |                        |       |       rainfall.      | temperature.|
 |                        | Mean  +----------------------+-----+-------+
 |                        |annual |Spring.               |             |
 |    Station.            | rain- |    |Summer.          |Spring.      |
 |                        | fall. |    |    |Autumn.     |     |Winter.|
 |                        |       |    |    |    |Winter.|     |       |
 +------------------------+-------+----+----+----+-------+-----+-------+
 |                        |Inches.|    |    |    |       |     |       |
 |San Francisco Region    | 15.90 | 25 |  1 | 14 |   60  | 57  |   50  |
 |Region of Lower Columbia| 46.45 | 24 |  6 | 23 |   47  | 51  |   40  |
 |Drum Barracks, Cal      |  8.74 | 26 |  3 |  4 |   67  | 60  |   56  |
 |San Diego, Cal          |  9.31 | 20 |  4 | 20 |   56  | 60  |   54  |
 |Camp Independence, Cal  |  6.60 | 17 |  5 |  9 |   69  | 57  |   39  |
 |Fort Bidwell, Cal       | 20.23 | 24 |  8 | 15 |   53  | 48  |   32  |
 |Camp Warner, Oreg       | 14.41 | 30 |  8 | 17 |   45  | 42  |   29  |
 |Camp Harney, Oreg       |  8.76 | 26 | 13 | 18 |   43  | 47  |   27  |
 |Fort Colville, Wash     | 14.06 | 26 | 22 | 18 |   34  | 45  |   24  |
 |Fort Walla Walla, Wash  | 19.36 | 24 | 11 | 26 |   39  | 52  |   34  |
 |Camp McDermitt, Nev     |  8.53 | 35 |  9 | 13 |   43  | 46  |   29  |
 |Camp Halleck, Nev       | 10.98 | 33 | 11 | 21 |   35  | 45  |   28  |
 |Fort Lapwai, Idaho      | 14.89 | 28 | 16 | 23 |   33  | 53  |   33  |
 |Fort Boisé, Idaho       | 15.48 | 33 |  8 | 16 |   43  | 52  |   30  |
 +------------------------+-------+----+----+----+-------+-----+-------+

_Third District._--In Arizona and New Mexico there is a general
maximum of rainfall in summer, and a restricted maximum in winter. The
principal minimum is in spring. In Table XI the stations are arranged
according to longitudes, a disposition well suited to exhibit their
relations. In eastern New Mexico the distribution of rainfall has the
same character as in adjacent Texas, but with a more decided maximum.
Half of the total rainfall is in summer and half of the remainder in
autumn. Westward the maximum diminishes slightly, but it appears in
every station of the two territories. In western Arizona the winter
maximum of the Pacific coast asserts itself, and it can be traced
eastward as far as Fort Wingate, New Mexico. Except at Camp Mohave, on
the western border of Arizona, it is inferior in amount to the summer
maximum.


    TABLE XI.--_Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico._

 +----------------------+--------+-------+---------------------------+
 |                      |        |  Mean |      Percentage of        |
 |                      |        |annual |      annual rainfall.     |
 |    Station.          | Longi- | rain- +---------------------------+
 |                      | tude.  | fall. |Spring.      | Autumn.     |
 |                      |        |       |      |Summer.     |Winter.|
 +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+
 |                      |  °  ´  |Inches.|      |      |     |       |
 |Western Texas         |   --   |   --  |  19  |   36 |  31 |   14  |
 +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+
 |Fort Union, N. Mex    | 104 57 | 19.15 |  11  |   62 |  20 |    7  |
 |Cantonment Burgwin,   |        |       |      |      |     |       |
 |         N. Mex       | 105 30 |  8.65 |  18  |   34 |  28 |   20  |
 |Fort Stanton, N. Mex  | 105 38 | 20.94 |  14  |   51 |  23 |   12  |
 |Santa Fé, N. Mex      | 106 02 | 14.91 |  14  |   46 |  23 |   17  |
 |Albuquerque, N. Mex   | 106 38 |  8.11 |  10  |   54 |  25 |   11  |
 |Fort Fillmore, N. Mex | 106 42 |  8.42 |   5  |   50 |  36 |    9  |
 |Fort Selden, N. Mex   | 106 55 |  8.49 |   7  |   57 |  22 |   14  |
 |Fort Craig, N. Mex    | 107 00 | 11.06 |   6  |   53 |  31 |   10  |
 |Fort McRae, N. Mex    | 107 03 | 11.59 |  21  |   53 |  20 |    6  |
 |Fort Wingate, N. Mex  | 107 45 | 17.32 |  11  |   38 |  20 |   31  |
 |Fort Bayard, N. Mex   | 108 30 | 14.32 |  11  |   50 |  16 |   23  |
 |Fort Defiance, Ariz   | 109 10 | 14.21 |  14  |   42 |  26 |   18  |
 |Camp Bowie, Ariz      | 109 30 | 15.26 |   9  |   48 |  13 |   30  |
 |Camp Grant, Ariz      | 110 40 | 15.08 |  14  |   41 |  22 |   23  |
 |Camp McDowell, Ariz   | 111 36 | 11.45 |  10  |   42 |  15 |   33  |
 |Camp Verde, Ariz      | 111 54 | 10.85 |  12  |   43 |  22 |   23  |
 |Camp Whipple, Ariz    | 112 20 | 19.28 |  20  |   42 |  11 |   27  |
 |Camp Mohave, Ariz     | 114 36 |  4.65 |  18  |   27 |  20 |   35  |
 +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+
 |San Francisco Region  |   --   |  --   |  25  |    1 |  14 |   60  |
 +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+

In all this region the daily range of temperature is great, and frosts
occur so early in autumn that no use can be made of the autumnal
rainfall. The yearly precipitation is very small, and the summer quota
rarely exceeds seven or eight inches. Nevertheless the Pueblo Indians
have succeeded, in a few localities, and by a unique method, in raising
maize without irrigation. The yield is too meagre to tempt the white
man to follow their example, and for his use the region is agricultural
only where it can be watered artificially.




                              CHAPTER IV.

                             WATER SUPPLY.

                           BY G. K. GILBERT.


The following discussion is based upon a special study of the
drainage-basin of Great Salt Lake.


                         INCREASE OF STREAMS.

The residents of Utah who practice irrigation have observed that many
of the streams have increased in volume since the settlement of the
country. Of the actuality of this increase there can be no question.
A popular impression in regard to the fluctuations of an unmeasured
element of climate may be very erroneous, as, for example, the
impression that the rainfall of the timbered states has been diminished
by the clearing of the land, but in the case of these streams relative
measurements have practically been made. Some of them were so fully
in use twenty years ago that all of their water was diverted from
its channels at the “critical period”, and yet the dependent fields
suffered from drought in the drier years. Afterward, it was found that
in all years there was enough water and to spare, and operations were
extended. Additional canals were dug and new lands were added to the
fields; and this was repeated from time to time, until in many places
the service of a stream was doubled, and in a few it was increased
tenfold, or even fiftyfold. It is a matter of great importance to the
agricultural interests, not only of Utah but of the whole district
dependent on irrigation, that the cause or causes of this change shall
be understood. Until they are known we cannot tell whether the present
gain is an omen of future gain or of future loss, nor whether the
future changes are within or beyond our control. I shall therefore take
the liberty to examine somewhat at length the considerations which are
supposed by myself or others to bear upon the problem.

Fortunately we are not compelled to depend on the incidental
observations of the farming community for the amount of the increase
of the streams, but merely for the fact of their increase. The amount
is recorded in an independent and most thorough manner, by the
accumulation of the water in Great Salt Lake.


                       RISE OF GREAT SALT LAKE.

A lake with an outlet has its level determined by the height of the
outlet. Great Salt Lake, having no outlet, has its level determined by
the relation of evaporation to inflow. On one hand the drainage of a
great basin pours into it a continuous though variable tribute; on the
other, there is a continuous absorption of its water by the atmosphere
above it. The inflow is greatest in the spring time, while the snows
are melting in the mountains, and least in the autumn after the melting
has ceased, but before the cooling of the air has greatly checked
evaporation on the uplands. The lake evaporation is greatest in summer,
while the air is warm, and least in winter. Through the winter and
spring the inflow exceeds the evaporation, and the lake rises. In the
latter part of the summer and in autumn the loss is greater than the
gain, and the lake falls. The maximum occurs in June or July, and the
minimum probably in November. The difference between the two, or the
height of the annual tide, is about 20 inches.

But it rarely happens that the annual evaporation is precisely equal
to the annual inflow, and each year the lake gains or loses an amount
which depends upon the climate of the year. If the air which crosses
the drainage basin of the lake in any year is unusually moist, there
is a twofold tendency to raise the mean level. On one hand there
is a greater precipitation, whereby the inflow is increased, and
on the other hand there is a less evaporation. So, too, if the air
is unusually dry, the inflow is correspondingly small, the loss by
evaporation is correspondingly great, and the contents of the lake
diminish. This annual gain or loss is an expression, and a very
delicate expression, of the mean annual humidity of a large district of
country, and as such is more trustworthy than any result which might
be derived from local observations with psychrometer and rain gauge.
A succession of relatively dry years causes a progressive fall of the
lake, and a succession of moist years a progressive rise. As the water
falls it retires from its shore, and the slopes being exceedingly
gentle the area of the lake is rapidly contracted. The surface for
evaporation diminishes and its ratio to the inflow becomes less. As the
water rises the surface of the lake rapidly increases, and the ratio of
evaporation to inflow becomes greater. In this way a limit is set to
the oscillation of the lake as dependent on the ordinary fluctuations
of climate, and the cumulation of results is prevented. Whenever the
variation of the water level from its mean position becomes great,
the resistance to its further advance in that direction becomes
proportionally great. For the convenience of a name, I shall speak of
this oscillation of the lake as the _limited oscillation_. It depends
on an oscillation of climate which is universally experienced, but
which has not been found to exhibit either periodicity, or synchrony
over large areas, or other features of regularity.

Beside the annual tide and the limited oscillation, the lake has been
found to exhibit a third change, and this third or _abnormal_ change
seems to be connected with the increase of the tributary streams. In
order to exhibit it, it will be necessary to discuss somewhat fully the
history of the rise and fall of the lake, and I shall take occasion at
the same time to call attention to the preparations that have recently
been made for future observations.

Previous to the year 1875 no definite record was made. In 1874 Prof.
Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, began a
correspondence with Dr. John R. Park, of Salt Lake City, in regard to
the fluctuations and other peculiarities of the lake, and as a chief
result a systematic record was begun. With the coöperation of Mr. J.
L. Barfoot and other citizens of Utah, Dr. Park erected a graduated
pillar at Black Rock, a point on the southern shore which was then a
popular summer resort. It consisted of a granite block cut in the form
of an obelisk and engraved on one side with a scale of feet and inches.
It was set in gravel beneath shallow water, with the zero of its scale
near the surface. The water level was read on the pillar by Mr. John
T. Mitchell at frequent intervals from September 14, 1875, to October
9, 1876, when the locality ceased to be used as a watering place, and
the systematic record was discontinued. Two observations were made by
the writer in 1877, and it was found in making the second that the
shifting gravel of the beach had buried the column so deeply as to
conceal half the graduation.

Dr. Park has kindly furnished me a copy of Mr. Mitchell’s record.
The observer was instructed to choose such times of observation that
the influence of wind storms upon the level of the lake would be
eliminated, and the work appears to have been faithfully performed.


_Record of the height of Great Salt Lake above the zero of the granite
                        pillar at Black Rock._

  +----------------------+-------------+-------------------+
  |        Date.         |   Reading.  |       Wind.       |
  +------+----------+----+-----+-------+----------+--------+
  |      |          |    |     |       |          |        |
  | Year.|  Month.  |Day.|Feet.|Inches.|Direction.| Force. |
  +------+----------+----+-----+-------+----------+--------+
  |1875  |September | 14 |  0  |   6   |    N.    |Gentle. |
  |      |          | 22 |  0  | 5¹⁄₂  |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 25 |  0  |   5   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |October   |  6 |  0  | 4¹⁄₂  |    N.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 12 |  0  |   4   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 18 |  0  | 3¹⁄₂  |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 26 |  0  |   3   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |November  |  9 |  0  |   2   |    W.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 16 |  0  | 1¹⁄₂  |    N.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 23 |  0  |   4   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 29 |  0  | 5¹⁄₂  |    E.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |December  |  7 |  0  |   5   |    E.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 14 |  0  | 5¹⁄₂  |    E.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 21 |  0  |   6   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |1876  |January   |  5 |  0  |   8   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 11 |  0  | 8¹⁄₂  |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 29 |  0  |   9   |    E.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |February  |  1 |  0  |   9   |  S. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 15 |  0  | 9¹⁄₂  |   --     |Calm.   |
  |      |          | 22 |  0  | 9¹⁄₂  |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |March     | 15 |  0  |  11   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 22 |  1  |   0   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 28 |  1  |   ¹⁄₂ |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |April     | 17 |  1  |   2   |   --     |Calm.   |
  |      |          | 25 |  1  |   3   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |May       |  2 |  1  |   4   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 22 |  1  |   9   |    N.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |June      |  2 |  1  |  11   |    W.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          |  8 |  2  |   0   |   --     |Calm.   |
  |      |          | 13 |  2  |   2   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 23 |  2  |   4   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 30 |  2  |   6   |    S.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |July      | 18 |  2  |   3   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 25 |  2  |   4   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |August    |  1 |  2  |   3   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 10 |  2  |   2   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 22 |  1  |   9   |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 29 |  1  |   8   |  S. E.   |Strong. |
  |      |          | 30 |  1  |   8   |    N.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |September | 14 |  1  |   7   |    --    |Calm.   |
  |      |          | 19 |  1  | 6¹⁄₂  |    N.    |Quiet.  |
  |      |          | 26 |  1  |   6   |    --    |Calm.   |
  |      |October   |  9 |  1  | 5¹⁄₂  |  N. E.   |Quiet.  |
  |1877  |July      | 12 |  2  |   0   |    --    |Calm.   |
  |      |October   | 19 |  0  |  10   |    --    |Calm.   |
  +------+----------+----+-----+-------+----------+--------+

Comparing the October observations for three years, it appears that the
lake rose 13 inches from 1875 to 1876, and fell in the next year 6¹⁄₂
inches.

[Illustration: SKETCH OF BLACK ROCK AND VICINITY, UTAH TERRITORY.

_Prepared to show the position of the graduated pillar erected by Dr.
John Park for observations on the water-level of Great Salt Lake, and
the position of the granite bench-mark._]

The Black Rock pillar has not the permanence that is desirable.
Although it has thus far been only the more firmly established by the
action of the waves, it is still true that the lake is encroaching
on the land in this part of the coast, and a storm may at any time
undermine and overthrow the pillar. To provide for such a contingency
it was determined to establish a bench mark out of reach of the waves,
and connect it with the pillar by leveling, so that if the existing
standard should be destroyed its record would still have a definite
meaning, and the relative height of a new standard could be ascertained
with precision. In this undertaking I was joined by Mr. Jesse W. Fox,
a gentleman who has long held the office of territorial surveyor of
Utah. A suitable stone was furnished by the Hon. Brigham Young, and was
carried to Black Rock without charge through the courtesy of Mr. Heber
P. Kimball, superintendent of the Utah Western Railroad. The block is
of granite, and is three feet in length. It was sunk in the earth, all
but a few inches, on the northern slope of a small limestone knoll just
south of the railroad track at Black Rock. Its top is dressed square,
about 10 × 10 inches, and is marked with a +. It will be convenient to
speak of the top of this monument as the _Black Rock bench_. On the
11th of July, 1877, the surface of the lake was 34.5 feet below the
bench, and it then marked 2.0 feet on the pillar erected by Dr. Park.
The zero of the observation pillar is therefore 36.5 feet below the
bench.

The accompanying topographic sketch will serve at any time to identify
the position of the bench.

After consultation with Dr. Park, I concluded that it would be
better not to depend on the Black Rock station for observations in
the future--at least in the immediate future--and other points were
discussed. Eventually it was determined to establish a new station near
Farmington, on the eastern shore of the lake. The point selected is in
an inlet so sheltered that a heavy swell in the lake will not interfere
with accurate observation. At the present stage of water the spot is
well adapted to the purpose, and it can be used with the water 2 feet
lower or 5 feet higher. I was not able to attend personally to the
erection of the pillar, but left the matter in the hands of Mr. Jacob
Miller, of Farmington, who writes me that it was placed in position and
the record begun on the 24th of November, 1877. The pillar is of wood,
and is graduated to inches for 9 feet of its length.

On the day of its establishment the reading of the water surface was 2
feet 1 inch. On the 21st of January, 1878, the reading was 2 feet 1¹⁄₂
inches.

The Farmington and Black Rock pillars are 23 miles apart. The relative
height of their zeros will be ascertained as soon as practicable by
making coincident readings, during still weather, of the water surface
at the two stations. It is already known that the Farmington zero is
_approximately_ 16 inches lower than the Black Rock.

A stone “bench” or monument for permanent reference has also been
placed on rising ground near the observation pillar, and the two will
be connected by spirit level. The Farmington bench is of gneiss, and
is marked with a + in the same manner as the Black Rock. The stone was
contributed by Mr. Abbott, of Farmington, and was gratuitously shaped
and placed by Mr. Miller.

Mr. Miller has also voluntarily assumed charge of the record, and will
make or superintend the observations. It will not be practicable to
visit the pillar daily, nor even at _regular_ intervals, but it is
expected that the record will be as full as the one tabulated above.
The following items are to be noted:

1. Time of observation, including year, month, day, and hour.

2. Reading of water surface in feet and inches.

3. Direction and force of wind.

4. Account of wind for the preceding 24 hours.

5. Name of observer.

These observations will not only determine the annual gain or loss of
the lake, but will in a few years give data to construct the curve of
the annual tide.

The history of past changes not having been the subject of record,
it became necessary to compile it from such collateral data as were
attainable. The enquiries inaugurated by Professor Henry have been
prosecuted, and have resulted in a tolerably definite determination of
the principal changes since 1847, together with the indication of a
superior limit to earlier oscillations.

Ever since the settlement of Salt Lake City, in 1847, the islands of
the lake have been used as herd grounds. Fremont and Carrington islands
have been reached by boat, and Antelope and Stansbury islands partly
by boat, partly by fording, and partly by land communication. A large
share of the navigation has been performed by citizens of Farmington,
and the shore is in that neighborhood so flat that the changes of
water level have necessitated frequent changes of landing place. The
pursuits of the boatmen have been so greatly affected that all of the
more important fluctuations were impressed upon their memories, and
most of the changes were so associated with features of the topography
that some estimate of their quantitative values could be made. The
data which became thus available were collated for Professor Henry by
Mr. Miller, a gentleman who himself took part in the navigation, and
of whom I have already had occasion to speak. His results agree very
closely with those derived from an independent investigation of my own,
to which I will now proceed.

Antelope Island is connected with the delta of the Jordan River by a
broad, flat sand bar that has been usually submerged but occasionally
exposed. It slopes very gently toward the island, and just where it
joins it is interrupted by a narrow channel a few inches in depth.
For a number of years this bar afforded the means of access to the
island, and many persons traversed it. By combining the evidence of
such persons it has been practicable to learn the condition of the ford
up to the time of its final abandonment. From 1847 to 1850 the bar was
dry during the low stage of each winter, and in summer covered by not
more than 20 inches of water. Then began a rise which continued until
1855 or 1856. At that time a horseman could with difficulty ford in the
winter, but all communication was by boat in summer. Then the water
fell for a series of years until in 1860 and 1861 the bar was again dry
in winter. The spring of 1862 was marked by an unusual fall of rain and
snow, whereby the streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface was
raised several feet. In subsequent years the rise continued, until in
1865 the ford became impassable. According to Mr. Miller the present
height was attained in about 1868, and there have since occurred only
minor fluctuations.

For the purpose of connecting the traditional history as derived from
the ford with the systematic record that has now been inaugurated, I
visited the bar in company with Mr. Miller on the 19th of October,
1877, and made careful soundings. The features of the ford had
been minutely described, and there was no uncertainty as to the
identification of the locality. We found 9 feet of water on the sand
flat, and 9 feet 6 inches in the little channel at its edge. The
examination was completed at 11 a. m.; at 5 p. m. the water stood at 0
feet 10 inches on the Black Rock pillar; and on the following day at 8
a. m. we marked its level at the place where the Farmington pillar now
stands, our mark being 2 feet 2 inches above the zero of the pillar.

The Antelope Island bar thus affords a tolerably complete record from
1847 to 1865, but fails to give any later details. It happens, however,
that the hiatus is filled at another locality. Stansbury Island is
joined to the mainland by a similar bar, which was entirely above
water at the time of Captain Stansbury’s survey, and so continued for
many years. In 1866, the year following that in which the Antelope bar
became unfordable, the water for the first time covered the Stansbury
bar, and its subsequent advance and recession have so affected the
pursuits of the citizens of Grantsville, who used the island for a
winter herd ground, that it will not be difficult to obtain a full
record by compiling their forced observations. Since undertaking the
inquiry I have had no opportunity to visit that town, but the following
facts have been elicited by correspondence. Since the first flooding of
the bar the depth of water has never been less than 1 foot, and it has
never been so great as to prevent fording in winter. But in the summers
of 1872, 1873, and 1874, during the flood stage of the annual tide,
there was no access except by boat, and in those years the lake level
attained its greatest height. In the spring of 1869 the depth was 4¹⁄₂
feet, and in the autumn of 1877, 2¹⁄₂ feet.

The last item shows that the Stansbury bar is 7 feet higher than the
Antelope, and serves to connect the two series of observations.

[Illustration: _Diagram showing the rise and fall of Great Salt Lake
from 1847 to 1877._

  N. S. = Level of new storm line.
  O. S. = Level of old storm line.
  S. B. = Level of Stansbury Island bar.
  A. B. = Level of Antelope Island bar.]

Further inquiries will probably render the record more complete
and exact, but, as it now stands, all the general features of the
fluctuations are clearly indicated. In the accompanying diagram
the horizontal spaces represent years, and the vertical, feet. The
irregular curve shows the height of the lake in different years. Where
it is drawn as a full line the data are definite; the dotted portions
are interpolated.

Upon the same diagram are indicated the levels of two storm lines. The
upper is the limit of wave action at the present time, and is 3 feet
above the winter stage (October, 1877). It is everywhere marked by
drift wood, and in many places by a ridge of sand. Above it there is
a growth, on all steep shores, of sage and other bushes, but those in
immediate proximity are dead, having evidently been killed by the salt
spray. Below the line are still standing the stumps of similar bushes,
and the same can be found 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the water.

The lower storm line was observed by Captain Stansbury in 1850, and
has been described to me by a number of citizens of Utah to whom it
was familiar at that time and subsequently. Like the line now visible,
it was marked by drift wood, and a growth of bushes, including the
sage, extended down to it; but below it there were seen no stumps. Its
position is now several feet under water, and it is probable that the
advancing waves destroyed most of its features, but the vestiges of the
bushy growth above it remain.

The peculiarities of the two storm lines have an important bearing on
the history of the lake. The fact that the belt of land between them
supported sage bushes shows that previous to its present submergence
the lake had not covered it for many years. Lands washed by the brine
of the lake become saturated with salt to such extent that even
salt-loving plants cannot live upon them, and it is a familiar fact
that the sage (_Artemisia sempervirens_) never grows in Utah upon soil
so saline as to be unfavorable for grain. The rains of many years, and
perhaps even of centuries, would be needed to cleanse land abandoned by
the lake so that it could sustain the salt-hating bushes, and we cannot
avoid the conclusion that the ancient storm line had been for a long
period the superior limit of the fluctuations of the lake surface.

To avoid misapprehension, it should be stated that the storm lines
have been described as they appear on the eastern shore of Antelope
Island, a locality where the slope of the ground amounts to three or
four degrees. The circumstances are different at the margin of the
mainland, and especially where the slopes are very gentle. The lake is
so shallow that its equilibrium is greatly disturbed by strong winds.
Its waves are small, but in storms the water is pushed high up on the
land toward which the wind blows, the extreme effects being produced
where the inclination is most gentle. The islands, however, are little
flooded; the water does not accumulate against them, but is driven
past; and the easterly gales that produced the present storm line on
the east shore of Antelope Island may have driven so much water to
the westward as even to have depressed the level in that locality.
Moreover, where the land surface is nearly level, the cleansing by rain
of portions once submerged is indefinitely retarded. On all the flatter
shores the lake is bordered by tracts too saline for reclamation by
the farmer, and either bare of vegetation or scantily covered by
salt-loving shrubs. These tracts are above the modern storm line, and
they acquired their salt during some flood too remote to be considered
in this connection. The largest of them is called the Great Salt Lake
Desert, and has a greater area than the lake itself.

Thus it appears that in recent times the lake has overstepped a bound
to which it had long been subject. Previous to the year 1865, and for
a period of indefinite duration, it rose and fell with the limited
oscillation and with the annual tide, but was never carried above a
certain limiting line. In that year, or the one following, it passed
the line, and it has not yet returned. The annual tide and the limited
oscillation are continued as before, but the lowest stage of the new
regime is higher than the highest stage of the old. The mean stage of
the new regime is 7 or 8 feet higher than the mean stage of the old.
The mean area of the water surface is a sixth part greater under the
new regime than under the old.

The last statement is based on the United States surveys of Captain
Stansbury and Mr. King. The former gathered the material for his map
in 1850, when the water was at its lowest stage, and the latter in the
spring of 1869, when the water was near its highest stage. The one map
shows an area of 1,750 and the other of 2,166 square miles. From these
I estimate the old mean area at 1,820 miles, the new at 2,125 miles,
and the increase at 305 miles, or 17 per cent.

                    [Illustration: COMPARATIVE MAP

                                  OF

                         GREAT SALT LAKE, UTAH

                 COMPILED TO SHOW ITS INCREASE OF AREA

 _The topography and later shore-line are taken from the Survey of Mr.
 Clarence King, U.S. Geologist; the earlier shore-line from the Survey
                  of Capt. Howard Stansbury, U.S.A._]

The “abnormal change” of the lake may then be described as an infilling
or rise of the water whereby its ordinary level has been raised 7 or 8
feet and its ordinary area has been increased a sixth part; and this
appears to be distinct from the limited oscillation and annual tide,
which may be regarded as comparatively normal. To account for it a
number of theories have been proposed, and three of them seem worthy
of consideration. They appeal respectively to volcanic, climatic, and
human agencies.


                           VOLCANIC THEORY.

It has been surmised that upheavals of the land, such as sometimes
accompany earthquakes, might have changed the form of the lake bed
and displaced from some region the water that has overflowed others.
This hypothesis acquires a certain plausibility from the fact that
the series of uplifts and downthrows by which the mountains of the
region were formed have been traced down to a very recent date, but
it is negatived by such an array of facts that it cannot be regarded
as tenable. In the first place, the water has risen against _all_ the
shores and about every island of which we have account. The farmers
of the eastern and southern margins have lost pastures and meadows by
submergence. At the north, Bear River Bay has advanced several miles
upon the land. At the west, a boat has recently sailed a number of
miles across tracts that were traversed by Captain Stansbury’s land
parties. That officer has described and mapped Strong’s Knob and
Stansbury Island as peninsulas, but they have since become islands.
Antelope Island is no longer accessible by ford, and Egg Island, the
nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans, has become a reef. Springs
that supplied Captain Stansbury with fresh water near Promontory Point
are now submerged and inaccessible; and other springs have been covered
on the shores of Antelope, Stansbury, and Fremont islands.

In the second place, the rise of the lake is correlated in time with
the increase of the inflowing streams, which has been everywhere
observed by irrigators, and it is logical to refer the two phenomena to
the same cause.

And, finally, if upheaval could account for the enlargement of the
lake, it would still be inadequate to account for the maintenance
of its increased size, in the face of an evaporation that yearly
removes a layer several feet in depth. The same compensatory principle
that restricts the “limited oscillation” would quickly restore the
equilibrium between inflow and evaporation, in whatever manner it was
disturbed.


                           CLIMATIC THEORY.

It is generally supposed that the change is a phenomenon of climate,
and this hypothesis includes harmoniously the increase of streams with
the increase of lake surface. By some it is thought that the climate of
the district is undergoing, or has undergone, a permanent change; and
by others that the series of oscillations about a mean condition which
characterizes every climate has in this case developed a moist phase
of exceptional degree and duration. The latter view was my own before
I became aware of the features of the ancient storm line, but it now
appears to me untenable. That a variable surface of evaporation, which
had for a long period recognized a limit to its expansion, should not
merely exceed that limit, but should maintain an abnormal extent for
more than a decade, is in a high degree improbable.

It is far more probable that one of those gradual climatic changes, of
which geology has shown the magnitude and meteorology has illustrated
the slowness, here finds a manifestation. The observed change is
apparently abrupt, and even saltatory; but of this we cannot be
certain, since it is impossible from a record of only thirty years
to eliminate the limited oscillation. It is quite conceivable that
were such elimination effected, the residual change would appear as a
continuous and equable increase of the lake. However that may be, a
certain degree of rapidity of change is necessarily involved, for the
climatic change which is able in a decade to augment by a sixth part
the mean area of evaporation cannot be of exceeding slowness. If we
can ascertain how great a change would be demanded, it will be well to
compare it with such changes as have been observed in other parts of
the country, and see whether its magnitude is such as to interfere with
its assumption.

The prevailing winds of Utah are westerly, and it may be said in a
general way that the atmosphere of the drainage basin of Great Salt
Lake is part of an air current moving from west to east. The basin
having no outlet, the precipitation of rain and snow within its limits
must be counter-balanced by the evaporation. The air current must on
the average absorb the same quantity of moisture that it discharges.
Part of the absorption is from land surfaces and part from water, the
latter being the more rapid.

If, now, the equilibrium be disturbed by an augmented humidity of the
inflowing air, two results ensue. On the one hand the precipitation
is increased, and on the other, the absorbent power of the air being
less, the rate of evaporation is diminished. In so dry a climate the
precipitation is increased in greater ratio than the humidity, and the
rate of evaporation is diminished in less ratio; while of the increased
precipitation an increased percentage gathers in streams and finds its
way to the lake. That reservoir, having its inflow augmented and its
rate of evaporation decreased, gains in volume and grows in breadth
until the evaporation from the added expanse is sufficient to restore
the equilibrium. Giving attention to the fact that the lake receives
a greater percentage of the total downfall than before, and to the
fact that its rate of evaporation is at the same time diminished it is
evident that the resultant augmentation of the lake surface is more
than proportional to the augmentation of the precipitation.

We are therefore warranted in assuming that an increase of humidity
sufficient to account for the observed increase of 17 per cent. in the
size of the lake would modify the rainfall by less than 17 per cent.
The actual change of rainfall cannot be estimated with any degree of
precision, but from a review of such data as are at my command I am led
to the opinion that an allowance of 10 per cent. would be as likely to
exceed as to fall short, while an allowance of 7 per cent. would be at
the verge of possibility.

The rainfall of some other portions of the continent has been recorded
with such a degree of thoroughness and for such a period that a term
of comparison is afforded. In his discussion of the precipitation of
the United States, Mr. Schott has grouped the stations by climatic
districts, and deduced the annual means for the several districts.
Making use of his table on page 154 (Smithsonian Contributions, No.
222), and restricting my attention to the results derived from five
or more stations, I select the following extreme cases of variation
between the mean annual rainfalls of consecutive decades. District I
comprises the sea coast from Maine to Virginia, and the record includes
five or more stations from 1827 to 1867. From the decade 1831-’40 to
the decade 1841-’50 the rainfall increased 6 per cent. District II
comprises the state of New York and adjacent regions, and includes
five or more stations from 1830 to 1866. From the decade 1847-’56 to
the decade 1857-’66 the rainfall increased 9 per cent. District IV
comprises the Ohio Valley and adjacent regions, and includes five
or more stations from 1837 to 1866. From decade 1841-’50 to decade
1851-’60 the rainfall diminished 8 per cent.

The case, then, stands that the best comparable districts and epochs
exhibit extreme fluctuations from decade to decade of from 6 to 9 per
cent, while the rise of Great Salt Lake implies a fluctuation of about
10 per cent. But before deciding that the hypothetical fluctuation
in Utah is extraordinary, consideration should be given to the fact
that in the dry climate of that region a given change in humidity will
produce a relatively great change in rainfall, while an identical
change of rainfall, measured in inches, acquires an exaggerated
importance when expressed as the percentage of a small total rainfall.
Giving due weight to these considerations, I am led to conclude
that the assumed increase of rainfall in Utah is not of incredible
magnitude, and consequently that the hypothesis which ascribes the rise
of the lake to a change of climate should be regarded as tenable. It
by no means follows that it is proven, and so long as it depends on an
assumption the truth of which is merely possible, but not established,
it can claim no more than a provisional acceptance.

It is proper to add that, so far as I entertain the idea of a change of
climate, I do so without referring the change to any local cause. It is
frequently asserted that the cultivated lands of Utah “draw the rain”;
or that the prayers of the religious community inhabiting the territory
have brought water to their growing crops; or that the telegraph
wires and iron rails which gird the country have in some way caused
electricity to induce precipitation; but none of these agencies seem to
be competent. The weather of the globe is a complex whole, each part of
which reacts on every other, and each part of which depends on every
other. The weather of Utah is an interdependent part of the whole, and
cannot be referred to its causes until the entire subject is mastered.
The simpler and more immediate meteoric reactions have been so far
analyzed that their results are daily predicted; but the remote sources
of our daily changes, as well as the causes of the greater cycles of
change, are still beyond our reach. Although withdrawn from the domain
of the unknowable, they remain within that of the unknown.


                       THEORY OF HUMAN AGENCIES.

The only remaining theory of value is the one advocated by Professor
Powell: that the phenomena are to be ascribed to the modification of
the surface of the earth by the agency of man. The rise of the lake
and the increase of streams have been observed since the settlement of
the country by the white man, and the sage brush on the old storm line
shows that they had not been carried to the same extent at any previous
period in the century. They have coincided in time with the extension
of the operations of civilization; and the settlers attach this idea to
the facts in detail as well as in general. They have frequently told me
that wherever and whenever a settlement was established, there followed
in a few years an increase of the water supply, and these statements
have been supported by such enumerations of details that they seem
worthy of consideration. If they are well founded, the secret of the
change will surely be found among the modifications incident to the
operations of the settler.

Similar testimony was gathered by Prof. Cyrus Thomas in 1869 in regard
to the increase of water supply at the western edge of the plains, and
the following conclusion appears in his report to Dr. Hayden (page 237
of the reprint of Dr. Hayden’s reports for 1867, 1868, and 1869):

 All this, it seems to me, must lead to the conclusion that since the
 territory [Colorado] has begun to be settled, towns and cities built
 up, farms cultivated, mines opened, and roads made and travelled,
 there has been a gradual increase of moisture. Be the cause what it
 may, unless it is assumed that there is a cycle of years through which
 there is an increase, and that there will be a corresponding decrease,
 the fact must be admitted upon this accumulated testimony. I therefore
 give it as my firm conviction that this increase is of a permanent
 nature, and not periodical, and that it has commenced within eight
 years past, and that it is in some way connected with the settlement
 of the country, and that as the population increases the moisture will
 increase.

Notwithstanding the confidence of Professor Thomas’s conclusions, he
appears to have reached them by a leap, for he makes no attempt to
analyze the influence of civilized man on nature to which he appeals.
Before we accept his results, it will be necessary to inquire in what
way the white man has modified the conditions by which the water supply
is controlled.

To facilitate this inquiry, an attempt will be made to give a new and
more convenient form to our expression of the amount of change for
which it is necessary to account in the basin of Great Salt Lake.

The inflow of the lake is derived chiefly from three rivers, and is
susceptible of very exact determination. Thorough measurement has not
yet been made, but there has been a single determination of each river
and minor stream, and a rough estimate can be based on them. The Bear
and the Weber were measured in October, 1877, and I am led by the
analogy of other streams and by the characters of the river channels
to judge that the mean volume of the Bear for the year was twice its
volume at the date of measurement, and that of the Weber four times.
The mean flow of the Jordan can be estimated with more confidence, for
reasons which will appear in a following chapter. The “supply from
other sources” mentioned in the table includes all the creeks that flow
from the Wasatch Mountains, between Draper and Hampden, together with
the Malade River, Blue Creek, the creeks of Skull and Tooele Valleys,
and the line of springs that encircles the lake.

 +---------------------------------------------+----------+-----------+
 |                                             | Measured | Estimated |
 |                                             |volume in |mean volume|
 |                    Rivers, etc.             | feet per |  in feet  |
 |                                             | second.  |per second.|
 +---------------------------------------------+----------+-----------+
 |Bear River, measured October 4, 1877,        |          |           |
 |       at Hampden Bridge                     |   2,600  |   5,200   |
 |Weber River, measured October 11, near Ogden |     500  |   2,000   |
 |Jordan River, measured July 8, near Draper   |   1,275  |   1,000   |
 |Supply from other sources                    |    --    |   1,800   |
 |                                             +----------+-----------+
 |    Total                                    |    --    |  10,000   |
 |Deduct the water used in irrigation          |    --    |     600   |
 |                                             +----------+-----------+
 |    Remainder                                |    --    |   9,400   |
 +---------------------------------------------+----------+-----------+

The result expresses the mean inflow to the lake in 1877, and is
probably not more than 25 per cent. in error. The total inflow for the
year would suffice to cover the lake to a depth of 60 inches. In the
same year (or from October, 1876, to October, 1877) the lake fell 6¹⁄₂
inches, showing that the loss by evaporation was by so much greater
than the gain by inflow. The total annual evaporation of inflowing
water may therefore be placed provisionally at 66¹⁄₂ inches. If we add
to this the rain and snow which fall on the lake, we deduce a total
annual evaporation of about 80 inches of water; but for the present
purpose it will be more convenient to consider the former figure.

The extent of the Salt Lake basin is about 28,500 square miles. The
western portion, amounting to 12,500 miles, sends no water to the
lake, yielding all its rainfall to evaporation within its own limits.
The remaining 16,000 miles includes both plains and mountains, and
its tribute is unequal. To supply 66¹⁄₂ inches annually to the whole
area of the lake, 2,125 miles, it must yield a sheet of water with an
average thickness of 8.83 inches. In former times, when the lake had an
area of only 1,820 miles, the yield of the same area was 7.43 inches.
The advance from 7.43 to 8.83, or the addition of 1 inch and 4 tenths
to the mean outflow of the district, is the phenomenon to be accounted
for.

All the water that is precipitated within the district as rain or snow
returns eventually to the air, but different portions are returned
in different ways. Of the snow, a portion is melted and a portion is
evaporated without melting. Of the melted snow and the rain, a part is
absorbed by vegetation and soil, and is afterward reabsorbed by the
air; another part runs from the surface in rills, and a third part
sinks into the underlying formations and afterward emerges in springs.
The streams which arise from springs and rills are again divided. Part
of the water is evaporated from the surfaces of the streams and of
fresh water lakes interrupting their courses. Another part enters the
adjacent porous soils, and either meets in them the air by which it is
slowly absorbed, or else so saturates them as to produce marshes from
which evaporation progresses rapidly at the surface. The remainder
flows to Great Salt Lake, and is in time evaporated from its surface.
The lesser portion of the precipitation enters the lake; the greater
is intercepted on the way and turned back to the air. Whatever man
has done to clear the way for the flowing water has diminished local
evaporation and helped to fill the lake. Whatever he has done to
increase local evaporation has tended to empty the lake.

The white man has modified the conditions of drainage, first, by the
cultivation of the soil; second, by the raising of herds; and, third,
by the cutting of trees.

1. By plowing the earth the farmer has rendered it more porous and
absorbent, so that a smaller percentage of the passing shower runs off.
He has destroyed the native vegetation, and replaced it by another
that may or may not increase the local evaporation; but this is of
little moment, because his operations have been conducted on gentle
slopes which in their natural condition contributed very little to the
streams. It is of greater import that he has diverted water already
accumulated in streams, and for the purposes of irrigation has spread
it broadly upon the land, whence it is absorbed by the air. In this way
he has diminished the inflow of the lake.

Incidental to the work of irrigation has been what is known as the
“opening out” of springs. Small springs are apt to produce bogs from
which much water is evaporated, and it has been found that by running
ditches through them the water can be gathered into streams instead.
The streams of water thus rescued from local dissipation are consumed
in irrigation during a few months of the year, but for the remainder
go to swell the rivers, and the general tendency of the work is to
increase the inflow of the lake. A similar and probably greater result
has been achieved by the cutting of beaver dams. In its natural
condition every stream not subject to violent floods was ponded from
end to end by the beaver. Its water surface was greatly expanded,
and its flood plains were converted into marshes. The irrigator has
destroyed the dams and drained the marshes.

There are a few localities where drainage has been resorted to for the
reclamation of wet hay lands, and that work has the same influence on
the discharge to the lake.

2. The area affected by grazing is far greater than that affected by
farming. Cattle, horses, and sheep have ranged through all the valleys
and upon all the mountains. Over large areas they have destroyed the
native grasses, and they have everywhere reduced them. Where once the
water from rain was entangled in a mesh of vegetation and restrained
from gathering into rills, there is now only an open growth of bushes
that offer no obstruction. Where once the snows of autumn were spread
on a non-conducting mat of hay, and wasted by evaporation until the
sunshine came to melt them, they now fall upon naked earth and are
melted at once by its warmth.

The treading of many feet at the boggy springs compacts the spongy mold
and renders it impervious. The water is no longer able to percolate,
and runs away in streams. The porous beds of brooklets are in the same
way tramped and puddled by the feet of cattle, and much water that
formerly sank by the way is now carried forward.

In all these ways the herds tend to increase the inflow of the lake,
and there is perhaps no way in which they have lessened it.

3. The cutting of trees for lumber and fence material and fuel has
further increased the streams. By the removal of foliage, that share
of the rain and snow which was formerly caught by it and thence
evaporated, is now permitted to reach the ground, and some part of it
is contributed to the streams. Snow beds that were once shaded are
now exposed to the sun, and their melting is so accelerated that a
comparatively small proportion of their contents is wasted by the wind.
Moreover, that which is melted is melted more rapidly, and a larger
share of it is formed into rills.

On the whole, it appears that the white man causes a greater percentage
of the precipitation in snow to be melted and a less percentage to be
evaporated directly. This follows from the destruction of trees and of
grass. By reducing the amount of vegetation he gives a freer flow to
the water from rain and melting snow and carries a greater percentage
of it to streams, while a smaller percentage reaches the air by
evaporation from the soil. By the treading of his cattle he diminishes
the leakage of the smaller water channels, and conserves the streams
gathered there. By the same means and by the digging of drains he
dries the marshes and thereby enlarges the streams. In all these ways
he increases the outflow of the land and the inflow of the lake. He
diminishes the inflow in a notable degree only by irrigation.

The direct influence of irrigation upon the inflow is susceptible of
quantitative statement. Four hundred square miles of land in Utah and
Idaho are fertilized by water that would otherwise flow to the lake,
and they dissipate annually a layer of about 20 inches. To supply these
20 inches the drainage district of 16,000 miles yields an average layer
of 0.5 inch, and this yield is in addition to the 1.4 inches required
to maintain the increase of lake surface. The total augmentation of the
annual water supply is therefore represented by a sheet 1.9 inches in
depth covering the entire district.

The indirect influence of irrigation, and the influences exerted by the
grazier and the woodman, cannot be estimated from any existing data,
but of their tendencies there can be no question. To some extent they
diminish local evaporation, and induce a larger share of the rainfall
to gather in the streams; and to one who has contrasted the district in
question with similar districts in their virgin condition, there seems
no extravagance in ascribing to them the whole of the observed change.

In the valley of the Mississippi and on the Atlantic coast, it has been
observed that the floods of rivers are higher than formerly, and that
the low stages are lower, and the change has been ascribed by Ellet
and others to the destruction of the native vegetation. The removal
of forests and of prairie grasses is believed to facilitate the rapid
discharge from the land of the water from rain and melted snow, and to
diminish the amount stored in the soil to maintain springs. In an arid
country like Utah, where the thirst of the air is not satisfied by the
entire rainfall, any influence that will increase the rapidity of the
discharge must also increase the amount of the discharge. The moisture
that lingers on the surface is lost.

On the whole, it may be most wise to hold the question an open one
whether the water supply of the lake has been increased by a climatic
change or by human agency. So far as we now know, neither theory is
inconsistent with the facts, and it is possible that the truth includes
both. The former appeals to a cause that may perhaps be adequate, but
is not independently known to exist. The latter appeals to causes known
to exist but quantitatively undetermined.

It is gratifying to turn to the economic bearings of the question, for
the theories best sustained by facts are those most flattering to the
agricultural future of the Arid Region. If the filling of the streams
and the rise of the lake were due to a transient extreme of climate,
that extreme would be followed by a return to a mean condition, or
perhaps by an oscillation in the opposite direction, and a large share
of the fields now productive would be stricken by drought and returned
to the desert.

If the increase of water supply is due to a progressive change of
climate forming part of a long cycle, it is practically permanent, and
future changes are more likely to be in the same advantageous direction
than in the opposite. The lands now reclaimed are assured for years to
come, and there is every encouragement for the work of utilizing the
existing streams to the utmost.

And finally, if the increase of water supply is due to the changes
wrought by the industries of the white man, the prospect is even
better. Not only is every gain of the present assured for the future,
but future gain may be predicted. Not alone are the agricultural
facilities of this district improving, but the facilities in the whole
Rocky Mountain Region are improving and will improve. Not only does the
settler incidentally and unconsciously enhance his natural privilege,
but it is possible, by the aid of a careful study of the subject, to
devise such systematic methods as shall render his work still more
effectual.


                      FARMING WITHOUT IRRIGATION.

The general rule that agriculture in Utah is dependent on artificial
irrigation finds exception in two ways. First, there are some
localities naturally irrigated; and, second, there is at least one
locality of which the local climate permits dry farming.

Along the low banks of many streams there are fertile strips of
land. The soil is in every such case of a porous nature, and water
from the stream percolates laterally and rises to the roots of the
plants. Nearly all such lands are flooded in spring time, and they
are usually devoted to hay as an exclusive crop; but some of them are
above ordinary floods and are suited for other uses. It rarely happens,
however, that they are farmed without some irrigation, for the reason
that the use of the convenient water render the harvest more secure and
abundant.

The same fertility is sometimes induced by subterranean waters which
have no connection with surface streams. In such cases there is
usually, and perhaps always, an impervious subsoil which retains
percolating water near the surface. A remarkable instance of this sort
is known at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains. A strip of land
from 20 to 40 rods broad, and marking the junction of the mountain
slope with the plain, has been found productive from Hampton’s Bridge
to Brigham City, a distance of 18 miles. In some parts it has been
irrigated, with the result of doubling or trebling the yield, but where
water has not been obtained, the farmer has nevertheless succeeded in
extracting a living. A similar but narrower belt of land lies at the
eastern base of the Promontory range, and a few others have been found.
In each locality the proximity of subterranean water to the surface is
shown by the success of shallow wells, and there is evidently a natural
irrigation.

There is one region, however, where natural irrigation is out of the
question, but where crops have nevertheless been secured. Bear River
“City” was founded by a company of Danes, who brought the water of the
Malade River to irrigate their fields. After repeated experiment they
became satisfied that the water was so brackish as to be injurious
instead of beneficial, and ceased to use it; and for a number of years
they have obtained a meagre subsistence by dry farming. A district
lying south of Ogden and east of Great Salt Lake, and known as “the
Sand Ridge”, has recently been brought in use, and in 1876 and 1877
winter wheat was harvested with a yield variously reported as from 10
to 15 bushels per acre. This success is regarded by some of the older
settlers as temporary and delusive, for it is said to have depended on
exceptional spring rains; but the majority of the community have faith
in its permanence, and the experiment is being pushed in many valleys.
In Bear River City and on the Sand Ridge water is not found by shallow
wells, and the land is naturally dry. In these localities, and, so
far as I am aware, in all others where dry land has been successfully
farmed, the soil is sandy, and this appears to be an essential
condition. Success has moreover been restricted to the line of valleys
which lie at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains and near Great
Salt Lake.

This last feature depends, as I conceive, on a local peculiarity of
climate. The general movement of the atmosphere is from west to east,
and the air which crosses the lake is immediately lifted from its level
to the crest of the Wasatch. Having acquired from the lake an addition
to its quota of moisture, it has less power of absorption and a greater
tendency to precipitation than the atmosphere in general, and it
confers on the eastern shore of the lake a climate of exceptional
humidity.

The character of this climate is clearly indicated by the assemblage of
the observed facts in regard to precipitation. Through the kindness of
Prof. Joseph Henry I have been permitted to examine the rain records
accumulated by the Smithsonian Institution, including not only those
which have been embodied in the published “Tables,” but the more recent
data to be included in the forthcoming second edition. The following
table shows the mean annual precipitation for all stations in Utah,
Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado, which have a record two years or more
in extent, together with certain other facts for comparison. The
temperature means are taken from the Smithsonian Temperature Tables and
the United States Signal Service Reports.

 +-------------------------+-------+------------+------+-----+---------+
 |                         |       |   Mean     |      |     |         |
 |                         | Annual|Temperature.|Height|     | Length  |
 |          Station.       |precip-|------+-----|above |Lati-|   of    |
 |                         | ita-  |Spr-  |Sum- | sea. |tude.| record. |
 |                         | tion. | ing. | mer.|      |     |         |
 +-------------------------+-------+------+-----+------+-----+---------+
 |                         |Inches.|  Deg.  F.  | Feet.| °  ´|Yrs. Mos.|
 |Salt Lake City, Utah     | 24.81 |  50  | 74  | 4,354|40 46|  9  2   |
 |Camp Douglas, Utah       | 18.82 |  49  | 73  | 5,024|40 46| 10  3   |
 |Colorado Springs, Colo   | 17.59 |  44  | 68  | 5,970|38 49|  3  0   |
 |Camp Winfield Scott, Nev | 17.33 |  47  | 74  |  --  |41 34|  2  8   |
 |Fort Massachusetts, Colo | 17.23 |  --  | --  | 8,365|37 32|  5  1   |
 |Golden City, Colo        | 17.01 |  --  | 72  | 5,240|39 44|  2  3   |
 |Fort Sedgwick, Colo      | 15.44 |  47  | 74  | 3,600|40 58|  2  1   |
 |Fort Fred. Steele, Wyo   | 15.38 |  41  | 66  | 6,845|41 47|  5  5   |
 |Fort Fetterman, Wyo      | 15.10 |  41  | 67  | 5,012|42 50|  5  7   |
 |Fort Garland, Colo       | 14.86 |  43  | 64  | 7,864|37 25| 13  1   |
 |Fort Laramie, Wyo        | 14.45 |  47  | 73  | 4,472|42 12| 17  8   |
 |Fort D. A, Russell, Wyo  | 14.09 |  36  | 64  | 6,000|41 12|  5  1   |
 |Denver, Colo             | 13.77 |  46  | 69  | 5,250|39 45|  5  1   |
 |Harrisburg, Utah         | 13.74 |  --  | --  | 3,275|37 10|  2  2   |
 |Fort Reynolds, Colo      | 13.26 |  52  | 75  | 4,300|38 12|  2  8   |
 |Fort Lyon, Colo          | 12.56 |  51  | 77  | 4,000|38 08|  7  9   |
 |Fort Sanders, Wyo        | 11.46 |  38  | 62  | 7,161|41 17|  6 10   |
 |Saint George, Utah       | 11.39 |  --  | --  | 2,800|37 13|  2 11   |
 |Camp Halleck, Nev        | 10.98 |  45  | 68  | 5,790|40 49|  5  8   |
 |Cheyenne, Wyo            | 10.14 |  40  | 66  | 6,075|41 08|  3  9   |
 |Camp McDermitt, Nev      |  8.53 |  46  | 70  | 4,700|41 58|  6  4   |
 |Fort Bridger, Wyo        |  8.43 |  39  | 63  | 6,656|41 20| 12 10   |
 |Fort Churchill, Nev      |  7.43 |  52  | 75  | 4,284|39 17|  3  9   |
 |Camp Floyd, Utah         |  7.33 |  49  | 74  | 4,867|40 16|  2  6   |
 |                         +-------+------+-----+------+-----+---------+
 |     Means               | 13.80 |  45  | 70  | 5,300|40 05|   --    |
 +-------------------------+-------+------+-----+------+-----+---------+

Two of the stations, Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas, lie within the
zone of climate modified by Great Salt Lake, and a brief inspection
of the table will show how greatly their climate is influenced. As a
general rule, the localities of greatest precipitation in the Rocky
Mountain Region have so great altitude that their summer temperature
does not permit agriculture, but Salt Lake City, with an altitude
1,000 feet below the average of the 24 stations, and a temperature 4°
above the average, has a rainfall 11 inches greater than the average;
and Camp Douglas, 3° warmer than the average and 250 feet lower, has
a rainfall 5 inches greater. If the two stations are compared with
those which lie nearest them, the contrast is still more striking. Camp
Halleck, 130 miles west of the lake, and 600 feet higher than Camp
Douglas, has a rainfall of 11 inches only. Fort Bridger, 90 miles east
of the lake and 1,600 feet higher than Camp Douglas, has a rainfall of
8 inches. Camp Floyd, 30 miles south of the lake and sheltered from its
influence by mountains, receives only 7¹⁄₃ inches. But Salt Lake City
and Camp Douglas, lying between the lake and the Wasatch Range, record
respectively 24.8 and 18.8 inches.

In fine, it appears that the climate of the eastern shore of Great Salt
Lake is decidedly exceptional and approximates in humidity to that of
Central Kansas. The fact that it admits of dry farming gives no warrant
for the belief that large areas in the Arid Region can be cultivated
without irrigation, but serves rather to confirm the conclusion that
the limit to remunerative dry farming is practically drawn by the
isohyetal line of 22 inches. Even in this most favored district the
yield is so small that it can be doubled by irrigation, and eventually
water ditches will be carried to nearly all the land that has yet been
plowed.




                              CHAPTER V.


       CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS.


                 THE UNIT OF WATER USED IN IRRIGATION.

The unit of water employed in mining as well as manufacturing
enterprises in the west is usually the inch, meaning thereby the amount
of water which will flow through an orifice one inch square. But in
practice this quantity is very indefinite, due to the “head” or amount
of pressure from above. In some districts this latter is taken at six
inches. Another source of uncertainty exists in the fact that increase
in the size of the orifice and increase in the amount of flow do not
progress in the same ratio. An orifice of one square inch will not
admit of a discharge one-tenth as great as an orifice of ten square
inches. An inch of water, therefore, is variable with the size of the
stream as well as with the head or pressure. For these reasons it
seemed better to take a more definite quantity of water, and for this
purpose the _second-foot_ has been adopted. By its use the volume of
a stream will be given by stating the number of cubic feet which the
stream will deliver per second.


            THE QUANTITATIVE VALUE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION.

In general, throughout the Arid Region the extent of the irrigable land
is limited by the water supply; the arable lands are much greater than
the irrigable. Hence it becomes necessary, in determining the amount of
irrigable lands with reasonably approximate accuracy, to determine the
value of water in irrigation; that is, the amount of land which a given
amount of water will serve.

All questions of concrete or applied science are more or less complex
by reason of the multifarious conditions found in nature, and this is
eminently true of the problem we are now to solve, namely, how much
water must an acre of land receive by irrigation to render agriculture
thereon most successful; or, how much land will a given amount of water
adequately supply. This will be affected by the following general
conditions, namely, the amount of water that will be furnished by
rainfall, for if there is rainfall in the season of growing crops,
irrigation is necessary only to supply the deficiency; second, the
character of the soil and subsoil. If the conditions of soil are
unfavorable, the water supply may be speedily evaporated on the one
hand, or quickly lost by subterranean drainage on the other; but if
there be a soil permitting the proper permeation of water downward and
upward, and an impervious subsoil, the amount furnished by artificial
irrigation will be held in such a manner as to serve the soil bearing
crops to the greatest extent; and, lastly, there is a great difference
in the amount of water needed for different crops, some requiring less,
others more.

Under these heads come the general complicating conditions. In the
mountainous country the areal distribution of rainfall is preëminently
variable, as the currents of air which carry the water are deflected in
various ways by diverse topographic inequalities. The rainfall is also
exceedingly irregular, varying from year to year, and again from season
to season.

But in all these varying conditions of time and space there is one
fact which must control our conclusions in considering most of the
lands of the Arid Region, namely: any district of country which we may
be studying is liable for many seasons in a long series to be without
rainfall, when the whole supply must be received from irrigation.
Safety in agricultural operations will be secured by neglecting the
rainfall and considering only the supply of water to be furnished by
artificial methods; the less favorable seasons must be considered;
in the more favorable there will be a surplus. In general, this
statement applies throughout the Arid Region, but there are some
limited localities where a small amount of rainfall in the season of
growing crops seems to be constant from year to year. In such districts
irrigation will only be used to supply deficiencies.

The complicating conditions arising from soil and subsoil are many.
Experience has already shown that there are occasional conditions of
soil and subsoil so favorable that the water may be supplied before the
growing season, and the subsoil will hold it for weeks, or even months,
and gradually yield the moisture to the overlying soil by slow upward
percolation or capillary attraction during the season when growing
crops require its fertilizing effect. When such conditions of soil and
subsoil obtain, the construction of reservoirs is unnecessary, and the
whole annual supply of the streams may be utilized. On the other hand,
there are extremely pervious soils underlaid by sands and gravels,
which speedily carry away the water by a natural under drainage. Here
a maximum supply by irrigation is necessary, as the soils must be kept
moist by frequent flowing. Under such conditions the amount of water to
be supplied is many fold greater than under the conditions previously
mentioned, and between these extremes almost infinite variety prevails.

Practical agriculture by irrigation has also demonstrated the fact
that the wants of different crops are exceedingly variable, some
requiring many fold the amount of others. This is due in part to the
length of time necessary to the maturing of the crops, in part to the
amount of constant moisture necessary to their successful growth. But
by excluding the variability due to rainfall, and considering only
that due to differences of soils and crops, and by taking advantage
of a wide experience, a general average may be obtained of sufficient
accuracy for the purposes here in view.

In examining the literature of this subject it was found that the
experience in other countries could not be used as a guide in
considering our problems. In general, irrigation in Europe and Asia
is practiced only to supply deficiencies, and the crops there raised
are only in part the same as with us, and the variation on account of
the crops is very great. Certain statements of Marsh in his “Man and
Nature” have been copied into the journals and reports published in
the United States, and made to do duty on many occasions; but these
statements are rather misleading, as the experience of farmers in the
Arid Region has abundantly demonstrated. The writers who have used
them have in general overestimated the quantitative value of water in
irrigation. The facts in Italy, in Spain, in Grenada, and India are
valuable severally for discussion in the countries named, but must be
used in a discussion of the arid lands of the United States with much
care. It seemed better, under these circumstances, to determine the
quantitative value of water in irrigation in Utah from the experience
of the farmers of Utah. Irrigation has there been practiced for about
thirty years, and gradually during that time the area of land thus
redeemed has been increased, until at present about 325,000 acres
of land are under cultivation. A great variety of crops have been
cultivated--corn, wheat, oats, rye, garden vegetables, orchard trees,
fruits, vines, etc., etc.; and even the fig tree and sugar cane are
there raised.

During the past six or seven years I have from time to time, as
occasion was afforded, directed my attention to this problem, but being
exceedingly complex, a very wide range of facts must be considered in
order to obtain a reasonably approximate average. During the past year
the task of more thoroughly investigating this subject was delegated
to Mr. Gilbert. The results of his studies appear in a foregoing
chapter, written by him; but it may be stated here that he has reached
the conclusion that a continuous flow of one cubic foot of water
per second, _i. e._, a _second-foot_ of water, will, in most of the
lands of Utah, serve about 100 acres for the general average of crops
cultivated in that country; but to secure that amount of service from
the water very careful and economic methods of irrigation must be
practiced. At present, there are few instances where such economic
methods are used. In general, there is a great wastage, due to badly
constructed canals, from which the water either percolates away or
breaks away from time to time; due, also, to too rapid flow, and also
to an excessive use of the water, as there is a tendency among the
farmers to irrigate too frequently and too copiously, errors corrected
only by long experience.

The studies of Mr. Gilbert, under the circumstances, were quite
thorough, and his conclusions accord with my own, derived from a more
desultory but longer study of the subject.


     AREA OF IRRIGABLE LAND SOMETIMES NOT LIMITED BY WATER SUPPLY.

While, as a general fact, the area of arable land is greater than the
area of irrigable land, by reason of the insufficient supply of water,
yet in considering limited tracts it may often be found that the supply
of water is so great that only a part of it can be used thereon. In
such cases the area of irrigable land is limited by the extent to which
the water can be used by proper engineering skill. This is true in
considering some portions of Utah, where the waters of the Green and
Colorado cannot all be used within that territory. Eventually these
surplus waters will be used in southern California.


              METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SUPPLY OF WATER.

To determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah, it was necessary to
consider the supply; that is, to determine the amount of water flowing
in the several streams. Again, this quantity is variable in each stream
from season to season and from year to year. The irrigable season is
but a small portion of the year. To utilize the entire annual discharge
of the water, it would be necessary to hold the surplus flowing in the
non-growing season in reservoirs, and even by this method the whole
amount could not be utilized, as a great quantity would be lost by
evaporation. As the utilization of the water by reservoirs will be to
a great extent postponed for many years, the question of immediate
practical importance is resolved into a consideration of the amount of
water that the streams will afford during the irrigating season. But
in the earlier part of the season the flow in most of the streams in
this western region is great, and it steadily diminishes to the end of
the summer. Earlier in the season there is more water, while for the
average of crops the greater amount is needed later.

The practical capacity of a stream will then be determined by its flow
at the time when that is least in comparison with the demands of the
growing crops. This will be called the critical period, and the volume
of water of the critical period will determine the capacity of the
stream. The critical period will vary in different parts of the region
from the latter part of June until the first part of August. For the
purposes of this discussion it was only necessary to determine the
flow of the water during the critical period. This has been done by
very simple methods. Usually in each case a section of the stream has
been selected having the least possible variation of outline and flow.
A cross-section of the stream has been measured, and the velocity of
flow determined. With these factors the capacity of the streams has
been obtained. In some cases single measurements have been made; in
others several at different seasons, rarely in different years. The
determination of the available volume of the several streams by such
methods is necessarily uncertain, especially from the fact that it has
not always been possible to gauge the streams exactly at the critical
period; and, again, the flow in one season may differ materially from
that in another. But as the capacity of a stream should never be rated
by its volume in seasons of abundant flow, we have endeavored as far
as possible to determine the capacity of the streams in low water
years. Altogether the amount of water in the several streams has been
determined crudely, and at best the data given must be considered
tolerable approximations. In considering the several streams experience
may hereafter discover many errors, but as the number of determinations
is great, the average may be considered good.


METHODS OF DETERMINING THE EXTENT OF IRRIGABLE LAND UNLIMITED BY WATER
                                SUPPLY.

In the few cases where the water supply is more than sufficient to
serve the arable lands, the character of the problem is entirely
changed, and it becomes necessary then to determine the area to which
the waters can be carried. These problems are hypsometric; relative
altitudes are the governing conditions. The hypsometric methods
were barometric and angular; that is, from the barometric stations
vertical angles were taken and recorded to all the principal points
in the topography of the country; mercurial and aneroid barometers
were used, chiefly the former; the latter to a limited extent, for
subsidiary work. Angular measurements were made with gradientors to a
slight extent, but chiefly with the orograph, an instrument by which a
great multiplicity of angles are observed and recorded by mechanical
methods. This instrument was devised by Professor Thompson for the use
of the survey, and has been fully described in the reports on the
geographical operations. To run hypsometric lines with spirit levels
would have involved a great amount of labor and been exceedingly
expensive, and such a method was entirely impracticable with the means
at command, but the methods used give fairly approximate results, and
perhaps all that is necessary for the purposes to be subserved.


                   THE SELECTION OF IRRIGABLE LANDS.

From the fact that the area of arable lands greatly exceeds the
irrigable, or the amount which the waters of the streams will serve,
a wide choice in the selection of the latter is permitted. The
considerations affecting the choice are diverse, but fall readily
into two classes, viz: physical conditions and artificial conditions.
The mountains and high plateaus are the great aqueous condensers; the
mountains and high plateaus are also the reservoirs that hold the water
fed to the streams in the irrigating season, for the fountains from
which the rivers flow are the snow fields of the highlands. After the
streams leave the highlands they steadily diminish in volume, the loss
being due in part to direct evaporation, and in part to percolation
in the sands from which the waters are eventually evaporated. In like
manner irrigating canals starting near the mountains and running
far out into the valleys and plains rapidly diminish in the volume
of flowing water. Looking to the conservation of water, it is best
to select lands as high along the streams as possible. But this
consideration is directly opposed by considerations relating to
temperature; the higher the land the colder the climate. Where the
great majority of streams have their sources, agriculture is impossible
on account of prevailing summer frosts; the lower the altitude the more
genial the temperature; the lower the land the greater the variety of
crops which can be cultivated; and to the extent that the variety of
crops is multiplied the irrigating season is lengthened, until the
maximum is reached in low altitudes and low latitudes where two crops
can be raised annually on the same land. In the selection of lands,
as governed by these conditions, the higher lands will be avoided on
the one hand because of the rigor of the climate; if these conditions
alone governed, no settlement should be made in Utah above 6,500 feet
above the level of the sea, and in general still lower lands should be
used; on the other hand the irrigable lands should not be selected at
such a distance from the source of the stream as to be the occasion of
a great loss of water by direct and indirect evaporation. For general
climatic reasons, the lands should be selected as low as possible;
for economy of water as high as possible; and these conditions in the
main will cause the selections to be made along the middle courses of
the streams. But this general rule will be modified by minor physical
conditions relating to soil and slope--soils that will best conserve
the water will be selected, and land with the gentlest slopes will be
taken.

In general, the descent of the streams in the arid land is very great;
for this reason the flood plains are small, that is, the extent of
the lands adjacent to the streams which are subject to overflow at
high water is limited. In general, these flood-plain lands should not
be chosen for irrigation, from the fact that the irrigating canals
are liable to be destroyed during flood seasons. Where the plan of
irrigation includes the storage of the water of the non-growing season,
by which all the waters of the year are held under control, the
flood-plain lands can be used to advantage, from the fact that they
lie in such a way as to be easily irrigated and their soils possess
elements and conditions of great fertility.

Other locally controlling conditions are found in selecting the most
advantageous sites for the necessary water works.

These are the chief physical factors which enter into the problem, and
in general it will be solved by considering these factors only; but
occasionally artificial conditions will control.

The mining industries of the Arid Region are proportionately greater
than in the more humid country. Where valuable mines are discovered
towns spring up in their immediate vicinity, and they must be served
with water for domestic purposes and for garden culture. When possible,
agriculture will be practiced in the immediate vicinity for the purpose
of taking advantage of the local market. In like manner towns spring
up along the railroads, and agriculture will be carried on in their
vicinity. For this and like reasons the streams of the Arid Region will
often be used on lands where they cannot be made the most available
under physical conditions, and yet under such circumstances artificial
conditions must prevail.

In the indication of specific areas as irrigable on the accompanying
map of Utah, it must be considered that the selections made are
but tentative; the areas chosen are supposed to be, under all the
circumstances, the most available; but each community will settle
this problem for itself, and the circumstances which will control
any particular selection cannot be foretold. It is believed that the
selections made will be advantageous to the settler, by giving him the
opinions of men who have made the subject a study, and will save many
mistakes.

The history of this subject in Utah is very instructive. The greater
number of people in the territory who engage in agriculture are
organized into ecclesiastical bodies, trying the experiment of communal
institutions. In this way the communal towns are mobile. This mobility
is increased by the fact that the towns are usually laid out on
Government lands, and for a long time titles to the land in severalty
are not obtained by the people. It has been the custom of the church
to send a number of people, organized as a community, to a town site
on some stream to be used in the cultivation of the lands, and rarely
has the first selection made been final. Luxuriant vegetation has
often tempted the settlers to select lands at too great an altitude,
and many towns have been moved down stream. Sometimes selections have
been made too far away from the sources of the streams, and to increase
the supply of water, towns have been moved up stream. Sometimes lands
of too great slope have been chosen, and here the waters have rapidly
cut deep channels and destroyed the fields. Sometimes alkaline lands
are selected and abandoned, and sometimes excessively sandy lands have
caused a change to be made; but the question of the best sites for the
construction of works for controlling and distributing the water has
usually determined the selection of lands within restricted limits.

To a very slight extent indeed have artificial conditions controlled
in Utah; the several problems have generally been solved by the
consideration of physical facts.


                     INCREASE IN THE WATER SUPPLY.

Irrigation has been practiced in different portions of the Arid Region
for the last twenty-five or thirty years, and the area cultivated
by this means has been steadily increasing during that time. In
California and New Mexico irrigation has been practiced to a limited
extent for a much longer time at the several Catholic missions under
the old Spanish regime. In the history of the settlement of the several
districts an important fact has been uniformly observed--in the first
years of settlement the streams have steadily increased in volume.
This fact has been observed alike in California, Utah, Colorado, and
wherever irrigation has been practiced. As the chief development of
this industry has been within the last fifteen years, it has been a
fact especially observed during that time. An increase in the water
supply, so universal of late years, has led to many conjectures and
hypotheses as to its origin. It has generally been supposed to result
from increased rainfall, and this increased rainfall now from this, now
from that, condition of affairs. Many have attributed the change to the
laying of railroad tracks and construction of telegraph lines; others
to the cultivation of the soil, and not a few to the interposition of
Divine Providence in behalf of the Latter Day Saints.

If each physical cause was indeed a _vera causa_, their inability to
produce the results is quite manifest. A single railroad line has
been built across the Arid Region from east to west, and a short
north and south line has been constructed in Colorado, another in
Utah, and several in California. But an exceedingly small portion of
the country where increase of water supply has been noticed has been
reached by the railroads, and but a small fraction of one per cent. of
the lands of the Arid Region have been redeemed by irrigation. This
fully demonstrates their inadequacy. In what manner rainfall could be
affected through the cultivation of the land, building of railroads,
telegraph lines, etc., has not been shown. Of course such hypotheses
obtain credence because of a lack of information relating to the laws
which govern aqueous precipitation. The motions of the earth on its
axis and about the sun; the unequal heating of the atmosphere, which
decreases steadily from equator to poles; the great ocean currents
and air currents; the distribution of land and water over the earth;
the mountain systems--these are all grand conditions affecting the
distribution of rainfall. Many minor conditions also prevail in
topographic reliefs, and surfaces favorable to the absorption or
reflection of the sun’s heat, etc., etc., affecting in a slight degree
the general results. But the operations of man on the surface of the
earth are so trivial that the conditions which they produce are of
minute effect, and in presence of the grand effects of nature escape
discernment. Thus the alleged causes for the increase of rainfall fail.
The rain gauge records of the country have been made but for a brief
period, and the stations have been widely scattered, so that no very
definite conclusions can be drawn from them, but so far as they are of
value they fail to show any increase. But if it be true that increase
of the water supply is due to increase in precipitation, as many have
supposed, the fact is not cheering to the agriculturist of the Arid
Region. The permanent changes of nature are secular; any great sudden
change is ephemeral, and usually such changes go in cycles, and the
opposite or compensating conditions may reasonably be anticipated.

For the reasons so briefly stated, the question of the origin and
permanence of the increase of the water supply is one of prime
importance to the people of the country. If it is due to a temporary
increase of rainfall, or any briefly cyclic cause, we shall have to
expect a speedy return to extreme aridity, in which case a large
portion of the agricultural industries of the country now growing up
would be destroyed.

The increase is abundantly proved; it is a matter of universal
experience. The observations of the writer thereon have been widely
extended. Having examined as far as possible all the facts seeming
to bear on the subject, the theory of the increase of rainfall was
rejected, and another explanation more flattering to the future of
agriculture accepted.

The amount of water flowing in the streams is but a very small part of
that which falls from the heavens. The greater part of the rainfall
evaporates from the surfaces which immediately receive it. The
exceedingly dry atmosphere quickly reabsorbs the moisture occasionally
thrown down by a conjunction of favoring conditions. Any changes in
the surfaces which receive the precipitation favorable to the rapid
gathering of the rain into rills and brooks and creeks, while taking
to the streams but a small amount of that precipitated, will greatly
increase the volume of the streams themselves, because the water in the
streams bears so small a proportion to the amount discharged from the
clouds. The artificial changes wrought by man on the surface of the
earth appear to be adequate to the production of the observed effects.
The destruction of forests, which has been immense in this country for
the past fifteen years; the cropping of the grasses, and the treading
of the soil by cattle; the destruction of the beaver dams, causing a
drainage of the ponds; the clearing of drift wood from stream channels;
the draining of upland meadows, and many other slight modifications,
all conspire to increase the accumulation of water in the streams, and
all this is added to the supply of water to be used in irrigation.

Students of geology and physical geography have long been aware of
these facts. It is well known that, under the modifying influences
of man, the streams of any region redeemed from the wilderness are
changed in many important characteristics. In flood times their volumes
are excessively increased and their powers of destruction multiplied.
In seasons of drought, some streams that were perennial before man
modified the surface of the country become entirely dry; the smaller
navigable streams have their periods of navigation shortened, and the
great rivers run so low at times that navigation becomes more and
more difficult during dry seasons; in multiplied ways these effects
are demonstrated. While in the main the artificial changes wrought by
man on the surface are productive of bad results in humid regions,
the changes are chiefly advantageous to man in arid regions where
agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, for here the result is to
increase the supply of water. Mr. Gilbert, while engaged during the
past season in studying the lands of Utah, paid especial attention to
this subject, and in his chapter has more thoroughly discussed the
diverse special methods by which increase in the flow of the streams is
caused by the changes wrought by man upon the surface of the earth. His
statement of facts is clear, and his conclusions are deemed valid.




                              CHAPTER VI.

                           THE LANDS OF UTAH


                          PHYSICAL FEATURES.

A zone of mountains and high plateaus extends from the northern nearly
to the southern boundary of Utah Territory. The Wasatch Mountains
constitute the northern portion of this zone, the High Plateaus the
southern. This central zone has a general altitude above the sea
of from nine to eleven thousand feet. Many peaks are higher, a few
reaching an altitude of about twelve thousand feet. On the other hand
many cañons and valleys have been excavated by the running waters far
below the general level thus indicated.

The Uinta Mountains stretch eastward from the midst of the Wasatch.
This region is a lofty table land carrying many elevated peaks whose
summits are from twelve to nearly fourteen thousand feet above the
level of the sea. This is the highest portion of Utah, and among its
peaks are the culminating points.

South from the Uinta Region, and from the southern extremity of the
Wasatch Mountains, another elevated district extends east-southeast
beyond the borders of Utah. This table land is cut in twain by two
great gorges of the Green River--the Cañon of Desolation and Gray
Cañon. The eastern portion is called East Tavaputs Plateau, the western
West Tavaputs Plateau.

Between the Uinta Mountains and the Tavaputs table land is the
Uinta-White Basin, a low synclinal valley, drained by the Uinta and its
ramifications on the west, and the lower portion of the White River on
the east.

The district of country lying south of the Tavaputs table land, and
east and south of the High Plateaus, is traversed by many deep cañons.
This is the Cañon Land of Utah. In its midst the Green and Grand unite
to form the Colorado. The Price and San Rafael are tributary to the
Green. The Fremont, Escalante, Paria, Kanab, and Virgin are directly
tributary to the Colorado from the north and west. From the east the
San Juan flows to the Colorado, but its drainage area is not included
in our present discussion.

West of the lofty zone lie low, arid valleys, interrupted by short
and abrupt ranges of mountains whose naked cliffs and desolate peaks
overlook the still more desolate valleys. These short longitudinal
ranges are but a part of the Basin Ranges, a mountain system extending
through Nevada and northward into Idaho and Oregon. That portion of
the Basin Range System which lies in Utah, and which we now have under
consideration, is naturally divided into two parts, the northern
embracing the drainage area of Great Salt Lake, the southern embracing
the drainage area of Sevier Lake, giving the Great Salt Lake District
and the Sevier Lake District.

To recapitulate, the grand districts into which Utah is naturally
divided are as follows: The Wasatch Mountains and the High Plateaus,
constituting the lofty zone above mentioned; the Uinta Mountains, the
Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta-White Basin, the Cañon Lands, the
Sevier Lake Basin, and the Great Salt Lake Basin, the two latter being
fragments of the great Basin Range Province.

       *       *       *       *       *

The eastern portion of the Territory of Utah is drained by the Colorado
River by the aid of a number of important tributaries. The western
portion is drained by streams that, heading in the mountains and high
plateaus of the central portion, find their way by many meanderings
into the salt lakes and desert sands to the westward.

Considered with reference to its drainage, Utah may thus be divided
into two parts--the Colorado drainage area and the Desert drainage
area; the former is about two-fifths, the latter three-fifths of the
area of the territory.

All of the Wasatch Mountains lie west of the drainage crest; a part of
the High Plateaus are drained to the Colorado, a part to the deserts.
This great water divide, commencing north of the Pine Valley Mountains
in the southwest corner of the territory, runs north of the Colob
Plateau and enters the district of the High Plateaus. It first runs
eastward along the crest or brink of the Pink Cliffs that bound the
Markagunt and Pauns-a-gunt Plateaus, and then north and east in many
meandering ways, now throwing a plateau into the western drainage, and
now another into the eastern, until it reaches the western extremity of
the Tavaputs table lands. Thence it runs around the western end of the
Uinta Valley, throwing the Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta Valley, and
Uinta Mountains into the Colorado drainage, and the Wasatch Mountains
into the Desert drainage.

These two regions are highly differentiated in orographic structure
and other geological characteristics. The sedimentary formations of
the eastern region are in large part of Cenozoic and Mesozoic age,
though Paleozoic rocks appear in some localities. The Cenozoic and
Mesozoic formations are largely composed of incoherent sands and shales
with intercalated beds of indurated sandstone and limestone. The
great geological displacements are chiefly by faults and monoclinal
flexures, by which the whole country has been broken up into many broad
blocks, so that the strata are horizontal or but slightly inclined,
except along the zones of displacement by which the several blocks are
bounded. Here the strata, when not faulted, are abruptly flexed, and
the rocks dip at high angles.

The Uinta Mountains are storm carved from an immense uplifted block.
The mountains of the Cañon Lands are isolated and volcanic. In the
High Plateaus sedimentary beds are covered by vast sheets of lava.
The sedimentary beds exposed in the mountains of the Desert region
are of Paleozoic age, and many crystalline schists appear, while
the sedimentary beds exposed in the valleys are Post-Tertiary. The
crystalline schists and ancient sedimentaries of the mountains are
often extensive masses of extravasated rocks. The prevailing type of
orographic structure is that of monoclinal ridges of displacement.
Blocks of strata have been turned up so as to incline at various
angles, and from their upturned edges the mountains have been carved.
But these monoclinal ridges are much complicated by mountain masses
having an eruptive origin.

In the eastern districts the materials denuded from the mountains and
plateaus have been carried to the sea, but in the western districts
the materials carried from the mountains are deposited in the adjacent
valleys, so that while the mountains are composed of rocks of great
age, the rocks of the valleys are of recent origin. In that geological
era known as the Glacial epoch the waters of a great lake spread over
these valleys, and the mountains stood as islands in the midst of a
fresh-water sea. For the history of this lake we are indebted to the
researches of Mr. Gilbert. It had its outlet to the north by way of the
Shoshoni River and the Columbia to the North Pacific. These later beds
of the valleys are in part the sediments of Lake Bonneville, the great
lake above mentioned, and in part they are subaërial gravels and sands.

       *       *       *       *       *

The Wasatch system of mountains is composed of abrupt ranges crowned
with sharp peaks. The several minor ranges and groups of peaks
into which it is broken are separated only in part by structural
differences, since ridges with homogeneous structure are severed by
transverse valleys. The drainage of the whole area occupied by the
Wasatch Mountains is westward to the Great Salt Lake. The streams
that head in the western end of the Uinta Mountains and West Tavaputs
Plateau cut through the Wasatch Mountains.

Great Salt Lake and its upper tributary, Utah Lake, exist by virtue of
the presence of the Wasatch Mountains, for the mountains wring from the
clouds the waters with which the lakes are supplied.

Walled by high ridges and peaks, many elevated valleys are found.
In the midsummer months these valleys are favored with a pleasant,
invigorating climate. Occasionally showers of rain fall. Vegetation is
vigorous. The distant mountain slopes bear forests of spruce, pine,
and fir; the broken foot hills are often covered by low, ragged piñon
pines and cedars; and the flood plains of the streams are natural
meadows. About the springs and streamlets groves of aspen stand, and
the streams are bordered with willows, box elders, and cottonwoods. Now
and then a midsummer storm comes, bringing hail, and even snow. When
the short summer ends, the aspen and box elder foliage turns to gold
flecked with scarlet; the willows to crimson and russet; the meadows
are quickly sered, and soon the autumn verdure presents only the somber
tints of the evergreens; early snows fall, and the whole land is soon
covered with a white mantle, except that here and there bleak hills
and rugged peaks are swept bare by the winds. The brief, beautiful
summer is followed by a long, dreary winter, and during this winter of
snowfall are accumulated the waters that are to be used in fertilizing
the valleys away below in the border region between the mountains and
the desert basins.

From the Wasatch on the north to the Colob on the south are elevated
tables, in general bounded by bold, precipitous escarpments. The lands
above are highly and sharply differentiated from the lands below in
climate, vegetation, soil, and other physical characters. These high
plateaus are covered with sheets and beds of lava, and over the lava
sheets are scattered many volcanic cinder cones. The higher plateaus
bear heavy forests of evergreens, and scattered through the forests are
many little valleys or meadow glades. The gnarled, somber forests are
often beset with fallen timber and a vigorous second growth, forming
together a dead and living tangle difficult to penetrate. But often the
forest aisles are open from glade to glade, or from border cliff to
border cliff. In the midst of the glades are many beautiful lakelets,
and from the cliffs that bound the plateaus on every hand the waters
break out in innumerable springs.

Here, also, a brief summer is followed by a long winter, and through
its dreary days the snow is gathered which fills the lakelets above and
feeds the springs along the bordering cliffs. The springs of the cliffs
are the fountains of the rivers that are to fertilize the valleys lying
to the east, south, and west.

The Uinta Mountains constitute an east and west range. From a single
great uplift, nearly 200 miles long and from 40 to 50 miles wide,
valleys and cañons have been carved by rains and rivers, and table
lands and peaks have been left embossed on the surface. Along its
middle belt from east to west the peaks are scattered in great
confusion, but in general the highest peaks are near the center of the
range. The general elevation descends abruptly both on the north and
south margins of the uplift, and at the crest of each abrupt descent
there are many limestone ridges and crags. Between these ridges and
crags that stand along the bordering crests, and the peaks that stand
along the meandering watershed, there are broad tables, some times
covered with forests, sometimes only with grass.

This is a third region of short summers and long winters, where the
waters are collected to fertilize the valleys to the north and south.

Away to the southward are the twin plateaus, East and West Tavaputs,
severed by the Green River. These plateaus culminate at the Brown
Cliffs, where bold escarpments are presented southward.

Outlying the Brown Cliffs are the Book Cliffs. These, also, are
escarpments of naked rock, with many salient and reëntrant angles and
outlying buttes. The beds of which they are composed are shales and
sandstones of many shades of blue, gray, and buff. In the distance,
and softly blended by atmospheric haze, the towering walls have an
azure hue. Everywhere they are elaborately water carved, and the bold
battlements above are buttressed with sculptured hills. In 1869, when
the writer first saw this great escarpment, he gave it the name of
the Azure Cliffs, but an earlier traveler, passing by another route
across the country, had seen them in the distance, and, seizing
another characteristic feature, had called them the Book Mountains.
Gunnison saw, however, not a range of mountains, but the escarped edge
of a plateau, and this escarpment we now call the Book Cliffs. From
the Brown Cliffs northward these plateaus dip gently north to the
Uinta-White Basin. From the very crest of the Brown Cliffs the drainage
is northward.

This is a fourth region of short summers and long winters, where the
moisture is collected to fertilize adjacent lands; but the altitude
is not great enough nor the area large enough to accumulate a large
supply of water, and the amount furnished by the Tavaputs Plateaus is
comparatively small.

Such are the lofty regions of Utah that furnish water to irrigate the
lowlands.


                                TIMBER.

In these elevated districts is found all the timber of commercial
value. This is well shown on the map. The map also exhibits the fact
that many portions of the elevated districts are devoid of timber,
it having been destroyed by fire, as explained in a former chapter.
Doubtless, if fires could be prevented, the treeless areas would in
due time be again covered with forests, but in such a climate forest
growth is slow. At present, the treeless areas will afford valuable
summer pasturage for cattle, and doubtless such pasturage would be
advantageous to the growth of new forests, by keeping down the grasses
in which in part the fires spread. It has already been shown that, to
a great extent, the fires which destroy the forests are set by Indians
while on their hunting excursions. The removal of the Indians from the
country will further protect the forests. Eventually, the better class
of timber lands will fall into the hands of individual owners, who
will be interested in protecting their property from devastation by
this fierce element. By all of these means the standing timber will be
preserved for economic uses; but it will be a long time before complete
immunity from fires will be secured.

The demand for lumber will never be very great. A variety of causes
conspire to this end. The adjacent country will sustain but a small
agricultural population, because the irrigable lands are of limited
extent. The people of the lowlands will eventually supply themselves
with fuel by cultivating timber along the water courses and by using
the coal so abundant in some portions of Utah. The lumber will never be
carried to a foreign market because of the expense of transportation:
first, it will be expensive to get it down from the highlands to the
lowlands, and, second, there are no navigable streams by which lumber
may be cheaply transported from the country. In general, the lumber is
of inferior quality, and cannot successfully compete for a permanent
place in the markets of the world. But there will be a demand for
lumber for building and fencing purposes in the valleys, and for mining
purposes in the mountains.

If the timber region can be protected from fire, the supply of timber
will equal the demand.

From the brief description given above, it will be seen that the timber
region will never support agriculture. Much of it is mountainous and
inhospitable, and the climate is cold. The timber region is ever to be
such; mining industries will slightly encroach on it on the one hand,
and pasturage industries on the other, but lumbermen will control the
country.

The forests of these upper regions are monotonous, as the variety of
tree life is very small. All of the timber trees proper are coniferous,
and belong to the pine, fir, and juniper families. The pine of chief
value is _Pinus ponderosa_, locally distinguished as the “Long leaved
pine”; the wood is very heavy and coarse grained, but is suitable for
the ruder building and mining purposes. It is usually found on the
slopes between eight and nine thousand feet above the level of the sea.
It attains a large size, and is a stately tree, contrasting grandly
with the darker and smaller firs that usually keep it company.

_Pinus aristata_ is of no commercial value, as it is much branched
and spreading with limbs near the base; it grows on the crags at an
altitude of from nine to eleven thousand feet.

_Pinus flexilis_ grows at the same altitude as the last mentioned, and
often shows a similar habit of growth. On the southern plateaus it is
less branched and has a tolerably straight trunk, but it is too small
and scarce to be important as timber. It is highly resinous, and is
called “Pitch pine.”

_Pinus monticola_, or Sugar pine, is found on the southern plateaus,
but is not abundant, and rarely attains milling size.

_Pinus edulis_ is the well known “Piñon pine”. It covers the foot
hills and less elevated slopes adjacent to the river valleys. The
tree is low, diffusely branched and scrubby, and is of no use for
lumber; but the wood is well supplied with resin and makes an excellent
fuel, for which purpose it is extensively used in consequence of its
accessibility.

There are three valuable species of Abies, namely: _A. Douglasii_, _A.
concolor_, and _A. Engelmanni_. _Abies Douglasii_, or Douglas’ spruce,
bears some resemblance to the eastern spruce, _A. Canadensis_, but it
is a finer tree, and the wood is much superior. Though rather light,
it is tough and exceedingly durable. The heart wood is red, from which
circumstance lumbermen distinguish it as the “Red pine”. In building
it is used for all the heavier parts, as frames, joists, rafters,
etc., and it makes excellent flooring. Its value is still further
enhanced from the fact that it occupies a belt of from seven to nine
thousand feet altitude, and thus is easily obtained. It may readily be
distinguished by its cones, the bracts of which are trifurcate, sharp,
pointed, and conspicuously exserted, and they are unlike those of any
other species.

_Abies concolor_, known in Utah as the “Black balsam”, grows at about
the same altitude as the last mentioned species, and though rather
cross-grained makes good lumber, being quite durable and strong. From
its silvery foliage, the leaves being glaucous on both sides, this tree
is known to tourists as the “White silver fir”. Lumbermen sometimes
call it the “Black gum”, the wood being very dark colored.

_Abies Engelmanni_, or Engelmann’s spruce, occupies the highest
elevations, and constitutes the only timber above 11,000 feet in
altitude. Above 11,500 feet it is reduced to a dwarf. On the terraces
of the high plateaus, at about 10,000 feet altitude, it appears to
flourish best, and here it becomes a large, beautiful tree. The leaves
are needle shaped, and thus differ from both the preceding species. The
trunks are straight and free from limbs or knots, making fine saw logs.
The wood is white and soft, but fine grained and durable, and being
easily worked is held in high esteem for all the lighter uses, such as
sash, doors, etc. Its place in the lumber industries of Utah is about
the same as that of the “White pine” (_Pinus Strobus_) in the east.
Lumbermen usually call it “White pine”. Because of the altitude of its
habitat it is difficult to obtain, yet it is systematically sought, and
large amounts are yearly manufactured into lumber; it also makes good
shingles.

_Abies Menziesii_, or Menzies’s spruce, usually called “Spruce” by
lumbermen of the country, is botanically very similar to the species
last described, but the cones are larger and the leaves sharper
pointed. It bears a large quantity of cones, which are generally
aggregated near the top, obscuring the foliage, and giving the trees a
peculiar tawny appearance. The wood is light, white, and fine grained,
and would rival that of the last named species but for the fact that
the trunk has a number of slight curves, so that it is impossible to
obtain good saw logs of sufficient length from it. Its habitat is along
the cañons from seven to nine thousand feet altitude, and seems to end
about where _A. Engelmanni_ begins. It is, however, a smaller tree, and
less abundant.

_Abies subalpina_ is of little value as a timber tree; the wood is
soft and spongy, from which circumstance it is locally known as
“Pumpkin pine”, but the more appropriate name of “White balsam” is also
applied to distinguish it from _A. concolor_, which is called “Black
balsam”. This species grows high up on the mountains and plateaus,
generally from nine to eleven thousand feet. It is very tall, often
attaining a height of 80 or 90 feet. Its trunk is straight and limbless
for a great distance. This species has been but little known to
botanists heretofore, from the fact that it has been confounded with
_A. grandis_, but Mr. Engelmann decides, from specimens collected by
Mr. L. F. Ward, that it must be considered as a new species.

_Abies amabilis_ and _Abies grandis_, spruces resembling the “White
balsam” in their general appearance, occur in the Wasatch Mountains,
but are not abundant.

_Juniperus Californicus_, var. _Utahensis_, or White cedar, is very
abundant over the foot hills and lower mountain slopes, and, like the
piñon pine, is much used for fire wood. It has also the characteristic
durability of the junipers, and makes excellent fence posts. It grows
low, is diffusely branched, and is valueless for milling purposes.

_Juniperus Virginiana_, or Red cedar, is also found in this region. Its
habitat is near the streams and at moderate altitudes. It is said to
lack the durable qualities for which it is noted at the east, and which
seem to be transferred to the other species.

_Populus angustifolia_, or Cottonwood, is the chief representative of
the poplar family in this region. The people of the country distinguish
two varieties or species, the Black cottonwood and Yellow cottonwood.
The former is said to be useless for lumber, while the latter has some
slight value. It forms no part of the forest proper, but fringes the
lower reaches of the streams, rarely occurring higher in altitude than
6,000 feet. Its rapid growth and its proximity to the irrigable lands
make it valuable for fuel, although it is not of superior quality.

_Populus monilifera_, the Cottonwood of the Mississippi Valley, grows
with the above in the southern part of the Territory, and has about the
same value.

_Populus tremuloides_, or Aspen, is found about the moist places on
the mountain sides, and often borders the glades of the plateaus. The
long poles which it furnishes are sometimes used for fencing purposes;
it makes a fair fuel; the quantity found is small.

_Acer grandidentata_, a species of Maple, abounds at the north as a
bush, and rare individuals attain the rank of small trees. Its wood is
highly prized for the repair of machinery, but is too scarce to be of
great service.

_Negundo aceroides_, or Box elder, is found along the water courses in
many places. Sometimes along the larger streams it attains a height
of 25 or 30 feet. It makes a good fuel, but is found in such small
quantities as to be scarcely worthy of mention.

_Quercus undulata_, or White oak, is very abundant as a bush, and
sometimes attains a diameter of six or eight inches. It is too rare as
a tree to deserve more than mere mention.

_Betula occidentalis_, a species of Birch, grows about the upland
springs and creeks. Its habit is bushlike, but it often has a height of
20 feet, and it makes a tolerable fuel.

The Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) and two species of Ash (_Fraxinus
coriacea_ and _F. anomala_) grow as small trees, but are exceedingly
rare.

The above is a nearly complete list of the forest trees of Utah. The
number of species is very small; aridity on the one hand, and cold on
the other, successfully repel the deciduous trees. The oak, hickory,
ash, etc., necessary to such a variety of industries, especially the
manufacture of agricultural machinery, must all be imported from more
humid regions. The coniferous trees, growing high among the rocks of
the upper regions and beaten by the cold storms of a long winter, are
ragged and gnarled, and the lumber they afford is not of the finest
quality; and the finishing lumber for architectural purposes and
furniture must also be imported from more humid regions.


                     IRRIGABLE AND PASTURE LANDS.


                          UINTA-WHITE BASIN.

The Uinta-White Valley is a deep basin inclosed by the Uinta Mountains
on the north and the Tavaputs highlands on the south. Eastward the
basin extends beyond the limits of Utah; westward the Uinta Mountains
and West Tavaputs Plateau nearly inclose the head of the Uinta
Valley, but the space between is filled with a section of the Wasatch
Mountains. From the north, west, and south the Uinta Valley inclines
gently toward the Duchesne River. Many streams come down from the north
and from the south. In the midst of the valley there are some small
stretches of bad lands.

Along the lower part of the Uinta and the Duchesne, and the lower
courses of nearly all the minor streams, large tracts of arable land
are found, and from these good selections can be made, sufficient to
occupy in their service all the water of the Uinta and its numerous
branches. The agricultural portion of the valley is sufficiently low to
have a genial climate, and all the crops of the northern States can be
cultivated successfully.

Stretching back on every hand from the irrigable districts, the little
hills, valleys, and slopes are covered with grasses, which are found
more and more luxuriant in ascending the plateaus and mountains, until
the peaks are reached, and these are naked.

On the north of the Uinta, and still west of the Green, the basin is
drained by some small streams, the chief of which is Ashley Fork.
Except near the lower course of Ashley Fork, this section of country
is exceedingly broken; the bad lands and hogbacks are severed by deep,
precipitous cañons.

From the east the White River enters the Green. Some miles up the
White, a cañon is reached, and the country on either hand, stretching
back for a long distance, is composed of rugged barren lands. But
between the highlands and the Green, selections of good land can be
made, and the waters of the White can be used to serve them. From the
White, south to the East Tavaputs Plateau, the grass lands steadily
increase in value to the summit of the Brown Cliffs. Many good springs
are found in this region, and eventually this will be a favorite
district for pasturage farms.

Fine pasturage farms may be made on the southern slope of the Yampa
Plateau, with summer pasturage above and winter pasturage below.
Altogether, the Uinta-White Basin is one of the favored districts of
the west, with great numbers of cool springs issuing from the mountains
and hills; many beautiful streams of clear, cold water; a large amount
of arable land from which irrigable tracts may be selected; an
abundance of fuel in the piñon pines and cedars of the foot hills; and
building timber farther back on the mountains and plateaus.

The whole amount of irrigable land is estimated at 280,320 acres.


                           THE CAÑON LANDS.

South of the Tavaputs highlands, and east and south of the High
Plateaus, the Cañon Lands of Utah are found. The lower course of the
Grand, the lower course of the Green, and a large section of the
Colorado cuts through them, and the streams that head in the High
Plateaus run across them. All the rivers, all the creeks, all the
brooks, run in deep gorges--narrow, winding cañons, with their floors
far below the general surface of the country. Many long lines of cliffs
are found separating higher from lower districts. The hills are bad
lands and alcove lands.

The Sierra la Sal and Henry Mountains are great masses of lava, wrapped
in sedimentary beds, which are cut with many dikes. South of the High
Plateaus great numbers of cinder cones are found.

On the Grand River there are some patches of land which can be served
by the waters of that river. On the Green, in what is known as Gunnison
Valley, patches of good land can be selected and redeemed by the waters
of that river.

Castle Valley is abruptly walled on the west, north, and northeast
by towering cliffs. East of its southern portion a region of towers,
buttes, crags, and rocklands is found, known as the San Rafael Swell.
In this valley there is a large amount of good land, and the numerous
streams which run across it can all be used in irrigation. Farther
south, on the Fremont, Escalante, and Paria, some small tracts of
irrigable land are found, and on the Kanab and Virgin there are limited
areas which can be used for agricultural purposes. But all that portion
of the cañon country south of Castle Valley and westward to the Beaver
Dam Mountains is exceedingly desolate; naked rocks are found, refusing
footing even to dwarfed cedars and piñon pines; the springs are
infrequent and yield no bountiful supply of water; its patches of grass
land are widely scattered, and it has but little value for agricultural
purposes.

A broad belt of coal land extends along the base of the cliffs from
the Tavaputs Plateau on the northeast to the Colob Plateau on the
southwest. At the foot of the cliffs which separate the lowlands
from the highlands, many pasturage farms may be made; the grass of
the lowlands can be used in the winter, and that of the highlands in
summer, and everywhere good springs of water may be found.

The extent of the irrigable lands in this district is estimated at
213,440 acres.


                       THE SEVIER LAKE DISTRICT.

This district embraces all the country drained by the waters which flow
into the Sevier Lake, and the areas drained by many small streams which
are quickly lost in the desert. The greater part of the irrigable land
lies in the long, narrow valleys walled by the plateaus, especially
along the Sevier, Otter Creek, and the San Pete. The arable lands
greatly exceed the irrigable, and good selections may be made. Most of
the irrigable lands are already occupied by farmers, and the waters
are used in their service. In the valleys among the high plateaus, and
along their western border, the grasses are good, and many pasturage
farms may be selected, and the springs and little streams that come
from the plateau cliffs will afford an abundant supply of water. The
summits of the plateaus will afford an abundant summer pasturage.

Westward among the Basin Ranges feeble and infrequent springs are
found; there is little timber of value, but the lower mountains and
foot hills have cedars and piñon pines that would be valuable for fuel
if nearer to habitations. The cedar and piñon hills bear scant grasses.
The valleys are sometimes covered with sage, sometimes with grease
wood, sometimes quite naked.

The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 101,700
acres.


                     THE GREAT SALT LAKE DISTRICT.

This district has already become famous in the history of western
agriculture, for here the Latter Day Saints first made “a home in the
valleys among the mountains”.

The rivers and creeks bring the waters down from the Wasatch Mountains
on the east. The high valleys among the mountains have to some extent
been cultivated, and will hereafter be used more than at present for
meadow purposes. In general the people have selected their lands low
down, in order to obtain a more genial climate. Yet the irrigable
lands are not very far from the mountains, as a glance at the map will
reveal. Utah Lake constitutes a fine natural reservoir and discharges
its waters into Salt Lake by the Jordan, and from its channel the
waters may be conducted over a large area of country. The waters of
the Weber and Bear Rivers, now flowing idly into the lake, will soon
be spread over extensive valleys, and the area of agricultural lands
be greatly increased. Westward the influence of the mountains in
the precipitation of moisture is soon lost, and beyond the lake an
irreclaimable desert is found.

Near to the mountains the grass lands are fair but they have been
overpastured and greatly injured. Out among the Basin Ranges little
grass land of value is found.

The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 837,660
acres.

The lofty zone of mountains and table lands with arms stretching
eastward, with its culminating points among summer frosts and winter
storms, is the central region about which the human interests of the
country gather. The timber, the water, the agricultural lands, the
pasturage lands, to a large extent the coal and iron mines, and to
some extent the silver mines, are all found in these higher regions or
clinging closely to them.


                               GRASSES.

While the forests present but a few species of trees, the pasturage
lands present a great variety of grasses. Between fifty and sixty
species have been collected by parties connected with the survey
under the direction of the writer, and these are distributed among
twenty-six or twenty-seven genera. Most of them belong to the mountains
or highlands, and are rich and sweet. Nearly all of them are bunch
grasses. The spaces by which the bunches are separated are bare or
occupied with weeds and shrubs. This is often the case on the mountains
and high plateaus. A continuous turf is never seen. Where a sward is
seen in moist places, about springs and in glades, the verdure consists
in chief part of other plants, sedges and reeds.

Of the bunch grasses the _Poas_ are by far the most abundant. Of this
genus nine species were obtained, but this gives an inadequate idea
of the variety. Of one species alone Dr. Vasey has enumerated nine
varieties, and advances the opinion that several will be eventually
considered as species. They are found at all altitudes, mostly on
the slopes. Perhaps the most important single species in that region
is the _Bouteloua oligostachya_, the so called “Circle grass”. It
has a peculiar habit of forming partial or complete circles on the
ground, with areas of bare ground in the center. These turfy rings
are comparatively narrow, often not more than three or four inches
in width, while the circles are from two to four feet in diameter.
The form is not always circular, but often assumes irregular shapes.
The grass is sweet and nutritious, but its chief value consists in
its power to resist inclement seasons, as it cures standing, like the
“Buffalo grass” of the Great Plains.

Another very valuable grass is the _Eriocoma cuspidata_, which is known
by the name of “Sand grass”. It grows at much lower altitudes, and is
properly a valley grass. It has a solitary, scattering habit, or at
least the bunches are small and turfless. Horses and cattle select it
with care from among other species, and it seems especially nutritious.
It has a large black grain, which is often collected by the Indians for
food.

A remarkable lowland grass is the Vilfa (_Sporobolis airoides_). It has
something of the appearance of “Hair grass”, with a widely spreading
purple panicle and large perennial roots. The old culms persist at
the base, and with the new ones form thick and almost woody tufts.
These tufts are scattered about in the strongly alkaline soils of the
river bottoms, and are extensively pastured by large herds of cattle.
A marked characteristic of this grass, common, however, to several
others, is its power to take up saline matter, which gives to the whole
plant a salty taste. The effect of this upon the stock feeding upon it
is doubtful, judging from the conflicting reports of the inhabitants;
but it seems that when cattle are first pastured upon it they are
injured by the excess of salt, but that after a time they cease to be
injured by it. All of the so called “Salt grasses” are cropped to a
greater or less extent by stock.

The chief grasses of the elevated timber tracts belong to the genus
_Bromus_. When young they are good, but they become stale and valueless
with age. The only grass that can compare with those of the eastern
meadows, and which forms a continuous sod and covers the ground with a
uniform growth, is a variety of _Aira cæspitosa_, a red topped grass,
which was found surrounding the small lakes of the mountains and
plateaus, at elevations of 11,000 feet and over. This is an exceedingly
beautiful grass as it waves in the gentle breezes that fan the lakelets
of the upper regions.

_Phragmites communis_, the so called “Cane”, is common in the glades
and sloughs; and, though large and rather dry, it furnishes the only
verdure obtainable for months in severe seasons.

Much of the hay and pasturage of the country, which is there called
grass, consists of plants of different families. Notable among these
are several species of _Carex_ (sedges), particularly _Carex Jamesii_,
which springs up wherever artificial meadows are made by the system
of flooding commonly practiced. The plants have large, strong,
subterranean root-stocks, forming a tangled mass which, when once
established, cannot easily be eradicated. The leaves are broad and
grasslike, and, though coarse and comparatively insipid, form a good
sward which can be mowed--a rare condition in that country; and hence
such meadows are highly prized.

_Juncus Balticus_, var. _montanus_, which has a blue color, terete
culms, and tough fiber, and which the settlers call “Wire grass”, is
very abundant. It is cut for hay, and is said to serve a good purpose
as such.

There are some shrubs that furnish excellent browsing, among which,
perhaps, the grease wood takes the first rank. The sage brush,
_Artemisia_, on the contrary, is seldom resorted to. There is one shrub
to which great virtues are ascribed which may be mentioned in this
connection. This is the _Cercocarpus parvifolius_, which occupies the
mountain sides for a wide zone of altitude. The foliage, though not
strictly evergreen, remains most of the winter, and is said to afford
the only food for horses and cattle that can be obtained during some
seasons of deep snows. This shrub is a congener of the well known
mountain mahogany, _C. ledifolius_, which grows at higher altitudes,
and has truly evergreen foliage.

The small perennial plant _Eurotia lanata_, or “White sage”, found
growing in the valleys and plains, is held in high esteem as winter
food for stock.

The growth of grass, even on the plateaus, is often scant; on the foot
hills it becomes less, and farther away from the highlands it still
diminishes in quantity until absolute deserts are found. Most of the
grasses seem to protect themselves from the great aridity by growing
in bunches. They appear to produce proportionately a greater amount
of seeds than the grasses of the Humid Region, and their nutritive
qualities, especially in winter, seems to be due thereto. In general,
the grasses seem to have large, strong stems, and are not so easily
broken down as those of the Humid Region, and the rains and snows by
which they would be so broken down are infrequent. Again, for these
reasons, the grasses, standing long after they are cut by frosts, cure
themselves, forming thereby a winter pasturage.

The irrigable lands of Utah will be discussed more thoroughly and
in detail in subsequent chapters by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who has made
the Great Salt Lake District his study; by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who
has prepared the chapter on the irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake
Drainage, and by Prof. A. H. Thompson, who has written the chapter on
the irrigable lands of the Colorado Drainage.

The following is a table of the irrigable lands, arranged by districts,
as discussed in the present chapter. The table is compiled from those
presented in subsequent chapters.


             _Table of irrigable lands in Utah Territory._

 +---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+
 |                                       |      |       | Cultivated   |
 |                                       |      |       |   in 1877.   |
 |                                       |      |       +------+-------+
 |                                       |Square|       |Square|       |
 |                                       |miles.| Acres.|miles.| Acres.|
 +---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+
 |   _Salt Lake drainage system._        |      |       |      |       |
 |Base of Uinta Mountains                |   2.5|  1,600|  1.6 |  1,024|
 |Yellow Creek and Duck Creek            |   2.0|  1,280|  --  |   --  |
 |Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek    |  69.0| 44,160|  9.6 |  6,344|
 |Shores of Bear Lake                    |   9.0|  5,760|  5.0 |  3,200|
 |Cache Valley                           | 250.0|160,000| 50.0 | 32,000|
 |Bear River Delta, Malade Valley,       |      |       |      |       |
 |  and Connor’s Spring Valley           | 218.0|139,520| 22.0 | 14,080|
 |Box Elder Valley (Mantua)              |   1.5|    960|  1.1 |    704|
 |Weber Valley from Peoa to Hennefer,    |      |       |      |       |
 |  inclusive                            |   9.0|  5,760|  8.5 |  5,440|
 |Parley’s Park                          |   3.2|  2,048|  3.2 |  2,048|
 |Uptown                                 |   2.0|  1,280|   .5 |    320|
 |Echo Creek                             |   0.9|    576|   .3 |    192|
 |Croydon                                |   0.5|    320|   .4 |    256|
 |Round Valley                           |   0.5|    320|   .5 |    320|
 |Morgan Valley                          |   6.9|  4,416|  6.0 |  3,840|
 |Ogden Valley                           |   8.0|  5,120|  4.1 |  2,624|
 |Weber Delta Plain                      | 219.0|140,160| 91.0 | 58,240|
 |Kamas Prairie                          |  13.0|  8,320|  4.7 |  3,003|
 |Hailstone Ranche and vicinity          |   2.0|  1,280|  2.0 |  1,280|
 |Provo Valley                           |  16.0| 10,240|  6.0 |  3,840|
 |Waldsburg                              |   2.0|  1,280|  2.0 |  1,280|
 |Utah Valley                            | 190.0|121,600| 59.0 | 37,760|
 |Salt Creek                             |  16.0| 10,240| 14.0 |  8,960|
 |Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful  |      |       |      |       |
 |  and Centerville)                     | 192.0|122,880| 89.8 | 57,412|
 |Tooele Valley                          |  45.0| 28,800|  5.4 |  3,456|
 |Cedar Fort                             |   1.5|  1,000|  1.2 |    800|
 |Fairfield                              |   1.5|    900|  1.2 |    800|
 |Vernon Creek                           |   2.0|  1,200|  1.5 |    900|
 |Saint Johns                            |   1.1|    700|  1.1 |    700|
 |East Cañon Creek (Rush Valley)         |   1.5|    900|   .8 |    500|
 |Stockton                               |    .3|    500|   .3 |    200|
 |Skull Valley                           |   4.0|  2,500|  1.6 |  1,000|
 |Government Creek                       |    .5|    300|   .5 |    300|
 |Willow Spring, T. 10 S., R. 17 W       |    .4|    250|   .4 |    250|
 |Redding Spring                         |    .1|     50|  --  |     20|
 |Dodoquibe Spring                       |    .1|     50|  --  |   --  |
 |Deep Creek, T. 9 S., R. 19 W           |   1.6|  1,000|   .8 |    500|
 |Pilot Peak                             |    .3|    200|  --  |   --  |
 |Grouse Valley                          |   2.4|  1,500|   .8 |    500|
 |Owl Spring                             |    .1|     10|  --  |   --  |
 |Rosebud Creek                          |    .6|    400|   .2 |    150|
 |Muddy Creek, T. 10 N., R. 15 W         |    .5|    300|   .5 |    300|
 |Park Valley                            |   3.5|  2,300|  1.1 |    700|
 |Widow Spring                           |    .1|     20|  --  |   --  |
 |Indian Creek, T. 13 N., R. 12 W        |    .2|    100|  --  |   --  |
 |East base Clear Creek Mountains        |    .2|    150|  --  |      5|
 |Cazure Creek                           |    .3|    200|  --  |   --  |
 |Clear Creek, T. 15 N., R. 12 W         |    .3|    200|   .1 |     80|
 |Junction Creek                         |    .7|    500|  --  |   --  |
 |Goose Creek                            |    .3|    200|  --  |   --  |
 |Pilot Spring                           |    .1|     15|  --  |   --  |
 |Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek)          |   4.5|  3,000|   .5 |    300|
 |Crystal Springs, T. 14 N., R. 7 W      |    .2|    100|   .1 |     60|
 |Antelope Springs, T. 9 N., R. 6 W      |    .1|     30|  --  |     30|
 |Hanzel Spring                          |    .1|     15|  --  |     15|
 |Promontory, east base                  |    .9|    600|   .5 |    300|
 |Blue Creek                             |   2.3|  1,500|  --  |   --  |
 |Brackish Springs, near Blue Creek      |   1.5|  1,000|   .3 |    200|
 |Antelope Island                        |    .1|     50|  --  |   --  |
 |                                       |      |       |      |       |
 | _The valley of the Sevier River._     |      |       |      |       |
 |                                       |      |       |      |       |
 |San Pete Valley                        |  31.2| 20,000| 17.0 | 10,880|
 |Gunnison                               |   6.2|  4,000| 44.4 |  2,800|
 |Sevier Valley, above Gunnison          |  54.7| 35,000| 16.5 | 10,500|
 |Circle Valley                          |   6.3|  4,000|  1.1 |    750|
 |Panguitch and above                    |  10.9|  7,000|  2.8 |  1,800|
 |                                       |      |       |      |       |
 | _Irrigable lands of the desert        |      |       |      |       |
 | drainage of southwestern Utah._       |      |       |      |       |
 |                                       |      |       |      |       |
 |Cherry Creek                           |    .2|    100|  --  |   --  |
 |Judd Creek                             |    .2|    100|  --  |   --  |
 |Levan                                  |   3.1|  2,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Scipio                                 |   2.6|  1,700|  --  |   --  |
 |Holden                                 |   1.6|  1,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Filmore and Oak Creek                  |   5.5|  3,500|  --  |   --  |
 |Meadow Creek                           |   1.9|  1,200|  --  |   --  |
 |Kanosh                                 |   3.1|  2,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Beaver Creek and tributaries           |  21.9| 14,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Paragoonah                             |   1.6|  1,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Parowan                                |   1.6|  1,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Summit                                 |    .6|    400|  --  |   --  |
 |Cedar City, Iron City, & Fort Hamilton |   3.6|  2,300|  --  |   --  |
 |Mountain Meadows                       |    .3|    200|  --  |   --  |
 |Pinto                                  |    .3|    200|  --  |   --  |
 |Hebron                                 |   1.6|  1,000|  --  |   --  |
 |                                       |      |       |      |       |
 |  _Irrigable lands of                  |      |       |      |       |
 |   the Colorado drainage._             |      |       |      |       |
 |                                       |      |       |      |       |
 |Virgin River                           |  30  | 19,200| 11.0 |  7,040|
 |Kanab Creek                            |   2.5|  1,600|  1.1 |    700|
 |Paria River                            |   6  |  3,840|  --  |   --  |
 |Escalante River                        |   6  |  3,840|  --  |   --  |
 |Fremont River                          |  38  | 24,320|  --  |   --  |
 |San Rafael River                       | 175  |112,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Price River                            |  11  |  7,040|  --  |   --  |
 |Minnie Maud Creek                      |   3  |  1,920|  --  |   --  |
 |Uinta River                            | 285  |182,400|   .5 |    300|
 |Ashley Fork                            |  25  | 16,000|   .1 |     50|
 |Henrys Fork                            |  10  |  6,400|  --  |   --  |
 |White River                            |  75  | 48,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Green River                            |      |       |      |       |
 |  Browns Park                          |  10  |  6,400|  --  |   --  |
 |  Below Split Mountain Cañon           |  50  | 32,000|  --  |   --  |
 |  Gunnison Valley                      |  25  | 16,000|  --  |   --  |
 |Grand River                            |  40  | 25,600|  --  |   --  |
 |                                       +------+-------+------+-------+
 |    Total                             2,262.4 1,447,920  --      --  |
 +---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+




                             CHAPTER VII.

           IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

                           BY G. K. GILBERT.


The field of my work in 1877 included so large a portion of the
drainage basin of Great Salt Lake and so little else that it has
proved most convenient to report on all of that basin, or rather on
that part of it which lies within the Territory of Utah. In so doing,
I have depended, for nearly all the lands draining to Utah Lake, upon
the data gathered by Mr. Renshawe, of this survey, in connection with
his topographic work. The remainder of the district, with very slight
exception, I have myself visited.

The officials and citizens of the Territory have all freely contributed
such information as I have sought, and have aided me in many ways; but
I have been especially indebted to Mr. Martineau and Mr. Barton, the
surveyors of Cache and Davis Counties; to Mr. Fox, the territorial
surveyor; and to the Hon. A. P. Rockwood, the statistician of the
Deseret Agricultural Society. Mr. Rockwood prepared a statistical
report on the Territory in 1875, which has been of great service to me,
and he has kindly placed at my disposal the manuscript details of his
work as well as the published summary.


                  METHOD AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION.

Where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, the extent of land that
can be put to agricultural use is determined by the relation of the
quantity of available water to the quantity of available land. There is
a certain amount of water needed by a unit of land, and wherever the
land susceptible of cultivation requires more water than is obtainable,
only a portion of the land can be utilized. But there is also a limit
to the amount of water that can be profitably employed on a unit of
land, and where the supply of water is in excess of the quantity
required by such lands as are properly disposed to receive and use it,
only a portion of the water can be utilized. In order to ascertain,
therefore, the extent of agricultural land in a given district, it is
necessary to make a measurement of land, or a measurement of water, or
perhaps both, and it is necessary to know the amount of water demanded
by a unit area of the land under consideration.

The proper quota of water for irrigation depends on climate and
soil and subsoil, as well as on the nature of the crop, and varies
indefinitely under diverse conditions. As a rule, the best soils
require least water; those which demand most are light sands on one
hand and adhesive clays on the other. Where the subsoil is open and
dry, more water is needed than where it is moist or impervious.
Wherever there is an impervious substratum, the subsoil accumulates
moisture and the demand for water diminishes from year to year. These
and other considerations so complicate the subject that it is difficult
to generalize, and I have found it more practicable to use in my
investigations certain limiting quantities than to attempt in every
case a diagnosis of the local conditions. By comparing the volumes
of certain streams in Utah, that are now used in irrigation to their
full capacity, with the quantities of land that they serve, I have
found that one hundred acres of dry bench land (_i. e._, land with
a deep, dry, open subsoil) will not yield a full crop of grain with
less than one cubic foot of water per second, and this under the most
favorable climate of the Territory. Where the climate is drier, a
greater quantity is required. Where there is a moist subsoil, a less
may suffice.

In the drier districts, where the streams are small, they are usually
employed upon the dry benches, because these are most convenient to
their sources; and it is very rarely the case that their utility is
increased by the presence of a moist subsoil. But it is also in the
drier districts that the extent of agricultural land is ascertained by
the measurement of streams; and hence there is little danger of error
if we use in all cases the criterion that applies to dry bench land. In
the discussion of the lands of northern Utah, I have therefore assigned
to each cubic foot per second of perennial flow the reclamation of one
hundred acres of land, with the belief that the consequent estimates
would never underrate, though they might sometimes exaggerate, the
agricultural resources of the districts examined.

In the measurement of streams the following method was employed: A
place was sought where the channel was straight for a distance equal
to several times the width of the stream, and where for some distance
there was little change in the dimensions of the cross section.
Measurement was then made of the width (in feet), of the mean depth (in
feet), and of the maximum surface current (in feet per second). The
mean current was assumed to be four-fifths of the maximum current; and
four-fifths of the product of the three measured elements was taken to
give the flow in cubic feet per second. This method of measurement is
confessedly crude, and is liable to considerable error, but with the
time at my disposal no better was practicable, and its shortcomings
are less to be regretted on account of the variability of the streams
themselves.

All of the streams of Utah that flow from mountain slopes are subject
to great fluctuations. They derive a large share of their water from
the melting of snow, and not only does the melting vary as to its
rapidity and season, but the quantity of snow to be melted varies
greatly from year to year. A single measurement standing alone is quite
inadequate to determine the capacity of a stream for irrigation, and as
it was rarely practicable to visit a stream more than once, an endeavor
was made to supplement the single determination by collating the
judgments of residents as to the relative flow of the several creeks
and rivers at other seasons and in other years. In districts where
the water is nearly all used and its division and distribution are
supervised by “watermasters”, those functionaries are able to afford
information of a tolerably definite character, but in other districts
it was necessary to make great allowance for errors of judgment.
Certainly, that element of my estimates which is based on inquiries
cannot claim so small a probability of error as the element based on
measurements.

Streams that are formed in high mountains reach their highest stage
in June, and their lowest in September or October. Streams from low
mountains attain their maxima in April or May, and reach their low
stages by August or September. In the low valleys the irrigation
of wheat and other small grains begins about the first of June, and
continues until the latter part of July. The irrigation of corn and
potatoes begins in the early part of July, and continues until the
middle of August. In the middle of July all of the land calls for
water, and if the supply is sufficient at that time, it is sure to
meet all demands at other times. It will be convenient to call that
time _the critical season_. In the higher agricultural valleys corn
and potatoes are not grown, but the irrigation of small grains and hay
is carried on from the middle of June to the middle or latter part of
August. Through all this time the volume of the streams is diminishing,
and if they fail at all it is at the end of the season. The critical
season for the higher valleys is about the middle of August.

In order to estimate properly the agricultural capability of a stream,
it is necessary to ascertain its volume at its critical season. In the
investigations of the past summer, this was accomplished by direct
measurement in but a limited district. For the remainder of my field of
operations I was compelled to depend on the estimates of others as to
the relation between the volumes of streams at the time of measurement
and at the critical season.

As will appear in the sequel, the uncertainty attaching to these
determinations of volumes affects the grand total in but small degree.
The utility of the large streams is not limited by their volumes
so much as by the available land suitable for overflow, a quantity
susceptible of more accurate determination, and the extent of land
irrigable by the large streams is many times greater than that
irrigable by the small.

No streams are used throughout the year, and few can be fully utilized
during the spring flood. Wherever it is practicable to store up
the surplus water until the time of need, the irrigable area is
correspondingly increased. Enough has been accomplished in a few
localities to demonstrate the feasibility of reclaiming thousands of
acres by the aid of reservoirs, and eventually this will be done; but
except in a small way it is not a work of the immediate future. For
many years to come capital will find greater remuneration in taking
possession of the large rivers.

In estimating the agricultural resources, it was, of course, necessary
to take account of all future increase, and wherever storage by
reservoirs seemed practicable a rough estimate was made of the extent
of land that could be thus reclaimed.

There are a few restricted areas in Utah that yield remunerative crops
to the farmer without the artificial application of water. Their
productiveness is doubled or trebled by the use of water, and so far as
they are susceptible of irrigation they need not be distinguished from
the irrigable lands. When the greater rivers shall have been diverted
to the work of irrigation, nearly all such areas will be supplied with
water, but a few will not. The endeavor has been to include the latter
as well as the former in the estimate of the agricultural land.

The term “agricultural land” is construed to include that which is used
or may be used for the production of hay as well as that cultivated by
the plow. Most irrigable lands may be utilized in either way, but there
are some tracts which, on account of the severity of the climate or the
impurity of the water, are adapted to the growth of grass only.

I have sought in the foregoing remarks to set forth as briefly as
possible the methods and scope of my investigations, and to indicate
the degree of accuracy to be anticipated in the resulting estimates. To
these estimates we will now proceed.


                   IRRIGATION BY THE LARGE STREAMS.

Three rivers enter Great Salt Lake--the Bear, the Weber, and the
Jordan, and upon their water will ultimately depend the major part of
the agriculture of Utah. By a curious coincidence, the principal heads
of the three rivers lie close together in the western end of the Uinta
range of mountains.

       *       *       *       *       *

The _Bear River_ runs northward at first, and a little beyond the
foot of the mountains enters the Territory of Wyoming. Swerving to
the left, it passes again into Utah, and swerving again to the right
returns to Wyoming. From Wyoming it runs northward into Idaho, and
after making a great detour to the north returns on a more westerly
line to Utah. It reënters in Cache Valley, and passes thence by a
short cañon to its delta plain on the northwestern border of Great
Salt Lake. Its principal tributaries are received in Idaho and in
Cache Valley. Bordering upon the upper reaches of the river, there
is little land available for cultivation, and the climate forbids
any crop but hay. I am informed that the meadow land there somewhat
exceeds two square miles in area. Where the river next enters Utah it
runs for 30 miles through an open valley, the valley that contains the
towns of Woodruff and Randolph. At the head it passes through a short
defile, and can readily be thrown into two canals at such a level as
to command the greater part of the valley, bringing about 90 square
miles of land “under ditch”. For the irrigation of this amount the
river is sufficient, but if the necessary water were thus appropriated,
too little would remain for the use of the lands which border the
contiguous portions of the river in Wyoming. These have equal claim
to the use of the river, and a proper distribution of the water would
assign it to the reclamation of the best selection of land in the two
Territories. I estimate that such an adjustment would permit the Utah
valley to irrigate 45 square miles with the water of the river. The
minor streams of the valley will serve, in addition, 24 square miles.
The climate is unfavorable to grain and the chief crop must be of hay.

Where the river next enters Utah it has acquired so great a volume that
it is impracticable to make use of its entire amount. The portion of
Cache Valley which lies in Utah can nearly all be irrigated. What is
on the left bank of Bear River can be served by Logan River and other
tributaries without calling on the main stream. The right bank will
have to be served in connection with an adjacent tract in Idaho, and by
a canal lying entirely in that Territory. The expense will be great,
but not greater than the benefit will warrant. I estimate that the Utah
division of Cache Valley will ultimately contain 250 square miles of
irrigated land. The climate admits of the growth of wheat, oats, and
corn, and such fruits as the apple, pear, and the apricot.

In leaving Cache Valley the river tumbles through a short, narrow
cañon, and then enters the plain that borders the lake. The limestone
walls of the cañon offer a secure foundation for the head works to a
system of canals to supply the plain. Here, again, a large outlay is
necessary, but the benefits will be more than commensurate. Not only
will the entire alluvial plain of the Bear be served, but the valley of
the Malade, as far as Oregon Springs, and the valley which extends from
Little Mountain to Connor’s Spring. After deducting from these areas
the land along the margin of the lake that is too saline to afford hope
of reclamation, there remains a tract of 214 square miles. One-tenth of
this is now in use, being in part watered by Box Elder Creek and other
small creeks, and in part cultivated without irrigation.

In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of that
portion of the Bear River drainage basin which lies in Utah:

  +------------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |                                    |     Square miles--       |
  |               Tracts.              +-------------+------------+
  |                                    |  Cultivated | Cultivable.|
  |                                    |   in 1877.  |            |
  +------------------------------------+-------------+------------+
  |Base of Uinta Mountains             |       1.6   |       2.5  |
  |Yellow Creek and Duck Creek         |       0.0   |       2.0  |
  |Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek |       9.6   |      69.0  |
  |Shores of Bear Lake                 |       5.0   |       9.0  |
  |Cache Valley                        |      50.0   |     250.0  |
  |Delta Plain, Malade Valley,         |             |            |
  |  and Connor’s Spring Valley        |      22.0   |     218.0  |
  |Box Elder Valley (Mantua)           |       1.1   |       1.5  |
  |                                    |-------------+------------|
  |        Total                       |      89.3   |     552.0  |
  +------------------------------------+-------------+------------+

The entire area of the Bear River District is about 3,620 square miles,
2¹⁄₂ per cent. being now under cultivation, and over 15 per cent.
susceptible of cultivation.

       *       *       *       *       *

The _Weber River_ runs with a general northwesterly course from the
Uinta Mountains to Great Salt Lake, entering the latter at the middle
of its eastern shore. The Ogden is its only important tributary. At
the foot of the mountains it enters Kamas Prairie, in which it can be
made to irrigate a few square miles. Thence to Hennefer, a distance
of 30 miles, it is continuously bordered by a strip of farming land
about one-third of a mile broad. Then it passes a series of three
close cañons--in the intervals of which are Round Valley, with a few
acres of land, and Morgan Valley, with 7 square miles--and emerges
upon its delta plain. Within this plain are no less than 219 square
miles of farming land, of which about two-fifths are now in use. A part
is unwatered, a part is watered by the Ogden River and by a number
of creeks, and the remainder is watered by the Weber. To serve the
higher portions of the plain a great outlay would be required, and I
am of opinion that the highest levels cannot profitably be supplied.
Still, a great extension of the irrigated area is inevitable, and I
anticipate that when the water of the Weber has been carried as far as
is economically practicable, not more than 15 miles of the plain will
remain unsupplied. Deducting this amount, as well as the area served
by the minor streams and springs of the plain, there remain 185 square
miles dependent on the Weber and Ogden Rivers. The Ogden River has also
to water 8 square miles in its upper course, and the Weber 34, making
a total of 227 square miles dependent on the two streams. Whether they
are competent to serve so great an area may well be questioned. On the
8th of October I found in the Ogden River, at the mouth of its cañon, a
flow of 115 feet per second, and three days later the Weber showed 386
feet. There was almost no irrigation in progress at that time, and the
total of 501 feet included practically all the water of the streams. To
irrigate 227 square miles, the rivers need to furnish at the critical
season (in this case about the 10th of July) 1,450 feet, or nearly
three times their October volume. Of the ratio between their July and
October volumes I have no direct means of judging, and the problem is
too nice a one to be trusted to the estimates of residents unaided
by measurements; but indirectly a partial judgment may be reached by
comparing the rivers with certain tributaries of the Jordan which were
twice observed. City Creek was measured on the 5th of July, and again
on 1st of September, and Emigration and Parley creeks were measured
July 5th, and again September 3rd. These streams rise in mountains that
are about as high as those which furnish the Weber and its branches,
and their conditions are generally parallel. Their measured volumes
were as follows:

  +------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |                        | I.--July volume, in            |
  |                        |   feet per second.             |
  |                        |      +-------------------------+
  |                        |      | II.--September volume,  |
  |   Streams.             |      |    in feet per          |
  |                        |      |    second.              |
  |                        |      |    +--------------------+
  |                        |      |    | III.--Ratio of I to|
  |                        |      |    |     II.            |
  +------------------------+------+----+--------------------+
  | City Creek             |  119 | 32 |        3.7         |
  | Emigration Creek       |   24 |  8 |        3.0         |
  | Parley’s Creek         |   72 | 29 |        2.5         |
  +------------------------+------+----+--------------------+

The comparison is not decisive, but it seems to show that the problem
demands for its solution a careful examination at the “critical
season.” If the Ogden and Weber had been measured in September, as
were the other streams, their volumes would probably have been found
less than in October; and this consideration appears to throw the
balance of evidence against the competence of the rivers to water the
contiguous lands.

But if their incompetence shall be proved, it does not follow that the
lands must go dry. The Bear at the north and the Jordan at the south
have each a great volume of surplus water, and either supply can be led
without serious engineering difficulty to the lower levels of the delta
of the Weber.

In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of the
Weber drainage basin:

  +------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |                              |      Square miles--      |
  |           Tracts.            +------------+-------------+
  |                              | Cultivated | Cultivable. |
  |                              |   in 1877. |             |
  +------------------------------+------------+-------------+
  |Kamas Prairie (northern edge) |      .7    |     3.0     |
  |Peoa to Hennefer, inclusive   |     8.5    |     9.0     |
  |Parley’s Park                 |     3.2    |     3.2     |
  |Uptown                        |      .5    |     2.0     |
  |Echo Creek                    |      .3    |      .9     |
  |Croydon                       |      .4    |      .5     |
  |Round Valley                  |      .5    |      .5     |
  |Morgan Valley                 |     6.0    |     6.9     |
  |Ogden Valley                  |     4.1    |     8.0     |
  |Delta Plain                   |    91.0    |   219.0     |
  |                              +------------+-------------+
  |      Total                   |   115.2    |   253.0     |
  +------------------------------+------------+-------------+

The estimate of 219 miles of cultivable land on the Delta Plain
includes 15 miles that will probably never be irrigated, but may
nevertheless be farmed.

The total area of the Weber basin (including the whole plain from
Bonneville to Centerville, and excluding the main body of Kamas
Prairie) is 2,450 square miles; 4³⁄₄ per cent. of the area is now under
cultivation, and 10¹⁄₃ per cent. is susceptible of cultivation.

       *       *       *       *       *

The _Jordan River_ is the outlet of Utah Lake, and runs northward,
entering Great Salt Lake at its southeastern angle. On the right it
receives a number of large tributaries from the Wasatch Range. The
largest tributary of Utah Lake is the Provo River, which rises in the
Uinta Mountains close to the heads of the Weber and Bear.

From the mouth of its mountain cañon the Provo enters Kamas Prairie,
and it hugs the south margin of the plain just as the Weber hugs the
north margin, passing out by a narrow defile at the southwest corner.
At one time in the history of the prairie the Provo flowed northward
through it and joined itself to the Weber. The surface of the prairie
was then lower than now, and the sand and gravel which the river
brought from the mountains accumulated upon it. Eventually the Provo
built its alluvium so high that its water found a new passage over the
wall of the valley. The new channel, affording a more rapid descent
than the old, quickened the current through the valley, and caused
it to reverse its action and begin the excavation of the material it
had deposited. So long as the river built up its bed, its channel was
inconstant, shifting from place to place over the whole plain; but so
soon as it began to cut away the bed, its position became fixed and
the plain was abandoned. The river now flows in a narrow valley of its
own making, 150 feet below the surface of the plain. As a result of
this mode of origin, Kamas Prairie slopes uniformly from the Provo to
the Weber, and it would be an immense undertaking to irrigate it with
the water of the Weber. But the Provo River can be returned to its
ancient duty with comparative ease. A few miles of canal will suffice
to carry its water to the upper edge of the plain, and thence it can
be led to every part. Already a small canal has been constructed and
its enlargement may convert the whole prairie into a meadow. Thus the
prairie, although part of the drainage basin of the Weber, belongs to
the irrigation district of the Provo.

The Provo next follows a narrow rock bound valley for 7 miles, being
skirted by bottom lands that admit of some farming. It then enters
Provo Valley, an opening about as large as the last, and favored by a
warm climate that permits the growth of breadstuffs. Thence to Utah
Valley it follows a deep, close cañon.

The volume of the Provo is sufficient to water about 100 square miles.
If it be permitted to serve 28 miles in Kamas Prairie and 40 miles in
Provo Valley and its adjuncts, there will remain for Utah Valley the
quota for 32 miles. The minor streams of the valley, American Fork,
Spanish Fork, Hobble Creek, Payson Creek, etc., will irrigate 120
miles, making a total of 152 square miles supplied with water. The
total land of the valley which might be irrigated if the water were
sufficient amounts to no less than 225 miles.

Thus it appears that if all available lands on the upper Provo are
reclaimed, one-third of Utah Valley must go unwatered, while if none of
them are irrigated, nearly the whole of the valley will be supplied. A
middle course would appear most wise, and will undoubtedly be followed.
A gradual extension of the canals, as the demands and means of the
communities dictate and permit, will bring lands successively into
use in the order of their value and convenience, and when the limit
is reached and title has been acquired to all the water, the most
available lands in each of the three valleys traversed by the Provo
will have been reclaimed. The residents of Kamas Prairie will probably
have increased their meadows so as to furnish winter hay for herds
sufficient to stock the summer pastures of the vicinity; Provo Valley,
having a less favorable climate than Utah Valley, will have irrigated
only its choicest soils; and the major part of the river will belong
to Utah Valley. The apportionment may be roughly estimated as--Kamas
Prairie, 10 miles; Provo Valley and Waldsburg, 20 miles, and Utah
Valley, 70 miles.

Below Utah Lake there is little inequality of volume dependent on
season. The lake is a natural reservoir 127 square miles in extent,
and so far equalizes the outflow through the Jordan that the volume of
that stream is less affected by the mean level of the lake than by the
influence of northerly and southerly winds. With suitable head works
its volume can be completely controlled, and, if desirable, the entire
discharge of the lake can be concentrated in the season of irrigation.

The highest stage of the lake is in July, and the lowest in March
or April; and the natural volume of its outlet has of course a
corresponding change. In July I found that volume to be 1,275 feet per
second, and I am informed by residents that the stream carried more
than one-half as much water in its low stage; 1,000 feet is perhaps not
far from the mean volume. When all possible use is made of Provo River
and other tributaries the annual inflow of the lake will be diminished
by about one-eighth, and the outflow by a greater fraction, which we
will assume to be one-quarter. (This postulates that the evaporation
is at the rate of 90 inches per year for the whole lake surface.) The
remaining perennial outflow of 750 feet per second, if concentrated
into four months, would irrigate for that period 350 square miles. It
will be practicable to include under canals from the Jordan only about
160 square miles of farming land, and I think it safe to assume that
the supply of water will be greatly in excess of the demand.

At the present time the Jordan is little used, the chief irrigation of
Salt Lake Valley being performed by the large creeks that flow from
the mountains at the east. It will not be long, however, before large
canals are constructed to carry the Jordan water to all parts of the
valley that lie below the level of Utah Lake. They will include 120
square miles of farming land.

The mountain streams, being no longer needed in the lower parts of the
valley, will be carried to higher land and made to serve the benches
at the base of the mountains. By these means the total agricultural
area of the valley will be increased to 192 square miles. Eventually,
the western canal will be carried about the north end of the Oquirrh
range and made to irrigate the northern third of Tooele Valley. It will
pass above the farming lands of E. T. City and Grantsville, and enable
the streams which irrigate the latter town to be used upon the higher
slopes. The service of the Jordan will amount to no less than 40 miles
and the agricultural area of the valley will be increased to about 45
square miles.

Including Tooele Valley and Kamas Prairie with the drainage basin of
the Jordan, its agricultural resources sum up as follows:

  +---------------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |                                       |      Square miles--      |
  |           Tracts.                     +------------+-------------+
  |                                       | Cultivated | Cultivable. |
  |                                       |   in 1877. |             |
  +---------------------------------------+------------+-------------+
  |Kamas Prairie                          |     4.0    |     10.0    |
  |Hailstone Ranche and vicinity          |     2.0    |      2.0    |
  |Provo Valley                           |     6.0    |     16.0    |
  |Waldsburg                              |     2.0    |      2.0    |
  |Utah Valley                            |    59.0    |    190.0    |
  |Goshen }                               |            |             |
  |Mona   } Salt Creek                    |    14.0    |     16.0    |
  |Nephi  }                               |            |             |
  |Salt Lake Valley                       |            |             |
  | (including Bountiful and Centerville) |    89.8    |    192.0    |
  |Tooele Valley                          |     5.4    |     45.0    |
  |                                       +------------+-------------+
  |      Total                            |   182.2    |    473.0    |
  +---------------------------------------+------------+-------------+

The drainage district has an area of 4,010 miles; 4¹⁄₂ per cent. are
cultivated, and 11³⁄₄ per cent. may be cultivated.

It will be observed that in these estimates the available water
above Utah Lake is regarded as insufficient for the available land,
while below the lake there is a superabundance of water, and yet
the lower stream is only a continuation of the upper streams. The
difference arises from the function of the lake as a reservoir. Below
the reservoir the whole of the annual supply can be controlled, but
above it I have assumed that irrigation will merely make use for the
irrigating season of the quantity which flows at the critical period.
If artificial reservoirs can be constructed so as to store water for
use in Utah Valley, a greater area can be cultivated. With adequate
storage facilities the streams tributary to the lake can irrigate in
Kamas Prairie 28 miles; in Provo Valley and vicinity 40 miles; in
Thistle Valley 6 miles; on Salt Creek 16 miles, and in Utah Valley 225
miles, making a total of 315 miles; and there will still escape to the
Jordan enough water to serve all the land assigned to that stream. If
such storage is practicable, the estimate tabulated above should show
552 instead of 473 miles of cultivable land. The region most likely to
afford storage facilities lies in the mountains where the waters rise.
I did not visit it, and until it has been examined I shall not venture
to increase the estimate.

The following table gives a summary for the Great Salt Lake river
system:

 +---------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
 |               |                       Areas, in square miles.       |
 |               +-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+
 |  Districts.   |   Whole   |   Under     |   To be      |    Total   |
 |               | district. | cultivation | reclaimed in | cultivable.|
 |               |           |  in 1877.   | the future.  |            |
 +---------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+
 |  Bear River   |  3,620    |    89.3     |    462.7     |   552.0    |
 |  Weber River  |  2,450    |   115.2     |    137.8     |   253.0    |
 |  Jordan River |  4,010    |   192.2     |    280.8     |   473.0    |
 |               +-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+
 |     Total     | 10,080    |   396.7     |    881.3     | 1,278.0    |
 |               +-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+
 |     Ratios    |  1,000    |     .039    |     .088     |    .127    |
 +---------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+

This region includes an eighth part of the land area of the Territory,
and more than one-half the agricultural land. It is the richest section
of Utah. Nearly one-third of its available land is already in use. The
cost of the canals by which its cultivated lands have been furnished
with water has been about $2,000,000. To complete its system of
irrigation will probably cost $5,000,000 more.


                     IRRIGATION BY SMALL STREAMS.

Through the remainder of the drainage basin of Great Salt Lake there
are no large bodies of farming land. At wide intervals are small
tracts, dependent on springs and small creeks, and the available land
is in nearly every case greatly in excess of the available water. A
few exceptional spots are cultivated without irrigation, but so far as
they have been discovered they are so situated as to be moistened from
beneath. No crops have been raised on dry bench lands.

The principal facts are gathered in the following table:

 +---------------------------------+----------------------------+
 |                                 |No. of distinct             |
 |                                 |    tracts.                 |
 |                                 |    +-----------------------+
 |                                 |    |Acres in cultivation   |
 |                                 |    |    in 1877.           |
 |                                 |    +     +-----------------+
 |            Localities.          |    |     |Acres cultivable.|
 +---------------------------------+----+-----+-----------------+
 |Cedar Fort                       |   1|  800|            1,000|
 |Fairfield                        |   1|  800|              900|
 |Vernon Creek                     |   1|  900|            1,200|
 |Saint Johns                      |   1|  700|              700|
 |East Cañon Creek, Rush Valley    |   1|  500|              900|
 |Stockton                         |   1|  200|              500|
 |Skull Valley                     |  11|1,000|            2,500|
 |Government Creek                 |   1|  300|              300|
 |Willow Spring, township          |   1|  250|              250|
 | 10 south, range 17 west         |    |     |                 |
 |Redding Spring                   |   1|   20|               50|
 |Dodoquibe Spring                 |   1|  -- |               50|
 |Deep Creek, township             |   1|  500|            1,000|
 | 9 south, range 19 west          |   1|  500|            1,000|
 |Pilot Peak                       |   1|  -- |              200|
 |Grouse Valley                    |   6|  500|            1,500|
 |Owl Spring                       |   1|  -- |               10|
 |Rosebud Creek                    |   1|  150|              400|
 |Muddy Creek, township            |   1|  300|              300|
 | 10 north, range 15 west         |   1|  300|              300|
 |Park Valley                      |   6|  700|            2,300|
 |Widow Spring                     |   1|  -- |               20|
 |Indian Creek, township           |   1|  -- |              100|
 | 13 north, range 12 west         |   1|  -- |              100|
 |East base Clear Creek Mountains  |   6|    5|              150|
 |Cazure Creek                     |   1|  -- |              200|
 |Clear Creek, township 15         |   1|   80|              200|
 | 15 north, range 12 west         |   1|   80|              200|
 |Junction Creek                   |   1|  -- |              500|
 |Goose Creek                      |   2|  -- |              200|
 |Pilot Spring                     |   1|  -- |               15|
 |Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek)    |   1|  300|            3,000|
 |Crystal Springs, township        |   1|   60|              100|
 | 14 north, range 7 west          |   1|   60|              100|
 |Antelope Spring, township        |   1|   30|               30|
 | 9 north, range 6 west           |   1|   30|               30|
 |Hanzel Spring                    |   1|   15|               15|
 |Promontory, east base            |   1|  300|              600|
 |Blue Creek                       |   1|  -- |            1,500|
 |Brackish Springs near Blue Creek |   1|  200|            1,000|
 |Antelope Island                  |   1|  -- |               50|
 |                                 +----+-----+-----------------+
 |      Total                      |  60|8,610|           21,740|
 |                                 +----+-----+-----------------+
 |      Total in square miles      |  --| 13.5|             33.9|
 +---------------------------------+----+-----+-----------------+

 +--------------------------------+------------------------------+
 |            Localities.         |Cultivable acres              |
 |                                |not included in               |
 |                                |existing surveys.             |
 |                                +     +------------------------+
 |                                |     |   Remarks.             |
 +--------------------------------+-----+------------------------+
 |Cedar Fort                      |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 |Fairfield                       |  -- |                        |
 |Vernon Creek                    |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 |Saint Johns                     |  -- |                        |
 |East Cañon Creek, Rush Valley   |  -- |                        |
 |Stockton                        |  -- |                        |
 |Skull Valley                    |  (?)|With aid of reservoirs; |
 |                                |     |visited in part only.   |
 |Government Creek                |  -- |Not visited.            |
 |Willow Spring, township         |  -- |     Do.                |
 | 10 south, range 17 west        |     |                        |
 |Redding Spring                  |  -- |                        |
 |Dodoquibe Spring                |  -- |Not visited.            |
 |Deep Creek, township            |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 | 9 south, range 19 west         |  -- |                        |
 |Pilot Peak                      |  200|Not visited.            |
 |Grouse Valley                   |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 |Owl Spring                      |   10|                        |
 |Rosebud Creek                   |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 |Muddy Creek, township           |  300|                        |
 | 10 north, range 15 west        |  300|                        |
 |Park Valley                     |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 |Widow Spring                    |   20|Not visited.            |
 |Indian Creek, township          |  100|With aid of reservoirs. |
 | 13 north, range 12 west        |     |                        |
 |East base Clear Creek Mountains |  100|     Do.                |
 |Cazure Creek                    |  200|Not visited.            |
 |Clear Creek, township           |  200|                        |
 | 15 north, range 12 west        |     |                        |
 |Junction Creek                  |  500|Not visited.            |
 |Goose Creek                     |  200|     Do.                |
 |Pilot Spring                    |  -- |                        |
 |Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek)   |  -- |With aid of reservoirs. |
 |Crystal Springs, township       |  100|     Do.                |
 | 14 north, range 7 west         |     |                        |
 |Antelope Spring, township       |   30|Not visited.            |
 | 9 north, range 6 west          |   30|Not visited.            |
 |Hanzel Spring                   |   15|                        |
 |Promontory, east base           |  600|The greater part        |
 |                                |     | is not irrigated.      |
 |Blue Creek                      |  -- |                        |
 |Brackish Springs near Blue Creek|  -- |                        |
 |Antelope Island                 |   50|Not visited.            |
 |                                +-----+                        |
 |      Total                     |1,625|                        |
 |                                +-----+                        |
 |      Total in square miles     |  2.5|                        |
 +--------------------------------+-----+------------------------+

Nineteen tracts have not yet been surveyed by the land office.

The total area of the district is 13,370 square miles, of which
one-tenth of one per cent. is cultivated, and one-fourth of one per
cent. may be cultivated.

       *       *       *       *       *

The contrast between the districts east and west of Great Salt Lake
illustrates the combination of physical conditions essential to
agriculture in our arid territories. An atmosphere endowed with but a
small share of moisture precipitates freely only when it is reduced
to a low temperature. Agriculture is dependent on the precipitation
of moisture, but cannot endure the associated cold climate. It can
flourish only where mountain masses turn over the aqueous product of
their cold climates to low valleys endowed with genial climates. The
Wasatch and Uinta crests stand from 6,000 to 9,000 feet higher than the
valleys bordering Great Salt Lake. Their climate has a temperature from
20° to 30° lower. The snows that accumulate upon them in winter are not
melted by the first warmth of spring, but yield slowly to the advancing
sun, and all through the season of growing crops feed the streams
that water the valleys. The Bear, the Weber, and the Jordan carry the
moisture of the mountains to the warmth of the valleys, and fertility
is the result.

To the north and west of the lake there are many mountains, but they
are too low and small to store up snow banks until the time of need.
Their streams are spent before the summer comes; and only a few springs
are perennial. The result is a general desert, dotted by a few oases.




                             CHAPTER VIII.

          IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RIVER.

                       BY CAPTAIN C. E. DUTTON.


As an agricultural region, the valley of the Sevier River and of
its tributaries is one of the most important in Utah. The amount of
arable land which may be reached by the waters of the stream is very
much larger than the stream can water advantageously, and the time is
probably not far distant when all the water that can be obtained will
be utilized in producing cereals, and there is probably no other region
in Utah where the various problems relating to the most economic use
of water will be solved so speedily. It is, therefore, a region of
unusual interest, regarded in the light of the new industrial problems
which the irrigation of these western lands is now bringing forward.
Fortunately, there is a smaller prospect of difficulty and obstruction
in the settlement of the legal controversies which must inevitably
arise elsewhere out of disputes about water rights than will be
encountered in other regions, for the Mormon Church is an institution
which quietly, yet resistlessly, assumes the power to settle such
disputes, and the Mormon people in these outlying settlements yield to
its assumptions an unhesitating obedience. Whatever the church deems
best for the general welfare of its dependencies it dictates, and
what it dictates is invariably done with promptitude, and none have
yet been found to resist. This communal arrangement has been attended
with great success so far as the development of the water resources
are concerned, and the system of management has ordinarily been so
conducted that the general welfare has been immensely benefited; and
if individuals have suffered, it has not been made manifest by any
apparent symptoms of general discontent or of individual resistance.
The system is by no means perfect as yet, but its imperfections may be
found in details which produce no present serious inconvenience, and
they will no doubt be remedied as rapidly as they attain the magnitude
of great evils.

The Sevier River has its course along the southeastern border of the
Great Basin of the west, and its upper streams head in the lofty divide
which separates the drainage system of the Colorado River on the south
and east from the drainage system of the Great Basin on the north and
west. The general course of the upper portion of the stream is from
south to north, though its tributaries flow in many directions. The
lower portion of the stream, within 60 miles of its end, suddenly
breaks through one of the Basin Ranges on the west--the Pavant--and
then turns southwestward and empties into Sevier Lake, one of the
salinas of the Great Basin.

The main valley of the Sevier River has a N. S. trend, and begins on
the divide referred to, about 270 miles almost due south of Great
Salt Lake, and continues northward a distance of about 170 miles.
There are three principal forks of this stream. The lowest fork is
at Gunnison, 140 miles south of Salt Lake City, and called the San
Pete, which waters a fine valley about 45 miles in length, and which
is at present the most important agricultural district in Utah. About
80 miles farther up the stream, at Circle Valley, the river divides
into two very nearly equal branches; one coming from the south, the
other breaking through a great plateau on the east. These are called,
respectively, the South and East Fork of the Sevier. The South Fork has
its principal fountains far up on the surface of a great plateau--the
Panguitch Plateau--whose broad expanse it drains by three considerable
streams, which finally unite in the valley at the foot of its eastern
slope.

The East Fork of the Sevier receives the waters of a beautiful valley
lying to the eastward of and parallel to the main valley of the Sevier,
and separated from it by a lofty plateau 90 miles in length from north
to south, and from 10 to 20 miles in breadth, called the Sevier
Plateau. Through this great barrier the stream has cut a wide gorge
4,000 feet in depth and 10 miles long, called East Fork Cañon, and
right at its lower end it joins the South Fork of the Sevier.

The physical geography of the region drained by the waters of the
river is highly interesting, and has an important relation to the
subject. The area in question consists of a series of tabular blocks,
of vast proportions, cut out of the general platform of the country
by great faults, and lifted above it from 2,000 to nearly 6,000 feet,
so that the absolute altitudes (above sea level) of the tables range
from 9,000 to 11,500 feet. Where the valleys are lowest the tables are
highest, and _vice versa_. The valleys or lowlands stand from 5,000
to 7,500 feet above the sea. The plateaus have areas ranging from 400
to 1,800 square miles, and collectively with the included lowlands
within the drainage system of the Sevier have an area of about 5,400
square miles. The tables front the valleys with barriers which are
more continuous and which more closely resemble long lines of cliffs
than the mountain chains and sierras of other portions of the Rocky
Mountain Region, and there are stretches of unbroken walls, crowned
with vast precipices, 10, 20, and even 40 miles in length, which look
down from snowy altitudes upon the broad and almost torrid expanses
below. If the palisades of the Hudson had ten times their present
altitude and five or six times their present length, and if they had
been battered, notched, and crumbled by an unequal erosion, they would
offer much the same appearance as that presented by the wall of the
Sevier Plateau which fronts the main valley of the Sevier. If they
were from six to eight times multiplied, and extended from Hoboken
to West Point, and were similarly shattered, they would present the
appearance of the eastern wall of Grass Valley. If they were eight to
ten times multiplied, and imagined to extend around three-fourths of
the periphery of an area 40 miles by 20, and but little damaged by
erosion, they would represent the solemn battlements of the Aquarius
Plateau. These great plateaus are masses of volcanic rock overlying
sedimentaries, the latter so deeply buried that they are seldom seen
even in the deepest chasms, while superposed floods of volcanic
outflows are shown in sections, reaching sometimes a thickness of 5,000
feet. The dark colors of these rocks give a somber aspect to the
scenery, and the gloomy fronts of the towering precipices are rendered
peculiarly grand and imposing.

The prevailing winds of this region are from the west, northwest,
and southwest, and are a portion of the more general movement of the
atmospheric ocean which moves bodily from the Pacific to the heart
of the continent. In crossing the Sierra Nevada a large portion of
its moisture is wrung from the air, which blows hot and arid across
the Great Basin. Notwithstanding the aridity of the basin area, the
air gains about as much moisture as it loses in crossing it, until it
strikes the great barriers on the east side of the basin--the Wasatch
and the chain of high plateaus which are mapped as its southerly
continuation. Here the winds are projected by the bold fronts several
thousands of feet upward. The consequent cooling and rarefaction
condense from them an amount of moisture which, relatively to that
arid country, may be called large, though far less than that of more
favored regions. In the valleys the rainfall is exceedingly small;
almost the whole of the precipitation is in the high altitudes. It
is no uncommon thing to see the heavy masses of the cumulus clouds
enveloping the summits of all the plateaus while the valleys lie under
a sky but little obscured. The plateaus, then, are the reservoirs where
the waters accumulate, and from which they descend in many rivulets
and rills, while around their bases are copious springs fed by the
waters which fall above. The rainfall in the valleys is very small, as
compared with that upon the plateaus, and it is also highly variable.
No record has been kept of the precipitation within the drainage
system of the Sevier, and the nearest point where such a record has
been kept is at Fort Cameron, near Beaver, at the western base of
the Tushar Mountains. These observations cover but a brief period,
and no doubt represent a much larger precipitation than that which
occurs in the valleys and plains generally, because the situation of
the point of observation is just at the base of the loftiest range in
southern Utah, where the air currents from the west first strike it.
Moreover, these observations are not yet published, and are not at
present available. In the narrow valleys between closely approximated
and lofty mountain walls, like the valley of the Sevier at Marysvale,
the rainfall is greater than where the valley is wider, with lower
walls, as at Panguitch, Richfield, and Gunnison. An estimate of the
amount would be very hazardous; but, judging from what is known of
similar localities, the amount in the wider valleys may be as low as
7 or 8 inches, or as high as 10 or 11. In the narrower and deeper
valleys it may be between 10 and 12 inches. Upon the plateaus it may
be as large as 30 to 35 inches. The principal fall is in the winter
and spring months, from the middle of November to the first of June;
and in this period at least seven-eighths of the precipitation must be
accomplished in the valleys and three-fourths upon the plateaus. There
is, however, a large amount of variation in the distribution of the
monthly falls from year to year. No two consecutive years correspond
in this respect. In 1876 a heavy storm, with great rainfall and snow,
occurred in the month of October, but in 1875 and 1877 no such storm
occurred. In 1875 many drenching showers occurred in the months of July
and August, but none occurred at the same months of 1877. In general,
however, no summer rainfall has ever been known of such extent as to
dispense with the necessity of irrigation, or even to materially reduce
the necessary amount. Great variability in the distribution of the fall
over different months of the year is one of the characteristics of the
climate. But whatever the distribution, it is never such as to affect
this one conspicuous feature--that the season in which crops must have
their chief growth and reach their maturity is the dry season.

Connected with the irrigation of the Sevier Valley is a limiting
condition, which rarely has to be considered in connection with the
lands watered by the Bear and Weber Rivers, and which does not enter at
all into the lands lying about Great Salt Lake. It is the dependence of
climate upon altitude. There are lands along the upper portions of the
forks of the Sevier which can be irrigated easily enough, but which are
not cultivable for grain on account of the shortness of the summer and
of the danger of frosts during the growth and ripening of the grain.
This in turn is directly connected with the altitude. At the point
where the Sevier leaves its main valley and enters the Pavant range,
its altitude is 5,050 feet above sea-level. At Gunnison it is 5,150
feet.

The altitudes of the San Pete Valley are approximately as follows:

                     Feet.
  Manti              5,350
  Ephraim            5,450
  Moroni             5,500
  Springtown         5,550
  Mount Pleasant     5,600
  Fairview           5,725
  Fountain Green     5,650

Beginning at Gunnison and ascending the Sevier along its main course,
the altitudes are as follows:

                    Feet.
  Gunnison          5,100
  Salina            5,175
  Richfield         5,300
  Monroe            5,350
  Joseph City       5,375
  Marysvale         5,600
  Circle Valley     6,000

Taking the East Fork in Grass Valley:

                              Feet.
  Head of East Fork Cañon     6,300
  Cousharem                   6,700
  Daniels’ Ranch              7,000

Taking the South Fork:

                                 Feet.
  Head of Panguitch Cañon        6,250
  Panguitch                      6,400
  Hillsdale                      6,550
  Junction of Mammoth Creek      6,900

In the San Pete Valley, which has been cultivated as far up as Mount
Pleasant for twenty years, I cannot learn that any crop has ever been
injured by frosts, and we may therefore conclude that this valley is
safe from such an attack, unless a most abnormal one. The same may
be said of the main Sevier Valley from Joseph City downward. From
Joseph City to Circle Valley there is a relatively small proportion
of irrigable land, but such as there is may, I think, be regarded as
safe from frost. Circle Valley, where the two forks unite, has been
cultivated for cereals for four years, and has not yet suffered from
frost, and it is fair to assume that such a calamity will be very
infrequent there, though it may not be possible to say there is no
danger. In Panguitch Valley, a severe frost in August, 1874, inflicted
great injury upon the crops, and only a small quantity of very
inferior grain was harvested. But in 1875, 1876, and 1877, excellent
crops were secured. Above Panguitch the amount of arable land is not
great, and the danger to crops is increased. In Grass Valley there
is a magnificent expanse of fertile arable land, but there can be no
question that a large portion of it is so liable to killing frosts in
August, or even in July, that the cereals cannot flourish there. The
lower portion of the valley, near the head of East Fork Cañon, is more
hopeful, and it is probable that a large majority of crops planted
there will mature, though occasional damage may be reasonably looked
for. The general result may be summarized as follows: Below 6,000 feet
crops may be considered as safe from serious damage by frosts. From
6,000 to 7,000 feet crops are liable to damage in a degree proportional
to the excess of altitude above 6,000 feet. Above 7,000 feet the danger
is probably such as to render agriculture of little value to those who
may pursue it.

The climate has shown in past times a longer period of variation than
the annual one. Panguitch was settled once in 1860, but was abandoned
on account of the destruction of crops by the frosts. The settlement
was renewed in 1867, and again abandoned, in consequence of the attacks
of Indians. It was settled a third time in 1870, and, though crops have
occasionally been injured, the agriculture has on the whole proved
remunerative.

Let us now look at the irrigable lands of the Sevier and its
tributaries. Above the town of Panguitch, on the South Fork, there is
a considerable area of arable land, which could be easily reached by
canals from the main stream and below 7,000 feet altitude, but for want
of a detailed survey it is impossible to do more than guess at the
area. I think, however, that 8,000 acres would be the maximum limit.
This portion of the valley is liable to killing frosts, though during
the last three years it has not suffered from this cause. In the long
run, I believe agriculture will not prove remunerative here. From
Panguitch northward to the head of the Panguitch Cañon, a distance of
18 miles, is a broad valley, averaging 5 miles in width, a very large
portion of which is irrigable, provided the water supply is adequate.
At least 24,000 acres may be cultivated without resort to anything more
than the usual methods of distributing the water; but not the whole
of this area is fertile. The greater part of the area of Panguitch
Valley is composed of alluvial slopes, or, as they have been termed
by geologists, alluvial cones. Although these surface features are
presented in a somewhat more typical and striking manner in Grass
Valley, yet they are well enough exhibited here; and as they have an
important relation to the subject, I will briefly discuss them.

In a mountainous country like this, where the melting of the snows in
spring or heavy rainfalls at other seasons create sudden and great
torrents, large quantities of detritus are carried down from the
mountains into the valleys. These mountain streams, which in summer,
autumn, and early winter are ordinarily either very small or wholly
dried up, may upon certain occasions become devastating floods. The
bottoms of the ravines are steep water courses, down which the angry
torrents rush with a power which is seldom comprehended by those who
dwell in less rugged regions. Huge boulders weighing several tons,
great trees, with smaller débris of rocks, gravel, sand, and clay,
are swept along with resistless force, until the decreasing slope
diminishes the energy sufficiently to permit the greater boulders
to come to rest, while the smaller ones are still swept onward. The
decrease of slope is continuous, so that smaller and smaller fragments
reach a stable position, and only cobblestones, gravel, or sand reach
the junctions of the streams with the main rivers. Around the openings
of the greater gorges and ravines the deposits of coarser detritus
build up in the lapse of time the alluvial cones. As it accumulates,
each torrent builds up its bed and constantly changes the position of
its channel, and with the mouth of the ravine for a center it sweeps
around from right to left and left to right like a radius, adding
continually, year after year, to the accumulations of detritus. Thus a
portion of a flat cone is formed, having its apex at the mouth of the
ravine. At the foot of mountain ranges these alluvial cones are formed
at the mouth of every ravine, and are sometimes so near together that
they intersect each other, or become confluent. They are composed of
rudely stratified materials, ranging in size or grain from fine silt
and sand to rounded stones of several hundredweight, and occasionally
a block of a ton or more may be seen near the apex of the cone. In
regions where the rocks are soft and readily disintegrated the stones
are more worn, less in number, and smaller in size, and this is the
case generally with unaltered sedimentary rocks. But in valleys running
among volcanic ranges, the much greater hardness and durability of the
materials preserve them from disintegration, and the stones are more
numerous, larger, and less worn by attrition, composing indeed a very
large proportion of the bulk of the alluvial cones. A large portion
of the valley of the Sevier lies in the midst of a volcanic region,
and its sides are everywhere flanked with these alluvial cones, which
are very stony and gravelly. The lower portion of the Sevier is in a
country made of sedimentary beds, and though the alluvial cones are
equally common, they consist of finer material, and are less burdened
with stones.

The Panguitch Valley is between volcanic plateaus, and most of its area
consists of alluvial cone land, which is no doubt fertile wherever the
stones and rubble are not sufficient to prevent plowing and planting,
but this difficulty must render it at least very undesirable. There
is, however, a large area of land of another description in Panguitch
Valley, composed of the finest silt brought down by the gentler current
of the river itself, and deposited within its own basin. This is good
bottom land, and the amount of it I estimate at not less than 7,000
acres. It has already been remarked that Panguitch Valley stands at
an altitude above 6,000 feet, and is not free from danger of summer
frosts. These have been known to destroy or seriously injure the grain,
though in a majority of years crops will no doubt be safely harvested.
Whether the danger is such as to make agriculture unremunerative in the
long run experience can alone demonstrate.

Following the South Fork of the Sevier downward through the Panguitch
cañons, the next important agricultural area is Circle Valley. This
is a broad, nearly circular area, situated in the midst of scenery
of the most magnificent description. Upon the east and west sides
rise those gigantic cliffs which are the peculiar feature of the
scenery of this elevated region, looking down upon the valley below
from altitudes of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. This valley also has upon its
sides long sloping areas of stony alluvial cones, full of blocks of
trachyte and basalt washed down from the cliffs above. It has also
a large area of arable land. There is in addition, a certain area
of sandy land of an inferior degree of excellence. The area of best
bottom land will probably reach as high as 6,000 acres. In this area
there is probably very little danger from early frosts, as the 6,000
feet contour passes through the middle of the valley, and, as already
stated, the areas which lie within this limit are reasonably safe from
this occurrence. At the north end of Circle Valley we find the junction
of the two main forks of the Sevier River. From the junction the main
stream runs northward for nearly 20 miles, and throughout this entire
stretch there is but little arable land. Upon both sides of the river
there are long alluvial slopes, made up of stony materials and coarse
gravels, through which a plow could scarcely be driven. A portion of
the way the river runs between rocks and low cliffs and in abrupt
cañons, cutting through old trachyte and basaltic outflows. Reaching
Marysvale, we find a sufficient area for three or four good sized
farms, consisting of bottom land of the finest quality, which can be
watered either from the Sevier River itself or from two considerable
affluents which come roaring down out of the Beaver Mountains. North of
Marysvale is a barrier thrown across the valley, consisting of rugged
hills of rhyolitic rocks, through which the river has cut a deep cañon;
but agriculture in any portion of this barrier is out of the question.
The river emerges from it at the head of what may be called its main
or lower valley, near the Mormon settlement called Joseph City. From
this point northward we find what must undoubtedly become the great
agricultural area of southern Utah. It is a magnificent valley, nowhere
less than 5 miles in width, and at least 60 miles in length, with
abrupt mountain walls on either side, and almost the whole of its soil
consisting of alluvial cones, and susceptible of a high degree of
cultivation. The limit of the amount of land in this valley which can
be irrigated is measured by the quantity of water which can be found
to turn upon it. The western side of the valley is flanked by abrupt
walls of sedimentary rocks. As I have before stated, the alluvial cones
which find their origin in the degradation of these sedimentary walls
are invariably composed of finer materials than those which come from
the breaking up of volcanic rocks. The soil, therefore, is much more
readily plowed and planted than the corresponding cones farther up the
river. The surface of these cones, moreover, is coated with a thick
layer of fine loam, and it is not until penetrated to a considerable
depth that we come upon a coarser material. This portion of the valley
of the Sevier has been under cultivation for more than eight years.
The art of irrigation has also reached a certain stage of advancement,
at which it can be studied with some interest. A canal of sufficient
magnitude to carry the entire body of the water of the Sevier during
the dry season has been run for a distance of 8 miles, and is used for
irrigating the large grain fields which lie around Richfield; and, as
irrigation is now conducted, the entire flow of the stream is turned
through this canal after having been employed for irrigating the
various fields, which extend for the distance of nearly 7 miles. The
total amount of irrigable land which may be found between Joseph City
on the south and the point where the Sevier leaves its proper valley,
65 miles to the northward, cannot be much less than 90,000 acres. The
limit of irrigation throughout this entire valley is the limit of the
water supply.

There is one other valley to which we must advert, namely, the
valley of the San Pete. This is fully equal in fertility and in the
convenience of every element connected with irrigation to the best
part of the main valley of the Sevier. The San Pete is a stream of
considerable magnitude, and experience has shown that it is probably
capable, under a more improved system of irrigation than that now in
use, of watering the greater portion of its valley. The cultivable
acreage of the San Pete Valley is about 55,000 acres, provided the
whole could be watered.

The quantity of water carried by the Sevier will now be considered.
This, of course, is highly variable from month to month. The time for
measurement, if the true irrigating capacity of the stream is to be
considered, should be that time at which the ratio of water in the
stream to the amount required is smallest. At different stages of
growth of the crops the amount of water required differs considerably.
The largest amount is needed about the time the seeds of the grain
begin to fill out. Ordinarily this is in the latter part of July and
early in August throughout the lower and most extensive portion of
the valley, and a week later in the upper portions. At this season
the water is not at its minimum. There is a gradual diminution of the
flow during July, but the great shrinkage of the stream occurs during
the middle of August, just after, or sometimes even during, those
irrigations in which the greatest amount is required. The critical
period of the crops occurs, therefore, just before, and sometimes
dangerously near, the period of rapid decline in the water supply.
It will therefore be evident that it is not a very easy matter to
determine the exact stage of water which can serve as a criterion of
the irrigating capacity. My own measurements, however, were hardly a
matter of choice, but were made at the most advantageous period which
could be selected without interfering with the primary objects of the
expedition.

The Sevier was measured at the junction of the two main forks, at the
north end of Circle Valley, on the 6th and 7th of July. The method
adopted was first to find a section of the water at a given point by
soundings and by actual measurement of the width of the water surfaces,
and measuring the surface velocity by means of floats. The most
probable mean result of several measurements was found to be 410 cubic
feet per second for the East Fork, and 450 feet per second for the
South Fork, or a total of 860 feet.

While this measurement was made the South Fork was being drawn upon
above for the watering of about 1,100 acres near Panguitch, 35 miles
farther up the stream, and also for watering about 600 acres in Circle
Valley, about 3 to 4 miles above. The amount of water used in Circle
Valley was probably greater than that at Panguitch, since the method
employed was much more wasteful, and no provision made for returning
the tail water to the stream. On the other hand, a large proportion of
the tail water from both places finds its way back to the channel in
spite of waste, but how much it is impossible to conjecture. I think,
however, that 75 cubic feet per second would cover the loss from these
sources.

Below the point of measurement the Sevier receives the following
affluents: At Van Buren’s ranch is a cluster of very large springs,
furnishing about 55 cubic feet per second. Between Van Buren’s and
Marysvale are three streams, yielding together about 30 feet, and
Bullion Creek at Marysvale carries about 40 feet. There is still
another affluent at Marysvale with about 30 feet. Finally, Clear
Creek, north of Marysvale Cañon, gives about 45 feet, making the total
contributions between the junction of the forks and Joseph City about
200 feet.

At Monroe a stream issues from the Sevier table, and is used for
the irrigation of the field cultivated by that settlement. Its flow
is estimated at 40 feet in the middle of July. At Richfield, on the
other side of the valley, is a stream coming from the Pavant, with a
flow of about 20 feet, and at Glencove a stream of 25 feet. At Salina
is a large tributary issuing from a great cañon through the north
end of the Sevier Plateau, and its measurement indicated a flow of
165 feet. The total between Monroe and Salina, inclusive, would thus
reach 250 feet, to which might be added some smaller tributaries, not
specifically mentioned, amounting perhaps to 10 feet, giving a total of
260 feet. Adding this to the tributaries between the upper forks and
Joseph City, and to the main river itself, we have, as the total above
Gunnison, 1,320 feet. This estimate being for the early part of July,
and obviously largely in excess of the amount which is available at
the critical period, in the last week of that month and the first week
in August, what allowance should be made for the diminution of supply
during the month of July it is difficult to determine. The smaller
tributaries, as a rule, shrink much more than the larger. Those which
enter the stream lower down decline more during July than those which
join it farther up. Taken altogether, I am satisfied that it would be
unsafe to estimate the irrigating capacity in the first week of August
at more than 60 per cent. of that found in the first week of July,
and I regard 50 per cent. as a much more probable estimate. For want
of a better one, I adopt it, and this gives the estimated irrigating
capacity of the Sevier and its tributaries above the junction of the
San Pete at 660 cubic feet per second during the critical period.

The water supply in the San Pete Valley was measured by Mr. Renshawe
during the latter part of July, and found by him to be as follows:


_Volume of flowing water, in cubic feet per second, of streams in San
Pete Valley._

                                   Feet.
  Pleasant Creek                      28
  Ephraim Creek                       28
  Manti Creek                         28
  Springtown Creek                    14
  Fairview Creek                      10
  Wales Creek                          6
  Fountain Green                      10
  Moroni                              10
  Creek between Ephraim and Manti      5
  Creek between Manti and Gunnison     5
  Creek above Fairview                 2¹⁄₂
  Twelve-mile Creek                   28
  San Pete at Gunnison                60
                                     -------
      Total                          234¹⁄₂

This estimate is also liable to reduction, being undoubtedly a little
in excess of the amount available at the critical period. This
reduction may be as great as 15 per cent., which would leave very
closely 200 cubic feet as the water supply of the San Pete Valley,
which, added to the total of the Sevier above Gunnison, gives for the
whole drainage system of the Sevier River a water supply of 860 feet
per second at the time when the greatest amount is required.

The next factor to be inquired into is the amount of land which a cubic
foot per second of water can irrigate. This is, of course, highly
variable, depending upon the nature of the soil, and the economy with
which the water is applied, and the frequency of the irrigations.
New lands freshly broken require much more water than the older ones
which have been planted and watered for several years; and in fact the
quantity diminishes with each season for a long term of years. In the
San Pete Valley, which has been longest cultivated, the decrease in
the amount of water applied to the oldest lands has not yet ceased,
though some fields have been cultivated with regularity since 1857.
The fresh soils are highly porous and absorptive, requiring a large
quantity of water for their irrigation, and not retaining this moisture
well under the great evaporative power of a dry and hot atmosphere.
With successive irrigations, the pores of the soil are gradually closed
and the earth is slowly compacted by the infiltration of impalpable
silt brought by the irrigating waters. It absorbs water much more
slowly, and retains it a much longer time. There is, however, a check
to this increased irrigating power, arising from a wasteful mode of
agriculture. It has not been the practice to employ fertilizers,
nor any other conservative means of keeping up the fertility of the
soil, and the yield of the crops growing smaller, the old lands are
frequently abandoned, and fresh adjoining lands are broken, planted,
and watered. It has been the practice to cut the straw, which is never
returned as mulch; and, as there is but little rotation in crops, the
result can be easily comprehended. So long as new land costs nothing
but the labor to clear of the _Artemisia_ or sage brush, there is
always the tendency to invade it as rapidly as the old lands show
signs of fatigue. Thus the waters are constantly irrigating every
year a large proportion of new land, and the consumption of water is
correspondingly great.

A serious loss of water and fertility is produced by any method of
irrigation which employs more water than is just sufficient to saturate
the soil. Whatever water runs off from a field carries with it great
quantities of mud and fine silt, together with the most precious
elements of fertility. These elements are the soluble alkaline salts
and organic manner which are readily taken up by the water, and once
removed are not speedily restored. A field which is so irrigated that
a large surplus of water is continually running from the tail ditches
during the flow will rapidly deteriorate in fertility. But a field
which receives water which is allowed to stand until it has soaked
into the earth, without any surplus passing into the tail ditches,
will increase in fertility. These irrigating waters bring with them a
sufficiency of plant food to compensate, and more too, for the drain
upon the soil caused by the harvest; but they will carry off more than
they bring if they are permitted to run over the field and escape from
it, instead of being caught and held until they are absorbed. It is not
always practicable to attain this exact distribution of water, and many
cases occur where great expense and labor might be required to arrange
the ditches and fields in this manner. Ordinarily, it is cheaper to
throw away old land and take up new than to improve the system of
irrigation, and there are many fields in the valley of the Sevier which
have been abandoned because the fertility of the soil has been washed
out by a reckless method of irrigation. Connected with this is another
source of waste, arising from very unequal requirements of contiguous
areas, in consequence of which many lands, especially old ones, are
liable to be excessively watered. When a community farms a large number
of small fields, using water from the same canals, it is usually
impossible so to regulate the distribution of the privilege that each
field will receive the exact amount it needs. Some fields can remain
unwatered much longer than others, and the tendency always is to get as
much water as possible--each farmer fearing a deficiency of water and
wasting its surplus. Experience on the part of the watermasters and a
more and more settled habit in the lands themselves gradually diminish
this source of loss and create economy. Far better results, therefore,
may ordinarily be anticipated in old lands than in new. Better results,
also, are found where circumstances render difficult or impracticable
the abandonment of old fields for new, and this is ordinarily in those
portions where the water is nearly or quite sufficient for all the
irrigable land, and where all the irrigable land is taken up.

Recurring, then, to the inquiry as to the amount of land which a cubic
foot per second of running water will irrigate, this area is in many
of the new lands as low as 40 acres, and it seldom exceeds 80 acres
with the old lands. Probably there are very few regions in the world
where the demand of the soil for water is so great as here where the
supply is so small. In California a cubic foot of water is said to be
capable of irrigating more than a hundred acres, in India 200, and in
Spain and Italy a much larger area. The reason is obvious. It is the
direct consequence of the extreme aridity of the climate of Utah. The
irrigating capacity of the unit of water is even less in the southern
counties of Utah than in those around Great Salt Lake. Mr. Gilbert’s
estimate of 100 acres for this last locality being accepted as the best
that can be hoped for, it will not be rating the factor too low to say
that 80 acres is the best that can be hoped for in the valley of the
Sevier. The present factor will not, I am convinced, have a higher
average value than 50 acres.

The total acreage, therefore, which can be irrigated in the drainage
system of the Sevier by the present system of watering and of
agriculture may be estimated at about 43,000 acres, and the greatest
improvements and economies in the system of farming and watering
cannot, with the present water supply, be expected to raise the
irrigable area above 70,000 acres.

 +----------------------------+------------+----------------+
 |                            |Square miles|Acres cultivated|
 |         Districts.         |cultivated  |     during     |
 |                            |during 1877.|     1877.      |
 +----------------------------+------------+----------------+
 |San Pete Valley             |    17      |       11,000   |
 |Gunnison                    |     4.4    |        2,800   |
 |Sevier Valley above Gunnison|    16.5    |       10,500   |
 |Circle Valley               |     1.2    |          750   |
 |Panguitch and above         |     2.8    |        1,800   |
 |                            +------------+----------------+
 |    Total                   |    41.9    |       26,850   |
 +----------------------------+------------+----------------+


 +----------------------------++---------------+--------------+
 |                            |Square miles of|Acres irrigable|
 |         Districts.         |irrigable land.|     land.     |
 |                            |               |               |
 +----------------------------+---------------+---------------+
 |San Pete Valley             |       31.2    |      20,000   |
 |Gunnison                    |        6.2    |       4,000   |
 |Sevier Valley above Gunnison|       54.7    |      35,000   |
 |Circle Valley               |        6.3    |       4,000   |
 |Panguitch and above         |       11      |       7,000   |
 |                            +---------------+---------------+
 |    Total                   |      109.4    |      70,000   |
 +----------------------------+---------------+---------------+

Nevertheless, I am persuaded that it will be practicable to extend the
possibility of irrigation by an increase of water supply to a degree
sufficient to irrigate every acre of the main valley of the Sevier
which can be reached by canals, and which is also fit for cultivation.
It is by the method of artificial reservoirs. There is probably no
region in the world more admirably suited to the easy, cheap, and
efficient application of this method than this very region drained
by the Sevier River. The sources of this river are found at high
altitudes, but these high places are not mountains in the ordinary
sense, but great plateaus with broad summits. These table tops have
vast numbers of large basins broad enough for great ponds, which are
now drained by narrow gorges cut through volcanic sheets and leading
down to lower levels. These gorges are in most cases narrow cañons,
which, being once barred across, will dam the waters above them. I
could not select a better example than the following: About 15 miles
southwest of the town of Panguitch is a broad basin, the central part
of which is occupied by a shallow lake, about 1¹⁄₄ miles long and
nearly a mile wide, called Panguitch Lake. Its altitude is about 8,200
feet. It is completely surrounded with barriers, nowhere less than 100
feet in height, and finds its drainage through a narrow cleft on the
northeast side. It receives the influx of two fine streams, which in
May and June must carry heavy floods of water from the lofty rim and
broad watershed of the Panguitch Plateau lying to the westward. Even in
August their united flow must reach 50 feet per second. By throwing a
dam 30 feet high and 50 or 60 feet long across the outlet between its
walls of solid trachyte, a lake would be formed with an area of 6 or 7
square miles. There are many such basins upon the Panguitch Plateau,
and it would be a low estimate to say that it would be possible, at
comparatively small expense, to create 30 or 40 square miles of lake
surface, with an average depth of 20 feet, upon that plateau alone.
The precipitation upon its surface would be more than sufficient to
fill these lakes every year. A dam across the upper part of East Fork
Cañon would create a lake behind it which might have an area of 12 to
15 square miles. Numerous reservoirs could be created at small expense
in Grass Valley, upon the Fish Lake Plateau, and upon the Sevier
Plateau, and in those valleys which are drained by Salina Creek and its
tributaries. The Sevier River itself can be cheaply dammed at several
gorges and made to overflow swampy flats above--notably at the head
of Marysvale Cañon, and again just north of Van Buren’s ranch. Other
things equal, it would be better, as well as cheaper, to build dams at
higher levels, since the evaporation is much less there than in the
valleys, and the natural facilities for creating lakes are also greater.

In this way, I believe it to be practicable to reserve a store of water
sufficient to irrigate every acre of ground in the Sevier Valley, which
is by the nature of its soil and its situation suitable for irrigation.
It may be noted, too, that the “tank system” thus suggested would not
interfere with or take the place of the present system, but would be
supplementary to it. The streams would in June and early July run
through the lakes and over the dams, yielding about as much water as
they now yield in those months, and the reservoirs would not have to be
drawn upon before the middle of July.

A very interesting subject connected with the peculiar conditions of
agriculture in the west is the origin and distribution of alkaline
salts in the soil. In moist regions such occurrences are rare. They
are peculiar to arid regions, and, in truth, very few arid regions
fail to exhibit them. The cause in a general way is well known. The
small amount of rain which falls during the wet season penetrates
deeply into the earth, where it gradually takes up such soluble salts
as it encounters there. During the dry season which follows, there
is always going on an evaporation from the surface, however dry it
may appear to the senses. It is a mistake to suppose that because the
saline soil is as dry as ashes no evaporation is in progress. In many
cases this may be true; but often in the most arid regions there are
many localities where the water collects far below the immediate
surface. By capillary action, this water always tends to diffuse itself
throughout the loose materials which make up the overlying soils. As
fast as it is evaporated at the surface, more water from below rises
by capillary action to take its place. When the air is exceedingly
dry, as it invariably is in summer throughout the whole Rocky Mountain
Region at moderate altitudes, the evaporative power becomes so great
and extends to such a depth below the immediate surface, that we are
unable to recognize the slightest traces of moisture indicating that
evaporation is going on. The water which may have accumulated beneath
has gradually risen by percolation through the interstices of the
unconsolidated materials of the soil, bringing with it whatever soluble
salts it may have taken into solution during its sojourn beneath the
surface. These soluble salts are left at the surface by the final
evaporation of the water, and, as the process is continuous until the
reservoir beneath is exhausted, the salts accumulate. Contrast this now
with the action going on in a moist country. Here the copious waters
wash the soils as rapidly as the salts come up from below, and carry
them in solution into the drainage channels. During the greater part of
the year the movement of the waters is partly from the surface downward
into the subterranean water courses, from which they emerge in springs;
partly by surface drainages into rills, and thence into living streams.
By both movements, any tendency to accumulate soluble salts at the
surface during the relatively brief periods of dryness is prevented.
In a dry country the periods of dryness are very much longer, and the
rainfall is seldom sufficient to wash the accumulated salts from the
soil. There is, however, usually a limit to this accumulation, since
at long intervals rains occur sufficient to remove a large portion of
the salts. The difference between a dry and wet country in this respect
is therefore one of degree rather than of kind. In a dry country
the periods of accumulation of salts at the surface are long and
continuous, while the washings of the soil are rare and imperfect. In a
wet country the periods of accumulation are short and rare, while the
washings are frequent, copious, and thorough.

The saline materials vary widely in character and constitution. They
are, however, chiefly salts of soda, lime, potash, and magnesia.
Sometimes they exist in the condition of chlorides, sometimes of
carbonates, and sometimes of sulphates. The reactions from which
they are derived are many, and it will be proper here to give only a
few illustrations. A portion of the salts of magnesia and soda are
derived from the decomposition, by atmospheric influences, of volcanic,
granitic, and other crystalline rocks. Where these materials exist in
the form of felspar, hornblende, and pyroxene, the great decomposing
agent is water charged with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, by
the action of which soda, magnesia, and lime are, with inconceivable
slowness, dissolved out of the constituents of these rocks. There is no
stream, however pure it may apparently be, which does not carry more or
less of chlorides and carbonates in solution. The sulphates are derived
mainly from subterranean sources. In the Rocky Mountain Region, one of
the most common forms of sulphate is found very abundantly in the rocks
of the Carboniferous, Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Ages, in the
forms of gypsum and selenite, which are sulphates of lime. Whenever
waters containing carbonate of soda are filtered through strata
containing these sulphates, a double decomposition takes place, by
which carbonate of lime and sulphate of soda are formed. The carbonate
of lime is very slightly soluble in water, while the sulphate of soda
is highly so, and it is well known that waters emanating from the
sedimentary rocks just spoken of are very frequently highly charged
with it. Such, doubtless, is the origin of this mineral in the so
called alkaline waters of the west, and of all the soluble minerals
which pass under the name of alkali it is one of the most common.
Carbonate of soda is also abundant in the soils. It is frequently found
in the summer time, coating the surface of bottom lands which earlier
in the season have been submerged by the augmented streams. Common salt
(chloride of sodium) is even more abundant than the sulphate. It is
well known, however, that many of the sedimentary rocks, particularly
those of the Triassic and Jurassic Age, contain an abundance of it,
and there are many localities in the west where a very fair article
of common salt is obtained by the lixiviation of the detritus of the
red Triassic rocks. Incrustations of these soluble saline materials
occur most abundantly in the vicinity of the rivers and in the bottom
lands. This may at first seem somewhat strange, but it is susceptible
of a ready explanation. In order that these salts may accumulate at
the surface, there must be going on continually a slow transmission
of moisture from under ground upward, and since a continuous supply
of water is more frequently found in the bottom lands than elsewhere,
it follows that the conditions of these accumulations are here more
frequently fulfilled. They may, however, and do occur at localities
which probably contain subterranean reservoirs of water, which are
annually filled during the wet season. Sometimes these salts are so
abundant that the land requires a thorough washing before it is fit for
agriculture, and the Mormons have on several occasions, when founding
settlements, been obliged to allow the waters from their ditches to
leach the land for many months, and in one or two cases for two, and
even three, years, before a good crop could be raised. There is no
difficulty, however, in removing any quantity of these readily soluble
salts from the soil, provided this leaching process be continued long
enough; and it is usually found that lands which were originally highly
akaline become, when reclaimed from their alkalinity, among the most
fertile.

       *       *       *       *       *

There yet remains for mention a number of small areas served by some
minor streams in southwestern Utah. These little creeks head in the
mountains, but are soon lost in the deserts of that arid and torrid
region, none of their waters finding their way to the ocean. The
greater number of them belong to the drainage basin of Sevier Lake.
In each case the water supply is small, and inadequate to supply the
available land. In nearly every case the competence of the supply
has been determined in the most practical way--by the operations of
settlers; but some allowance has been made for an increase of the
irrigable land by the more economic use of the water. This can be
accomplished by the construction of better waterways, and by more
carefully flowing the water over the lands.

The following table exhibits the extent of these areas:

  +----------------------------------------+-------+--------+
  |                                        | Square|        |
  |               Districts.               | miles.| Acres. |
  +----------------------------------------+-------+--------+
  |Cherry Creek                            |    .2 |    100 |
  |Judd Creek                              |    .2 |    100 |
  |Levan                                   |   3.1 |  2,000 |
  |Scipio                                  |   2.6 |  1,700 |
  |Holden                                  |   1.6 |  1,000 |
  |Fillmore and Oak Creek                  |   5.5 |  3,500 |
  |Meadow Creek                            |   1.9 |  1,200 |
  |Kanosh                                  |   3.1 |  2,000 |
  |Beaver Creek and tributaries            |  21.9 | 14,000 |
  |Paragoonah                              |   1.5 |  1,000 |
  |Parowan                                 |   1.5 |  1,000 |
  |Summit                                  |    .6 |    400 |
  |Cedar City, Iron City, and Fort Hamilton|   3.6 |  2,300 |
  |Mountain Meadows                        |    .3 |    200 |
  |Pinto                                   |    .3 |    200 |
  |Hebron                                  |   1.6 |  1,000 |
  |                                        +-------+--------+
  |      Total                             |  49.5 | 31,700 |
  +----------------------------------------+-------+--------+




                              CHAPTER IX.

 IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER
                         AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.

                          BY A. H. THOMPSON.


That portion of Utah drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries
belongs to a great basin limited on the north by the Uinta Mountains
and on the west by the high plateaus that separate the drainage of the
Colorado from that of the salt lakes of the interior, and extending
beyond the limits of the Territory on the east and south. The floor
of this basin is extremely rough, being broken by isolated groups of
rugged mountains, by plateaus encircled with cliffs of almost vertical
rock, by mesas and amphitheaters, and huge monumental and castellated
buttes. Everywhere the surface is cut and carved with a network of
cañons, hundreds and often thousands of feet in depth.

The main channel through which its drainage passes to the sea is the
Colorado, and its proper upper continuation, the Green River.

The principal tributaries to these streams from the east are the White,
the Grand, and the San Juan Rivers--all rising in the high mountains
east of the Territory and flowing in a general westerly course--the
White entering the Green River, the Grand uniting with the Green to
form the Colorado, and the San Juan entering the latter about 125 miles
below the junction of the Grand and the Green. The Virgin, the Kanab,
the Paria, the Escalante, the Fremont, the San Rafael, the Price, the
Minnie Maud, the Uinta, and Ashley Fork are the principal tributaries
from the west.

This portion of Utah is but sparsely settled by white people, the only
permanent locations being in the southwestern part, and in the Uinta
Valley at the north. Information concerning its agricultural resources
is limited, being confined, except in relation to the localities
before mentioned, to data collected by the geographical and geological
parties of this survey. Many of the streams have been visited but a
single time, and different streams at widely different dates, during a
field season. Often the exigencies of the survey prevented as close an
examination into the flow of water, and the location and character of
the soil of the arable tracts, as was desirable; yet, on the whole, it
is thought that the data collected can be relied upon as a very close
approximation.

The climate of the basin is one of extreme aridity. The prevailing wind
is westerly. The high plateaus and mountains forming the western rim
of the basin force these winds up to an altitude above the sea of over
10,000 feet, and thus act as great condensers to deprive them of their
moisture. Flowing down from the higher lands into the warmer regions
below, their capacity for absorption is increased, and during the
greater portion of the year the winds abstract from rather than add to
the humidity of the lower altitudes. But little is known concerning the
actual amount of precipitation of moisture within the basin. Below an
altitude of 7,000 feet it is very small, probably not over an average
of 5 inches yearly. At higher altitudes it is much greater, probably
reaching 24 inches, but this is mostly during the winter months and in
the form of snow.

The elevation of the region under consideration is from 2,500 feet to
11,500 feet above the sea, thus giving great range in temperature. In
the valleys of the extreme southwestern portion an almost subtropical
warmth is experienced, and the different valleys containing arable
lands we pass from these by insensible gradations to those where
frosts occur during every month in the year. Generally, the limit of
successful cultivation of the soil is below 7,000 feet.

In this portion of Utah irrigation is essential to agriculture. If
all the single acres it is possible to cultivate without artificial
irrigation were aggregated, I do not believe the sum would reach
one-fourth of one square mile, and every foot of this meager amount
is irrigated naturally. Springs are of infrequent occurrence. The
great source of the water supply is the streams fed by the rains and
snows of the high table lands and mountains. All these streams have a
rapid fall in their upper courses, and are here often of considerable
size; but upon reaching the lower and more level country their waters
are rapidly absorbed by the porous soil and evaporated by the higher
temperature. So great is the loss from these causes that some streams
fail to reach the main drainage channel during the warmer months, and
all are greatly shrunken in volume. All the arable lands--or lands
where altitude, slope of surface, and quality of soil permit successful
cultivation, if a supply of water can be obtained, and from which lands
to irrigate, or irrigable lands, may be selected--are in the valleys
adjacent to the streams. Usually this area in many valleys is in excess
of that which the water in the streams can irrigate, and choice in the
location of lands to cultivate is often practicable. In this report
I have considered irrigable lands to be such only as possess all the
necessary qualifications of altitude, slope of surface, and fertility
of soil, and have, in addition, an available supply of one cubic foot
of water per second for each hundred acres. The great dissimilarity
between the valleys makes it desirable to consider the drainage basin
of each separately, in respect to arable lands, irrigable lands, volume
of water, and practicability of increasing this supply during the
irrigating season.


                           THE VIRGIN RIVER.

This stream is in the extreme southwest corner of the area under
consideration. Its branches rise in the Colob Plateau, at altitudes
varying from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. It flows in a
southwesterly course, and joins the Colorado beyond the boundaries of
Utah. The smaller creeks draining the eastern portion of the plateau
unite, after descending to an altitude of 5,500 feet above the sea,
and form what is called the Pa-ru-nu-weap Fork of the Virgin. At and
below the junction of these creeks, the cañon valley in which they
flow widens into what is known as Long Valley. There a considerable
area of available land is found. The soil is excellent, and wherever
cultivated yields abundant crops. Below Long Valley the stream enters
Pa-ru-nu-weap Cañon, and is simply a series of cascades for 15 miles,
descending in this distance from 5,000 to 3,500 feet above the sea
level. Emerging, it enters the valley of the Virgin. This valley is 44
miles in length. Its upper portion is only an enlargement of the cañon,
in which small areas of available land are found. Its lower portion is
a broader valley, much broken by low, basalt covered mesas, and sharp
ridges of tilted sedimentary rocks. In the upper portion of the valley
the river receives several accessions, the principal ones being Little
Zion, North Fork, La Verkin, and Ash Creeks. With the exception of
the Ash, but very little cultivable land is found along these creeks.
Midway in the valley two streams enter, coming from the Pine Valley
Mountains and having small areas of irrigable land along their courses,
and near the foot the Santa Clara River adds its water. The united
streams leave the valley by a deep cañon cut through the Beaver Dam
Mountains. The valley of the Virgin has a lower altitude than any other
portion of Utah, and a warmer climate. The soil of the arable lands is
usually good, and wherever it is possible to irrigate produces abundant
crops. Some little difficulty is occasionally experienced in the first
years of cultivation from an excess of alkaline constituents in the
soil, but plentiful applications of water soon remove this difficulty,
and these lands often become the most productive. No reliable data
concerning the amount of arable land in the drainage basin, or the
volume of water carried by the Virgin River and its tributaries, have
been collected. From the best information attainable, the amount of
land actually irrigated in 1875, is placed at eleven square miles.
This conclusion is based in the main upon returns made in 1875 to
the Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing Society, the amount under
cultivation in Long Valley having been ascertained by Mr. J. H.
Renshawe, of this survey. To irrigate this, all the water in most of
the tributary streams is used, but a large surplus remains in the main
river. The amount of arable land is far in excess of the water supply,
but some considerable expense for dams and canals would be necessary to
utilize the whole amount.

It is probable that a portion of the Virgin River can be used to
advantage below the Beaver Dam Mountains in Nevada, and that a
sufficient amount to irrigate 25 square miles can be used to good
advantage in Utah.

The time when the volume of available water furnished by any stream
bears the least ratio to the demands of the growing crops is the
most critical period in the cultivation of the soil where artificial
irrigation is a necessity. This time, depending as it does upon the
crops cultivated, the character of the soil, and the source of the
water supply, whether from springs or from melting snows, differs in
different localities. In the valley of the Virgin it occurs in June.

At this time the river, though not at flood height, which occurs in
April, carries a large volume of water, and, by reason of the source of
this supply being in the rapidly melting snows of the Colob Plateau, is
decreasing but slowly, and thus the amount available at this critical
period bears a greater ratio to the flood of the stream than is usual
in Utah. But little information has been obtained concerning the amount
of water necessary to irrigate an acre. It is thought, however, to be
much greater than in any other portion of Utah.


KANAB CREEK.

Kanab Creek rises in springs bursting from underneath the cliffs
forming the southern boundary of the Pauns-a-gunt Plateau, and flows
southward until it joins the Colorado River in Arizona. Small areas
of arable land are found along its course after it has descended to
an altitude of 7,500 feet, and thence until it passes beyond the
boundaries of Utah. The largest area in one body is in Kanab Valley, at
the foot of the Vermilion Cliffs. It is greatly in excess of the water
supply, is at an altitude of about 5,000 feet, has a fertile soil, and
requires but comparatively a small amount of irrigation. The amount
actually under cultivation in 1877 is placed by the best information
attainable at 700 acres. The critical period in the cultivation of this
area occurs in June. At that time the stream is falling rapidly, and
crops have sometimes been seriously damaged. Estimates of the volume of
water in the stream, made at different seasons and in different years,
give 15 cubic feet per second as the flow in June. Some desultory
attempts have been made to increase the supply by ponding, the cañon
through the Vermilion Cliffs above the arable lands affording many
opportunities. When this improvement is made on some well considered
and well executed plan, and the waterways flumed through some bad
sandy ground that now absorbs much water, the amount available at the
critical period can be at least doubled.

Some years ago a settlement was established at the foot of the
Pink Cliffs, on the headwaters of the Kanab, but the town site was
eventually abandoned because of the deep snows of winter and the frosts
of summer.


                           THE PARIA RIVER.

The Paria River rises under the eastern escarpment of the Pauns-a-gunt
Plateau, at about the same altitude as Kanab Creek, and flows in a
southwesterly course for 100 miles, joining the Colorado in Arizona.
Through the greater part of its course the river flows in a deep cañon,
but near its head, and at an altitude of 6,000 feet, the cañon expands
into a valley. Lower in its course, and at an altitude of 4,500 feet,
the cañon again widens into a smaller valley. These are the only areas
of arable lands within its drainage basin in Utah. The larger contains
15 and the smaller 10 square miles. In August, 1874, this stream flowed
30 cubic feet per second in the upper valley. The flow in the lower
would be one-third greater. High water occurs in April or early in
May. At this time the volume is three times greater than in August.
Settlements have been made in both valleys, and quite a large area is
under cultivation. The soil is excellent.

The critical period in irrigation is the latter part of June or early
in July. At this time the stream probably carries 40 feet per second.
The land in the lower valley is much subject to flooding from heavy
showers that, falling on the table lands and mesas in the upper portion
of the drainage basin, pour a torrent often beyond the capacity of the
channel to convey through the lower valley. So great was the damage
done by these floods in sweeping away dams, breaking through ditches,
and inundating the growing crops at the site first selected for
settlement, that it was abandoned after three years’ occupation, and
other parts, where these sudden rushes could be controlled, selected.
Considerable difficulty has been experienced in the lower valley from
the vast amount of argillaceous sediment deposited on it. So great
during the floods is this deposit from the water used in irrigation
that the ground becomes completely coated with an impervious layer, and
growing crops, especially of small grains, suffer from the inability of
the soil to absorb the water conducted on it. The irrigating capacity
of this stream during the critical period could be greatly increased by
the construction of reservoirs in which to store the great surplus of
water that flows earlier in the season. The cañons above the valleys
offer very favorable opportunities for building the necessary dams and
embankments.


                         THE ESCALANTE RIVER.

This stream enters the Colorado next north of the Paria. It rises
under the wall forming the eastern face of the Aquarius Plateau; flows
first northeast, then east, and finally southeast, before reaching the
Colorado. Its length is 90 miles, the lower three-fourths being in a
narrow cañon having vertical walls ranging from 900 to 1,200 feet in
height. Through this gorge the river sweeps, sometimes filling the
whole space from wall to wall; sometimes winding from side to side in
a flood plain of sand, and always shifting its bed more or less with
every freshet. Not an acre of accessible arable land is known in the
whole length of the cañon, and its depth precludes the possibility of
using the waters of the river on the lands above. Near the head of the
southern branch of the Escalante, in what is known as Potato Valley,
and at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, is an area of about 6 square
miles of available land. The flow of water in this branch was 90 cubic
feet per second in July, 1875. A portion of this area is now under
cultivation, and is said to produce good crops. A portion of the east
flank of the Aquarius Plateau is drained by a number of creeks that
join the Escalante in the deep gorge below Potato Valley; but they
all enter close cañons, in which no areas of arable land are known at
an altitude low enough for successful cultivation. Part of the waters
of these creeks might be used to irrigate grass lands at an altitude
of about 8,000 feet; but the conditions of pasturage are such in this
region that the amount practically available is small.


                          THE FREMONT RIVER.

The largest branch of this stream rises in the Un-ca-pa-ga Mountains,
and after flowing in an easterly direction for 125 miles enters the
Colorado about 40 miles below the junction of the Grand and Green. It
is joined by one considerable tributary, Curtis Creek, from the north,
and another smaller, Tantalus Creek, from the south. The lower half
of its course is through two deep cañons, separated by an intervening
valley called Graves Valley, in which is an area of 10 square miles of
arable land, with an altitude of 4,500 feet above sea level. On the
upper waters of the main river, in what is known as Rabbit Valley, and
at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet, are 25 square miles of arable
land of good quality. This area, from its altitude, should be subject
to late and early frosts, but the warm sandy soil and southeastern
slope of the whole valley will probably prevent much damage from this
cause. The valley is now used as a herd ground for cattle belonging
to the settlements in Sevier Valley, and the few experiments made by
the herdsmen in cultivating the soil also indicate that the danger to
be apprehended is slight. The volume of water flowing through Rabbit
Valley in July, 1875, was 175 cubic feet per second.

Tantalus Creek drains the northern portion of the eastern slope of the
Aquarius Plateau. It enters a close cañon at 8,000 feet altitude, and
continues in cañons until it has passed through Water Pocket Fold. It
then flows along a desolate valley at the foot of the fold until it
joins the Fremont River. During the warmer months the water in this
creek is usually absorbed and evaporated before reaching its mouth. In
the valley at the foot of Water Pocket Fold are about 10 square miles
of arable land; but the almost inaccessible situation of the valley and
the desolation and ruggedness of the surrounding country may present
insurmountable obstacles to its settlement.

Curtis Creek, the northern tributary of Fremont River, is formed by
the union of several smaller streams that rise in the Wasatch Plateau.
Debouching from the plateau, these branches flow across what is known
as Castle Valley, and here, at an altitude of 6,000 feet, are 25 square
miles of good arable land. They were measured in September, 1876, and
gave an aggregated flow of 47 cubic feet per second. As they derive a
greater part of their waters from the melting snows on the plateau,
double this amount, or 94 cubic feet, would not be an overestimate
of the volume during the irrigating season. After the union of these
branches, the united stream flows in a deep cañon until near its
junction with the Fremont River in Graves Valley. Both Curtis Creek and
the Fremont receive some accessions to their volume from springs in
the cañons through which they flow above this valley. If all the water
in their upper courses should be used to irrigate lands in Castle and
Rabbit Valleys, a sufficient amount would be returned to their channels
by percolation to irrigate, with the addition of the accessions in the
cañons, all the arable land in Graves Valley.


                         THE SAN RAFAEL RIVER.

This stream flows in an easterly course, and enters the Green 32
miles above the junction of that stream with the Grand. It has three
principal branches--Ferron, Cottonwood, and Huntington Creeks--all
rising in the Wasatch Plateau at an altitude of about 10,000 feet.
These streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses, and leave
the plateau through almost impassable cañons cut in its eastern wall
overlooking Castle Valley. They flow across that at intervals of a few
miles apart, and, then uniting, cut a deep, narrow cañon through the
San Rafael Swell. Emerging from the swell, the river flows across a
low, broken country until its junction with the Green. The largest body
of arable land within the drainage basin of the San Rafael is in Castle
Valley, a long, narrow depression lying between the eastern escarpment
of the Wasatch Plateau and the San Rafael Swell. It is nearly 60 miles
in length from north to south, and has an average elevation of 6,000
feet above the sea. Its southern end, as has been before mentioned,
is drained by the tributaries of Curtis Creek, the central portion by
the three streams forming the San Rafael, and the northern by Price
River. No permanent settlements have been made in the valley, but it is
much used as a winter herding ground for stock owned by the settlers
in other portions of Utah. Lying near the branches of the San Rafael
that cross it, and in such position that the water can be easily
conducted over it, are 200 square miles of arable land, generally of
good quality. East of the San Rafael Swell, and lying on both sides of
the river, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, are 20 square miles of arable
land, which could be easily irrigated. The river was carefully measured
in July, 1876, and the volume of flow found to be 1,676 cubic feet per
second. The three branches in Castle Valley were also measured, with
results closely approximating the measurement of the united streams.
These measurements were made at high water, though not when the streams
were at their flood. As most of this volume is derived from the melting
snow, which rarely disappears from the high plateau before the middle
of July, the flow would be maintained with considerable steadiness
during a large part of what would be the critical period in the
irrigation of this valley. After the middle of July the decrease would
be very rapid until September, and the lowest stage of water reached
about the first of October, when the river would not flow probably more
than 400 cubic feet.


                           THE PRICE RIVER.

This river rises in the angle formed by the intersection of the Wasatch
and Western Tavaputs Plateaus, receiving tributaries from both these
table lands, and has a general easterly course for 100 miles. It
crosses the northern end of Castle Valley, and then flows through a
broken country near the foot of the escarpment called the Book Cliffs,
forming the southern boundary of the Tavaputs Plateau, till within 20
miles of the Green River, when it cuts through this escarpment into the
plateau and joins the Green a few miles above the foot of Gray Cañon.
The arable lands along its course are mostly found in Castle Valley,
where there are at least 50 square miles--a quantity considerably in
excess of the irrigating capacity of the stream. The volume of water
was measured in July, 1877, a few miles below where it debouches into
Castle Valley, and found to be 189 cubic feet per second. It must
suffer great loss from absorption, as the volume when leaving the
cliffs is much greater, and the aggregated flow of the branches on the
plateaus is at least twice as great.


                          MINNIE MAUD CREEK.

This stream rises in the broken country, where the Western Tavaputs
and Wasatch Plateaus break into the Uinta Mountains. It has a general
easterly course, and joins the Green midway in the Cañon of Desolation.
For the greater part of its course it flows in a cañon that widens
enough occasionally to give a small area of arable land. One such area,
containing 6 square miles, occurs at an altitude of 5,500 feet. Here
the volume of water was measured in July, 1877, and found to be 16
cubic feet per second.


                           THE UINTA RIVER.

This is the largest tributary emptying into the main drainage channel
from the west. It rises in the Uinta Mountains, and has a southerly
course for 65 miles. The Duchesne River, its western branch, rises in
the same mountains, and the two streams unite only a few miles before
the Uinta joins the Green. The drainage basin of the Uinta has an
area of 1,300 square miles, lying between the altitudes of 4,500 and
7,000 feet above the sea. It has, generally speaking, a regular slope
from the foot of the Uinta Mountains to the mouth of the streams,
or in a direction toward the southeast. The surface of the basin is
greatly diversified, consisting of broad reaches of bottom lands along
the rivers; elevated, level, or gently sloping benches, sometimes
partially arable, but oftener gravelly barrens; broken, rock-faced
terraces; and low cliffs and ridges. It is difficult to estimate the
amount of arable land. All the bottom lands are such, and can be easily
irrigated. The streams have a rapid fall, but flow near the surface,
and no deep cañons are found anywhere in the basin. This renders it
possible to conduct the water over considerable areas of bench land,
and wherever the soil of these is sufficiently fertile, selections
of good farming land can be made. Above the limit in altitude for
successful cultivation, large tracts of meadow lands can be irrigated.
Those best acquainted with the extent of these classes of land place
the arable, including irrigable natural meadow lands, at 40 per cent.
of the whole basin. This would give an area of 520 square miles, and
I do not think it is an overestimate. The volume of water flowing in
the Duchesne River above its junction with Lake Fork was measured in
August, 1877, and found to be 1,011 cubic feet per second. The Uinta
was measured above its junction with the Duchesne in October, 1877,
and then flowed 214 cubic feet per second. These streams all rise in
high mountains, from whose summits the snow is never completely melted.
The line of highest water is usually in June, but the flow is well
sustained through July. After that the volume rapidly decreases, and
lowest water occurs in October. The critical period in the irrigation
of this basin would occur in August. I think it may safely be assumed
that the measurements of the Duchesne and the Uinta represent the flow
at the critical period, but that Lake Fork should be doubled. This
would give 1,825 cubic feet per second, or enough to irrigate, at the
assumed standard, 285 square miles, or 22 per cent. of the whole area
of the basin, and indicates the Uinta drainage as one of the best, if
not the best, agricultural valley in Utah.


                             ASHLEY FORK.

This stream is the most northern tributary of the Green River south of
the Uinta Mountains. It rises in that range, but at a lower altitude
than the branches of the Uinta, and has a southeasterly course 48 miles
in length. On its lower course, at an altitude of 5,500 feet, are 75
square miles of arable land of excellent quality, a few acres of which
are now cultivated. There is sufficient water in the stream during the
critical season to irrigate 25 square miles.


                             HENRYS FORK.

But a small portion of the valley of Henrys Fork lies within the
Territory of Utah, but this portion includes its best lands. A
beautiful natural meadow is here found, affording a large quantity of
hay to the ranchmen of that country. The altitude is great, the valley
being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, and hence liable to late
and early frosts.

About 10 square miles can be redeemed by irrigation. The volume of
the stream is sufficient to irrigate a much larger tract, but a part
is needed for other lands which lie farther up the river, within the
Territory of Wyoming.


                           THE WHITE RIVER.

The White River enters the Green from the east, about two miles below
the mouth of the Uinta. This stream rises in Colorado, and has only a
small portion of its course in Utah, but lying within the boundaries
of the Territory are 75 square miles of arable land which may be
irrigated with its water. The river was measured in October, 1877, near
its mouth, and flowed 734 cubic feet per second. High water usually
occurs in June, and the critical period in the irrigation of the land
is probably in August, when the stream should flow at least double
the volume of October, or, 1,468 cubic feet per second. This would be
greatly in excess of the amount needed to irrigate the available land
in Utah, and, from the best information attainable, it seems doubtful
if it could be used higher up on the course of the stream.


                           THE GREEN RIVER.

_Brown’s Park._--Brown’s Park is a valley through which the Green River
meanders. Three or four small streams head in the mountains to the
north and a like number in the mountains to the south and find their
way into the river in the midst of the park. But a small portion of the
park lies within Utah and the small streams will be used for irrigation
in the portion which falls in Colorado. The flood plain lands of the
Green are extensive, and here many natural meadow lands are found,
interspersed with fine groves of cottonwood. Some of the bench lands
are well adapted to irrigation, but a portion of them and the foot
hills back of them are naked, valueless bad-lands.

When the general industries of the country shall warrant the great
expenditure necessary, the Green will be taken out to irrigate the
bench lands on either side. About 10 square miles of these bench lands
will fall within Utah.

_Below Split Mountain Cañon._--Lying along the Green, and between
the foot of Split Mountain Cañon and the mouth of the Uinta, are 50
square miles of arable land. Some portions of this may be subject to
inundations at times of extraordinary floods, but the greater part
is above high water mark. Green River here carries sufficient water
to irrigate many times this amount of land, and while the cost for
the construction of suitable dams and canals would be greater than on
smaller streams, neither this nor the engineering skill required would
be beyond the resources of any ordinary settlement.

_Gunnison Valley._--In Gunnison Valley, below the foot of Gray Cañon,
are 25 square miles of arable land. The cost of constructing the
necessary irrigation works at this point would be greater than above
the mouth of the Uinta, but still not beyond the ability of a colony.
Green River flowed in Gunnison Valley in September, 1877, 4,400 cubic
feet of water per second, enough to irrigate at the standard adopted
860 square miles. There seems to be no arable land to which it is
possible to take this great surplus, and probably for many years to
come it will be suffered to flow “unvexed to the sea”.

The area colored on the map is much greater than above indicated. The
selections of irrigable lands will be made on either side of the river,
in patches, within the colored district.


                           THE GRAND RIVER.

The Grand River has but a small amount of arable land along its course
in Utah, and flows for most of the distance in a close cañon. The
volume of the stream, about 40 miles above its junction with the Green,
was measured in September, 1877, and found to be 4,860 feet per second.
It is probable that selections can be made to the extent of 40 square
miles from the areas colored on the map.


                          THE SAN JUAN RIVER.

But little is known concerning the arable lands or volume of water in
the valley of the San Juan. It flows for the most of its course through
Utah in a cañon, and all the arable land is thought to be so much
subject to overflow that cultivation is impracticable.


                            OTHER STREAMS.

A few smaller streams are also tributary to the Colorado and Green
within the Territory of Utah, but they mostly flow in deep cañons, are
often dry in some portion of their course during every year, have at
best only a few acres of arable land anywhere along their courses, and
have been omitted in this report.

The following table gives a summary of the facts relating to the flow
of the several streams and the amount of arable and irrigable lands in
the districts described above:

  +----------------------------+-------------+---------+---------+
  |                            | Estimated   |         |         |
  |                            | volume of   | Square  |Acres of |
  |                            |flow during  |miles of |irrigable|
  |       Name of stream.      | irrigating  |irrigable|  land.  |
  |                            |season. (Feet|  land.  |         |
  |                            | per second.)|         |         |
  +----------------------------+-------------+---------+---------+
  |Virgin River                |        --   |    30   |  19,200 |
  |Kanab Creek                 |         15  |    2¹⁄₂ |   1,600 |
  |Paria River                 |         40  |     6   |   3,840 |
  |Escalante River             |         --  |     6   |   3,840 |
  |Fremont River               |        269  |    38   |  24,320 |
  |San Rafael River            |      1,118  |   175   | 112,000 |
  |Price River                 |        189  |    11   |   7,040 |
  |Minnie Maud Creek           |         16  |     3   |   1,920 |
  |Uinta River                 |      1,825  |   285   | 182,400 |
  |Ashley Fork                 |        --   |    25   |  16,000 |
  |Henrys Fork                 |        --   |    10   |   6,400 |
  |White River                 |      1,468  |    75   |  48,000 |
  |Green River                 |             |         |         |
  | Browns Park                |        --   |    10   |   6,400 |
  | Below Split Mountain Cañon |      4,400  |    50   |  32,000 |
  | Gunnison Valley            |        --   |    25   |  16,000 |
  |Grand River                 |      4,860  |    40   |  25,600 |
  |                            +-------------+---------+---------+
  |    Total                   |        --   |  791¹⁄₂ | 506,560 |
  +----------------------------+-------------+---------+---------+




                              CHAPTER X.

             LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.

                        BY WILLIS DRUMMOND, JR.


The land grant system in favor of internal improvements has become a
well settled policy of this Government, and has attained not only a
social but a political importance.

Like other American institutions its growth has been rapid, and
donations of that character now cover millions of acres of the public
domain. Of grants for railroads, wagon roads, and canals alone,
however, will this chapter treat, and no reference other than necessary
to a proper examination of the question will be made to concessions
whose terms place the lands under specific disposal by the States, such
as those for the establishment of schools, reclamation of swamp lands,
etc.

The majority of grants, therefore, coming within our notice will be
those in aid of railroads, though many have been made in favor of
wagon roads and canals. The latter have, however, almost become things
of the past, and are rapidly being superseded by the railway. More
than one canal has given way to the more popular and general means of
transportation, and it is safe to say that no further donations for
canal purposes will be made, unless the circumstances should be such as
to absolutely demand that means of conveyance. At any rate, they will
not be made for purposes of general improvement.

The object of this chapter is to point out the origin, growth,
character, and extent of these concessions. It is therefore necessary
to inquire into the early donations for various purposes.

The first act making a donation in favor of internal improvements was
approved on the 30th of April, 1802, and was entitled “An act to enable
the people of the eastern division of the territory northwest of the
river Ohio to form a constitution and State government, and for the
admission of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the
original States, and for other purposes.”

By the third proviso to the seventh section of that statute,
“one-twentieth part of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the
said State sold by Congress, from and after the thirtieth day of June
next, after deducting all expenses incident to the same”, was granted
and given to the said State (Ohio), and was to be applied to the laying
out and making of public roads leading to the Ohio River, to the said
State, and through the same, from the navigable waters emptying into
the Atlantic. Such roads were to be laid out under the authority of
Congress, with the consent of the several States through which they
passed.

By an act approved March 3, 1803, the Secretary of the Treasury was
directed to pay, to such persons as the legislature of the State of
Ohio should designate, 3 per cent. of the net proceeds, as above, which
sums were to be applied to laying out, opening, and making roads within
said State.

These acts, I believe, are the first two touching public improvements
through congressional aid. Of course there had previously been many
donations of land in favor of various persons, but they were for
services rendered the Government, or special preëmption privileges.

Legislation similar to the acts above referred to, was enacted until
the year 1824, varying only in the extent of the proceeds granted.

By an act approved May 26, 1824, the State of Indiana was authorized
to open and build a canal, and the right of way with 90 feet of land
on each side thereof, was granted, subject to use and occupancy for
the purposes specified. Nothing, however, was done under that act by
the State; and on the 2d of March, 1827, it was superseded by an act
of greater extent. On that day two acts were passed giving to Indiana
and Illinois, respectively, certain lands in aid of the construction of
canals, the first to connect the navigation of the Wabash River with
the waters of Lake Erie, and the second to connect the waters of the
Illinois River with those of Lake Michigan. A quantity of land, equal
to one-half of five sections in width on each side of said canals, was
granted, reserving to the United States each alternate section. The
canals were to remain public highways for the use of the Government,
free from toll or other charge whatever; were to be commenced in five
years, and completed in twenty years, or the States were bound to pay
to the United States “the amount of any lands previously sold”, and the
titles of the purchasers under the States were to be valid.

As soon as the lines of the canals were fixed and the selections of
land were made, the States had power to sell, and give fee simple title
to the whole or any part of the lands.

These may, properly, be considered the initiatory concessions of lands
in favor of internal improvements.

As stated, a grant for right of way had been made, but that right was
solely one of use and occupancy. In this case the right of the States
to sell became absolute upon the selection of the lands. To be sure,
they were liable to repay the Government the price received by the sale
of any of the lands, but the titles of their purchasers were to be in
“fee”; and by such right of disposal they were enabled to realize at
once on their grant, and thereby secure a speedier construction of the
canals.

On the same day (March 2) there was also granted to Indiana a certain
strip of land formerly held by the Pottawatamie Indians, or the
proceeds from the sale thereof, to be applied in building a road from
Lake Michigan, via Indianapolis, to some convenient point on the Ohio
River.

On the next day (March 3) an act was approved granting to Ohio one-half
of two sections along the entire line of a road to be constructed from
Sandusky to Columbus.

By an act approved May 23, 1828, a grant of 400,000 acres of “the
relinquished lands” in certain counties in Alabama was made in aid of
the improvement of the Tennessee and other rivers in that State; and
in case that amount of “said relinquished lands” could not be found
unappropriated, the necessary quantity could be selected from another
section of the State. Provision was made for the sale of the lands, at
the minimum price, but in case said lands or the proceeds thereof were
applied to any purposes other than that for which they were granted,
the grant was to become null and void.

In this grant we find the first provisions for indemnity if the grant
was not full by reason of prior sales or disposals by the Government.
There, if the lands were not to be found “in place”, selections “in
lieu” could be made from another county.

Grants like the one just referred to were made from time to time,
differing but little in their character and extent.

By an act approved March 2, 1833, the State of Illinois was authorized
to apply the lands granted by the act of March 2, 1827, for canal
purposes, to the construction of a railroad instead; and the same
restrictive impositions were continued.

This is the first act looking to the construction of a railroad through
the assistance of land donations.

The railroad system was then but in its infancy, and the few miles
built had been constructed by private means.

It is proper to add, however, that the State did not avail itself of
the privilege granted, for it subsequently built a canal.

An act approved March 3, 1835, granted, for the purpose of aiding in
the construction of a railroad by a corporation organized in Florida,
the right of way through the public lands over which it might pass,
thirty feet of land on each side of its line, and the right to take
and use the timber for “one hundred yards” on each side for the
construction and repair of said road; it was also granted “ten acres of
land at the junction of the St. Mark’s and Waculla Rivers”, the point
where said road terminated. This was the first right of way grant in
favor of railroads, the previous grant having been for a canal.

Following this came an act approved July 2, 1836, granting the right of
way “through such portion of the public lands as remain unsold”, not
to exceed 80 feet in width, to the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad
Company. The first section of that statute required that a description
of the route and surveys should be filed in the General Land Office
within sixty days after the survey. The second section granted for
depots, watering-places, and workshops, essential to the convenient
use of the road, certain plats of land, not exceeding five acres in any
one spot, nor nearer than fifteen miles to each other.

The third section gave the company the right to take from the public
lands earth, stone, or timber necessary for the construction of the
road; and provided that unless the work was commenced within two
years after the approval of the act, and completed within eight years
thereafter, the grant should “cease and determine”. It provided,
moreover, that if the road should be abandoned or discontinued, even
after its completion, the grant was to “cease and determine”.

So far as can be learned, this road was never completed. It is inserted
so fully for the purpose of showing the gradual growth of the system.

Next to this came a grant to the East Florida and other railroads,
similar in general terms to those previously referred to. It required,
however, the companies to file, with the Commissioner of the General
Land Office, maps showing the location of their roads. This was to
be done within six months after such locations. I am unable to find
that any of those roads were ever constructed. Certainly, no evidence
thereof was ever furnished the General Land Office.

A grant similar to the one to the New Orleans and Nashville company was
made by act of March 3, 1837, to the Atchafalaya Railroad and Banking
Company in Louisiana.

Many grants of like character and extent were made from time to time,
as also donations in favor of various other internal improvements. The
greatest of these latter, however, were the grants in aid of improving
the navigation of the Des Moines River in Iowa, and the Fox and
Wisconsin Rivers in Wisconsin, which were approved August 8, 1846.

The first of these made a grant to the then Territory of Iowa, for the
purpose of improving “the navigation of the Des Moines River from its
mouth to the Raccoon Fork (so called), in said Territory”, of “one
equal moiety, in alternate sections, of the public lands (remaining
unsold, and not otherwise disposed of, encumbered, or appropriated),
in a strip five miles in width on each side of said river, to be
selected within said Territory by an agent or agents to be appointed
by the governor thereof, subject to the approval of the Secretary of
the Treasury of the United States”. The second section provided that
“the lands hereby granted shall not be conveyed or disposed of by said
Territory, nor by any State to be formed out of the same, except as
said improvements shall progress; that is, the said Territory or State
may sell so much of said lands as shall produce the sum of thirty
thousand dollars, and then the sales shall cease until the governor of
said Territory or State shall certify the fact to the President of the
United States that one-half of said sum has been expended upon said
improvement, when the said Territory or State may sell and convey a
quantity of the residue of said lands sufficient to replace the amount
expended, and thus the sales shall progress as the proceeds thereof
shall be expended, and the fact of such expenditure shall be certified
as aforesaid.”

Section 3 declared that the river should forever remain a public
highway for the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge
whatever; and provided that the Territory or State should not dispose
of the lands at a price less than the minimum price of public lands.

The grant to Wisconsin for the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin
Rivers, though approved the same day, was somewhat different from the
Des Moines grant. It provided that “there be, and hereby is, granted
to the State of Wisconsin”, upon the admission of Wisconsin as a State
(which, by the way, had been provided for by an act approved two days
before), “for the purpose of improving the navigation of the Fox and
Wisconsin Rivers in the Territory of Wisconsin, and of constructing the
canal to unite the said rivers, at or near the portage, a quantity of
land, equal to one-half of three sections in width on each side of said
Fox River, and the lakes through which it passes from its mouth to the
point where the portage canal shall enter the same, and on each side
of said canal from one stream to the other, reserving the alternate
sections to the United States, to be selected under the direction of
the governor of said State, and such selection to be approved by the
President of the United States”. The rivers, when improved, were to
remain forever public highways for the use of the Government, free from
toll; and the sections reserved to the United States were not to be
sold for less than $2.50 per acre.

By the second section, the legislature of the State was to accept the
grant and fix the price at which the lands were to be sold (at not less
than $1.25 per acre), and adopt such kind and plan of improvement as
was for the best interests of the State.

The provisions for the sale of the lands were the same as in the Iowa
grant, except that the sum to be realized by such sales was fixed at
$20,000.

Section 3 required the work to be commenced within three years after
the admission of the State, and to be completed within twenty years, or
the United States was to be entitled to receive the amount for which
any of the lands may have been sold; the titles in the purchasers from
the State were, however, to be valid.

The language employed in this statute was more definite than that used
in the Des Moines grant, and in it is to be found the first provisions
respecting the increase in price of the reserved sections.

Probably no grant of this character has received such widespread
notoriety as the one for the improvement of the Des Moines River. It
is owing, no doubt, in a great degree to the numerous conflicting
decisions by the Executive Departments touching the extent of the
grant. The Hon. R. J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury (under whose
supervision the Land Office then came), decided on the 2d of March,
1849, that the grant extended above the tributary of the Des Moines
River commonly known as the Raccoon Fork. The Land Office soon
thereafter passed from the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, and
was placed as one of the bureaus of the Home or Interior Department.
The Secretary of this lately established branch of the Government
(Hon. Thomas Ewing) decided on the 6th of April, 1850, that the grant
did not extend above the Raccoon Fork. From that decision the State
of Iowa appealed to the President, who laid the matter before the
Attorney-General. That officer (Hon. Reverdy Johnson), on July 19,
1850, expressed an opinion confirmatory of the decision of Secretary
Walker. The Secretary of the Interior, however, being determined in
his views, did not adopt the opinion of the Attorney-General, and the
Commissioner of the General Land Office wrote, under date of 26th
September, 1850, to the President, reviewing and objecting to the
opinion of Mr. Johnson. The President, having been again applied to by
the State of Iowa to determine the matter, referred the whole question
to the Attorney-General (then Hon. J. J. Crittenden). That officer,
without delivering an opinion on the merits of the case, expressed the
belief that the President ought not to interfere, but should leave such
questions to the proper officers. The then Secretary of the Interior
(Hon. A. H. H. Stuart) thereupon decided that the grant did not extend
above the fork, but subsequently decided to approve the selections for
lands above the fork. Attorney-General Cushing, on the 29th of May,
1856, expressed the belief that on the merits of the case the grant
was limited to the Raccoon Fork, but as Secretary Stuart had approved
selections above that point, such practical enforcement of the grant
had better be continued. The view of Mr. Cushing was subsequently
maintained by the Supreme Court of the United States in Railroad
Company _vs._ Litchfield. (23 Howard, page 66). By the act of Congress
approved July 12, 1862, the grant was extended to the northern boundary
of the State, so as to include the alternate odd numbered sections
lying within five miles of said river, upon the following conditions:
The lands were to be held and applied in accordance with the provisions
of the original grant, except that the consent of Congress was given to
the application of “a portion thereof” to aid in the construction of
the Keokuk, Fort Des Moines and Minnesota Railroad, in accordance with
the provisions of an act of the general assembly of the State approved
March 22, 1858.

It is well to state that the work of improving the river was abandoned,
and the railroad was constructed instead.

Without examining the numerous right of way and other lesser grants,
I desire to direct attention to what is generally considered the
_first_ railroad grant. Reference is made to the donation by the act of
September 20, 1850.

By that statute a grant was made to the State of Illinois of “every
alternate section of land designated by even numbers, for six sections
in width on each side of” the road and branches therein provided for.
The road to be built was from the southern terminus of the Illinois
and Michigan Canal to a point at or near the junction of the Ohio and
Mississippi Rivers, with a branch of the same to Chicago, and another
via the town of Galena, in Illinois, to the town of Dubuque, in Iowa.

The second section provided that should it appear that the United
States had, when the lines of said road and branches were definitely
fixed, sold any part of any section thereby granted, or that the right
of preëmption had attached to the same, it should be lawful for any
agent or agents (to be appointed by the governor of the State) to
select so much land as would be equal to the tracts lost within the
granted limits. This “indemnity” was to be selected within fifteen
miles of the road and branches.

The third section provided that the sections and parts of sections
which by the operation of the grant remained to the United States
within six miles on each side of said road and branches, should not be
sold for less than the double minimum price when sold.

Section 4 provided for the disposal of the lands, and declared that the
road should remain a public highway for the use of the Government free
from toll or other charge.

The fifth section declared within what period the roads should be
completed, and provided that in the event of a failure on the part of
the State to comply with the conditions of the grant, it was “bound to
pay to the United States the amount which may be received upon the sale
of any part of said lands by said State”. The title of the purchasers
was to be valid, but the tracts not sold were to revert and revest in
the United States.

Section 6 said that the mails were to be transported at all times at
such price as Congress might direct.

By the seventh section the grant was extended, on the same terms and
conditions, to the States of Alabama and Mississippi, for the purpose
of aiding in the construction of a road from Mobile to connect with the
first above named road.

While this was not the first concession of lands in favor of railroads,
it may properly be considered the initiatory measure of the present
system. It granted specific sections instead of one-half of a certain
number of sections; provided in positive terms for “indemnity” for
lands lost to the grant; designated the manner in which the lands
should be disposed of; increased the price of the reserved sections
within the “granted” limits; provided for reversion in case of default,
and virtually established a form of grant which was differed from
but little in succeeding donations. It was the first railroad grant
that became effective, for of all previous ones none appear to have
been developed. The roads are now known as the Illinois Central and
branches, and the Mobile and Ohio.

For the following two years no grants of importance were made, until
by an act approved June 10, 1852, a donation was made to the State of
Missouri for the construction of certain roads therein, now known as
the Hannibal and Saint Joseph, and the Missouri Pacific, Southwest
Branch. This grant was similar in character and extent to that to
Illinois, save two sections--one providing for the disposal of the
lands, and the other directing the Secretary of the Interior to
offer at public sale, from time to time, at the increased price, the
“reserved” or Government sections. The section respecting the disposal
of the lands is as follows: “That the lands hereby granted to said
State shall be disposed of by said State in manner following, that
is to say: that a quantity of land, not exceeding one hundred and
twenty sections on each road, and included within a continuous length
of twenty miles of said road, may be sold; and when the governor of
said State shall certify to the Secretary of the Interior that said
twenty miles of road is completed, then another like quantity of land,
hereby granted, may be sold; and so from time to time until said road
is completed; and if said road be not completed within ten years, no
further sales shall be made, and the lands unsold shall revert to the
United States.”

With the exceptions stated, and the omission of the clause requiring
the State to reimburse the Government for lands sold, the grants are
identical.

That act was followed by an act approved February 9, 1853, making,
under like conditions and impositions, a similar grant to Arkansas, in
aid of certain roads in that State. In this, however, the clause or
section directing the Secretary to “offer” the lands was omitted.

For the next three years Congress seems to have been quite as liberal
in donations for other purposes, but no grants were made in aid of
railroads, unless note be made of a grant to Minnesota by act of June
29, 1854, which was repealed in August following.

By that act there was granted to the Territory of Minnesota, for the
purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad from the southern
line of said Territory, via Saint Paul, to the eastern line of the
Territory in the direction of Lake Superior, “every alternate section
of land designated by odd numbers for six sections in width on each
side of said road within said Territory”; but in case it should appear
that the United States had, when the line of the road was definitely
fixed, sold any section or any part thereof granted, or that the right
of preëmption had attached to the same, then it should be lawful for
any agent or agents to be appointed by the governor of said Territory,
subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, to select
lands from alternate sections within fifteen miles of the road to
make up the deficiency. The lands granted were to be applied to the
construction of the road only. Section 2 increased the price of the
“reserved” tracts.

Section 3 provided that the lands should be disposed of by the
legislature for the purposes aforesaid and were not to inure to the
benefit of any company then constituted or organized. The road was to
remain a highway, as in previous grants; and the lands could not be
sold until they had first been “offered” at the increased price.

By section 4 no title was to vest in said Territory or patent issue
for any part of the lands until a continuous length of twenty miles of
said road had been completed; and when the Secretary of the Interior
was satisfied that any twenty continuous miles of said road had been
completed, then patent was to issue for a quantity not exceeding one
hundred and twenty sections of land; and so on from time to time until
the road was completed. If the road was not completed within ten years
no further sales could be made, and the lands remaining unsold were to
revert.

By an act approved August 4, 1854, the act of June 29, 1854, was
repealed; and although four grants have been declared forfeited, for
failure of the grantees to perform the required conditions, this is the
only one which Congress has in terms repealed.

It is to be regretted that subsequent legislation was not as devoid of
ambiguity. Had it been, much embarrassment might have been saved the
Government. I refer particularly to that clause or section respecting
the vesting of title and the manner in which the State was to acquire
rights under the grant. By the terms thereof no patents were to issue
except as the work of building the road progressed.

By the omission of such language from the grants subsequently made
from time to time to as late as 1862, the Department of the Interior
believed that the duty of “disposal” was properly in the States charged
with executing the trusts; and in all the earlier grants, immediately
upon the location of the roads and determination of the limits of the
grants, certified, in whole, the lands to which the companies would
ultimately have been entitled had the roads been completed as required.
At that time there was but little doubt that all of the roads would be
rapidly constructed; but the civil conflict very naturally put a stop
to such extended improvements, and to-day about twenty railroads remain
uncompleted, and the lands certified to the States for their use and
benefit exceed by 1,058,295.86 acres the lands actually earned by the
portions of the several roads constructed.

Out of the act of June 29, 1854, and the repealing statute a
very interesting question arose, which received, ultimately, the
consideration of the Supreme Court. A suit was brought in trespass by
Edmund Rice against the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company,
for cutting timber on a tract of land in Minnesota. The company, in
its defense, set up title under the granting act aforesaid; to which
plaintiff replied, reciting the repealing statute. On demurrer by
the company, the question as to whether an interest had vested under
said grant was thus fairly presented to the Supreme Court. That body
decided, after elaborate review of the whole case, that the act of
August 4 was “a valid law”, and that no interest, beneficiary or
otherwise, had vested under the said grant.

In 1856, at different times, various grants were made to the States
of Iowa, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Mississippi, and on the 3d of March, 1857, to Minnesota.

An examination of these grants--say the one to Iowa, it being first
of the series--shows that, with the exception of the fact that the
sections granted were designated by _odd_ instead of _even_ numbers,
they were similar to the Missouri grant of 1852. The change there
inaugurated was owing to the fact that certain even sections in each
township had been previously given to the several States for school
purposes, and in a grant embracing a large territory the difference to
the railroad grants caused thereby would be considerable. From 1857
until 1862 Congress seems to have been otherwise engaged, for I am
unable to find that any acts were passed during that period touching
railroad grants.

By an act approved July 1, 1862, a new departure was taken. Certain
persons were created into a body corporate under the title and name
of the “Union Pacific Railroad Company”. The object thereof was the
construction and maintenance of a railroad and telegraph line from the
Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean.

They were granted the right of way through the public lands to the
extent of two hundred feet in width on each side of the line of road,
together with the necessary grounds for stations, buildings, workshops,
etc. They were also granted in aid of the construction of the road
“every alternate section of public land”, designated by odd numbers,
to the amount of five alternate sections per mile, on each side of the
road; and all lands which had been disposed of or reserved, and mineral
lands, were excepted.

Sections 5 and 11 of the act related to the issuance of bonds by the
United States. Section 7 required the company to file a map of its
general route, and directed the Secretary of the Interior to thereupon
withdraw the lands within fifteen miles of such line.

Various other roads were provided for upon the same conditions, now
known as the Central Pacific, Central Branch of the Union Pacific,
Kansas Pacific, and Sioux City and Pacific.

As it is not the purpose of this inquiry to look into any provisions
except such as relate to _land_ donations, I will not pursue the
sections respecting the issuance of bonds, payment of interest, etc.
But, before proceeding further, it is proper to notice the changes
inaugurated by that act.

In the first place, the grant was to a corporation direct, and not to a
State in trust for one.

Second. It was not confined to any particular State or section, but was
transcontinental in character, extending in this case more than half
across our country.

Third. It was a grant ten miles in width on each side, instead of six,
as in previous grants, and no provision was made for indemnity.

Fourth. It provided for the filing by the company of a map of its
general or designated route (before definite location of its line);
and upon the filing thereof the lands became legislatively reserved or
withdrawn.

By an act approved July 2, 1864, this act was amended in several
particulars, and instead of “five” sections “ten” were granted, thereby
increasing the limits from ten to twenty miles on each side of the
roads. The term “mineral land” was construed not to include “coal and
iron land”.

By section 19 of this latter act a grant was made to the Burlington
and Missouri River Railroad Company, for the construction of a road
from the Missouri River to some point not farther west than the one
hundredth meridian of west longitude to connect with the Union Pacific
road, of ten alternate sections per mile on each side of its line of
road. It has been decided that this company was not confined to any
limit, but could go far enough to secure the quantity granted, and it
is the only railroad whose grant is not confined to lateral limits. By
a proviso to the twentieth section, however, the company received no
bonds.

The rapidity with which the Union Pacific road was constructed was
surprising, and the whole progress of the work displayed a spirit
of energy seldom seen in an undertaking of that character. The most
positive achievements, however, were those of the Central Pacific
Company. The construction of that road over the Sierras is considered
by professional authorities as one of the greatest results of
engineering. It crossed the maximum summit, of 7,042 feet above the
sea, within one hundred miles of the Pacific tide waters, requiring a
distribution of ascent really scientific to render it practicable, and,
by using a minimum radius of 573 feet, secured, comparatively speaking,
a direct alignment.

The two roads were completed and a junction effected May 10, 1869, and
the initial transcontinental line was thereby finished.

By an act approved March 3, 1863, there was a grant made to the State
of Kansas to aid in constructing certain railroads therein, now known
as the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé; Leavenworth, Lawrence and
Galveston, and Missouri, Kansas and Texas. It was of every alternate
section of land designated by odd numbers for ten sections in width
on each side of said roads. Indemnity was provided in ten additional
miles and, except as to extent, it was not unlike the Iowa grant.

On the 5th of May, 1864, similar grants were made to the States of
Minnesota and Wisconsin, and on the 12th of May to the State of Iowa.
Various other grants followed of like character, differing only in few
respects, to Arkansas, Alabama, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota,
and Kansas; as also grants for wagon roads. The latter were similar in
terms to the railroad grants, save that three sections on either side
of the roads were given instead of six or ten. The Northern Pacific was
created July 1, 1864, and was very much like the Union Pacific grant,
except in extent, being double the quantity through the Territories,
with provision for “indemnity”. The Atlantic and Pacific and Southern
Pacific grants were made by act of July 27, 1866; the Denver Pacific by
act of March 3, 1869; the Southern Pacific (branch line) and Texas and
Pacific by act of March 3, 1871.

Many of the grants made in early years were enlarged, and the time
for their completion extended; but thus far only four grants have
been declared forfeited. At present, however, about twenty grants
have “lapsed” by reason of non-compliance with the terms of the
granting acts, requiring completion within prescribed periods, and
recommendations have been made urging proper legislation.

Neither time nor space permit an extended examination of every grant,
but sufficient has been considered to point out the origin and growth
of the system.

We have seen that the first donation was one-twentieth part of certain
proceeds derived from the sale of lands; then ninety feet of land,
followed soon by one-half of five sections per mile on each side; then
by six sections; then by ten, and finally by twenty sections per mile
on each side of the road.

If the lands granted, or in other words embraced within the limits of
the grants, could be found available, the companies, not including
those for canals or wagon roads, would receive, provided each built
its road and complied with the laws, more than two hundred and fifteen
million acres. That quantity if embraced in one compact body, would
form an area of more than three hundred and thirty-five thousand
square miles, or a tract of land more than seven times as large as the
State of Pennsylvania, and only about six thousand miles less than the
area of the thirteen original States. But, in fact, the grants will
not realize near that quantity, and the estimate, as made by the Land
Department, is only about one hundred and eighty-seven million acres.

By the aid of those grants, however, about fifteen thousand miles
of road have been constructed. Those roads have been the means of
developing vast fields of magnificent territory, and securing to the
people many lesser lines built by private capital.

The various grants have been the subject of much explanatory,
amendatory, and confirmatory legislation, and have also received
numerous interpretations by the different courts. Of the latter, I deem
it proper to refer only to the more important rulings of the Supreme
Court which bear upon the fundamental principles underlying the whole
system.

In nearly all grants, except the Pacific, provision has been made for
indemnity in case it appeared, when the lines of the roads had been
definitely fixed, that the United States had sold, disposed of, or
reserved any of the sections or parts of sections contained within the
grants. The theory has heretofore existed that “indemnity” was allowed
for all tracts which might not be found subject to the operation of the
grant; and selections have been permitted in lieu of such disposed of
or reserved tracts.

A recent decision, however, casts some doubt upon the correctness of
this theory. The question came up in a case from Kansas, under the act
of March 3, 1863, and the court declared:

“We have before said that the grant itself was _in præsenti_, and
covered all the odd sections which should appear, on the location of
the road, to have been within the grant when it was made. The right to
them did not, however, depend on such location, but attached at once
on the making of the grant. It is true they could not be identified
until the line of the road was marked out on the ground, but as soon as
this was done it was easy to find them. If the company did not obtain
all of them within the original limit, by reason of the power of sale
or reservation retained by the United States, it was to be compensated
by an equal amount of substituted lands. The latter could not, on any
contingency, be selected within that limit. * * * It would be strange,
indeed, if the [indemnity] clause had been intended to perform the
office of making a new grant within the ten mile limit, or enlarging
the one already made. Instead of this, the words employed show clearly
that its only purpose is to give sections beyond that limit for those
lost within it by the action of the government between the date of the
grant and the location of the road. This construction gives effect to
the whole statute, and makes each part consistent with the other.”

If it be thought, however, that such was not the intention of the
legislators who framed the statutes, consolation can be found in the
construction given to the clause inserted in every grant, substantially
as follows: “And the said road shall remain a public highway for
the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge upon the
transportation of troops or other property of the United States.”

It is declared by the Supreme Court that the purpose of that clause
was to allow the Government the right to place its locomotive engines
and cars upon the railroad tracks, and to use such tracks as a public
highway. The court say: “We are of opinion that the reservation in
question secures to the Government only a free use of the railroads
concerned; and that it does not entitle the Government to have troops
or property transported by the companies over their respective roads
free of charge for transporting the same.”

The section providing for the disposal of the lands, recited in full in
the Missouri grant of 1852, has been construed as vesting in the State
the right to sell one hundred and twenty sections of land, contained
within a continuous length of twenty miles at any place along the
grant, even though the road contemplated was never built; and the title
acquired by purchase from the State is valid. And the clause with which
the section referred to ends, to the effect that if the road be not
completed within a certain time the lands shall revert to the United
States, has been declared inoperative without further action by the
Government, either legislative or judicial, looking to an enforcement
of the reserved right.

Fears have been awakened as to the power to ultimately control these
corporations, on account of the enormous extent to which they have
expanded; but, as has been said by an able writer, “this evil, however,
if it be such, will probably work its own cure.”

Be that as it may, their influences have been felt by all, and their
benefits have extended to the remotest sections of our country. They
have proved a bond between the eastern and western States--anxiously
sought for by Washington when the lateral limits of the United States
were less than half what they are at this time. They have united the
Pacific with the Atlantic, and the Rocky Mountains of the west with
the Alleghanies of the east. They have dispelled all ideas looking to
the removal of the seat of Government, for they have put in direct
communication the people of Oregon with the people of Maine. From ocean
to ocean requires but days, where only a few years ago it required
weeks.

In the past, long lines of moving wagons groaned beneath their loads
of adventurous families, who at night, within the corral, seated
themselves around the blazing camp fire, fearful of the dangers to
which they were exposed. But the present has forgotten them. In their
stead the ponderous wheels of frequent trains, moving with a speed
surpassing that of the deer, traversing the valley and mountain, carry
forward their loads of living freight; and, in place of dangerous
encampments, provide means of sleep and refreshment, and afford the
comforts of luxurious homes. The railway has brought to our doors the
harvest of our fields; handed to our mints the vast resources of our
mines, and opened to us direct communication with the older worlds. Its
arms have extended into a hundred vales and over a hundred mountains,
grasping in their embrace manifold evidences of civilization and
prosperity.




                                INDEX.


                                                                   Page.

  Abbott, Mr., 62

  _Abies amabilis_, 102
    _Canadensis_, 100
    _concolor_, 101
    _Douglasii_, 100
    _Engelmanni_, 101
    _grandis_, 102
    _Menziesii_, 101
    _subalpina_, 101

  _Acer grandidentata_, 103

  Agricultural and timber industries differentiated, 18
    resources of the Bear River drainage basin, 119
      Jordan River drainage basin, 124
      Weber River drainage basin, 121

  Agriculture, Amount of precipitation necessary for, 2, 3
    Influence of temperature upon, 2
    in the Arid Region dependent upon irrigation, 40
    in Utah dependent upon irrigation, 6
      exceptions thereto, 6
    limited by several conditions, 7
    Utilization of the small streams in, 7
    without irrigation, 3, 6, 50

  _Aira cœspitosa_, 109

  Alabama, Land-grants to, 179

  Alkaline salts, 145

  Amount of land a unit of water will supply, 7

  Antelope Island, 63, 64
    bar, 63, 67

  Areal distribution of rainfall, 82

  Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply, 85

  Areas of standing timber, 15
    to which larger streams can be taken, 7
    which smaller streams can serve, 7

  Arid Region, Boundaries of the, 1, 3
    Extent of the, 5
    Increase in water supply in the, 89, 91
    Land system needed for the, 25
    Mining industries of the, 88
    Physical characteristics of the, 1
    Precipitation of the, 48
    Rainfall of the, 5

  Arizona and New Mexico, Seasonal precipitation in, 56

  Arkansas, Land grants to, 174, 179

  _Artemisia_, 110

  Ashley Fork, Irrigable lands of, 161

  Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad Company, Land grants to the,
   178

  Atlantic and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179

  Atlantic coast, Flow of the rivers of the, 76
    Rainfall on the, 69


  Barfoot, Mr. J. L., 59

  Barton, Mr., 113

  Basin, Colorado. (_See_ Colorado Basin.)
    Great Salt Lake. (_See_ Great Salt Lake District.)
    Range System, 94
    Sevier Lake. (_See_ Sevier Lake District.)
    Uinta-White. (_See_ Uinta-White Basin.)

  Bear River, 117
    City, 78
    drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, 119
      Area of the, 119
    Mean flow of the, 72

  Beaver dams, Effect of cutting, 74

  _Betula occidentalis_, 103

  Bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts, 30
    pasturage districts, 33

  Black Rock bench, 61
    pillar, 59, 60

  Bonneville Lake, 96

  Book Cliffs, Orographic structure of the, 98

  _Bouteloua oligostachya_, 108

  _Bromus_, 109

  Brown Cliffs, 98

  Brown’s Park, Irrigable lands of, 162

  Burlington and Missouri Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 178


  Canals, Land grants in aid of, 166

  Cañon Lands, Amount of irrigable land in the, 106
    Coal lands of the, 106
    Description of the, 105
    of Utah, 94

  _Carex Jamesii_, 109

  Carrington Island, 62

  Castle Valley, 105

  Central Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177

  _Cercocarpus parvifolius_, 110

  _Celtis occidentalis_, 103

  Circle Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the, 137

  Climate of the Colorado Basin, 151

  Coal lands, 45
    Disposal of the, 44
    of the Cañon Lands, 106
    of the Rocky Mountain Region, 19

  Colony system, 28

  Colorado Basin, Climate of the, 151
      Elevation of the, 151
      Irrigable lands of the, 150
      Mean annual precipitation in the, 79
      Orographic structure of the, 95
      Source of the water supply of the, 152
      Table of irrigable lands of the, 164
    drainage area, 94
    River, Principal tributaries of the, in Utah, 150

  Conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall, 90

  Coöperative labor necessary to the development of irrigation, 11

  Critical period, 85, 138, 154
    season, 116


  Dakota, Precipitation of, 51

  Denver Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179

  Desert drainage area, 94
    Orographic structure of the, 95

  Des Moines River, Land grant in aid of the improvement of the, 171

  Distribution of rain throughout the year, 50

  District, Great Salt Lake. (_See_ Great Salt Lake District.)
    Sevier Lake. (_See_ Sevier Lake District.)

  Division lines of pasturage farms, 22, 28, 37
    of land by settlers, 38

  Drainage area, Colorado, 94
      Desert, 94
    Modification of the conditions of, 73
    of the Tavaputs Plateau, 96
      Uinta Mountains, 96
      Wasatch Mountains, 96
    Utah, 94

  Drummond, Willis, jr., on land grants in aid of internal improvements,
   164

  Dry farming, 50, 78

  Duchesne River, Volume of flow of the, 160

  Dutton, Capt. C. E., cited, 110
    on the irrigable land of the Sevier Basin, 128


  East Florida Railroad Company, Land grant to the, 169

  Egg Island, 67

  Engelmann, Mr., 102

  _Erocoma cuspidata_, 108

  Escalante River, Irrigable lands of the, 156
    Volume of flow of the, 156

  _Eurotia lanata_, 110

  Evaporation by spreading of water, 74


  Farmington pillar, 61

  Farming without irrigation, 77

  Farm residences, Grouping of, 22
    unit for pasturage lands, 21, 28

  Fencing of pasturage lands, 23

  Fires in the timber region, 15, 99
    Cause of, 17, 99
    Protection from, 18, 99

  Flood-plain lands, 88

  Forests, Amount of rainfall necessary to the growth of, 15

  Fox, Mr. Jesse W., 61, 113

  _Fraxinus anomala_, 103
    _coriacea_, 103

  Fremont Island, 62, 67
    River, Irrigable lands of the, 157
      Tributaries of the, 157
      Volume of flow of the, 157, 158


  Gilbert, G. K., cited, 84, 110
    on irrigable land of the Salt Lake drainage system, 113
    on water supply, 57

  Government right to use of subsidized railroads, 181

  Grand River, Irrigable lands of the, 163
    Volume of flow of the, 163

  Grasses of the pasturage lands, 19
    Utah, 107

  Great Salt Lake, Accumulation of the water in, 58
    Area of, 66, 73
    Basin  (_See_ Great Salt Lake District)
    Causes of abnormal change of, 67
    Desert, 66
    Diagram showing rise and fall of, 64
    District, 94
      Amount of irrigable land in the, 107
      Change in the climate of the, 68, 70
      Description of the, 107
      Irrigable lands of the, 113
      Fluctuations in the rainfall of the, 70
      Irrigation by large streams in the, 117
        small streams in the, 126
    Evaporation of the water of, 58, 72
    History of the past changes of, 62
    Increase and decrease of the size of, 58
    Islands of, 62
    Limited oscillation of, 59
    Limit of wave action of, 65
    Record of height of, 60
    Rise and fall of, 59
    Storm lines of, 65
    Streams flowing into, 72

  Green River, Irrigable lands of the, 162
    Volume of flow of the, 162

  Gunnison, Captain, 98
    Valley, 105
      Irrigable lands of the, 163


  Hayden, Dr. F. V., 71

  Henry Mountains, 105
    Prof. Joseph, 46, 59, 62, 79

  Henrys Fork, Irrigable lands of, 161


  Illinois, Land grants to, 168, 172

  Increase in water supply in the Arid Region, 57, 89, 91
    of rainfall, 69, 91

  Indiana, Land grants to, 166, 167

  Internal improvements, Land grants in aid of, 165

  Iowa, Land grants to, 169, 179

  Irrigable and pasturage lands of Utah, 104
    areas, Increase of, by storage of water, 12, 13
    land, Area of, sometimes not limited by water supply, 85, 86
      Extent of, increased by the use of springs, 9
      in Utah, Amount of, 9
    lands, 23
      Amount of water required for, 84
      Disposal of, 27
      highly productive, 10
      Important questions relating to, 81
      Increase in the extent of the, 57
      in Utah Territory, Table of, 111
      of Southwestern Utah, 148
      of the Colorado Basin, 150
          Table of, 164
        Great Salt Lake District, 113
        Sevier Lake District, 134
        valley of the Sevier River, 128

  Irrigable lands of the, Virgin River, 153
    of Utah, Distribution of the, 9
    Selection of, 87
    Situation of the, 6

  Irrigating canals, Cost of, 125
    methods, Improvement in, 8
    season, 85

  Irrigation, Advantages of, 10
    Amount of water needed for, 114
      used in, 141
    companies, 40
    Coöperative labor necessary to the development of, 11
    Direct influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake, 75
    Indirect influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake, 76
    of pasturage farms, 21
    Quantitative value of water used in, 81
    Unit of water used in, 81

  Isohyetal line of twenty inches, 2


  Jordan River, 121
    drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, 124
      Area of the, 125
    Mean flow of the, 72

  _Juncus Balticus_, 109

  _Juniperus Californicus_, 103
    _Virginiana_, 103


  Kanab Creek, Irrigable lands of, 154
    Ponding of, 154

  Kansas, Land grants to, 178, 179
    Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177

  Kimball, Mr. Heber P., 61

  King, Mr. Clarence, 66


  Lake Bonneville, 96
    Utah, Function of, as a reservoir, 123

  Land grants in aid of internal improvements, 165

  Lands, Classification of, 43
    Irrigable. (_See_ Irrigable Lands.)
    of Utah, 93
      and Idaho fertilized by water, 75
      Physical features of the, 93
    Pasturage. (_See_ Pasturage Lands.)

  Land system needed for the Arid Region, 25

  Leavenworth, Lawrence and Galveston Railroad Company, Land grants to
   the, 178

  Lower Columbia Region, 1
    Precipitation of the, 49


  Marshes, Drainage of, 74
    Evaporation from, 74

  Martineau, Mr. J. H., 113

  Mean temperature by seasons for the San Francisco Region, 54

  Method of determining the supply of water, 85, 86

  Michigan, Land grants to, 179

  Miller, Mr. Jacob, 61, 62

  Mineral lands, 44
    Disposal of, 44
    not suited to agriculture, 44

  Minnie Maud Creek, Irrigable lands of, 160
    Volume of flow of, 160

  Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company, 176
    Land grants to the, 174, 179

  Mississippi Valley, Flow of the rivers of the, 76

  Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 178
    Land grants to, 179

  Mitchell, Mr. John T., 59

  Monopoly of pasturage farms, 22

  Mountains, Henry, 105
    Uinta. (_See_ Uinta Mountains.)
    Wasatch. (_See_ Wasatch Mountains.)


  _Negundo aceroides_, 103

  Nevada, Mean annual precipitation in, 79

  New Mexico and Arizona, Seasonal precipitation in, 56

  New Orleans and Nashville Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 168

  New York, Rainfall of the State of, 70


  Ogden River, Measured volume of the, 120

  Ohio, Land grants to, 166, 167

  Ohio Valley, Rainfall of the, 70

  Orographic structure of the Book Cliffs, 98
    Colorado drainage area, 95
    Desert drainage area, 95
    Uinta Mountains, 97
    Wasatch Mountains, 96


  Pacific coast, Seasonal precipitation and temperature of the, 55

  Panguitch Valley, Amount of irrigable land in, 136

  Paria River, Irrigable lands of the, 155
    Volume of flow of the, 155

  Park, Dr. John R., 59

  Pasturage farms, Division lines of, 22, 28, 37
      Irrigation of, 21
      need small tracts of irrigable land, 21, 28
    lands, 19, 24, 104

  Pasturage lands, Boundaries of, 19
    Disposal of, 28
    Extent of, 19
    Farm unit for, 21, 28
    Fencing of, 23
    Grasses of the, 19
    Monopoly of the, 22
    partially supplied by scattered springs, 21
    Situation of the, 6

  _Phragmites communis_, 109

  _Pinus aristata_, 100
    _edulis_, 100
    _flexilis_, 100
    _monticola_, 100
    _ponderosa_, 100

  Pioneers, Enterprise and industries of, 41

  Plateaus, The High, 94

  Plateau, Tavaputs, 93
    Yampa, 105

  _Poas_, 108

  Ponding, 12, 13

  Ponds, Evaporation of the water of, 73

  _Populus angustifolia_, 102
    _monilifera_, 102
    _tremuloides_, 102

  Precipitation in the Region of the Plains, 52
    Mean annual, in Colorado, 79
      Nevada, 79
      Utah, 79
      Wyoming, 79
    north of the Columbia River, 1
    of Dakota, 51
      Texas, 50
      the Arid Region, 48
        Region of the Lower Columbia, 49
        San Francisco Region, 49
        Sub-humid Region, 47

  Precipitation, Seasonal, of the Pacific Coast, 55

  Price River, Irrigable lands of the, 159
    Volume of flow of the, 159

  Provo River, 121

  Public lands, How to acquire title to, 25


  _Quercus undulata_, 103


  Railroads, Land grants in aid of, 165, 168, 172

  Rainfall, Areal distribution of, 82
    Conditions affecting the distribution of, 90

  Rainfall, Distribution of, throughout the year, 50
    Increase of, 91
    of the Arid Region, 5, 48
      belt between Great Salt Lake and Wasatch Mountains, 6, 79
      Sub-humid Region, 4, 47
    of the western portion of the United States, 46

  Rain gauge records, 1, 3, 91, 131
    Deficiency of, 1

  “Rainy seasons”, 25, 50

  Ranges, Basin, 94

  Records, Rain gauge, 1, 3, 91, 131

  Region of the Lower Columbia. (_See_ Lower Columbia Region.)
    of the Plains, Seasonal precipitation in the, 52
    San Francisco. (_See_ San Francisco Region.)
    Sub-humid. (_See_ Sub-humid Region.)

  Renshawe, Mr. J. H., 113, 153

  Reservoirs, 12, 13, 85, 144

  River, Bear. (_See_ Bear River.)
    Colorado. (_See_ Colorado River.)
    Duchesne. (_See_ Duchesne River.)
    Escalante. (_See_ Escalante River.)
    Fremont. (_See_ Fremont River.)
    Grand. (_See_ Grand River.)
    Green. (_See_ Green River.)
    Gunnison. (_See_ Gunnison River.)
    Jordan. (_See_ Jordan River.)
    Ogden. (_See_ Ogden River.)
    Paria. (_See_ Paria River.)
    Price. (_See_ Price River.)
    Provo. (_See_ Provo River.)
    San Rafael. (_See_ San Rafael River.)
    Sevier. (_See_ Sevier River.)
    Uinta. (_See_ Uinta River.)
    Virgin. (_See_ Virgin River.)
    Weber. (_See_ Weber River.)
    White. (_See_ White River.)

  Rivers, Land grants in aid of improvement of, 169

  Rockwood, Hon. A. P., 113


  San Francisco Region, Mean temperature, by seasons, of the, 54
    Precipitation of the, 49
    Rainy season of the, 54
    Seasonal precipitation in the, 53

  San Pete Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the, 138
    Flow of the streams of the, 138

  San Rafael River, Irrigable lands of the, 158, 159
   Tributaries of the, 158

  San Rafael River, Volume of flow of the, 159

  Schott, Mr. Charles A., 46, 69

  Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast, 55
    in Arizona and New Mexico, 56

  Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains, 52
    San Francisco Region, 53

  Selection of irrigable lands, 87

  Sevier Lake Basin, 94
      District, 94
        Altitudes in the, 133
        Amount of irrigable land in the, 106, 143
        Climate of the, 131
        Description of the, 106
        Irrigable lands of the, 134
        Physical characteristics of the, 130
        Rainfall of the, 131
        Rain gauge records of the, 131
    River, Course of the, 129
      Volume of flow of the, 139, 140
    Irrigable lands of the valley of the, 128
    Valley of the, 129

  Sierra La Sal, 105

  Sioux City and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177

  Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation, 46, 69

  Soil and subsoil, Complicating conditions of, 83
    Conditions of, 82

  Soils, 145

  Southern Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179

  Springs, Opening out of, 74
    Use of, in irrigation, 9

  Stansbury, Captain Howard, 64, 65, 66
    Island, 67
      bar, 64, 67

  Streams, Descent of, 88
    flowing into Great Salt Lake, 72
    Flow of, at different periods, 13
    Increase in the volume of, 57
    Measurement of, 86, 115
    of San Pete Valley, Volume of flow of the, 140
    of Utah, Fluctuations of the, 115
    Practical capacity of, 85
    small, Employment of, in irrigation, 7, 11, 12

  Strong’s Knob, 67

  Sub-humid Region, Boundaries of the, 3
    destitute of forests, 4
    Mean precipitation of the, 47
    Rainfall of the, 4

  Supply of water, Method of determining the, 85, 86


  Table I. Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region, 47
    II. Arid Region, 48
    III. San Francisco Region, 49
    IV. Region of the Lower Columbia, 49
    V. Texas, 50
    VI. Dakota, 51
    VII. Season of precipitation in the Region of the Plains, 52
    VIII. San Francisco Region, 53
    IX. Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region, 54
    X. Seasonable precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast,
     55
    XI. in Arizona and New Mexico, 56
    of irrigable lands in Utah, 111
      of southwestern Utah, 149
      of the Colorado Basin, 164
        Sevier Lake District, 144
    of mean annual precipitation in Colorado, 79
      Nevada, 79
      Utah, 79
      Wyoming, 79

  Tavaputs Plateau, 93
    Drainage of the, 96

  Temperature dependent upon altitude and latitude, 2

  Temperatures, Seasonal, on the Pacific Coast, 55

  Texas and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179
    Precipitation of, 50

  The High Plateaus, 94

  Thomas, Prof. Cyrus, 71

  Thompson, Prof. A. H., cited, 86, 110
    on the irrigable land of the Colorado Basin, 150

  Timber, 98
    Areas of standing, 15, 17
    Cultivation of, 19
    Destruction of, by fire, 15
    growth dependent upon climatic conditions, 14
    lands, 14, 23
      Boundaries of the, 14
      Disposal of the, 27
      Situation of the, 6, 14
    regions, 15
      Extent of the, 16
      Fires in the, 15, 17, 18, 99

  Titles to public lands, 25


  Uinta Mountains, 93
    Drainage of the, 96
    Orographic structure of the, 97

  Uinta River, Irrigable lands of the, 160
      Tributaries of the, 160
      Volume of flow of the, 160, 161
    White Basin, 93
      Amount of irrigable lands in the, 105
      Description of the, 104
      Physical features of the, 160

  Union Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177

  Unit of water supply, 8, 84, 115, 141
      Method of determining the, 8
    used in irrigation, 81

  Utah, Amount of cultivated land in, 84
    Church government in, 89, 128
    Drainage of, 94
    Forest trees of, 100
    Grasses of, 107
    Irrigable and pasturage lands of, 104
    Lake, 123
    Lands of, 93
    Mean annual precipitation in, 79
    Pasturage lands of, 104
    Prevailing winds of, 68
    Table of irrigable lands in, 111
    Timber of, 98
    Variety of crops cultivated in, 84
    Watershed of, 94


  Valley, Castle, 105
    Circle, Amount of irrigable land in the, 137
    Gunnison, 105
      Irrigable lands of the, 162
    of the Mississippi, 76
      Sevier River, Amount of irrigable land in the, 144
    Panguitch, Amount of irrigable land in the, 136
    San Pete, Amount of irrigable land in the, 138
      Flow of the streams of the, 140

  Vasey, Dr. George, 108

  _Vilfa_ (_Sporobolis_) _airoides_, 108

  Virgin River, Irrigable lands of the, 153

  Volume of water flowing in the streams, Determination of, 8


  Wagon roads, Land grants in aid of, 166

  Ward, Mr. L. F., 103

  Wasatch Mountains, 93, 94
    Drainage of the, 96
    Orographic structure of the, 96

  Wastage of water, 84

  Water, Evaporation of, 13
    Irrigating capacity of, 8, 84, 115, 141
    Loss of, by evaporation, 87
    Method of determining the supply of, 85, 115, 139
      storing, 12
    rights, 40
      should inhere in the lands to be irrigated, 40, 41
    supply, 57
      affected by the cutting of timber, 75
        farming, 73
        grazing, 74
      Economic bearings of the, 76
      Increase in the, 57, 89, 91
    Storage of, 116, 125, 144
    used in irrigation, Quantitative value of, 81
      Unit of, 81
    Wastage of, 84, 142
    ways rudely constructed, 8

  Weber River, 119
    drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, 121
      Area of the, 121
    Mean flow of the, 72

  White River, Irrigable lands of the, 162
    Volume of flow of the, 162

  Winds of Utah, 68

  Wisconsin, Land grants to, 169, 179

  Wyoming, Mean annual precipitation in, 79


  Yampa Plateau, 105

  Young, Hon. Brigham, 105


               [Illustration: DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

U. S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION,

                        J. W. POWELL IN CHARGE.

                         MAP OF UTAH TERRITORY

  REPRESENTING THE EXTENT OF THE IRRIGABLE, TIMBER AND PASTURE LANDS.

 COMPILED AND DRAWN BY CHARLES MAHON, J. H. RENSHAWE, W. H. GRAVES AND
          H. LINDENKOHL FOR THE COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC LANDS

                                 1878.

                                 Miles

  Note _This map has been constructed from atlas sheets of the U. S.
 Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region with
   additional material taken from the maps of the U. S. Geographical
   Explorations and Surveys west of the 100ᵈᵗʰ Meridian, Lieut. Geo.
    M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge, the U. S. Geological
   Exploration of the 40ᵗʰ Parallel, Clarence King, U. S. Geologist
  in charge, and the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the
                 Territories, F. V. Hayden, in charge_


                              EXPLANATION

                           _Irrigable Lands_
                           _Standing Timber_
            _Area destitute of Timber on account of Fires_
                             _Rail Roads_
                             _Wagon Roads_
                               _Trails_
                           _Telegraph Lines_
                  _County Seats in Capital Letters._]

    [Illustration: DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION J. W. POWELL, IN CHARGE.

                       MAP OF THE UNITED STATES

EXHIBITING THE GRANTS OF LANDS MADE BY THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT TO AID IN
            THE CONSTRUCTION OF RAILROADS AND WAGON ROADS.

                                 1878

  For explanation see chapter on “Land Grants in aid of International
                             Improvements”

 [The base chart was engraved for the Statistical Atlas of the United
                               States.]

                      Julius Bien. Lithographer]





                          Transcriber’s Notes

Errors in punctuation have been fixed.

Page 35: “the Commisioner” changed to “the Commissioner”

Page 52: “not greater han should” changed to “not greater than should”

Page 57: “very erroneneous” changed to “very erroneous”

Page 65: “needed to clense land” changed to “needed to cleanse land”

Page 68: “whatever manner in was disturbed” changed to “whatever manner
it was disturbed”

Page 108: “strongly akaline soils” changed to “strongly alkaline soils”

Page 162: “in the moutains” changed to “in the mountains”

Page 172: “of a “a portion”” changed to “of “a portion””