THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS
  IN THE
  UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

  BY
  AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc.

  _Late Assistant Mistress at the Ladies’ College, Cheltenham; Lecturer
  at the Cambridge Training College for Women Teachers_

  AND

  H. MILLICENT HUGHES

  _Lecturer on Education and Head of Training Department, University
  College South Wales and Monmouthshire_

  [Illustration]


  London
  SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO
  NEW YORK: MACMILLAN & CO
  1894




  BUTLER & TANNER,
  THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
  FROME, AND LONDON.




PREFACE


In view of the growing interest in secondary education in England,
and the important educational problems demanding solution, the
Gilchrist Trustees decided, in the early part of 1893, to send five
women teachers to America for the purpose of studying and reporting
upon Secondary Schools for Girls and Training Colleges for Women in
different parts of the States. The Trustees made their intention
widely known, and invited the governing bodies of the various women’s
colleges and associations of teachers to submit to them names of
persons specially qualified. Out of the list of able and experienced
women teachers thus furnished to them, the Trustees, after careful
consideration of the qualifications of the numerous candidates,
selected the following five: Miss Bramwell, B.Sc., Lecturer at the
Cambridge Training College; Miss Burstall, B.A., Mistress at the
North London Collegiate School for Girls; Miss Hughes, Lecturer on
Education at University College, Cardiff; Miss Page, Head-Mistress of
the Skinners’ Company’s School for Girls, Stamford Hill, N.; and Miss
Zimmern, Mistress at the High School for Girls, Tunbridge Wells. They
were awarded travelling scholarships of one hundred pounds each to
enable them to spend two months in the United States in prosecuting
their enquiries. The five scholars visited America in the summer of
1893, and submitted to the Trustees carefully prepared Reports, two of
which--viz., those by Miss Bramwell and Miss Hughes--are presented to
the public in this volume. The Trustees have aided in the publication
of these Reports because they believe that a knowledge of the
educational systems and experiments which have been tried in America
cannot fail to be of interest and value to those engaged in teaching in
the United Kingdom.

                          R. D. ROBERTS,
                                 _Secretary to the Gilchrist Trustees_.

  GILCHRIST EDUCATIONAL TRUST,
    17, VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, S.W.
      1894.




NOTE BY THE AUTHORS


In publishing the following reports, which we are enabled to do through
the courtesy and generosity of the Gilchrist Trustees, it may not be
altogether out of place to submit a few prefatory remarks. When the
five Scholars were appointed to visit American Schools and Colleges in
the summer of 1893, it was found advisable, in view of the magnitude of
the task, to somewhat divide the responsibility. Three of the number
undertook to visit and report upon institutions offering the means
of general education, while we desired to especially investigate the
provision made in the United States for the Training of Teachers.

As our interests thus lay in one direction, the Trustees further
approved of our suggestion that we should travel and work together,
and this plan we found most helpful and satisfactory. It will be seen
that we have covered exactly the same field, but we have thought it
desirable to write separate reports, without mutual consultation,
rather than to embody the results of our work in a joint account.

                                                  AMY B. BRAMWELL.
                                                  H. MILLICENT HUGHES.




CONTENTS


                                                                    PAGE

  _New York_
      Educational Institutions                                         1
      Press Fair                                                       2

  _Poughkeepsie_
      Vassar College                                                 2-3

  _Philadelphia_
      Schools and Institutes                                         3-4

  _Bryn Mawr_                                                          4

  _West Chester and Millersville_                                      5

  _Connecticut_
      New Haven, New Britain, Willimantic                              6

  _Massachusetts_
      Springfield                                                      6
      Boston--
          Perkins Institute for the Blind                              7
          Harvard                                                      9
          Women’s Annex (Fay House)                                   10
          Institute of Technology                                     11
          Wellesley                                                   11
          Quincy                                                      11
          Milton (co-education)                                       12
          Concord                                                     14

  _Syracuse_
      University                                                      14

  _Ann Arbor_
      Michigan State University                                       14
          Commencement                                                15

  _Benton Harbour_                                                    16

  _Chicago_
      University                                                      16
      World’s Fair                                                    17
      Educational Congresses                                          18
      University settlement                                           19

  _Chautauqua_                                                        19

  _Cornell_
      Ithaca                                                          19


  _REPORT 1._

  I. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.

  Organization                                                        23

  Advantages offered to Students                                      23

  Co-education. Relative numbers of men and women Students            24

  Early Normal Schools                                                25

  The early character still maintained                                26

  Academic character illustrated by the courses of study--
      (_a_) In Massachusetts                                          26
      (_b_) In New York                                               27

  Arguments given for retaining their academic character              28

  A. _Academic Studies_
      Importance given to Science Teaching                            30
      Laboratories and Museums--
          (_a_) At Bridgewater, Mass.                                 31
          (_b_) At Willimantic, Conn.                                 32
      Manual Training 32
      Libraries and Apparatus at Willimantic, Conn.                   33
      Plant Study at Worcester, Mass.                                 34
      The “Recitation” Method                                         34
      Importance given to illustration by means of concrete objects   36
      Study of many Sciences by concentrative methods                 37

  B. _Professional Work_
      Pedagogical subjects studied late in the Course                 39
      Psychology and History of Education in the schools of
        Connecticut                                                   40
      Psychology and Child-Study at Worcester, Mass.                  41
      “Methods” as a subject of study                                 42
      “Methods” in the Model Schools                                  44
      Unification of study                                            45

  C. _Practice in Teaching_
      General plan of Practice-Work--
          (_a_) In Pennsylvania                                       48
          (_b_) In New York                                           49
          (_c_) In Connecticut                                        50
      Importance attached to Model Schools                            51
      Special plan of Practice-Work at Worcester, Mass.               51

  D. _Examinations_
        State Examination and “Graduation”                            52

  E. _Supply of Teachers_
        Number of Normal School Students teaching in the Common
          Schools                                                     53
        Small number of Normal School Students who become
          Secondary Teachers                                          54


  II. CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS.

  Effects of local management                                         56

  A. _City Normal Schools_
        Conditions of admission                                       57
        Functions of Normal and High School combined                  58
        Examinations                                                  60

  B. _City Training Schools_
        Emphasis of the practical side                                61
        Substitute Service                                            62
        Boston Normal School                                          62
        Courses in Massachusetts                                      64
        Courses at New Haven, Conn.                                   65
        Psychological Experiments at New Haven                        65
        Criticism lessons at New Haven                                66
        Reports of work of Students at New Haven                      69

  C. _City Training Classes_
        The teaching of reading at Quincy, Mass.                      70
        Courses in New York State                                     72
        Inadequacy of Training Class Courses for qualifying for
          responsible work                                            73
        Practice of allowing beginners to teach in the lowest
          grades                                                      74
        Importance attached to “Methods” of the Primary School        75


  III. UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY.

  A. _Departments of State Universities_
        Importance to the State of the Professional preparation
          of Teachers                                                 78
        Courses in Pedagogy proper, and “Teachers’ Courses”           78
        University of Michigan                                        79
        University of Illinois                                        80
        University of Missouri                                        81
        General Features of State Universities                        83

  B. _Departments of Universities in the Eastern States_

    Teachers’ College, New York City                                  86
      (_a_) Courses of Work                                           87
      (_b_) Teacher’s Diploma                                         88
      (_c_) Purely professional character of work                     89
      (_d_) Psychology                                                90
      (_e_) History of Education                                      91
      (_f_) Methods of Science                                        92
      (_g_) Practice department                                       93

    School of Pedagogy of the University of the City of New York--
      (_a_) Pedagogical Degrees                                       97
      (_b_) Courses of Study                                          97

    Cornell University                                                99

    Syracuse University                                               99

    Harvard University--
      (_a_) Students’ Inspection of Schools                          100
      (_b_) Teachers’ Courses                                        101
      (_c_) Connection with Secondary Schools                        101

    Clark University--
      (_a_) Character of work                                        102
      (_b_) Courses of work                                          102
      (_c_) Psychological Research                                   103


  IV. SUMMER SCHOOLS.

  Benton Harbour, Mich.                                              105
  Englewood, Chicago                                                 108
    (_a_) Science                                                    108
    (_b_) Blackboard Drawing                                         110
  Chautauqua                                                         111
  Cornell University, Summer School                                  111


  _REPORT II._

  _Introduction_

    The problem of “Training” in England and America                 116
    Representative States                                            117
    State Systems of Education                                       118
    Bureau of Education                                              118
    East and West                                                    118
    Institutions for the Training of Teachers                        120

  _Normal Schools_

    State, City, and Private Normal Schools                          120
    Academic _versus_ Professional Studies                           121
    Comparison with English Elementary Training Colleges             122
    Lack of uniformity in standard of admission and length of
      course                                                         123


  STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.

  _Pennsylvania_                                                     124
    Courses laid down by the School Law                              124
    Final examinations and graduation                                126
    State Certificates for untrained teachers                        127
    Grants to Normal students and graduates                          128
    Millersville Normal School                                       129
    West Chester Normal School                                       130

  _Connecticut_                                                      131
    Conditions of admission                                          132
    Provision for Theoretical and Practical Work                     132
    Final examinations and graduation                                133
    New Britain                                                      133
    The Printing Press in the School                                 133
    Practice School at South Manchester                              134
    Willimantic                                                      134

  _New York State_
    Statistics of State Normal Schools                               135
    Conditions of admission                                      136-138
    Courses and diplomas                                             139
    Albany                                                           139
    Oswego                                                           140
    Special Training Course                                          142
    Laboratory method of teaching History                            143

  _Massachusetts_                                                    144
    The founding of State Normal Schools                             145
    Design of Schools                                                145
    Courses                                                          146
    Statistics of Normal Schools                                     147
    Framingham                                                       148
    Westfield                                                        149
    “Topics”                                                         149
    Sand-moulding                                                    150
    Bridgewater                                                      150
    Worcester                                                        150
    Child-study                                                      151
    Apprenticeship                                                   152
    Platform exercises                                               153
    Children’s Class                                                 153
    Training the “time sense”                                        154
    Normal Art School                                                154

  _Michigan_                                                         155
    Ypsilante Normal School                                          155
    Courses of study                                                 155
    Pedagogic degrees                                                156

  _Illinois_                                                         156
    State Normal Universities                                        157
    Cook County Normal School                                        157
    Conditions of admission                                          158
    Graduation and post-graduate courses                             159
    The Practice School and its use                              160-161
    Theory of concentration                                      162-165


  CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS.

    Organization                                                     165

  _Philadelphia_                                                     165
    Girls’ Normal School Course                                      166
    School of Pedagogy                                               166

  _New York_                                                         168
    Normal School                                                    168

  _Boston_                                                           168
    Normal School                                                    168
    Substitute service                                               168
    Course of study                                              169-170


  CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS.

    Organization                                                     171

  _New Haven_                                                        171
    Welch Training School                                            171
    Notes of Lessons                                                 171

  _Springfield_                                                      172
    Training School                                                  172
    Leading features of Training School                              173
    List of Training Schools in Massachusetts                        174


  TRAINING CLASSES.                                                  174

  Table of Training Classes, Massachusetts                           175


  PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES.

    Theoretical side of training emphasized                          176

  _Harvard_                                                          177
    Lectures on Education                                            177
    Inspection and supervision of Schools                            178

  _Cornell_                                                          178
    Elective courses in Philosophy course                            178
    Seminaries                                                       179

  _Michigan_
    Professional Training for Teachers                               179
    Reasons for providing the same (extract from Calendar)       179-180
    Teacher’s diploma and certificate                                181

  _Illinois_
    Course in Pedagogy counting towards a degree                     182

  _Indiana_
    Courses in Department of Pedagogies                              183

  _University of City of New York_                                   183
    Regular Students and Auditors                                    183
    Courses of Study                                                 183
    Requirements for the Doctorate in Pedagogy                       184

  _University of Iowa_                                               185

  _Teachers’ Training College, affiliated with Columbia College_     185
    Course of study leading to degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy        186
    Certificates                                                     187
    School of Observation and Practice                               188
    Extension and publishing work                                    188

  _Clark University at Worcester_                                    189
    Research work                                                    189
    Educational Department                                           190
    Pedagogical Seminary                                             192
    Twofold aim of Educational Department                            192


  TEACHER’S INSTITUTES.

  Character of Work                                                  194
  Various kinds of Institutes                                        195


  SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES.

  Benton Harbour                                                     196
  Chautauqua                                                         196
  Summer course at Cornell                                           196
  Summer Course at Clark University                                  197
  The Prang System                                                   198




The Training of Teachers in the United States




GENERAL SKETCH OF THE AMERICAN TOUR


Our educational quest began in the city of New York, on May 29th, 1893.

Having interviewed the City Superintendent, Mr. J. Jasper, who gave
valuable information as to what was most worth seeing in connection
with the educational life of the city, we proceeded to the Normal
College of the city of New York. The session was just closing, but we
were able to see some classes in physical training and cookery, and
to gain some insight into the methods employed in other subjects. Two
or three days were most profitably spent at the Teachers’ Training
College, a sketch of the work of which is given elsewhere. A hasty
visit to Columbia College, with its annex for women,--Barnard
College,--a still more cursory glance at the University of the city of
New York (our information concerning which we were fortunately able
to supplement at Chicago), with an afternoon spent at the Press Fair,
was all we were able to accomplish at New York. The Press Fair proved
to be a most interesting exhibit of specimens of the work in the public
schools of New York. The methods of teaching various subjects were set
forth, and we were especially struck, as again later at the education
exhibit of the World’s Fair, by the apparatus and illustrations made by
the children themselves.

The power of “_making_,” whether of maps (drawn, painted, modelled),
models (in clay, putty, paper, wood), pictorial illustrations of
lessons (history, geography, literature, natural science, and even
mathematics) appears to be much more encouraged in America than in
England. We made friends with several of the school children at the
Press Fair, who proved most eager and interesting guides, naturally
anxious to fully explain what had been sent from their own special
schools.

Decoration Day (May 30th), on which New York had a holiday, we
determined to spend at Vassar College. A pleasant railway journey
up the banks of the Hudson River brought us to the little town of
Poughkeepsie, two miles to the east of which is Vassar College. Here
we were most cordially received, and spent the day in seeing over
the various buildings connected with it, and hearing lectures. This
college was founded in 1861 by Mr. Matthew Vassar, who provided the
grounds and buildings, together with a sustentation fund of about
£50,000. He desired, to use his own words, “to found and perpetuate an
institution which should accomplish for young women what our colleges
are accomplishing for young men.”

It led the way in opening the advantages of a liberal education to
women, and holds a place in the first rank of women’s colleges in
America. It is undenominational, but, according to the wish of its
founder, daily prayers are held in the chapel, and all classes meet
on Sunday for the study of the Scriptures. In order to emphasize the
dignity of manual labour, each student is expected to undertake a small
share in the household work of the College, at least, at some period of
her college career. The ordinary course is for four years leading to
the degree of A.B. These four years are known respectively as Freshman,
Sophomore, Junior, and Senior. A further course of two years leads
to the degree of A.M., and special courses are also provided. There
are, moreover, in connection with the college, schools of music and
painting, the latter possessing a very fine collection of casts. There
is a uniform annual fee of £80 (400 dollars) for board and tuition. The
students’ rooms are usually arranged in groups of three sleeping rooms
opening on to a common study. Just before our visit the students had
given a most successful performance of the “Antigone.”

From New York we went to Philadelphia, where the city superintendent,
Dr. Edward Brooks, kindly explained the city system of education. He is
keenly alive to the importance of the training of teachers, and ample
provision for the same is made in the city. For the training of men
teachers, a School of Pedagogy (the scheme for which was drawn up by
Dr. Brooks) has lately been opened in connection with the Boys’ Central
High School. The Girls’ Normal School has had to serve the double
purpose of high school and place of training for women teachers, but
Dr. Brooks has long urged the necessity of separating the two, and at
this time the new building for the Girls’ High School is being erected.
Kindergarten training is also not neglected, and on our first evening
in Philadelphia we attended the commencement exercises of Mrs. van
Kirk’s Kindergarten Training School, at which the graduates read essays
on various educational topics, sang songs and acted a little scene, in
which the virtues of the Kindergarten were set forth. The next day we
were able to visit the school itself, and we found that, not content
with providing the ordinary graduating course, Mrs. van Kirk has
arranged for one that is post-graduate.

A delightful visit to the Drexel Institute, which provides for the
technical instruction of the city, a glance at one of the largest
Friends’ Schools, and an unavailing attempt to see over the James
Forten Manual Training School, was all we had time for in Philadelphia.

Ten miles from Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania railroad, one reaches
the Old Welsh settlement of Bryn Mawr, with its college for women,
which bears the same name. Several halls and laboratory buildings,
standing in fifty acres of ground, make an imposing show. Of all the
colleges that we visited, Bryn Mawr appeared the most English, and it
needed the sight of a preserved specimen of a wicked-looking snake,
which had been killed in the grounds, to convince us that we were
really on American soil.

Perhaps the fact that the Professor of Mathematics, Miss Scott, and
three of the Fellows have come there from Girton helped to build up the
illusion.

It is a college without rules; even attendance at lectures is not
compulsory, but as failure to pass at the yearly examinations brings
with it a request to withdraw from the college, there is every
inducement to attend regularly. The same freedom is extended to the
choice of studies. Instead of the four years’ course with the more
or less definitely prescribed work for each class which we found at
Vassar, Bryn Mawr has adopted the newer plan of the group system, which
allows more opportunity for specialization. A distinctive feature of
the college is the attention paid to post-graduate work, original
research being especially encouraged. The students have adopted caps
and gowns, which, however, are only worn within college precincts.

Acting on the suggestion of Dr. Brooks, we determined to visit the
two chief normal schools of the state of Pennsylvania--West Chester
and Millersville. The little tree-shaded town of West Chester was
a pleasant change from the heat of Philadelphia. It is a most
distinctively Quaker settlement; even the landlord of the little inn
at which we stayed was a Friend, and wished to know if “thee was
travelling all by theeself.” The normal school is a little way out, but
easily reached by means of the electric cars, which are to be found in
even the smallest American towns.

It was interesting to us as the first co-educational normal school that
we had seen. The dining and lecture rooms are used in common, but the
dormitory accommodation is in two separate wings.

From West Chester we went to the normal school at Millersville, near
Lancaster. Returning north through New York, we first stopped at New
Haven, Connecticut, a most picturesque place, famous as being the
location of Yale College.

Superintendent Curtis most kindly supplied us with information about
the State of Connecticut and its normal schools. He also took us to see
the Welch Training School in New Haven, which, however, is elsewhere
described.

From New Haven we went to Hartford (visiting the normal school of New
Britain on the way), and from thence to Willimantic, South Manchester,
and Springfield, Massachusetts. At Springfield the Training School,
and an interview with Superintendent Balliet, gave ample material for
thought. The work carried on by Mr. Balliet in the city strikingly
exemplifies what a superintendent may do for the cause of education.
Not only does he give weekly lectures on applied psychology and
kindred subjects, but he has paid special attention to the elaborating
of methods of teaching such subjects as arithmetic and geometry,
geography, English language, etc., on which he has published
pamphlets, setting forth the results of his thought and experience.
It should be noted that, as in America schools when inspected are not
judged by results, but by the methods used, and the general teaching
efficiency, it comes about that the question of methods holds a more
important place in educational thought than in England. More time,
therefore, is devoted to their study in normal and training schools,
and a superintendent has a wide field of influence in the matter of
methods in the city or district over which he presides.

From Springfield the normal school at Westfield was visited, and from
thence we went on to Albany to see the State Normal College and City
Training School.

Boston offered a wide choice in matters of educational interest.

The Perkins Institute and Kindergarten for the blind well repaid a
visit. The former, associated with the name of Laura Bridgman, has
now in Helen Keller and Annie Thomas two wonderful examples of what
education may do even for those who lack what at first may seem the
necessary basis for all instruction--the senses of sight and hearing.
Helen Keller was not there at the time of our visit, but we just
saw her later at Chicago. When she entered the Institute she, being
blind, deaf, and consequently speechless, lived in a state of almost
complete isolation, but now, through the careful training of her
marvellously acute sense of touch, she can take a very full share in
the life of the world. She moves about quite fearlessly, recognising
people by a touch of the hand, speaking easily (even sometimes in
public), although, of course, those speaking to her must use the
hand-language,[1] or let her put her fingers on their lips. She is
acquainted with a good deal of the best in literature, and writes
most poetically. Indeed, from her letters it is difficult to suppose
that she has never seen or heard anything. Her life seems a very
happy one in spite of all, and she makes friends everywhere. Annie
Thomas was at the Institute, however, at the time of our visit. She,
like Helen Keller, has only the sense of touch by means of which to
gain knowledge of the world, but she too has learned to talk, write,
sew, etc. She acted as guide to us over the building, leading us from
room to room, and drawing our attention to various things, including
specimens of her own work. Younger than Helen Keller, she is very
fond of dressing dolls, and felt our dresses all over, to try to get
new ideas in dressmaking. She appears to have a good memory, and can
recognise people after a long lapse of time by just touching their
hands. We asked her through her teacher if she remembered the visit of
an Englishman, who some years before had been there and had given her
a little ring; she remembered at once, and talked about him. In the
Kindergarten we saw two other such children--Willie Robin and Tommy
Stringer. The first, a little girl, is a pretty child, and seemingly
very intelligent. It was wonderful to see all the little blind children
playing Kindergarten games, but when this child came forward and joined
in playing cat and mouse, with an evident keen sense of the fun, and
even sang the songs with the others, finding out what was being sung
by touching the throat of the child next to her, we realized what
education had done for her. The little boy, Tommy Stringer (who was
admitted mainly through the efforts of Helen Keller, who, having heard
of him, did not rest until she had secured his admission), is only
at the beginning of his training, and cannot yet do much. Of course
the first work of establishing a system of communication with these
children is the most arduous, and patient indeed must be the teachers
who devote themselves to it.

Several times we crossed the river Charles to Cambridge, for no visit
to America would have been complete without some time spent in seeing
the leading University of the country. It seemed curious to find that
women were still excluded from the lectures, although in the Women’s
Annex they are allowed to work as if for a degree. It seemed strange
that such a state of things could exist in a land which boasts itself
of freedom and of the position given to women. Indeed, it really
appears that the eastern States of America are behind England in the
matter of offering equal educational advantages to men and women. There
are, of course, the great Women’s Colleges of Bryn Mawr, Wellesley,
Vassar and Smith, which offer splendid opportunities for work, but
their courses lead to degrees which are for women only, and which will,
for that reason alone, never be considered as of such importance as
those which are also granted to men.

The Harvard Annex for Women has been opened at Fay House, Cambridge.
Professors and lecturers from the University give their lectures over
again at the Annex for the benefit of the women students, who can
thus go through the course for a degree, which, however, they may not
receive, having to be content with a certificate. We were able to be
there on Class Day, on which the students invite their friends to an
“at home” in honour of the women graduates. At first all assembled in
the library to listen to appropriate speeches, then they dispersed into
the lecture rooms to talk to their friends, an arrangement which gave
the English visitors opportunity to meet the various professors and
lecturers. The women’s Class Day, however, fades into insignificance
by the side of the men’s, which is the gala day of Cambridge. The
morning is devoted to speeches by the students and professors, and in
the afternoon and evening the seniors (those who graduate) have the
opportunity of giving teas and “spreads,” to which they invite their
friends. On the Tree of Liberty is hung the famous wreath, the flowers
of which are scrambled for at a given signal, and dancing and other
entertainments bring the day to a close. Commencement Day, at which the
actual degrees are conferred, is held some days later.

From Boston we visited another famous college for women--Wellesley,
which takes rank and is conducted on similar lines to those of Vassar
and Bryn Mawr. It is quite out in the country, and has beautiful
buildings and grounds of its own.

The Institute of Technology well repaid a visit. It is a most imposing
institution, every opportunity being afforded in it for work of all
kinds, chiefly, it is true, for scientific work (the laboratories and
various departments being most splendidly equipped with apparatus),
but almost any subject can be studied there. There are special courses
arranged for those who are actually engaged in teaching. We also
visited the Boston Normal and Rice Training School, Normal Art School,
and the Latin High School. From Boston, we went to see the State Normal
Schools at Framingham, Bridgewater Providence (Rhode Island), and the
other Training Schools at Fall River and Pawtucket.

The fame of the Quincy Schools, near Boston, attracted us thither, and
we spent a delightful morning listening to lessons in the primary and
grammar grades of one of the best. It was of course a mixed school, and
every class had a large room to itself with a continuous blackboard,
all round the walls, of which constant use was made either by teacher
or scholars. These blackboards are an essential part of school-room
furniture in America, and without them a great deal of the teaching
could not be carried on. The teacher begins at one end of the board
facing the class, and can work right along the side of the room, thus
being able to leave all her drawings, etc., unerased during the lesson.
She can also send any or all of the children to the blackboard at once
to work sums, write or draw. It was at Quincy that Colonel Parker (now
at Cook County Normal School) began his work as school superintendent,
and through him the Quincy methods of teaching attained an almost
world-wide fame.

The little town of Milton, a few miles out of Boston, among the Blue
Mountains, was also a place of interest. We there visited the Milton
Academy, an endowed school, chartered as far back as 1798, and opened
in 1807. It is a school for boys and girls, although there is only a
boarding-house for boys. The Academy much resembles an English High
School, in that it provides education for children between the ages of
eight and eighteen, and has an upper and lower school. It is really a
preparatory school for Harvard, the courses in the upper school being
determined by the requirements for the Harvard entrance examination.

We asked the head-master as to the practical working of co-education
in a school of that kind. He appeared to believe in it, and gave
us an excellent opportunity of learning how the boys and girls
themselves regarded it. The upper school had to write for ten minutes
on some given subject, and on this morning the one announced was
“co-education.” We were afterwards allowed to look at the papers, and
were very much interested by them. About half the pupils expressed no
definite opinion at all--many saying that as they had never been to a
school on any other plan, they could not judge of the relative merits
of mixed or separate schools. The rest, however, had fully made up
their minds, some for and some against. Those who defended the system
did so on the grounds of the higher standard of work resulting from
the rivalry between the boys and girls, and of the good influence each
had on the other--the girls making the boys gentler, while the boys’
admiration of courage tended to render the girls braver. The objections
brought against it were, however, almost more interesting. Several boys
objected, because they said they had to work harder than in schools for
boys only, while some of the girls who did not want to take the Harvard
entrance examination disliked the course of study rendered necessary
by it, and would have preferred to take other subjects. According
to one boy, “girls have so much more time than boys (not playing so
many games), and therefore can easily get their lessons perfect”; and
another bewailed the fact that when optional extra work was given out
by the teacher, “the girls always did it, and so got more marks.” A
more valid objection, perhaps, was that the school had no reputation
for athletics, or outdoor games, as the girls took no interest in
them. How far this was really true in this particular case, we could
not judge; but wherever we went, we were struck with the fact that
American girls do not play or get enough exercise in the open air. This
dislike to outdoor exercise and fondness for hot rooms (their rooms
are kept ten to fifteen degrees higher in temperature than we consider
healthy in England) are probably the chief causes of the delicacy and
excitability of American women.

One day was spent at Concord, so long the home of Emerson, Hawthorne
and Thoreau, where one realized as never before what their lives and
writings have meant as educating influences in America. The life
of Concord seems to be in the past, and it appears as if quietly
awaiting the return of those great presences which made it famous.
The house once occupied by the Alcotts is now in the possession of
Commissioner Harris, of Washington (Head of the Bureau of Education),
who spends a part of each year there. The Concord schools are good,
and a new scheme, by which all children within a radius of ten miles
are collected in conveyances and brought in to school, has just been
adopted. This plan does away with the necessity for district schools,
which are rarely efficient.

From Boston we started westward, and first stopped at Syracuse. This
is the seat of a Co-educational University, placed on the top of the
highest hill, the view from which is very fine. Besides the ordinary
departments, it has one for music and one for painting, which have both
been carefully organized. There is also an observatory.

By way of Oswego, Niagara and Detroit, we reached Ann Arbor, the seat
of the Michigan State University, which is the centre of the life
of the town. It is co-educational and non-residential, the students
boarding with the people of the place. It appeared that nearly every
house took in students, usually only to lodge, but other houses opened
their doors at meal times, and it was a curious sight to see students
and others wending their ways three times a day to certain houses where
they had arranged for meals.

The University has many departments, including those of law, medicine
and dentistry. Two graduates of the last were Englishwomen, who are now
practising in Chicago.

We were fortunate enough to arrive there in time for Commencement Day,
when we saw several hundred students receive degrees. They went up on
to the platform in batches of twenty or thirty at a time, and were then
handed their diplomas. Neither the graduates nor the professors wore
any academic dress. Just below the platform, tables were arranged which
were covered with bunches and baskets of flowers and presents. These
were placed there by the friends of the students, and each bore the
name of the one for whom it was intended. At one point in the ceremony
these were handed round. An address is usually given by some well-known
speaker--this year by Dr. Charles Warner.

This University is the crown of the Michigan State system of education,
and its advantages are equally open to men and to women. All connected
with it seemed to approve of its being co-educational. Great freedom is
allowed to all students, but he or she who will not work, and wastes
time and opportunities, has to leave. Graduation time is also that
chosen for the meeting together of old students of the University.
The students who graduate together are known as the “class” of the
year in which they take their degrees--such as the “class of 1870,”
or of “1890.” The members of the various classes try to keep in touch
with each other all their lives, and like to meet at the University at
Commencement time. Several classes, in some of which the members were
all grey-headed, had thus met together to talk over old times.

From Ann Arbor we went to see a Summer School, at Benton Harbour, a
watering-place on Lake Michigan. The school was mostly attended by
teachers from the country, who wished to use part of their holidays in
preparing for one of the Teachers’ State Examinations.

Here we spent the “glorious fourth,” being roused by fireworks at three
in the morning, and obliged to tread the streets most carefully by day
to avoid stepping on the fire-crackers which lay about everywhere.

Crossing the lake by steamer (a three or four hours’ passage, in
which we were quite out of sight of land), we reached Chicago. There
we stayed at the new University, which, of course, was not then in
session. The dormitories were let out to those who came for the
Educational Congresses. Our first sight of it was not inspiriting,
for we arrived at night, and the half-finished buildings, placed at
intervals on what must at no distant date have been a swamp, looked
cheerless and forlorn. Things looked better in the morning sunshine;
and we then found that there was every promise of its being a large
and handsome University. It is co-educational, like Michigan,
and has, moreover, three women on the staff--one as Dean, one as
Assistant-Professor of English, and one as Lecturer in Spanish. It is
residential, some of the dormitories being built for women and some for
men.

The World’s Fair was held in the parks adjoining the University.
It would take too long to describe, but one building must be
mentioned--that of the Liberal Arts, the top floor of which was
entirely given up to educational exhibits. Nearly every country was
represented, from Japan--which really appears to be far advanced in
the making of teaching apparatus--to the exhibit of our own London
School Board, which was exceedingly well arranged, and attracted much
attention. The United States had naturally the lion’s share of the
space--each State having a section allotted to it. In each section
places were given to the Universities, Normal Schools, Public and
Private Schools, and other Institutions. Specimens of work, exercise
books, apparatus, were all shown. Several States had taken great pains
to make the exhibit complete. Some had collected valuable statistics
and placed them on revolving screens, some had published pamphlets
describing certain branches of educational work in the State; and
some greatly heightened the value of the exhibits by placing some
one in charge who was competent to explain them. Some exhibits were,
of course, much more valuable than others--the States of Indiana,
Massachusetts, Minnesota and New York appeared perhaps the most
complete.

From these exhibits, and especially from those in charge of them, we
learned much, and were able to supplement the knowledge we had gained
by visiting the various schools.

Two Educational Congresses were held, the first under the Women’s
Branch of the World Congress Auxiliary, began on July 17th, and the
other, held under the charge of the National Educational Association,
began on July 23rd.

Under each there were many sections, those for the first being Higher
Education, University Extension, College and University Students,
College Fraternities, Kindergarten Manual and Art Education, Social
Settlements, Chautauquean Education, Stenography, Teaching of the Deaf
and of the Blind.

For the second: Higher, Secondary, Elementary and Kindergarten
Education, School Supervision, Training of Teachers’ Art, Vocal Music,
Technological, Industrial and Manual Business and Physical Education,
Rational Psychology and Experimental Psychology in Education. On the
whole the Congresses were disappointing, with perhaps the exception
of that on Experimental Psychology; but the people we met there were
so interesting as to quite make up for any loss in the Congresses
themselves.

All our spare time we spent at the Cook County Normal Summer School,
Colonel Parker having given us free passes to all lectures. There we
met teachers from all parts of the States and from Canada.

We also visited the University Settlement in one of the poorest parts
of Chicago. It is known as Hull House, and is conducted on much the
same lines as Toynbee Hall.

From Chicago we went to Chautauqua, the huge encampment by the side of
Lake Chautauqua, in New York State. Here for several months in the year
people gather (no longer in log huts, but in hotels and boarding-houses
erected for the purpose) to attend the summer school, or the religious
meetings, or simply to enjoy the social life and popular lectures,
concerts, etc., which make the time pass quickly for them. Not only,
however, in the summer does Chautauqua exercise its influence. An
elaborate system of reading circles and education by correspondence has
been established, and connects one summer meeting with another. It does
educational work among those who are reached in no other way, and its
influence is felt not only throughout the States and America generally,
but even in Europe and far Japan.

We returned to New York through Ithaca, where we stopped to see Cornell
University. A University Summer School was being held, and we were able
to attend some lectures, and interviewed one or two professors.

A breakdown of the train by which we were to leave Ithaca delayed
our journey, so we arrived in New York too late to see any more
institutions, and sailed from thence feeling sad at the thought that
such a delightful tour was ended; but glad, too, at the remembrance of
the many friends we had made, and feeling that America would be no more
to us a land of strangers.

                                                       MILLICENT HUGHES.




REPORT I

BY AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc.


In making my report of observations in one department of the
Educational System of the United States, I am anxious to point out, at
the very outset, that the nature of that System (its complexity, its
many modifications, and the vast extent it covers) renders the work of
drawing general conclusions from the data supplied by the observations
of one person a task of extreme difficulty. The difficulty is further
increased by the fact that my personal observations were limited to
the North-Eastern States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island,
New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illinois. These States, although
covering only a small portion of the whole field of observation, differ
so greatly as regards conditions and organization that they exhibit
results widely opposed, and furnish facts from which it is not easy to
generalize.

I had, however, many and valuable opportunities of supplementing
personal observations by a further study of educational matters in the
exhibit of the Educational Department of the World’s Fair, and by
attending the Educational Congresses held in Chicago in July, 1893.
The meetings held during the Educational Congress were, in themselves,
disappointing. Nevertheless they enabled me to meet educationalists
and teachers of all kinds from all parts of the United States, and
to learn, by personal interviews, facts which it would have been
impossible to gain by merely visiting educational institutions. I found
throughout my visit that personal interviews were an important means of
supplementing the observation of work actually done in the schools. In
some departments, the most valuable information I gained was acquired
in this way, this being especially true in connection with the Training
of Secondary Teachers in the Eastern States, where the subject,
although widely discussed, is only just beginning to have any practical
outcome.

In reporting on the Training of Teachers in the United States, I have
chiefly confined myself to the work done in:--

  i. State Normal Schools.

  ii. City Normal and Training Schools.

  iii. Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and Colleges.

It will be seen that I make constant references to methods of Science
taught in the training schools, and adopted in their connected model
schools. This is due to the fact that my observations were made with
especial regard to that branch of training. I have not reported on
the training of Kindergarten teachers, for although the question of
Kindergarten instruction is one of great interest and importance at
present in America, I had little opportunity of seeing and judging the
methods employed in the preparation of teachers in that department.

I wish to record my grateful thanks to those who so readily helped me
in my work; and to express my appreciation of the great kindness and
hospitality shown everywhere throughout my visit. I should also like to
take this opportunity of thanking the Gilchrist Trustees, through whose
liberality I have been enabled to gain much that will be very valuable
to myself, and possibly something that may be of interest or help to
other teachers.


_STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS._

The State Normal Schools are schools supported wholly by a particular
State, to provide trained teachers for the public schools of that
State. They are under the management of State Boards of Education,
which determine the length of the Normal School Course, and arrange
the studies. Much discretionary power is, however, given to the
principals or presidents of the respective schools. Instruction is
usually free to those who pledge themselves to teach in the State,
and, as a further inducement, students attending non-resident schools
are allowed to come in by train at reduced fares, or lodge and board
in houses near the school at a very low rate. Students of resident
schools have rooms and board in the school building, or in separate
smaller halls, or “dormitories,” at a rate of 150-180 dollars a year.
To very needy students the State makes extra grants. Most of the
Normal Schools are co-educational institutions; but a few admit only
women. In the co-educational schools, the men and women have classes
and meals in common, and reside in different parts of one building, or
in adjacent buildings. It is a noticeable fact, however, that in most
of the co-educational Normal Schools the women students outnumber the
men. In the two Pennsylvanian Schools I visited--those at Westchester
and Millersville--the discrepancy between the numbers of men and women
students was not so great as in the Normal Schools of Massachusetts,
Connecticut, and New York, which devote themselves more strictly to
professional training, _i.e._ to pedagogical instruction and teaching
practice. Having enquired as to the cause of the greater number of
women students, I was told it was due to the fact that teaching, as a
profession, offers few attractions to men in the United States, and
that in those few Normal Schools where the attendance of men and women
students is almost equal the courses are such as to allow of their
being used by the men as preparatory courses for college. Such an
explanation seems to be corroborated by the relative numbers of men and
women teachers in many of the States. In Massachusetts, the number of
teachers is 10,965, and of these only 992 are men. In Illinois, there
are 23,033 teachers in the Common Schools, and among them only 7,091
men. In New York, of the 32,161 teachers in the State schools, 26,869
are women.

The first Normal Schools were established in Massachusetts in 1839. The
particular needs which these early schools were intended to satisfy,
and their early aims, have influenced the courses of instruction and
lines of work of most of the Normal Schools since established, whether
in Massachusetts, or in other States. The purpose of the early schools
at Lexington and Barre was to provide more competent teachers for the
lower grades of schools, and their course of training embraced:--

  i. The subjects of an ordinary school curriculum, known as “academic
  studies,” as distinguished from pedagogical or “professional studies.”

  ii. Instruction in the Art of Teaching and Governing.

  iii. Practice in Teaching in the Common Schools.

The standard of admission to these early Normal Schools was low, and at
that time, opportunities for any thorough study outside universities
were few, especially in the case of women. Accordingly their theory
of training gave the greatest importance to “a careful review of the
branches of knowledge required to be taught in schools.” The first
business of a Normal School was said, by Horace Mann, to consist “in
reviewing, and thoroughly and critically mastering the rudiments of
elementary branches of knowledge.” And although conditions have changed
much since 1839, most of the Normal Schools of the United States still
pursue the lines of work adopted by Massachusetts. Standards of
admission have been raised, courses of study have been correspondingly
extended, but the Normal Schools, with a few exceptions, still remain
more or less efficient schools for the teaching of ordinary subjects,
and devote half the course, and in many cases even more, to academic
work. It is thus a distinctive feature of Normal School work to
pursue school subjects side by side with professional, or pedagogical
subjects. But there seems a general tendency to emphasize the academic
part, at the expense of the professional. Examples of the courses
of study for Massachusetts and New York, two of the foremost of the
Eastern States in educational matters, will indicate this.

Normal Schools of Massachusetts.

_Two Years’ Course_:

  Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry.

  Book-keeping.

  Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry.

  Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Geology.

  Mineralogy, Geography.

  Language, Reading, Orthography.

  Etymology, Grammar, Rhetoric.

  Literature, Composition.

  Penmanship, Drawing, Vocal Music.

  Gymnastics.

  Psychology, Science of Education, Art of Teaching.

  School Organization, History of Education.

  Civil Polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, History and
  School Laws of Massachusetts.

_Four Years’ Course_:

  Subjects required in the Two Years’ Course, with the addition of:--

  Advanced Algebra and Geometry, Trigonometry, Surveying.

  Advanced Chemistry, Physics and Botany.

  Drawing, English Literature, General History.

  Latin, French, German or Greek.

The order of studies, and the relative lengths of time spent on
academic and professional studies, is determined by the president
of the school. In the Bridgewater School, pedagogical subjects are
not studied systematically until the fourth term or semester, for
those who take the Two Years’ Course, and the seventh semester, for
those who take the Four Years’ Course. Thus with the exception of a
single semester, and a few hours of the first semester given to an
introduction of psychology, the whole of the two years or four years is
devoted to school subjects. In the Westfield School, the last half-year
of the Two Years’ Course is devoted to pedagogical subjects, and the
additional work of the Four Years’ Course is entirely academic.

The studies prescribed for the Normal Schools of New York State are in
three courses:

  i. The English Course, comprising the usual English subjects,
  Mathematics and Science. This occupies three years.

  ii. The Classical Course, comprising more advanced English subjects,
  Mathematics and Science, with Latin and Greek, or German and French.
  This occupies four years.

  iii. The Scientific Course, including all subjects of the English
  Course, with two years’ study of two of the languages, Latin and
  Greek, French, German.

The order of subjects, and relative times devoted to academic and
professional studies, is approximately the same for all the Normal
Schools of New York State. Taking the schools of Oswego and Oneonta as
examples, we find:--

_Three Years’ Course_: Psychology, philosophy, history of education and
methods of teaching various subjects, taken up for the first half of
the third year, and sometimes made to extend into the second half of
the same year.

_Four Years’ Course_: The same work, chiefly done in the first half of
the fourth year.

It is maintained by some, that all the Normal School work is
professional, in that throughout the curriculum the aim is to present
the subject matter of instruction in the way that the teacher should
present it to his or her class of children, and so to make the lessons
model lessons. I was present at some excellent lessons of this kind:
a geography lesson and a history lesson in the Bridgewater Normal
School. But for the most part the needs of the Normal School pupils
themselves, and not the needs of imaginary future school children,
have to be considered, and the Normal School lessons or “recitations”
resolve themselves into ordinary school lessons. Even if we assume,
however, that this is not the case, and that great skill is shown on
the part of the Normal School teacher, may not such a plan of teaching
“Methods” be dangerous, in that it encourages imitation and rigidity.
Such appears to me to be the tendency of the generally adopted plan,
of giving professional training in “Methods,” by actual lessons in the
various subjects given by the Normal School teacher; and the danger
of encouraging cut and dried methods is intensified where it is the
custom for a Normal School student to give a lesson to children, or
her fellow-students in that subject and section of a subject which
has just been presented to her by the Normal School teacher. It is
maintained by others that apart from any advantage which may accrue to
the students from hearing good lessons in the various subjects they
will have to teach, it is absolutely necessary that each student should
change her standpoint, and review the various branches of knowledge
as a teacher, rather than as a pupil. This, it is argued, is secured
by such a plan of teaching “Methods.” As a third motive, it is held
that direct teaching of ordinary school subjects is necessary before
beginning pedagogical instruction, on account of the inadequate and
unequal preparation which the future teachers bring to their work.
It seems to me that both these necessities might be obviated by more
rigid requirements for admission to Normal Schools. The well-equipped
High Schools can do the academic work of the Normal Schools with less
effort than can the Normal Schools themselves; and were the standards
of admission such as to necessitate a thoroughly sound preliminary
knowledge in common school subjects, might not the Normal School
students be found more capable of themselves reviewing old facts from a
new standpoint, and the schools have more time and opportunity to carry
out other means of training?


ACADEMIC STUDIES.

It is a marked feature in the academic work of Normal Schools that
great importance is given to the teaching of science. Here, as in
American Schools in general, a large place in the curriculum is given
to what is known as “nature study.” Extensive laboratories, for the
different branches of science, are fitted up in most of the schools;
books, microscopes, physical, chemical and biological apparatus,
specimens for observation and dissection, are supplied free to
students; outdoor work is organized, weather-charts are kept daily, and
students are encouraged to use the school workshops for making simple
physical apparatus for their own use. In all the schools great stress
is laid upon practical work by each individual student. The following
list shows the number of lesson-hours given to science at the Normal
School, Bridgewater, Massachusetts.

_Two Years’ Course_:

  1st year. { 1st term    12 hours per week.
            { 2nd  ”       7   ”       ”

  2nd year. { 1st term     6   ”       ”
            { 2nd  ”       5   ”       ”

_Four Years’ Course_:

  1st year. { 1st term     2   ”       ”
            { 2nd  ”      10   ”       ”

  2nd year. { 1st term     7   ”       ”
            { 2nd  ”       2   ”       ”

  3rd year. { 1st term     4   ”       ”
            { 2nd  ”       8   ”       ”

  4th year. { 1st term     8   ”       ”
            { 2nd  ”       4   ”       ”

The school, which numbers 274 pupils, has five laboratories--viz.,
chemical, physical, physiological and zoological, geological and
industrial, and the equipment of these, and the care with which
students kept daily records of laboratory work, were its special
features. The chemical laboratory is in two sections: one for
elementary, and one for advanced students, and between these is a
teachers’ laboratory. The students’ daily records of work are carefully
examined by the teacher, and much use is made, by both teachers and
students, of the continuous wall slate round the class-rooms and
laboratories. Physiology is taught by aid of the skeleton and life-size
models, also by the dissection of lower animals, and microscopical
examination of tissues. The methods and means adopted for geology and
geography teaching at Bridgewater seemed to be particularly good. In
the school museum were duplicate collections of rocks and minerals,
classified on various bases; and in addition to these, the school
possessed two sets of trays of working specimens, one set containing
labelled typical class specimens, and the other containing unlabelled
specimens for identification by students. Books, giving printed
directions for work, interleaved with blank sheets for observations,
notes and drawings, were provided for all students. I heard two
excellent lessons in geography at this school. One on the Slopes of
the United States was well worked out with the students in sand,
great care being taken by the teacher to state and compare actual
distances, so that the relief-map should not convey an impression of
false proportion. The other was a lesson in map-drawing from memory.
All students had places at the slate round the room, and two minutes
were given to draw the outline of a map previously prepared. Then one
minute was given for the drawing of a particularly difficult isolated
part of the outline. When this was done, a correct map was uncovered,
and students were required to correct their own drawings. After the
drawings had been individually criticised by the teacher, faults were
generalized, and help was given.

The special features of the science work at the Normal School,
Willimantic, Connecticut, is the emphasis placed on manual training,
and its practical connection with all science teaching. All students,
men and women, are required to invent, or make with their own hands,
simple apparatus for teaching the elementary facts of physics. I saw
students in the workshops, making relief-maps and models for their
lessons. One was constructing a very simple model of a water-wheel, to
illustrate lessons on the conservation of energy; another was making a
relief-map of paper pulp, on a ground of blue-painted wood.

In this school the students do not, as a rule, follow stated text-books
in science. Wide reading is encouraged, and there is an excellent
library of standard text-books and works of reference. There is also a
model library of children’s literature for the students’ use, and an
exhibition of the latest devices for “busy-work.” “Busy-work” is the
work done alone by one section of a class, while the other is being
directly taught by the teacher. All sorts of occupations are devised
by the clever teacher for impressing facts already learnt, and the
“busy-work” hour is frequently employed in cutting out outline maps,
sorting beads, counting beans, etc. The object of the exhibition of
“busy-work” at Willimantic is to encourage examination and criticism
of such devices with regard to their educational value. The figures
representing the amount granted to this Normal School last year, for
“busy-work” exhibits, library books, text-books, periodicals, etc.,
were kindly given to me by the Principal, and I note them here, as an
illustration of the readiness of New England States to furnish school
supplies and apparatus. A few details of expenditure for the past year,
which was by no means an exceptional year, are:

  Text-books and School Supplies for Normal } 1,500 dollars.
  and Model School                          }

  Library                                       500    ”
  Periodicals                                    60    ”
                                             ------
                                Total amount, 2,060    ”
                                             ======

Thus more than £450 was spent in one year for library materials, in
a school numbering less than 150. The abundant supply of apparatus
and books for the teaching of science, and the importance given to
practical work, are a marked feature in all the schools. At the Albany
Normal School for teachers in higher grades and colleges, the students
spend most of their free afternoons in making physical apparatus for
their own future use. The laboratory here is well equipped, and the
work is done with great care, accuracy and finish. I saw a home-made
tangent galvanometer, and a Wheatstone’s bridge in constant use for
somewhat fine measurements.

At the Normal School, Worcester, Massachusetts, plant study receives
special attention. This is not technical botany as usually understood,
but is rather a daily observation and record of plant surroundings, the
practical study of all stages of plant-life. A feature of the study
is the daily exhibit, made by the pupils in turn, of some plant in
bud, leaf, flower or fruit, with its common and scientific name, and
the place where it was gathered. Directories furnishing information
respecting the localities of trees and plants in the neighbourhood are
made in the school, and dates of their times of blossoming are noted
from year to year on special blank sheets provided for the purpose.
Moreover, collections of the woods of different trees, and of leaves
of trees growing within the county are made. Work of this kind is
usually done in the free hours for independent study, which each
student has several times during the day. Practical gardening is also
systematically done in free time.

The lessons in science, unless actual laboratory lessons, are usually
given in the form of “recitations.” A “recitation” is a lesson in
which certain parts of a subject, specially prepared beforehand, are
contributed by the pupils. The teacher asks questions and explains
difficulties, and generally connects the facts brought forward; but
the material of the lesson is wholly supplied by the pupils. This way
of working out a subject has at least two distinct advantages over our
own method of lesson-giving, in which the chief work devolves upon the
teacher. By the recitation method the pupils are taught how to use
books, how to gather from many sources material for their recitation.
They also learn to rely on their own efforts in class-time, and to be
alert in thought and speech. The disadvantages of the plan, however,
seem even more apparent. Where one text-book is chiefly used in a
subject, or even where several books are referred to, there is a
distinct tendency to “recite” in the words of the book. Several times I
heard lessons in which such “recitations” were accepted by the teacher.
This method, moreover, seems likely to lead to too great a dependence
on text-books, and too constant a reference to books, on points where
thought and reflection might be better guides. It also encourages
digression in class, and a resulting slowness in getting through the
subject matter, unless the teacher be very skilful in conducting the
“recitation.” The constant raising of points by the students, at all
parts of the discussion, leads sometimes to waste of time by debating
on questions of merely individual opinion. Such results point to the
difficulty of conducting an ordinary recitation. Great skill and much
experience are needed, before such a lesson can be made completely
satisfactory, and many are the teachers’ temptations to omit careful
preparation. As a method to be used constantly, and in all subjects,
it seems open to many objections, and to show but few advantages. As
resorted to occasionally, and by skilful teachers, and as particularly
adapted to subjects such as geography or history, the “recitation” may
be made a valuable means of training.

The tendency to bookishness and slavery to word-forms, which may seem
to be encouraged by the recitation method of teaching science in the
Normal Schools, is opposed by a greater tendency to emphasize the
concrete, to refer in all science teaching directly to the objects
themselves, to use laboratory methods wherever possible. Observation
and experiment are essentially the methods of many of the American
science teachers, and no pains are spared to illustrate all facts and
principles by an appeal to the senses. As a result, much of the science
teaching is excellent. On the other hand, there seems a possible danger
of pursuing these excellent methods too far, of appealing to the senses
alone, at stages of development in the child when reason and reflection
might be appealed to and trusted, and of generally emphasizing the
value of observation at the expense of neglecting the reflective
faculties. In the excellent _Outlines of Laboratory Work_, used by
some of the Normal Schools, the danger is to some degree recognised by
_Questions for Thought and Reference_ being placed at the end of each
lesson-scheme. Assuming, however, that the questions are followed out
carefully by the students, it may still be doubted whether this is the
best method of arousing thought.

Another feature of the science teaching in the Normal Schools is the
taking up of many branches of science. Chemistry, physics, astronomy,
geology, mineralogy, zoology, botany, physiology, are studied by all.
In order that students may be able to take up all these, the plan
usually adopted is to concentrate attention on one science for a short
time, and then to pass on to other sciences, until five or six have
been taken. It is seldom that even one branch of science is allowed
to run through a whole course of two years. The division of science
studies for the Normal School at New Britain, Connecticut, where the
science work is most carefully done, will illustrate this point.

_First Year_:

  Chemistry   5 recitations a week for 13 weeks.

  Physiology  5     ”          ”    ”  13   ”

  Physics     4     ”          ”    ”  40   ”

  Physical  } 4     ”          ”    ”   4   ”
  Geography }

_Second Year_:

  Physics     4 recitations a week for 13 weeks.

  Botany      5     ”          ”    ”  10   ”

  Geology     4     ”          ”    ”   5   ”

  Biology & } 4     ”          ”    ”  10   ”
  Zoology   }

When it is remembered that no preliminary science is required for
admission to the Normal Schools, and that many of the entering students
have not done any work in the subject at all, it seems impossible that
any very thorough knowledge can be secured in a course of five, ten,
or even thirteen weeks. It may be possible for the student to obtain
and verify a few scientific facts during a short course such as this;
but there is no time or opportunity to realize the extent or bearing of
the subject in hand, or to study it adequately in a scientific way. To
allow a beginner to feel he has completed a course in geology, botany,
or any other science in thirteen weeks is to encourage superficiality,
to arouse in him a feeling of satisfaction and attainment, and surely
nothing can be more opposed to the true spirit of science. In the New
Britain School, physics is carried through fifty-three of the eighty
weeks in the Two Years’ Course; and this seems a good plan, even if,
during some part of the time, only two or three hours a week can be
given to it. When one science, or possibly two, are chiefly taken up,
and others considered merely accessory to the main subject of study, a
more adequate knowledge of science and scientific method can be gained,
especially if the sciences taken up are such as botany, and physics,
which illustrate respectively different methods of scientific research.

It may be maintained that the Normal School students must be prepared
for their future work in the Primary and Grammar Schools, in most of
which the elements of several sciences are taught. This, of course,
must be remembered. Nevertheless, the attitude of mind developed by the
thorough study of one science is the best possible preparation for the
safe study of the elements of others, while a superficial study of the
elements of many sciences is fatal to the proper estimation of facts in
any one of them.


PROFESSIONAL WORK.

The purely professional work of the Normal State Schools consists of:

  (_a_) Instruction in the theory of education and its application.

  (_b_) Actual practice in teaching, under the guidance of experienced
  teachers.

  (_c_) Theory of education.

It is usual for the Normal Schools of the Eastern States to postpone
the study of strictly pedagogical subjects until half or more of the
course has been completed. School methods are sometimes taught in
connection with academic subjects in the early part of the course;
but such instruction, coming, as it does, before any principles of
the science of education have been considered, or any practical
experience has been gained, must be purely empirical. At the Normal
School, Millersville, Pennsylvania, school management is taken
during the first year, and applied psychology (as distinguished from
empirical methods), history of education, and school teaching, are
required during the second year. If the student takes up a further
scientific or post-graduate course, additional professional studies are
required--viz., psychology and the philosophy of education, ethics,
logic, and professional reading. In the Westchester Normal School,
Pennsylvania, no professional work is taken up until the second year.
Then psychology is studied, and history of education; and methods
and school practice are taken. The additional pedagogical studies
for the advanced courses are the same as at Millersville. At the
Normal School, Bridgewater, Massachusetts, the students, after having
studied the elements of psychology, during their first semester, leave
all technical studies until the fourth semester, when they take up
simultaneously, study of the body, study of the mind, principles of
education and methods, school organization, school government, history
of school laws of Massachusetts. A fifth semester, when it can be
given, is devoted entirely to professional work and actual teaching.
At the Normal School, New Britain, Connecticut, psychology is given
four times a week during most of the two years’ course. Text-books
are not used except for reference. No pure psychology is studied, but
school subjects are taken up one by one, and their facts and methods of
treatment are used to illustrate psychological principles. The history
of education is studied side by side with this applied psychology;
but not much time is given to this subject in class. The lives and
works of the chief educators only are taken, and private reading
is much encouraged as accessory to the class work. At the Normal
School, Willimantic, Connecticut, psychology is studied one hour a
day throughout the last year, and is treated almost entirely from the
physiological standpoint. No special text-book is used, but Spencer
and Darwin are recommended for reference. The history of education
is not taken up systematically in class, but the work and influence
of modern educators, such as Arnold, Thring, and Horace Mann, are
thoroughly discussed. At the Normal School, Worcester, Massachusetts,
class work in psychology is taken almost daily throughout the whole
course. The value attributed to the subject, and the unique way in
which it is studied, together with other points distinctive of the
professional work, give to the Worcester School a foremost place among
New England Normal Schools. The method adopted for its study is one
which entirely leaves the beaten track of ordinary text-books. It does
not, in the earlier stages, trouble the student with the divisions and
generalities of pure psychology, but rather fixes his attention solely
on the child, and seeks to gain from actual observation and individual
and combined experience laws which shall be valuable aids in teaching.
“The principal requests the students to observe the conduct of children
in all circumstances--at home, at school, in the street, at work, at
play, in conversation with one another and with adults, and record
what they see and hear as soon as circumstances will permit.” The work
thus suggested has been organized as a definite part of the school
course, and although optional, is usually taken up by all students.
It is intended, not to supplant, but to supplement later systematic
instruction in psychology, and is taken up, not for the sake of the
facts gained, which may or may not be of intrinsic worth, but for the
value of the process of such observation to the teacher. In order to
help forward the systematic study of children, a scheme of work is
drawn up. Records are to be made whenever convenient, and for these
records blank sheets of six different colours are provided. The colours
are a means of roughly classifying the records into six groups, thus:

  (i.) Facts of personal observation.

  (ii.) Facts related by others, together with names of recorder and
  observer.

  (iii.) Personal reminiscences of childhood.

  (iv.) Facts gained from books.

  (v.) Observations on exceptional or defective children.

  (vi.) Continuous observations.

Each record must contain the date of the observation, the observer’s
name, age, and post-office address, as well as the name or initials
of the child observed, its age, sex, nationality. There must be also
a statement of the length of time which has elapsed between the
observation and the record. These records are preserved and catalogued
under such heads as knowledge, imagination, feeling. Special attention
is being directed to the subject of child language, and pupils and old
students are supplied with small indexed books for records in this
particular department. Further opportunities for daily observation and
experiment in certain lines of child-study and in teaching are offered
in a newly organized children’s class or kindergarten. The students
merely watch the class, the teaching being entirely in the hands of two
experienced kindergartners. As the class exists for the acknowledged
purpose of experiment, tuition is free, and the teachers in charge have
full liberty to follow any course they wish. When I saw the school,
a long series of daily experiments were being made, with a view to
finding out whether, when left perfectly free, the boys secured places
next to girls by preference.

Much time is given to “Methods” in all the Normal Schools. Besides the
so-called “Methods” taught by means of academic studies, the subject
is usually taken up again in connection with applied psychology. The
school subjects, treated one by one in detail, are used to illustrate
principles of education, while much reference is made at every stage to
the personal experience of teacher and students. Many different plans
are adopted in teaching “Methods.” At the Normal School, Westchester,
I heard a lesson which was in the form of a modified “recitation.” A
certain point had been chosen for discussion. The students had prepared
the subject beforehand, and some had written short essays, which they
read in turn. Afterwards the whole class was questioned by the teacher.
As new ideas were brought forward, they were noted on the blackboard
by the students who supplied them, until a complete sketch was made. A
discussion on “Noise in Class” was carried on somewhat in the same way.
At Westfield, Massachusetts, the lessons on “Didactics” are carried
out on a similar plan, the students being called upon in turn to
furnish certain parts of the subject, and to build up a sketch on the
blackboard.

At the Normal School, Albany, methods are taught thus:--With each
of three terms of psychology, certain subjects are chosen for
consideration. A syllabus of work in a certain subject is given in
by each student. It is carefully discussed in class. Then parts of
the detailed syllabus are taken in order, methods of dealing with any
particular part discussed, and one method decided upon as best. For
the next day, all the students prepare a lesson on the part selected,
and any one of them may be called upon to give it to his or her
fellow-students. Then follows criticism by teacher and students. The
plan of requiring all students to consider detailed methods in all
subjects seems not to be altogether a good one. It assumes a knowledge
of all the subjects of study on the part of all students, a condition
only attainable at the price of superficiality. Even where a general
knowledge of subjects can be relied upon, details in method cannot do
other than encourage empiricism, in cases where the knowledge of the
subject matter is not thorough and complete. It would seem better,
especially in the case of training institutions like that at Albany,
designed to give purely professional training to teachers of higher
grades, to encourage more specialization, and to allow all students
some choice of method subjects, so that dead forms of method might
be made as few as possible. The system of giving detailed methods to
all stimulates, too, a tendency to rigid forms of lesson-giving, and
somewhat encourages the idea that there is only one good arrangement
of subject matter for a particular lesson, and one good way of giving
it. This is, I think, a danger of all method-teaching; but it is much
intensified where methods are discussed in great detail.

The actual methods taught in the Normal Schools, and followed out in
the connected Model Schools, vary so much as regards both principles
and details, that it is almost impossible to report on them as a
whole. It is a feature of many of the Normal Schools to cling to old
methods, and lines of work of twenty, thirty or forty years ago;
while, on the other hand, a few of the Normal Schools I saw--those of
Connecticut, the Oswego Normal School, and Colonel Parker’s School, at
Englewood, Chicago--seem to be leaders in a campaign which is beginning
to revolutionize “Methods” in America.

The educational principle which is effecting this reform is the
connection or correlation of studies, a theory the most fully expressed
and applied at the Cook County Normal School, Illinois. As a result of
this theory, the hard and fast lines between the so-called subjects
of study are being broken down. Reading is taught in all the grades
through nature study, history and literature; _e.g._, natural objects
studied by the children in different grades, or poems in the selected
literature for the year, serve as subjects for reading lessons.
The children are encouraged to express their ideas orally on these
subjects, and the teacher writes their statements on the blackboard,
and takes care that the statement is really the expression of an idea
in the child’s mind. When various sentences, given by the children,
have been connected and arranged, the class reads from the board,
and afterwards from printed or type-written copies of what has been
written. Thus the children make their own reading books, and need no
ordinary reading primers. This method, as adapted to the earliest
stages of reading, necessarily implies the learning of script before
printed characters, also the learning of words and sentences as
wholes, and their necessary association with the thought which they
express. So, too, writing and drawing, as modes of expressing thought,
are taught in close connection with all other subjects. At New Britain,
the teacher of drawing in the Model School is present at all literature
lessons, and children are encouraged to illustrate their literature
by drawings or paintings. In papers on the “Spontaneous Drawings of
Children,” read at the Chicago Educational Conference by Professor Earl
Barnes, of Leland Stanford University, California, he showed how much
of this illustrative work of children was being used by himself and
others in the cause of experimental psychology.

At the Model School connected with the Oswego Normal School, natural
history is made the central subject, and reading, writing, and drawing
are made to bear upon it. The natural history course, including both
plants and animals, is most carefully planned to suit the seasons
of the year. As each plant or animal is studied, it is drawn by the
children, stories are told about it, the children write about it, read
about it, and make it a general object of study for some time. The work
is carefully graded for different ages, but the subject or topic of
study is the same throughout the school at the same time.

At the Cook County Normal School, Illinois, all the teaching is made
to group itself round three subjects--science, geography, history; and
these subjects are made to include everything forming the environment
of the child. The study of form and number, instead of being followed
as separate subjects in themselves, are considered merely as means of
studying these three comprehensive subjects--as modes of thinking in
fact. Hearing, observing, and reading are regarded as different ways
of gaining ideas, and as such, silent reading is encouraged, and many
devices are used for helping the child to get quickly and clearly the
ideas from the printed or written page. Writing, music, modelling,
painting, drawing, speaking, are considered as means of expressing
ideas about objects studied--the act of expression making the ideas
clearer. Thus, number or arithmetic is taught, not, as is usual, by
means of problems specially made and arranged in books of arithmetical
examples; but in close connection with any class subject. I heard part
of a course of excellent laboratory lessons in Science, given to Summer
School Students at this school, and as the methods employed were those
of the ordinary Normal School Course, I may mention them here. At the
end of each lesson the teacher used the numerical results obtained
by individual students, and worked them into arithmetical problems.
For example, the subjects used for successive number lessons were as
follows:

Conductivity of heat in metals.

Expansion of metals by heat.

Determination of boiling-point of fresh and salt water.

Such a treatment of subjects is a strong protest against routine
work and rigid method. It allows great scope to the teacher by
concentrating attention on the child and its needs, rather than on the
artificial divisions into so-called subjects, and their methods. On the
other hand, it puts great responsibility upon the teacher, and taxes
his skill to the utmost. There are many difficulties in adopting the
plan, one of the chief being the construction of the school time-table.
In any case, the practical application of such a system can only be
partial, until all teachers are enthusiasts and experts; but the lines
of work seem to be true lines, and may be suggestive of much that shall
reform some of our own old methods.


PRACTICE IN TEACHING.

It is usual for each Normal School to have attached to it a Model
School, which serves the double purpose of model and practising school
for students. The head of the Model School and her assistants are
experienced teachers, known as the critic teachers, and to the care and
supervision of these the students are submitted during their training
in practical teaching. All the Normal Schools I saw had such a Model
School except the one at Providence, Rhode Island.

The amount of time actually devoted to teaching by each student is
different in different States, and the plans by which the required
amount is secured for all vary in the different schools.

The State of Pennsylvania requires of its Normal School students
actual practice in teaching for one hour a day during three-fourths
of the last year of the Course; but students generally do more than
this. At Westchester, Pennsylvania, the students go into the Model
School in sections of six each morning after 10.30. A new section is
chiefly engaged in observing the children, and hearing lessons given
by the critic teachers or other students. Later, the students teach,
but always under supervision. The subject matter of their lessons is
definitely mapped out for them by the critic teacher, and they discuss
with her the best ways of treating it. There are no written notes of
lessons, and no public criticism of lessons, either by teachers or
students. Each week, meetings of teachers and students are held, for
the purpose of taking up any points noted during the students’ work of
the week. These are really talks supplementary to the ordinary method
lectures. At Millersville, Pennsylvania, each student gives two or
three lessons every day for a year. She teaches in different grades,
and takes lessons in different subjects, and has also practice in
managing simultaneously several divisions of one class.

At the Oswego Normal School, under the regulations of the New York
State, the student is in the schools only twenty weeks, but during this
time she has much responsibility. She spends ten weeks in a primary
or elementary grade, and ten weeks in a more advanced grade, and
during the whole time is practically responsible for her class. Each
afternoon, after the school is dismissed, the teaching class remains
for an hour to discuss any points of difficulty with the Head of the
Model School.

At Willimantic, Connecticut, the teaching class spends its first four
weeks in general observation of children, and hearing lessons. Then
each student is placed under the supervision of one special critic
teacher, and she continues some of the courses of work already begun by
the critic teacher. At least four weeks are spent by each student in
every grade in the school, first in observing, then in teaching under
the criticism of the class teacher.

The Model School at New Britain, Connecticut, is preserved strictly
as a Model School. After observing teacher and class for some time,
the student usually gives one trial lesson in the school, but there
is no systematic teaching by the student. For the actual independent
practice, the student must go to a practising school outside New
Britain, and be entirely responsible for a class for four months. At
the large practising school in connection with the New Britain Normal
School, at South Manchester, I saw students dealing with the actual
difficulties of discipline and class-management. Each student was in
charge of a large class with different divisions or grades. There
were four responsible, experienced teachers for reference in cases of
emergency, and for criticism; but each student had her own class, and
the school of 700 children was practically managed by students. Such is
the general plan of practice-work in the Normal Schools.

Much care is given to the Model Schools. The class-rooms are supplied
with all necessary apparatus, and they are bright and airy, and well
supplied with flowers and children’s books. It is quite customary
in some of the schools to give short periods in school hours for
private reading, or to allow one child to read to the other children
while they are doing some kind of mechanical work. Much importance
is laid upon the observation of the teaching in Model Schools. It is
possible, however, that this is insisted on too early in the course;
indeed, the hearing of lessons is usually the students’ first work
in the school. It would be much more profitable, and there would be
less danger of blind imitation, if the student had herself previously
gained experience in teaching. As it is, the danger of imitation, and
one-sided and narrow lines of teaching is increased by the fact that
one student is chiefly under the supervision of one teacher.

At the Worcester Normal School there is no Model or practising School,
but the students teach in the public schools of the city. For the
first six months of her last year at the Normal School, the student
acts as an apprentice or pupil-teacher, serving in at least three
grades during this time. Each teacher has the direction of only one
student, who may be left in sole charge of the class for hours or
days. One day in the week the apprentice-student attends the Normal
School, where she shows her class diary for the week, and discusses any
difficulties that may have arisen. On that day, too, she takes part in
the “Platform Exercises” of the Normal School--viz., exercises in which
students speak, read or draw, on the platform, in presence of the
whole school. The apprentice-students usually give an account to their
fellow-students of anything interesting or helpful in their practical
work of the past week.


EXAMINATIONS.

At the end of the Normal School Course, State examinations are
held in most of the States. In Pennsylvania each school examines
its own students, who, when they have satisfactorily completed the
required course of study, and passed the final examination, receive
a certificate, and are said “to graduate.” After graduation, they
are recommended to the State Examiner, who awards a State-Teaching
Certificate valid for two years. At the end of this period, the teacher
is required to present to the State Board a certificate of good work
from the county Superintendent under whom he or she has taught, and
also a certificate from his own school board. He is then entitled
to teach in his own State for life. The Normal School students of
Connecticut are submitted to State Examination, but in Massachusetts
no outside examination is required. Students who work satisfactorily
through the course, and pass the final examination, “graduate” at the
discretion of the President, or according to results of an examination
set by the School Board of the city. The State examination of teachers
and most of the final examinations of the Normal Schools are usually
in academic subjects only. It is not attempted to test by actual
examination the degree of skill in teaching or governing.


SUPPLY OF TEACHERS.

As regards the number of teachers who have been trained in Normal
Schools relatively to the number who teach in the Common Schools of the
State without previous training, statistics are apt to be misleading,
because, in many cases, Normal Students do not take the entire
course or “graduate.” Out of 372 students enrolled at New Britain
in 1889-1890, only 77 completed the entire course; in 1890-1891,
only 61 out of 401 graduated; and in 1891-1892, out of 444 students,
only 91 were graduates. For 1888-1889 Framingham shows 30 graduates
out of 205 present in the school; Salem shows 129 out of 292; and
Bridgewater, 69 out of 232. In all these schools the courses are two,
three or four years, and if all the students completed the course,
the number of graduates each year would be ½, ⅓, or ¼ respectively of
the number of students enrolled. The Report of School Commissioners
for 1888-1889 shows that among 75,529 teachers in the Common Schools
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and
Pennsylvania, there were only 1,461 students who completed the Normal
School Course in these States. In all the States, arrangements are made
for teachers who do not go through the Normal Schools. Certificates
of license to teach in the State for a shorter or longer time are
granted according to results of the State Certificate Examination.
A third-grade certificate, entitling its owner to teach for a short
time, may be exchanged for a second-grade certificate, when further
proficiency is shown by re-examination. So a second-grade certificate
may be exchanged for a life-certificate in many of the States. It
should be borne in mind that these examinations are only in school
subjects.

The fact that in a State such as Massachusetts the qualifications of
teachers in the High and Latin Schools of Boston is stated merely as
“Education at some respectable college of good standing,” shows that
the necessity for the professional training of teachers for higher
or secondary schools is not at present fully recognised. Until the
last few years, no Institution especially devoted to the training
of secondary teachers existed in the eastern States, and those who
wished to prepare themselves for the teaching of the higher branches
of subjects had no other means of training than that offered in the
Normal Schools. At Worcester and Bridgewater, College and University
graduates may take the pedagogical course as special students, and so
prepare for teaching in the higher schools. At the Indiana and Illinois
Normal Schools, and in other places, there are courses of study chiefly
or entirely professional, for college or university graduates, if such
present themselves. At Albany, too, where the standard of admission is
high, many of the students prepare for work in the secondary schools.
On the whole, however, the number of special students preparing for
higher work in the Normal Schools is very small. In 1891-1892, the
Southern Illinois Normal University had only six special students, the
Terre-Haute Normal School, Indiana, only four; and we find in the
eastern States generally that the Normal Schools take very little part
in the training of secondary teachers. For the most part Normal School
students are found only in the lower grades of public schools; and
college graduates, even though untrained, are preferred as teachers in
High Schools, good private schools and academies.

The reason for this is probably to be found in the nature of the Normal
School itself. It, perhaps more than any other educational institution
in America, has adhered to its old traditions. It was designed to
train teachers for the lower grades of Elementary Schools, and in the
early days was prepared to accept the only material at hand--would-be
teachers, many of whom possessed few intellectual qualifications, and
almost all were inadequately prepared for training. But with rising
standards of work, and increased facilities for good preliminary
preparation, the Normal School has not yet closed its doors to students
whose general attainments do not qualify them to profit by courses
in the Science and Art of Teaching. In one or two cases only is the
standard of college graduation insisted upon, and in many cases the
admission standard is lower than that required to complete the course
in a city High School. Hence it results that most of the teaching in
High Schools and academies is given into the hands of professionally
untrained teachers--college graduates, whose scholarship can be relied
upon, but who have no previous technical training, rather than to
trained teachers, whose knowledge of the actual subject matter of
studies may or may not be thorough. The choice, open to heads of
Secondary Schools when appointing assistants, is, moreover, not between
good scholarship and good training. Without adequate preparation the
training must be inadequate, and in many cases cramping and injurious.
On the other hand, it is only after the preliminary preparation has
been sound and complete that the work of training can be carried out in
the best possible way.


_CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS._

The existence of State Normal Schools and City Training Schools
side by side suggests at once a fact which has an important bearing
on educational questions in the United States--viz., the absolute
distinction, as regards jurisdiction, between schools outside the
limits of a town or city, under the supervision of a State Board and
State Superintendent, and schools within the city radius, and under the
supervision of a Town or City Superintendent. In educational matters,
the city areas are completely exempt from State control. Their schools
and training schools are managed by local authorities, and supplied for
the most part by local funds. Hence it follows that City Normal and
Training Schools show even greater diversity of methods and arrangement
than is found in State Normal Schools, for their lines of work and
efficiency are entirely dependent upon the respective City Boards of
Education. One effect of local school administration is distinctly
undesirable. The appointment of the principal of the school by the
Educational Board, and the election of that Board by local vote,
produces, in many cities, a tendency to display, in order to cull
popular favour. The “graduation exercises,” yearly public ceremonies,
held in connection with almost all American schools and colleges,
consist, in the case of training schools, of various kinds of students’
and children’s exercises, to which the public are invited. Much
valuable time is taken by the students in preparing essays to be read
and lessons to be given in public; and in some cases the student or
teacher conducts an examination of her class in the presence of parents
and friends. Several such public exercises I heard, but in all cases
it was evident that true results of training, or honest results of
teaching, were not demonstrated. The endeavour to impress the audience,
besides involving great waste of time, seems likely to create an
unconscious dishonesty on the part of teachers, students, and children.


CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS.

The City Normal Schools are the local training schools, maintained by
the larger cities for the preparation of their own teachers.

They require as conditions of admission:--

  i. Residence in the city.

  ii. Satisfactory completion of the high schools course of the city.

  iii. Statement of intention to teach in the schools of the city.

To all those who satisfy these conditions, and are eighteen years of
age or more, instruction is free, and completion of the professional
course entitles the student to become a teacher in any of the Common
Schools of the city.

The City Normal Schools of New York and Philadelphia combine the
functions of Normal and High Schools, admitting students who do not
intend to become teachers to their academic studies, without requiring
of them any professional study or practice in teaching. The necessity
of extending the function of a Normal School in this way has arisen
from the fact that there are no public High Schools for girls in these
cities.

At the Normal College of the city of New York there are two separate
courses of work:--

  i. An academic or classical course of five years.

  ii. A normal or training course of four years, with an optional extra
  year for specializing in any branch of manual training.

In the normal course, two full years are given to the study of school
subjects only. In the third year two hours a week, in the first half of
the fourth year six hours a week, and in the last half of the fourth
year three hours a week, are given to the study of pedagogy. At the
beginning of the fourth year, the Normal students enter the training
or practice department connected with the school, and every third week
hear and give lessons, and take part in criticisms and discussions on
teaching. At the same time, they attend lectures and recitations in
English, Latin, modern languages, natural science, drawing and music,
chiefly with a view to gaining an insight into the methods of those
subjects. The college had in December, 1892, 1,868 students, of whom
460 had belonged to the training department during the year--_i.e._,
had observed and actually taught in the training or practising
school. As large numbers are engaged in observing and teaching in one
practising school, much individual practice in the actual work of
teaching is impossible; for although the students are divided into
groups for the school work, the groups are necessarily large. It has
been found necessary for ninety-two students to be in the practising
school at one time, a number too large to allow of much actual teaching
being done by any individual student. Only a small part of the twelve
hours spent weekly by each student in the practising school is given to
teaching. The remaining time is given to hearing lessons and observing
children.

I noticed a similar need for more practical work in the Philadelphia
Normal School. Here, as in the New York Normal College, much purely
academic work is done, and very little importance is given to actual
school-room practice. Students are divided into six sections, each
group containing about fifty. A whole division goes into the practising
school at one time, and stays there for two weeks only. The remaining
thirty-eight weeks of the last school year are entirely devoted to
the study of pedagogical subjects, psychological methods and drawing.
Kindergarten work is compulsory to all during the last year. The two
weeks which each student spends in the schools are chiefly employed
in hearing lessons, and observing children and teachers. Only two days
in the whole course are spent in actual teaching. This arrangement of
work and distribution of time in the Philadelphia Normal School is
seen by the city school authorities to be far from satisfactory, and
a scheme has been made out for a thorough revision of the course. The
present school, which is inadequate for purposes of training, is to be
made into a public High School for girls, and a new Normal School is to
be built, in which three years are to be devoted to academic, and two
years to professional work; but the two parts are to be kept entirely
distinct. The training course is to consist of elementary and advanced
sections, and much more time is to be given to actual teaching.

The examinations of the City Normal Schools are usually conducted by
the faculties of the schools, under the supervision of sub-committees
of the Board of Public Education of the city. In the Philadelphia
School, a certificate is awarded by a “Committee on the Qualification
of Teachers” for a general average of 85 per cent. on two examinations.

  i. In academical subjects, at end of three years.

  ii. In professional subjects, at the end of four years.

An average of 85 per cent. on the teaching in the school of practice is
also required. Two certificates are awarded for lower averages of marks
on work of the course, viz.:

  An “Assistant’s Certificate” for average of 70 per cent., and a
  “Trial Certificate” for less than an average of 70 per cent. on work
  in the school of practice. Such a “Trial Certificate” is for one year
  only. If, at the end of that time, the teaching shall be reported
  as satisfactory by the Superintendent of the Schools, the “Trial
  Certificate” may be exchanged for an “Assistant’s Certificate.”


CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS.

The City Training Schools are purely professional institutions. They
admit only graduates of High Schools of the city, and give them a
course of one or two years in theory and practice of teaching. The
amount of time given to theory varies a good deal in the different
cities. Practice in teaching is usually gained in a practising school
well equipped with good teachers, who help and guide the students in
their work. In some instances, however, students gain their experience
by teaching under supervision, in the schools of the city.

Emphasis of the practical side of the teacher’s work seems to be
a good feature of the training schools generally. In all the City
Training Schools which I visited much opportunity was given for actual
teaching, and for practically dealing with the problems of discipline
and organization in the school-room. Such opportunities are multiplied
by the system of substitute service, which seems to be organized in
most of the cities of the United States. Students of the training
schools, during the latter part of their course, are registered on a
substitute list, and may be called to supply the place of teachers
temporarily absent from the Common Schools. Responsibility taken for a
week, or even a day, is excellent training for future teachers, and in
cases where permanent vacancies occur the student who has shown herself
capable in such an emergency is often appointed to the post.

Among the largest and most successful of the City Training Schools
is the Boston Normal and Rice Training School. This, although a
City Normal School by name, differs in many respects from the City
Normal Schools of New York and Philadelphia. Its work is strictly
professional, and seems to correspond rather with the Training
Schools of other cities than with those known as Normal Schools. The
Rice Training School offers an ordinary course of two years, and an
advanced course for further professional work. The practising school
in the same building gives the opportunity to the students of teaching
and observing children, and beyond this the “Supervisors of Public
Instruction” in the city have made arrangements for allowing the
students to watch and teach in some of the best Primary and Grammar
Schools of Boston. Completion of the Boston High School course, or
college graduation, exempts from the entrance examination of the school.

Theoretical instruction in pedagogical subjects is given in the
morning, teaching in the practising school occupies the afternoon
hours. Psychology is taken almost every day throughout the course.
Theory of the kindergarten is studied in the second term, and logic in
the third. The history of education is also taken in outline.

“Methods” of subjects are taught in great detail, and on the same
lines as in the State Normal Schools--viz., by means of lessons in
the various subjects given to the students themselves. I heard a very
interesting lesson in methods of arithmetic. A class of twenty girls
were, by very skilful questioning, made to thoroughly discuss the
process of simple addition, and also the methods of teaching children
to realize numbers greater than ten. I heard, too, very skilful
teaching in methods of English--viz., a literature lesson, and a first
lesson in English composition. In the literature lesson, the teacher
first reminded her pupils of the various poems and prose selections
studied during the term. After having given short explanations, she
read selections from other authors. Then the students were asked if
these new selections reminded them of any parts in the poems already
studied, and when the suggested parts had been quoted, the class was
set to discover whether the similarity was in the subject matter, the
underlying thought or the mode of expression. Many suggestions were
given by the class, and much interest was aroused. The lesson was a
most helpful illustration of how a teacher should stimulate her class,
and how she should use her materials for the purpose of training.
The study of methods of training occupies a prominent place in the
curriculum of the school, and includes special work in illustrative
drawing on the blackboard in connection with the teaching of geography,
and the drawing of plants and animals. As part of the course on
gymnastics, each student, besides studying the theory and doing daily
drill, must act for one term as leader and teacher of drill, and must
criticise drill lessons.

Practical work in the schools is arranged for each term. In the
first half-year, the students’ work in the training school consists
chiefly in observing methods of teaching, and hearing lessons, under
the guidance of the critic teacher. She does not begin to teach in
the school until the second term, two weeks of which she spends in a
primary grade, and two weeks in a higher or grammar grade. In the third
term she spends eight weeks in the schools, and in the fourth term four
weeks. It is usual for each student, while in the schools, to give two
or three lessons every day, under the supervision of the class teacher
with whom she is placed. The teacher criticises and suggests in all
cases. In the advanced course, students take up a further study of the
principles of education. They also study the history of education, give
more time to actual teaching in the schools, and act as substitutes in
the city schools.

In addition to the Boston Training School, there are fourteen city
training schools in the State of Massachusetts. In all these the time
of training is fixed from one to two years; admission is by the High
School graduation certificate, or an equivalent entrance examination,
and is only at fixed annual times; a school is attached for practice,
and the teacher at its head conducts the training class.

At the Springfield Training School the course may be extended to two
years. A little academic work is done in science during the first
term. Methods are treated of by means of lectures and discussions,
and these, with organized observation of children and a few criticism
lessons, constitute the practical work from September until Christmas.
At Christmas, systematic psychology begins, and also teaching in
the schools for one hour a day. The subjects of the lessons are
chosen by the critic teacher, and the teaching is in all cases under
supervision. At Easter the student begins to teach three hours a day,
and occasionally has to give lessons in public. These, however, are not
considered as test-lessons. Certificates to teach in the schools of the
city are granted on the results of an examination, held by the City
Board of Education each year.

At Newhaven, Connecticut, the City Training School has more than
thirty students. The course is a year in length, the first half of
which is devoted entirely to theoretical subjects, and the last half
to teaching. Here, as at the Worcester Normal School, I found students
being introduced to methods of psychological experimentation, more
especially in the senses of sight and hearing. It is interesting to
notice that these are special lines of research in the psychological
laboratory of Yale University. I saw the records of several students
who had been finding the average voice pitch of thirty children.
The tendency in all the psychological teaching here was to make
the subject really experimental, and the results those of actual
observation. The history of education is not taught by means of set
lectures, but topics are announced from time to time, with references
for the students’ reading. After the class has collected facts on a
certain subject, the teacher supplements the facts already given by
selections from other books, and references to other parts of the
subject. In treating the history of education in each country, general
chronological order is followed, and the facts of each period are
studied under four heads:

  Religion, social and political movements; extent of education;
  character of education; methods of education.

The school has a good library for the students’ use, and also one for
the children of the practising school. Students give one criticism
lesson during the first half-year, and for this they write elaborate
notes under fixed headings prepared by the head of the department, and
the other students hand in, after the lesson, elaborate criticisms done
in a similar way. Blank schedules with printed headings, such as the
following, are given to students to fill up before giving the lesson:

  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |  I. SUBJECT.                                                   |
  | II. PURPOSE.                                                   |
  |III. MATTER.                                                    |
  | IV. PLAN. | Review Work  | _What._ | _How._ | _Illustrations._ |
  |           |              | _a_     |        |                  |
  |           |              | _b_     |        |                  |
  |           |              | _c_     |        |                  |
  |           | Advance Work |         |        |                  |
  |           |              | _a_     |        |                  |
  |           |              | _b_     |        |                  |
  |           |              | _c_     |        |                  |
  |           | Drill        |         |        |                  |
  |           |              | _a_     |        |                  |
  |           |              | _b_     |        |                  |
  |           |              | _c_     |        |                  |
  |  V. METHOD.                                                    |
  | VI. MECHANICAL DETAILS.                                        |
  |      Arrangement of Class.                                     |
  |      Distribution of Materials, etc.                           |
  +----------------------------------------------------------------+

I noticed in schedules which had been thus filled up by students that
the notes supplied under the heading of “Method” consisted entirely of
proposed questions of the teacher, and assumed answers by the children.
Such an item in the prepared plan of a lesson seemed to me unadvisable,
and in many cases useless. Even if the prepared questions were asked
by the teacher, the answers would not always be the ones assumed, and
the lesson would be stiff, unnatural, and wanting in spontaneity.
Broad lines of questioning might be indicated in the schedule, rather
than the actual questions to be given. This would result in much more
natural methods of questioning. The outline for criticism given to
other students is according to the following plan:

  _Purpose_             What. Whether accomplished.
                            Why. Cause of failure or
                            success.

  _Matter_              Amount--accuracy. Adaptation,
                            to purpose and to class.
                            Order of presentation.

  _Plan_                Completeness. Order of parts.
                            Manner of presentation.

  _Method_              Questions--number--order--kind.

  _Language_            Relative amounts used by teachers
                            and pupils. Correctness. Accuracy.
                            Clearness. Completeness.
                            Adaptation.

  _Illustrations_       What amount. Adaptation. Use.

  _Manner_

  _Voice_               Of teacher and pupils.

  _Mechanical details_  Directions for work. Distribution
                            of material.

  _Control_

  _Results_             Training in mental power; accuracy;
                            neatness; promptitude;
                            expression. Moral Training.
                        Knowledge gained.

The suggestion of these points for criticism indicates a very complete
and thorough analysis of a lesson. Such an elaborate form of criticism,
if employed occasionally, seems to me good in encouraging a habit of
mental analysis in those who hear the lesson. It may be useful, too,
as a guide to those unaccustomed to criticising exercises, and may be
helpful in impressing the fact that a lesson is a very complex thing,
difficult to give, and far reaching in its results. The constant use
of rigid forms, however, either for preparation of lessons, or for
their criticism, is to be deprecated as stultifying, and as not adapted
to all lessons and all occasions. It is probable that in many cases
valuable criticisms might be given which would not come under any of
the formal headings, even though the schedule were as complete as
possible. For the last five months the students work entirely under
the direction of teachers of the practising school. Plans of work and
lesson-subjects are discussed with the teacher, and when the lessons
are over, private criticisms only are given. Each student learns to
make her own maps, charts and pictures, which she takes with her when
she leaves the school.

At the end of the course of training, an elaborate report of the
student’s work and standing is issued as regards her standards;
enthusiasm; force; manner; language; writing; questioning; power of
illustration; originality; interest; thoroughness; control.

A certificate qualifying to teach in the schools of the city is given
to those who complete the training course satisfactorily, and who gain
an average of 70 per cent. on examinations at the end of the year.

At Pawtucket, I saw a training school of from seven to nine students,
with an excellent model and practising school attached. The course
lasts for one and a half years. For a whole year, the class has
instruction in theoretical subjects in the mornings, with observation
of children and some lesson-giving in the afternoon. The last six
months are spent by the students in the actual charge of children. Each
student works under a Model School teacher, and for one week during
the half-year has sole charge and responsibility of the class.


CITY TRAINING CLASSES.

Closely allied to the work of the Training Schools is that done by
City Training Classes. These are usually found in the smaller towns
or cities of the various States. The general features of the Training
Classes are the same as those of the City Training Schools. The
differences are mainly:

  (1) No special model or practising school is attached, but the
  students gain their experience by teaching classes in city or town
  schools.

  (2) The work of training is carried out, not by a specially appointed
  person, as in the Training Schools, but by the Superintendent of
  Schools of the district, who holds classes in professional subjects,
  and arranges and criticises the work of the students.

The members of the Training Classes, while under the general guidance
of the heads of the schools, where they act as assistants, are helped
and instructed in methods of teaching various subjects by the Town
Supervisors of Instruction, appointed for those special subjects. The
appointment of supervisors in drawing, singing, reading, etc., whose
sole work is to visit the schools and conduct and examine classes,
gives unity to the methods in the various schools of a town, and
affords much practical help to the student-teachers in the various
schools.

At Quincy, Massachusetts, there is a training class of thirty
students. The pupil teachers act as assistants in the schools,
receiving no compensation, except the guidance of experienced teachers,
and theoretical instruction from the superintendent. They usually teach
in several grades during the year, but those who show special aptitude
or wish to teach in any particular grade are allowed an alternative of
remaining in that grade. At the Coddington school, one of the training
schools for the Quincy Training Classes, I heard very good lessons
given in reading, phonics, number, English and geography. A reading
lesson, given to ten or twelve children about seven years old, was to
teach one new word, “Flag.” The class stood around the teacher at one
part of the wall slate. After carefully revising many of the words
learnt in previous lessons, the teacher drew a flag on the board. Then
she wrote the word as a whole, underneath the drawing. Then she told a
short story about a flag, wrote the word in different coloured chalks,
wrote sentences involving only known words and the new word “flag.”
When the children could read these sentences easily, they were made to
pick out the word “flag.” Some were allowed to erase the word, some
to write it again. Every possible device was used in the lesson to
associate the complete written expression with the spoken word and the
idea. At the end of twenty minutes, when the association was complete,
the new word “flag” was written among the list of known words, kept
constantly on the board, and the children were sent to their seats.
I noticed in all the reading lessons in which words and sentences
were taught as wholes, that clever teachers constantly used the device
of erasing the word or sentence to be taught. This, when skilfully
done, secures concentration of attention on each word, by allowing the
children only a limited time to note its general shape, before being
required to represent it on the board or slate. The constant erasure
and repeated re-writing of a word ensure repeated short acts of intense
attention on the part of the children, and so help greatly in the
learning of the new word. A lesson in “number” or arithmetic, given
to the same class, was devoted to problems in addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of numbers below ten. Many devices were
used for interesting the class. The children were sent to work at
different parts of the wall slate, and were encouraged to contribute
problems for the class. The general use of the wall slate is seen to be
of great advantage, especially in such lessons as these. By means of
it, supervision of individual work is very easy, and corrections can be
made valuable to the whole class.

The Training Classes of the State of New York show more uniformity
of courses and methods than those of many of the other States. This
is due to their organization by the State Superintendent, who issues
regulations and a definite course of study. The course is a short one,
from ten to thirteen weeks. Two hours each day is given to instruction.
Methods in reading, spelling, number, language and primary geography
are studied, and observation and criticism of lessons is a definite
part of the work. Actual teaching is done wherever possible; but this
is not a requisite. The time given to each subject is apportioned
somewhat on the same principles as in the Normal Schools--viz., one
subject is followed up for a very short time, another is taken up in
the same way, and then another. On this plan, only a few days can be
given to some subjects. The syllabus of work for 1889 gives four days
to laws of mental development, seventeen days to school economy, ten
days to the history of education, and four days to school law. Other
set times are given to Methods. Such a course, lasting for a very short
time, and including so many subjects, cannot but be inadequate and
superficial when used as the only means of training. The experience
gained in such a way is not sufficient in itself to qualify for
responsible work in a town school. This is shown by the fact that those
who have taken a course in the training class of a city are often
expected to gain experience elsewhere, before taking responsible work
in that city. In many instances, students are urged to take Normal
School courses as well.

It may indeed be stated generally, that the work of Training Classes
is to supplement a longer and more thorough course in training, rather
than to train. Training Classes, for the most part, provide practice
under supervision for those who have already gained some insight into
the science of education and methods of teaching, but the small amount
of time given to other sides of training prevents their work being at
all adequate as the sole preparation for teachers. Training Classes
exist, and will exist, to meet the needs of those would-be teachers
who, in small towns, where there is neither Normal nor Training
School, cannot afford to leave their homes to prepare for their work.
The urgent demand for trained teachers for all the Common Schools
has resulted in the establishment of many institutions, which, while
fulfilling a present need, are existing under conditions which must
prohibit work of the best kind. Among such institutions we must enrol
the City Training Classes.

It is a noticeable fact, that in both Training Schools and Training
Classes, the beginners usually practise first in the lowest grades.
It is considered easier to teach little children than older ones, and
less dangerous to the pupils. Indeed, the heads of many schools, far
from adopting the theory that the primary teaching should be in the
hands of the most skilled and efficient teachers, give their youngest
classes into the care of those disqualified to teach in higher grades,
on account of lack of knowledge, or want of skill. It may be urged
in support of the plan of allowing teachers unqualified for other
grades of teaching to become teachers in the primary schools, that the
knowledge actually used in the teaching of little children is much less
than that needed for work with elder children, and that certain devices
for keeping children quiet, and for interesting them, can be followed
empirically by the unskilful teacher. But this argument, instead of
sanctioning the practice so commonly adopted, would serve to show that
it is in the lower grades that bad teaching can remain undetected, and
results, rather than means, made criteria of success. Much of the
growth of the child-mind, in its early stages, depends on the teacher’s
width of interest, a width only secured by a thorough knowledge of
the subjects taught, and a broad range of subjects. This breadth of
interest not only influences the class, but reacts on the teacher; for
teachers of young children, having little necessity to make constant
intellectual efforts, stand in great danger of becoming intellectually
narrowed.

Partly as a result of the fact that most of the students in Normal
and City Training Schools are prepared for work as primary teachers,
and that others who hope eventually to teach in higher grades must
first gain their experience in primary grades, we find that much more
attention is given to primary methods than to methods of the Grammar
School. This is true not only in Practising Schools and Model Schools,
but elsewhere.

Therefore, the most rapid progress in American Education has been
connected with elementary teaching. The present movement to reform
the curriculum and methods of the Grammar School is only of recent
development.


_UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY._

The pedagogical courses connected with the Universities of the United
States differ so much in organization and scope, and in the nature of
their connection with the University, that it is impossible to consider
them under one comprehensive title, unless the exact meaning of the
term “University Department” be defined. In the present case, the title
“University Department of Pedagogy” is used to include all higher
courses of study in philosophy, psychology, history, science or art of
education established by Universities or Colleges of high standing, in
definite recognition of the fact that the work of secondary teaching
requires distinct and special professional or technical preparation,
beyond a sound general education. Such instruction may be given in
connection with Chairs of Pedagogy by series of lectures on science and
art of teaching, theory and practice of teaching, etc., or it may be so
complete as to constitute a school of pedagogy in itself, thoroughly
organized and equipped to carry out professional training in all its
branches. Pedagogical study may be a so-called “elective”--viz., one
of the subjects chosen by the student to count towards his degree, or
it may be a course for post-graduates only. It may consist merely of
courses in special pedagogy or “methods,” by the various professors
of different subjects in a University, or it may be chiefly the study
of education from a scientific standpoint, as in Clark University,
Massachusetts, where experimental and physiological psychology is
pursued, not with the view of meeting the needs of intending teachers,
but of offering opportunities of thorough study to scientific experts,
whose results may be of great value to education in general. The
number of Universities or Colleges in the United States which report
pedagogical courses of some kind is 114. In many of these, however,
the work is mostly of the Normal School type, with a view to prepare
for teaching in the Grammar Schools of the State, and the certificate
of proficiency given on completion of the course is not such as to
entitle the work to be called “Higher Instruction in the Theory and Art
of Teaching.” Leaving such departments out of consideration, as not
belonging to the field of higher education, the departments of pedagogy
in connection with Universities may, for convenience, be considered
under two heads:

1. Those in connection with State Universities.

2. Those connected with other endowed Universities or Colleges of high
standing.


DEPARTMENTS OF STATE UNIVERSITIES.

State Universities, founded in accordance with the resolution,
“Schools and the means of education shall for ever be encouraged,”
have naturally been looked up to as the institutions more fitted than
any other to supply higher instruction in the science and art of
teaching. The first was established as the result of the Ordinance
of 1787, by which two townships of land were appropriated from the
North-West Territory for the support of a State University. Since then,
twenty-eight States of the Union have set apart funds, derived from the
sale of State lands, for the founding and endowing of institutions for
higher education. These universities, gradually increasing in number
and influence, and spreading from their origin in Ohio both west and
east, are dependent for the most part for their students upon the
city High Schools and other secondary schools; and the efficiency of
their work depends greatly upon the efficiency of the preparatory work
done in these schools. It is, therefore, to the interest of the State
Universities to secure that the secondary schools are well equipped and
well taught, and from this point of view one of the distinctive lines
of work of a State University should be the professional preparation
of secondary teachers. The University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, was
the first State University to recognise the necessity of this work.
In 1879 it established a Chair to give instruction in science and
art of teaching, and since then, Training and Normal departments, or
courses in pedagogy, have been established in the State Universities of
Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nevada, N. Dakota, Ohio, Washington
and others.

In some Universities the work of training is entirely given over to
the pedagogical department and the professor of pedagogy. In some,
there are no purely professional departments, but “Teachers’ Courses”
are organized in various subjects of the college curriculum. These
courses are given by college professors of the various subjects, and
deal with the different methods of treating the subject. In some
State Universities, however, training is provided both in pedagogical
departments and “Teachers’ Courses”; and good work in both is required
before a student can gain a “Teacher’s Diploma.” Where the two parts
of the work are maintained harmoniously together, they must greatly
strengthen each other, and advantages must accrue both to the students
and to the work of training generally. In such a case the scientific,
but more or less theoretical instruction of the professedly pedagogical
department of the University is supplemented by the practical
instruction, which is the result of the experience of experts in the
respective subjects. The discussion of “methods” in any subject, with
a specialist, who is constantly teaching that subject, must be most
valuable to the future teacher, and especially so when the specialist
can illustrate his methods by actual class work, and the learner is
himself somewhat of a specialist. The existence of these double lines
of work is also important, where it occurs, as illustrating unity of
opinion among the presidents and professors of colleges as regards the
needs and means of training of secondary teachers. Thus it will help on
the cause of secondary training generally.

One of those State Universities which recognise these two distinctive
branches of professional training is the University of Michigan, at
Ann Arbor. Work in both departments has been required in order to gain
a “Teacher’s Diploma,” ever since the pedagogical course was arranged
in 1879. The student must have completed three courses offered by the
professor of pedagogy--one a practical course in the art of teaching
and governing, school hygiene, school law, etc.; one a theoretical and
critical course on the principles of teaching or applied psychology;
and one other course which may be either:

  History of education, ancient and mediæval.
  History of education, modern, or,
  School Management.

He must also have taken a “Teacher’s Course” in connection with one of
the subjects in the college curriculum--work which implies not only
extra professional instruction in methods by the college professor,
but also a special examination in the subject matter of study. Beyond
the courses of study already enumerated as belonging to the Department
of Science and Art of Teaching in the Michigan University, there is
one on the comparative study of educational systems, and a section
for seminary work. This seminary work, taken up in pedagogy, as in
other subjects, only towards the completion of the course, is very
much on the lines of the German “Seminar.” It is work of research and
discussion, done with the help of the educational library. Special
points are taken up by the students and worked out. The teacher guides
the work and reading, and generally conducts the Seminary. As regards
the time devoted to different parts of the pedagogical curriculum,
four hours a week are given to each of the courses on the art of
teaching and the principles of teaching, three hours a week to each of
the history courses and those on school supervision, and two hours a
week to the other optional subjects. The required course may be taken
among the graduate or post-graduate studies. “Teachers’ Diplomas” are
presented on graduation, provided the prescribed course has been taken.
A “Teachers’ Certificate” given by the Faculty, on the gaining of
degree and diploma, qualifies to teach in any school of the State.

At the State University, Illinois, the course in pedagogy is work
which counts towards a degree. It is placed among one of the major
or principal subjects of the “restricted electives,” that is, one of
six subjects, each occupying six terms, two subjects of which must be
chosen by the student for graduation work. Pedagogy is suggested as
part of the work of the third and fourth year in the classical course,
and when taken up for a third and fourth year, after any ordinary “Two
Years’ Course,” it constitutes a course in philosophy and pedagogy. The
different branches of pedagogy taken up in this way are:

Educational psychology, hygiene, philosophy of education, history of
education, school supervision.

The “Pedagogical Seminary” is open only to students who have taken
two other pedagogical courses. Psychology, school hygiene, and school
supervision, constitute full courses for a term--the rest are half
courses. In connection with the Philosophical Department is a course
of lectures and laboratory work in experimental psychology. Apparatus
has been purchased and considerably used in making psychological
experiments.

In the University of Missouri there are two distinct courses,
elementary and advanced. The elementary course corresponds very much
to a Normal School course. The subjects for the first year’s study
are chiefly English, algebra, physiology, zoology, botany, physical
geography, rhetoric. In the second year, pedagogics, including applied
psychology, history and school organization, are taken up with history,
literature, physics, chemistry and civil government. Drawing and
elocution are required subjects during all but one term of the course.
The certificate at the end of the elementary course qualifies the
holder to teach for two years in any public school of the State. The
advanced course leads on to the degree of bachelor of pedagogics. The
required work in this department may be taken by students who are
preparing for degrees in other courses, or by those who have already
a degree conferred by this or any approved University. The graduate
students may, by selecting four of the offered subjects, and devoting
five hours a week to the pedagogical work, complete the course in one
year. Others, take certain prescribed courses, and certain optional
courses in pedagogics, during the third and fourth years of their
ordinary graduate work. The degree entitles to a life-certificate to
teach in any of the public schools of the State. It is noticeable, in
connection with the prescribed courses in this University, that the
study of education, historically, comes before the consideration of
theory or philosophy of education and its application in school work.
The elective or optional studies are four--viz., school systems of
Europe; school systems of the cities and States of the United States;
the educational theories of Herbert Spencer; the philosophy of Froebel.

Of the other State Universities, some make pedagogics a complete course
for graduates or undergraduates, while some, as at Missouri, make it
an elective study during the third and fourth years of an ordinary
graduate course. Where two complete courses exist--an elementary and
an advanced--in the same department, the distinction is based chiefly
on the difference of qualification needed for admission. Students
qualified to enter the University may pursue the elementary course;
only those of the third year or fourth year, or graduates, may take up
the advanced course. As a rule, the students of the elementary course
teach in the Primary or Grammar Schools, those of the advanced courses
become teachers of secondary schools and colleges.

The State Universities of America, as a whole, follow, more or less
strictly, the lines of German Universities. This is not only so as
regards organization merely, but as regards methods of study, and
lines of thought. In no department is the German influence more seen
than in that of pedagogics, where methods of the German “Seminar” are
increasingly used and valued by professors and advanced students.
Few State Universities having pedagogical departments would be found
which had not begun to use Seminar methods. In many Universities, a
“Seminar room,” in which is a pedagogical reference library, is set
apart especially for research and conference in matters educational.
A natural accompaniment of these methods is much study of German
pedagogical theory, and a constant tendency to emphasize and elaborate
German lines of thought. The two great Schools in American psychology
to-day, both of which are making rapid strides in progress, and
influencing the whole of American education to an important extent,
are the Herbartians and the Experimental Psychologists. Both had their
beginnings in German Universities.

The most modern feature of German University Departments of Pedagogy
is, however, one which has not yet been adopted by American State
Universities. A means of connection between the theoretical and
practical sides of training, by the establishment of a practising
school attached to the University, has been made at Jena for some time.
Such a connection would be of the greatest value to American State
University Departments, but until now actual practical departments
have not existed. The instruction in university departments of
pedagogy, although such as to be of the greatest possible value and
stimulation as a theoretical basis for teaching and organizing in
secondary schools, is however incomplete unless opportunities are also
supplied of gaining actual experience in teaching. A practising school,
organized as a part of the University, and having as its principal one
of the University Faculty, might, besides affording such a practising
ground for secondary teachers, be the means of supplying tested facts
to the teaching world in general, and would greatly help the University
Department to fulfil its true function--that of stimulating teachers
and unifying education in the State.


UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY IN THE EASTERN STATES.

The study of pedagogy in connection with the universities and colleges
of the Eastern States is a department of work of comparatively recent
origin. The conservative attitude of the older Universities, such as
Harvard and Yale, with regard to the recognition of the claims of
pedagogy to be a science, and the needs of distinctly professional
instruction for those who intend to become teachers in higher schools
and colleges, has resulted in the fact that the training of secondary
teachers has, until a few years ago, been almost entirely restricted
to the Western State Universities. It is remarkable, however, that
since the older educational institutions of the Eastern States have
recognised education as a science, rapid progress has been made, and
one finds on surveying the work of university departments of pedagogy
as a whole certain features which, when further developed, will
possibly cause university instruction to be the most valuable means of
training secondary teachers. Among such lines of work, already begun in
these pedagogical departments, are:

  i. Supervision of secondary school work.

  ii. Stimulation of all teachers by research work in educational
  matters.

  iii. The acknowledgment by scientific workers in the field of
  pedagogy and psychology of the results of teachers’ observations of
  children in the school-room, as helpful to the scientific researches
  of the laboratory.

  iv. Preparation and stimulation of professors of pedagogy, and of
  teachers for higher schools and colleges.

A very early attempt was made in Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, to arrange courses in theory and methods of teaching, but
the movement was not successful. Little actual work in the training
of secondary teachers was done in the Eastern States, until the
Industrial Education Association of New York City, feeling the demand
for skilful teachers in manual training, began to organize plans for
preparing them for their work, and sending them out daily to teach in
the schools. At the beginning of 1889, the work had developed so much,
not only in connection with one branch of training, but many, that the
institution gained a provisional charter from the Board of Regents of
the University of the State of New York, under the name of the New York
College for the Training of Teachers.

In 1892 the charter of the New York College for the Training of
Teachers was made absolute, and the name changed to Teachers’ College.
An agreement was also made, whereby certain pedagogical courses in
the Teachers’ College are considered as courses in the Faculty of
Philosophy at Columbia University, New York, and count towards a
Columbia University degree. By the same agreement, qualified students
of the Teachers’ College are admitted to the courses in philosophy
and pedagogy at Columbia University. In this way we may regard the
Teachers’ College as the newest of University departments, although,
on the other hand, it has developed and become a most important
and successful means of secondary training, quite apart from any
connection with a college or university. The courses in pedagogy given
at Columbia University, and open to students of the Teachers’ College,
are:

  The History of Educational Theories and Institutions--a course given
  each alternate year.

  Systematic Pedagogics; the Psychology of Childhood; Principles of
  Teaching; (given also every alternate year).

  A Pedagogical Seminar (one hour a week for advanced students).

The lectures in philosophy and experimental psychology are also open
under the same conditions. Among them are the following courses:

  (_a_) Logic and Psychology; (_b_) Ethics; (_c_) Introductory course
  in Physiological Psychology (lectures and laboratory work); (_d_)
  Advanced course in Physiological Psychology (experiment work in the
  laboratory); (_e_) Introductory course in Experimental Psychology
  (lectures, themes and laboratory work); (_f_) Vision (lectures,
  reports and advanced laboratory work); (_g_) Advanced work in
  Experimental Psychology and Research (individual instruction daily).

The courses at the Teachers’ College, open to all Columbia University
Students, are:

  i. Educational Psychology; Study of Children.

  ii. Science and Art of Teaching, with illustrations from the
  Kindergarten and Elementary Schools. Observation.

  iii. Introductory course on the History of Education.

  iv. _Institutes of Education_, by Laurie. Rosenkranz’s _Philosophy of
  Education_ and Herbart’s _Science of Education_.

  v. Methods of teaching History in secondary schools.

The following can be taken only by advanced students:

  i. Methods of teaching Science in elementary and secondary schools.

  ii. Methods of teaching Manual Training in elementary and secondary
  schools.

  iii. Methods of teaching Latin, Greek, French and German.

  iv. Reading and discussion of German and French pedagogical works in
  the original.

  v. Methods of teaching Educational Psychology. Observation and
  Practice.

  vi. Practice in teaching and supervision. Criticism, School
  Management, Discipline.

Candidates for the A.B. degree of Columbia University may specialize
for the last year in the department of pedagogy. They are required to
take two subjects, one as major or principal subject, one as minor
subject. A third optional subject may be taken.

To gain a Diploma of the Teachers’ College, a two years’ course of
study is required. This includes:

  i. Elements of Psychology--“a course to give skill in description and
  explanation of mental phenomena and insight into the observing and
  training of children.”

  ii. Educational Theories since the Renaissance, with a general survey
  of earlier theories.

  iii. A course in Psychology, History of Education, or in Principles
  of Logic and Psychology as applied to Science and Manual Training.

  iv. Study of range of child’s mental activities as the basis
  of primary instruction: the vocabulary as a basis of language
  teaching; the child’s power and skill of hand as the basis of manual
  expression; Methods of Teaching: Observation lessons; Language,
  including Reading; Number; Manual Exercises.

  v. Principles of Teaching, with special reference to application
  of Psychology to the cultivation of intellectual powers, the
  feeling, the will. The application of the principles of education to
  classification, organization, and school discipline.

  vi. Observation and practice teaching, under supervision, and
  independently.

  vii. Physical training.

  viii. Special methods of one subject of study.

The college is distinctly and solely a professional school. There is
no direct instruction in the subject matter of study, the admission
qualification being such as to exclude all persons who have not had
a satisfactory secondary education. Each college department provides
training in the principles and practice of teaching the subjects which
more especially belong to it; but all instruction is entirely from the
standpoint of the teacher. It is particularly stated in connection
with this teaching, that no student is admitted to a course in the
methods of any particular subject unless he can show himself to be
proficient in the subject matter of that branch of instruction. For
those not qualified, by training or academic standing, to pursue the
ordinary work of the college, it has been found advisable to arrange an
introductory course to occupy one year. The preparatory course includes
the study of English, an introduction to science, either drawing,
domestic science, or wood-carving, and either constructive geometry,
with the solution of original problems, or one branch of science with
laboratory work. I spent several days in this college and heard some of
the teaching in psychology, and in science. The psychology and history
of education are both two years’ courses. In psychology the students
begin by learning to make records of their individual observation of
children. The chief use of psychology to the teacher is regarded as
the making him conscious of processes of thought, which before might
have been accurate, but were not known. As the end of education is
assumed to be a moral end, in so far as it has to do with character
and conduct, the will is made the basis of educational psychology and
is treated first in order. One advantage of such an order of treatment
is that the practical value of the study of psychology to education
can be early shown. As the whole question of education is a question
of the guiding and controlling of action, great importance is given to
the practical study of action in its three phases of instinct, will and
habit. Each of these is followed out as far as possible by means of
the observation of children at play, or by the study of the student’s
own willed movements. All questions of physiological psychology are
avoided as much as possible in the study of psychology for educational
purposes, the two reasons given being:

  i. That most students have not a sufficient knowledge of physiology
  to take up physiological psychology.

  ii. That those who have a sufficient knowledge of physiology find
  the correlation difficult. In beginning to study psychology, the two
  aspects of one set of facts and their bearings upon each other cannot
  be easily seen. Much work in both sciences is needed before good work
  can be done in physiological psychology.

The students use Sully, James, and Höffding as text-books. The lines
of work, however, are not those of any particular writer or school.
The students have ample opportunities of wide reading and research,
not only in psychology, but in all branches of pedagogy. These are
afforded by the Bryson Pedagogical Library in the college building.
This library, founded in connection with the Teachers’ College, for
the purpose of affording opportunities of research to students of
the college, is open to all teachers of the city and to the public
generally. It contains 5,000 volumes, including books on pedagogy and
connected subjects, text-books of all kinds, and the current literary,
scientific and educational periodicals published in America and Europe.

In the study of the history of education, the plan adopted is a
thorough and exhaustive treatment of one or two great educational
reformers, with mere outline sketches of others. The reformers
specially considered are regarded, not only as educators, but in
all other possible aspects. Their lives and works, their ideas, the
contemporary history of their own and other countries, are fully
discussed. When this has been done, all other facts of educational
history are as far as possible compared with, and illustrated by, the
facts connected with the reformer who has been specially considered.
Such a method seems very stimulating and interesting to the student,
and much more satisfactory, than a general treatment of the whole,
suggested by many text-books on the history of education.

Methods of chemistry, physics, physiology-botany, geology, are taught
by means of actual lessons in the various subjects, given by the heads
of departments and their assistants, to children in the practising
school. Students are required to observe the teaching, to attend
lectures and discussions upon the methods pursued, to learn the art of
experimenting, and to prepare themselves for directing laboratories.
They are also guided and helped in making a careful inspection of the
science teaching in the public schools of the city. In addition to
this, they are introduced to some of the practical problems of science
teaching in the school-room, such as the difficulties of teaching
science without a laboratory, or without fixed times for experimenting.
All students who take science as their major or principal subject
are required also to take courses in:--(i.) The use of tools for
constructing home-made apparatus; (ii.) fundamental principles of
drawing and their applications for students who take special work in
other departments; (iii.) the specified courses in psychology, history
of education, and science and art of teaching; (iv.) outlines of the
lives and work of eminent scientists, as illustrating methods of
scientific research. A Time-Table for the Two Years’ Course in Science
is as follows:--

             _First Year._

                                    _Time._

  MONDAY.

    Physics for High Schools      9.20-10.15.
    Psychology                   10.50-11.30.
  Lecture and Laboratory          12.55-2.15.

  TUESDAY.

    Botany for High Schools       9.20-10.15.

  WEDNESDAY.

    Physics for High Schools      9.20-10.15.
    Psychology                   10.50-11.30.
    Methods                      11.15-12.15.
    Lab. Practice                 12.55-2.15.

  THURSDAY.

    Geology for High Schools      9.20-10.15.
    History of Education         10.50-11.30.

  FRIDAY.

    Use of tools                  9.20-10.15.
    Psychology                   10.50-11.30.
  Methods                        11.15-12.15.

            _Second Year._

                                    _Time._
  MONDAY.

    Psychology                   10.50-12.15.
    Lect. and Lab. Instruction    12.55-2.15.

  TUESDAY.

    Observ. and Practice          9.20-10.45.
    Drawing                      10.50-12.15.
    Chemistry for High Schools    12.55-2.15.

  WEDNESDAY.

    Observ. and Practice          9.20-10.45.
    Lab. Practice                 12.55-2.15.

  THURSDAY.

    Observ. and Practice          9.20-10.45.
    Drawing                      10.50-12.15.
    Chemistry for High Schools    12.55-2.15.

  FRIDAY.

    Observ. and Practice          9.20-10.45.

The practice department of the Teachers’ College is one of its most
important features, for a fundamental assumption is that practice
is the key-note of all training, that no one can consider himself
trained who has not taught, and that the future teacher must observe
good teaching, and must teach under normal conditions. The Horace
Mann School for the observation and practice of the students of the
Teachers’ College comprises kindergarten, primary, grammar and high
school grades. The heads of departments arrange the teaching of the
students, and great care is exercised in keeping the school efficient,
as the observation of good teaching is considered only second in
importance to actual practice.

I heard a botany lesson in the practising school, given by the
instructor in methods of botany. The class, numbering about twelve
children, of about ten years of age, was furnished with lenses, and
needles, and a plentiful supply of flowers. Each child was required to
see and examine all the flowers that were given to him, to describe
carefully and exactly what he had observed, and to take nothing for
granted. The methods adopted were such as to make the children original
investigators, and the attitude of the teacher towards her subject was
such as to develop a spirit of reverence in the children, and to arouse
an interest æsthetic as well as scientific. No technical terms were
used in descriptions. The botany lessons are adapted to the different
seasons of the year. For example, the scheme of work for the Autumn
term is:--

  Autumn Flowers.

      How differing from Spring flowers in

                            Colour.
                            Size.
                            Growth.

  Autumn Fruits.

      Their growth.
        ”   parts.
        ”   use to man.
        ”   use to animals.

  Study of Seeds.

                            Growth.
                            Methods of Distribution.
                                     { Food.
                            Uses for { Oil.
                                     { Medicine.
                            Grain and harvesting.

  Observation of Trees.

                            Falling of leaves.
                            Colours ”     ”
                            Leaf-buds.
                            Deciduous trees.
                            Evergreen trees.

  Preparation for winter by plants.

                                  Seeds.
                                  Buds.
                                  Leaves.

The herbarium is not much used, but in autumn each child and student
brings a specimen of one tree or plant. All the specimens are kept and
are used for the study of seeds during the winter. Twigs are brought
into the school-room and made to grow in water, seeds are grown in
shavings, and plants of all kinds are watched during the year.

The work in geology is a special feature of the practising school.
Courses of work have been adapted by the head of department to the
lowest grades of the grammar school--viz., to children about nine
years old. The work is closely connected with the geography teaching,
and children are encouraged to collect specimens of different kinds
of building stone they see, or to bring any other specimens of rock
or minerals. Trays of quartz, felspar and mica are provided for each
child, for beginning practical work in geology. After examination of
these minerals, granite is studied, and afterwards gneiss, as leading
the way to the general history of rocks. Slag structures are given for
examination, as specimens to illustrate the effects of heat. Artificial
geodes and lavas are also studied, when connecting the history of rocks
with their structure. Students who are preparing to become specialist
teachers in geology have special work with the children. They prepare
lessons under the guidance of the teacher--submitting written notes
of the subject matter, but talking over with their head of department
the proposed methods of dealing with the facts. They have also special
laboratory work, in constructing simple apparatus, and making maps,
charts and drawings.

The physiology lesson I heard was given to a high school class, by the
director of the department of physiology. It was a revision lesson,
conducted with the special object of making the class discover the
general position of Man in the Animal Kingdom. The particular features
I noticed about the lesson were:--

  (i.) No technical terms were used in description, if the required
  meaning could be expressed in ordinary language.

  (ii.) Any difficulty as regards animal structure which arose during
  the process of classification was settled by actual reference to the
  museum specimen at hand. The doubt as to whether a fish might be
  said to have a brain was settled by inspection of a haddock’s brain,
  brought from the museum.

  (iii.) Great care was exercised by the teacher in order to prevent
  hasty or incorrect inferences being drawn.

  (iv.) There was constant reference to text-books. The pupils had been
  taught to use a reference library.

It is evident to those who have watched the movement of the training of
secondary teachers in the Eastern States that the Teachers’ College of
New York has done a work peculiarly its own. It was organized on the
present lines, to combat the idea, even still existent to some extent,
that college graduation equips for successful teaching. It has done
this, not by emphasizing the value of professional training in itself,
apart from its connection with scholastic equipment, but by insisting
that the secondary teacher can only be fully prepared for his work
when careful scholastic preparation is supplemented by a consideration
of principles and methods of teaching, and by actual class work. Much
of the successful work of the Teachers’ College is probably due to
the thorough preparation required before beginning work, and to the
maturity of the students who take the courses. With such material,
and under such conditions, it is possible to make training thorough
and very valuable. This is especially so in an institution, such as
this, which can extend its interests, and broaden its outlook, by
alliance with a University like Columbia, securing by this means the
philosophical as well as the practical standpoint.

The School of Pedagogy of the University of the City of New York,
established to give opportunities of higher training to graduates
of colleges or of Normal Schools, differs fundamentally from other
departments of Universities already considered, in only offering its
pedagogical degrees to those persons who can show evidence of three
or four years’ successful teaching experience. This is a necessary
qualification for admittance to the junior or senior pedagogical
course of the University. A student who has a college degree, and
who is credited with a sufficient number of attendances during two
years’ membership of the senior class, becomes “Doctor of Pedagogy,”
after passing an examination on five prescribed courses of work,
and presenting a satisfactory thesis on some educational subject.
Students of the junior class are required to pass an examination in
four subjects, and to attend the required number of lectures during
one year, in order to obtain the degree of “Master of Pedagogy.” The
courses studied are:--

  (i.) History of Education from Socrates to the present time (lectures
  and Seminar).

  (ii.) Psychology and Ethics, special attention being paid to the
  Physiological Psychology and the Psychology of Experiment.

  (iii.) Institutes of Education, including--
  Educational values; incentives; co-ordination of studies; school
  hygiene; school organization; child-study; methods.

  (iv.) Educational classics and æsthetics.

  (v.) Systems of Education:--European, American, National, State,
  County, City, District.

Opportunities are given for visiting schools in the city, and observing
teachers and children, but no practice department is connected with the
University.

At Cornell University, at Ithaca, New York, systematic instruction in
pedagogy is given as a part of the Department of Philosophy. There is
a professor of pedagogy, who gives courses of lectures on:--Institutes
of Education; School Systems and Organization; Logic and Methodology;
History of Education. Simple problems for experimental investigation in
the psychological laboratory are discussed. Pedagogical conferences,
somewhat on the lines of the German “Conferenz,” are arranged, for
criticism of school reports and plans of teaching various subjects;
and seminaries of pedagogy and psychology have been instituted
for laboratory work and original research. Beyond these strictly
professional courses, there are courses in English, mathematics, Latin,
etc., with direct reference to those who wish to become teachers in
these subjects. Attendances at such courses counts towards a “Teachers’
Certificate.” The “Teachers’ Certificate” is given to graduates of
Cornell University, who have successfully pursued the first course on
the Science and Art of Teaching, or that portion of it which relates
to the general theory of education; and have also attained marked
proficiency in a course of five hours’ advanced work per week, for two
years, in each subject for which the “Teachers’ Certificate” is given.

At Syracuse University, New York, pedagogy is an elective subject
during the third terms of the third and fourth university year, for
those who take the philosophical course. There are also Normal Courses
given by the university professors in their various subjects.

The introduction of pedagogy as a definite branch of the philosophical
department at Harvard University, is perhaps one of the most important
movements in the progress and development of the Science of Teaching
in America. In establishing its course, “adapted to the purpose of
teachers and persons intending to become teachers,” Harvard has made
recognition of the fact that something more than pure scholarship is
needed to produce the successful teacher or professor. Accordingly, it
has established two departments of training:--

  i. Strictly professional courses in educational theory, history of
  educational theories and practice, lectures on the management of
  public schools and academies, and on the curriculum of the public
  schools; and a seminary course for advanced students.

  ii. Other courses in methods, in connection with actual university
  instruction in the different parts of the curriculum.

Connected with the lectures on methods, and the organization and
management of public schools, is the systematic inspection of
designated schools by students, and a detailed report on some phase
of school life observed there. Each student is required to make a
comparative study of the teaching of a chosen subject, in all the
grades of at least two schools; or he may make a study of supervision
and discipline in two schools. Students must also make a comparative
study of not less than three city school systems, of three State school
systems, and of the school system of England, France, and Germany. This
work of inspecting and reporting is considered a very important part
of the pedagogical course.

The courses in methods, given by the professors of different college
departments, are conducted by means of lectures and conferences in
connection with Greek, Latin, English, German, French, history,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, geology and
geography. Most of these “Teachers’ Courses” require attendance at
some other college course in the same subject, where the professor
illustrates his own method. In a few cases, attendance at lessons in
the specified subjects, in schools near the University, is required.

The courses in pedagogy have, until the present year, been closed to
all but graduates. Lately, however, the regulations have been changed,
and pedagogical work may now count towards a degree.

There is no opportunity given to the Harvard pedagogical students for
actual teaching; but the connection brought about between the college
department and the secondary schools, by the constant attendance of
students in the school-rooms of the neighbourhood, may possibly develop
into a system wherein trained students may act as substitutes in these
schools. Quite apart, however, from this possible future connection,
there is even now an important practical relationship between
Harvard University and some of the secondary schools--viz., that of
supervision. In establishing a system of examination of the teaching
in such schools as make application, Harvard has acknowledged the
important principle that chief among the functions of an university is
that of directing and stimulating secondary education.

The Department of Education at Clark University, Worcester,
Massachusetts, is a branch of the Department of Psychology. While doing
much to advance the cause of the professional training of teachers,
it does not strictly adapt its courses to the wants of the future
secondary teacher. The fact that Clark University, unlike any other
University in the United States, exists solely for the purpose of
research, and admits only graduates as its students, determines that
the pedagogical work shall also have a special character, well marked
off from that of any other university. The department is purely one of
higher pedagogy. Its aim is stated to be twofold:--

  i. To give instruction and training to those who are preparing to
  be professors of pedagogy, superintendents, or teachers in higher
  institutions.

  ii. To make scientific contributions to education.

The work pursued is in six courses, with an additional seminary course.
These are:--

  i. Present status and problems of higher education in America and
  Europe.

  ii. Outline of systematic psychology.

  iii. Organization of schools in Europe. Typical schools and typical
  foundations.

  iv. School hygiene.

  v. Educational reforms.

  vi. Motor education of children, involving the study of writing and
  drawing, manual training, play, and gymnastics.

The _Pedagogical Seminary_, an educational magazine edited by Dr.
Stanley Hall, the President of Clark University, exists chiefly for the
purpose of publishing results of work in this department. There is a
special pedagogical library for research, and a complete collection of
the current educational literature of America and Europe.

Among the other departments of psychology, there are many of great
interest to the student of higher pedagogy.

Some of these are:--

  i. History of psychology.

  ii. Experimental psychology.

  iii. Anthropology (the investigation of myth, custom, belief).

  iv. Ethics (the investigation of criminals, paupers, defective
  classes).

  v. Feeling (investigations of conditions of the agreeable and
  disagreeable, abnormal states, the hypnotic, the insane).

  vi. Neurology (researches on brain fatigue, etc.).

For investigation in these departments, there are four psychological
laboratories, a neurological laboratory, and an anthropological
laboratory. Opportunities are also given to students to observe
patients in State and city lunatic hospitals, and in institutions
for the defective and criminal classes. The departments of research,
most closely bearing upon the teacher’s work, are perhaps those of
experimental psychology and neurology. Investigations on muscle and
brain fatigue, the diurnal variations of mental vigour, the memory of
children, etc., bring results important to the teacher, and especially
so when carried out as at Clark University, by experts in scientific
experiment. The _American Journal of Psychology_, edited by Dr. Stanley
Hall, and published quarterly, contains the results of many of the
researches in the psychological laboratories of Clark University.

It is to the contribution of new scientific facts to the educational
world that Clark University chiefly devotes itself, and in doing this
valuable work it has shown itself quite willing to acknowledge the
results of observation and experiment of a very different kind from
its own--viz., that of parents and teachers in the home and school.
The records of the observation of children made by the students of the
Worcester Normal School are given to Dr. Stanley Hall to be used in
any way that may help true scientific research on the subject. It is
evident that results gain by approaching the same problems from the
practical and scientific standpoints, will be much more secure than
they could be otherwise, and will supply valuable contributions to the
educational world.


_SUMMER SCHOOLS AS ACCESSORY TO THE WORK OF TRAINING._

Among the most distinctively American educational institutions are
Summer Schools for Teachers. They are meetings organized during the
long summer vacations by private individuals, or in connection with
some University Normal or Training School, for the help and stimulation
of teachers who have otherwise no opportunity for training.

The exact character of the work of a school is dependent entirely upon
the educational aims and methods of the principal of the school, and
the purpose for which teachers give up three or four weeks of their
holiday to attend a Summer School may be different in different cases.
The teachers of country schools, inadequately prepared for their work
of teaching, often attend the Summer School in their county, in order
to gain a State training certificate of a higher grade than that which
they already possess; while teachers in city schools, most of whom have
been trained in Normal Schools, attend a Summer School like that of
Colonel Parker, at Englewood, to get stimulation for future work, and
to pursue, in addition, a systematic study of pedagogy. Graduates, who
are teaching in schools and academies during the year, often attend
a Summer School in connection with an University, in order to pursue
further study in various branches. The Summer Schools I visited at
Benton Harbour, Englewood, Chautauqua, and the Summer School of Cornell
University, illustrate the different lines of work mentioned.

At Benton Harbour, a small town on the shores of Lake Michigan, a
Summer School was held for four weeks, and was attended by about fifty
teachers of the rural districts of Michigan, who came to prepare
for a third-grade Teachers’ Certificate of the State of Michigan.
Lessons were given in ordinary school subjects, pedagogy and drill
from half-past seven in the morning until three or four o’clock in the
afternoon. I spent three or four days at this school, heard daily
lessons in psychology, physical culture, civil government, English,
elocution, and other subjects, and saw the working of the school
generally. The teaching in all subjects was very elementary, as little
previous knowledge could be assumed.

Daily work began with exercises in which the whole school took part.
The singing of a hymn afforded an opportunity for a singing lesson
being given to the whole school, the principal acting as instructor.
Then came the reading of Holy Scripture, or of selections from
literature, and a short discourse by the principal, after which
students were called upon to give quotations from the works of famous
men and women, or to recite short poems which had been previously
prepared. At the end of these public exercises, the students were
required to dismiss according to word of command, to turn, march to
music, and to drill as a class of children would have been required to
do. This was intended to teach the students how to dismiss and drill a
school or class.

Lessons in psychology were given by the principal. The treatment of the
subject was necessarily very elementary, and, indeed, superficial. I
noticed that the teacher constantly digressed on practical points, and
seemed to know exactly when digression would be of advantage to his
pupils.

Daily lessons on “Experiments” were also given. These were talks on
some of the most elementary principles of science, and easy experiments
showing how such principles might be illustrated in class. Capillary
attraction was illustrated in a lesson I heard, and its bearing on
everyday life was shown. Pupils were required to come out of their
seats, and to arrange simple apparatus before the class. As they were
quite unaccustomed to manipulate even the simplest materials, they
seemed to find considerable difficulty even in drawing out glass tubing
and clamping together glass plates.

The feature of the school, perhaps, the most interesting, was the
anxiety shown by these rural teachers to lose no opportunity for
improvement, and the keenness with which they followed their daily
lessons. Some of them were so untrained as to find great difficulty
in following the word of command during drill, but these, who were
painfully conscious of their defects, made rapid progress even in a
week’s time. Summer Schools like that of Benton Harbour may give real
help to the ill-prepared and untrained country teachers, in increasing
their knowledge, and widening their interests. They offer advantages
to those who have no opportunity for training, but their conditions
are such as to prevent their becoming an adequate substitute for
it. Indeed, their very existence acknowledges the fact that country
teachers have no opportunities for preparation, and in itself sanctions
a certain amount of superficiality.

The principal object of Colonel Parker’s Summer School, held in
previous years at Chautauqua, New York, but this year at Englewood,
Chicago, is to stimulate teachers of all kinds, and to suggest lines of
work to be developed by them during the year. Attracted by the name
and work of Colonel Parker, more than 200 teachers, superintendents of
schools, and persons interested in education, came from nearly all the
States of the Union to attend the Summer School at Englewood. Most of
the ordinary school staff of the Cook County Normal School at Englewood
acted as teachers in the Summer School, and Colonel Parker himself gave
daily lectures in psychology. Daily lessons were also given in the
teaching of science, language, and reading, “number” or arithmetic,
music, drawing, and also in voice culture, Sloyd, physical culture,
blackboard drawing, and other subjects advantageous to the teacher.
The methods of teaching taught in the Normal School at Englewood were
explained and exemplified in the Summer School, and Kindergarten and
primary classes attached to the Normal School were taught during
the weeks in which the Summer School was held, in order to show the
practical application of the methods discussed. The students selected
their courses of study. All, however, were expected to attend the
psychology lectures. The classes in methods of teaching science,
methods of laboratory work, methods of teaching language and reading,
and methods of teaching “number” or arithmetic, were the most largely
attended. Very keen interest was also taken in the blackboard drawing.

The work in methods of science was carried on by lectures, laboratory
work by students, and field work. An important feature of the science
lectures was the attention paid to methods of meteorological
observation. Blank charts, to show the daily range and variation of
temperature and air-pressure, were filled in by the students; United
States Weather Bureau maps were studied; the origin and course of
storms in the United States were followed. The relation of science to
other subjects, number, reading, modelling, painting, drawing, writing,
language, was brought out in the lectures, all the instruction being
such as to suggest methods of actually dealing with the subjects before
a class of children. The laboratory work was especially suggestive. The
Summer School pupils did individual experimental work, and had the same
instruction and treatment as a class of children would have had. The
practical science course for the Summer School was:

     (i.) Making a magnetic needle.

    (ii.) Heat. Conductivity of Metals.

   (iii.)  ”    Expansion of Metals.

    (iv.)  ”    Determination of boiling-point of fresh and
                  salt-water.

     (v.)  ”    Expansion of liquids and air.

    (vi.)  ”    Chemical change.

   (vii.) Pressure of air. Pump and syphon.

  (viii.) Mechanical constituents of soil (1).

    (ix.)      ”            ”          ”  (2).

     (x.) Physical properties of soils (1).

    (xi.)      ”       ”           ”   (2).

   (xii.) Mineral constituents of soils (1).

  (xiii.)    ”         ”            ”   (2).

   (xiv.) Transpiration of plants.

   (xv.) Specific gravity of minerals.

Field excursions were made weekly, and methods of conducting children’s
field excursions were suggested and discussed.

The instruction in blackboard drawing, as illustrating geographical
forms, was excellent. In all cases, the students worked on paper with
charcoal, at the same time as the teacher drew on the wall slate.
After making a sketch, the teacher erased her work at once, in order
to secure rapidity in those who were copying. The members of the class
then distributed themselves round the room at various parts of the wall
slate, and were required to reproduce on the wall slate the drawing
they had just made, the teacher meanwhile giving individual help and
criticising. The subjects for blackboard drawing for the fifteen
lessons of the course were:

  (_a_) Illustrations to show how Blackboard Drawing can be
  used.

  (_b_) Hills, valleys, mountains, plateaus.

  (_c_) River-basins, waterfalls, lakes, deltas.

  (_d_) Erosion, cliffs, cañons, terraces, gorges.

  (_e_) Mountains, ranges, parallel, etc.

  (_f_) Continent of N. America. Esquimaux huts; Indian
  wigwams; logging camps.

  (_g_) United States. Cotton fields, rice swamps, sand bars.

  (_h_) Mexico. Central America. Cacti; ruins.

  (_i_) S. America. Fiord coasts, volcanoes; tropical forests.

  (_j_) Africa. Deserts, sand-dunes, oases, canals.

  (_k_) Abyssinian Highlands: Nile Basin, pyramids, palms.

  (_l_) Australia Islands, coral, volcanoes.

  (_m_) Eurasia; plateaus of Thibet and Gobi.

  (_n_) India; Spain; Italy; banyan trees.

  (_o_) Norway and Sweden; glaciers, icebergs.

Through the kind permission of Colonel Parker, I was able to hear all
lessons and to see the entire working of the school. Daily visits for
nearly a fortnight served to show, that much educational life was
centered there, and that teachers who occupied responsible positions in
all parts of the States were receiving new light and stimulation for
the working out of their own particular problems.

At the college of the well-known summer assembly at Chautauqua, New
York, there was no professional instruction for teachers this year. I
heard some excellent teaching in physics, German and French; but beyond
the fact that many of the Chautauqua college students were teachers
taking holiday courses of study to equip themselves better for future
teaching, the work that I saw here had no direct bearing upon the
training of teachers.

At Cornell University, courses in pedagogy are usually given in
connection with the summer course in philosophy. These are for graduate
students only. Psychology lectures, with experimental demonstrations,
are given every day in the week; lectures on psychological and
psychophysical method, with demonstrations and laboratory practice, are
delivered three times a week; pedagogy and the history of education are
studied by means of lectures and conferences; methods of teaching the
special subject of study are discussed in connection with the other
summer courses for graduates at Cornell University. I was present at
a very interesting meeting of teachers who were attending a summer
course in English. Individual members of the class gave their own
experience as regards the teaching of English and literature in the
schools. The students were mostly specialists in English, and teachers
in private academies, or High Schools, and an informal discussion of
special difficulties and methods which had been actually tried was very
interesting and helpful to the class as a whole.

A general survey of Summer Schools of all kinds seems to show that
their work cannot be regarded as that of “Training,” but rather as
accessory to it. Where the principal or conductor of the Summer School
is a man of enthusiasm and enlightenment, teachers can be refreshed and
stimulated in many ways, by a summer course of work; but to regard a
course as training which supplies no practice-work, and exists under
highly artificial conditions, for a few weeks only, is to overlook some
of the most important features of training.

As a general summary of the work of Training, seen in Normal Schools,
City Training Schools and University Departments, it may be stated:

(i.) That the State Normal Schools, adhering to old traditions, and
failing to insist on adequate and thorough scholarship as an entrance
qualification, have been obliged to devote themselves, either to
securing that scholarship, or to the pursuance of so-called training
under conditions the most conducive to mechanical lines of work, and
dead forms of method.

(ii.) That the City Training Schools, being entirely local
institutions, supported by local funds, and only supplying teachers to
the schools of the vicinity, are in danger of being cramped in their
methods by seeking to win public favour.

(iii.) That the University Departments of Pedagogy, especially those
belonging to State Universities, are capable of affording the widest
and best opportunities for the thorough training of primary and
secondary teachers, and in supplying these opportunities, they will not
only help forward the cause in which they are immediately engaged, but
afford a valuable means of unifying and stimulating education generally.

The existence of the good and the bad side by side is as marked a
feature in training institutions as in any other department of American
education, and suggests great rapidity of progress in some directions.
Where the training is bad, old methods have been retained under new
conditions; and where good results have been obtained, they are due
to the readiness to try new methods, and to keep in touch with the
educational progress of the day. The stimulus to much that is good
in the present training of teachers in America is the psychological
study of children, which now is being systematically organized in a
“National Association for the Study of Children.” Not only scientific
workers, but teachers and parents throughout the country, are beginning
to realize the important bearing of child-study upon all educational
questions, and nowhere is their enthusiasm for matters educational more
shown than in their united devotion to the solution of this new problem.

                                                   AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL.




PART II.

BY MILLICENT HUGHES.


In America, as in Europe, it is becoming increasingly recognised, that
the fact of having received a good education, even if that education
have included a University course, is no guarantee of fitness for
the teaching profession. That some special professional preparation
is also necessary before a teacher can be safely entrusted with
teaching responsibility can hardly be said to be any longer a matter
of debate among those who have devoted time and thought to educational
questions. There may be much difference of opinion as to the best way
of giving that preparation, but that it should be given is becoming
more and more a foregone conclusion. There seems at last some chance
that a well-earned rest may be allowed to the well-worn comparison
made between the doctor’s and teacher’s professions, with its obvious
moral--that just as no right-thinking parent would allow an unqualified
practitioner to prescribe for his child’s body, so it should be
impossible for that far less understood and delicate something, which
we call the mind, to be entrusted to the care of one whose only
qualification for the post is the possession of a certain amount of
useful information. There are many battles yet to be fought, many
experiments yet to be tried, many failures yet to be faced, ere all
shall be agreed on the best kind of professional training that can be
given to teachers; yet I have returned from America encouraged in the
belief that the decisive battle in favour of training has been fought
and won on both sides of the Atlantic, and that the old world and the
new may with advantage to both join hands in the endeavour to discover
the best ways and means of such training.

And it would seem especially fitting that England and America should
thus join hands, for, after all, few things about the Americans
impressed me more than the fact that they are really English, and that
the inhabitants of Great Britain and the United States really form part
of one great English-speaking nation, with the heritage of a noble
language and literature, and a common life of thought and feeling. In
matters educational, the truth of this oneness impressed me vividly.
Allowing for such differences as must exist between an old and a new
country, it is nevertheless true that most of the problems in education
which they are trying to solve are those which perplex us also, and
of these the problem of the Training of Teachers holds a place in
the front rank. But it is a curious and interesting fact, that the
solution should be attempted in both countries, and yet that so little
attention should be paid in each to what is being done in the other.
The ignorance that prevails among American teachers as to what is being
attempted in England is, I fear, only equalled by our own ignorance
of American educational life. This ignorance is largely the result of
the difficulty that both American and English teachers experience, in
obtaining definite information on educational matters in connection
with either country. This fact made it very difficult for me even to
map out my tour, so as to include as far as possible what was typical
of American Training in the short time at my disposal, and had it not
been for the unvarying kindness and courtesy shown me by American
teachers, in directing my notice to what was best worth seeing, my
task would have presented almost insuperable difficulties. As it is, I
have, of course, been unable to cover the whole ground, and indeed have
been able to personally examine into the opportunities for training
in a very few States. These, however, I believe to be representative
States, from a study of the means of training in which it is possible
to arrive at a very fair conclusion of its condition in the States as
a whole. They include the following: Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode
Island, Massachusetts, New York, Michigan and Illinois. I was, however,
fortunate in being able to supplement the information thus obtained by
a careful study of the many excellent State exhibits in the Educational
Department of the Liberal Arts Building, at the World’s Fair, and to
further correct and intensify the impressions I had received by many
conversations with educationists from all parts of the United States,
whom it was my good fortune to meet at the Educational Congresses, held
at Chicago in July.

In considering any American educational question, there are one or two
points which must never be lost sight of, and perhaps it will be well
to indicate them here. In the first place, it must be remembered that
there is not one American educational system, but many. Each State has
complete control of its own educational matters, has its own School
Law, sets aside common lands, or levies taxes for the support of its
own schools, and is responsible to no higher authority. The only part
taken by the Central Government of the United States in connection with
education has been in the establishment of a Bureau of Education, the
chief functions of which have been (1) the collecting of statistics and
general information respecting education in all the various States,
which are embodied in an annual report made by the Commissioner
of Education, (2) the publishing of monographs and circulars of
information on topics of educational interest, such as Co-education,
Teaching of History, etc., and (3) the maintaining of a valuable
Pedagogical Reference Library at Washington.

Secondly, a distinction must be made between the Western States, of
which Michigan might be taken as representative, and the Eastern, of
which Massachusetts might be considered typical. In the former we find
a most complete system of State education, leading from the Primary
School right up to the great co-educational University of Michigan.
The State Schools there have few private rivals, and the University
none. In the State of Massachusetts, on the contrary, although Primary,
Grammar and High Schools are maintained at the public expense, yet
the children of a large proportion of the inhabitants attend private
schools and academies, which undertake to prepare them for Harvard or
the Women’s Colleges, such as Wellesley. In fact, few of those who
enter upon a University career do so straight from the common school,
as is the case in the Western States. It follows from this that there
are two classes of teachers to be considered in the Eastern States--(1)
those who teach in the common schools (Primary, Grammar and High), and
(2) those who teach in private schools and in the academies. Those
of the second class are largely recruited from the ranks of College
graduates, who rely upon their University course as preparation for
the profession of teaching, and amongst whom the idea of a special
training for their work has only here and there been awakened. It is
mainly in connection with State education that the idea of the training
of teachers has been developed, although the fact that several of
the older Universities, including Harvard, are providing courses of
lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching may be taken as a hopeful
sign of the gradual growth of the idea among all classes of teachers.

It will be perhaps well to enumerate the various means available for
the Training of Teachers in the United States, and then to describe
more particularly the special features of the training to be obtained
in each kind of institution.

Training may be obtained at:

                        { Public or State.
    i.   Normal Schools { City.
                        { Private.

                        { Schools.
   ii.    City Training {
                        { Classes.

  iii. Pedagogical Departments in Universities.

   iv. Teachers’ Institutes.

    v. Summer Schools.


_NORMAL SCHOOLS._

There are three kinds of Normal Schools to be considered--State, City
and Private. It was my privilege to visit a good number belonging to
the first two classes, but I was not fortunate enough to be able to
inspect any of the Private Normal Schools. These latter are, of course,
chiefly to be found in those States which have few or no State or City
Normal Schools.

The difference between State and City Normal Schools is mainly one of
control. The State Normal School forms part of the State Common School
system, and is under the direct supervision of the State Superintendent
and Board of Education, while the City Normal School belongs to
the City School system, and is under the jurisdiction of the City
Superintendent. The State Normal School is intended to provide teachers
for the schools in any part of the State, while the City Normal School
has for its object the preparation of teachers for the City schools
alone.

At present one of the most hotly debated questions in connection
with Normal Schools relates to the subjects to be included in the
curriculum. Shall the Normal School give professional training alone,
or shall it also provide instruction in Academic subjects? There is at
present much divergence of opinion on the subject, and some schools are
organized on the one principle, and some on the other.

At present some of the Normal Schools have a double function to
perform, that of serving as High Schools, and at the same time as
professional Training Colleges. There is, however, a growing feeling
against this plan, and a tendency, wherever possible, to separate
those who intend to become teachers from those who do not. But many
Normal Schools, while claiming to be only professional, yet include
Academic subjects in their curricula. Two reasons for this are commonly
urged. In the first place, it is said that it is impossible to get a
large enough supply of candidates for training who are sufficiently
well equipped for their profession from the point of view of mere
information; and secondly, that even those who have the necessary
information have acquired it in such a way that it is almost useless
for teaching purposes. For such, a complete revision of the various
subjects, taken in conjunction with a consideration of the best methods
of teaching the same, is regarded as necessary; it being maintained
by those in favour of this plan that it is almost impossible to get
instruction in the various subjects that will be of any value to them
as teachers, outside a Normal School.

On the other hand, there are some who maintain that the Normal School
should be strictly professional, admitting none to its courses but
those who can give evidence of having had ample academic preparation.
Many, however, who believe that the courses in academic studies are at
present necessary yet look forward to the time when they will be no
longer required.

There appears to be a growing feeling in the States in favour of the
complete separation of the professional from the academic course, and
it is interesting to note that the question is agitating the minds
of those who have to do with the training of teachers in America, at
the same time that it has become a burning question in England in
connection with the training of our Elementary Teachers. The Normal
Schools correspond more or less closely with our English Elementary
Training Colleges, and an examination of their points of likeness and
difference may not prove unprofitable.

In the first place, it should be noted, that the absence of any uniform
standard of attainment, such as is more or less secured in England by
the fact that there is one government examination for all Colleges,
makes it possible for there to be a great difference in the rank held
by different Normal Schools. As each school fixes its own standard
of graduation, and the conditions for admission, length of course
and final tests vary with each institution, it comes about that much
depends upon the Normal School, of which a given teacher is a graduate.

Some Normal Schools, for instance, have a course extending over four
years, in others it only lasts from one to two years, while some offer
a choice of courses of varying length. In England, on the contrary,
the Elementary Training course is uniformly two years in all Colleges,
the length being only occasionally varied in the cases of individuals,
as when, on special recommendation, a third year is allowed, or a
candidate who has already obtained a certificate is admitted to a
Training College for one year’s training.

This lack of uniformity in the length of course in American Normal
Schools is largely the result of the absence of any _one_ standard
of admission. While in England there is one examination, the Queen’s
Scholarship, which must be passed by all, except University graduates
who desire to enter an Elementary College, in America the conditions
vary with each individual Normal School. Some require at least a
certificate of graduation from a High School, some have an entrance
examination of their own, which none may be excused, while others offer
one to those who have no certificates to show.

Some Normal Schools are regarded as affording suitable preparation
for the Universities, and are attended by those who hope to take up a
University course later on, while others grant degrees of their own,
or arrange special courses for those who have taken degrees elsewhere.

The fact that there are so many differences in respect of length of
course and choice of subjects, between the Normal Schools of various
States and Cities, makes it exceedingly difficult to form any accurate
generalizations. It will probably, therefore, be wiser at this point
to give a more detailed account of the Normal Schools which I had an
opportunity of studying in the above-mentioned States.


_PENNSYLVANIA._

Pennsylvania has eleven State Normal Schools, the two most important
of which I was able to visit. The Normal School Law for this State
provides for two courses of study; the Elementary Course and the
Scientific Course. The first of these leads to the certificate Bachelor
of the Element (B.E.), while the diploma of the second constitutes its
holder Bachelor of the Sciences (B.S.).

The outlines of these courses are laid down by the State as follows,
but each Normal School can adapt them as seems best. Most Normal
Schools also arrange for a Preparatory Course.


  ELEMENTARY COURSE.--JUNIOR YEAR.

  _Pedagogics._--Elements of School Management and Methods.

  _Language._--Orthography and Reading; English Grammar, including
  Composition; Latin, sufficient for the introduction of Cæsar.

  _Mathematics._--Arithmetic; Elementary Algebra.

  _Natural Sciences._--Physiology and Hygiene.

  _Historical Sciences._--Geography--Physical, Mathematical, and
  Political; History of the United States; Civil Government.

  _The Arts._--Penmanship, sufficient to be able to explain some
  approved system--writing to be submitted to Board of Examiners;
  Drawing, a daily exercise for at least twenty-eight weeks--work to
  be submitted to the Board of Examiners; Book-keeping, single entry,
  seven weeks; Vocal music, elementary principles, and attendance upon
  daily exercises for at least one-third of a year.

  _Manual Training._


  ELEMENTARY COURSE.--SECOND YEAR.

  _Pedagogics._--Psychology, embracing the intellect, sensibilities,
  and will; Methods; History of Education; Model School Work--at least
  twenty-one weeks of actual teaching daily during one period of not
  less than forty-five minutes; a Thesis on a professional Subject.

  _Language._--The outlines of Rhetoric, together with at least
  a fourteen weeks’ course in English literature, including the
  thorough study of one selection from each of four English classics;
  Latin--Cæsar.

  _Mathematics._--Arithmetic; Mensuration; Plane Geometry.

  _Natural Sciences._--Elementary Natural Philosophy; Botany.

  _Historical Sciences._--Reading of General History in connection with
  the History of Education.

  _The Arts._--Elocutionary Exercises in connection with the study of
  English literature.

  _Manual Training._


  SCIENTIFIC COURSE.--TWO YEARS.

  _Pedagogics._--Moral Philosophy; Logic; Philosophy of Education;
  Course of Professional Reading, with abstracts, notes, criticisms,
  to be submitted to Board of Examiners; a Thesis on a professional
  subject.

  _Language._--Latin, six books of Virgil, four orations of Cicero,
  the Germania of Tacitus, or a full equivalent; an equivalent of
  Greek, French, or German will be accepted for Spherical Trigonometry,
  Analytical Geometry, Calculus, Mathematical Natural Philosophy, and
  Mathematical Astronomy; Literature.

  _Mathematics._--Higher Algebra; Solid Geometry; Plane and Spherical
  Trigonometry and Surveying, with use of instruments; Analytical
  Geometry; Differential and Integral Calculus.

  _Natural Science._--Natural Philosophy, as much as in Snell’s
  Olmsted; Anatomy, Descriptive and Mathematical; Chemistry; Geology or
  Mineralogy; Zoology; Astronomy.

  _History._--General History.

To graduate at a Pennsylvanian State Normal School, students must
attend at least twenty-one weeks. The Faculty first examines the
candidates in all the branches of study; if they find them qualified
they recommend them to the State Board of Examiners, and certify that
they have completed the course of study as required by law, and have
taught the required time in the Model School.

The final examinations are conducted by a State Board of Examiners,
who are appointed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction,
from the following classes:--the State Superintendent or Deputy
Superintendent, who is President of the Board, the Principal of another
Normal School, two County or Borough Superintendents from the First
District, and the Principal of this Normal School. Each student must
receive four votes out of the five in order to pass the examination,
and to graduate.

The final examination occurs about two weeks before Commencement,[2]
the date being fixed by the State Superintendent. The examination is
almost wholly in writing, and lasts two or three days.

Regular graduates who have continued their studies for two years
(_i.e._ have completed either the Elementary or Scientific Course), and
have practised their profession for two years in the Common Schools
of the State, and who have presented to the Faculty and Board of
Examiners a certificate of good moral character and skill in the Art
of Teaching from the Board or Boards of Directors by whom they were
employed, countersigned by the proper County Superintendent, receive
further diplomas, constituting them Masters in the Course in which
they graduated, and conferring upon them one of the following degrees:
Master of the Elements (M.E.); Master of the Sciences (M.S.).

These diplomas confer upon their holders the right to teach the
subjects therein named, in the public schools of Pennsylvania, without
further examination.

It is also the duty of the Pennsylvania Normal Schools to grant State
certificates to such teachers in the Common Schools of the State who
make application for the same, and who fulfil the following conditions:

  i. Each applicant must be twenty-one years of age, and must have
  taught in the Common Schools of the State during three successive
  years.

  ii. Each must present certificates of moral character, and skill in
  practical teaching.

  iii. The examination must be either in the subjects of the Elementary
  or Scientific Course, and must be taken at the time of the Annual
  Examination of the Normal School at which application is made.

  iv. Each applicant is required to present an original Thesis on some
  educational subject.

The School year is usually forty-two weeks, and is divided into two
sessions--a winter session of about twenty-eight weeks from August to
March, and a summer of fourteen weeks, beginning with the end of March.

The usual charge for the Winter Session is $140 (about £28), and for
the Summer Session $70 (about £14).

By a recent Act of the Legislature the following appropriations are
made by the State to Normal students and graduates.

  i. Each student over seventeen years of age who shall sign a paper
  declaring his intention to teach in the Common Schools of the State
  shall receive the sum of fifty cents (about 2_s._) per week toward
  defraying the expenses of tuition and boarding.

  ii. Each student who upon graduating shall sign an agreement to teach
  in the Common Schools of the State two full school years shall
  receive the sum of fifty dollars (about £10).

  iii. Any student desiring to secure the benefits must attend the
  School at least twelve consecutive weeks, and must join a class in
  Methods of Instruction or School Management. These benefits will be
  deducted from the regular expenses of board and tuition.

About four miles from Lancaster, and connected with it by an electric
railway, is the little village of Millersville, where is located
the oldest Normal School of the State. It was established in 1855,
and recognised as the First State Normal School in Pennsylvania in
1859. It is a co-educational school with accommodation for about 500
students, although permission is also sometimes given to students to
board out. The buildings are typical of this kind of Normal School.
There is a central building containing the Chapel, recitation[3] and
dining-rooms, etc., while on either side are two dormitories, one for
the men students, and one for the women. There is also a gymnasium;
and two handsome buildings--a Library, and a Science building with
lecture rooms and laboratories--are in process of erection. There are
more women students than men, and fewer of the latter intend to become
teachers in the State; often they only use the Normal School as a
stepping-stone to the University.

An excellent Model School, comprising a Kindergarten and eight grades,
is attached to the Institution, in which the students observe the
methods used by the critic teachers in various subjects, and also
teach under supervision. I heard one of the critic teachers give
a model lesson on a brook basin, and afterwards deliver a lecture
to the students on the teaching of Geography, in which the special
points of teaching method in connection with the brook basin, school
district and township were dwelt upon and discussed. I had, moreover,
the opportunity of hearing one of the students teach, and was also
fortunate enough to be able to listen to a reading lesson given by the
head of the Model School on the sentence method.

I next visited the Normal School at West Chester, which was started in
1871. Its buildings are on much the same plan as those at Millersville,
with the two wings for men and women students, and the dining and
recitation rooms in the centre. The Principal, with pardonable pride,
drew my special attention to the gymnasium building, which, with the
single exception of the new Yale Gymnasium, is believed to be the
most complete connected with any school or college in the States.
It contains a full supply of the best apparatus, running tracks,
bath-rooms, large swimming-pool, bowling alleys, ball cage, etc. A
thoroughly trained physician[4] and his wife are in charge of the
gymnasium, and all exercise is taken under their supervision. I was
able to attend several of the classes--one on School Method, which
took the form of a discussion of such points as the following: “What
degree of quiet is necessary in a school?” “On what does ability to
govern depend?” “Can ability to govern be acquired?” I was much struck
here, as in other American schools and colleges, with the ease in
speaking, and the keen interest shown by the students in taking part
in the discussion. A lesson in Arithmetic, in which the students made
excellent use of that distinctive feature of an American recitation
room--the continuous blackboard, one on United States history, and a
lesson on physiology given in the Model School, helped to fill up a
most interesting morning.


_CONNECTICUT._

There are two State Normal Schools in the State of Connecticut--one at
New Britain, started in 1850, and the other at Willimantic, opened in
1889. These schools have for their object the definite preparation of
teachers for work in the State schools, and no encouragement is given
to other students to enter. They thus differ from the Pennsylvania
Normal Schools, which are often attended by those who do not intend
to become teachers. This difference appears to produce one curious
and instructive result--namely, that while a large number of men
students are to be found in the Pennsylvania Normal Schools, they are
conspicuous by their absence from those in Connecticut. This is easily
understood when one remembers that an overwhelming majority of the
teachers in the Common Schools are women, and that as few men intend to
take up teaching as a permanent profession, they are not likely to be
found in those Normal Schools, the courses of which will not serve as
stepping-stones to a future college or other career.

Neither of these two Schools are residential, but the Principals
undertake to assist students in finding comfortable accommodation.
Board and lodging can usually be obtained from $3 to $4 (14_s._ to
17_s._) per week.

Candidates for admission must either (1) pass an entrance examination
held at certain centres in the State, or (2) present a certificate of
graduation from a High School or State Teachers’ Certificate, or (3)
have taught successfully for three years.

The course is arranged for two years, but no student can graduate from
the schools unless considered fit to teach by the Faculty. They may
either remain longer as students, or if thought to be hopeless may be
requested to withdraw.

At both schools there are at least two parts to the course: (1) that
done in the Normal School, including the Theory of Education, and
special work in science and other subjects; and (2) that done in the
Model or Training Schools. Each School has also a Kindergarten, and at
New Britain there is a special course for the training of Kindergarten
teachers.

Students who attain the required standard of scholarship in every
prescribed subject, and exhibit a fair degree of skill in teaching and
governing children, _and_ pass the State Examination for Teachers,
receive a Diploma of Graduation.

The fitness of any teacher for her profession is thus determined partly
by the authorities of the Normal School, and partly by the State.

All necessary text-books are free, but students are encouraged to
purchase a few books of reference.

The aim of this school is entirely professional, but it is found so
difficult to obtain a supply of sufficiently prepared students that
some academic work, especially in science, is found to be necessary,
and each student is expected to learn to make certain sets of
apparatus, which will be afterwards helpful in the teaching of science
in the schools. The Principal informed me that he considered that the
school was stronger on the practical than on the theoretical side.
Most certainly the practical training of teachers is most thoroughly
arranged for. A Model School of 500 children is attached to the school,
the classes in which are in the hands of trained and enthusiastic
teachers, who are constantly endeavouring to improve existing and
devise new methods of teaching. In reading, for instance, the children
make their own reading lesson, the subjects being taken from lessons
on elementary science, literature, etc., which they have had. With the
help of the blackboard, simple sentences, giving an account of the
lesson or its story, are collected, and then printed by the school
printing press, which proves an invaluable addition to the school
apparatus. Drawing is also taught almost entirely in connection with
other school subjects, the illustrating of Science, History and
Geography lessons being thus utilized.

During the training course, the students give a few lessons in the
Model School, and spend a good deal of time in observation. But
a comparatively new and important feature in connection with the
practical training is the six months which students are encouraged
to spend after graduation at a Practice School which has been opened
at South Manchester. Here the graduates teach under supervision, and
obtain that amount of practice under favourable circumstances which is
so necessary to the perfecting of the teacher.

At Willimantic, as at New Britain, especial stress is laid on preparing
the teacher for the practical part of the profession. The child,
however, is the unit of the school, and on the right understanding of
the child depends the teacher’s success in teaching. The child has
both a body and a mind to be trained, and the two cannot be separated.
It is therefore necessary that a teacher should know something about
each, and students are therefore expected to devote a good deal of time
to the study of Physiology in the Junior year, and to the study of
Psychology in the Senior.

The Model Schools[5] are most carefully staffed, and the students spend
as much time as possible in observing work done in these schools.

During the last term of the course, each student serves as an assistant
in the various grades of the Model Schools, thus having experience in
teaching under the guidance and criticism of an expert in each grade.

The course is for two years, but the Principal is anxious to have the
time extended.


_NEW YORK STATE._

The first Normal School for the State of New York was opened at Albany
in 1844. There are now eleven such schools in the State, two of
which--Albany and Oswego--are entirely professional, while the others
provide also for academic work.


STATISTICS OF NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.

 +-------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+
 |             |          Normal.          |         Academic.         |
 |             +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
 |  Location.  |     No.     |   Average   |     No.     |   Average   |
 |             | Registered. | Attendance. | Registered. | Attendance. |
 |             | Last Year.  | Last Year.  | Last Year.  | Last Year.  |
 +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
 | Albany      |     375     |     305     |             |             |
 | Oswego      |     382     |     323     |             |             |
 | Brockport   |     370     |     283     |     108     |      61     |
 | Cortland    |     384     |     312     |      35     |      25     |
 | Potsdam     |     490     |     395     |     182     |     134     |
 | Fredonia    |     253     |     196     |      67     |      49     |
 | Buffalo     |     357     |     295     |      12     |       7     |
 | Geneseo     |     535     |     391     |      78     |      65     |
 | New Paltz   |     227     |     170     |      26     |      13     |
 | Oneonta     |     365     |     304     |      23     |      15     |
 | Plattsburgh |     142     |     106     |             |             |
 +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

The following extracts from the circular issued by the Superintendent
of Public Instruction give the principal features common to all the
Normal Schools of the State of New York.

“Students will be appointed to the Normal Schools by the
Superintendent, upon the recommendation of superintendents and
school commissioners. These officers will be relied upon to properly
represent to possible candidates the needs of the public schools
for well-qualified teachers, and the necessity of professional and
technical training on the part of all who intend to teach. No students
can be admitted who have not already acquired a substantial elementary
education. This can be gained in all of the ordinary schools, and the
professional training schools cannot be properly taxed with work which
the common schools can perform as well. Through the quality of the
work performed, through the attainments and the professional spirit
and purpose of graduates, rather than through mere multiplicity of
numbers, can the Normal Schools best promote the educational interests
of the State. There is room and welcome in the Normal Schools for
the graduates of the elementary and secondary schools, and even for
those who have made substantial advancement in the elementary course
without technical graduation, provided that they give promise of
becoming successful teachers, and possess the desire to become such;
but there is no room for students who have laid no real foundation
for professional training, and who have no well-determined purpose
about the matter and no fair conception of the responsibilities and
obligations of a teacher’s occupation.

“Appointments will ordinarily follow recommendations, but students
will be admitted or retained in Normal Schools only when they show
scholarship and other qualities in justification of the appointment.

“The following form of recommendation will be used, and will be
supplied from the department or from any of the schools upon
application. When filled out it should be mailed to the Superintendent,
and when approved it will be by him sent direct to the school. No
student can be appointed who is not fully sixteen years of age.

  TO THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION:--

  I hereby recommend            of          in the County of
  aged      years, as possessing the health, scholarship, mental
  ability and moral character requisite for an appointment to the State
  Normal and Training School at

  _School Commissioner_
  _District of the County of_
  Or, _Superintendent City of_

  _Dated._

“Students duly appointed, and presenting the diplomas of colleges,
universities, high schools, academies or academic departments of union
schools, State Certificates or Commissioner’s Certificates, granted
under the uniform examination system, and still in force, showing
a standing of seventy-five per cent. in arithmetic, grammar and
geography, may be admitted at any time and without examination.

“Students duly appointed, but unable to present either of the
above-named evidences of proficiency, may be admitted at the opening of
each term upon duly passing an entrance examination to be held at the
school.

“Non-residents of the State are not to be solicited or encouraged to
enter our Normal Schools, but such persons as specially desire to
do so, and who comply with the requirements as to admission, may be
admitted upon paying to the treasurer of the Local Board a tuition
fee of twenty dollars per term of twenty weeks in advance. No mileage
fees[6] will be paid to non-residents.

“No student will be received into the academic department connected
with any State Normal School who is not a bona fide resident of the
territory whose people have heretofore given Normal School property
to the State, and for whose benefit the State has pledged itself to
maintain an academic department.

“Tuition and the use of all text-books are free. Students will be held
responsible, however, for any injury or loss of books. They are advised
to bring with them, for reference, any suitable books they may have.
The amount of fare necessarily paid on public conveyances in coming to
the school will be refunded to those who remain a full term.

“A year is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each. The Autumn term
commences on the first Wednesday in September, and the Spring term on
the second Wednesday in February. There will be an intermission for a
week during the holidays.”

There are three courses of study which can be followed: an English
course arranged for three years, a Classical and a Scientific arranged
for four years. (Albany and Oswego have specially arranged courses.)

Students who satisfactorily complete any one of the above courses
receive diplomas, which serve as licenses to teach in the public
schools of the State.

The first Normal School of the State was located at Albany. Until
1890 it had, like most of the other schools, academic as well as
professional work, but it was then reorganized on a new plan, under
the title of “New York State Normal College.” This College now devotes
itself entirely to the giving of instruction in the Science and Art of
Teaching.

The courses of study are as follows:--

1. _English Course_, which extends over two years, and embraces
Psychology, History and Philosophy of Education, Methods of
teaching all ordinary school subjects, School Economy and School
Law, Kindergarten methods and practice in teaching under criticism.
Graduates from this course receive a life diploma or license to teach.

2. _Classical Course._ This is also a two years’ course on much
the same lines as the English, but with the addition of Methods of
teaching Latin and Greek, or German, or French. A much severer entrance
examination must, however, be passed to gain admission to this course
than is required for the English. A life diploma and the degree of
Bachelor of Pedagogy are conferred on graduates from this course.

3. _Supplementary Course._ This takes one year, which is devoted to the
reading of leading educational authors, the discussion of educational
subjects, and the preparation of an original thesis. Those who take
this course in addition to the English receive the degree of Bachelor
of Pedagogy, and those who take it in addition to the Classical receive
that of Master of Pedagogy.

4. _One year Course for graduates_ from Colleges and Universities in
which they are allowed to select a course (approved by the Faculty) for
one year, and can receive a life diploma and the degree of Bachelor of
Pedagogy.

5. _Kindergartner’s Course._

I unfortunately reached Albany too late to see the school in working
order, but from what its Principal, Dr. Milne, told me, it appears to
possess the most purely professional course of any Normal School in the
States.


OSWEGO.

The Oswego School was first organized as a City Training School in
1861, but was adopted as a State School in 1863. The history of this
school is the history of its Principal, Dr. Sheldon. When quite young,
he became interested in the question of the education of the poor
of his native city, Oswego. With the help of friends the first free
school was started, but as no teacher could be found, he had to teach
himself. He was able, in 1853, to organize a city system of schools,
and became superintendent. Dissatisfaction with the teaching results
of his schools led him to consider the question of methods. On a visit
to Toronto, he saw in the National Museum a collection of educational
appliances used abroad, and especially at the Home and Colonial
Training School in London. He brought back all the apparatus that he
could, but both he and his teachers realized the need of training, and
finally some of them resigned half their salaries for one year, in
order that a training teacher might be brought over from the Home and
Colonial Training College. Miss M. E. M. Jones, an ardent disciple of
Pestalozzi, came in response to their request, and day by day, after
school hours, she met this enthusiastic little band of teachers, which
was the first Training Class. After she left, those she had taught were
able to carry it on, and the training of teachers was an established
fact in Oswego. The course was at first only for one year, but was
later extended to three and four when the school was taken over by the
State.

With the consent of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction,
the classical department has been dropped out of the Oswego School,
and more extended lines of English work have been taken up as elective
courses. The regular English course is taken for three years, and one
of these for the fourth.

This course includes advanced work in science, history, higher English,
psychology, pedagogy, drawing, and teaching under criticism, and
occupies two terms of twenty weeks each.

Those who show marked talent for primary and kindergarten work may,
after graduation, be invited by a vote of the Faculty to take an
additional year in special training for kindergarten and primary
teachers. At the end of this course diplomas are granted, indicating
fitness to take charge of kindergartens; and in addition, certificates
of special qualifications for primary work are given, signed by all the
members of the Faculty.

In order to meet the increasing demand for teachers who can undertake
training work in Normal Schools, a special course has been started,
which lasts for five months, and includes lectures in psychology,
pedagogy, kindergarten principles and methods; observation of the work
in the kindergarten; attendance upon the criticisms of the critics in
all the departments of the training work; making out criticisms on the
work in the different departments of the school of practice and actual
teaching under criticism; making out time-tables for the different
grades of schools; observation of work in the school of practice as
done by practice teachers, to gain an idea of arrangement, distribution
and grading of subject matter; observation of special lessons, followed
by criticisms of same. A course of professional reading is prescribed,
as well as the preparation of papers on various topics connected
with method and criticism. Occasional opportunities are provided, to
put into practice ideal and experimental lines of work, by teaching
classes; and instruction is given in making apparatus, charts, etc., to
illustrate the subjects taught in the common schools.

Teachers for this course are also selected by the Faculty, on the
ground of their superior moral, intellectual, physical and professional
qualifications, and of special fitness for the work; and on the
satisfactory completion of the same, receive certificates, signed by
all the members of the Faculty, indicating their fitness to act as
critics and teachers of methods in Normal and Training Schools.

Experience in teaching in the various grades of the public schools is
considered important before entering upon this work.

It is not in a strict sense a residential college, but students from
a distance are expected to live in a boarding-house attached to the
school.

Great stress is laid upon the elaboration of methods of teaching
of various subjects, and from the Oswego School have come many
improvements in ways of teaching. Perhaps the chief contribution to
methodology is that known as the “laboratory” method of teaching
history, which is said to have revolutionized the teaching of history
in American Schools. It is an adaptation of the seminary method
introduced by the German historian Ranke. In order to make this method
possible in the schools, specially prepared text-books were needed, and
these Dr. Sheldon’s daughter undertook to write. Two text-books have
been published: _Studies in General History_, and _Studies in American
History_, both of which have been extensively adopted in American
Schools. In these books there is presented to the pupil a carefully
chosen body of original historical material--typical extracts from the
laws, constitution, creeds and other records of the past--pictures of
monuments, temples, statues and relics, together with questions upon
this material that test and train the pupil’s powers of judgment and
reason. In connection also with the teaching of history the plan
is advocated, and carried out in connection with the Model School,
of allowing the children to compile the history of their own town,
collecting the information for themselves, and recording it in a
manuscript book kept for the purpose, which they can also illustrate by
original drawings of their own. I saw a delightful history of Oswego
compiled in this way, and in several other towns I found that school
children were undertaking similar work.

Most of the method-teaching is carried on by means of discussions on
topics given. I was able to attend one of these, and also to see some
of the teaching in the Practice School.

Perhaps what impressed me most about the school was the large amount
of liberty allowed to the students, and the absence of rules. Dr.
Sheldon told me that the experience of his lifetime had only confirmed
him in the belief, that the fullest freedom is necessary for the
right development of character, and that year by year he had given
his students an ever-increasing amount of liberty. The idea of
self-government and responsibility is inculcated, and rare are the
cases in which this freedom is abused.


_MASSACHUSETTS._

To Massachusetts belongs the honour of having led the way in the
establishment of Normal Schools. The Massachusetts Board of Education,
established in 1838, at once took up the question of the training of
teachers for the public schools. A member of the Board, the Hon.
Edmund Dwight, of Boston, offered $10,000 on condition that the
Legislature would appropriate an equal amount towards providing for
such training. His offer was accepted, and three Normal Schools were
opened, each of which was to continue for three years as an experiment.
The experiments proved completely successful. There are now six State
Normal Schools, which are under the direct control of the Board of
Education, and supported entirely by the State. Tuition is free to
all who undertake to teach in the State Schools. The arrangements for
boarding vary with each school.

The State appropriates $4,000 per annum to be divided among those
students of Normal Schools who stand in need of such aid.

Text-books and reference books are free.

[7] “The design of the State Normal Schools is strictly professional;
that is, to prepare in the best possible manner the pupils for the
work of organizing, governing and teaching the public schools of the
Commonwealth.

“To this end there must be the most thorough knowledge; first, of the
branches of learning required to be taught in the schools; second, of
the best methods of teaching those branches; and third, of right mental
training.

“The time of one course extends through a period of two years; of the
other, through a period of four years, and is divided into terms of
twenty weeks each, with daily sessions of not less than five hours,
five days each week.”


STUDIES.

  _Two Years’ Course_:

  Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping.

  Physics, astronomy, chemistry, physiology, botany, zoology,
  mineralogy, geology, geography.

  Language, reading, orthography, etymology, grammar, rhetoric,
  literature, composition.

  Penmanship, drawing, vocal music, gymnastics.

  Psychology, science and art of education, school organization and
  history of education.

  Civil polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, history,
  school laws of Massachusetts.

In accordance with a vote of the Board of Education, pupils are
encouraged to add a half-year to this course of study, provided six
months of their entire time be spent mainly in additional practice and
observation.

  _Four Years’ Course_:

  In addition to the studies named above, the four years’ course
  includes advanced algebra and geometry, trigonometry and surveying.

  Advanced chemistry, physics and botany.

  Drawing, English literature, general history.

  Latin and French required; German and Greek as the principal, and
  visitors shall decide.

This course is intended to give pupils that broad culture indispensable
to the highest success in schools of any grade, but especially to fit
them for service as teachers in high schools. The studies are so
arranged that graduates from the shorter course may complete the four
years’ course in two additional years.

The following statistics and extract are from the Public Document of
the Board of Education for 1893.


NORMAL SCHOOLS.

  +-------------------+----------------------------------+
  |                   | STATISTICS FOR THE YEAR 1891-92. |
  |                   +----------------+-----------------+
  |                   |     Number     |     Number      |
  |                   |  of Students.  |  of Graduates.  |
  +-------------------+----------------+-----------------+
  | Bridgewater       |       262      |        67       |
  | Framingham        |       159      |        50       |
  | Salem             |       260      |        77       |
  | Westfield         |       147      |        33       |
  | Worcester         |       181      |        36       |
  | Normal Art School |       215      |        24       |
  |                   +----------------+-----------------+
  |                   |     1,224      |       287       |
  +-------------------+----------------+-----------------+

“There are now in the Commonwealth six State Normal Schools,
established for the purpose of training teachers to teach in the public
schools. The Normal Schools are now well provided with the means of
communicating professional instruction.

“As a knowledge of the principles and method of teaching seems to be
one thing, and skill in the application of principles quite another,
it is necessary that ample opportunity be given in the training
schools connected with the Normal Schools for practice in teaching
by the normal students as they study the principles. Such practice,
if systematically and intelligently conducted during the course
of instruction, will prepare the normal graduate to enter upon the
practice of his profession with the advantages of experience.

“If the standard for admission to the Normal Schools be raised, as the
Board of Education now contemplates, they will be relieved of a large
amount of academical work now required, and of many candidates whose
limited knowledge and capacity for acquiring it make them improper
subjects for professional training.

“The time has come when a professional training should be considered a
requisite for teaching in the public schools of the Commonwealth.”

Framingham, the first State Normal School in the United States, was
first located at Lexington, where it was opened July 3rd, 1839, with
three students. In 1852 the school was removed to Framingham. It admits
women students only, who reside in the boarding halls attached to the
school.

“The design of the school is to give:

1. “A review of the studies taught in the public schools.

2. “A careful study of the history of education and the school law of
Massachusetts.

3. “A study of Psychology, for the purpose of ascertaining true
principles and good methods.

4. “A practical application of these principles and methods in teaching.

5. “A high estimate of the importance and responsibility of the
teacher’s work, and an enthusiasm for it.”


WESTFIELD.

Another school was opened at Barre, September 4th, 1839, but was moved
to Westfield in 1844. It is intended for both men and women students,
but out of 147 students in 1892 only 7 were men.

There is a Normal Hall of Residence, erected and furnished by the
State, at which either men or women students can live.

The subjects taken are the same as those in the other Normal Schools of
the State, for the two or four years’ course. All studies are pursued
on the topical plan, and with special reference to the best ways of
teaching them. Every student frequently takes charge of a class, and
teaches topics, so that throughout the course he is under actual
training as teacher.

I had the opportunity of hearing a class in Didactics, conducted by
Principal Greenough on the topical method. I found that “topics”
simply meant the heads or divisions of subjects. The students had been
previously given topics to prepare, and they were called on two at a
time to go to the blackboard and write up and explain to the class
alternately the various points to be considered under each head. These
points were one by one discussed with the Principal and other students.
This topical method is adopted at many other schools and colleges. It
often happens that one or two students only are entrusted with topics
to prepare, which they are expected to be ready to explain to the rest
of the class, subject of course to the criticism of the teacher and
discussion by the class.

The students obtain the necessary practice in teaching, partly in the
above way by teaching each other, and partly by giving lessons in the
Model School under the critic teachers. Each student is also required
to teach for four weeks continuously, and to spend a good deal of time
in observing children, and the work of the teachers in the Model School.

The school is very well provided with apparatus. Almost every subject
taught has its special room with appropriate appliances for teaching.
I was especially struck by the apparatus for teaching geography. Large
wooden trays lined with zinc, and placed on supports so as to resemble
low tables, were used for modelling in wet sand. Special classes were
held to instruct the students in the art of sand-moulding.


WORCESTER.

Bridgewater Normal School was opened in 1840. It receives both men and
women students, the number for this year being 272, of which 58 are
men, and 214 women.

There are two Halls of Residence, at which students may reside.

Four courses are possible: 1. Two years’ course. 2. Three years’ or
intermediate course. 3. Four years’ course, and 4. Post-graduate course
for college graduates.

There appears to be especially good provision for the teaching of
science, the new buildings having ample laboratory accommodation.

Worcester is the youngest of the Normal Schools, having been opened
in 1874. It is open to both men and women, but the latter largely
preponderate.

In addition to the ordinary two and four year courses, college
graduates are allowed to take up a special elective course.

This school has certain special features which distinguish it and
require note.

The study of psychology is pursued in part by the original observation
of children. The students are asked to observe the conduct of children
in all circumstances, and to record what they see and hear as soon as
possible, in a simple and concise manner, without any comment by the
writer. They are advised to note the usual rather than the unusual
conduct of the children observed. For convenience of classification,
blanks of five colours are used: white for observations made by the
students themselves; red for those reported by others; yellow for
reminiscences of the student’s own childhood; green for records made
from books, and chocolate for a continued series of observations
made on the same child. The date, name of observer and post-office
address; the name, sex, nationality and age of child observed; and also
the length of time elapsing between the making and recording of the
observation, are all set forth on these papers.

The making of these observations is quite voluntary, but the students
become so interested in the work that an ever-increasing number of
reports are sent in. Some 16,000 have already been collected. These
are placed at the disposal of the Clark University, which has from time
to time made use of the material thus brought together. These records
are valuable in themselves, but still more valuable is the training in
observation of children afforded to the students in making them.

The students in this school have the opportunity before graduating
of serving an apprenticeship as teachers in the public schools of
Worcester.

The “apprentice” acts as assistant to the teacher of the city school;
takes part in the instruction, management and general care of the
pupils under the direction of the teacher; and is sometimes entrusted
with the sole charge of the school during the teacher’s absence for an
hour, a half day or a day. One student only at a time is assigned to
any teacher, but each apprentice serves in at least three grades of
schools.

The time taken for the apprenticeship comes just before the final
term in the Normal School, and amounts to half a school year. But
the apprentices spend one day of each week (Wednesday) at the Normal
School, where they are occupied in the following manner:

They consult with the teacher, and with one another, and make use of
books.

They make informal statements to the school of such facts of their
experience as it may profit the other pupils to know,--concerning ways
of teaching, cases of discipline and the like,--keeping in mind always
the private character of the daily life of the school-room, and under
special warning against revelations that might seem objectionable.

Each apprentice keeps a diary of the occupation and experience of every
day, and this record is inspected by the Faculty of the Normal School.

The Faculty of the Normal School have the right of visiting the
apprentices while at work, and of giving advice and suggestion. When
the six months are over, the teacher of the school makes a report on
the work of the student. The School Board approves the system, as those
students who have been apprentices are found afterwards to be the
most capable teachers in the Worcester public schools. Students are
not forced to undergo apprenticeship, but most choose to do so. After
it is over, they return to the Normal School for six months, before
graduating.

Forty minutes each day are assigned to “Platform Exercises,” which
consist in reading, speaking, drawing on the blackboard, etc., before
the assembled school. They are found to be very useful in helping the
students to overcome nervousness. Each student can choose her own time
and subject, but at least nine must be ready to take part each day. No
exercise is to be prepared for more than four minutes, but as questions
may be asked by the teachers or other students, and criticism is
sometimes offered, they often take longer.

A new and interesting feature of the school is the children’s class
which has just been started. Between twenty and thirty children between
three and five have been admitted. No charge is made for tuition, and
it is understood that the class can be taught in any way thought good
by the Principal. This class affords a good field for child-study and
experiment in methods of elementary teaching. It is in charge of an
experienced kindergartner.

I was attentively listening to a lecture on Psychology, given by
Principal Russell, when suddenly, to my amazement, the whole class
rose and left the room while he was still speaking. To my surprise,
he did not seem at all disturbed, and he then proceeded to explain,
that finding that most students were deficient in “time sense,” such a
necessary possession for a teacher, he had adopted the plan of making
the students keep their own time at lectures.

The Normal Art School, Boston, aims at training art teachers and
supervisors for the State. Two courses are offered--one of four years’
training in the scientific and artistic branches and their practical
application to industry, and one of two years’ training for the work of
teaching or supervising Art in the public schools.

The following is a comprehensive plan of the work of this second course:

  _First Year_:

  1. Elements of psychology.

  2. Outline course of drawing for Primary and Grammar Schools.

  3. Practice teaching.

  _Second Year_:

  1. History of education.

  2. Principles and methods of teaching.

  3. Outline course of drawing for High and Evening Schools.

  4. Practice teaching.

  5. Practical details of supervisor’s work.

  6. Presentation of the subject of drawing by each pupil before a body
  of assumed teachers.


_MICHIGAN._

The State of Michigan maintains only one Normal School, but, as we
shall see later, this State has other means of providing for the
training of its teachers.

This school is located at Ypsilante, and is not residential. It is
open to men and women, and tuition is free to those who undertake to
teach in the State Schools. Graduates from recognised High Schools,
approved by the Board of Education upon recommendation of the Faculty,
are admitted without examination, and are credited with advanced work
already done. Other candidates must pass an entrance examination.

The school offers three classes of courses:

1. Those covering three years of instruction leading to a certificate,
which is a license to teach in the schools of Michigan for a period of
five years; of these there are two, one especially for kindergartners,
and the other to prepare teachers for the rural schools and for the
lower High School grades.

2. Courses covering four years, leading to a diploma and a
life-certificate. Of these there are many to choose from, but all are
more or less distinctly literary, scientific or classical.

3. Advanced courses, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics
and a life-certificate. One for graduates of any of the four year
courses, and can be completed in two years.

Any one holding an academic degree from the University of Michigan,
or from an incorporated college, may receive the degree of B.Pd. by
spending one half-year at the school, and attending professional
instruction for 250 hours, and teaching under supervision for 100 hours.

Any person holding the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics of the Michigan
State Normal School may, upon application, receive the degree of Master
of Pedagogics upon the following conditions:

(_a_) He shall furnish evidence satisfactory to the Faculty that he has
been engaged in teaching or in school supervision continuously, and
with pronounced success, for five years since receiving the Bachelor’s
degree.

(_b_) He shall prepare and present a thesis acceptable to the said
Faculty, upon some subject connected with the history, science, or art
of education, the Faculty reserving the right to assign the subject of
such thesis.

The design of the School is professional--_i.e._, only those students
are admitted who intend to teach, but a large portion of the various
courses is devoted to academic work. The school is directly under the
control of the State Board of Education, which grants all certificates,
diplomas and degrees upon recommendation of the Faculty.


_ILLINOIS._

This State, which, like that of Michigan, is typical of the West, has
provided two Normal Schools, known under the somewhat imposing names
of the “Illinois State Normal University,” and the “Southern Illinois
State Normal University.” Neither of these, however, are purely
professional schools. The first of them has three departments--Normal,
Training and High School, while the second has also three--Normal, High
School and Preparatory.

Tuition is free in the Normal Department of both schools, to those who
intend to teach in the State.

The courses in the Normal Departments are usually for three years, but
may be extended to four, and at the completion of any course a diploma
is granted.

The work is very largely academic, and in the first year hardly any
really professional work is done.

One of the Counties of Illinois--Cook--possesses a Normal School
which, although not technically a State School, yet is so in reality,
or indeed something wider, for it attracts to itself students from
all parts of the States. This is known as the Cook County School, or
perhaps quite as often as Colonel Parker’s School.

It is situated at Englewood, a suburb of Chicago, and has a student’s
hall attached to the school, where students may obtain board and
lodging.

As a school it is probably unique, and as such exceedingly difficult
to estimate. When visiting it, the charm of the School falls upon one,
the enthusiasm of Colonel Parker and his band of teachers creates an
atmosphere of inspiration which disarms criticism, and few would come
away without feeling that the world was better than they thought, and
a little child the most beautiful thing to be found on the earth. I
think that it is in this genuine love and care for children that the
real strength of the School lies, and that if it can continue to send
out teachers who really love and understand children, it need fear no
outside criticism. A chance remark of Colonel Parker’s seemed to me
typical of the spirit of the School: “I do not want any of the children
to know that I am not one of them.”

The following extracts from his report to the Cook County Board explain
the distinguishing features of the School:

1. Any graduate (four years’ course) of an accredited High School,
or a graduate of a college or university, will be admitted to the
Professional Training Class, on presentation of diploma.

2. A teacher of three years’ successful experience in a Graded School,
and holding a first-class certificate, will be admitted on presentation
of said certificate, and certificates of success as a teacher.

Candidates with the above credentials will be admitted to the
Professional Training Class at any time.

1. Students must be members of the Professional Training Class at least
one year of forty weeks before they are eligible for graduation.

2. Whenever, after one year, the members of the Faculty are convinced
that a student has the necessary knowledge, skill and governing power
to teach and manage a school satisfactorily, the said candidate is
recommended for graduation to the Board of Education.

The County Superintendent of Schools grants to each graduate a
certificate to teach in Cook County, outside of Chicago, first or
second grade, upon his own examination and the recommendation of the
Principal.

First-grade certificates are given to those graduates who have
manifested during their course marked ability in study and teaching.

Elective courses are allowed to those students only who have received
diplomas of graduation.

Graduates of the Professional Training Class may elect for a one or two
years’ course any one of the following post-graduate courses:

  1. Kindergarten Training Class, physical training, elocution.

  2. History, geography and literature.

  3. Science, art and manual training.

  4. Mathematics and manual training.

  5. Modelling, painting, drawing and manual training.

  6. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of expression,
  music, anatomy, physiology and hygiene.

  7. Advanced course in psychology, pedagogics and methods.

In all elective courses psychology, pedagogics and methods are included.

The Practice School consists of eight grades (nine rooms) and the
kindergarten. There are two first primary rooms (A and B).

Each room in the Practice School is under the immediate charge of a
critic teacher, who teaches the pupils in her room, and supervises the
practice teaching in her grade.

The Practice School, with the exception of the kindergarten, is a
public school of the city of Chicago.

The Practice School is an essential feature in the training of
teachers. The entire professional work of the school is concentrated
upon the teaching and training in this department.

One hour each day is devoted to teaching in the Practice School by
members of the Professional Training Class.

The Practice School is divided, for the purpose of practice teaching,
into forty or more groups, each group consisting of from six to ten
pupils. Two groups are united, forming one section; two sections are
united to form a division.

Pupil teachers are very carefully selected for merit, as (1) heads of
groups; (2) leaders of sections; (3) teachers of divisions; (4) special
assistants. Pupil teachers not thus chosen are assistants to group
leaders.

The purpose of these divisions into groups, etc., is to give each
pupil-teacher as much practice as possible. The teacher begins with
a small number of pupils, and advances, as teaching power increases,
to the leadership of a section, a division, and at last to a special
assistant’s position. The latter position requires the ability to
teach and govern an entire grade or room.

The entire work of the Professional Training Class is, in reality,
preparation for practice teaching,--preparation in knowledge, theory
and methods.

The course of work for the Training Class includes the following
subjects:

  1. Psychology, pedagogics, the history of education and methods of
  teaching.

  2. Science in primary and grammar schools.

  3. Geography with modelling, painting, drawing and chalk modelling as
  means of geographical study.

  4. History and literature.

  5. Mathematics; number, arithmetic, form and geometry.

  6. Art, including modelling, painting and drawing.

  7. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of expression
  and vocal music.

  8. Manual training, paste-board and wood sloyd and construction of
  apparatus for science teaching.

The special teacher at the head of each department presents the
conditions for the knowledge needed for teaching his or her subject,
and decides whether the pupil-teacher has the requisite knowledge and
skill to prepare a plan for teaching.

The special teacher also teaches the principles and methods of his
subject, and supervises the practice-work in his department throughout
all the grades.

The practice teaching is divided into ten periods for one year, one
period continuing for one month.

Each pupil-teacher is required to prepare one plan for teaching, each
month, upon a subject selected by the critic teacher, under whose
direct supervision the pupil-teacher is to work. This plan must be
approved by the critic teacher, and also by the special teacher in
charge of the subject taught, before the one who prepares the plan is
permitted to teach.

Each month, certain group, section and division leaders are transferred
from grade to grade in order that every pupil who has requisite ability
and skill may teach in the eight grades during the course.

Whenever a pupil-teacher has reached the rank of special assistant, he
or she is sent out to the county schools to act as substitute[8] upon
the order of the County Superintendent.

The course of study followed in the school is the application of a
doctrine or theory of education, called the Theory of Concentration.
Upon this theory it was my privilege to hear Colonel Parker lecture
from time to time, and the following is a short synopsis of his
lectures as drawn up by himself.

“In this theory, the subjects of thought and study are the natural
sciences, geography and history. The unity of these subjects is found
in the study of life--the laws of life--and the laws which support life.

“The laws of life enter into the child through education, and become
the essentials in his intellectual and moral character.

“Form, geometry, number and arithmetic are the indispensable means
for the study and investigation of the laws of the universe acting
through matter; therefore form and number must be studied in order to
understand any and all subjects of thought.

“Attention is the one mode of study. Attention may be divided into
three modes of thinking: (1) observation, (2) hearing language, (3)
reading or book study. The subjects or objects of attention are the
natural sciences, geography and history--therefore observation,
hearing language, and reading are the means of knowing and thinking.
The subjects of knowing and thinking should be immediately educative.
Therefore, all acts of attention, observation, hearing language and
reading should be concentrated upon these subjects, and objects
of intrinsic thought. For example: all reading should be the most
educative thinking, and therefore should consist of the purest and most
thoughtful literature. Every word and sentence learned by the pupil
should be learned under the immediate impulse of intrinsic thought.

“Under the theory of concentration, the modes of expression--gesture,
music, modelling, painting, drawing, speech and writing, are used as
the direct and immediate means of intensifying intrinsic thought, and
under these impulses and stimuli the technical forms of expression in
each mode are adequately acquired.

“The central and sole design of concentration is the harmonious
development of individual character--knowledge, skill, are means,
not ends--the eternal is the end. It goes without saying that the
application of this doctrine of concentration requires the highest
grade of knowledge, skill, art and devotion to human development.

“Considering this course of study from the standpoint of ‘knowledge
for the sake of knowledge,’ taking the subjects presented in the light
of ‘going over,’ ‘going through,’ ‘being marked upon,’ ‘final tests by
written examinations,’ there must be a hopeless confusion; the burden
would be greater than any corps of teachers could possibly bear.

“A course of study is a means to an end, and that end the full
development of all the possibilities for good and growth in a human
being. It should consist of all the subjects of thought, the germs of
which a child spontaneously assimilates and enjoys before he enters
school. A course of study should be very carefully arranged and adapted
to the successive stages or steps of development.

“Its application, however, depends wholly upon the knowledge and skill
of the teacher, the teacher who watches closely and sympathetically
every movement of her pupil’s mind; the teacher who looks upon a course
of study as a rich storehouse of mental food, to be presented as the
mind needs it, or rejected when the conditions are not favourable to
growth.

“Following or ‘going over’ a course of study belongs to the trade of
school keeping, and not to the art of teaching.

“This course of study cannot be understood by studying the work of
one grade alone--it must be studied as a whole and applied with the
comprehensive knowledge of the whole.

“The final decision as to what should be applied to each individual
pupil must be left to the teacher of that pupil.

“No authority outside of the teacher of a pupil can possibly determine
what that pupil needs at any given moment.

“Grading and promotion, properly understood, are economical means of
knowing and helping each individual pupil.

“The course of study in its best form and last analysis is the best
means of helping each child, and of helping each child to be of
immediate and essential aid to all his mates.”


_CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS._

Very similar to the State Normal Schools in organization and curriculum
are those maintained by certain cities. Of these the Philadelphia, New
York and Boston schools may be taken as representatives. Such schools
belong to the City School systems, and are under the supervision of the
City Superintendent. Graduates from these schools are supposed to teach
in the public schools of the city.

At Philadelphia the Normal School is in a transition state. Hitherto
the Girls’ Normal School has at the same time been the Girls’ High
School, and it was only possible to make a distinction in length
of course between those who were going to teach and those who were
not--the fourth year being especially devoted to professional work.
The tendency in such a school would be, of course, to emphasize the
academic work at the expense of the professional. According to the
new scheme, the High School and Normal School will be separated, and
the latter be purely professional. Admission to the Normal School will
only be granted after a three years’ course at the High School, and the
former will have a course of its own for two years. The present course
of study and the future scheme are subjoined.

       *       *       *       *       *

Subjects to be studied in the two years’ course at the new Girls’
Normal School, Philadelphia:

   1. Educational Psychology.
   2. Methods of Teaching.
   3. School Economy.
   4. The History of Education.
   5. The Philosophy of Education.
   6. Methods in Mathematics.
   7. Methods in Language and Literature.
   8. Methods in History, Sociology, and Civics.
   9. Methods in Natural History.
  10. Methods in Physics and Chemistry.
  11. Methods in Elocution.
  12. Methods in Vocal Music.
  13. Methods in Modelling and Drawing.
  14. Methods in Kindergarten.
  15. Methods in Gymnastics and Physical Training.
  16. Methods in Sewing and Fitting.
  17. Methods in Wood-work, etc.
  18. Observation in Model School.
  19. Practice in Model School.
  20. Discussion of Observation and Practice.
  21. Educational Reading and Original Investigation.

Mention must also be made of the provision made for the training of
men teachers in the new School of Pedagogy which has been opened in
connection with the Central High School for boys. The students must be
graduates of the latter, or of similar institutions. The course is for
one year, and includes professional subjects only.

The New York Normal College is conducted in the same way as the present
one at Philadelphia, it being at once a High and Normal School.


PRESENT COURSE OF STUDY IN PHILADELPHIA GIRLS’ NORMAL AND HIGH SCHOOL.

  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |             COURSE OF STUDY IN THE GIRLS’ NORMAL SCHOOL.             |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |     A        |       B       |          C         |         D        |
  | 4th Year.    |   3rd Year.   |      2nd Year.     |     1st Year.    |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |        ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.               |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |History of    | Literature.   | Rhetoric.          | Grammar.         |
  | Education.   | Theme Writing.| Theme Writing.     | Composition.     |
  |              | Reading of    | History of the     | History of the   |
  |              |  English      |  English Language; |  English         |
  |              |  Classics.    |  including the     |  Language;       |
  |              |               |  study of the      |  including the   |
  |              |               |  derivations,      |  study of the    |
  |              |               |  formations, etc., |  derivations,    |
  |              |               |  of words.         |  formations,     |
  |              |               | English            |  etc., of words. |
  |              |               |  Literature.       | Reading of       |
  |              |               | Reading of English |  English         |
  |              |               |  Classics.         |  Classics.       |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |Mental and    | Elocution.    | Elocution.         |                  |
  | Moral        |               |                    |                  |
  | Science in   |               |                    |                  |
  | their        |               |                    |                  |
  | relations to |               |                    |                  |
  | Education.   |               |                    |                  |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |                    MATHEMATICS.                       |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |Methods       | Higher        | General Review of  | Algebra.         |
  | of Teaching. |  Arithmetic;  |  Arithmetic.       | Arithmetic.      |
  |              |  including    | Geometry.          |                  |
  |              |  Mensuration, | Algebra.           |                  |
  |              |  Principles of|                    |                  |
  |              |  Accounts and |                    |                  |
  |              |  Book-keeping.|                    |                  |
  |              | Geometry.     |                    |                  |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |                    SCIENCE.                           |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |Philosophy    | Chemistry.    | Zoology.           | Physical         |
  | and method   | Natural       | Geology.           |  Geography.      |
  | of the       |  Philosophy.  | Natural Philosophy.| Botany.          |
  | Kindergarten.| Astronomy.    |                    |                  |
  |              | Human         |                    |                  |
  |              |  Physiology   |                    |                  |
  |              |  and Hygiene. |                    |                  |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |                     HISTORY.                          |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |Drawing; with |               | General History.   | History and Civil|
  | instruction  |               |                    |  Government of   |
  | in methods of|               |                    |  the United      |
  | teaching this|               |                    |  States.         |
  | study.       |               |                    | General History. |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |                      DRAWING.                         |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |School        | Drawing.      | Drawing.           | Drawing.         |
  | organisation |               |                    |                  |
  | and          |               |                    |                  |
  | management.  |               |                    |                  |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |                       SEWING.                         |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |Modelling in  | Sewing.       | Sewing.            | Sewing.          |
  |  Clay.       |               | Cooking.           |                  |
  |Instruction   |               |                    |                  |
  | in the Gifts |               |                    |                  |
  | and          |               |                    |                  |
  | Occupations  |               |                    |                  |
  | of the       |               |                    |                  |
  | Kindergarten.|               |                    |                  |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  |              |                       MUSIC.                          |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  | Music.       | Music.        | Music.             | Music.           |
  +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+
  | 1. Physical exercises throughout the first, second, and third years. |
  | 2. Laboratory work in chemistry when possible.                       |
  | 3. Laboratory work as far as possible in physics.                    |
  | 4. Drawing to include the treatment of Geometric Drawing,            |
  |     Construction, Decoration, Representation, and Object Drawing.    |
  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+


_BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL._

The Boston Normal School is of the professional type, with an ordinary
course of a year and a half, although many students stay for a
post-graduate course.

The course of study in this school is pursued with special reference to
teaching, and is as follows:

  1. Psychology and Logic.

  2. Principles of Education.

  3. Methods of Instruction and Discipline.

  4. Physiology and Hygiene.

  5. The Studies of the Primary and Grammar Schools.

  6. Observation and Practice in the Training School.

  7. Observation and Practice in the other Public Schools.

  8. Science of Language.

  9. Phonetics.

  10. Gymnastics.

  11. Vocal Music.

  12. Drawing and Blackboard Illustration.

  13. Special study of the Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten,
  for those members of the post-graduate class who desire to qualify
  themselves for teaching in that department.

The students practise and observe in the Rice Training Schools, and in
the post-graduate class substitute service begins--_i.e._, any city
school having a teacher absent may apply for a student to take her
place.


BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL.--COURSE OF STUDY.


  FIRST TERM.

  +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+
  |                                   | Hours per | No. of |
  |            SUBJECTS.              |  week.    | weeks. |
  +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+
  | Psychology                        |    5      |   20   |
  | Physiology and Hygiene            |    4      |   16   |
  | Arithmetic                        |    4      |    4   |
  | Language--                        |           |        |
  |   Oral Expression and Composition |    3      |    9   |
  |   Penmanship                      |    3      |    3   |
  |   Grammar                         |    3      |    8   |
  | Geography                         |    4      |   20   |
  | Drawing                           |    2      |   20   |
  | Vocal Music                       |    1      |   20   |
  | Gymnastics--                      |           |        |
  |   Theory                          |    1      |   20   |
  |   Practice                          12 minutes daily.  |
  +--------------------------------------------------------+


  SECOND TERM.

  +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+
  |                                   | Hours per | No. of |
  |           SUBJECTS.               |  week.    | weeks. |
  +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+
  | Principles of Education           |    5      |   16   |
  | Language--                        |           |        |
  |   Reading, including Phonics      |    4      |    8   |
  |   Spelling                        |    4      |    2   |
  |   Literature                      |    4      |    4   |
  |   Grammar                         |    4      |    2   |
  | Arithmetic                        |    4      |   16   |
  | Elementary Science--              |           |        |
  |   Minerals                        |    3      |    5   |
  |   Plants                          |    3      |   11   |
  | Drawing                           |    2      |   12   |
  | Form                              |    2      |    4   |
  | Vocal Music                       |    1      |   16   |
  | Gymnastics--                      |           |        |
  |   Theory                          |    1      |   16   |
  |   Practice                        | 12 minutes daily.  |
  | Observation and Practice in the                        |
  |   Public Schools                    all day, 4 weeks.  |
  +--------------------------------------------------------+


  THIRD TERM.

  +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+
  |                                   |   Hours   | No. of |
  |           SUBJECTS.               | per week. | weeks. |
  +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+
  | Principles of Education           |    5      |    7   |
  | Logic                             |    5      |    3   |
  | Language--                        |           |        |
  |   Oral Expression and Composition |    4      |    3   |
  |   Science of Language             |    4      |    4   |
  | History                           |    4      |    3   |
  | Arithmetic                        |    3      |   10   |
  | Elementary Science--              |           |        |
  |   Plants                          |    4      |    2   |
  |   Animals                         |    4      |    6   |
  | Colour                            |    4      |    2   |
  | Drawing                           |    1      |   10   |
  | Kindergarten                      |    2      |   10   |
  | Gymnastics--                      |           |        |
  |   Theory                          |    1      |   10   |
  |   Practice                         12 minutes daily.   |
  | Observation and Practice in                            |
  |    Public Schools                   all day, 10 weeks. |
  +--------------------------------------------------------+


POST-GRADUATE COURSE.

  The work of the post-graduate class includes:

  1. A further study of the principles of education, with special
  reference to their application in teaching the different subjects of
  the regular course, and in school discipline;

  2. The history of education.


_CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS._

In several cities an ordinary school is set apart for the special
training of teachers, and is presided over by a head-mistress capable
of giving instruction in the theory of education. In such a school
the ordinary teaching of the children is largely carried on by the
students, who at certain hours receive instruction in Methods, etc.
These students often receive a small sum in return for their services.

I was able to visit several of these Training Schools, including those
at New Haven (Connecticut), Fall River (Rhode Island), Pawtucket (Rhode
Island), Springfield (Massachusetts), and Albany (New York).

At New Haven a most interesting Training School is carried on in
connection with the Welch School. There are about thirty students in
training for one year. The various classes of the school are in charge
of regular teachers, who teach almost entirely during the first half of
the year, for the students devote five or six months to the study of
theory alone, only giving a few criticism lessons during that time. For
the second half of the year the students teach more in the schools, and
are supervised both by the critic teacher and the regular teacher of
the class. Notes of lessons are prepared in various ways--sometimes the
students are required simply to put the matter of their lessons into a
series of logical statements, sometimes the matter and illustrations
alone are given, and sometimes the lesson is written out as it is to
be given in the order of statements and questions.

On the completion of the year’s training the students are usually
appointed as substitute teachers to the districts, at a small fixed
salary, and obtain permanent posts as vacancies occur.

At the Springfield Training School from ten to sixteen students take
the course, which is usually for one year, but can be taken in two.
Tuition is free to those living in the city, a charge of about £10
being made to those from a distance.

Students enter in the autumn, and devote the first term to theoretical
work, only giving a few criticism lessons, and spending some time in
observing the work of the school, and carefully recording observations.

The work in psychology is partly based on the observation of individual
children, and partly carried on by discussion classes. The students
also attend lectures given by Superintendent Balliet to all the
teachers of the city. At the end of the year they take the city
examination in order to graduate. In January they begin to teach for
an hour a day in the school, and in the summer term this is increased
to three hours a day. At the end of the course they give lessons in
public, but they are not counted as necessary for graduation.

Some of the leading features of the Training School are the
following:--

1. It is incorporated with a city or town Graded School covering
from four to eight years’ work. This school is used as a place for
observation and practice.

2. The Practice School, or school of observation, employs one or more
regular teachers, who conduct the training class. In most Training
Schools, “trainers” are relied upon for much of the teaching.

3. The course in the Training School includes a study of the principles
of teaching and the history of education, with practice in the art.

4. The length of the term of study and practice is fixed, extending
from one to two years in the greater number of schools.

5. A new class is admitted at a fixed time; the admissions are annual
or semi-annual.

6. The maximum number of trainers is prescribed.

7. Admissions are made by a course of studies previously pursued, or by
examination. Most require the equivalent of a four years’ course in a
High School.

8. All provide for dropping unpromising students from the roll.

9. Most allow some compensation to trainers after the first term.

A list of Training Schools in Massachusetts is appended. It is taken
from a useful little pamphlet drawn up for the information of visitors
to the World’s Fair Educational Exhibit.


TABLE OF TRAINING SCHOOLS REPORTED, 1891-92.

  +------------+----------+---------+-------+---------+
  |            |Graduates.| Period  |Grades.| Regular |
  |            |  Annual  |   of    |       |Teachers.|
  |            | Average. |Training.|       |         |
  +------------+----------+---------+-------+---------+
  |Adams       |     5    |  1      |       |         |
  |Cambridge   |    15    |  1      |       |         |
  |Fall River  |    12    |  1½     |       |         |
  |Haverhill   |    14    |  1½     |       |         |
  |Holyoke     |    12    |  1½     |       |         |
  |Lawrence    |    12    |  1½     | I.-VI.|    2    |
  |Lowell      |    32    |  1½     | I.-IX.|    6    |
  |Lynn        |    12    |         |       |         |
  |New Bedford |    14    |  1½     |       |    2    |
  |Newburyport |     4    |  1½     |       |    1    |
  |North Adams |     6    |         |       |         |
  |Pittsfield  |     8    |         |       |    2    |
  |Springfield |     8    |  1      |I.-VII.|    7    |
  |Taunton     |          |  1      |       |         |
  +------------+----------+---------+-------+---------+


_TRAINING CLASSES._

In many cities training classes are held for one year. The students
are distributed amongst the best schools of the city or town, and
the instruction and criticism is given by the Superintendent and the
highest teachers.


TABLE OF TRAINING CLASSES, MASSACHUSETTS.

  +-----------+----------+---------+-------------------------+
  |           |Graduates.|         |                         |
  |           | Average  | Time of |         Remarks         |
  |           |  Number  |Training.|  from Superintendents.  |
  |           |   per    |         |                         |
  |           |  Annum.  |         |                         |
  +-----------+----------+---------+-------------------------+
  |Chelsea    |    17    | 1 year. |  Practice limited to    |
  |           |          |         |four city schools, normal|
  |           |          |         |graduates preferred.     |
  |Clinton    |     5    |    ”    |  Not equal to normal    |
  |           |          |         |graduates.               |
  |Concord    |     6    |    ”    |  All urged to attend    |
  |           |          |         |normal schools.          |
  |Dedham     |     6    |    ”    |                         |
  |Hingham    |     8    |    ”    |  Not given school in    |
  |           |          |         |town until experience is |
  |           |          |         |gained elsewhere.        |
  |Leominster |     6    |    ”    |                         |
  |Malden     |          |    ”    |  No teacher employed    |
  |           |          |         |not a normal graduate    |
  |           |          |         |or person of experience. |
  |Quincy     |    30    |    ”    |                         |
  |Watertown  |     4    |    ”    |  Graduates expected to  |
  |           |          |         |teach out of town before |
  |           |          |         |being employed at        |
  |           |          |         |home.                    |
  |Weymouth   |    14    |    ”    |                         |
  |Woburn     |     5    |    ”    |                         |
  +-----------+----------+---------+-------------------------+


_PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES._

It has been seen that a certain number of college graduates enter
the Normal Schools for a course of training, but most of the leading
Universities of America are now providing courses in the Science and
Art of Education for those who desire to prepare for the teaching
profession. I was able to visit a good many of these pedagogical
departments, and was much interested in the work I saw. This work,
however, differs so widely in the various institutions in which it
is carried on that it is hardly possible to make any very general
statements concerning it. In some universities the only provision made
for the special preparation of teachers is in connection with special
classes held by the professor or lecturer on any subject, for those who
wish to discuss with him the teaching of it. However insufficient for
training purposes this plan may be, it yet has, I believe, very special
advantages to recommend it, not the least being the influence that may
be thus exerted by the University through those who are about to become
teachers on the Schools. In addition to these discussions, some provide
for a few lectures on Pedagogy, and in others, again, Pedagogy may be
taken as an elective subject, and count towards an ordinary degree.
The Universities of Harvard, Cornell, Michigan, Illinois, Syracuse and
others have adopted one or other of these plans.

The University of New York grants degrees in pedagogy, while at the
Clark University, to which only graduates are admitted, education
may be taken as part of the Ph.D. work. It should be noted, however,
that the courses of training provided at these Universities is almost
entirely theoretical, little or no attempt being made to arrange for
practical work. In so far as this is not arranged for, the training
seems to fall short of the ideal, it being surely nearly as bad to
attempt to train teachers without providing for practical work as to
teach chemistry without giving any time to the laboratory, or to train
a doctor without arranging for hospital work. Probably the fact that
a course on pedagogics is usually taken at the same time as other
subjects, and also that those who take such courses very often do not
intend to teach in the schools, but rather to take posts as lecturers,
superintendents, etc., has caused this side of training to be
neglected, and a still stronger reason is to be found in the location
of so many of the Universities at a distance from the schools. In many
places, however, I found that the question was being faced, and schemes
considered for the introducing of practical work.

Harvard has begun to realize its responsibility with respect to the
training of teachers, and a subdivision of the department of Philosophy
is devoted to Education, the following courses being arranged for:

  1. Course of twelve lectures on Topics in Psychology of interest to
  teachers.

  2. Course for Graduates and Undergraduates:

    The History of Educational Theories and Practices.

  3. Course primarily for graduates:

    (_a_) Organization of Public Schools and Academies.

    (_b_) The Theory of Teaching.

These courses are, however, but short, and intended to be taken at the
same time as other subjects. There is as yet no attempt to arrange
for a complete course of training, but every prospect that from the
beginning already made there may develop a graduate school for the
training of teachers.

Harvard has already realized its responsibility in respect to the
inspection and supervision of schools, for which I was given to
understand very special arrangements are being made, and it will be
but a step further for it to provide such training for the teachers it
sends out to these schools as shall fit them duly for their work.

There are certain elective courses allowed in the philosophy course,
at the University of Cornell, which really constitute a pedagogical
department. They include the following:

1. Institutes of Education (Lectures).

2. School Systems and Organizations (Lectures).

3. Pedagogic Conference, Discussions and Essays on Educational topics,
and reports on visits to schools.

4. History of Education (Lectures).

5. Pedagogical Seminary.

It is understood that none must take these courses unless they also
know something of physiology, psychology and logic. These courses may
either be attended so as to count towards a degree or may be taken as
graduate work.

The only arrangement for practical work is in connection with the
visits to schools for purposes of observation. The location of the
University on the top of a hill overlooking Ithaca, although most
advantageous in many other respects, would make the arranging for
work in the schools or the establishment of a University School of
Observation a matter of serious difficulty.

Seminaries are held in most subjects, at which the teaching methods are
discussed, and thus opportunity is afforded to those students who are
specializing in any subject with the intention of afterwards teaching
it, to study it from the point of view of the teacher as well as of the
learner.

To Michigan belongs the honour of having been the first University to
undertake to provide professional training for teachers. Professor
W. H. Payne was made the first professor of the Science and Art of
Teaching in 1879, and on his leaving the University Professor Hinsdale
carried on the work.[9] The following extract from the Calendar of the
Michigan University explains the views held by its faculty as to the
importance of the training of teachers:

“The aims of the University in providing instruction in the Science and
the Art of Teaching are:

“1. To fit University students for the higher positions in the public
school service.

“It is a natural function of the University, as the head of our system
of public instruction, to supply the demand made upon it for furnishing
the larger public schools with superintendents, principals, and
assistants. Year by year these important positions are falling more
and more into the hands of men that have received their education in
the University. Till recently the training given to our graduates has
been almost purely literary; it has lacked the professional character
that alone gives special fitness for the successful management of
schools and school systems. Now, however, the University offers
students that wish to become teachers ample facilities for professional
study.

“2. To promote the study of educational science.

“The establishment of a chair of teaching is a recognition of the truth
that the art of education has its correlative science; and that the
processes of the school-room can become rational only by developing
and teaching the principles that underlie these processes. Systems of
public instruction are everywhere on trial, and the final criteria by
which they are to stand or fall must be found in a philosophical study
of the educating art.

“3. To teach the history of education, and of educational systems and
doctrines.

“The supreme right of the school is to grow; and much hurtful
interference might be avoided by ascertaining the direction of
educational progress and the history of educational thought.

“4. To secure to teaching the rights, prerogatives, and advantages of a
profession.

“5. To give a more perfect unity to our State educational system
by bringing the secondary schools into closer relations with the
University.”

The Teacher’s diploma is given to a student at the time of receiving a
Bachelor’s degree, provided he has completed three Courses of study
offered by the professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, viz.,
Courses 1 and 2, and one of Courses 3, 5, 4, 6, or 7, and, also, at
least one of the Teachers’ Courses offered by other professors, and by
special examination has shown such marked proficiency in the Course
chosen as qualifies him to give instruction in the same. The diploma is
also given to a graduate student at the time of receiving a Master’s
or a Doctor’s degree, provided he has pursued teaching as a major or
a minor study, and has also taken a Teacher’s Course in some other
department.

By authority of an Act of the State legislature, passed in 1891, the
Faculty of this Department give a Teacher’s Certificate to any person
who takes a Bachelor’s, Master’s, or Doctor’s degree, and also receives
a Teacher’s diploma as provided above. By the terms of the Act, the
certificate given by the Faculty “shall serve as a legal certificate
of qualification to teach in any of the schools of this State, when a
copy thereof shall have been filed or recorded in the office of the
legal examining officer or officers of the county township, city, or
district.”

To meet these special requirements the following courses have been
arranged:--

  _First Course_:

  1. Practical: the arts of teaching and governing; methods of
  instruction and general school-room practice; school hygiene: school
  law. Recitations and lectures.

  3. History of education: ancient and mediæval. Recitations and
  lectures. Text-book: Compayré’s History of Pedagogy.

  5. School supervision; embracing general school management, the art
  of grading and arranging courses of study, the conduct of institutes,
  etc. Recitations and lectures. Text-book; Payne’s chapters on School
  Supervision.

  _Second Course_:

  2. Theoretical and critical; the principles underlying the arts of
  teaching and governing. Lectures.

  4. History of education; modern. Recitations and lectures. Text-book;
  Compayré’s History of Pedagogy.

  6. The comparative study of educational systems, domestic and
  foreign. Lectures.

  7. Seminary. Study and discussion of special topics in the History
  and Philosophy of Education.

  Special Teachers’ Courses are also arranged for in most subjects, and
  attendance at one at least of these is necessary in order to obtain
  the Teacher’s diploma.

The University of Illinois has a course in Pedagogy which may count
towards a degree. It may count towards most of the degrees granted, but
for the degree in philosophy and pedagogy, and which implies a four
years’ course, the arrangement is as follows:--

The first and second years of this course may be those of any course in
the College of Literature.

  THIRD YEAR.

  1. Psychology; Chemistry or History; Latin, German or French.

  2. Logic; Zoology, or History, Latin, German, or French.

  3. Philosophy of Education; Geology, or History; Latin, German or
  French.

  FOURTH YEAR.

  1. History of Education; Educational Psychology; History of
  Civilization; English (half course); Elocution.

  2. School hygiene; Constitutional History (England); English, (half
  course); Elocution.

  3. School Supervision; Pedagogical Seminary; Political Economy, or
  Constitutional History (U.S.); English, (half course); Elocution.

The University of Indiana possesses a department of pedagogics the
courses of which count towards a degree. There are three courses.

I.

  (_a_) Educational Psychology (a knowledge of Psychology being
        presupposed).
  (_b_) The School as an Institution.
  (_c_) The General History of Education.

II.

  (_a_) The Science of Education.
  (_b_) Didactics.
  (_c_) City School Systems.
  (_d_) School Supervision.

III.

  (_a_) Contemporary Education.
  (_b_) School System of Indiana.
  (_c_) Philosophy of Education.

Special Teachers’ Courses in certain subjects are also given.

The School of Pedagogy in connection with the University of the City of
New York, is based upon the idea that a degree should follow successful
teaching. It has three professors and a lecturer. Only those are
admitted as regular students who are graduates of Colleges, or of the
New York State Normal Schools, but others may, at the discretion of the
Faculty, be admitted as auditors. It was established in 1890 and has
had 134 students.

The courses of study are as follows:--

  1. History of Education.
  2. Psychology and Ethics.
  3. Institutes of Education.
  4. Educational Classics and Æsthetics.
  5. Systems of Education.

For the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy a thesis to be known as the
“Thesis for the Doctorate in Pedagogy” has to be submitted for approval
to the Faculty. This thesis must discuss a subject belonging to the
field of one of the courses of study, and must show original treatment,
or give evidence of independent research.

Each student who has been a member of the Senior Class for two or more
years will be entitled to the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy upon the
following conditions:--

  1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required
  lectures.

  2. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required
  seminaria.

  3. He must have passed an examination upon each of the five courses.

  4. He must have presented the prescribed final thesis, and have
  received approval of the same.

  5. He must have presented upon entering the School of Pedagogy a
  certain certificate showing four years’ successful experience in
  school-room work.

Each student of the School who has been a member of the Junior Class
for one or more years, and a resident student at least one year, will
be entitled to the degree of Master of Pedagogy upon the following
conditions:--

  1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required
  lectures.

  2. He must have passed the examination upon each of the four courses
  first named.

  3. He must present a certificate showing three years’ successful
  experience in school-room work.

The Iowa University was the first to allow pedagogics to count towards
a degree. Graduates of the University who have included in their course
the year’s course of pedagogy may, after two years of successful
teaching, be granted the degree of Bachelor of Didactics.

There is at New York an Institution which appeared to me to be unique
in America, but of which the work more nearly resembled the best
Secondary Training as carried on in Great Britain than any other
which I had the opportunity of studying. It is known as the New York
College for the Training of Teachers. It received its charter from
the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York in
1889, constituting it a Training College with the power of granting
professional degrees. This year, however, it enters on a new phase of
its life, having been affiliated with the Columbia College at New York.

Columbia College had already made provision for lectures on the Science
and Art of Education, but its connection with the Teachers’ College,
will enable it to offer in addition the advantages of training in the
practical art of teaching to its students. On the other hand, it is
felt to be an advantage to the Teachers’ College to be allied with a
College of University rank--Columbia College--which will thus show by
example that it is possible to combine both theoretical and practical
training in a University Course.

The full course of study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy
occupies two years. All candidates for admission must pass an entrance
examination unless they are graduates from Colleges or other specified
Institutions.

The ordinary course of study includes the following subjects:--

  1. Psychology (pure and applied).

  2. History and Principles of Education.

  3. Methods of Teaching.

  4. Observation and Practice in the School of Observation and Practice.

  5. School Organization and Administration in the United States,
  England, France and Germany.

  6. Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten.

  7. Teaching of Natural Science and construction of simple
  illustrative Apparatus.

  8. Manual Training (this includes Form Study, Drawing, Domestic
  Economy, Mechanical Drawing and Wood Working).

All are recommended to take the general Course by special opportunities
offered to those who wish to become specialists.

Any teacher of high scholarship and experience may come to the College
for one year and take up an advanced elective course.

I. The degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy and the College diploma,
respectively, are conferred, upon recommendation of the Faculty, upon
such students, being duly qualified candidates for the same, as have
completed a course of study covering two years, as follows:--

_Required work in the following Departments_:

  Department of History and Institutes of Education.
  Department of Science and Art of Teaching.
  Department of Kindergarten, Course I.
  Department of Form Study and Drawing, Course I.
  Department of Physical Training.

_Elective_:

  A major course or minor courses.

II. The College Certificate is conferred, upon recommendation of the
President, the Dean, and the Professor in charge of any department,
upon such qualified candidates as have completed a course of study
covering one year, as follows:--

  _Required_:

  Department of History and Institutes of Education.
  Department of Science and Art of Teaching.
  Department of Physical Culture.

  _Elective_:

  In any department, a major course, together with such other minor
  courses as will suffice to make up the required amount of work.

III. The Departmental Certificate, Major or Minor, is conferred, upon
recommendation of the professors in charge of the departments in which
studies leading to this certificate are pursued, upon such qualified
candidates as have completed a course of study as follows:--

Department of History and Institutes of Education, Course I.

In any department or departments, either Major or Minor courses.

There is also a two years’ course for the training of Kindergartners,
on the completion of which a certificate is granted, and a
post-graduate course for those who desire it.

One hundred and twenty-six students were in training when I visited it,
and of these only three or four were men.

The whole course of training centres round the School of Observation
and Practice. The lecturers on method also teach in the school, and are
responsible there for the teaching of their own special subjects. They
give lessons on these, which are listened to by the students, and they
also criticise lessons given by the latter. A good deal of the time
devoted to the study of methods is employed in the learning how to make
simple apparatus and illustrations.

Classes are held on Saturdays for those who are engaged in teaching
during the rest of the week.

The college has also undertaken the publication of a series of
pamphlets on educational subjects.

The whole work of this college impressed me as being of a very high
character, and there was such an atmosphere of life and enthusiasm that
it would seem that teachers must go forth from thence inspired with a
love for their work and a determination to advance it by every means in
their power. It is just this rousing to enthusiasm which seems to lie
at the root of training, and the surest means of bringing this about
is for those who undertake it to be enthusiastic themselves. I had the
opportunity of talking to most of the lecturers, and shall not readily
forget the keen interest and pleasure they all seemed to take in their
special departments, the readiness, nay eagerness, with which they
appeared to welcome new ideas and work them out, and the willingness
with which they shared with others the results of their own experience
and research.

One of the most interesting of the many institutions which I visited
was the Clark University at Worcester. It is entirely devoted to
Graduate work, and consists of a group of five departments: 1.
Mathematics; 2. Physics; 3. Chemistry; 4. Biology; 5. Psychology (with
sub-department of Education).

Two or three years’ work at the University and an original thesis are
the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

There is no very clearly marked line between professors and students.
Students are often specialists, and as such asked to give short courses
in their special subjects, and professors and lecturers attend each
other’s courses.

Docents, or those who, having fulfilled certain conditions, desire to
undertake research work, are provided with rooms and apparatus for
their work.

The President, Dr. Stanley Hall, is especially interested in the
department of Education. The following outline of the course is from
the University Calendar:--

  “EDUCATION.--This has been made a sub-department of the department
  of Psychology, and now offers a course which can be taken as a Minor
  for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Its work is in the closest
  connection with the work in psychology and anthropology, and in part
  based on these. The work in this department is intended to meet the
  needs of the following classes of men:

  “_First._--Those intending to teach some other speciality, but
  who wish a general survey of the history, present state, methods,
  and recent advances in the field of university, professional, and
  technical education.

  “_Second._--Those who desire to become professors of pedagogy, or
  heads or instructors in normal schools, superintendents, or otherwise
  to become experts in the work of education.”

The programme of the Educational Department includes courses upon the
following subjects:

  I. (_a_) Child-Study. (_b_) Educational Psychology. (_c_) School
  Hygiene.

  II. (_a_) Principles of Education. (_b_) History of Education and
  Reforms. (_c_) Methods, Devices, Apparatus, etc.

  III. (_a_) Organization of Schools in different countries. (_b_)
  Typical Schools and Special Foundations. (_c_) Motor Education,
  including manual training, physical education, etc. (_d_) Moral
  Education. (_e_) Ideals.

  IV. Higher Education, including university work, technical education;
  training in law, medicine, and theology; recent progress, present
  state and prospects of the most advanced education in different
  countries, including our own.

The courses in education for 1893-94 are as follows:--

_Dr. G. Stanley Hall’s Courses_:

  (_A_) Present status and problems of Higher Education in this country
  and Europe. One hour weekly, half a year.

  (_B_) Outline of Systematic Pedagogy. One hour weekly, half a year.

_Dr. Burnham’s Courses_:

  (_C_) Organization of schools in Europe, especially the schools of
  France, Germany, Sweden, and England. Typical schools described, and
  educational principles illustrated by them, expounded and discussed.
  References made to important literature, and the work may serve as an
  outline for further study. One hour a week, half a year.

  (_D_) School Hygiene, following and supplementing his “Outlines of
  School Hygiene,” and considering special topics. One hour a week,
  half a year.

  (_E_) Educational reforms, involving the discussion of a few
  fundamental educational principles and the presentation of chapters
  in the history of education. One hour a week, half a year.

  (_F_) Motor Education of children. This course will endeavour to
  elucidate the principles that should govern this side of education,
  and will involve the study of writing, drawing, manual training, and
  of play and gymnastics as means of motor education. The course may
  include also the study of motor training and muscular development
  in relation to intellectual ability and moral character. One hour a
  week, half a year.

  (_G_) The work of the Seminary, once a week throughout the year, will
  be, for the most part, adapted to individual students. It is hoped
  that each student will select, after conference with President Hall
  and Dr. Burnham, a topic for special investigation. The results of
  such study may be published.

The courses as announced above may be modified somewhat as the needs of
the students or other circumstances may require.

The library of the department is especially rich in foreign educational
literature, and a considerable amount of illustrative apparatus has
been collected. The Worcester Public Library and the library of the
American Antiquarian Society are also accessible to students.

The _Pedagogical Seminary_ is published by this department, and offers
facilities for printing digests, reviews, and more valuable papers
prepared by the members of the department.

This department has the twofold aim of (1) preparing professors,
superintendents and teachers for their future work, and (2) making
contributions to the Science of Education. The second of these aims
is being vigorously taken up, research of some kind being expected
from every one. The fact that there is no school of observation in
connection with the University is of course a drawback to the complete
carrying out of both of the above aims. Visits, for purposes of
observation, are however made to schools in the neighbourhood, the
records now numbering some fifteen thousand made by the students of the
Worcester Normal School, in connection with the study of children, are
available for reference, and a scheme for establishing a University
School is even now under consideration. Should this scheme become a
reality, we might look forward hopefully to getting fresh light on many
school problems. One especially, to which Dr. Hall drew my attention,
might well have its solution attempted in such a school. It concerns
the duty of teachers toward the bright, quick-working children in a
school. In every class some will be found who work quicker and have
more intellectual power than the others, and at the same time some who
are dull and slow-witted. Now the power of detecting and directing
one’s teaching to the latter is often made the test of a good teacher,
and in a very true sense it may be said to be so. But there is
another side to the question, and those of us who have taught cannot
fail to have often been conscious that while the needed attention
and explanations are being given to the dull ones, the time of the
quick-working children is being practically wasted. As Dr. Hall points
out, we have perhaps not yet realized how much power is lost to the
world in consequence. It would be an interesting experiment to select
such bright, quick-witted children, and putting them into a class by
themselves, in charge of an able teacher, to note the results of thus
allowing them to work at their own rate.

The Clark University is unfortunately not open to women, if the summer
school (to which they are admitted) be not considered.

Students are expected to possess a reading knowledge of the French and
German languages, and a knowledge of Elementary Psychology is also
considered desirable.

There are many other Universities which have opened more or less
complete pedagogical departments; but these which have been described
will suffice to give a general idea of the courses offered in them. On
the whole it appeared to me that while in America excellent provision
is made in many of the States for the training of teachers for the
Primary Schools on the one hand, and for the positions of professors,
lecturers, superintendents on the other, far too little attention is
given to the training of teachers for the High, Collegiate and Private
Schools. High School teachers are mainly those who have worked their
way up through the grades (salaries tend to increase with the grade,
which brings about that inexperienced teachers are too often put to
the lower classes), while the teachers in Collegiate and Private
Schools have usually taken up the work straight from college without
any special preparation at all. England and Wales have, I think, made
much better provision for the training of such teachers, but I think we
have a good deal to learn from America in providing for the training
of lecturers, school inspectors, etc., etc., and perhaps also in the
matter of setting the seal of University approval upon training, by the
bestowal of educational degrees.


_TEACHERS’ INSTITUTES._

Teachers’ Institutes form an integral part of most state and city
systems of education. They have been defined as “normal schools with
a very short course,” and this definition is substantially correct.
The work done by them is of much the same character as that done in
the Normal Schools, and they have the same end in view--that of making
teachers more fit for their profession. They, however, vary somewhat in
character, and it will be perhaps well to distinguish between--

  1. Those which are held on Saturdays for teachers in the city or
  district, and which are usually conducted by the superintendent,
  who gives lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching, discusses
  educational problems and methods, or follows out with them a
  course of reading. Attendance at these institutes is often made
  compulsory, and loss of part of salary is sometimes made the penalty
  for non-attendance. By the statistics returned from ninety-six
  cities holding institutes, it appears that forty-four thus enforce
  attendance.

  2. Those lasting for about six to ten days, having short courses in
  certain subjects, and especially on the theory of teaching. These are
  usually those organized by the State Superintendent, who has however
  the power of delegating the conduct of these institutes to other
  persons whom he may deem qualified. Again, attendance at many of
  these is made compulsory.

  3. Such institutes as are held at some country or sea-side place
  for a length of time, varying from a fortnight to six weeks. These,
  however, are mostly started by private agencies, and have little
  besides the name to distinguish them from Summer Schools. The summer
  meeting of teachers at Martha’s Vineyard is known as an Institute,
  and is of this class. The Teachers’ Institutes do not aim at
  supplying a complete course of Training, but rather at supplementing
  the work of the Normal Schools and Colleges.


_SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES._

A Summer School seems to differ from an Institute mainly in relation
to the amount of professional work undertaken. It is usually open for
from four to six weeks, and has a great variety of courses. I was able
to attend several of these, and was kindly allowed to hear some of the
lectures given and to observe the work.

One of these held at Benton Harbour, Michigan, was chiefly attended
by those district teachers who wished to prepare for the teachers’
examinations. It was really a private Normal School, which used its
buildings in July for a Summer School. The subjects given were mainly
those necessary for the teachers’ certificates, with some classes on
Methods, and School Management and Drill and Elocution.

Of quite a different kind was that held at the Cook County Normal
School. This was almost entirely professional, and held on much the
same lines as the ordinary work of the school.

The Summer Assembly at Chautauqua includes a Summer School, which
again may be said to include a special course for teachers, called the
Teachers’ Retreat.

In addition to the Summer Schools, there are summer courses provided
for teachers at many universities. Cornell University makes special
provision for such a course, of which the following is an announcement.

“In the summer of 1892, courses of instruction were offered by
professors and instructors of this University in Botany, Chemistry,
Mathematics, Philosophy, Physics, English, French, German, Drawing, and
Physical Training. The Summer School has now been made an integral part
of the University, and for the summer of 1893, courses are offered in
the following subjects:

  Greek,
  Latin,
  German,
  French,
  English,
  Elocution,
  Philosophy,
  Pedagogy,
  History,
  Political and Social Science,
  Mathematics,
  Physics,
  Chemistry,
  Botany,
  Drawing and Art,
  Mechanical Drawing,
  Physical Training.

Without excluding others qualified to take up the work, these
courses are offered for the special benefit of teachers. They afford
a practical scheme of university extension, by which the teachers
themselves are taught under university instructors, by university
methods, and with access to university libraries, museums, and
laboratories.

The courses are open to women as well as to men, and the same
facilities for work are extended to these students as to the regular
students of the university. The amount of work implied in these courses
is so great that students are advised to confine their attention to
one or two subjects. Every opportunity will be given for original
research under the guidance and with the assistance of members of the
instructing corps.”

In 1892 a summer course in Psychology and Pedagogy was held for
two weeks at the Clark University. All the resources of the
University--books, apparatus, etc.--were placed at the disposal of the
students. About seventy men and women attended. Other universities
arrange for similar courses, but these two suffice to indicate the
lines of work.

The Prang system, which aims at the complete organization of Form
Study, Drawing and Colour teaching in the schools, demands also the
training of its teachers. The system is being introduced into an
ever-increasing number of schools, and necessitates some preparation
on the part of the teacher in order that its principles shall be
rightly understood and effectively carried out. This preparation is
being carried on by correspondence. The courses of study are definitely
arranged, and the student chooses the one she desires. The text-books
and materials are sent to her; she works lessons at home, and
forwards to the instructors the results of such work--clay modelling,
paper-folding, drawing, etc., written observation exercises describing
the appearance of models placed in prescribed positions, written
outlines for various class exercises, together with any questions she
desires to ask. This work is examined and returned to the student with
full criticisms. At the end of the course a certificate is awarded to
those who have successfully completed it. This plan of training appears
to answer well, and will ensure the success of the system.

                                                       MILLICENT HUGHES.


Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.




FOOTNOTES:


[1] This is, of course, not the ordinary deaf-and-dumb language,--for
which sight would be required,--but a special variety in which the
thoughts of the speaker are conveyed by means of varying pressure on
different parts of the hand of the one spoken to.

[2] The term “Commencement” is always used in America to indicate the
ceremony which takes place at the _end_ of a School or College course.
The idea appears to be that the close of the College career really
marks the beginning of life in the world.

[3] The word “_recitation_” is always used in the United States to
signify lesson, class or lecture. Its use in this extended sense may
be explained by the fact that in early days of American education (and
the practice still survives to a greater extent than is desirable)
_teaching_ a class merely implied the hearing of lessons learnt by
heart from a text-book.

[4] _i.e._, specialist in the subject of physical exercise.

[5] The Connecticut School Law provides for the establishment and
maintenance of such schools for the benefit of the students.

[6] _i.e._, allowance to cover railway or other fares.

[7] It should be noted that although the _design_ of these schools is
professional, yet in all of them academic studies are pursued.

[8] The idea of making special provision for a supply of teachers to
act as substitutes in case of emergency is almost universal in the
States. In many cities a certain number of teachers receiving regular
salary are set apart for this work alone, while in some places students
in a Normal School or Training Classes undertake such work by special
arrangement.

[9] The University of Iowa had, however, in 1873 made pedagogics a
sub-department of general philosophy. As early as 1860 a course of
lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching had been given by the State
Superintendent, Dr. Gregory, in the University of Michigan.




TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:


  Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.

  Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.

  Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.

  Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.

  The table on page 167 has been reformatted from the original to better
    fit a narrow screen.

  The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is
    entered into the public domain.