Transcriber’s Notes:

  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
    in the original text.
  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
  Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.




GREEK PRIMER

[Illustration]




                           GREEK PRIMER
                    COLLOQUIAL AND CONSTRUCTIVE

                                BY
                         J. STUART BLACKIE

                EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE
                     UNIVERSITY OF   EDINBURGH

    Scribendo dicimus diligentius, dicendo scribimus facilius.
                                                  QUINCTILIAN.

                              London
                         MACMILLAN AND CO.
                           AND NEW YORK
                               1891

                       _All rights reserved_




PREFACE


One cannot have moved much in the world without hearing complaints,
both from parents and young persons, about the amount of time and brain
spent in the learning of languages, and the little profit derived from
this outlay. These complaints, no doubt, arise partly from the want
of judgment on the part of the parents, and the want of capacity and
inclination on the part of their young hopefuls: parents often acting
thoughtlessly on the vulgar notion that far birds have fair feathers,
and preferring what is foreign to what is native, and what lies at a
great distance in time or space to what is near; and young persons
being forced to submit themselves to a grammatical indoctrination in
which they feel no interest, and from which they derive no benefit.
But it is no less true that these complaints are due in no small
measure to false methods of linguistic training generally, or to some
cherished prejudices in favour of certain languages on the part of the
teachers; and it becomes therefore, at the present day, a matter of
great practical importance to inquire how far our traditional methods
of teaching languages are in conformity with the method of Nature in
her great art of thought-utterance, and how far they may justly be
called on to submit themselves to a revision and a reconstitution.
We say at the present day emphatically, because it is quite evident
that education, following in the train of democratic reform, is one of
the watchwords of the hour, to which every good citizen must lend an
obedient ear; and not only so, but circumstances have so changed since
our schooling received its traditional form, that the wants which were
satisfied by our school curriculum and school practice in the days
of Milton and Locke now demand an altogether different treatment. In
particular, the so-called learned languages, two hundred years ago the
only medium of culture to an accomplished English gentleman, have now
become the luxury of the leisurely, or the arsenal of the professional
few, while other languages, such as German, not named in those days,
are now sought after as the keys to the most valuable storehouses of
all sorts of knowledge. Add to this that Great Britain, which was then
a secondary naval power, and following the French and the Spaniards
slowly in the great world-transforming process of colonisation, is now
mistress of a world-wide empire from the Ganges to Vancouver Isle,
through which stretch she exercises a dominant influence, combining
the political virtue of ancient Rome with the commercial activity of
Carthage. In these circumstances it becomes the special duty of every
British man to acquire a familiar knowledge of the languages of the
various races with which he may be brought into political or commercial
relations; and, as languages after all are not valuable in themselves,
but only as tools by which effective work in certain fields falls to
be performed, we ought to see to it, both that we get the proper tools
for doing the work, and that we learn to use them in such fashion as to
work pleasantly and profitably; and in this view it may be truly said
that, while the wrong language in the wrong place is of no use at all,
even the right language in the right place, when imperfectly learned,
is a tool with which the best workman can do only bad work, and perhaps
cut his own fingers in the process.

As language is a function which belongs as much to every normal human
creature as seeing or hearing, there can be no difficulty in finding
out the method of Nature in its acquisition. We have to answer only
two questions: first, What are the factors of the process by which
the human babe, from being capable merely of inarticulate cries, like
any of the lower animals, is developed into an easy and graceful
manipulator of articulate speech? and again, How far, and in what
respects, does this model require to be modified in order to enable
the expert handlers of the mother tongue to use any second or third
language with like expertness? That this cannot be a very difficult
matter demands no far-sought induction to prove, as the fact lies
before us; for from the Greeks in the South-East to the Highlanders
in the North-West we find bilingual and trilingual peoples largely
scattered over Europe. It is in fact as easy to learn two or three
languages as to learn one, if only the learner be habitually submitted
to the natural influences, and guided by the steps of a natural process.

What then, in the first place, are the steps of the process which
analysis presents as elevating the inarticulate babe to the
significant-speaking boy or girl? There is (1) the direct connection
of certain objects with certain sounds and gestures; (2) these objects
are such as stand in the nearest relation to the learner, and are
presented to him in an atmosphere of the most natural and most pleasant
surroundings; (3) the imitative faculty, by which he appropriates the
proper sounds, is encouraged and cherished by frequent repetition, till
the original impression becomes permanently stamped into his soul,
and, so to speak, jumps up spontaneously with the object. Let us, in
the next place, ask how far this child’s linguistic ladder is affected
by the performer being an adult. Manifestly the difference lies only
in one point, and that altogether in favour of the adult, viz. the
application of a regulated system to the accidental sequences by which
the child learns its mother tongue, easily indeed and pleasantly, but
slowly; for he learns not architecturally as a mason builds a house,
but by the way, as one picks up a pebble on the shore or a daisy from
the meadow; whereas the adult, with his firm will and his reasonable
purpose, wishing to learn a language can submit himself to a reasonable
and a calculated treatment; and in so doing experience has shown that
in favourable circumstances, and under wise training, he can learn a
foreign language more perfectly in six months than a child can do in
as many years. Why then, you ask, is this not always done? Why does it
seem such a difficult business to acquire a familiar knowledge of any
foreign language, and why is so much brain and so much time spent so
frequently on their acquisition with such scanty results? The answer
can be only one: because your teacher has ignored the method of Nature,
and given you a bad substitute for it in his own devices; instead of
speaking to you and making you respond, in direct connection of the old
object with the new sound, and thus forming a living bond between the
thinking soul, the perceptive sense, and the significant utterance,
he sends you to a book, there to cram yourself with dead rules and
lifeless formulas about the language, in the middle of which he ought
to have planted you at the start. The evil results of this neglect of
the living model of Nature are only too manifest. Books are useful, but
they are only secondary; in all matters of observation and practical
exercise they may form an apt accompaniment or a supplement, but they
never can supplant the vital function of which they are only the dead
record. No one learns dancing, or fencing, or golf, or lawn-tennis
from a book. The evils caused by this unnatural delegation of the work
of a living teacher to the formulas of a dead book are three: (1) The
direct connection between the reasonable soul and the new articulate
sign of the object is lost; the learner does not shake hands, so to
speak, with the object, but he cumbers himself with the phraseology of
his mother tongue, and instead of saying at once δός μοι ἄρτον, _give
me bread_, he must first ask what is _the Greek for bread_. In this
way the new term remains a stranger to his thought, and he uses it
uncomfortably, as when a man puts on a pair of shoes which have only
an occasional acquaintance with his feet. (2) Then again, when, after
being sufficiently tortured with mere grammatical forms, he acquires a
certain vocabulary from the elementary reading books, the objects for
which this vocabulary supplies the new names are seldom the objects
with which he is familiarly surrounded and in which he has a living
interest, but they relate to something Julius Cæsar did in Gaul or
Cicero said in Rome some 2000 years ago, a region of strange sounds,
in which the linguistic neophyte of this nineteenth century has no
particular inclination to move, and to which his memory cannot ally
itself with any feeling of kinship; and he easily forgets the word,
because he does not care for the thing. But (3) even when he does care
for the thing, the mere reading of a lesson every day does not in the
least ensure that frequent repetition of a new vocable in connection
with an object, on which the familiar knowledge of a language depends;
whereas, if the teacher had commenced by making his schoolroom an
echo-chamber of daily repeated sounds in connection with interesting
and familiar objects directly in the view of the learner or near to
his daily life, familiarity with a new language, be it Greek or be
it German, would come as naturally and as pleasantly to a clever lad
of seventeen as the use of the mother tongue to a dainty girl or a
rattling boy of seven.

These things being so, and the method of Nature being so plain in the
matter, we now ask what are the causes that have led so many of our
teachers, even the most accomplished of their class, to neglect so
infallible a guide, and to follow methods of linguistic inculcation
equally unpleasant in the process and unprofitable in the result? These
causes, fortunately, are as patent as the consequences to which they
have led. The first cause is ignorance. In not a few of our educational
institutions it is to be feared there are teachers—an over-worked and
under-paid class—who are employed to teach languages of which they have
only a very superficial knowledge and no firm hold. With persons of
this class the whole process of linguistic training amounts to this,
_Read your book, Get your lesson, and I will hear you_. Of a living
appeal from the tongue of the teacher and a living response from the
tongue of the learner these gentlemen have no conception. They must
do the most they can, confine themselves within page and chapter of a
printed book, where they require no knowledge beyond the marked limits
of the lesson, and where the scantiness of their linguistic furniture
and the feebleness of their linguistic vitality cannot be exposed.
Let them pass. But what of the men of high accomplishment, exact
scholarship, and fine taste: why should they scorn the practice which
is the foundation of the rules, and the conversation which made great
speeches and great poems before rules or schools were heard of? Simply
because they have forgotten the lesson taught in a well-known dialogue
of Plato,[1] that the printed papers which we call books, useful for
record, are rather prejudicial than profitable to the culture of
memory; they have become the slaves of their tools, and defrauded the
ear and the tongue of their natural rights in the field of significant
speech by a wholesale transference of their functions to the eyes. The
scholar, in their conception, is a reading animal, and without books he
is nowhere. Why then, they will argue, when our object is to read and
to understand books, should we trouble ourselves with conversation? We
do not learn Latin in order to talk with Cæsar and Cicero, but to read
their books; and in like manner we do not study German to drink beer
and smoke pipes and sing songs with rollicking students in a _kneipe_,
but to ponder with many-sided thought over the poems of Goethe or the
speculations of Hegel. So be it. Let books and not living converse be
the final end of the study of languages; so they certainly are with
the dead languages; but even with regard to them it is quite certain
that the familiarity and frequent repetition which are the special
virtues of the conversational method both render the mastery of books,
as in the case of the mother tongue, more complete, and the hold of
the printed signature at once more firm in the grasp and more easy in
the approach. But some one will say, Does not speaking in a language
imply thinking in it, and is not thinking in a foreign tongue one of
the most difficult and rare attainments even with the most accomplished
linguists? Not at all. The difficulty lies merely in starting from
the wrong end and following the false direction thus given till it
culminates in the persistency of a bad habit and the imagination of an
impossibility. It is as easy to look the Sun in the face and say שׁמּשּׁ,
SHEMISH, as to say SUN, and there is no more difficulty in saying λαβὼν
τὸ σκάλευθρον κίνει τὸ πῦρ, than in saying, _take the poker and stir
the fire_. In both cases the direct connection of _thought_, _thing_,
and _word_ is equally obvious, equally easy, and equally natural; only
at the start the habit of thinking exclusively in the mother tongue
must be broken.

[1] _Phaedrus_, 275 E.

There is one other objection to the conversational method in the
teaching of languages, viz. that it makes a man a parrot. Well, a
parrot is an imitative animal, and so is a man, and so far must not be
ashamed to own his kinship with the plumy prattler. But he is a parrot
and something more; and this something more every sensible teacher will
take into account. For myself, I have no preference for random talk:
my contention is for regulated talk; the talk first and the regulation
afterwards, in the order of gradation so succinctly stated by Lord
Bacon—_speaking makes a ready man, reading makes a full man, writing
makes an accurate man_;—all the three. But have your nails first before
you pare them; this is the common sense of the matter.

In conclusion, I have a word or two to say with regard to the occasion
and the plan of this little book. In the first place, whatever may
be said of Hebrew or Latin, Greek is a living language, and must be
treated as such even by those who persist in the notion that, while
the method of living vocal appeal applies in its full extent to
modern languages, it is certainly out of place in the treatment of
the two ancient languages which justly claim the first place in the
linguistic culture of our highest schools. The delusion that Greek
is a dead language, springing as it does mainly out of our “insular
ignorance,” as Professor Seeley calls it, and partly, I fear, our
national insolence, will be dispelled in a moment by a glance at any
current Greek newspaper; as for instance the following paragraph, the
first that met my eye, from the 2d November number of the Athenian
“Ἀκρόπολις,” giving a short notice of the application of Koch’s remedy
for consumption.


                  ΝΕΑ ΚΑΙ ΠΕΡΙΕΡΓΑ.

                 Ἡ φθίσις ἐν Ρωσσίᾳ.

    Ἡ ἀνακάλυψις τοῦ μεγάλου Κὼχ δίδει ἀφορμὴν εἰς τὰς
    ρωσσικὰς ἐφημερίδας νὰ ἐξετάσωσι πόσοι εἰσὶν οἱ
    πάσχοντες ἐκ τῆς νόσου ταύτης. Ἐκ τῶν 120,000,000
    τῶν κατοίκων τῆς Ρωσσίας, ἂν ὑπολογίσῃ τις μόνον
    5 ἐπὶ τοῖς (0)0 πάσχοντας ἐκ φθίσεως, 6,000,000
    μόνον Ρῶσσοι ἔχουσι τὴν ἀνάγκην τῆς θεραπείας
    τοῦ περικλεοῦς καθηγητοῦ. Ὁ ἀριθμὸς εἶνε μάλιστα
    ἐν τούτοις ἀκριβής. Ἐν Ρωσσίᾳ καὶ ἰδίως εἰς τὰ
    βορειότερα αὐτῆς μέρη ἡ φθίσις κάμνει μεγίστην
    θραῦσιν. Ἐν Πετρουπόλει ὡς ἐκ τῆς ἀθλιότητος τοῦ
    κλίματος καὶ τῆς κακῆς διαίτης τάξεών τινων τῆς
    κοινωνίας ἡ φθίσις καταστρέφει φρικωδῶς. Ἑν ταῖς
    οἰκίαις ἀπομεμακρυσμένων τινῶν συνοικιῶν, εἰς
    οἰκίας εἰς ἃ σπανίως διεισδύει ἀκτὶς ἡλίου βλέπει
    τις νέας καὶ νέους ὠχροὺς αἱμοπτύοντας καὶ ἐκεῖ εἰς
    ἀνήλια δωμάτια ἀναμένοντας τὸν θάνατον. Μειδιάσατε
    δυστυχεῖς· ὁ Κῲχ ἐργάζεται ὅπως ἁρπάσῃ ἀπὸ τὰς χεῖρας
    τοῦ θανάτου ὅλα αὐτὰ τὰ ἑκατομμύρια τῶν ὑπάρξεων.

Any person who can read classical Greek without a dictionary will
have no difficulty in understanding this passage; and, if he is
familiar with the New Testament in the original, he will find that
some of the principal peculiarities which distinguish the Greek used
by the living political and public men of Athens, so far from being
corruptions, are no less distinctive features of the κοινὴ διάλεκτος of
the Greeks now than they were in the days of the Apostle Paul and the
Evangelist John. But this is not all. It requires only a superficial
acquaintance with the most patent facts of Greek literature to know
that some of the most popular and the most profound teachers of Greek
wisdom—Plato, Aristophanes and Xenophon—use the conversational style.
The Greeks, in fact, were, as they are still, a lively and a talking
people, and Socrates, their greatest name, cannot be better described
than as a talking street preacher of reason and common sense. Well,
then, on this double basis that Greek is a living language, and that
the colloquial style is that in which its highest and best thoughts
are expressed; and knowing, moreover, by large experience, that the
most effective way to get a firm grasp of any language is to begin
by speaking it, some twenty years ago I published a small volume of
Greek and English dialogues,[2] which I used in my class in as far
as it was possible to do so in such a multitudinous huddlement of
untrained lads as the Scottish Universities, contrary to the practice
of all educated nations, admit into the junior classes of the Faculty
of Arts. The little book came to a second edition; but that it was
in anywise generally used by classical teachers I have no reason to
believe, partly because, of all classes of men, teachers are the most
closely wedded to old bookish habits, and partly because Scotland is
not a country to which the world, governed as it is by authority and
by names, would look for anything worthy of imitation in the Greek
line: “_Can any good thing come out of Nazareth?_” This, as the world
goes, was quite legitimate, and gave me no concern. But since that
time, as a natural consequence of the great educational movement of
the age, some very distinct voices have come to my ear, to the effect
that there is something radically wrong in our way of dealing with
languages, and that the method of teaching by rules and grammar mainly
can no longer be tolerated. I therefore felt it my duty to appeal a
second time to the public and to teachers on this important matter, the
more so that my little book stood too far apart from the educational
attitude of the teachers, and, if it was to find its way into general
school use, required a more elementary book as an introduction. This
elementary book I now send forth under the title of a _Greek Primer,
Colloquial and Constructive_, indicating by this title that the lessons
in talking go hand in hand with the grammatical forms naturally educed
from them, each lesson being regulated talk, according to a natural
progression from the more simple to the more complex forms in ordinary
use. This progressive incorporation of the grammar is the feature which
distinguishes the lessons of this introductory book from the dialogues
in its predecessor; and the necessity of having constant reference to
grammatical forms prevented me from giving that unity of subject to the
dialogue as dialogue which belonged to the previous volume.

[2] _Greek and English Dialogues for the use of Schools and Colleges._
London: Macmillan, 1871.

I have only further to state, with regard to the use of this little
primer in the hands of a teacher, that I have no desire that he should
bind himself slavishly to the text. The scraps of talk that are given
under each lesson are meant to lend him a helping hand in the use
of a new organ; and, to enable both teacher and learner to furnish
themselves with a living vocabulary of Greek words in direct connection
with their daily surroundings, I have added an alphabetical list of the
names of the most familiar objects that belong to the field of life
in town or country where the learner may happen to be. When the young
Hellenist has stamped its Greek designation directly on every object
that meets his eyes, and connected it with some single verb that
belongs to its significance in familiar life, I would then suggest that
the teacher, besides the daily repetition of certain forms of common
conversation, should give a _vivâ voce_ description of pictures hung on
the wall two or three times a week, which the learner shall be called
on to repeat without any written notes; the principle of the method
being always to maintain the direct action of the mind on the object,
through the instrumentality of the new sound, without the intervention
of the mother tongue. As to when, and how far, and in what kind the
usual furniture of elementary books of grammar, reading, and exercises
should go parallel with colloquial practice, this I leave altogether
in the hands of the practised teacher, being well assured that easy
reading and accurate writing, so far from being inconsistent with, are
the natural blossom and the ripe fruit of the root of living utterance
from which I start.

One other matter requires special notice—a matter not necessarily
connected with the colloquial method, but which may be wisely used as
a help. To each lesson I have appended a short list of English words,
either by family affinity, or by direct borrowing, or by indirect
borrowing through the Latin, radically identical with the Greek. The
habit of identifying such words under an English disguise will perform
the double function of facilitating memory and giving a lesson on the
transmutation of sounds and meaning, the tracing of which gives so
peculiar a charm to comparative philology. In Appendix I. I have added
some of the principles on which these transmutations depend, so far as
they are suggested by the words used in the text.

But what of the pronunciation? After what has been shown of the living
continuity of the Greek tongue, from Byzantium downwards to the present
day, there cannot be the slightest doubt that Greek orthoepy should
be treated in the same fashion that the orthoepy of French, German,
or any other living tongue is treated. The pronunciation is ruled by
the practice of the present, not by philological facts or fancies as
to the pronunciation of the past. No doubt, as Heraclitus says, πάντα
ῥεῖ, _all things flow_, as in the universe, so in language, there is
no fixation—there is always change. But the changes which take place
in living languages, like English or Greek, are of a very different
kind from those which take place when a language like Latin becomes
dead, and rises to a new life in the form of such specific varieties
as Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. They are of the nature of a
normal growth, and are at all events only exaggerations or expansions
of a native tendency. To such exaggerations every spoken language is
subject, and few more than our insular English, as any one may see who
will compare the accentuation of English in the time of Chaucer with
the orthoepy of the present hour. But in respect of accents at least
Greek has been far more conservative than English, so much so indeed
that the accentual marks placed on Greek words by the Alexandrian
grammarians two hundred and fifty years before Christ, in the practice
of the Greek Church and the Greek people still indicate the same
dominance of voice on the accented syllable that the Athenian ear
recognised as classic in the orations of Demosthenes and the apostolic
eloquence of St. Paul. There can therefore be no greater barbarism than
to disown this legitimate music of Greek speech, as is done both in
England and Scotland, when we pronounce ἀγαθὸς ὁ θεός, like Latin or
English, ἄγαθος ὁ θέος; not to mention the staring absurdity and loss
of brain implied in the practice of the great English schools of first
pronouncing the word with a false accentuation, and then stultifying
the daily practice of the ear by learning a rule to say where the
accent ought to have been placed! Nothing could more distinctly
show the falseness of our habit of flinging the burden of learning
languages on formulas of the understanding and leaving the living organ
of linguistic practice altogether out of account. Therefore, by all
means, either drop the accents out of the grammar, or use them whenever
you give the written word voice in the air. As to the quantity of
the vowels, which is the stumbling block with most English scholars,
we have no lack of words, even in our own unmusical English, such as
_lándholder_, in which, as in the Greek ἄνθρωπος, the antepenultimate
has the rising inflexion, while the penult is long; and if the modern
Greeks pronounce ἄνθρωπος as if written ἄνθροπος, that is only a
natural curtailment of the unaccented syllable which lies in the nature
of human speech, and will be found exemplified more or less in all
languages. As to the vocal value of the separate vowels and consonants,
this, no doubt, is a point in some cases of considerable difficulty;
but it is quite certain that _a_, both in Latin and Greek, has the
broad sound as in Italian and Scotch, not the sound of the English in
_pātent_, that ι is the most slender of the vowel sounds, not the broad
semi-diphthongal sound of the English in _prime_ or _sigh_, that ου
has the soft sound of _oo_ in _boom_, not the _bow-wow_ sound of _ou_
as in _howl_; also that αι in all probability was pronounced as in the
English _vain_, not as in the German _Kaiser_. On the whole matter
of pronunciation, however, the English scholar should bear in mind
that the poetry of the ancients was composed on musical principles,
with a strict regard to the quantitative value of the vowel on which
the rhythmical accent fell, a practice which necessarily caused the
spoken accent to be dropped in verse, or very much subordinated;
and again, if his ear should happen to be very much offended by the
predominance of the slender sound of ι in the familiar πολυφλοίσβοιο
θαλάσσης of Homer, there is no reason why he should not adopt a special
vocalisation for the reading of the Greek poets, just as we in our
reading of Chaucer must constantly put a final accent on words that,
if applied to the spoken tongue, would render the speaker either
ridiculous or unintelligible. But in whatever fashion the teacher of
Greek in this country may choose to settle this delicate point, the
matter of pronunciation has nothing radically to do with the great
principle of linguistic practice which this little book inculcates. To
start with the practice of speaking will facilitate the acquisition
of a new language under any system of pronunciation; only this must
distinctly be said, that the scholar who has learned to read Greek with
a vocalisation and an accentuation invented by himself for himself has
deliberately cut himself off from all intelligible communion with the
people whose literary tradition he values so highly, and with whom to
maintain a familiar intercourse, both in a political and a literary
point of view, should be no secondary consideration with the wise.

In conclusion, I have great pleasure in returning thanks to the learned
Hellenists who kindly undertook the task of revising the proofs of
this little work as they came from the press, viz. Mr. Hardie, Balliol
College, Oxford; Principal Geddes, Aberdeen; Principal Donaldson, St.
Andrews; and Mr. Gardiner, Edinburgh Academy; and if I have not in
every instance taken advantage of their suggestions, it is because on
principle I have no sympathy with the nice sensibility which refuses
the stamp of classicality to all forms and idioms unsanctioned by the
usage of Attic writers, preferring to float my skiff freely on the
great Catholic Greek of all ages, from Plato to Polybius, from Polybius
to Chrysostom, and from Chrysostom to Thereianos and Paspati.

EDINBURGH, _April_ 1891.




CONTENTS


                                                   PAGE

      THE GREEK LETTERS                               3
      NOTES                                           5
      ACCENTUATION AND QUANTITY                       7

    LESSON
         I.—Nouns: Nominative and Objective Case,
                    First and Second Declension;
                    Verbs: Three Persons
                    Singular, Present Indicative     12
        II.—Cases, Genitive and Dative               15
       III.—Plurals, Numerals, Diminutives           17
        IV.—Third Declension, Singular               19
         V.—Third Declension, Plural                 25
        VI.—Degrees of Comparison in Adjectives      26
       VII.—The Future Active                        28
      VIII.—The Past Tense                           30
        IX.—Infinitive Mood and Participles          33
         X.—The other Past Tenses                    35
        XI.—Verbs in μι                              38
       XII.—Compound Verbs                           40
      XIII.—Moods: Subjunctive and Conditional       42
       XIV.—The Optative Mood                        44
        XV.—The Particle ἄν                          47
       XVI.—The Passive Voice                        48
      XVII.—The Middle Voice                         51
     XVIII.—Participles                              53

    APPENDIX
       I.—Elementary Hints on Etymology              55
      II.—Vocabularies                               57




THE ALPHABET

ACCENT AND QUANTITY




THE GREEK LETTERS


The Greek letters, borrowed as they were from the East and adopted by
the Romans, are substantially the same as the Roman letters of our
common English usage, and in fact differ from them both in figure and
power scarcely more than our present English type differs from the old
English black letter or the common German type. A few remarks will
suffice to show where or how far the pronunciation varies from our
English use of the same letters.

    Greek                        English
    Figures.     Names.          Figures.

    Α, α        ἄλφα    alpha        a
    Β, β, ϐ      βῆτα     bêta       b
    Γ, γ, ⲅ      γάμμα    gamma      g
    Δ, δ        δέλτα    delta       d
    Ε, ε        ψῑλόν    epsilon     e
    Ζ, ζ,       ζῆτα     zêta        z
    Η, η        ἦτα      êta         ee
    Θ, θ, ϑ      θῆτα     thêta      th
    Ι, ι        ἰῶτα     iôta        i
    Κ, κ        κάππα    kappa       k
    Λ, λ        λάμβδα   lambda      l
    Μ, μ        μῦ       mu          m
    Ν, ν        νῦ       nu          n
    Ξ, ξ        ξῖ       xi          x
    Ο, ο        μῑκρόν   omikron     ŏ
    Π, π        πῖ       pi          p
    Ρ, ρ        ῥῶ        rho        r
    Σ, σ, ς     σῖγμα     sigma      s
    Τ, τ, ך     ταῦ       tau        t
    Υ, υ        υῑλόν    ’upsilon    u
    Φ, φ        φῖ        phi        f _or_ ph
    Χ, χ        χῖ        chi        ch
    Ψ, ψ        ψῖ        psi        ps
    Ω, ω        ὦ μέγα    omega      ō




NOTES


    Α is always the broad _a_ (=ah) of all European
        languages, and never softened down to the English
        _ā_, as heard in _pātent_, _nátion_.

    Β in the spoken Greek of the present day is softened
        down to the cognate _v_, exactly as in Gaelic _b_
        with the _h_ appended becomes _v_, as _ban_, fair,
        with _h_, _bhan_ = _van_.

    Γ, when followed by the broad vowels _a_ and _o_,
        is pronounced hard as in English and Gaelic; but
        when followed by soft vowels the _Greeks_ now
        give it the sound of the English _y_ in _yes_,
        _yellow_—γέλως, γέρων,—just as in German the _g_ in
        the third syllable of _Göttingen_ is so softened
        down as almost to disappear.[3] This euphonic
        action of a weak vowel upon a strong consonant
        preceding is natural and found in most languages;
        exactly as the Italians in their soft dialect of
        Latin have changed Κικέρων into _Chichero_, _ch_
        being pronounced as in the English _church_.

        Before κ, γ, χ and ξ, the letter γ has the sound
        of _n_, as in ἄγγελος, in Latin _angelus_, English
        _angel_.

    Δ, or D, is in like manner softened into _th_ as in the
        English _mother_; thus δέν _not_, from οὐδέν,
        pronounced οὐθέν.

    Ε is our short _e_, as in _get_; never long _ē_.

    Η, or ἦτα, was in ancient times always a long _ē_,
        English _ā_ as in _gate_; now it is always _ee_
        as in _seem_ or _theme_.

    Θ is the English _th_, as in _mouth_, _south_.

    Ι is always the slender English _ee_, either short as
        in _peep_ or long as in _scēne_.

    Ξ is _ks_, _gs_, contracted into _x_.

    Υ, from which our _y_ came, was in ancient times
        identical with the delicate _ü_, _ue_, of the
        Germans, halfway between οὐ = _oo_ and _ee_, into
        which in the living language it is always softened,
        exactly as in some parts of Germany _Brüder_ is
        pronounced _Brēēder_.

    Χ is an aspirated _k_, but pronounced like _milch_ in
        German or _loch_ in Scotch, which the English,
        who do not possess this beautiful soft guttural,
        generally sharpen into a _k_, as in _lake_.

    Ω, omega, as the name indicates, is simply a long _o_,
        as in πῶλος, _a foal_.

        For the English _h_ the Greeks used a simple mark
        of aspiration turned to the right thus, ἱερός
        _sacred_, pronounced _hee-er-ŏs_, while the
        same mark turned to the left, as in ἔρως, simply
        signifies the absence of the _h_. Whether this
        _spiritus lenis_, as it is called, was put on
        the initial vowel to indicate the presence of an
        original _h_ which had vanished, I cannot say; but
        one can readily fancy that if the Cockney fashion
        of calling Highgate _Igate_ were to become general,
        every such curtailed word might receive a mark
        thus, _’igate_, as the survival of a lost breathing.

        Besides the vowels in the alphabet we find in
        Greek, as in other languages, compound vowel sounds
        called diphthongs. They are seven—αι, ει, οι, αυ,
        υι, ευ and ου. Their ancient pronunciation is very
        difficult to expiscate, and in them we note the
        partiality of the Greeks for the slender sound of
        _ee_, called by a Latin writer _gracilitas_, and
        by modern scholars _itacism_. This tendency has
        wiped off the diphthongal character altogether
        from οι, υι, and ει, which are all pronounced
        like a single ι, English _ee_. To balance this,
        αι becomes the English _ai_, as in _vain_; ου
        retains its full soft roundness as in _gloom_;
        while in αυ and ευ in the living Greek the υ has
        assumed a consonantal value and become _v_, from
        which usage the εὐαγγέλιον of the Gospels has
        become the _evangelium_ of the Latin Church, and
        the _evangel_ of English; so αὐλός, _a flute_, is
        pronounced _avlóss_, and this _v_ is aspirated into
        the kindred _ƒ_, when the following consonant is
        κ, π, τ, θ, χ, ξ, σ, or ψ, as in αὐτός, _aftos_,
        εὔξεινος, _efxeinos_. That the ancients, at least
        in poetry, did not do this is evident from the full
        diphthongal value of a long sound given to the
        εὐ in εὐαγής and such-like words by the dramatic
        writers.

[3] See Zampolides’s _Modern Greek_. London, Williams and Norgate,
1887.




ACCENTUATION AND QUANTITY


In respect of accentuation the Greek language has the advantage above
most others that, while in Latin, English, or German the proper
intonation of a word in doubtful cases can only be known by an appeal
to a dictionary or to an authoritative speaker, in Greek every word
in a book, as it stands before the eye, exhibits and perpetuates the
tonic relation of the syllables to one another. The student has but
to observe the rise or fall of the syllables on his page as he would
do the notes in a piece of music, and he cannot go wrong. Only a few
characteristic points require to be laid down to make the principle on
which the practice depends intelligible.

The word _accent_, taken from the Latin grammarians, evidently
signifies a certain music of speech, a singing to or with (_ad_ and
_cano_) an articulate word; while the expression used by the Greek
grammarians, τόνος from τείνω, indicates a stretch, stress, or
intension of the voice on the syllable so affected. Taking these two
elements together we see that a Greek word, say καλός, _beautiful_,
with the mark of the acute accent on the last syllable—hence called
oxytone, from ὀξύς, _sharp_—is pronounced with an elevation of the
voice, which brings along with it a dominance of the syllable on which
it stands above the other syllables with which it is connected. It
stands to reason that after such a dominance given to one syllable
the voice, if there be a subsequent syllable, will fall; and so, as
in πραγμάτων, the final syllable will be pronounced in a lower tone
which is called grave. In the general use this lower-toned syllable
requires no special mark, being sufficiently indicated by its necessary
subservience to the accented syllable; with the Greeks, however, it
seems to have been the practice to pronounce an oxytone word, when it
occurs in the middle of a sentence, in a lower tone than at the end,
and so the word καλός in the middle of a sentence, as in καλὴ παρθένος,
is marked with a grave accent from left to right instead of from
right to left; but this, though it lowers the tone, does not affect
the dominance of the syllable. It is just as if in music the same
note, with the same rhythmical dominance, were sung an octave lower.
Practically, the learner need not concern himself curiously about the
matter.

It is a rule, both in Greek and Latin, that no word can be accented
farther back than the third syllable from the end, the antepenultimate,
the favourite accent of the English language. But, while this rule,
in a musical point of view, preserves the language from such a
rattle of insignificant sounds as in _lámentable_, _mílitary_, and
not a few other quadrisyllables in our unmusical English tongue, it
manifestly requires a correction from the side of penultimate and
oxytone accentuation to achieve the just balance of the music of
speech. In this respect Greek is decidedly superior to both Latin
and English; for, while Latin rejects the sonorous cadence of the
accent on the last syllable altogether, English uses it only in some
verbs, remnants of the past participle of Latin verbs, as in _rejéct_,
_suppóse_, _accépt_, and such-like; and in the case of the penult the
fine swelling cadence of the Greek words, in which the acute accent
of the penult is followed by a final long syllable, altogether fails,
as in πραγμάτων, which an Englishman, following his English ear,
will pronounce not only πράγματων but πράγματον, as if ω were ο. The
student, therefore, will carefully train his ear to give all oxytone
words their full value, and never to say ἄγαθος ὁ θέος instead of
ἀγαθὸς ὁ θεός, or κάλος ὁ ἄνηρ for καλὸς ὁ ἀνήρ.

By the quantity of a word we mean the comparative duration of the
sound, exactly as in music a [symbol: minim] is related to a [symbol:
quaver]; and in Greek the accentuation stands in a very marked relation
to the quantity of the syllables, which in practice asserts itself
prominently as follows:—

    (1) It is an invariable condition of the
    antepenultimate accent that the last syllable be
    short, as in ἄνθρωπος, a man; and in consequence,

    (2) If in the course of flexion a word with an
    antepenultimate accent takes a long final vowel, as
    in the genitive and dative singular of the second
    declension, the accent of the first syllable is
    advanced to the penult, as in ἀνθρώπου.

    (3) The converse takes place in verbs, where the
    accent is naturally on the root, as in λέγω, of
    which the imperfect is ἔλεγον; but in the aor. mid.
    indic., while the third person is ἐλέξατο, the
    first person is not ἐλέξαμην, but ἐλεξάμην.

A long syllable of course, as in προφήτης, may have an acute accent on
a long vowel with the same right as a short syllable; but there are
many long syllables in Greek which are marked neither with an acute nor
a grave but with a circumflex, which is a prolonged accent compounded
of a rise and a fall marked thus ^, or for greater ease, ~. These words
are generally compounds of which the elements are quite plain, as in
φιλοῦσι for φιλέουσι, τιμῶσι for τιμάουσι; in other words, as in σῶμα,
a body, or the genitive plural of the first declension, as πολιτῶν, and
some others, the single elements from which the complex tone arose were
either historically known to the grammarians or legitimately assumed.
At all events, every syllable in Greek with a circumflex accent is
practically treated as if it had two accents; σῶμα as if it were σάὸμα,
χρῶμα as χρόὰμα, πρᾶγμα as if it were πράὰγμα, and so on. It follows
from this, and the principle that no word can be accented farther back
than the antepenultimate, that, if in the course of flexion a word
with a circumflex on the penult receives an additional syllable so
as to become, in accentual value, a quadrisyllable, the accent must
be advanced; thus from τιμῶμαι,[4] I am honoured, we can say τιμᾶσθε
in the second person plural, but we cannot say τιμῶμεθα, so must say
τιμώμεθα. The change of accentual marking in this instance is of no
practical value to the student, but in the case of enclitics, of which
we shall now speak, it affects the ear most decidedly.

[4] Final αι and οι for accentual purposes are pronounced short in the
terminal flexions of nouns and verbs—τέτυμμαι, ἄνθρωποι, τράπεζαι.

Enclitics are small words, which, so to speak, have not force enough
to stand on their own legs, but lean (ἐγκλίνω) on the weightier word
that precedes them for support, and become absorbed in it; just as
in English we say _don’t_ for _do not_, and in Italian _dimmi_ for
the Latin _dic mihi_. These enclitics are πού, ποτέ, γε, and a few
others, the oblique cases of the personal pronouns, the indefinite
pronoun τις, and the verbs εἰμί, _I am_, φημί, _I say_, except in the
second person singular. The effect of their being thus taken up by
the previous word and forming a new whole must, in not a few cases,
materially affect the position of the accent; for, while in καλός τις,
_a certain good-looking fellow_, there is no change in the intonation
of καλός to the ear, the moment I say κάλλιστος τις, I either violate
the rule which forbids the accent on the fourth syllable from the end,
or I keep to the rule and say κάλλιστός τις. In the same way when I
say ὁ διάβολος, _the devil_, simply, I preserve the antepenultimate
accent with full effect in its natural place; but if I apply the
reproachful term to a special person, and say, as in John vi. 70, ἐξ
ὑμῶν εἷς διάβολός ἐστιν, _one of you is a devil_, I immediately, to
give the ἐστιν something to lean on, must make the διάβολος oxytone.
Similarly, I cannot write πνεῦμα ἔστιν, which in accentual value would
be a compound word of five syllables, but I must say πνεῦμά ἐστι
(John vi. 63), when the last syllable of the supporting word with the
two syllables of the enclitic become accentually a new word of three
syllables with a legitimate antepenultimate accent.

If the position of the accent, a point often not a little troublesome
even to natives in the orthoepy of their own language, has been
relieved of all practical difficulty by the curious prevision of
the Alexandrian elders, the quantity is even more simple. With the
double aid of the two separate signs for long vowels, η and ω, and
the quantity of the final vowel as determined by its relation to the
previous accented syllables, the only difficulty that remains is
obviated by the mark ¯ over the long vowels, and the ◡ over the short
ones found in all good dictionaries. In the present little work it
will be sufficient to mark the long vowel where it occurs in doubtful
cases, and leave the short ones to be understood as short from the
absence of the long mark. But the real difficulty that prevents both
accent and quantity from being easily acquired by English scholars
is the negligent practice of transferring Latin or English habits of
accentuation to Greek words, as when θεός is pronounced like _Déus_,
and Σωκράτης as _Sócrates_, and again the supposition that the accent
cannot be put on a syllable without making it long, or removed without
making it short. Let only the honest attempt be made to pronounce
ἄνθρωπος, not as _anthroāpos_, but as in _lándhōlder_, _córndēaler_,
and other such words, and the α in Σωκράτης, not like _a_ in _claw_ or
_maw_, but like the _a_ in _lattice_ and _scatter_, and the difficulty
will vanish like the gleam of a mirage before the firm foot and the
cool eye of the traveller.




LESSON I.—NOUNS

NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASE

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION

VERBS

THREE PERSONS SINGULAR, PRESENT INDICATIVE


A noun is the name of a thing or person, a verb signifies an action, an
adjective a quality as good or bad belonging to a noun. The nominative
case is the person who is or may be doing what the verb means; the
objective case is the thing or person to which or towards which the
action of the verb tends. The verb _to be_, denoting simple existence,
not action, of course is followed by the nominative, not the objective
case.

Nouns are masculine, feminine, or neuter.

    Masculines generally end in ος.
    Feminines in η or α, a few in ος—ὁδός, _a way_,
        βίβλος, _a book_, παρθένος, _a maiden_.
    Neuters in ον.

The objective case ends in ν, the ν being added to the termination of
feminines, and substituted for the ς in masculines. In neuters the
nominative and objective are the same. Adjectives follow the same rule.

Verbs: first person ends in ω, second in ς, and third in ει or ᾳ, as—

      ὁρῶ,   ὁρᾷς,    ὁρᾷ,    _I see,   thou seest, he sees_.
      ἀκούω, ἀκούεις, ἀκούει, _I hear_, etc.

    So—

            θαυμάζω, _I wonder_.
            μῑσῶ,    _I hate_.
            φιλῶ,    _I love_.
            ἔχω,     _I have_.

USEFUL IMPERATIVES

    φέρε, _bring_.
    δός,  _give_.
    ἰδοῦ, _behold! here!_

The article _the_ is declined masculine, feminine, and neuter like the
nouns, thus—

     ὁ       ἡ      τὸ
    τὸν     τὴν     τὸ

It never has α in the feminine.

The verb _to be_, εἰμί, has second person εἶ, third ἐστί, or before a
vowel ἐστίν, and in plural ἐσμέν, ἐστέ, εἰσί.

The pronouns of the first and second persons are—

     ἐγώ      μοῦ, ἐμοῦ   μοῖ, ἐμοί   μέ, ἐμέ
     _I        of me      to me       me_

     σύ        σοῦ         σοί        σέ
    _thou     of thee     to thee     thee_

    λαμπρός ἐστι ὁ ἥλιος, _the sun is bright_.
    καὶ καλὴ ἡ ἡμέρα, _and the day beautiful_.
    ὁρᾷς τὸν ἥλιον; _do you see the sun?_
    ὁρῶ νεφέλην, _I see a cloud_.
    νεφέλην στυγνὴν ὁρῶ, _I see a dark cloud_.
    ὁρᾷς τὸν καπνόν; _do you see the smoke?_
    ὁρᾷς τὸν οὐρανὸν τὸν κυανοῦν; _do you see the blue sky?_
    ἀκούεις τοῦ ποταμοῦ; _do you hear the river?_
    ἀκούεις τῆς βροντῆς; _do you hear the thunder?_
    θαυμάζεις τὸ δένδρον τόδε τὸ ὑψηλόν; _do you admire this tall tree?_
    θαυμάζω καὶ μ́ᾰλα γε, _I admire it extremely_.
    ὁρᾷς τὸ ῥόδον τοῦτο τὸ καλόν; _do you see this beautiful rose?_
    καὶ τὸ λείριον τὸ λευκόν; _and the white lily?_
    καὶ τὴν πόαν τὴν χλωράν; _and the green grass?_
    καλός ἐστιν ὁ κῆπος, _the garden is beautiful_.
    καὶ σοφὸς ὁ κηπουρός, _and the gardener wise_.
    ὁρῶ ἄκανθαν, _I see a thistle_.
    κᾰκόν, κᾰκόν, _bad, bad!_
    αἰσχρόν, αἰσχρόν, _ugly, ugly!_
    μῑσῶ τὴν κακὴν ἄκανθαν, _I hate the ugly thistle_.
    φιλῶ τὸ ῥόδον τὸ καλόν, _I love the lovely rose_.
    μῑσεῖς τὴν ἀκαλήφην; _do you hate the nettle?_
    μάλιστα, _certainly_.
    σφοδρός ἐστιν ὁ ἄνεμος, _the wind is strong_.
    φιλῶ τὴν σκιάν, _I love the shade_.
    καὶ τὴν σκέπην, _and the shelter_.
    φέρε τὴν τράπεζαν, _bring the table_.
    ποῦστι ὁ πέτασος ὁ ἐμός; _where is my hat?_
    δός μοι τὸν πέτασον, _give me the hat_.
    φιλῶ πῖλον ἐγώ, _I love a cap_.
    κ́ῑνει τὸ πῦρ, _or_ τὴν ἐσχάραν, _stir the fire_.
    δός μοι τὸ σκάλευθρον, _give me the poker_.
    ἔχεις πυράγραν; _have you tongs?_
    ἰδοῦ, _there_.
    ὁρᾷς τὸ κάτοπτρον; _do you see the mirror?_
    ἔχεις ἕδρᾱν; _have you a seat?_
    ἔχεις ὑποπόδιον; _have you a footstool?_
    ἔχεις κλ́ῑνην; _have you a sofa?_
    δός μοι τὴν βακτηρίαν, _give me my stick_.
    τὸ παιδίον τόδε τίς ἔστι; _who is this little boy?_
    ὁ ἀδελφὸς ὁ ἐμός, _my brother_.
    ἔστι σοι ἀδελφή; _have you a sister?_
    φιλῶ δεῖπνον, _I love dinner_.
    ἔχεις ἄρτον καὶ βούτῡρον; _have you bread and butter_?
    καλὸν τὸ ἀργυροῦν ποτήριον τοῦτο, _this silver cup is beautiful_.
    φέρε τὸ καλαμάριον, _bring the inkstand_.
    λάβε, _take it_.
    οὐχ ὁρῶ κάλαμον, _I do not see a pen_.
    ἰδοῦ, _here_.
    χάριν ἔχω, _thanks_.
    δός μοι χειρόμακτρον, _give me a napkin_.
    ἔτι δὲ τοῦ σάπωνος, _and some soap_.
    ἰδοῦ σάπωνα τὸν τοῦ Πεαρσίου, _here it is, Pears’ soap_.
    θεῖον πάνυ χρῆμα τοῦ καθαρτικοῦ, _a splendid cleanser!_
    νῦν δὴ λευκαί μοι αἱ χεῖρες ὥσπερ ἡ χιών. Ἔρρωσο.
    _now my hands are white as snow. Farewell_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Panorama. Lamp. Heliotrope. Calisthenics. Ephemeral. Urania. Acoustics.
Thaumaturgy. Rose. Lily. Chlorine. Sophist. Cacophony. Misanthrope.
Democrat. Animation. Philanthropy. Fire. Optics. Ophthalmia. Cathedral.
Clinical. Philadelphia. Adelphi Court. Soap. Chiromancy. Cathartic.




LESSON II

CASES, GENITIVE AND DATIVE


The genitive case signifies the source _from_ which a thing comes and
to which it belongs, as the _folly of fools_, the _fool’s folly_,
the folly that comes from the fool. The dative case means either the
secondary or more distant object of an action, as _I gave the book
to the boy_; or it _signifies rest_ or _residence in a thing_, for
which in English there is no special form; also in Greek it signifies
the instrument with which, or by which, a thing is done, as to _cut_
with a _knife_. In Greek masculines in ος have the genitive in ου and
the dative in ῳ; feminines in ρᾱ or ρᾰ and ίᾱ have the genitive in ας
and the dative in ᾳ; other feminines in α—as τράπεζᾰ, _a table_—and
feminines in η have ης in the genitive and ῃ in the dative.

    ὁρῶ νεφέλην ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ, _I see a cloud in the sky_.
    θαυμάζω τὴν σοφίαν τὴν ἐν τῷ σῷ ἀδελφῷ, _I admire the wisdom that
          is in your brother_.
    δὸς τῷ ἀδελφῷ τὸν κάλαμον τόνδε, _give your brother this pen_.
    καὶ τὸ καλαμάριον, _and the inkstand_.
    ὁ ἀδελφὸς ὁ σὸς θαυμάζει τὸ λευκὸν ῥόδον τὸ ἐν τῷ κήπῳ,
          _your brother admires the white rose in the garden_.
    ἀκούεις τῆς τοῦ ποταμοῦ βροντῆς; _do you hear the thunder
          of the river?_
    ἡ βία τοῦ ἀνέμου ταράττει τὸν κῆπον, _the violence of the
          wind disturbs the garden_.
    καὶ τόν γε πέτασον ἐπὶ τῇ ἐμῇ κεφαλῇ, _yes, and the hat
          on my head_.
    κ́ῑνει τὸ πῦρ τῷ σκαλεύθρῳ, _stir the fire with the poker_.
    ὁρᾷς τὴν ἕδραν τὴν τοῦ ἐπισκόπου; _do you see the bishop’s seat_?
    ἰσχυρός ἐστι· ἐσθίει τὸν τῶν πονούντων ἄρτον, _he is strong;
          he eats the bread of labour_.
    δός μοι τὸν κάλαμον τὸν τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ, _give me your brother’s pen_.
    φέρε τὸ καλαμάριον τὸ τῆς ἀδελφῆς, _bring your sister’s inkstand_.
    κόπτε τὸν κάλαμον τῇ μαχαίρᾳ, _cut the pen with the knife_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Bishop. Kinetics. Seat. Cathedral. Hydrocephalus.




LESSON III

PLURALS, NUMERALS, DIMINUTIVES


The plural of verbs is in ομεν, ετε, and ουσι for the three persons. In
pure verbs αομεν becomes ῶμεν, ᾶτε, and ῶσι; ε becomes οῦμεν, εῖτε, and
οῦσι.

The plural of nouns in ος is in

    οι,  nominative.
    ων,  genitive.
    οις, dative.
    ους, objective.

Neuters have nominative and objective α.

The plural of feminines is in

    αι,  nominative.
    ῶν,  genitive.
    αις, dative.
    ᾱς,  objective.

The relative pronoun, ὅς, ἥ, ὅ, _who_, _which_, is declined all
through, like masculine nouns in ος, and feminines in η, and neuters in
ον.

The numerals are—εἷς, μία, ἕν; δύω, τρεῖς, τέσσαρες, πέντε, ἕξ, ἑπτά,
ὀκτώ, ἐννέα, δέκα, in their order; εἴκοσι, _twenty_; ἑκατόν, _a
hundred_; χίλιοι, _a thousand_; μύριοι, _ten thousand_.

Diminutives are mostly neuter, ending in άριον, ίον, and ύλλιον: as
ἵππος, _a horse_—ἱππάριον, _a pony_; παῖς, _a boy_—παιδίον, _a little
boy_; βρέφος, _a babe_—βρεφύλλιον, _a little babe_. Masculine is ίσκος,
as παιδίσκος, _a young boy_, with feminine παιδίσκη, _a little girl_.

The adjective πολύς, _many_ (German _viel_), is declined in the
nominative—

                   πολύς πολλή πολύ

    and objective—

                   πολύν πολλήν πολύ

otherwise regularly, as if from πολλός-ή-όν.

It is a peculiarity of Greek syntax that neuter plurals are joined
with a singular verb, as καλῶς ἔχει τὰ πράγματα, _matters are going on
well_.

γράφομεν καλάμῳ, ὁρῶμεν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, _we write with a pen, and see
with our eyes_.

τὴν ἐπιστολὴν ἥν σοι γράφω δὸς τοῖς ἀδελφοῖς, _the letter which I write
for you give to your brothers_.

πόσους ἔχεις ἀδελφούς; _how many brothers have you?_

ἕξ, ἀδελφὰς δὲ ἑπτά, _six, and seven sisters_.

δεινὰ ταῦτα, _that is too bad!_

πόσα ἔχεις ῥόδα ἐν τῷ πετάσῳ; _how many roses have you in your hat?_

δώδεκα, λείρια δὲ ἕξ, _twelve, and six lilies_.

πόσους ἔχει ἵππους ὁ ἀδελφός; _how many horses has your brother?_

τρεῖς, _three_.

ὁρᾷς τοὺς κύκνους καὶ τοὺς γεράνους ἐν τῇ λίμνῃ; _do you see the swans
and the cranes in the loch?_

ὁρῶ, δεινὸν τὸ πλῆθος, _yes, a very great number_.

καὶ δὴ καὶ τρεῖς μόσχους κομψοὺς ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ; _also three pretty calves
in the field?_

ἔτι δὲ ἱππάριον, κόσμιον, βαλιόν; _also a neat little piebald pony?_

τί γελᾷς; _what are you laughing at?_

ἐκεῖνο τὸ παιδίον ἱππαζόμενον ἐπὶ τοῦ ἱππαρίου, _that boy riding on the
little pony_.

καὶ δὴ καὶ τρέχει ὀπίσω ἡ παιδίσκη ἡ κομψή, _and behind runs the pretty
little girl_.

τερπνὸν τὸ θέαμα, _a pleasant sight_.

ὁ θαυμαστὸς οὑτοσὶ δύο ὁρᾷ ἡλίους ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ, ἡμεῖς δὲ ἕνα μόνον
ὁρῶμεν, _this strange man sees two suns in the sky; we see only one_.

μῑσοῦμεν τὴν φωνὴν τοῦ μωροῦ, _we hate a fool’s voice_.

τοῦ δὲ σοφοῦ φωνὴν φιλοῦμεν, _but we love the voice of the wise man_.

οἱ ἀστρονόμοι πολλὰ ὁρῶσι τοῖς τηλεσκοπείοις ἃ ἡμεῖς οὐχ ὁρῶμεν, _the
astronomers see many things with their telescopes which we do not see_.

πολλὰ μὲν ἔχει δένδρα ἡ ὕλη, λόγους δὲ πολλοὺς ἡ τῶν μωρῶν γλῶσσα,
_there are many trees in the forest, and many words in a fool’s
tongue_.

πολλὰς κόπτομεν ἀκάνθας ἐν τοῖς ἀγροῖς, _we are cutting down many
thistles in the fields_.

καὶ οὐκ ὀλίγας, ὡς ἐλπίζω, ἀκαλήφας, _and not a few nettles also, I
hope_.

ἃς σὺ μῑσεῖς, ἀκαλήφας, _the nettles which you hate_.

δικαίως ἔγωγε, πάντες γὰρ μῑσοῦσιν τὰς ἀκαλήφας τὰς κακάς, _with good
reason too. All hate the evil nettles_.

τί πράττετε; _what are you about?_

γράφομεν ἐπιστολάς, _we are writing letters_.

ἐπιστολὰς λέγεις; _do you say letters?_

καὶ μάλα γε, πρὸς τὴν βασίλισσαν, _yes, to the queen_.

θαυμαστὰ λέγεις, _wonderful!_

ἀγαθὴ ἡ βασίλισσα, καὶ πρὸς τὰς εὐχὰς οὐ κωφὴ τὰς τῶν πιστῶν πολιτῶν,
_good is the queen, and not deaf to the prayers of loyal citizens_.

δίκαια λέγεις, _you say what is just_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Epistle. Graphic. Hippodrome. Euphony. Astronomy. Telescope. Polyglot.
Agriculture. Basilica. Basil. Police. Two. Triad. Pentarchy. Hexagon.
Heptarchy. October. Decade. Myriad.




LESSON IV

THIRD DECLENSION, SINGULAR


The third declension of nouns in Greek is more rich and varied than the
other two, and, besides, is distinguished by a peculiarity from which
the others are free, viz. while in the first and second declensions
all that requires to be done in forming the cases is to change the
last syllable of the nominative commencing with a vowel, leaving
the main body of the word unchanged, as ἡμέρα,-ας, ἄργυρ-ος,-ου, in
the third we observe that the final consonant of the root seems in
many cases to have been assimilated or absorbed by the termination
of the nominative, and reappears in the other cases, as in ἐλπίς,
genitive ἐλπίδος. Sometimes also the vowel of the last syllable of
the nominative is shortened before the addition of the genitival
termination, as in ποιμήν, ποιμένος. In some classes of nouns no change
is made, and the analogy of the two other declensions is followed
throughout. We shall take our examples from the more simple classes,
leaving the more complex and exceptional to be learned in the course of
reading.

The general type is—

         -ος, genitive.
         -ι,  dative.
         -α,  objective.

    as—

         σωτήρ,         _a saviour_.
         σωτῆρος,       _of or from a saviour_.
         σωτῆρι,        _to a saviour_.
         σωτῆρα,        _a saviour_.
         κώδων,         _a bell_.
         κώδωνος,       _of a bell_, etc.
         λυμεών, -ῶνος, _a blackguard_, etc.

and a number of words signifying a dwelling-place, as—

    ἵππος,              _a horse_;
    ἱππών,    -ῶνος,    _a stable_.
    ἐλαιών,   -ῶνος,    _an oliveyard_.
    παρθενών, -ῶνος,    _room of the virgin_;

and nicknames of men:

    γάστρων, -ωνος }
                   } _paunchy_.
    φύσκων         }


And to this class which follows the analogy of the other declensions
our first colloquy is confined.

(1) ὁρᾷς τὸν ἀροτῆρα τῷ ἀρότρῳ κόπτοντα τὴν γῆν; _do you see the
ploughman cutting up the ground with his plough?_

χρήσιμον τὸ ἔργον τοῦτο καὶ ἀναγκαῖον, _this is a useful and necessary
work_.

ἰσχυρὸν ἔχει ἵππον ὁ ἀροτήρ, _the ploughman has a strong horse_.

τίνος ἐστὶν ἡ εἰκὼν ἐκείνη; _what likeness is that?_

τοῦ Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ σωτῆρος ἡμῶν, _the likeness of Jesus Christ our
Saviour_.

θεῖον πάνυ τὸ πρόσωπον, _an altogether divine countenance_.

τίς ἐστιν ἡ βίβλος ἐκείνη ἡ λαμπρά; _what is that grand book?_

ἡ γεωγραφία τοῦ Στράβωνος, _the geography of Strabo_.

τί πίνεις ἐκ τοῦ κρατῆρος ἐκείνου; _what are you drinking out of that
bowl?_

πίνομεν τὸν οἶνον, _we are drinking wine_.

δός μοι τὸν τρίβωνα τὸν παλαιόν, _give me my old cloak_.

ἐκ μικροῦ σπινθῆρος δεινὴ πολλάκις ἀνάπτεται φλόξ, _from a small spark
often a fearful flame arises_.

ὡς γράφει ὁ Ἀπόστολος Ἰάκωβος, _as James the Apostle writes_.

καίτοι τί ταῦτα λέγεις; _but why do you say this?_

φοβεῖ μὲ ὁ πολὺς ἐκεῖνος καπνὸς ὁ ἐκ τῆς καπνοδόχης, _I fear that
quantity of smoke from the chimney_.

ἀκούω τοῦ κώδωνος καὶ τῆς τοῦ κλητῆρος φωνῆς ὃς ἐγείρει τοὺς πολίτας,
_I hear the bell, and the voice of the crier who wakes the people_.

οὐ σμικρὸς ὁ κίνδῡνος, _there is great danger_.

ἀκούω τοῦ ἀλεκτρυόνος, _I hear the cock_.

(2) Nouns in ωρ and ην shorten the long ultimate vowel of the
nominative, as ῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος; ποιμήν, ποιμένος; ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, _water_.

ὁρᾷς τὸν ποιμένα ἐκεῖνον μετὰ τῶν προβάτων ἐν τῷ λειμῶνι; _do you see
that shepherd with the sheep in the meadow?_

ὁρῶ, καὶ τὸν κύνα, _I see them and the dog_.

ἆρα οὖν ἀκούετε τῆς φωνῆς τοῦ δεινοῦ ἐκείνου ῥήτορος; _do you hear the
voice of that great orator?_

ἀκούομεν· μᾶλλον δὲ ἀρέσκει ὁ τῶν χελῑδόνων τρισμὸς καὶ τῆς ἀηδόνος τὸ
ἆσμα, _we hear; but like better the twitter of the swallows and the
song of the nightingale_.

δίκαίως· αὗται γὰρ κινοῦσι τὸ βαθὺ τῆς ψυχῆς, _with good reason; for
these stir the depths of the soul_.

(3) Feminines in ́ῐς and ́ᾰς, with the radical δ before the case
terminations, as λαμπ́ᾰς,-άδος; ἐλπ́ῐς,-ίδος. Neuters in α have the
genitive in τος. Words ending in ψ = πς or βς, as λαῖλαψ, λαίλαπος, _a
storm_; φλέψ, φλεβός, _a vein_; Κύκλωψ,-ωπος, _a Cyclops, Giant Round
Eye_, lose the σ of the nominative and present π or β before the case
termination. In the same way nouns in ξ = κς or γς, by losing the
final σ of the compound consonant, cause the single κ or γ to reappear
in the oblique cases, as ἱέραξ, _a hawk_, ἱέρᾱκος; ἀλώπηξ, _a fox_,
gen. ἀλώπεκος; κόραξ, κόρακος, _a crow_,

ἔρχεται ὁ ὑετός, _the rain is coming_.

οὐδαμῶς, _not at all_.

τὴν ψιλὴν ψεκάδα οὐκ ἔγωγε ὑετὸν λέγω, _a thin drizzle I do not call
rain_.

ἐκείνη ἡ νεφέλη σημαίνει λαίλαπα, _that cloud foretells a storm_.

λαμπρὰν ἔχω ἐλπίδα καλῆς ἡμέρας, _I have bright hope of a beautiful
day_.

ὁρᾷς ἐκεῖνο τὸ γυναικάριον ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ; _do you see that little woman in
the field?_

λέγουσι μαινάδα εἶναι, _they say that she is mad_.

καὶ πιστεύω ἔγωγε, _I for one believe it_.

δός μοι τὴν κρηπῖδα, καὶ τὸν πέτασον καὶ τὴν χλαῖναν, _give me my boot,
my hat, and my plaid_.

ποῦστι τὸ ὑπόδημά μου τὸ ἕτερον; _where is my other shoe?_

τί ἔχεις ἐν τῷ στόματι; _what have you in your mouth?_

ἄρτον· χάριν ἔχω τῷ Θεῷ, _bread, thank God!_

τί γράφεις; _what are you writing?_

ποίημα, _a poem_.

πότερον νοῦς ἔστιν ἐν τῷ ποιήματι; _is there any sense in the poem?_

πῶς οὔ; οὐ φυσῶ φυσήματα ἐκ σαπῶνος, _of course; I don’t blow
soap-bubbles_.

ὁρᾷς ἐκεῖνον τὸν κόρακα; _do you see that crow?_

ὁρῶ, περιπατεῖ ὡς κληρικὸς σεμνῷ τῷ βήματι, _I do; he walks like a
clergyman, with a grave step_.

τί ἐστι τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἐνδόξου ἐκείνου ῥήτορος; _what is the name of that
famous orator_?

Γλάδστων, _Gladstone_.

ὄνομα Σκωτικόν, _a Scotch name_.

καὶ μάλα γε· ἔχει γὰρ ἑρμηνείαν τὸ ὄνομα, λίθος ὁ τοῦ ἱέρᾱκος,
_certainly, for the interpretation of the name is_ the stone of the
hawk.

ἔστι Γλάδστων ὄνομα δήμου τινὸς ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ τοῦ Μεσολωθιᾶνος, _Gladstone
is the name of a parish in Midlothian_.

τί πράττει ὁ παῖς ἐκεῖνος; _what is that boy doing?_

μαστιγοῖ τὴν βέμβῑκα, _he is whipping his top_.

αὐτὸς μᾶλλον ἄξιος τῆς μάστῑγος, κακοῦργον γὰρ τὸ θρέμμα, _himself is
more worthy of the whip, for he is a wicked creature_.

ἔτι δὲ ἀργός· οὐκ ἄξιος τοῦ ἄρτου, _also idle; not worthy of his bread_.

νομίζω ἔγωγε τὸ νῶτον αὐτοῦ καὶ τὴν μάστῑγα ἐγγὺς προσήκειν γένει, _I
think the whip and his back are nearly related_.

κακός ἐστιν· ἀλώπεκος καὶ ἄρκτου μῖγμα παράδοξον, _he is bad; a strange
mixture of a fox and a bear_.

(4) Nouns in ῑς and ῡς have ν in the objective, as σῦς, _a pig_;
ἰχθ́ῡς, _a fish_, κ́ῑς, _a woodworm_. Also those in ῐς and ῠς, as
πόλις, _a city_, πόλιν; ὄφις, _a snake_, ὄφιν; πῆχυς, _a forearm_,
πῆχυν. These have the genitive in εως, and the dative in ει, as πόλεως,
πόλει.

πατήρ, _a father_, and μήτηρ, _a mother_, have πατρός and μητρός in
genitive, and πατρί and μητρί in dative; but the objective is in the
regular form with the short penult πατέρα. θυγάτηρ, _a daughter_,
follows the same rule, ἀνήρ has ἀνδρός, ἀνδρί, ἄνδρα.

βασιλεύς, _a king_, and ἱερεύς, _a priest_, have the genitive in έως,
and the dative in εῖ, like πόλις, but the objective is έα. βοῦς, _an
ox_, has βοός, βοί, and βοῦν.

γυνή, _a woman_, has genitive and dative -αικός, -αικί, and objective
-αῖκα.

ὁρᾷς τὸν καλὸν ἰχθ́ῡν ἐν τῷ ὕδατι; _do you see that beautiful fish in
the water_?

ὁρῶ, στίλβει τὸ θρέμμα, ὥσπερ μαργαρίτης, _yes, the creature glances
like a pearl_.

ἕτερον πάνυ ὁ σῦς ὁ ῥυπαρὸς ἐν τῷ συφεῷ, _very different is the filthy
pig in the sty_.

μῑσῶ τὸν σῦν, _I hate the pig_.

ὅμως χοῖρος σιτευτὸς λαμπρὸν ἄγαλμα τοῦ δείπνου, _nevertheless a fatted
pig—bacon—is the great glory of a dinner_.

ὁρᾷς τὸν ὄφιν ἐν τῇ πόᾳ; _do you see the snake in the grass?_

μῑσῶ τὸ θρέμμα, _I hate the creature_.

διὰ τί; _why?_

ἔχει κίνδῡνον, _it is dangerous_.

φρίττω τὸ ζῷον, πρόσωπόν γε τοῦ διαβόλου, _I shudder at the creature, a
mask of the devil_.

ἔχει πατέρα ὁ ὄφις τὸν Σατανᾶν, _the snake has Satan for his father_.

πολλὰ ἔχει πρόσωπα ὁ διάβολος, _the devil has many masks_.

αἱρετώτερον δὲ καλῆς γυναικὸς τὸ πρόσωπον, _specially that of a fair
woman_.

καὶ δὴ καὶ ἱερέως ὑπερηφάνου, _and that of a proud priest_.

ἔτι δὲ βασιλέως ἀνόμου καὶ τυράννου ὠμοῦ, _also of a lawless king, and
a cruel tyrant_.

καὶ ἀνδρὸς ἑκάστου τῶν ἐν πόλει ὅσοι πονηροί, _and of any bad man in
the town_.

(5) Adjectives of this declension occur most commonly in one of these
three forms—

    (α) ων, -ονος, masculine and feminine; ον, neuter—as
        σώφρων, _sound-minded_; πρόφρων, _forward_,
        _ready_—like nouns in ων _supra_. (β) ής, as
        ἀληθής, masculine and feminine; ἀληθές, neuter;
        genitive in οῦς and dative in εῖ—ὑγιής, _healthy_;
        σαφής, -ές, _distinct_, _clear_.

    (γ) ύς, masculine; εῖα, feminine; ύ, neuter; as γλυκύς,
           _sweet_; βαρύς, _heavy_.

    μέλας, _black_, has μέλαινα, μέλαν, and τάλας,
           _wretched_, the same.

ἀληθὲς τὸ δόγμα τοῦτο τὸ περὶ τοῦ διαβόλου, _this doctrine about the
devil is true_.

καὶ μάλα γε καὶ βαρύ, _yes, and weighty_.

γλυκὺ τὸ μέλι μετὰ τὸ πικρόν, _sweet is honey after sour_.

δημιουργοὶ αἱ μέλισσαι τοῦ μέλιτος τοῦ γλυκέος, _the bees are the
makers of sweet honey_.

βασιλέως γλύκυσμα τὸ μέλι, _it is a king’s dainty, honey_.

στέργομεν σύμπαντες τὰ νώγαλα καὶ τὰ τρωγάλια ἀκόλουθα τοῦ δείπνου, _we
all like dainties and a dessert to follow the dinner_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Gastric juice. Work. Bible. Geography. Crater. Wine. Palæography. Phlox
(the name of a flame-coloured flower). Apostle. Police. Rhetorician.
Pound. Abyss. Phrenzy. Wet. Phlebotomy. Cyclops. Hydropathy. Mænad.
Heterodoxy. Poem. Crow. Genesis. Generation. Mixture. Paradox.
Ichthyology. Paternal. Andrew. Alexander. Bovine. Gynæcology. Sow.
Devil. Hierarchy. Tyrant. Glycerine. Barometer. Mellifluous.




LESSON V

THIRD DECLENSION, PLURAL


The plural terminations of the third declension are—

    ες, nominative, α, neuter.
    ων, genitive.
    σι, dative.
    ᾰς, objective, α, neuter;

as ποιμήν, ποιμένες, λαῖλαψ, λαίλαπες, following always the type of
the genitive singular, as πατέρες, not πατρές; but ἀνήρ has ἄνδρες,
not ἀνέρες. Only in the dative plural the final consonant ν, δ, or τ
is dropped before the σι of the dative, as ποιμέσι, _to shepherds_;
στόμασι, _to mouths_; λαμπάσι, _to torches_.

The adjective πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν follows this rule, having παντός in the
genitive, but πᾶσι in dative plural; so γίγας, _a giant_; γίγαντος, _of
a giant_; but γιγᾶσι, _to giants_.

οὗτος ὁ πατὴρ πάντα τὰ χρήματα δίδωσι ταῖς θυγατράσι, τῷ δὲ υἱῷ οὐδέν,
_this father gives all the money to his daughters, to his son nothing_.

οἱ μὲν τῆς ἐκκλησίας πατέρες πολλοί, ἕκαστος δὲ παῖς ἕνα μόνον ἔχει
πατέρα, _the fathers of the church are many, but each boy has only one
father_.

δὸς τοῖς μὲν παισὶ βακτηρίαν, ταῖς δὲ παρθένοις σκιάδειον, _give a
stick to the boys, a parasol to the young ladies_.

γίγᾱς πάνυ ὁ παῖς οὑτοσί, καὶ τέρας γε πρός· δακτύλους γὰρ δὴ ἑπτὰ ἔχει
ἐπὶ τοῖς ποσίν, _this boy is a giant, and a monster to boot; he has
seven toes on his feet_.

τούτων τῶν παιδῶν πάντων ἄτοπόν τι ἔχει ἡ ἐσθής, παρέχουσά γε τὴν μὲν
χλαμύδα μέλαιναν, τὸ δὲ πῑλίδιον ξανθόν, _the dress of all these boys
is ridiculous, a black plaid with a yellow cap_.

ἀληθῆ λέγεις, _true_.

ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Father. Panorama. Daughter. Ecclesiastical. Polytheism. Monologue.
Giant. Dactyl. Seven. Foot. Melancholy. Lecture. Parthenon.




LESSON VI

THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON IN ADJECTIVES


The general form is τερος for the comparative and τατος for the
superlative, the genders following the type of the substantives of
the first and second declensions, as δίκαιος, _just_, δικαιότερος,
δικαιότατος; also, to avoid the concurrence of four short syllables
unfavourable to the dactylic rhythm of the early poetry, the ότερος in
certain cases becomes ώτερος, and the ότατος, ώτατος, as—

    σοφός, _wise_, σοφώτερος, σοφώτατος.

    So—
        φοβερός, _terrible_.
        χαλεπός, _difficult_.
        φανερός, _plain_.

Adjectives in ας, αινα, αν, and in ης, ες, add the τερος and τατος to
the neuter, as—

    μέλας,   _black_,    μελάντερος,   -τατος.
    ἀληθής,  _true_,     ἀληθέστερος,  -τατος.
    ἀκριβής, _accurate_, ἀκριβέστερος, -τατος;

a termination which is assumed also by adjectives in ων, as εὐδαίμων,
_happy_, εὐδαιμονέστερος,-τατος.

Some adjectives are compared by ιων,-ον, and ιστος,-η,-ον, as—

    καλός,             _beautiful_;
    καλλίων,           _more beautiful_;
    κάλλιστος,         _very beautiful_.
    ἡδύς,              _sweet_, ἡδίων, ἥδιστος.
    ταχύς,             _swift_;
    θάσσων for ταχίων, _swifter_; and
    τάχιστος,          _very swift_.

This form belongs also to some common irregular comparisons as—

    ἀγαθός, βελτίων, βέλτιστος, _good, better, best_.
    μέγας, _great_, μείζων, μέγιστος.
    κακός, _bad_,   χείρων, κάκιστος.
    πολύς, _many_,  πλείων, πλεῖστος;

which follow in declension the law of the substantives of the same
type, as μείζων, μείζονος; πλείων,-ονος, plural πλείονες, contracted
πλείους.

Comparatives are either accompanied with a genitive or followed by ἤ—as
ὁ υἱὸς μείζων ἐστὶ τοῦ πατρός, _the son is taller than the father_—or ἢ
ὁ πατήρ.

οὗτος ὁ νεανίσκος πολὺ μικρότερός ἐστι τῆς ἀδελφῆς· νᾶνός ἐστι, _this
young man is much less than his sister; he is a dwarf_.

λέγει ἡ ἁγία γραφὴ ὅτι ὁ Σαοὺλ πολὺ μέγιστος ἦν πάντων τῶν συμπολιτῶν,
_the holy scripture says that Saul was by far the tallest of all his
fellow citizens_.

οὐ σοφώτατος δέ, _but not the wisest_.

ἄμεινον τοῦ μεγέθους ἡ σοφία, _wisdom is better than stature_.

πόσα ἄτακτα ῥήματά ἐστιν ἐν τῇ Ἑλληνικῇ γλώσσῃ; _how many irregular
verbs are there in the Greek tongue?_

οὐκ οἶδα, _I do not know_.

περὶ τούτου γε χρὴ ἐρωτᾳν τὸν μάντιν, τὸν Οὐείτχιον, _on this point you
must consult the oracle, Veitch_.

φοβερὸν τὸ πλῆθος, _a terrible multitude_.

πλείω ἢ οἱ κόρακες ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ, _more than the crows in the field_.

ἀληθέστατα λέγεις, _you say what is very true_.

λέγω τὸ ἔμοιγε πονηρότατον καὶ χαλεπώτατον, _I say what for me at least
is a very painful and a very difficult business_.

μὴ ἀθύμει· πολλὰ ἔχει κακὰ ὁ βίος, παγκάκιστον δὲ τὸν ἀπελπισμόν,
_don’t despair; there are many bad things in life, but the worst is
despair_.

τῶν δὲ ἀγαθῶν ἐν τῷ βίῳ τί βέλτιστον; _and of the good things in life
which is best?_

ἡ πίστις, _faith_.

ὡς λέγει ὁ προφήτης Ἀμβακούμ· ὁ δίκαιος ἐκ πίστεως ζήσεται, _as the
prophet Habakkuk says, the just man shall live by faith_.

οὗ οὐκ ἔχει λόγον ἀληθέστερον ἡ ἁγία γραφή, _a word than which nothing
more true is found in holy scripture_.

πατὴρ τῆς ἀνδρείας ἡ πίστις, ἀνδρεία δὲ τῶν ἀνδρικῶν ἔργων πατήρ,
_faith is the father of courage, and courage is the father of manly
deeds_.

κάλλιστα λέγεις, _admirable_.

καλὸς ὁ λόγος, κάλλιον δὲ τὸ ἔργον, _a beautiful saying, but more
beautiful is the deed_.

ἄνευ ἔργου πάντων κενώτατον πραγμάτων ὁ λόγος, _without the deed speech
is the most empty of all things_.

ἐλαφρότερον τῶν ἀχύρων, _more light than chaff_.

καὶ οὐδὲν ἥττον στεῖρον, _and not less barren_.

ἔρρωσο, _farewell_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

New. Polygon. Hagiography. Tactics. Crow. Biology. Prophet. Energetic.
Plethora.




LESSON VII

THE FUTURE ACTIVE


The characteristic letter of the future tense is σ, inserted before
the terminations that mark the persons, thus: λύω, _I loosen_; λύσω,
_I will_; λύσεις, _thou wilt_; λύσει, _he will_; λύσομεν, _we will_;
λύσετε, _ye will_; λύσουσι, _they will loosen_. Of course by inserting
this σ, a preceding consonant, where the root is labial, uniting with
it forms a ψ, as above in nouns (Lesson IV, 3); and in the same way,
when the final vowel of the root is a palatal the κ or γ appears
as ξ—so, from βλέπω, _I see_, βλέψω; from λέγω, _I say_, λέξω. But
there are several variations, which will be learned by practice; the
following are dominant:—

    (α) Verbs with two consonants before the ω of the
        present eject the latter before inserting the σ,
        so that the π or φ of the root united with the σ
        becomes a ψ, as in τύπτω, τύψω; κόπτω, _I cut_,
        κόψω; σκάπτω, _I dig_, σκάψω; γράφω, _I write_,
        γράψω.

    (β) The same rule holds with many verbs in σσω, Attic
        ττω, the root ending in κ or γ, as πράσσω, _I do_,
        root πραγ, future πράξω; τάσσω, _I arrange_, τάξω.

    (γ) Verbs in άζω have either σω or ξω, or both, as
        θαυμάζω, _I admire_, θαυμάσω; νυστάζω, _I nod_, άσω
        or άξω; ἁρπάζω, _to carry off_, ξω, ἁρπάσομαι in
        Attic; βαστάζω, _to carry_, βαστάσω.

    (δ) Pure verbs generally lengthen the vowel of the
        present, α being changed into η, except where a
        vowel or λ precedes the άω, as—
                   τιμάω, _I honour_, τιμήσω.
                   φιλέω, _I love_,   φιλήσω.
                   δηλόω, _I show_,   δηλώσω.
               But—
                   κλάω,   _I break_,     κλάσω.
                   κοπιάω, _I labour at_, κοπιάσω.

    But some in έω prefer έσω, as τελέω, _I finish_,
        τελέσω; τρέω, _to tremble_, τρέσω; ζέω, _to boil_,
        ζέσω.

    (ε) Liquid verbs shorten the long vowel of the root, or
        throw out the last of two consonants in the root,
        and lay a circumflex accent on the termination ω,
        as—
                   μένω,   _I remain_, μενῶ.
                   σπείρω, _I sow_,    σπερῶ.
                   φαίνω,  _I show_,   φανῶ.
                   βάλλω,  _I throw_,  βαλῶ.
                   τέμνω,  _I cut_,    τεμῶ.

νῦν δὴ φοβεῖς με· δεινὸς ὡς ἀληθῶς ὁ χρόνος οὗτος ὁ τοῦ μέλλοντος, _now
indeed you frighten me; this future tense is terrible_.

γέλοια λέγεις· οὐκ ἐάσω σε τὰ τοιαῦτα λέγειν· λέγε μᾶλλον τὸ τῆς
παροιμίας, χαλεπὰ τὰ καλά, _ridiculous; I will not permit you to speak
thus; say rather, as the proverb has it, all excellent things are
difficult_.

λέξω, _I will say so_.

ἔχε πίστιν, _have faith_.

πιστεύσω καὶ νῑκήσω, _I will believe and conquer_.

αἰνέσει σε ὁ πατήρ, _your father will praise you_.

οὐδὲν διστάζω, _I do not doubt it_.

ἀνδρικὸν δηλώσεις θυμόν, _you will show a manly spirit_.

βλέψω ἀνδρικῶς πρὸς τὸν διάβολον καὶ οὐ τρέσω, _I will look manfully in
the face of the devil and not tremble_.

τί σκάπτει ὁ φύσκων ἐκεῖνος ἐν τῷ λειμῶνι; _what is that paunchy fellow
digging at in the meadow?_

σκάπτει τάφρον, _he is digging a trench_.

σκάπτει τοὺς θεμελίους λαμπροῦ οἰκήματος, _he is digging the
foundations of a grand house_.

οὐδαμῶς· τὸν τοιοῦτον οὐ θαυμάσομεν, _not at all; such a fellow we will
not admire_.

ἰδιώτης ἐστί· πόνον μὲν ἔχει, τέχνην δὲ οὔ· κόψει ποτὲ τὸν ἴδιον
δάκτυλον τῇ μαχαίρᾳ, καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸν ἴδιον αὐτὸς ἑαυτοῦ σκάψει τάφον·
τοιοῦτο γὰρ δὴ φιλεῖ γίνεσθαι τὸ τῶν ἀπαιδεύτων τέλος, _he is a
bungler. He has labour, but no skill. He will cut his finger with his
knife some day, and dig his own grave. Such is wont to be the end of
the unlearned_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Hydrophobia. Chronology. Chronic. Andrew. Idiot. Penury. Technical.
Polytechnic. Idiosyncrasy. Paedeutics.




LESSON VIII

THE PAST TENSE


The first aorist or indefinite past tense follows the type of the
future, with a σ before the personal terminations, and an augment ε
prefixed to the whole word, as a sign of the past tense, thus—

    πράξω, _I will do_.
    ἔπραξα,    -ας,  -ε,  _I, thou, he_   } _did_
    ἐπράξαμεν, -ατε, -αν, _we, you, they_ }

In liquid verbs, where the future has no σ, the aorist lengthens the
vowel of the penult, as—

    μένω     μενῶ    ἔμεινα
    στέλλω   στελῶ   ἔστειλα
    τείνω    τενῶ    ἔτεινα

There is another form of the past in

    -ον      -ες     -ε
    -ομεν    -ετε    -ον

as ἔτυπον for ἔτυψα, which some verbs prefer, as in ἔβαλον, _I threw_,
from βάλλω, βαλῶ; ἔκραγον from κράζω, and some have both, as ἤνεγκα,
ἤνεγκον, _I brought_, irregular from φέρω, _I bring_, future οἴσω, _I
will bring_.

    οἶδα, _I know_, has

    οἶδα,  οἶσθα, οἶδε,  _I,  thou, he_   } _know_.
    ἴσμεν, ἴστε,  ἴσασι, _we, you,  they_ }

and with the past participle, εἰδώς, -ότος.

    ᾔδειν,   ᾔδεις,  ᾔδει,   _I,  thou, he_   } _knew_.
    ᾔδειμεν, ᾔδειτε, ᾔδεσαν, _we, you,  they_ }

ἅπερ ἐγὼ ἔπραξα χθές, σὺ πράξεις αὔριον, ἀεὶ γὰρ ὑστερεῖς, _what I did
yesterday you will do to-morrow; you are always behind_.

τίς τὰ φύλλα ἔκοψε τῆς καλῆς ἐκείνης βίβλου; _who cut the leaves of
that beautiful book?_

ἐγώ, _I did_.

ἔκοψας, νὴ Δία, ἀμβλείᾳ τῇ μαχαίρᾳ· πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ῥυπαροί εἰσι σοὶ οἱ
δάκτυλοι, _verily you cut it with a blunt knife; besides, your fingers
are filthy_.

νίψω τῶ χεῖρε,[5] _I will wash my hands_.

[5] A dual number for τὰς χεῖρας, which both in nouns and verbs the
Greeks sometimes used for a pair of persons or things. See the grammar.

ἔδωκα ἐκείνῃ παρθένῳ μῆλον, ὁ δὲ παῖς ἥρπαξε· τίς ποτε ἐδίδαξεν αὐτὸν
τὸ τέχνημα τόδε; _I gave that girl an apple, and the boy seized it. Who
taught him that trick?_

κακοδαίμων τις, _an evil genius_.

τίς ἔβαλε τὸν λίθον; _who threw the stone?_

ὁ παῖς ὁ ἐν τῷ κήπῳ, _the boy in the garden_.

παράνομός τις ἐστί, _he is a lawless boy_.

χθὲς διέθραυσε πλάκα ὑαλίνην ἐν τῇ τοῦ φροντιστηρίου τοῦ ἐμοῦ θυρίδι,
_yesterday he broke a glass pane in my study window_.

οὐχί· ὁ αἴλουρος ἦν ὁ ἁμαρτωλός· ἐμήνυσαν αἱ ῥῖνες αἱματηραὶ τὴν
ἁμαρτίαν τοῦ ζῴου, _not so; the cat was the sinner; the bloody nose of
the animal declared its sin_.

τὴν βίβλον ἣν ἔδωκά σοι χθὲς ἐγχειρίσεις (Attic ἐγχειριεῖς) τῇ ἀδελφῇ·
ἀγαθὴ γὰρ ἡ παρθένος καὶ βιβλοῦ ἀγαθῆς ἀξία, _the book which I gave you
yesterday you will hand over to your sister; she is a good girl, and
worthy of a good book_.

τίς ᾠκοδόμησε τοῦτο τὸ ἱερόν; _who built this church?_

τέκτων τις, _an architect_.

τέκτων μὲν οὔ, ἐργάτης δέ τις λίθων, _not an architect, a stonemason_.

ὁ γὰρ ἀληθὴς τέκτων ποιητής ἐστι· καὶ τὸ οἰκοδόμημα ὅπερ ᾠκοδόμησε χθὲς
ποίημα μένει λίθινον αὔριον καὶ ἀεί, ὡς ἔστιν ἰδεῖν ἐν τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ, _for
a true architect is a poet; and the edifice which he raised yesterday
remains a stone poem to-morrow and for ever, as one may see in Egypt_.

τίς εἶδε τὸν παῖδα ὃς ἀπέκοψε τὸν κλάδον τοῦ δένδρου ἐκείνου; _who saw
the boy who cut the branch of that tree?_

εἶδον ἐγώ, _I saw him_.

ἄγε αὐτὸν δεῦρο· μαστιγώσω τὸν κακοῦργον, _bring him to me; I will flog
the rascal_.

σήμερον πάντως οὐ δειπνήσει, _he shall have no dinner to-day_.

ἢ δειπνήσει γε μετὰ τῶν συῶν, _or dine with the pigs_.

ἐβούλευσα αὐτῷ καλὴν βουλήν, _I gave him good advice_.

μάτην, _in vain_.

οὐκ ἤκουσε, _he did not hear_.

κωφός ἐστι, _he is deaf_.

κωφὸς δὴ πρός γε τὴν τῶν σοφῶν βουλήν, _yes, deaf to the counsel of the
wise_.

χθὲς ἔκλεισε τὰ ὦτα πρὸς τὸν τοῦ σοφοῦ Σολομῶνος λόγον· τοῦ ἄφρονος οἱ
ὀφθαλμοί εἰσιν ἐπ’ ἄκρα τῆς γῆς, _yesterday he closed his ears to the
word of the wise Solomon: the eyes of a fool are in the ends of the
earth_.

ἤκουσε τοῦ μὲν λόγου, τὸν δὲ νοῦν οὐ κατέλαβε, _he heard the word, but
he did not take in the sense_.

ὁ ἀδελφὸς αὐτοῦ ὁ ἄφρων ἐπλήρωσε τὸν ἐγκέφαλον διανοημάτων κενῶν, _his
foolish brother filled his brain with vain imaginations_.

καὶ ἐπίστευσε τῷ ἀδελφῷ μᾶλλον ἢ τῇ ἁγίᾳ γραφῇ, _and he believed his
brother rather than the holy scripture_.

ὦ τοῦ ἀτυχήματος, _sad! sad!_


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Egotism. Practice. Foliation. Chiromancy. The Parthenon. Didactic.
Technical. Cacodemon. Lithotomy. Rhinoceros. Zoology. Agatha.
Hierarchy. Dendritis. Divine. Acrobat. Geography. Logic. Hagiology.
Hagiolatry. Graphic.




LESSON IX

INFINITIVE MOOD AND PARTICIPLES


The infinitive mood gives the action of the verb substantively as we
use the participle in _seeing is a good thing_, but in Greek, as in
Latin, always the infinitive, as καλὸν τὸ ὁρᾶν, and declined with the
article like a noun, through all the cases, of course neuter, as the
gender does not lie in the action, but in the actor. Its normal ending
in the active voice is ειν, as in the present βάλλειν, _to throw_,
and second aorist βαλεῖν; but in first aorist its termination is αι,
as κόψαι, from κόπτω. Pure verbs follow their vowel, as τῑμᾶν, _to
honour_; φιλεῖν, _to love_.

Like substantives, verbal infinitives are governed by prepositions
through all the cases, as περί, _about_; παρά, _from beside_; μετά,
_with_; ἐν, _in_, and εἰς _into_—as περὶ τοῦ καπνίζειν λέγω μέτρον
ἄριστον, _about smoking I say moderation is best_.

Participles are verbal adjectives declined as such, and signifying the
quality or accident of a certain state of being or action belonging to
an agent.

The participles of the present and of the second aorist are declined in
masculine and neuter according to the type of the second declension, in
feminine according to the first, as—

        τύπτων, τύπτουσα, τύπτον, _he,     she, or it_ }
    τύπτ-οντος,    ούσης,  οντος, _of him, her, or it_ } _striking_.
          οντι,     ούσῃ,   οντι, _to him, her, or it_ }

The first aorist participle bears the type of the third declension,
as in γίγας, γίγαντος, _a giant_—so ποιήσας, _having made_; feminine
ποιήσᾱσα, neuter ποιῆσαν.

    genitive,    -αντος   -ᾱσης   -αντος.
    dative,      -αντι    -ᾱσῃ    -αντι.
    objective,   -αντα    -ᾱσαν   -αν.

Pure verbs have a long vowel or diphthong: thus, from

    περιπατέω   περιπατῶν   περιπατοῦντος
    τιμάω       τιμῶν       τιμῶντος

ἆράγε εἶδες ἐκεῖνον τὸν παῖδα ἐν τῷ κήπῳ περιπατοῦντα; _did you see
that boy walking in the garden?_

εἶδον, _I did_.

καλὸν τὸ περιπατεῖν καὶ ὑγιές, οὐ τοιοῦτον δὲ τῷ κλέψαντι τὰ μῆλα,
_walking is good and healthy, but not for him who stole the apples_.

τῑμῶσα τὴν βασίλισσαν τῑμᾷς τὴν πόλιν ἧς δὴ ἐκείνη κεφαλὴ ἐστίν, _in
honouring the queen you honour the state of which she is the head_.

περὶ τοῦ ὑπνοῦσθαι οὐδὲν ἀκριβῶς ἐπιτάττω· ἓν μόνον λέγω, οὐχ ὑγιὲς τὸ
ὑπερβάλλειν ὀκτὼ ὥρας ἐν τῇ κοίτῃ, _about sleeping I prescribe nothing
curiously; only this one thing I say, that to lie in bed more than
eight hours is not healthy_.

ἀληθῆ λέγεις, _you say well_.

τοῖς γε ὑγιὲς ἔχουσι τὸ σῶμα, _at least for those who have a healthy
body_.

τὸ γὰρ ἀργεῖν διαφθείρει τό τε σῶμα καὶ τὴν ψυχήν, _for lying idle
damages both body and soul_.

μάλιστα· καὶ τὸ πράττειν ὁτιοῦν ἐναντίον τῷ συστήματι τοῦ ὅλου
διαφθείρει τὴν ψυχήν, ὡς λέγει ὁ τῶν καλῶν ἔργων ἀπόστολος, ὁ Ἰάκωβος·
εἰδότι τὸ καλὸν καὶ μὴ ποιοῦντι, αὐτῷ ἁμαρτία ἐστίν, _certainly, for to
do anything contrary to the system of the universe destroys the soul,
as James the apostle of good works says, “to him that knoweth what is
good and doeth it not, to him it is sin.”_

τῷ λαλοῦντι πολλὰ πολὺς ὁ κίνδῡνος, _to the great talker there is great
danger_.

ἐν δὲ τῷ ὀλίγα λέγειν μεγάλη ἡ σωτηρία, _but in speaking little there
is great safety_.

μεγάλη βιβλιοθήκη χρησίμη ἐστὶν εἰς τὸ πολλὰ εἰδέναι, _a good library
is useful to get great knowledge_.

πῶς γὰρ οὔ; ὅμως οὐκ ἀεὶ εἰς τὸ σοφῶς βιῶναι, _certainly, but not
always for wise living_.

πολλὰς βίβλους δυνατὸν τοὺς ἀσθενεῖς ἐγκεφάλους κυκᾶν, _it is possible
that many books may confound weak brains_.

τὸ λεγόμενον, πολλοὶ ὄντες οἱ μάγειροι διαφθείρουσι τὸν ζωμόν, _as they
say, many cooks spoil the broth_.

καὶ κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον παμπλήθη ἔπιπλα ὑπὲρ τὸ πρέπον καὶ τὸ
ἡδὺ ἐκπληροῖ τὸ οἴκημα καὶ ταράττει τοὺς εἰσβαίνοντας, _and in the
same way, a great quantity of furniture, beyond what is proper and
comfortable, fills up the room, and inconveniences those who enter_.

σοφῶς. ἀεὶ κακὸν τὸ ὑπερβαίνειν, _wise. All excess is bad._

τὴν σοφίαν λέγεις τοῦ Ἀριστοτέλους· ἐν τῷ μέσῳ ἀεὶ ἡ σωτηρία, _the
wisdom of Aristotle: safety lies in the mean_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Peripatetics. Hygiene. Cleptomania. Hypnotism. System. Psychology.
Apostle. Polyanthus. Trope. Hyperbole. Plethora.




LESSON X

THE OTHER PAST TENSES


The imperfect, with the augment prefixed as the sign of the past, is as
follows; from κόπτω—

    ἔκοπτ-ον,   -ες,  -ε,  _I,  thou, he was_    } _cutting_.
    ἐκόπτ-ομεν, -ετε, -ον, _we, you,  they were_ }

Pure verbs contract

               αον   into ων
               αες    ”   ας
               αε     ”   α
               άομεν  ”   ῶμεν
               άετε   ”   ᾶτε
               αον    ”   ων

    as in—

          ἐτίμων      ἐτίμας     ἐτίμα
          ἐτιμῶμεν    ἐτιμᾶτε    ἐτίμων

               εον   into ουν
               εες    ”   εις
               εε     ”   ει
               έομεν  ”   οῦμεν
               έετε   ”   εῖτε
               εον    ”   ουν

    as in—

          ἐφίλουν    ἐφίλεις   ἐφίλει
          ἐφιλοῦμεν  ἐφιλεῖτε  ἐφίλουν

The present perfect, or the immediately past perfect, in addition to
the augment, reduplicates the initial consonant of the root, and its
terminations are—

    -α,    -ας,  -ε,   _I,  thou, he has_ ...
    -αμεν, -ατε, -ᾱσι, _we, you,  they have_ ...

It changes also the σ of the future into a κ—

    τιμήσω—τετίμηκα     τετίμηκας   τετίμηκε
           τετιμήκαμεν  τετιμήκατε  τετιμήκāσι

but this κ, when the root ends in γ or κ, appears as χ; thus—

    πλέκω   πλέξω  πέπλεχα
    πράσσω  πράξω  πέπρᾱχα

and in the same way the final π of the root appears as φ; thus—

    τύπτω   τύψω   τέτυφα
    γράφω   γράψω  γέγραφα

In the pluperfect, which is not often used, the same reduplication
takes place, and the terminations are—

    -ειν    -εις   -ει
    -ειμεν  -ειτε  -εισαν or -εσαν

as in—

    ἐτετύφειν    ἐτετύφεις   ἐτετύφει
    ἐτετύφειμεν  ἐτετύφειτε  ἐτετύφεισαν

ἔτυπτον ἐγὼ τὸ παιδάριον, ὅτε εἰσελθὼν ὁ ἀστυνόμος ἥρπασέ με εἰς τὸ
δεσμωτήριον, _I was beating the boy, when the policeman entering took
me to prison_.

γέγραφα ἐπιστολὴν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα σου λέγων παῖδά σε εἶναι κόσμιον τοὺς
τρόπους, _I have written a letter to your father saying that you are a
well-behaved young man_.

ἐτύγχανον ὕπτιος κείμενος ἐν τῇ κοίτῃ ὅτε μέγας τις μῦς ὑπερπηδήσας
τὰ στρώματα δεινόν μοι ἐνεποίησε φόβον, _I happened to be lying on my
back in the bed when a rat, leaping over the bedcover, gave me a great
fright_.

δικαίως γε, _and with good reason_.

τὰ νῦν δὲ ποῦστι τὸ ἀναιδὲς θρέμμα; _and now, where is the shameless
creature?_

κέκαφεν αὐτὸ τὸ κυνάριόν μου τὸ ἐκ τῆς Ὀρεινῆς, _my little Skye terrier
has just snapped it up_.

δίκαια ἔπαθεν, _served it right!_

ποῦστι τὸ μελανοδοχεῖόν μου; _where is my inkstand?_

εὕρηκα, εὕρηκα, ἐν τῷ λουτρῶνι, _I have found it, I have found it, in
the bathroom_.

παράδοξον τοῦτο· οὐκ ἔγραφον ἔγωγε ἐν τῷ λουτρῶνι, _strange; I was not
writing in the bathroom_.

οὐχ ὁρῶ τὸν κάλαμον, _I do not see my pen_.

ἰδοῦ· εὗρον ἐν τῷ δειπνητηρίῳ, _here it is; I found it in the
dining-room_.

ἔπαιζεν ὁ αἴλουρος τῷ καλάμῳ σου καὶ τῷ πετάσῳ, καὶ τῇ χλαμύδι, καὶ
ταῖς κρηπῖσι, καὶ δεινόν τινα ἐποίει θόρυβον, _the cat was playing with
your pen, and with your hat, and your plaid, and your boots, and making
a terrible row._

σφάξον τὸ θρέμμα, _kill the brute!_

οὐδαμῶς· αὐτὸς σὺ αἴτιος, ὃς δὴ ἔλιπες τὸ οἴκημα ἐν πάσῃ ἀκοσμίᾳ, ὁ
δὲ αἴλουρος πεπλήρωκε τὸ ἔργον σου, _not at all; you yourself are to
blame, who left the room in great disorder, and the cat has finished
your work_.

δίκαια λέγεις, _you are right_.

καὶ ἐγὼ μεγάλην ὤφληκα μωρίαν, _and I have committed an act of great
folly_.

μετανοῶ ἐπὶ τῷ πράγματι, _I repent of the business_.

ἔρρωσο, _farewell_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Harpy. Graphic. Epistle. Tropic. The Cosmos. Cosmetic. Big. Melancholy.
Paradox. Autonomy. Pragmatic.




LESSON XI

VERBS IN μι


The great mass of Greek verbs, whatever their variations of person
and tense may be, agree in this one prominent feature, that the first
person singular of the present indicative ends in ω, as in Latin _ō_,
possibly a relic of the pronoun ἐγώ, _I_. But there is a small class
of verbs in familiar use which, instead of the ω, affix to the first
person μι, evidently identical with the English _me_ and the German
_mich_—a confusion of the nominative and accusative cases familiar to
our ears in French and vulgar English, when we say _it is me_ instead
of _it is I_. Whatever may have been the original form of the verbs in
μι, as a matter of practice, if we fling off the μι from the present,
the future and the tenses cognate with it may be formed directly from
an assumed form in ω: thus ἵστημι, _I cause to stand_, στήσω, _I will
cause to stand_, as if from στάω; τίθημι, _I place_, θήσω, _I will
place_, as if from θέω; δείκνῡμι, _I show_, δείξω, _I will show_, as
if from δείκω; and δίδωμι, _I give_, future δώσω, _I will give_, as
if from δόω, the Latin _dō_ evidently preserving the simple form from
which δίδωμι comes by the prefix of δι and the suffix μι.

_Present_

    ἵστημι,  ἵστης,  ἵστησι, _I,  thou, he_   } _cause to stand_.
    ἵσταμεν, ἵστατε, ἱστᾶσι, _we, you,  they_ }


_Imperfect_

    ἵστην    ἵστης   ἵστη
    ἵσταμεν  ἵστατε  ἵστασαν


_Second Aorist_

    ἔστην    ἔστης   ἔστη
    ἔστημεν  ἔστητε  ἔστησαν

The middle and passive voice follow the form of the regular verb.

The perfect active of ἵστημι, ἕστηκα, is used as a present with a
neuter sense, _I stand_, and in like manner, the pluperfect ἑστήκειν,
and the 2nd aorist ἔστην, _I stood_.

τίθημι and its analogues have ε for the α in the plural, and first
aorist ἔθηκα instead of ἔθησα; and in the same way ἵημι, _to send_, has
first aorist ἧκα, _I sent_; so also δίδωμι has ἔδωκα, _I gave_, not
ἔδωσα.

The irregular verbs εἰμί, _I am_, εἶμι, _I go_ (usually future: _I will
go_), evidently fall under this scheme. For εἰμί, _I am_, see supra,
Lesson I. The verb _to go_ has εἶμι, _I go_; εἶ, _thou art going_;
εἶσι, _he is going_; ἴμεν, _we are going_; ἴτε, _you are going_; ἴᾱσιν,
_they are going_. Imperative ἴθι, _go_.

ἄπιθι, ἄπιθι, ἄκλητος καθίζεις ἐπ’ ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἕδρᾳ· στήσω σε ἐνταῦθα,
_begone, begone! you have no business in that seat; I will plant you
here_.

ἕστηκα ὅπου ἕστηκα, καὶ καθίζω ὅπου καθίζω, _I stand where I stand, and
I sit where I sit_.

σοὶ ἔδωκα τὴν βίβλον τὴν κομψήν, σὺ δὲ ἔδωκας τῷ παιδισκαρίῳ τούτῳ· ἐς
τοσοῦτον ἆρα καταφρονεῖς μου, καὶ τοῦ δώρου μου; _I gave the pretty
book to you, and you gave it to that little girl. Do you so despise me
and my gift?_

συνῆκα ἃ λέγεις· ἡ δὲ παρθένος μᾶλλον τῆς βίβλον ὀνήσεται ἢ ἐγώ, _I
understand what you say; but the young lady will be more profited by
the book than I_.

μάλα ταπεινόφρων σύ γε, _you are very humble_.

οὐχ οὕτως· φιλῶ τὴν παρθένον, _not at all; I love the girl_.

πιθανόν, _likely enough_.

οἱ πολλοὶ τί φασι περὶ τοῦ Γλάδστωνος; _what do people say about
Gladstone?_

θαυμάζουσι αὐτὸν δικαίως ὡς δεινὸν μὲν περὶ τοὺς λόγους, τῶν δὲ περὶ
τὰς τῆς πόλεως προσόδους ἐμπειρότατον, καὶ δὴ καὶ τῶν τε Ἰταλικῶν καὶ
τῶν Ἑλληνικῶν γραμμάτων ἐπιστήμονα, _they admire him, with good reason,
as a great speaker, also as an expert and apt financier, and besides a
great Greek and Italian scholar_.

ἀληθέστατα λέγεις· εἰ κατέστησαν αὐτὸν καθηγητὴν τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς
φιλολογίας ἐν τῷ τοῦ Βουπόρου πανεπιστημίῳ, οὐκ ἐλάττων ἂν ἐγένετο[6]
τοῦ Βοεκίου, τοῦ Ἑρμάννου, τοῦ Μυλλέρου, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων Γερμανῶν ὅσοι
περὶ τὴν πολυμαθίαν ἐν τοῖς πρώτοις εὐδοκιμοῦσι, _very true; if they
had made him professor of Greek in the university of Oxford, he would
not have stood below Boeckh, or Hermann, or Müller, or any of the
Germans who are most distinguished for great learning_.

[6] For the use of the particle ἄν here and below see Lesson XV _infra_.

καὶ οὕτως γε ἐτύγχανεν ἂν εὐτυχῶς διαφυγὼν τόν τε πολὺν θόρυβον καὶ
διαφθορὰν τοῦ βίου πολιτικοῦ, _and so he might have happily escaped the
great bother and the corruption of political life_.

δυνατὰ λέγεις· ὅμως οὐκ ἄν τις τυγχάνοι διαπεφευγὼς τὴν εἱμαρμένην,
_possibly; however no man can escape his destiny_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Stand. Sit. Seat. Dowry. Philology. Mathematics. Empiric. Dynamics.
Logic. Grammar. Allopathy. Biology.




LESSON XII

COMPOUND VERBS


Verbs compounded with a preposition place the augment and reduplication
between the preposition and the verb. Except περὶ and πρὸ all
prepositions ending in a vowel have the vowel elided before the
augment; πρὸ generally forms a crasis with the augment and becomes
προὐ. The ν in ἐν and σύν, which had been assimilated in the present,
is resumed before the augment.

The prepositions that most frequently occur in compound verbs are—

    περί, _round about_, as in English _periphery_.
    ἀπό,  _off_ or _away from_, as in _apogee_.
    ὑπό,  _under_, as in _hypocrite_.
    ἐν,   _in_, as in _energy_.
    εἰς,  _into_.
    σύν,  _together_, as in _sympathy_.
    πρό,  _before_, as in _prophet_.
    παρά, _alongside_ or _away_, as in _parallel_, _parasite_.
    ἀντί, _instead of_, _opposite to_, as in _antidote_.
    μετά, _with_ or _after_, as in _metaphysics_.
    πρός, _toward_, as in _proselyte_.
    ἀνά,  _up_ or _back_, as in _anatomy_.
    κατά, _down_, as in _catalepsy_.
    ἐπί,  _on_ or _upon_, as in _epilogue_.

ὁ φίλος μου ὁ ἀληθῶς φιλικὸς περιέβαλε τοῖς ὤμοις μου τὴν χλαῖναν
σκέπην ψύχους, _my true friend threw his cloak round my shoulders as a
protection against the cold_.

ὑπόδησον τὰ ὑποδήματά μου, _put on my shoes_.

ἀπέβαλον τὰ ὑποδήματα τὰ ἀρχαϊκά· κομψότερα τὰ καινότροπα, _I flung
away the old-fashioned shoes; those of the new fashion are more
elegant_.

χάριν ἔχω σοι τοῦ ἀγάλματος, _thanks to you for the pretty gift_.

σήμερον μεταβέβληκεν ὁ οὐρανὸς εἰς τὸ χεῖρον, _to-day the weather has
changed for the worse_.

κατὰ φύσιν τοῦτο ἐν τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ πατρίδι οὗ οὐδὲν ἔχει στάσιμον ὁ
οὐρανός, _quite natural, at least in our country, where the weather is
never steady_.

χθὲς κατέβην εἰς τὸ χῶμα, καὶ εἶδον τὸ μέγα ἀτμόπλοιον, _yesterday I
went down to the pier and saw the big steamboat_.

πότερον ἤρεσέ σοι ἢ οὔ; _did it please you or not?_

ὑπερεθαύμασά γε, _I admired it exceedingly_.

ἆρα οὐκ εἰσέβης; _did you not go on board?_

εἰσέβην γὰρ καὶ τὸν ναύκληρον εἶδον καὶ τῶν ναυβατῶν δεινὸν πλῆθος, _I
did, and saw the captain and a great number of the crew_.

ἔπειτα δὲ κατέβην εἰς τὴν κοίλην καὶ ἐθαύμασα ἄπειρα σάγματα πίθων
καὶ λαρνάκων καὶ κιστῶν καὶ κοφίνων καὶ ἄλλης παντοδαπῆς κατασκευῆς,
_afterwards I went down into the hold, and saw with wonder countless
piles of barrels, boxes and chests, baskets, and all sorts of stuff_.

ἔπειτα δὲ ἀνέβην, καὶ προσέβλεψα τὸν κυανοῦν οὐρανόν, καὶ χάριν εἶχον
τῷ Θεῷ, _then I came up, and looked on the blue sky, and thanked God_.

τελευταῖον δὲ συνέλεξα τὰ σκεύη μου, καὶ ἕστηκα ἐνώπιόν σου ἐν ὁλοκλήρῳ
δέρματι, _lastly, I gathered up my chattels, and stand before you with
a whole skin_.

ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ· ἀεὶ εὐτυχεῖς· πανταχοῦ πίπτεις, τρόπον τῶν αἰλούρων, τοὺς
πόδας ἔχων ἐμπέδους ἐν τῷ δαπέδῳ, _good luck be with you; you are a
lucky dog; you always fall on your feet like the cats_.

οὐ τυφλώττω· καὶ ἕκαστα εἴωθα πράττειν προσκόποις τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, _I am
not blind, and am accustomed to do everything with forecasting eyes_.

σοφός σύ γε, _a wise man you!_


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Philanthropy. Steady. Navy. Hollow. Chest. Theology. Epidermis.
Physiology. Patriot. Atmosphere. Plethora. Podagra.




LESSON XIII

MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE AND CONDITIONAL


The subjunctive or conjunctive mood is the form which the verb takes
when no independent assertion is made as a fact, but only as a
sequence of an asserted fact or truth, and having only a secondary or
conditional existence; as if I should say in English, _I give you this,
that it may be in your power to do so and so_, the secondary sentence
preceded by _that_ is altogether dependent on the precedent thing done,
_I give you this_. In this example the substantival proposition is in
the present indicative, and the subjunctive nature of the dependent
sentence is expressed by the auxiliary verb _may_; but, if the leading
clause is in the past tense, the dependent clause is expressed by
_might_, which in fact is the past tense of _may_, as _I gave you this
that you might_. In Greek this past conditional is, from a peculiar
usage, commonly called the _optative mood_. In the present lesson we
shall confine ourselves to the dependent tense subjoined to a present
or a future. The form of the subjunctive is very simple, consisting as
it does in the mere change of the terminational vowel or diphthong of
the present into ω and η—

    κόπτ-ω,    -ῃς,  -ῃ,   _I,  thou, he_   } _may strike_;
    κόπτ-ωμεν, -ητε, -ωσι, _we, you,  they_ }

and in the first and second aorist the same—κόπτω, ἔκοψα, κόψω,-ῃς, -ῃ.

The subjunctive mood is often introduced by ἐάν or ἤν, ἵνα, and ὅταν,
and when a negative particle belongs to it, it is μή, not οὐ.

δίδωμί σοι ταύτην τὴν βίβλον ἵνα καταλαμβάνῃς ὅσον ἐστὶ χαλεπὸν τὸ
πρᾶγμα περὶ οὗ ἔγραφες, _I give you this book that you may understand
how difficult the matter is on which you were writing_.

ἐὰν μὴ ἐκπονῇς τὰ διδάγματα, οὐ διδάξω σε, _if you don’t work out the
lessons, I will not teach you_.

ἢν τὸν δάκτυλον κόψῃς ἐκείνῃ τῇ ὀξείᾳ μαχαίρᾳ, οὐ παρ’ ἐμοὶ ἡ αἰτία,
_if you cut your finger with that sharp knife, the blame is not with
me_.

ἐκτέλεσον τὸ ἔργον τὸ προκείμενον, ἵνα μή σε ταράσσῃ αὔριον τὰ τῆς
σήμερον ἡμέρας ὑστερήματα, _finish the work that lies before you, that
the leavings of to-day may not disturb you to-morrow_.

λαβὼν τὸ σκάλευθρον κΐνει τὸ πῦρ, ἵνα μὴ πνίγῃ τὴν φλόγα τὸ βάρος τῶν
ἀνθράκων, _take the poker and stir the fire, that the weight of the
coals may not choke the flame_.

ἐὰν μὴ φυλάττῃ τὴν φλόγα, καύσεις τὰς χειρίδας τοῦ ἱματίου, _if you do
not take care of the flame, you will burn the sleeves of your coat_.

φέρε δὴ τὸν Ὅμηρον ἐκ τοῦ θηκίου, ἵνα ἀκούω τί λέγει περὶ τοῦ κάλλους
τῶν γυναικῶν, _bring me Homer from the shelf, that I may hear what he
says about the beauty of women_.

ἰδοῦ, _here it is_.

ἀνάγνωθι, _read it_.

καλὴ καὶ μεγάλη καὶ ἀγλαὰ ἔργ’ εἰδυῖα, _beautiful and tall, and skilful
in tasteful works_.

φεῦ· ὡς εὖ λέγεις. οὐκ ἀργαὶ αἱ γυναῖκες αἱ παρὰ τῷ ἀοιδῷ, _excellent.
The singer’s ladies were no idlers._

μιμήτριαί γε τῆς ἐν τοῖς περὶ τὸν βίον σοφῆς προστατίδος Παλλάδος,
_they were imitators of their patron goddess Pallas, wise in all that
relates to life_.

ῥίψον τὸ κυνάριον εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ, ἵνα μανθάνῃ τὸ νήχεσθαι, _fling the dog
into the water, that he may learn to swim_.

ἰδοῦ—νήχεται—ὡς εὐμαθὲς τὸ θρέμμα, _there he goes—he swims—what a
clever creature!_

ποίησον σὺ κατὰ ταὐτά, _do you the same_.

οὐδαμῶς· φοβοῦμαι μὴ βαπτίσῃ με τὸ κῦμα, _no; I fear the wave will
overwhelm me_.

γελοῖα λέγεις· ἐλαφρότερον γὰρ τὸ σῶμα τὸ ἀνθρώπινον τοῦ ὕδατος,
_nonsense; the human body is lighter than the water_.

οὐ καταποντίσει σε τὸ ὕδωρ ἀλλὰ ὁ φόβος, _it is not the water that will
drown you, but fear_.

πιθανόν· ὅμως ἀντέχομαι τῆς ξηρᾶς, _likely enough; nevertheless I hold
by the dry land_.

σοφός σύ γε, δεξιώτερον δὲ τὸ ζῷον. χαῖρε, _you are wise, but the
animal is more clever. Adieu._


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Anthracite. Barometer. Phlogiston. Caustic. Ferry. Mimetic. Pantomime.
Hydropathy. Baptize. Anthropology. Dexterity.




LESSON XIV

THE OPTATIVE MOOD


The optative mood, or subjunctive in a historic sequence after a past
tense, is distinguished by the domination of the diphthong οι, and runs
thus—

    βουλεύω,    _I advise._
    βουλεύοιμι,  βουλεύοις,  βουλεύοι,   _I, thou, he_   } _might_
    βουλεύοιμεν, βουλεύοιτε, βουλεύοιεν, _we, you, they_ } _advise_.

And so in the second aorist, where there is one, as λάβοιμι, λάβοις,
λάβοι, etc., from λαμβάνω, _might, could, would_, or _should get_.

In the first aorist the vowel α rules, and becomes αι, as singular,
βουλεύσαιμι, βουλεύσαις or ειας, βουλεύσαι or ειε; plural,
βουλεύσαιμεν, βουλεύσαιτε, βουλεύσαιεν or ειαν.

The most common uses of the optative may be classified thus—

    (1) In narrating what some one said, without
        guaranteeing the fact; as if I should say in
        English, _he said that he were going to do so_,
        instead of _was_; _e.g._ ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἀνδρὶ νέῳ καὶ
        σφοδρῷ οὐ ῥᾴδιον εἴη κολάζειν τὰ πάθη, _he said
        that it was not easy for a man young and vehement
        to control his passions_.

    (2) To express a purpose or consequence in past time,
        with ὡς, ἵνα, or ὅπως, as ἐπόνει σταθερῶς ἵνα ἆθλον
        λάβοι, _he laboured steadily that he might gain a prize_.

    (3) After εἰ, _if_, to express an indefinite future,
        generally with ἄν in the dependent clause, as εἴ
        τις αἵρεσίν μοι δοίη, σπουδάζοιμι ἂν περὶ τὴν
        Ἑλληνικὴν γλῶσσαν μᾶλλον ἢ περὶ τὴν Ἰταλικήν, _if
        one gave me the choice, I should prefer to study
        Greek rather than Italian_.

    (4) To express a wish (from which use the name
        _optative_ came), as μὴ γένοιτο, _may it not
        happen—God forbid!_

ὁ φίλος μου συνεβούλευσέ μοι πηδᾷν εἰς τὸ ὕδωρ, ὅπως κυνὸς δίκην
μάθοιμι τὸ νήχεσθαι· ἐγὼ δὲ οὐκ ἐς τοσοῦτο ἥκω μωρίας, _my friend
advised me to leap into the water that I might learn to swim like a
dog; but I am not such a fool_.

εὖ λέγεις· ὁμολογῶ σοι τερπνότερον μὲν εἶναι τὸ ὀρχεῖσθαι, χρησιμώτερον
δέ ποτε τὸ νήχεσθαι ἔν γε τῇ ναυαγίᾳ, _you say well; I must confess
dancing is more agreeable, but swimming is sometimes more useful,
especially in a shipwreck_.

τῶν γνωρίμων τῶν ἐμῶν τις εἶπε ὅτι ἀσκοῖ τὸ νήχεσθαι, ἵνα διαφεύγοι
τοὺς κινδ́ῡνους τῆς θαλάσσης, _an acquaintance of mine told me that he
is practising swimming to escape the dangers of the sea_.

σοφὸς ἐκεῖνος, _a wise man he_.

ἀσπὶς τῶν σοφῶν ἡ πρόνοια, _forethought is the shield of the wise_.

ἀκούσας ᾄδοντος τοῦ ἀλεκτρυόνος εὐθὺς ἀπέσεισα τὸν ὕπνον καὶ ἀπέδραμον
ὡς τάχιστα ἵνα μὴ ὑστεροῖμι τῶν ἀγώνων, _hearing the cock crow I
forthwith shook off sleep, and ran at full speed that I might not be
too late for the games_.

ἐγὼ δὲ ἄνευ τῆς χλαίνης ἀπέδραμον ἵνα μὴ τοῦ λαμπροῦ θεάματος
ἀστοχοῖμι, _and I ran off without my plaid, that I might not miss so
splendid a spectacle_.

ἐκεῖ δὲ τί εἶδες; _what did you see there?_

θύλακον μέγαν εἶδον ὑδρογόνῳ οἰδοῦντα ἀέρι, _I saw a huge bag full of
hydrogen gas_.

καὶ ἄνδρα ἔντοσθεν ἀεροβατοῦντα, ἵνα γε προσχάνοι αὐτῷ πολὺς ὄχλος
ὡς ἐπισκεψομένῳ δῆθεν τὸν ἄνδρα τὸν ἐν τῇ σελήνῃ, _and a man inside,
sailing through the air, that he might make a rabble of people stare at
him, as one going to pay a visit to the man in the moon_.

ὦ τῆς μωρίας, _O what folly!_

μωρὸς μωρὸν θαυμάζει, _fool admires fool_.

καταβαίνοντα αὐτὸν σφοδρότερος αἰφνιδίως ἁρπάσας ἄνεμος παρήνεγκε εἰς
τὸ κωδωνοστάσιον τοῦ μεγάλου ἱεροῦ τῶν ἐπισκοπικῶν, καὶ ὁ ἀλεκτρυὼν
ὁ ἐν τῷ ἄκρῳ διεκέντησε τὰ ἐντόσθια, _as he was coming down a strong
blast suddenly seized him and drove him on to the steeple of the
cathedral, and the cock on the top of the steeple pierced his bowels_.

ὦ τοῦ δειλαίου, _O the poor wretch!_

ὦ τοῦ ἄφρονος· δίκαια ἔπαθεν· ἀεροβατεῖν δεῖ τὰς ὄρνῑθας τὸν αἰθέρα, οὐ
τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, _O the fool! served him right! birds ought to tread the
air, not men._


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Mathematics. Homologate. Orchestra. Ode. Agony. Theatre. Acrobat.
Ochlocracy. Sceptic. Ornithology. Fugitive. Hypnotism. Pathology.
Ether.




LESSON XV

THE PARTICLE ἄν


Besides the use of ἄν with the optative in reference to a future
probability, noticed in the last lesson, it is joined in Greek with
the past tenses, the imperfect or aorists, to express what _might_,
_could_, _would_, or _should have taken place_ in past time if
something else had happened, or had not happened, as ἔπραξας ἂν τὸ
δίκαιον εἰ ἔπραξας τοῦτο, _you would have done what is right if you had
done this_.

ἐγώ, εἰ ἔγνων τὸ ἦθός σου, οὐκ ἂν ἔδωκά σοι τὸ ἀργύριον, _if I had
known your character, I would not have given you the money_.

τίνα δὴ ἁμαρτίαν ἡμάρτηκα; _how have I done wrong?_

ἐσπάθησας ἀχρήστως τὰ χρήματα· εἰ γὰρ ἐτύγχανες νοῦν ἔχων, οὐκ ἂν
ἀνήλωσας ἅπαντα εἰς τέρψιν ἐξίτηλον, _you squandered your money
uselessly. If you had had sense, you would not have spent it all on a
fleeting pleasure._

εἰ ἐτύγχανες σοφὸς ὤν, διέσωσας ἂν τι τῶν σήμερον θησαυρῶν εἰς τὴν
χρείαν τῆς αὔριον, _if you had been wise, you would have saved some of
to-day’s treasure for to-morrow’s need_.

μωρὸς ἂν ἦν ὀνειροπολῶν τὴν μέλλουσαν ἡδονήν, τῆς δὲ παρούσης ἁμαρτών,
_I should have been a fool, dreaming of the future and missing the
present pleasure_.

οὕτως λέγοντα ἐλέγχουσί σε οἱ μύρμηκες καὶ αἱ μέλισσαι, _when you speak
thus the ants and the bees confute you_.

εἰ ὁ Βρούσσιος ἔτυχε μὴ νικήσας ἐν τῇ μάχῃ τοῦ Βαννοκβούρνου, τί ἂν
συνέβη; _if Bruce had not gained the victory at Bannockburn, what would
have been the consequence?_

ἐπικρατήσασα ἡ Ἀγγλία ἠφάνισεν ἂν τὸν Σκῶτον ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς, _dominant
England would have caused the Scot to disappear from the face of the
earth_.

καὶ τοῦτο θεῖον πάνυ ἂν ἐγένετο εὐτύχημα, _and this would have been a
great piece of good luck_.

ἐνίοις μὲν οὕτως δοκεῖ, ἐνίοις δὲ οὔ, _some think so and some not_.

τί ἂν συνέβη, εἰ ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ τοῦ Φιλίππου οὐκ ἐνίκησε τὴν ἐν
Ἀρβήλοις νίκην; _what would have been the consequence if Alexander, the
son of Philip, had not gained the battle of Arbela?_

διετέλει ἂν ὁ Πέρσης δεσπόζων τῆς ἀνατολῆς, καὶ οὐκ ἂν ἐκήρυσσον τὸ
εὐαγγέλιον οἱ ἀπόστολοι Ἑλληνιστί· εἰσήγαγε γὰρ ὁ τοῦ Φιλίππου υἱὸς
τὴν Ἑλληνικὴν παιδείαν εἰς ὅλην τὴν ἀνατολήν, _the Persian would
have continued lording it over the East, and the Apostles would not
have preached the gospel in Greek; for it was the son of Philip that
introduced Greek learning into all the East_.

λαμπαδηφόρος δήπου τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς σοφίας ὁ μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, καὶ
προάγγελος τοῦ εὐαγγελίου, _Alexander the Great truly was the
torch-bearer of Greek wisdom and the harbinger of the gospel_.

ἀληθέστατα λέγεις, _very true_.

καὶ ταῦτα μὲν περὶ τῆς ἄγαν ὑπηρετικῆς ταύτης προσθήκης εἰρήσθω. χαῖρε,
_and now enough of this very serviceable particle ἄν. Adieu!_


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Ethics. Terpsichore. Ephemeral. Treasure. Alexander. Despot. Anatolia.
Evangel. Angel. Scheme. Geography. Apostle. Pedagogue.




LESSON XVI

THE PASSIVE VOICE


expressing not what a man does to another person or thing by the
putting forth of his active force, but what he suffers from the active
force of another, has its characteristic form in Greek as follows—

_Present_

Indicative—

    πείθ-ομαι,  -ῃ,    -εται,  _I,  thou, he is_    } _persuaded_.
        -όμεθα, -εσθε, -ονται, _we, you,  they are_ }

Subjunctive, with the long vowel as in the active voice—

    πείθ-ωμαι    -ῃ      -ηται
        -ώμεθα   -ησθε   -ωνται

and optative with οι—

    πειθ-οίμην      -οιο      -οιτο
        -οίμεθα     -οισθε    -οιντο

               _Imperfect_
    ἐπειθόμην      ἐπείθου      ἐπείθετο
    ἐπειθόμεθα     ἐπείθεσθε    ἐπείθοντο

                 _Future_
    πεισθ-ήσομαι     -ήσῃ       -ήσεται
         -ησόμεθα    -ήσεσθε    -ήσονται

              _First Aorist_
    ἐπείσθ-ην      -ης       -η
          -ημεν    -ητε      -ησαν

Optative—

    singular, πεισθ-είην      -είης     -είη
    plural,        -εῖμεν     -εῖτε     -εῖεν

In the perfect as in the active voice the reduplication takes place, as—

    πέπεισμαι       πέπεισαι      πέπεισται
    πεπείσμεθα      πέπεισθε      πεπεισμένοι εἰσίν

Certain verbs have a second aorist, as στέλλω, _I send_, not ἐστάλθην
but ἐστάλην, _I was sent_; and pure verbs have the characteristic
contraction of the vowel into a diphthong, as φιλούμεθα for φιλεόμεθα;
but these variations are best learned by practice.

ἐστάλησαν οἱ ἀπόστολοι κηρύξοντες τὸ εὐαγγέλιον, καὶ ἐκήρυξαν δεινῶς,
_the Apostles were sent to preach the gospel, and they preached it with
power_.

ὅτε οἱ ἀπόστολοι ἐκήρυξαν τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ἐν ταῖς Ἀθήναις, ὀλίγοι
ἐπείσθησαν, _when the Apostles preached the gospel in Athens, few were
persuaded_.

ὁ κακοῦργος ἐκεῖνος ἐπήνεγκέ μοι βιαίαν πληγὴν τῇ βακτηρίᾳ καὶ τὸ νῶτόν
μοι ἐτραυματίσθη χαλεπῶς, _that bad fellow struck me a heavy blow with
his cudgel, and my back was severely wounded_.

εἶτα δὲ τί συνέβη; _then what happened?_

τῶν τοξοτῶν τις τῶν φυλασσόντων τὴν πόλιν ἥρπασεν αὐτόν, καὶ εὐθὺς
ἐνεβλήθη εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον, _one of the policemen who keep the peace
of the city laid hold of him, and he was forthwith cast into prison_.

δίκαια ἔπαθεν, _served him right_.

κατὰ φύσιν τοῦτο· πάντες ὅσοι ἄνομοι καὶ βίαιοι δικαίως ἐμβληθήσονται
εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον· οὐ γὰρ ἄνθρωποι οἱ τοιοῦτοι ἀλλὰ συγγενεῖς τῶν
τίγρεων, _quite natural; all lawless and violent persons will naturally
be cast into prison; for such persons are not men, but related to
tigers_.

οἴμοι πέπληγμαι, πόθεν ἡ πληγή; _woe’s me, I am struck! whence came the
blow?_

ὁ γνώριμός μου ὁ Ἰωάννης Καμερὼν παίζων τὴν κορύνην ἐν τῷ πεδίῳ
ἔπληξε πλαγίως τὴν σφαῖραν, ἥπερ παρετράπη εἰς τὴν κεφαλήν σου, _my
acquaintance John Cameron, playing at golf on the links, struck his
ball obliquely and it was driven against your head_.

οἴμοι—μοι—ὀτοτοτοτοῖ, _O woe’s me, woe!_

ὦ τοῦ ταλαιπώρου, _O poor fellow._

τί χρὴ πρᾶξαι; _what must we do?_

φέρε εἰς τὸ νοσοκομεῖον, καὶ κάλεσον τὸν ἰατρόν· ἔχει γὰρ κίνδῡνον
τὸ πρᾶγμα, _take him to the infirmary and call the doctor; it is a
dangerous business_.

αὐτίκα μάλα· κληθήσεται, _instantly; he shall be called_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Oligarchy. Plague. Toxicology. Phylacteries. Tiger. Sphere. Nosology.
Call. Physic.




LESSON XVII

THE MIDDLE VOICE


The middle voice, or, as it might more significantly be called, the
reflexive or the subjective voice, is a form of the verb where the
action does not pass on from the agent to an outward object, but comes
back on him, or in some loose way is looked on as done for his benefit,
or affecting himself specially. Thus it is in the main identical with
what in Latin grammar used to be called neuter verbs, only it is
subject to not a few nice shades of personal reference, which leads to
its apparent confusion with the active voice, and to various anomalous
usages which can only be learned by practice. It is, of course, in
strictness more nearly allied to the passive than to the active voice;
for in both these voices, as distinguished from the active, the force
of the verb is either altogether spent on the agent, or is in some
way passively or emotionally or intentionally connected with him.
This intimate relationship leads to a similarity of form in the two
voices, the present and imperfect middle being in fact identical with
the same tenses in the passive voice, and the other tenses, in their
characteristic changes, more allied to the passive than to the active.

         _Future Indicative_
    λύσομαι     λύσῃ       λύσεται
    λυσόμεθα    λύσεσθε    λύσονται

            _First Aorist_
    ἐλυσάμην    ἐλύσω      ἐλύσατο
    ἐλυσάμεθα   ἐλύσασθε   ἐλύσαντο

οὐ τῶν τυχόντων κατέλαβέ με ἔχειν διδασκάλους τῆς σοφίας, τὰ νῦν
δὲ δικαίως αὐτὸς σοφίζομαι, _I had the good luck to have no common
teachers of wisdom, but now with good reason I profess wisdom for
myself_.

ἐδεξάμην τὴν βίβλον ἣν σὺ ἐδέξω παρὰ τοῦ ἀνεψιοῦ, καὶ ἀναγνώσομαι αὐτὴν
πάσῃ σπουδῇ, _I received the book which you got from your cousin, and I
will read it carefully_.

οὗτος ὁ νεανίας τρέχει δεινῶς· βλάψεται, _this young man runs
furiously; he will hurt himself_.

οὐ φοβοῦμαι, _I am not afraid_.

ἀσφαλὴς ἐστὶ τοῖς ποσίν, _he is a steady-footed fellow_.

οὗτος ὁ νεανίας ταλαιπώρως κυπτάζει εἰς τὰς βίβλους· τρίψεται
ὑπερτρυφῶν ἐν τῇ ἀναγνώσει, _this young man stoops miserably down into
his books; he will wear himself away, stuffing himself with reading_.

μὴ χαλέπαινε· βαθμηδὸν ἀκμάζει πάντα. τὰ μικρότατα σπέρματα, ἀρξάμενα
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἠρινοῦ χρόνου, πρὸ τῆς ὀπώρας γενήσεται φυτὰ μεγάλα, _do not
repine. All things grow ripe by degrees. The smallest seeds beginning
with the spring by harvest time will become large plants._

οὑτοσὶ πλήρεσιν ἀνάγεται τοῖς ἱστίοις, ἡμεῖς δὲ οὐχ ἡττησόμεθα, _this
fellow sails out with full sails, but we shall not fall behind_.

σήμερον λαμπρῷ χρώμεθα τῷ οὐρανῷ, _to-day we have fine weather_.

αὔριον δὲ ὕσει ὁ θεός, _but it will rain to-morrow_.

ὤ, τάλᾱς ἐγώ· οὐδὲν διαγίγνεται μένον ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ τῷ κατὰ τὴν
Καληδονίαν, _alas, alas! there is no continuity or permanence of
weather in Scotland_.

ἀληθῆ λέγεις· μόνον τὸ τῶν Καληδονίων ἦθος σεμνύνεται ἐπὶ τῷ ἄγαν
σταθερῷ καὶ ἀμεταβόλῳ· κρατερὸν τὸ Καληδόνιον ἦθος ὡς ὁ γρανιτόλιθος,
ὁ ἐν Ἀβερδονίᾳ, _true; only the character of the Scots boasts of
steadiness and permanence. The Scottish character is strong as the
Aberdeen granite._

χάριν οἶδα τῷ Θεῷ· αὐτὸς ἀλαζονεύομαι τῆσδε τῆς ἐπιμόνου κράσεως οὐ
σπανίως μεταλαμβάνεσθαι, _thank God! myself boast that I have a fair
share of this persistent temperament_.

δικαίως γε· ἐγγυᾶται τὴν κατόρθωσιν ἡ ἐπιμονή. ἔρρωσο, _and with good
reason; perseverance is the pledge of success. Farewell_.


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Didactic. Sophist. Study. New. Early. Vernal. Chronology. Grace.
Hypertrophy. Idiosyncrasy. Orthography. Acme. Phytology.




LESSON XVIII

PARTICIPLES


The Greek participle has a large range of idiomatic and significant
usages, which can only be learned by reading. For a start, however,
it may be enough to say that the participle follows the leading
verb of the sentence in many cases where both Latin and English use
the infinitive, and that when joined with the definite article the
participle performs the function of a relative clause in a less formal
style; as if in English, instead of _the man who used such language_
is not a gentleman, we should say _the man the having used_, which
no doubt sounds very clumsy, because we require an auxiliary verb to
express the past participle, but in Greek ὁ ταῦτα λέξας is manifestly
neater and more succinct than ὃς ταῦτα ἔλεξε.

οὐκ ἀνέχομαι οὕτω διαβαλλόμενος, _I cannot stand to be slandered in
this way_.

ἀμέλει· ἀμέλει· οἶδα τὸ ἀνθρωπάριον· χαίρει ἀεὶ βλασφημῶν κατὰ τῶν
κρεισσόνων, _never mind; never mind; I know the creature; it is his
delight always to be speaking ill of men better than himself_.

ποία τις ἦν ἡ βλασφημία; _what was he slandering about?_

ἐτύγχανον ἐγὼ ἐπαινῶν τινὰ τῶν δυνατῶν, ἄνδρα πλούσιον καὶ εὔφρονα καὶ
σώφρονα ἐν Μαγκεστρίῳ· ὁ δὲ εὐθὺς ἤρξατο διαβάλλων ὁλοσχερῶς ἅπᾱσαν
τήν τε ἀριστοκρατίαν καὶ πλουτοκρατίαν τὴν ἐν τῇ πόλει, _I happened to
be praising a gentleman of the influential classes in Manchester, rich
and good and sensible, and forthwith he began to denounce in a sweeping
style all the plutocracy and the aristocracy of the country_.

φαίνεται διάβολος ὤν, καὶ ὡς ἀληθῶς συγγενὴς τοῦ Κακοδαίμονος, τοῦ
Διαβόλου, _he appears to be a calumniator, and a cousin-german of the
evil Spirit, the Devil_.

καὶ διετέλει ἐπηρεάζων, ὡς ἐμοῦ παρασίτου ὄντος καὶ ἀκολούθου
τῆς βδελυκτῆς τῶν ὀλιγαρχῶν αἱρέσεως· πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ τοιαῦτα
λοιδορήματα ἐποίησε τυπωθῆναι ἐν ταῖς ἐφημερίσι, _and he went on to
use insolent language, saying_ (or _implying_) _that I was a parasite
and a flunkey of the detestable faction of the oligarchs; and in
addition to all this he got this insulting language printed in the
newspapers_.

τοὺς τοιούτους ἀνθρώπους ἐχρῆν μαστίξαι· ὅμως, τὸ πρότερον λεχθέν,
ἀμέλει. δηλός ἐστι νικήσας τὴν ὀργὴν ὁ λέγων ἀμέλει, _such ill-tongued
rascals should have been flogged; but, as I said before, never mind. It
is plain that the man who says ἀμέλει has conquered his passion._

δυνατὰ λέγεις· ὅμως σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ τὴν τῶν Κυαικέρων ἀπάθειαν οὐκ
ἐπαγγελλόμενος, _possibly; but I am conscious that I do not profess the
apathy of the Quaker_.

ἀμέλει· ἀμέλει· τρὶς νῑκηφόρος ὁ νῑκήσας τὴν ὀργήν. βραχεῖα μανία ἡ
ὀργή, _never mind; never mind; he is three times conqueror who has
conquered his passion. Anger is a brief madness._


ENGLISH AFFINITIES

Devil. Blasphemy. Dynamics. Dynasty. Plutocracy. Aristocracy.
Cacodemon. Parasite. Heresy. Oligarchy. Type. Ephemeral. Apathy.
Maniac.




APPENDIX I

ELEMENTARY HINTS ON ETYMOLOGY


(1) In borrowed words, especially when the borrowing language, as
English, does not deal largely in sounding terminations, it is a common
practice to let the termination drop, either altogether or partly, and
leave only the simple root, as from λαμπάδα, _lamp_; from δημοκρατία,
_democracy_; from κακοφωνία, _cacophony_, and other such feminines,
as _theology_, _philology_, where the α is dropped, and the accent
transferred to the antepenultimate after the favourite English fashion,
while the German, more faithful to the Greek, preserves the accented
ι, and marks the presence of the α by an _e_, as in _Theologié_,
_Philologié_.

(2) As the Greek element in the English language often comes to us not
directly from the Greek, but indirectly through the Latin of the Middle
Ages, it sometimes happens that we find a pure Greek word with a Latin
termination attached to it naturalised in English, as in _cathédral_,
from καθέδρα, and in _ephemeral_, from ἐφήμερος. In this example
the termination _al_, so common in Latin, takes the place of the
Greek ος, with the same adjectival force; but in not a few cases, as
_optical_, _ethical_, _clinical_, _political_, the _al_ is an unmeaning
superfluity, as the adjectival character of the word is already fixed
by the Greek termination κος, as in κλινικός from κλίνη. In verbs the
termination _ate_ is pure Latin, but appears sometimes barbarously
appended to a pure Greek verb, as _homologate_, from ὁμολογῶ.

(3) It is a general rule in etymology that cognate letters, that is,
letters pronounced by the same organs, or a similar modification of the
vocal organs, easily pass into one another; thus σ and τ being both
dental, τ a pure dental, and σ a sibilant dental, and δ being only the
blunt form of τ, these three letters pass into one another, as in Attic
πράττω for πράσσω, and ῥόδον, English _rose_. So in German _das_ for
English _that_. In like manner, λ and ρ being both liquids, λείριον
becomes _lily_, and the Latin _Tibur_ becomes the Italian _Tivoli_, by
the interchange of the labials and of the liquids.

(4) The termination _s_ in the names of many of the sciences, as
_optics_, _acoustics_, _mechanics_, is simply the sign of the plural
in English, put for ά the neuter plural in Greek, as in τὰ πολιτικά,
_things belonging to the state_; τὰ ὀπτικά, _things belonging to
vision_, which, however, the Greeks often express by ἡ ὀπτική in the
nominative singular feminine, with τέχνη, _art_, or θεωρία, _theory_,
understood.

(5) The termination _ise_ or _ize_, so common in English, generally
though not always with an active signification, as in _advertise_,
_solemnise_, is the ίζω of Greek, as in σοφίζω, _I make wise_, with
σοφίζομαι, in the middle voice, _I profess myself wise_. The word
σοφιστής from this verb, in English _sophist_, is the person who makes
this profession, as in _baptist_, _theorist_, _atheist_, and other
pure Greek words for an agent, with only the loss of the termination
ής; sometimes in a hybrid way _ist_ is added to a Latin root, as in
_deist_, etymologically but not colloquially identical with _theist_.

(6) Sometimes not only is the terminational syllable cut off, but the
initial also, either wholly or in part; so ἐπίσκοπος, with the change
of π into the kindred labial β, becomes _bishop_.

(7) When two consonants of different kinship come together, one of
them, specially that not belonging to the root, disappears, as from
λάπτω, _lap_; from τύπτω, τύπος, _type_.

(8) The aspirate _h_, in Greek _spiritus asper_, has a close affinity
with the sibilant _s_; so for ἕξ we have in Latin _sex_, in English
_six_; ὗς for _sow_; ἕδος, _sedes_, _seat_.

(9) When a word in Latin or Greek commences with a _p_, by aspiration
it becomes _f_ in English and the Teutonic languages; thus for πῦρ we
have _fire_, for ποδ-_foot_, for πατήρ, _father_, etc.

(10) The English _w_ is closely connected with the vowels, as appears
from _water_ and _ooater_; hence it disappears in Greek altogether,
or is represented by a breathing, as in οἶνος, _wine_; ὕδωρ, _water_;
ὑετός, _wet_.

(11) In some adjectives the Latin _an_, like _al_, is superfluously
appended to the Greek termination in κός, as _rhetorician_, from
ῥητορικός.

(12) The Greek κ, as in κύων, and _cornu_ in Latin, appears in the
Teutonic languages as _h_, so _hound_, _horn_; κολώνη, _collis_, _hill_.

(13) The letter _m_ at the end of an English word curtailed from
Greek signifies the thing done, the product of the verb, as ποίημα,
_poem_, the thing made, a poem, from ποιέω, _I make_; so _baptism_ from
βαπτίζω, and _chrism_ from χρίω, _I anoint_, and other _isms_.

(14) Finally, as at least two-thirds of the technical words used in our
scientific nomenclature, and not a few even outside of the range, are
of Greek extraction, the student would act wisely if at starting he
were to make a list of all such terms in familiar use, with their Greek
form and Greek analysis in an opposite column; as—

      _theology_         θεολογία
    (θεός, _God_; λόγος, _discourse_)

He will thus find that he knows already some two or three hundred Greek
words in a slightly disguised English form.




APPENDIX II

VOCABULARIES


In accordance with the principle set forth in the preface, these
vocabularies, containing the names of the most familiar objects, are to
be taken with him as a _vade mecum_ wherever the student goes. He must
in no wise be content with the lazy habit of recognising a word only in
a passive recipient style when he meets with it in a book, but he must
stamp it directly on every object that comes in his way, and repeat
it frequently without the intervention of the mother tongue, till he
uses it as familiarly as a workman handles his tools. The language will
thus become his familiar friend, not, as in the mere bookish method,
an occasional visitor. Of course, such a catalogue of words is not
intended to be exhaustive; but the learner, after training himself to
the habit of thinking and speaking in the foreign idiom, may supply the
deficiency by consulting any good English-Greek dictionary, such as
Arnold and Browne’s, London 1856, and for modern Greek, where that may
be necessary, Lascarides’s English-Greek dictionary, London 1882. From
these sources also, and from his own reading, which must in no wise be
neglected, he will be able to pick out appropriate verbs with which he
may put the Hellenised objects around him, so to speak, into motion,
and hold a conversation with a fellow-student trained to the colloquial
method, or with himself, solus cum solo, if he can find no partner in
his colloquial exercise.


I. MAN AND HIS BELONGINGS

(1) THE BODY

    Appetite, ὄρεξις, -εως, ἡ.
    Arm, βραχίων, -ονος, ὁ.

    Bandy-legged, βλαισός, -ή, -όν.
    Blind, τυφλός, -ή, -όν.
    Bosom, στῆθος, -εος, τό.
    Bowels, τὰ ἔντερα.
    Boy, παῖς, παιδός, ὁ.
    Bread, ἄρτος, ὁ.
    Breakfast, ἄριστον, τό.
    Breast, στέρνον, τό.
    Breath, πνεῦμα, -ατος, τό.
    Butter, βούτῡρον, τό.
    Button up, to, κομβοῦμαι.

    Cake, πέμμα, -ατος, τό.
    Choke, trans., πνίγω, -ξω.
    Cough, βήξ, -χός, ὁ or ἡ.
    Creep, to, ἑρπύζω.
    Dessert, τραγήματα, τά.
    Digested, easily, εὐκατέργαστος, -ον.
    Digestion, κατεργασία, ἡ.
    Dinner, δεῖπνον, τό.
    Disease, νόσος, ἡ.
    Drink, πόμα, -ατος, τό.
    Drink, to, πίνω.
    Dyspepsia, δυσπεψία, ἡ.

    Ear, οὖς, ὠτός, τό.
    Eat, to, ἐσθίω.
    Elbow, ἀγκών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Erect, ὀρθός, -ή, -όν.
    Excrement, τὰ περισσώματα.
    Eye, ὀφθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ.

    Face, πρόσωπον, τό.
    Fat, παχύς, -εῖα, -ύ.
    Fever, πυρετός, ὁ.
    Food, βρῶμα, -ατος, τό.
    Foot, πούς, ποδός, ὁ.
    Forehead, μέτωπον, τό.

    Gout, ποδάγρα, ἡ.
    Gums, οὖλα, τά.

    Hair, θρίξ, τριχός, ἡ.
    Head, κεφαλή, ἡ.
    Health, ὑγίεια, ἡ.
    Heel, πτέρνα, -ης, ἡ.
      to kick with the heel, λακτίζω.
    Hungry, to be, πεινάω.
    Hungry, to be very, λῑμώττω.

    Inflammation, φλέγμα, -ατος, τό.

    Jaw, γνάθος, ἡ.

    Knee, γόνυ, -ατος, τό.

    Lament, to, πενθέω.
    Laugh, to, γελάω.
    Leg, σκέλος, -εος, τό.
    Limp, to, χωλεύω.
    Lip, χεῖλος, -εος, τό.
    Lungs, πνεύμων, -ονος, ὁ.

    Meagre, ἰσχνός, -ή, -όν.
    Mouth, στόμα, -ατος, τό.
    Muscle, μῦς, μυός, ὁ.

    Nail, ὄνυξ, -υχος, ὁ.
    Neck, τράχηλος, ὁ.

    Nose, ῥίς, -ῑνός, ἡ.
      to turn up the nose, μυκτηρίζω.
      to blow the nose, ἀπομύσσομαι.

    Pain, ὀδύνη, -ης, ἡ.
    Palsy, παράλυσις, -εως, ἡ.
    Paunchy, φύσκων, -ωνος, or γάστρων, -ωνος, ὁ.
    Pleasure, ἡδονή, -ῆς, ἡ.
    Porridge, πόλτος, -ου, ὁ.
    Pudding, φυστή, -ῆς, ἡ.

    Rheumatism, ῥευματισμός, -οῦ, ὁ.
    Run, to, τρέχω.

    Scab, or itch, ψώρα, -ας, ἡ.
    Scratch, to, κνήθω.
    Shoulder, ὦμος, -ου, ὁ.
    Sinew, νεῦρον, τό.
    Skin, δέρμα, -ατος, τό.
    Snore, to, ῥέγχω.
    Spittle, πτύσμα, -ατος, τό.
    Stomach, γαστήρ, -τρός, ἡ.
    Stoop, to, κύπτω.
    Sugar, σάκχαρον, τό.
    Supine, ὕπτιος, -α, -ον.
    Swallow, to, καταβροχθίζω.
    Sweetmeats, νώγαλα, τά.

    Tall, μακρός, -ά, -όν.
    Thigh, μηρός, -οῦ, ὁ.
    Thin, λεπτός, -ή, -όν.
    Throat, λαιμός, -οῦ, ὁ.
    Thumb, ἀντίχειρ, -ειρος, ὁ.
    Toe, δάκτυλος, -ου, ὁ.
    Tooth, ὀδούς, -όντος, ὁ.

    Vinegar, ὄξος, -εος, τό.
    Vomit, to, ἐμέω.

    Walk, to, περιπατῶ.
    Wash, to, νίζω, fut. νίψω.
    Water, ὕδωρ, -ατος, τό.
    Windpipe, λάρυγζ, -υγγος, ὁ.
    Wine, οἶνος, ὁ.

(2) DRESS

    Belt, ζωστήρ, -ῆρος, ὁ.
    Bonnet, πῑλίδιον, -ου, τό.
    Boots, κόθορνος, -ου, ὁ.
    Bracelet, ψέλλιον, τό.
    Breeches, ἀναξυρίδες, -ων, αἱ.
    Buckle, περόνη, -ης, ἡ.

    Clothes, ἐσθής, -ῆτος, ἡ.
    Coat, ἱμάτιον, τό.
    Cosmetic, φάρμακον, τό.
    Curl, βόστρυχος, ὁ.

    Dress, σκευή, -ῆς, ἡ.
    Dress, to, ἐνδύομαι, ἀμφιβάλλομαι.

    Garter, περισκελίς, -ίδος, ἡ.
    Glove, χειρίς, -ίδος, ἡ.
    Gown, a lady’s, πέπλος, ὁ.
    Greatcoat, περιβόλαιον, -ου, τό.

    Hat, πέτασος, -ου, ὁ.

    Necklace, περιδέραιον, τό.

    Plaid, χλαμύς, -ύδος, ἡ.

    Shirt, χιτών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Shoe, ὑπόδημα, -ατος, τό.
    Shoe-tie, ἱμάς, -άντος, ὁ.
    Slippers, βλαυτίον, τό.
    Stick, βακτηρία, ἡ.

    Umbrella, σκιάδειον, τό.
    Undress, to, ἀποδύομαι.

    Veil, καλύπτρα, ἡ.

(3) CHARACTER AND CONDUCT

    Bashful, to be, δυσωποῦμαι.
    Benevolence, φιλοφροσύνη, ἡ.
    Braggadocio, ἀλαζών, -όνος, ὁ.
    Brave, ἀνδρεῖος, -α, -ον.

    Careless, ῥᾴθῡμος, -ον.
    Cautious, εὐλαβής, -ές.
    Clever, εὐμαθής, -ές.
    Cowardly, δειλός, -ή, -όν.
    Cunning, ποικίλος, -η, -ον.

    Dandy, καλλωπιστής, -οῦ, ὁ.
    Diligent, φιλόπονος, -ον.

    Foolish, ἠλίθιος, -α, -ον.

    Gambler, κυβευτής, -οῦ, ὁ.
    Gentle, πρᾶος, -εῖα, -ον.

    Handsome, εὐειδής, -ές.
    Haughty, to be, βρενθύομαι.
    High-minded, μεγαλόφρων, -ονος.

    Lazy, νωθρός, -ά, -όν.
    Learned, πολυμαθής, -ές.

    Parsimonious, φειδωλός, -ή, -όν.
    Prig, κομψοπρεπής, ὁ.
    Prudent, φρόνιμος, -η, -ον.

    Rash, προπετής, -ές.
    Religious, εὐσεβής, -ές.
    Rude, ἀγροικός, -ή, -όν.

    Sensible, νουνεχής, -ές.
    Shameless, ἀναιδής, -ές.
    Snort, to, βριμάομαι.
    Squander, to, σπαθάω.
    Superstitious, δεισιδαίμων, -ον.
    Swindler, φέναξ, -ᾱκος, ὁ.

    Thrifty, φειδωλός, -ή, -όν.

    Ugly, αἰσχρός, -ά, -όν.

    Vain, κενόδοξος, -ον.

    Well-mannered, κόσμιος, -α, -ον.
    Worship, to, προσκυνέω.

II. THE HOUSE AND ITS BELONGINGS

    Basket, κάλαθος, -ου, ὁ.
    Bath, λουτρών, -ῶνος, ὁ, or βαλανεῖον, τό.
    Bed, κοίτη, ἡ, or κράβατος, ὁ.
    Bed-clothes, στρώματα, τά.
    Bedroom, κοιτών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Bell, κώδων, -ωνος, ὁ.
    Bellows, φῦσα, -ης, ἡ.
    Book, βίβλος, -ου, ἡ.
    Bottle, ἄσκος, ὁ.
    Box, λάρναξ, -ᾰκος, ἡ.
    Bread, loaf of, ἄρτος, ὁ.
    Bread, roll of, ἀρτίδιον, τό.
    Bust, προτομή, ἡ.

    Cage, κλωβός, ὁ.
    Candlestick, λυχνία, ἡ.
    Carpet, τάπης, -ητος, ὁ.
    Cellar, λάκκος, ὁ.
    Chair, ἕδρα, ἡ.
    Chest, κίστη, ἡ.
    Chimney, καπνοδόκη, ἡ.
    Cistern, δεξαμενή, ἡ.
    Clock, ὡρολόγιον, τό.
    Closet, δίαιτα, ἡ.
    Cook, μάγειρος, ὁ.
    Court-yard, αὐλή, ἡ.
    Cover, or lid, ἐπίθημα, -ατος, τό.
    Cradle, λίκνον, τό.
    Cup, κύλιξ, -ικος, ἡ.
    Curtain, παραπέτασμα, -ατος, τό.

    Dining-room, δειπνητήριον, τό.
    Door, θύρα, ἡ.

    Ewer, πρόχοος, ἡ.

    Fire, πῦρ, τό.
    Flask, λήκυθος, ἡ.
    Floor, δάπεδον, τό.
    Foot-stool, ὑποπόδιον, τό.
    Foundation, θεμέλιον, τό.

    Garret, ὑπερῷον, τό.

    Hearth, ἐσχάρα, ἡ.

    Ink, μέλαν, -άνος, τό.
    Inkstand, μελανοδοχεῖον, τό; καλαμάριον, τό.

    Jar, πίθος, ὁ.

    Kettle, λέβης, -ητος, ὁ.
    Kitchen, μαγειρεῖον, τό.

    Lamp, λαμπάς, -άδος, ἡ.
    Lavatory, ἀποπατήριον, τό.
    Library, βιβλιοθήκη, ἡ.
    Lobby, πρόδομος, ὁ.
    Lumber-room, γρυτοδόκη, ἡ.

    Maid-servant, θεράπαινα, ἡ.
    Master of the house, δεσπότης, -ου, ὁ.
    Mirror, κάτοπτρον, τό.
    Mistress, δέσποινα, ἡ.

    Nurse, τροφός, ὁ, ἡ.

    Pail, γαυλός, ὁ.
    Pane, πλάξ, -ακός, ἡ.
    Paper, χάρτης, -ου, ὁ.
    Parlour, ἀσπαστικόν, τό.
    Pen, κάλαμος, ὁ.
    Pencil, γραφίς, -ίδος, ἡ.
    Picture, πίναξ, -ακος, ὁ.
    Pillow, ὑποκεφάλαιον, τό.
    Poker, σκάλευθρον, τό.
    Porch, στοά, -ᾶς, ἡ.
    Portrait, εἰκών, -όνος, ἡ.
    Pot, an earthen, χύτρα, ἡ.

    Roof, ὀροφή, ἡ.
    Room, οἴκημα, -ατος, τό.

    Screen, σκέπη, ἡ.
    Servant, οἰκέτης, -ου, ὁ.
    Shake-down, στιβάς, -άδος, ἡ.
    Shelf, θηκίον, τό.
    Shovel, λίστρον, τό.
    Sofa, κλίνη, ἡ.
    Stairs, κλῖμαξ, -ακος, ἡ.
    Statue, ἄγαλμα, -ατος, τό.
    Storeroom, ταμιεῖον, τό.
    Story, στέγη, ἡ.
    Study, a, φροντιστήριον, τό.

    Table, τράπεζα, ἡ.
    Tongs, πυράγρα, ἡ.
    Towel, χειρόμακτρον, τό.

    Vessel, ἀγγεῖον, τό.

    Wardrobe, ἱματιοφυλάκιον, τό.
    Wash-hand basin, χέρνιβον, τό.
    Window, θυρίς, -ίδος, ἡ.

III. THE TOWN AND ITS BELONGINGS

    Abbey, κοινόβιον, τό.
    Advocate, συνήγορος, ὁ.
    Alderman, σύνεδρος, ὁ.
    Alley, _see_ Lane.

    Baker, ἀρτοποιός, ὁ.
    Bank, τράπεζα, ἡ.
    Barracks, στρατόπεδον, τό, or σκηνή, ἡ.
    Bazaar, παντοπώλιον, τό.
    Beadle, _see_ Verger.
    Bell, κώδων, -ωνος, ὁ.
    Bishop, ἐπίσκοπος, ὁ.
    Bookseller, βιβλιοπώλης, -ου, ὁ.
    Bookseller’s shop, βιβλιοπωλεῖον, τό.
    Brick, πλινθίον, τό.
    Bridge, γέφῡρα, ἡ.
    Butcher, κρεουργός, ὁ.

    Canal, ὀχετός, ὁ.
    Carpenter, ξυλουργός, ὁ.
    Castle, ἀκρόπολις, -εως, ἡ, or φρούριον, τό.
    Cathedral, καθέδρα, ἡ.
    Chapel, σηκός, ὁ.
    Church, ἐκκλησία, ἡ.
    Churchyard, πολυάνδριον, τό.
    Clergyman, κληρικός, ὁ.
    Concert, ξυναυλία, ἡ.
    Confectioner, πλακουντοποιός, ὁ.
    Council, βουλή, ἡ.
    Councillor, βουλευτής, -οῦ, ὁ.
    Court-house, δικαστήριον, τό.

    Deacon, διάκονος, ὁ.
    Dispensary, φαρμακεῖον, τό.
    Draper, ὀθονιοπώλης, -ου, ὁ.

    Elder, πρεσβύτερος, ὁ.

    Grocer, ἀρωματοπώλης, -ου, ὁ.
    Groom, ἱπποκόμος, ὁ.

    Horse, ἵππος, ὁ.
    Hotel, πανδοκεῖον, τό.
    House, οἴκος, ὁ.

    Infirmary, νοσοκομεῖον, τό.

    Judge, κριτής, -οῦ, ὁ, or δικασπόλος, ὁ.

    Lamp, λαμπάς, -άδος, ἡ.
    Lane, or close, λαύρα, ἡ.
    Laundry, πλυνός, ὁ.

    Market-place, ἀγορά, ἡ.
    Mason, λιθοδόμος, ὁ.
    Mayor, πολιᾱνόμος, ὁ, or δήμαρχος, ὁ.
    Monument, μνημεῖον, τό.

    Night-watch, νυκτοφύλαξ, -ακος, ὁ.

    Palace, ἀνάκτορον, τό.
    Park, παράδεισος, ὁ.
    Pastry-cook, πεμματουργός, ὁ.
    Pillar, στῦλος, ὁ.
    Policeman, περίπολος, ὁ, or τοξότης, -ου, ὁ.
    Poor-house, πτωχοδοχεῖον, τό.
    Post-office, ταχυδρομεῖον, τό.
    Preacher, ἱεροκήρυξ, -υκος, ὁ.
    Prison, δεσμωτήριον, τό.
    Provost, πρύτανις, -εως, ὁ.

    Railway, σιδηρόδρομος, ὁ.
    Revenue, πρόσοδοι, αἱ.

    Scavenger, κοπρολόγος, ὁ.
    School, διδασκαλεῖον, τό.
    Shoemaker, ὑποδηματοποιός, ὁ.
    Shop, καπηλεῖον, τό.
    Station, σταθμός, ὁ.
    Statue, ἀνδριάς, -άντος, ὁ.
    Steeple, κωδωνοστάσιον, τό.
    Store, ἀποθήκη, ἡ.
    Street, ὁδός, ἡ.
    Suburbs, προαστεῖον, τό.

    Tailor, ἱματιουργός, ὁ.
    Taxes, τέλη, τά.
    Town-clerk, γραμματεύς, -έως, ὁ.
    Town-hall, ἀρχεῖον, τό, or πρυτανεῖον, τό.

    University, πανεπιστήμιον, τό.

    Verger, ῥαβδοῦχος, ὁ.

    Waiter, ὑπηρέτης, -ου, ὁ.

IV. THE COUNTRY AND ITS BELONGINGS

    Adder, ἔχιδνα, ἡ.
    Apple, μῆλον, -ου, τό.
    Ass, ὄνος, ὁ and ἡ.

    Barn, σιτοβολών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Bay, κόλπος, ὁ.
    Bay tree, δάφνη, ἡ.
    Bean, κύαμος, ὁ.
    Beech, φηγός, ἡ.
    Beetle, κάνθαρος, ὁ.
    Berry, κόκκος, -ου, ὁ.
    Birch, σημύδα, ἡ.
    Bird, ὄρνις, -īθος, ὁ and ἡ.
    Blossom, ἄνθη, -ης, ἡ.
    Branch, κλάδος, ὁ.
    Brier, ῥαχός, -οῦ, ἡ.
    Brook, ῥύαξ, ᾱκος, ὁ.
    Bull, ταῦρος, ὁ.

    Cabbage, κράμβη, ἡ.
    Calf, μόσχος, ὁ.
    Clay, κέραμος, ὁ.
    Clod, βῶλος, ἡ.
    Clover, τρίφυλλον, τό.
    Cock, or hen, ἀλεκτρυών, -όνος, ὁ or ἡ.
    Colt, πῶλος, ὁ.
    Cottage, καλύβη, -ης, ἡ.
    Cow, βοῦς, βοός, ἡ.
    Cow-house, βούσταθμον, τό.

    Dike, χῶμα, -ατος, τό.
    Ditch, τάφρος, ἡ.
    Dog, κύων, -νός, ὁ and ἡ.
    Dove-cot, περιστερεών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Drain, ὀχετός, ὁ.
    Duck, νῆττα, -ης, ἡ.
    Dung, κόπρος, -ου, ἡ.
    Dunghill, κοπρών, -ῶνος, ὁ.

    Farmer, γεωργός, ὁ.
    Fence, φραγμός, ὁ.
    Fern, πτερίς, -ίδος, ἡ, or πολυπόδιον, τό.
    Ferry, πορθμεῖον, τό.
    Field, ἀγρός, ὁ.
    Fir, πίτυς, -υος, ἡ.
    Flower, ἄνθος, -εος, τό.
    Foam, ἀφρός, ὁ.
    Fountain, πηγή, ἡ.
    Fox, ἀλώπηξ, -εκος, ἡ.
    Frog, βάτραχος, ὁ.
    Furrow, ὄγμος, ὁ.

    Garden, κῆπος, ὁ.
    Goat, τράγος, ὁ.
    Goose, χήν, -ός, ὁ.
    Gooseberry, ἀγριοσταφύλη, ἡ.
    Grape, βότρυς, -υος, ὁ.
      dried, σταφίς, -ίδος, ἡ.
    Grass, πόα, ἡ.
    Grove, ἄλσος, -εος, τό.

    Harvest, θερισμός, ὁ.
    Hawk, ἱέραξ, -ᾱκος, ὁ.
    Heath, ἐρείκη, ἡ.
    Hedgehog, ἐχῖνος, ὁ.
    Hill, λόφος, ὁ.
    Horse, ἵππος, ὁ.
    Hunter, κυνηγός, ὁ.

    Ivy, κισσός, ὁ.

    Lake, λίμνη, ἡ.
    Lamb, ἀμνός, ὁ.
    Lane, λαύρα, ἡ.
    Laurel, δάφνη, ἡ.
    Leaf, φύλλον, τό.
    Lily, κρῖνον, τό.
      white, λείριον, τό.

    Marsh, τέναγος, τό.
    Meadow, λειμών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Mine, μέταλλον, τό.
    Mole, σπάλαξ, -ακος, ἡ.
    Mountain, ὄρος, τό.
    Mud, πῆλος, ὁ.
    Mule, ἡμίονος, ἡ.

    Nursery, φυτώριον, τό.

    Oak, δρῦς, δρυός, ἡ.
    Ox, βοῦς, βοός, ὁ, ἡ.

    Pea, πίσος, ὁ.
    Peacock, ταών, -ῶνος, ὁ, or ταῶς, ταῶ.
    Pear, ὄγχνη, ἡ.
    Pen, or fold, σηκός, ὁ.
    Pig, ὗς, ὑός, ὁ and ἡ.
    Pigeon, περιστερά, ἡ.
    Pig-sty, συφεός, ὁ.
    Plough, ἄροτρον, τό.
    Potato, γηώμηλον, τό.
    Precipice, κρημνός, ὁ.

    Rabbit, κύνικλος, ὁ.
    Rake, ἄμη, ἡ.
    Ravine, φάραγξ, -γος, ἡ.
    River, ποταμός, ὁ.
    Rock, πέτρα, ἡ.
    Root, ῥίζα, ἡ.
    Rose, ῥόδον, τό.
    Rush, σχοῖνος, ὁ.

    Sand, ψάμμος, ἡ.
    Settler, κληροῦχος, ὁ.
    Sheep, πρόβατον, τό.
    Shrub, θάμνος, ὁ.
    Slope, κλῖμα, -ατος, τό.
    Spade, σκαπάνη, ἡ.
    Stable, ἱππών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Straw, κάλαμος, ὁ.
    Strawberry, χαμοκέρασον, τό.

    Thicket, δενδρών, -ῶνος, ὁ.
    Thorn, ἄκανθα, ἡ.
    Toad, φρύνη, ἡ.
    Torrent, χειμάρρους, ὁ, or χαράδρα, ἡ.
    Tree, δένδρον, τό.
    Trout, χριστόψαρον, τό.

    Valley, ἄγκος, -εος, τό.
    Village, κώμη, -ης, ἡ.

    Wag-tail, τροχίλος, ὁ.
    Well, φρέαρ, -ᾱτος, τό.
    Worm, σκώληξ, -ηκος, ὁ.


THE END

_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, _Edinburgh_