A BISAYAN GRAMMAR
                                  AND
                                NOTES ON
                      BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS
                                  AND
                         FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY

                                   By
                        NORBERTO ROMUÁLDEZ, B.A.

                   —Provincial Fiscal of Leyte, P.I.—
                           —Attorney-at-Law—
         —Formerly Director of “San Jose” College of Takloban—
                          —Professor of Latin—


                                O! good my lord, no Latin;
                            I am not such a truant since my coming
                            As not to know the language I have liv’d in

                                                            SHAKESPEARE


                                 1908.

                      “PAG PAHAYAG” CO.—TAKLOBAN.








                                 TO THE

                    TO THE YOUTH OF SAMAR AND LEYTE

               who are clearly demonstrating aspirations
                  for a brighter future thru education
                        this book is dedicated,
         in the hope that it may give a stimulus to their work
     and an incentive to appreciate what is best in their language
             as well as in the hope that, at a future day,
             some one of them may be fitted to do this work
                      better than here presented.

                                                             The Author








INTRODUCTION


The publication of a Bisayan grammar has been eagerly awaited by many.
It has been desired by those who are interested simply in the study of
a native dialect. It has been needed by all Americans who desire an
acquaintance with the language of the people among whom they live in
order that they may get into closer touch with the great mass of
natives as yet unable to speak either Spanish or English. It has been
requested by many natives who wish to improve their use of their mother
tongue. To all such, the present volume will prove of great value.

The author is recognized throughout Samar and Leyte as one of the
highest authorities on the Samareño dialect. His statements may
therefore be accepted as authoritative. His treatment of prefixes and
suffixes, of similar words with different meanings, and of the various
forms of the verb are especially interesting and valuable.

It is hoped that Mr. Norberto Romuáldez may be able to carry out his
intention of putting out a combined grammar and language book designed
especially for those just beginning the study of Bisayan. Such a work
in conjunction with the present grammar would immensly facilitate the
acquisition of a speaking knowledge of the dialect.


    W. W. MARQUARDT,
    Division Superintendent of Schools.








PREFATORY REMARKS


This book is not intended to be a complete grammar, but is only an
elementary work containing a collection of some principles governing
the formation of the words and the construction of the sentences of the
Bisayan [1] dialect spoken on the islands of Samar and nearly half of
Leyte, by about four hundred thousand people.

At random and at odd intervals as the author’s time permitted, he
arranged, more or less in a logical grammatical order, the material
gathered. Bearing in mind that there has never been any previous
treatise on this subject worthy the name, the whole field therefore
remaining practically unexplored, it will not be surprising that the
use of spare moments covering only a short period has left much of the
field undeveloped. However, what has been collected in this book will
be found to be of primary importance to any one desiring to gain a
quick acquaintance with the dialect for immediate practical use. After
a careful study of the many examples under the different rules, coupled
with a continuous practice, the user will be surprised—if he is a
stranger—at the ease with which he acquires an Asiatic dialect, and—if
he is a Filipino—how clear and logical is one of the most spoken
dialects in his Mother-land.

The author had no intention of launching this work at the present time;
but it is done at the behest of his American friends who have urged him
to issue what has been collected, a portion only of what is intended
ultimately to be a complete treatise and grammar of Bisayan, in order
that this material may be available for the use of persons taking an
interest in the Islands, thereby bringing about a common means of
communication, which promotes a better feeling between the people born
here and the newcomer.

The exposition of the different subjects is not in the modern didactic
form generally used in this class of works. This is simply due to the
lack of sufficient time. Thus the grammar is divided into the usual
parts: orthography, prosody, etimology, and syntax. Some of these parts
have been treated to a very limited extent, because time has not
admitted of the collection of sufficient material and of the
opportunity to weigh the relative values and eliminate the exceptions
from the rules.

An appendix has been added where two topics are treated: notes on
Rhetoric and Poetics of Bisayan, and notes on Filipino Dialectology
consisting in a short comparative study of this dialect in reference to
Tagalog, one of its sister-dialects in the Archipelago. The first notes
are designed to complete the knowledge of Bisayan after the grammar is
mastered; the second are intended to show the possibility of the
formation of a common Filipino language [2] out of the different
dialects scattered thru out the Archipelago, in a similar way as the
Modern High German has been formed out of the main primitive groups
Frisian and Saxon. Frankish, Hessian, and Thuringian, and Alemannian
and Bavarian.

We have to repeat that our work is far from being perfect, even
complete, on account of lack of sufficient time. Owing to the same
circumstance, many errors in printing have crept into this book, which
we have tried to correct at the end under the heading Errata. But we
sincerely admit that not all of the mistakes that may be found in this
book are to be assigned to lack of time. Like any other product of
human industry, this work bears marks of errors arising from the two
sources pointed out by Horace


                        quas aut incuria fudit,
                Vut humana parum cavit natura.


Acknowledgement is hereby made for the help rendered by Messrs. W. W.
Marquardt, Div. Superintendent of Schools of Leyte, P.I., Fred
Shoemaker, and H. W. Halbourg, in correcting part of the proof, and for
the collaboration of Mr. Henry E. Neibert, Former American Teacher of
Jaro, Leyte, P.I. whose knowledge of both tongues, English and Bisayan,
added much material to the work.

Hoping that this little volume may be of interest and real help, it is
offered to an indulgent public for what it is worth.

    Norberto Romualdez

    Takloban, Province of Leyte,
    Philippine Islands.
    November 8, 1908.








CONTENTS


                                                               PAGE
    DEDICATION                                                    I
    INTRODUCTION                                                III
    PREFATORY REMARKS                                            IV
    CONTENTS                                                     IX

    ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY

        LETTERS                                                   1
        THE ACCENTS                                               2
        PUNCTUATION                                               3
        VOWELS                                                    5
        SYLLABLES                                                 5
        CAPITALIZATION                                            5
        CONTRACTIONS                                              7

    ETYMOLOGY

        PARTS OF SPEECH                                           6
            Articles                                              7
                Declension                                        8
            Nouns                                                 9
                Diminutive                                       10
                Figurative                                       12
                Verbal                                           13
                Compound                                         22
                Derivative                                       23
                Proper and Common                                29
                Positive, Comparative, and Superlative           32
                Cardinal, Ordinal, Partitive, and Distributive   35
                Collective                                       38
                Gender                                           40
                Number                                           40
                Case                                             41
                Important Observation                            41
                Transposition of Accents                         43
            Pronouns                                             47
                Personal                                         47
                Demonstrative                                    48
                Possessive                                       50
                Relative                                         52
                Contractions                                     56
            Verbs                                                57
                Conjugation—Voices                               58
                    Moods and Tenses                             58
                    Number and Person                            61
                Inflections                                      61
                    Table 1.—Primitive Active                    61
                    Table 2.—Progressive Active                  61
                    Table 3.—Primitive Direct Passive            68
                    Table 4.—Progressive Direct Passive          70
                    Table 5.—Primitive Indirect Passive          73
                    Table 6.—Progressive Indirect Passive        75
                    Table 7.—Primitive Instrumental Passive      76
                    Table 8.—Progressive Instrumental Passive    78
                Negative Forms                                   80
                Interrogative Forms                              82
                Suppletory Verbs                                 84
                    Pronominal Form                              84
                    Adverbial Form                               84
                Observation                                      87
                Impersonal Verbs                                 88
                Defective Verbs                                  88
                Other classes of Verbs                           89
                    Active Voice                                 90
                    Direct Passive                               93
                    Indirect Passive                             96
                    Instrumental Passive                         96
                Depreciative Verbs                               96
            Adverbs                                              97
            Prepositions                                         98
            Conjunctions                                         98
            Interjections                                        99

    SYNTAX

            Subjective relation                                 100
            Predicative relation                                100
            Attributive relation                                100
            Complementary relation                              101
            Adverbial relation                                  102
            Representative relation                             102
            Connective relation                                 103
            Absolute and independent constructions              103
            Syntax of verbs                                     103
            Arrangement of words                                105

        VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE                                  105
            Barbarisms                                          105
            Foreign words                                       105
            Foreign words unnecessarily used in Bisayan         106
                Spanish words                                   106
                Chinese words                                   111
                English words                                   111
            Foreign constructions                               112
            Foreign words necessarily used in Bisayan           112

    APPENDIX

    NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS                       117

        Figures of Speech                                       117
        Prose                                                   121
            Letters                                             121
        Poetic forms                                            123
            Versification                                       123
        Collection of some Bisayan songs                        124
            Moral Poetry                                        124
            Philosophic Poetry                                  125
            Love Poetry                                         125
            Sundry                                              126

    NOTE ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY                               128

        Words exactly the same in Bisayan and in Tagalog        128
        Words with some dialectal differences                   130
            Differences in the vowels i, o                      130
            Differences k, h, l, r, d, t                        131
            Differences in the accent, and in the separation
              of the syllables                                  132
            Transformation from a to o and viceversa            132

    ERRATA                                                      133








ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY


LETTERS.

The Bisayan letters are twenty: [3]


     a,       as a in large
     b,     }
     c,     } as in English
     d,     }
     e,       as e in well
     g,       as g in good
     ng̃,     as ng in long
     h,       as h in hat
     i,       sounding ee
     l,     }
     m,     } as in English
     n,     }
     o,       as o in long
     p,       as in English
     qu,      as the English k
     r,     }
     s,     } as in English
     t,     }
     u,       sounding oo as in good
     y,       as y in young


After knowing the respective sounds of these letters, according to the
preceding table, no rule is necessary for the pronunciation of Bisayan
words.




THE ACCENTS.

The orthographical accent is an important sign in Bisayan, in order to
give to the words their proper pronunciation, and, consequently, their
proper meaning.

Of the emission of the voice in pronouncing the Bisayan vowels, there
are two ways: one is the ordinary way, like that of the English vowels,
as in


                    baga    (red-hot coal or wood),
                    dinhi   (here),
                    olo     (head),


and the other is by a guttural suspended emission of the voice, like


                 the last a in bagà   (lungs),
                 the last i in dirì   (not or no), and
                 the last o in torò   (drop).


This guttural pronunciation is only used in the endings of words.

From the various combinations of these ways of pronouncing the vowels
and the force with which they are pronounced, it follows that a vowel,
no matter which one it is, has four different sounds:


    1st. As ordinarily, and without any particular force.
    2nd. As ordinarily, but with force in its pronunciation.
    3rd. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and without
         force.
    4th. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and with force.


The first way does not need any orthographical sign. But the last three
ones require a special orthographical accent in each ease.

When a vowel is pronounced as ordinarily, but with more force than
others in the same word, the proper accent is the acute (´).

When a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound, but without
any force, the corresponding accent is the grave (`).

And when a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound with
force, its accent is the circumflex (ˆ), which is simply the
combination of the two foregoing accents, as this last represents a
sound that is the combination of the two sounds, suspended guttural and
with force.

Therefore, in writing the word quita, for example, in its three
different meanings and according to its three different pronunciations,
it must be as follows:


           quitá   (we)   quità   (see)   quitâ   (look at).


RULE. There are three different accents in Bisayan: the acute (´); the
grave (`); and the angular, which we may call improperly circumflex
(ˆ).

The acute is located wherever it is needed, either at the beginning or
in the middle or at the ending of the word. Examples:


                  úpa   (reward)   upá   (rice chaff).


The grave and angular, by their nature, are only used upon words ending
in a vowel, and then only upon the last vowel. Examples:


                   dacò   (large),   dacô   (larger)




PUNCTUATION.

The signs of punctuation in Bisayan are the same as those in English,
the rules for the use of the period (.), colon (:), semicolon (;),
comma (,), parenthesis (), dash (—), quotation marks (“  ”) and
apostrophe (’) being identical.

But the rules are different for the use of the interrogation and
exclamation points, and hyphen.

In Bisayan, the Spanish way is followed in using two points of
interrogation and two of exclamation, the one at the beginning of the
question or exclamation (¿) (¡), and the other at the ending (?) (!).

While the hyphen (-) is also used in Bisayan to connect parts of a word
divided at the end of a line, and to connect two or more nouns,
adjectives, or particles, so as to form them into a single compound, it
has an additional use which is to separate distinctly the syllables of
certain words that would have a different meaning or none at all
without the said separation. Examples:


         sál-ong   (to hook)                  sálong   (resin)
         súl-ay    (belching of an infant)    súlay    (prop)
         bac-ad    (to unroll)
         os-og     (to draw near from afar)
         im-im     (lip)
         sid-ap    (to look at)
         san-o     (when, future)
         cacan-o   (when, past) [4]


NOTE.—The above separations are not of the same character as those
caused by contractions or elisions, where the proper sign is not a
hyphen, but an apostrophe. As,


gáb’i                 from gabii               (night)
cabitón’an,           from cabitoónan          (stars)
pabáy’i,              from pabayái             (leave him or her)
it’ im’ bugtò ng̃an   from iton imo bugtò      (your brother or
hit’ ac’ patód,       ng̃an hitón acon patód   sister and my cousin).


Therefore, it would not be correct to write gab-i, cabiton-an, pabay-i,
where the apostrophe should be employed instead of the hyphen. However,
the apostrophe is used only when needed to avoid wrong pronunciation or
confusion. So the last of the preceding examples is written without any
sign of punctuation, thus: it im bugtò ng̃an hit ac patód.




VOWELS

The Bisayan people, especially in Leyte, always have a tendency to
separate the vowels in pronouncing the words, there being no Bisayan
dipthong. So it is bi-ol (small basket) and not biol; cá-on (eat),
ti-il (foot), ma-opay (good), and not cáon, tiil, maopay. But this
refers only to spoken language, not to written.

Some words, like uásay (axe), sabáo (broth) are pronounced ua-say,
sa-bao, and not u-a-say, sa-ba-o. These syllables ua and ao are not
dipthongs. The u in the syllable ua and the o in the syllable ao, are
not the vowels u, o, but the consonant w. These words should be written
more properly wásay, sabáw. [5]




SYLLABLES

Every vowel [6] with the consonant or consonants pronounced with it and
every vowel pronounced alone form one syllable, and are written as
such. This is the rule applied to the division of a word at the end of
a line. Examples:


                    ca-ru-ca-yá-can   (conversation)
                    bác-dao           (stand)
                    a-ha-cá           (hemp), etc.




CAPITALIZATION

In Bisayan, the following words should begin with capitals:


    1. The first word of every sentence.
    2. The proper nouns.
    3. The names of the days of the week and the months of the year.
    4. Titles of honor or office.
    5. All words, except prepositions, conjunctions and unimportant
       adjectives, in the titles of books and essays.
    6. All names of God, and expressions referring to the Deity.
    7. Words representing important events in history and epochs of
       time.




CONTRACTIONS

There is no contraction used in Bisayan, except that in the sign mg̃a (a
particle employed to express the idea of plurality).

Mg̃a is for mang̃a composed of ma (an important prefix of the Bisayan and
Tagalog dialects, which bears the idea of abundance or plurality) and
ng̃a (a conjunctive particle which is necessarily employed to connect
the variable parts of speech).

NOTE. It would be desirable to have the following contractions adopted
in Bisayan, inasmuch as they are universally recognized:


                     i.e.   for id est.
                     e.g.   ,,  exempli gratia.
                     viz.   ,,  videlicet.
                     etc.   ,,  et cetera.
                     P.D.   ,,  post data.
                     P.S.   ,,  post scriptum.
                     N.B.   ,,  nota bene.
                     a.m.   ,,  ante meridiem.
                     p.m.   ,,  post meridiem. [7]








ETYMOLOGY.


PARTS OF SPEECH.

These are eight in number, in Bisayan: article, noun, pronoun, verb,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.




ARTICLES.

There are three classes:


          Definite:     an         (the)
          Indefinite:   in         (a)
          Personal:     hi or si   (no equivalent in English).


The definite article, as well as the indefinite, is used in Bisayan in
the same manner as its equivalent in English. The definite article,
however, is sometimes used before proper nouns, and it is very often
used before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. Examples:


          Nacánhi an batà           (the boy or girl has come)
          Nacánhi in batà           (a boy or girl has come)
          An Dyos [8] macagagáhum   (God is omnipotent)
          An iní nga bucád          (this flower)
          An acon calò              (my hat)


The personal article is always used before the names of persons; it is
also used before the personal pronouns, except the third persons.
Examples.


                           Hi Pedro   (Peter)
                           Hi acó     (I)
                           Hi icao    (you)


Instead of hi, si may be used. [9]

These articles do not change in gender. Examples: an amáy (the father),
an iróy (the mother); hi Juan (John), hi María (Mary).

The definite and indefinite articles change in the plural in the
following way:


                        SINGULAR   PLURAL

                        an         an mg̃a [10]
                        in         in mg̃a


The personal article does not change, in person or number, except in
the third person plural where it takes the form of the third personal
pronoun third person, plural number. Examples:


              Hi quitá                   (we)
              Hi camó                    (you, in plural)
              Hirá Pedro ng̃an hi Juan   (Peter and John)



DECLENSION.—Articles have two cases: nominative and objective.


                     SINGULAR           |         PLURAL
                                        |
NOMINATIVE:   an         in       hi or |  an mg̃a    in mg̃a   hirá or
                                  si    |                       sirá
OBJECTIVE:    han or     hin or   ni,   |  han mg̃a   hin       nira,
              san        sin      can   |  or san     mg̃a or   canda
                                        |  mg̃a       sin
                                        |             mg̃a


Examples:


An batà nagbahása han surát ni Pedro   (the boy reads Peter’s letter).
Hirá Carlos ng̃an hi Juan naghátag     (Charles and John gave flowers
canda Tomás ng̃an hi Pedro hin mg̃a    to Thomas and Peter).
bucád


The objective case covers all the different cases used in other
languages after the nominative, that is to say, the genitive, dative,
accusative and ablative cases.

RULES. 1. The Bisayan articles are used immediately before the words to
which they refer.

2. The definite article may be used without expressing the object to
which it refers, having, in this case, the nature of a relative
pronoun. Examples:


        An nagtótoon, nahabábaro     (He, who studies, learns).
        An mg̃a nagtututdò ha aton   (They who teach us.)


3. The personal article is always necessary before the names of
persons. It is not correct to say “Pedro nagsusurat”; hi is needed, and
it must be: “hi Pedro nagsusurat” (Peter is writing).

EXCEPTIONS. 1. Between the definite article and the word to which it
refers, other words may be placed, in some instances, as in this
phrase:


             An iní ng̃a baláy     (this house), or
             an maopay ng̃a batà   (the good boy or girl).


The regular order in constructing the last phrase is:


                          an batà ng̃a maopay.


2. When the names of persons are in the vocative case, the personal
article is not used. Thus we say:


              Mariano, cadí dao   (Mariano, come, please).
              Pamatì, Juan        (listen, John).


3. In the objective case of hi, can is used before the verb, and ni
after the verb. Examples:


               An can Juan guinsurát   (what John wrote)
               An guinsurát ni Juan    (what John wrote)


N.B.—The indefinite article, when needed at the beginning of the
sentence, is replaced by the phrase “usa ng̃a” So, if we wish to say “a
boy came yesterday,” we should not say


                     in batà nacánhi cacolop; but
                     usá ng̃a batà nacánhi cacolóp.


This phrase usá ng̃a is not a perfect article, but it has the character
of an adjective, even when used as an article. Therefore, both the
indefinite in and the phrase usá ng̃a may be used in the same sentence.
So, we can say, changing the regular order of the last sentence:


       Nacánhi cacolóp in usá ng̃a bata   (a boy came yesterday).




NOUNS

These are substantive and adjective. Both may be grouped in the
following classes: primitive, diminutive, figurative, verbal, compound,
derivative, proper, common, positive, comparative, superlative,
cardinal, ordinal, partitive, distributive and collective. Nothing
particular needs be said about the primitive.


DIMINUTIVE

Examples:

                 PRIMITIVE                   DIMINUTIVE

                 baláy     (house)           balaybálay
                 saróual   (trousers)        sarouálay
                 carahà    (frying-pan)      caraháay
                 balóto    (little boat)     balotóhay


As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive
or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay.

The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As,

    from

                     dáhon   (leave),   dahondáhon,
                     cáhoy   (tree),    cahoycáhoy.


The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two
syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant,
or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when
the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a
vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or
is preceded by more than one consonant. As,

    from

             sacayán   (boat),               sacayánay,
             habobò    (low),                habobóay,
             balicô    (crooked),            balicóay, [11]

             abacá     (hemp),               abacáhay,
             babaye    (woman),              babayéhay,
             banat-i   (a tree so called),   banat-ihay,
             malacsi   (fast),               malacsihay.


But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is
followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an
acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding
it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules
established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such
diminutives. As,

    from

       támsi    (bird),               tamsíhay, not tamsitamsi,
       túl-an   (bone),               tul-ánay, not tul-antul-an,
       pulá     (red color),          puláhay, not pulapula, [12]
       sagpò    (plug),               sagpóay, not sagposagpò,
       sab-a    (a kind of banana),   sab-áhay, not sab-asab-a,
       bungto   (town),               bungtóhay not bungtobungto.


Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the
adjectives follow the same rules. As,

    from

                   matám-is   (sweet),   matam-isay,
                   malomó     (soft),    malomóhay,
                   halípot    (short),   halipótay.


But in must of the adjectives formed with ma (a particle bearing the
idea of abundance) and ha [13] (a particle that bears the idea of
place), like maopay, mabusag, mapulá, hatáas, halabà, the prefixes ma
or ha are disregarded in the formation of their diminutives, their
abstract roots being the only elements taken into consideration, as if
such adjectives were dyssillabic. Thus, opay, busag, pulá, táas, lubà,
being the abstract roots of the last mentioned adjectives, their
diminutives will be:

    from

                  maópay    (good),    maopay-ópay
                  mabuság   (white),   mabusagbúsag
                  mapulá    (red),     mapulapulá
                  hatáas    (high),    hataastáas
                  halabà    (long),    halabalabà [14]


There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the
following:

                                     DIMINUTIVE
             from                REGULAR     IRREGULAR
             dacò   (large),     dacòdacò    dacolaay [15]
             gutì   (small)      gutigutì    gutirurù [16]




FIGURATIVE

We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which,
not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots,
show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the
corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application.

Examples:

from

bobón    (fountain),   mobonbóbon [17]   (fontanel);
cabáyo   (horse),      carocabáyo,       (objects that are like a horse
                                         or cloud).
dámpog   (cloud),      darodámpog,


When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of
its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic
diminutive. As,

from

  hadì       (king), we have
  hadihadi   (a person who, by his vanity or harshness, resembles the
             figure of a king).


But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel
is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from
the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the
root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a
consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the
syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition,
or collection). As,

    from

              sacayán      (boat),         sarosacáyan
              ulalahípan   (centipede),    uroulalahipan
              isdà         (fish),         iroisdà
              can’on       (cooked rice)   carocan’on [18]


NOTE.—Many of the figurative nouns have the same forms as the
collective. There are few figuratives among the adjectives; of these,
those having the form of figuratives are really comparatives. [19]




VERBAL

These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring
to the agents or the objects of the roots.

Examples:

from

    sáyau (to dance)

            parasayáu (dancer),
            tigsayáu (person who sometimes dances),
            magsarayáu (person appointed to dance)
            sarayauán [20] (place designed for dancing).
            sarayauón (dance or musical piece to be danced) [21];


from

    umá (to farm)

            paraúma (farmer),
            tig-úma (person used to do farming),
            mag-urúma (person in charge of farming),
            urumáhan, contracted urúmhan (place designed for farming),
            urumáhon, contracted urúmhon (ground or plant to be
            cultivated);


from

    surat (to write), the similar verbals as above, so far as the idea
    of the root and the use permit, with this variant:

            susurátan, not sururátan,
            susuráton, not sururáton;


from

    toóc (to weep), the similar verbals, so far as the root and the use
    permit, and this besides:

            matóoc (weeper);


from

    bóong̃ (to break), the similar verbals, and this:

            maboroóng̃ (liable or expected to be broken);


from

    inóm (to drink), the similar verbals, and the following:

            mainominóm (an inviting drink);


from

    sosón (to correct), the similar verbals, and this:

            hinóson (person fond of or bold in correcting);


from

    útang̃ (to borrow),

            hing̃útang̃ or hing̃ung̃utáng̃ [22] (person fond of or bold in
            borrowing).


It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same
number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every
idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use.

From the preceding examples, it is seen that the transformative
particles of the verbal nouns are various, the said particles being the
prefixes para, tig, mag, ma, hi, the interfixes [23]  r, ro, um or the
affixes an, on. These particles are very important in Bisayan as they
greatly help to enrich the limited vocabulary of this tongue.

For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes.


AN, ON.

These particles refer to the complement of the verb-root, an to the
indirect object of the action (generally regarding the place where the
act occurs), and on to the direct object (generally referring to the
termination of the action).

An or on is used when the root ends with a consonant or a vowel with a
grave or angular accent.

An h preceds them when the roots ends with a vowel otherwise accented
or non-accented, or pronounced separately from the preceding consonant
or consonants.

The particle an or han is simply added to the root, as,

from

catúrog   (to sleep),               caturogán       (sleeping place);
sing̃ba   (to adore),               sing̃báhan      (church);
taclob    (to cover),               taclóban [24]   (covering place);
tan-ao    (to see at a distance),   tan-aoan [25]   (watching place);


or is employed either with the interfix r combined with the first vowel
of the root or with the first consonant and vowel of the root instead,
as

from

                       cáon   (to eat)   caraonán


from

          tíroc   (to assembly)   titiroeán   (meeting place);


or with its first vowel if the root commences with a vowel, as

from

         aro   (to ask)   aaroán   (place designed for asking).


The particle on has the same use as an, as

               caturogón,
               siringbahon,
               lilibácon      (from libác, to backbite),
               aaroon.


NOTE.—The affix an is sometimes doubled, as,

from

                lohód   (to kneel down),   lodhanán [26]


from

      tambò   (to lock out),   tamboànan, from tambóan   (window).


PARA, TIG.

Para bears the idea of habit, custom or occupation. Tig conveys the
idea of a repeated, but not frequent, act.

They are simply prefixed to the root without any other complementary
particle, as,

    from

        cánhi (to come).

                paracánhi,
                tigcánhi.


MA, WITH ON, WITH RO, OR WITH R.

The particle ma conveys the idea of fondness, desirableness, or passive
potentiality or possibility.

When, it means fondness, it is employed either by putting it at the
beginning of the root without any other particle, as

    from

                 cáon   (to eat),   macáon   (glutton),


or by combining it with the affix on or hon, according to the case, as

    from

          catúrog   (to sleep),   macaturogón   (sleepy head),


    from

      arába   (to moan),   maarabahón   (person fond of moaning).


When the prefix ma, bears the idea of desirableness, it is placed
before the doubled root, when the root has not more than two syllables
and its last vowel is preceded by not more than two consonants or is
not pronounced separately from its preceding consonant or consonants,
as

    from

         cáon,   macaoncaón   (thing inviting to be eaten) [27]


    from

     oná   (to commence),   maonaoná   (provocative, quarrelsome),


and in cases where the root has more than two syllables, or if not,
where its last vowel is preceded by more than two consonants or is
pronounced separately from the consonant or consonants preceding it,
then this prefix is employed in combination with the interfix ro
preceded by the first consonant and vowel of the root or by the vowel
only if the root begins with a vowel, as


      from   catúrog,                               macarocaturóg,
       ,,    bányac,    (to kick),                  maharobányac,
       ,,    síd-ap,    (to look at),               masirosíd-ap,
       ,,    arába,                                 maaroarabá,
       ,,    ígham,     (to grunt),                 mairoígham,
       ,,    ós-og      (to draw near from afar),   maoroós-og.


When the particle ma conveys the idea of passive potentiality or
possibility, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first
vowel of the root. The r with its complementary vowel is put after the
first syllable of the root. As,


         from   bóong   (to break),   maboroóng   (brittle)
          ,,    abót    (to reach),   maarábot    (attainable).


The particle ma is frequently replaced by the prefix ig or i combined
with the interfix r or its substitutes, as


     from   tambal   (to cure),    igtarámbal or   (medicine),
                                   itárambal
      ,,    surat    (to write),   isusúrat        (thing to write
                                                   with).


MAG AND THE R.

The prefix mag bears the idea of forcible, necessary, or continuous
agency. It is employed with the interfix r combined with and before the
first vowel of the root. This combination is placed between the first
and the second syllable of the root. But when there is an r in the
root, the interfix r is replaced by the first consonant of the said
root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix r is sometimes
suppressed, the said first vowel being used instead of the interfix.
As,


   from   sódoy     (to stroll      magsotodóy      (one who strolls
                    about),                         about)
    ,,    bilíng̃   (to seek or     magbiríling̃    (searcher),
                    search),
    ,,    siríng̃   (to request),   magsisíring̃,   (petitioner), not
                                                    magsiríring̃,
    ,,    ósoc      (to set up),    mag-orosóc      (person designed
                                                    to set up),
    ,,    arót      (to cut the     mag-aárot       (barber).
                    hair),


The particle mag is frequently contracted into ma, in which case the
root is considered as having an r, as


        from   suláy     (to tempt),    manunúlay     (tempter),
         ,,    tábang̃   (to assist),   mananábang̃   (helper).


HI

This particle conveys the idea of boldness. When the root begins with a
labial consonant, except the m, the said consonant is transformed into
m, as


    from   bása    (to read),   himása    (person bold in reading),
     ,,    pitíc   (to leap),   himític   (person bold in leaping).


When the root begins with an m, the prefix hi is not commonly used but
the prefix para ma, or tig, as


  from   múlay   (to teach),     para-, ma-, or tigmulay, not himúlay,
   ,,    mogó    (to observe),   para-, ma-, or tigmógo, not himógo.


When the root begins with a vowel, ng̃ is [28] appended to the prefix;
ng̃ is also appended when the root begins with a guttural consonant, but
then the said consonant is suppressed. As,


     from   ásoy    (to refer),    hing̃ásoy   (garrolous),
      ,,    cáon    (to eat)       hingáon     (bold in eating),
      ,,    gúbat   (to invade),   hing̃úbat   (bold in invading).


When the root commences with the nasal consonant ng̃, the prefix hi is
ordinarily replaced by the prefix para, ma, or tig, or the first
syllable of the root is made long, as


     from   ng̃isi   (to laugh,    para-, ma, or   (person fond of
                     showing the   tig̃ngisi, or   grinning).
                     teeth),       ñgisi


When the root begins with any other consonant, except l, n, r, the said
consonant is suppressed and the letter n is appended to the prefix, as


from   dolóng,   (to struggle),   hinólong       (bold in struggling),
 ,,    sosón     (to correct),    hinóson        (bold in correcting),
 ,,    tápod     (to confide),    hinápod [29]   (bold in confiding)


In all of these cases, the syllable following the prefix hi is
sometimes doubled, according to the use, as,


                from   himític,     himimític,
                 ,,    hing̃ásoy,   hing̃ang̃asóy,
                 ,,    hinóson,     hinonoson, [30] etc.


UM.

This particle bears the idea of option. It is used among the verbs for
the subjunctive mode. It is always combined with the interfix r or its
substitutes, and is placed between the first consonant and the first
vowel of the root. When the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is
placed immediately before the vowel. Examples:


from   cáon   (to eat),      cumaraón   (person going to, or expected
                                        to, eat),

 ,,    abót   (to arrive),   umarábot   (person expected to arrive),
 ,,    arò    (to ask),      umaarô     (person expected to ask).


Some roots without r follow the rule as if they had an r, as,


      from   sacá   (to go up, to board),   sumasáca   (boarder).


Observations: 1. There are verbals formed with ma combined with the
interfix r or its substitutes. This formation takes place only in the
intransitive verbs commencing with the particle ca which then conveys
the idea of passivity. As,


  from   caauód      (to be ashamed),    macaaráuod      (shameful),
   ,,    cabórong̃   (to be confused),   macabobórong̃   (confusing),
   ,,    casína      (to be angry),      macasisína      (odious).


2. The infinitives of the verbs, which are always preceded by the
particle pag, are frequently employed as substantives. In such cases
the particle pag is transformed in the plural, its g being then
replaced by the letter ng̃ if the root begins with a vowel or a guttural
consonant, except g, or by the consonant n when the root commences with
a dental consonant, or by the m if it begins with a labial. In the
plural, the roots commencing with a consonant lose said consonant. When
the root begins with a nasal or with the guttural g, said consonant is
preserved and the g of pag is replaced by n. Examples:

from arò (to ask), cáon (to eat), dáop (to approach) bása (to read),
ng̃oyng̃oy (to groan), gábot (to, pull), we have:


               SINGULAR                      PLURAL

               pag-arò       (asking)        pang̃arò,
               pagcáon       (eating)        pang̃áon,
               pagdáop       (approaching)   panáop,
               pagbása       (reading)       pamása,
               pagngoyngoy   (groaning)      panngóyagoy,
               paggábot      (pulling)       pangábot,


3. The infinitives of roots commencing with the particle ca are also
used as substantives, and then with or without the prefix pag.


    from   cabido   (to be sorry),   pagcabídò, cabídò,   (sorrow).


In such cases, the affix an or on is sometimes employed, as


       from   casáquit   (to be sad),     casaquítan   (sadness),
        ,,    casína     (to be angry),   casinahón    (anger).




COMPOUND

The use gives the following:


from solód (to enter) and       sólodbálay, which means the person who
baláy (house),                  thru his intimacy with the occupant of
                                a house, enters in at any time;
from sacá (to go up) and        sacálúsad, applied to the person who is
lúsad (to go down),             very busy or who suffers a great
                                misfortune and goes up and down the
                                house repeatedly. It is also applied to
                                boys or girls who go out the house
                                frequently, especially without
                                permission of their parents;
from dosô (to push) and         dosô-bótong, [31] applied to a person
bótong (to pull),               who takes determinations that are
                                contradictory;
from cábcab (to scratch) and    cábcabtocâ, applied to persons who have
tocâ (what a bird does when     to expend for their subsistence all
it picks up or bites            that they gain by their work;
something with its beak),
from di, contraction of dirì    diabotóncalóton, applied to that part
(not), abotón, from abót (to    of the human back, which our hands
reach), and calóton, from       cannot reach to scratch when it itches;
cálot (to scratch),

from tábag (help), ha, a        tabaghaamong̃-ámong̃, applied to those
preposition for the objective   who maliciously pretend to help a
case, among̃ámong̃ (to          person in trouble, but injure him. Etc.
malign);




DERIVATIVE

We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns.
Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of
the derivatives are adjectives.

The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes,
interfixes, and affixes.

The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as
prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As,


  from   pauà        (light),      capanà       (clearness)
   ,,    áram        (wisdom),     maáram       (wise)
   ,,    bayáu       (brother in   mabaráyau    (brother-in-law-to-be)
                     law),
   ,,    bidò        (sorrow),     macabibidò   (sorrowful)
   ,,    isdà        (fish),       maquiisdà    (fond of fish)
   ,,    púsod       (navel),      himósod      (payment for attending
                                                to the navel of a
                                                new-born child)
   ,,    bugtò       (brother or   magbugtò     (referring to two
                     sister),                   persons who are
                                                brothers or sisters)
                                                [32]
   ,,    bisaya      (bisayan),    binisaya     (bisayan tongue)
   ,,    salâ        (fault or     saláan       (guilty)
                     guilt),
   ,,    búuà [33]   (lie),        buuáon       (liar).


Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with
the affix an. As


      from   hatáas   (high),    cahatáas             (height),
       ,,    dáot     (bad),     caraótan, carát’an   (badness).
       ,,    pauà     (light),   capauà               (clearness).


It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix
anon, as


     from   masúgot   (obedient),   camasinug’tánon   (obedience).


Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first
case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form
of great many adjectives, as,


        from   ísog   (courage, rage),   maísog   (courageous);


and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r
combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as,


         from   asáua   (wife),   maarasauá   (woman betrothed)


The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the
affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As


  from   túman   (performance),   matinumánon     (faultless) plural,
                                                  magtinumánon
   ,,    sugót   (obedience),     masinug’tánon   (obedient)


It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as
from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ).

Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the
primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using
the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As,


       from   álo      (shame),       macaaálo       (shameful),
        ,,    lípay    (joy),         macalilípay    (rejoicer),
        ,,    budlay   (grievance),   macaburúdlay   (grievous).


Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also of continuity in
a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive.

Relationship. Examples:


      from   patód   (cousin),   magpatód   (cousins each other).


It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy
(father and son, or father and daughter).

The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual
relationship, are always in plural.

Continuity. Examples:


   from   ága     (morning),   Mag-ága    (the whole night until the
                                          morning);
    ,,    colóp   (evening);   magcólop   (the whole day until the
                                          evening.)


Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other
transformative particle, as,


            from   Dyos [34]   (God),   maquidyos   (pious).


It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as


from   hámpang̃   (to be present   maquihahampang̃on   (person fond of
                  during a                             being present or
                  conversation),                       taking part in a
                                                       conversation).


Hi, as transformative particle of derivatives, conveys the idea of
boldness, and also of consideration, or of payment. We have seen that
it means boldness when joined to verbs to form verbal nouns [35]. As to
its use, it follows here the same rules as when employed with verbs.
Examples:


from   quinatsilâ   (Spanish         hing̃inatsilà   (one who ventures
                    language),                       to talk Spanish,
                                                     knowing but little
                                                     of it).

 ,,    apóy         (grandfather),   hing̃apóy
 ,,    púsod        (navel),         himósod [36]


Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As,


from   buyo     (betel       palabuyóan     (applied to the wine of
                nut),                       cocoanut, that resembles
                                            the taste of the betel nut)
 ,,    biráu    (a plant),   palabirauán    (applied to the fruit of
                                            cocoanut that resembles the
                                            color of biráu)
 ,,    camote   (sweet       palacamotián   (applied to the fruit of
                potato),                    “nang̃ca” (a tree) that
                                            resembles the color of
                                            camote)
 ,,    gátas    (milk)       palagatásan    (applied to the young rice
                                            or corn whose grain is yet
                                            liquid resembling the milk)


Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to
the primitive. As


       from   baláy   (house),   tagbaláy   (owner of a house)
        ,,    sugò    (order),   tagsugò    (author of an order).


It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is
frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As


         from   túig    (year),   tagtuig       (year by year)
          ,,    ádlao   (day),    matag-ádlao   (every day).


These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses
the same idea. As


   from   túig, adlao, búlan (month), pagcáon (meal)
          iquinatúig                                   (every year)
          iquinaadlao                                  (every day)
          iquinabulan                                  (every month)
          iquinapagcáon,                               (every meal)


The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed
under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative
and verbal nouns.

The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of
the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is
placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As,


       from   Súlug [37] (the archipelago of Súlu),
              sinulúg (a fight or dance after the Suluan fashion)
       from   tuyáo (crazy),
              tinuyáo (foolishness)
       from   ínsic (chinaman),
              ininsic (chinese language; ways; or habit).


An and on among the derivatives, signify the idea of abundance or
participation, an frequently conveying the idea of place. Both are
appended to the primitive without any other particle, and complemented
with an h, in the same way as in the formation of verbals. [38]
Examples:


from   pálad     (fate),          paláran [39]     (fortunate),
 ,,    asáua     (wife),          asauáhan         (married man),
 ,,    salapi    (silver,         salapian         (wealthy)
                 money),
 ,,    curi      (difficulty),    curián           (stubborn person)
 ,,    sumat     (information),   sumatán          (credulous)
 ,,    burabud   (fountain),      buraburon [40]   (place where there
                                                   are many fountains)
 ,,    taro      (wax),           taróhon          (an object that has
                                                   wax on)
 ,,    tubac     (ant),           tubacón          (a thing that has
                                                   ants on.)


These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the
on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or
birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the
same rules established for an and on. Examples:


from   mang̃gad   (wealth),     mang̃gáran         (wealthy),
                                                   manggaránon (rich).
 ,,    abacá      (hemp),       abacáhan           (person that has
                                                   hemp), abacahànon
                                                   (person that owns
                                                   much hemp),
 ,,    Tan-auan   (a town so    tan-auananon       (native or resident
                  called),                         of Tanauan).
 ,,    Palo       (a town so    paloánon           (native or resident
                  called),      contracted         of Palo),
                                palon’on
 ,,    Tolosa     (a town),     tolosahanon,       (native or resident
                                contracted         of Tolosa),
                                tolosán’hon
 ,,    Dagami     (a town),     dagamiánon,        (native or resident
                                contracted         of Dagami),
                                dagamin’on
 ,,    Maasin     (a town),     maasinánon,        (native or resident
                                contracted         of Maasin),
                                maasinhon [41]
 ,,    Sugbu      (Cebú),       sugbuánon,         (native or resident
                                                   of Cebú),
 ,,    Samar      (province     samaránon,         (native or resident
                  so called),   contracted         of Sámar),
                                samárnon
 ,,    Manila     (Manila),     manilaanon,        (native or resident
                                contracted         of Manila).
                                manilan’on
 ,,    America    (America),    americahanon,      (American).
                                contracted
                                americanhon [42]


OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina
or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi.

Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the
person side by side).

Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time).

Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive),
“iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life).

Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte”
(Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga
Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc”
(up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is
sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the
belly).

Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the
primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the
primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by
n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye)
“baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar
disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar
power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make
himself invisible).

Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from
“polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used
instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable).

NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as


  from   cauil    (fish-hook),         quinauilán   (fish caught with
                                                    “cauil”)
         bitánà   (a kind of fishing   binitanáan   (fish caught with
                  net),                             “bitanà”).


There are other transformative particles not so important as those
already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student.




PROPER AND COMMON

Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper
and common nouns.  Tacloban, Catbalaógan, Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya
(Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns;
bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common.

The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As


      of Pedro,       Péndong̃, Endong̃, Edóng̃, Edós, Pedó, etc;
      ,, Juan,        Uáuang̃, Uauay, Uáuà, Uuán, Uuâ, etc;
      ,, Vicente,     Tenteng̃, Titíng̃, Sente, Setée, etc;
      ,, Rafael,      Pápeng̃, Paéng̃, Paél, Pápè, etc;
      ,, Margarito,   Titong̃, Itong̃, Titoy, Itoy, etc.;
      ,, Francisco,   Quicoy, Incoy, Quicò, etc;
      ,, Juana,       Uánday, Uáday, etc.;
      ,, Antonio,     Tónyo, Todóc, etc.;
      ,, Alejandro,   Andong̃, Andoy, etc.;
      ,, Isabel,      Sabel, etc.;
      ,, Gregorío,    Goyóng̃, etc.;
      ,, Saturnino,   Satúr, etc.;
      ,, Claudia,     Calán, etc.


Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition
can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which
denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive
action), as


Cansámqui        (a place, which probably belonged formerly to one
                 named Samqui)
Can-orquin       (place probably owned formerly by one called Orquin)
Canramos, [43]   transformed Carrámos (place probably owned or
                 possessed in former times by one named Ramos)

Cabuyúan         (place where formerly there was much “buyu”
                 (betelnut))
Cabalían         (place where the strong current of the sea breaks the
                 oars (balì))
Guintiguían      (place in the “San Juanico strait,” where the strong
                 current of the sea tests the rowers (tigui))
Guintúlyan       (a place in Basáy, Samar, where probably many fishes
                 were caught (tulúy) with nets.)
                 Etc.


    NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all
    Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish,
    many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit,
    Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc.


To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect,
confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which
show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the
person to whom the noun is applied. Examples:


    for papa, tátay or tatáy, tátang̃ or tatáng̃, itáy, or itáng̃;
    ,,  mamma, nánay or nanáy, nánang̃ or nanáng̃, ináy, or ináng̃.


There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to
those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers.
Examples:


    Mano, manóng, mamo, mamoy, babay, dudoy, dudù inco, tutoy, yuyu,
    iyô (applied to elder brothers, uncles or elder male relatives of
    any degree, even to persons not related to but respected by the
    speaker or writer).
    Mana [44] manang, manáy, mama, mamay. manding, duday, duda, insi
    tutay, yuya, tuta (applied to elder sisters, aunts or elder female
    relatives of any degree, even to women not related to, but
    respected by the speaker or writer).
    Tío, or tí, tia or tí (applied as á form of politeness and respect,
    respectively to men or women not related to or unknown by the
    speaker or writer).
    Idoy, íntoy, budóy, busóy, and idáy, inday, udáy, idíng, iyíng,
    bididay, nonay, neneng, (applied with tenderness to boys or girls
    respectively).


NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is
applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not
know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it
helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the
verbs and other parts of speech.


The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are
also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then
equivalent to the English why.


Examples:

    Question.—“¿Guinsorat mo na an balos?” (Have you already written
    the answer?)
    Answer.—“Oo guincoan co na gad” (Yes I already have).
    Q.—¿Háin an basahón? (Where is the book?)
    A.—Inin ... aadto ada ha ac solód (why ... I guess it is in my
    room)
    Q.—Mapiráu, ¿ano in bubuhaton co? (I am sleepy, what shall I do?)
    A.—Ada ... catúrog (Why ... to sleep).




POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE.

As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also
used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive,
comparative and superlative.

Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except
what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs:

The comparatives are formed exactly in the same way as the figuratives
[45], the number of syllables being disregarded, as if all has more
than two syllables.


   from   hatáas   (high),          harohataás   (higher),
    ,,    hobóg    (intoxicated),   horohobóg    (more intoxicated),
    ,,    táuo     (man),           tarotauó     (more of a man).


In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is
preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as


       from   maópay     (good),    maoroopáy     (better)
        ,,    magbuság   (white),   maboroboság   (whiter), etc.


There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the
combined particles labi (more) and ca, as


                      labí ca maopay    (better),
                      labí ca mabusag   (whiter).


This last form is sometimes used for superlatives.

The superlatives are of three classes:

Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or
supreme superlatives, as


                    guimaopáyi   (the best of all);


those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary
superlative, as,


               capín ca maópay           }
               maopay nga capín          } (very good);
               maopay hin sogóng̃ [46]    }


and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive
superlatives, as


                 uraúra [47] ca maópay   } (to good).
                 maópay ng̃a uraúra       }


As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed
by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by
appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the
primitive may be doubled as use permits. As,


     from   hatáas   (high, tall),   guihataási, or   (the highest)
                                     guihahataasi
            táuo     (man),          guitáu’i         (a true and
                                                      perfect man).


The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest
degree of identity as in this phrase:


                An guiaamáyi mo gud an natauág ha imo
                (It is your very father who calls you).


The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí
ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a
capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As,


           from   mabido                 (sorry)
                  capín ca mabidò      }
                  labí ca mabidò       }
                  mabidò caopay        } (very sorry)
                  mabidò ng̃a capín    }
                  mabidò hin sogóng̃       }


Some of the adjectives formed with particle ma, have another form for
ordinary superlative, in doubling their root and disregarding the
prefix ma, as from “masiróm” (dark), “masiromsiróm” [48] (very dark).

The excessive superlative is formed with the particle uraúra ca placed
before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the
root. As,


       from   maasín                 (salty)
              uraúra ca maasín     } (excessively salty)
              maasín ng̃a uraúra    }


The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with
the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô
hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the
primitive, as


    lapás ca maasín
    dirì sonô hin ca maasín
    dirì socól hin ca maasín.


NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as


          from   mahúsay                 (orderly, beautiful),
                 labínan ca mahúsay      (very beautiful);
          from   masáquit                (painful),
                 masáquit ng̃a capínan   (very painful).




CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE.

The cardinal adjectives are the following:


        usá, contracted us,   (one)
        duhá                  (two)
        tuló                  (three)
        upát                  (four)
        limá                  (five)
        unóm                  (six)
        pitó                  (seven)
        ualó                  (eight)
        siyám                 (nine)
        napulò [49]           (ten)
        napulo cag [50] usá   (eleven).
        caruhaán [51]         (twenty)
        catloán               (thirty)
        cap’atán              (forty)
        calim’an              (fifty)
        caúnman               (sixty)
        capitoán              (seventy)
        caualoán              (eighty)
        casiyamán             (ninety)
        usá ca gatós          (one hundred)
        duhá ca gatós         (two hundred)
        usá ca yocót          (one thousand)
        usá ca ríbo [52]      (ten thousand)
        usá cagatós ca ribo   (one million), etc.


As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition
“cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix
“an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó,
ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being
taken in consideration. Thus we say:


    caruhaán, not caduhaán,
    catloan, not catuloán,
    cap’atán not caupatán,
    calim’an not calimahán,
    caúnman, not caunoman.


The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar
language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus:


               us ca gatos   }
               us ca yocót   } instead of “usá” ca etc.
               us ca ribo    }


In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga
may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts.
Thus, to read this number

    987654321,

we would say:

    “Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo,
    ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.”

NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero
(0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the
word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding
to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from
Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty).

The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears
the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As


        ica usá,
        ica napulò
        ica calim’an
        ica upat ca gatós
        ica siyam ca yucót
        icá pito ca ribo.


The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and
frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá.

The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in
that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as
partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â,
tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà.

The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to
avoid confusion. Thus


                an icaupát ca bahín   (the fourth part)


The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half),
“cauróg” (most).

The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle
tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As


                    tag dúha       (two, each)
                    tag caualóan   (eighty, each)
                    tag yúcot      (thousand, each)


When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina
is combined with tag. As


                   iquina tag duha   (each two), etc.




COLLECTIVE

The collective nouns are formed by adding at the beginning of the
primitive the prefix ca (which bears the idea of collection or reunion)
and the affix an. As,


from   bata   (boy or girl),   cabatáan    (reunion of boys or girls)
       táuo   (person),        catauóhan   (reunion of persons).
       duhá   (two),           caruhaán    (twenty).


These forms are very frequently used to make the plural of the nouns,
as of the singular batá we make the plural.


                         mga batà or cabataan.


NOTE—The particle ca is also employed to express abstract ideas, as


  from buság (white color),   mabuság (white),   camabuság (whiteness)


The particle pag is sometimes added at the beginning of the particle,
as


                      pagcamabuság   (whiteness).


The collectives take also the form of the figuratives with or without
the particles ca and an, as the use may permit, as


                           caborobong̃tóhan,
                           borobóng̃to.


NOTE.—There is another class of nouns which may be called depreciative.
They are limited in number. The following belong to such class:

    for batà (child),

        nagbobóto (a being born thru an explosion)
        lumátud (person of big abdomen)
        lugtuc, [53]
        motatô [54]
        motó, from botó (report of a gun, explosion);


for anác (son or daughter)


    nahólbot (past participle of “hólbot” to pull out of a hole);


for baba (mouth)


    nasárag (of “sárag” to put something in the mouth);


for camót (hand)


    camrauón (from “cámram”, what an eagle does with its fingers);


for tiil (foot)


    sincádol [55] etc.


There are despectives derived from their primitives, as,


    for húbya (lazy), “húbsac” [56]


The variations to which the Bisayan names are subject, are: gender,
number, and cases.




GENDER.

The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the
natural and grammatical genders.

Examples of natural gender:


     MASCULINE                       FEMININE

     laláqui     (male person)       babaye   (woman)
     lalaquí     (male not person)   babayé   (female not person)
     amay        (father)            iróy     (mother)
     bána        (husband)           asáua    (wife)
     bata        (uncle)             dadâ     (aunt)
     baylo       (brother in law)    hipág    (sister in law), etc.


Examples of gramatical gender:


                      MASCULINE    FEMININE

                      dudoy [57]   duday
                      tutoy        tutay
                      idoy         iday
                      intoy        inday
                      mano         mana
                      manoy        manáy
                      manong       manang [58]
                      tío          tía [59], etc.




NUMBER

The plural is determined by the particle mga or by those for
collectives as formerly seen [60], or by the interfix g among the
adjectives. Examples:


    of táuo (man) “mg̃a táuo,” or “catauóhan” (men),
    of dacò (large), dagcò (large, plural).
    of matam-is (sweet), magtam-is (sweet, plural),
    of hatáas (high), hagtáas (high, plural).


When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its
form, as


    usá ca táuo (one man), napulò ca tauo (ten men),
    usá ng̃a baláy (one house), calim’an ng̃a baláy (fifty houses).


Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as


    of hubyà (lazy), mg̃a hubya, not húgbyà, etc.




CASE.

There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different
cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the
prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun.


IMPORTANT OBSERVATION.

There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but
which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of
these are the following:


anáy          (she-hog),              ánay      (before)
apó           (grandson or            ápò       (a thing fully
              grand-daughter),                  introduced)
áyao          (distributive           ayáo      (no, imperative)
              possession),
bábà          (mouth),                babá      (to carry a thing on
                                                the back)
babáye        (woman),                babayé    (female not person)
baga          (red-hot coal or        bága      (lung), bagá (like)
              wood),
bálay         (turn),                 baláy     (house)
bálod         (a kind of dove),       balód     (wave)
bálos         (return),               balós     (revenge)
bánus         (abundant, thick),      banús     (to scrub)
bárang̃       (an amulet),            baráng    (knot)

bayáo         (brother-in-law),       báyao     (to lift up)
bucád         (flower),               búcad     (to dig up)
búhat         (work),                 buhát     (to raise)
buhi          (alive),                buhi      (losse)
buláo         (yellow),               búlao     (to provoke a stranger)
búrong [61]   (fog),                  buróng    (to throw)
busà          (reprimand),            búsà      (therefore)
cóbal         (thread),               cobál     (corn, callosity)
comót         (sinked),               cómot     (quick)
dósol         (pain of the            dosól     (despective form of
              stomack),                         “cáon”, to eat)
hóron         (to pass the night),    horón     (farm)
igo,          (just),                 igô       (to be hit)
lága          (flame),                lagà      (cooked)
láya          (a net for fishing),    layà      (to wither), layâ
                                                (withered)
laláqui       (man),                  lalaquí   (male, not person)
látos         (reaching,              latós     (to whip)
              overtaking),
lúya          (weakness),             luyà      (lime), luyâ
                                                (restlessness), luy-a
                                                (ginger)
muláy         (play),                 múlay     (to teach)
obós          (low),                  óbos      (to exhaust)
usá or usâ    (one),                  úsa       (to marvel)
úpa           (reward),               upá       (rice chaff)
pátag         (plane),                patág     (a kind of basket)
píli          (a tree so called),     pilì      (to select)
pálad         (palm),                 palád     (a fish)
pusò          (flower of banana),     pusô      (rice especially
                                                cooked)
pusâ          (pounded),              pusà      (to wash the feet)
púto          (a dainty so called),   pútò      (partition), putó (last
                                                son or daughter)
sábot         (agreement),            sabót     (filement or to
                                                understand)
sácay,        (passenger or           sacáy     (to embark)
              companion on a boat),
sócot         (frequent),             socót     (to collect)

súso          (teat),                 susò      (thickset), susô (a
                                                mollusk so called)
tíao          (joke),                 tiáo      (maniac)
tíma          (finished),             timá      (uneven)
túba          (a plant so called),    tubâ      (wine from cocoanut or
                                                nipa)
tubó          (sugar-cane),           túbò      (to grow), etc.




TRANSPOSITION OF ACCENTS.

The accent of a word frequently changes its place upon its
transformation.

In the diminutives formed by repetition of the root or by the affix ay,
the acute accent is always placed upon the penult. As


                      from   baláy,     balaybálay
                       ,,    saróual,   sarouálay
                       ,,    balóto,    balotóhay.


The grave accent of the root is preserved; and its angular accent
becomes grave, which is preserved in its repetition. As


           from   dacò,             dacòdácò
            ,,    bohô    (hole),   bohòbóhò   (little hole).


When the primitive has the acute accent on its penult, said accent is
transferred to the last syllable of the original primitive, the
repeated primitive following the preceding rules. As.


                     from   dáhon,     dahóndáhon
                      ,,    cáhoy,     cahoycáhoy
                      ,,    halípot,   halipótay
                      ,,    maópáy,    maopay-ópay
                      ,,    hatáas,    hataastáas


In the figuratives, the same rules are followed; and when the interfix
ro is employed, the primitive generally loses its acute accent which is
placed upon the penult of the figurative. As


                     from   sacayán,   sarosacáyan.


In the verbal nouns, it is a general rule that when the verb root has
its acute accent on its penult, its verbals have said accent trasplaced
to their last syllables, and viceversa, as


           from   sarát, (to write),   from   bása (to read)
                  parasúrat                   parabasá
                  tigsúrat                    tigbasá
                  magsusúrat                  magbarasá
                  susurátan                   barasahán
                  susuráton                   barasahón
                  masúrat                     mabasá
                  isusúrat,                   ibarasá;


except when the transformative particle is ma meaning desirableness, in
which case the acute accent is always on the last syllable; and also in
case of the particle hi, where the accent is always put on the penult.
As


            masuratsurát,
            himása.


In case where the penult, of the verb root is necessarily long, as when
its vowel is followed by more than one consonant, and when the last
syllable of the root is pronounced independently from the consonant or
consonants preceding it, then the original acute accent of the root is
preserved on the penult of the verbal. As


       from   cánhi (to come),   dól-ong (to bear, to accompany)
              paracánhi          paradól-ong
              tigcánhi           tigdól-ong
              cumaránhi          domoról-ong
              caranhían          dorol-óngan
              caranhíon          dorol-óngon
              macanhíon          madol-óngon
              icaránhi           idoról-ong
              hang̃aránhi        hinonól-ong


In the derivatives, when the accent is on the penult of the primitive,
it is also placed on the penult of the derivative; and when the accent
is on the last syllable of the primitive, it is also put on the last
syllable of the derivative, as


                       from   áram,    maáram
                              bayáu,   mabaráyau
                              púsod,   himósod
                              búua,    buuáon
                              tubác,   tubacón.


It must be noted that we refer to the acute accent. It sometimes
happens that the last syllable of the primitive has angular accent, in
which case such accent is discomposed, the grave being kept and the
acute being transposed to the penult of the derivative, as


                         from   salâ,   saláan,


where the a of the penult really bears two accents, angular and grave,
the angular not being employed for the reason that is it not necessary,
as the last two aa are pronounced separately [62], and because it is
not proper, as the angular accent is only used at the endings of the
words. [63]

In the derivatives formed with taga, or tag, or maqui the accent of the
root is not changed. As


             from   bódo,     (salted fish),   tagabódo
                    baláy     (house),         tagbaláy
                    calámay   (dark sugar)     maquicalámay


The comparatives formed with, the interfix ro, have always the accent
on the last syllable no matter where it was in the primitive. As


                 from   halábà   (long),    harohalabâ
                        uguis    (white),   urouguís.


The superlatives formed with the prefix gui and the affix i always have
the accent on the penult, without regarding where it was in the
primitive. As


             from   halárum   (deep),        guihahalarúmi
                    matahúm   (beautiful),   guimamatahúmi


The collectives follow the way in which their primitives are accented,
so, if their, primitives have the accent on the penult, they have it on
the penult, and when the primitives have the accent on the last
syllable they also have it on their last syllables. As


                  from   bátà    (child),   cabatáan
                         baláy   (house),   cabalayán.


It must be observed also that there are nouns which, thru phonetical
variations, have more than one forms. Of such words are the following:


    báchò, bíchò                     (groaning)
    bándoc, búndac                   (kick)
    guipic, guipác                   (broken)
    guisî, gusî, quisî, cusî         (sagged)
    Panalaron, Palanaron, Planaron   (one of the suburbs of
                                     the town of Tacloban), [64]
    piló, lopí                       (fold)
    quíróg, coróg                    (trembling)
    quirógpos, corógpos              (surtout)
    sitsit, sutsut                   (whistle)
    taclap, taplac                   (blanket), etc.


There are also words composed of the same letters but sounding
differently and having different meanings thereby, on account of the
separation with which some of their syllables are pronounced. As


       bágo      (a tree),      bag-o      (new)
       lauay     (saliva),      lau-ay     (repugnance)
       tagóc     (resin),       tág-oc     (inarticulate voice).
       bágang    (an insect),   bág-ang    (grinder)
       bútol     (bulky),       bút-ol     (throat)
       bulánon   (moony),       bul’ánon   (from Bohol), etc.




PRONOUNS

There are four classes: personal, demonstrative, possessive, and
relative.


PERSONAL.

They are the following:


      SINGULAR                           PLURAL

      Acó                  (I)           Quitá, camí     (we) [65]
      Icáo, ca, [66]       (thou, you)   Camó            (you)
      Hiyá, or siyá [67]   (he or she)   Hirá, or sirá   (they)


DECLENSION

The cases are four; nominative, genitive, objective, and vocative.


First person.—Singular.

Nominative.—   Acó                    (I)
Genitive.—     Nácon, [68] ácon, co   (of, by me)
Objective.—    Ha ácon, dácon [69]    (to, for, in, at, on, upon, over,
                                      under, etc. me)

Plural.

   Nominative,—   Camí—quitá. [70]                (we)
   Genitive.—     Nímon, ámon—aaton, aton, ta     (of, by us)
   Objective.—    Ha ámon, dámon—ha áton, dáton   (to, for, etc. us)

Second person.—Singular.

      Nominative.—   Icáo, ca        (thou, you)
      Genitive.—     Nimo, imo, mo   (of, by thee, or you)
      Objective.—    Ha imo, dimo    (to, for, etc. thee, or you)
      Vocative.—     Icao            (thou, or you)

Plural.

           Nominative.—   Camó           (you)
           Genitive.—     Niyo, iyo      (of, by you)
           Objective.—    Ha iyo, díyo   (to, for, etc. you)
           Vocative.—     Camó           (you)

Third person—Singular.

        Nominative.—   Hiyá           (he, or she)
        Genitive.—     Niya, iya      (of, by him, or her)
        Objective.—    Ha iya, díya   (to, for, etc. him or her)
        Vocative—      Hiyá           (He, or she).

Plural.

           Nominative—   Hirá           (They)
           Genitive—     Nira, ira      (of, by them)
           Objective—    Ha ira, dira   (to, for etc., them)
           Vocative—     Hirá           (they).




DEMONSTRATIVE.

They have the same forms both for the singular and plural, as follows:


  adí    (this, these, nearer to the speaker than to the listener)
  ini    (this, these)
  itó    (that, those, nearer to the speaker than to the listener,
         corresponding to the Spanish “ese, esa, eso, esos, esas”)
  adto   (that, those, far from both the speaker and the listener, and
         corresponding to the Spanish “aquel, aquella, aquellos,
         aquellas”).


When used before the nouns, they have the particle nga after them; said
particle being frequently contracted with the pronun. As


                     adí ng̃a,    contracted adín,
                     iní ng̃a,    contracted inín,
                     itó ng̃a,    contracted itón,
                     ádto ng̃a,   contracted ádton.


The form itón sometimes takes again the particle ng̃a. So it is said
itón ng̃a batâ (that boy or girl).

Adí, adto in some places have their variants yadi, yadto.

In plural, the particle mga is placed after the preceding combinations;

They have two cases: subjective and objective.


DECLENSION.

Adí.—Singular

Subjective—   Adí, adí ng̃a, adín                     (this)
Objective—    Hadí, hadí ng̃a, hadín, or hadin mg̃a   (of, etc. this)

Plural.

   Subjective—   Adí, adi ng̃a mg̃a, adín mg̃a     (these)
   Objective—    Hadí, hadi ng̃a mg̃a, hadín, or   (of, etc., these).
                 hadin mg̃a

Iní.—Singular

        Subjective—   Iní, iní ng̃a, inín      (this)
        Objective—    Hiní, hiní ng̃a, hinín   (of, etc., this)

Plural.

  Subjective—   Iní, ini ng̃a mg̃a, inín mg̃a      (these)
  Objective,—   Hiní, hini ng̃a mg̃a, hinin mg̃a   (of, etc., these).

Itó.—Singular.

  Subjective.—   Itó, itó ng̃a, itón, itón ng̃a        (that)
  Objective—     Hitó, hitó ng̃a, hitón, hitón, ng̃a   (of, etc. that)

Plural.

Subjective.—   Itó, itó ng̃a mg̃a, itón mg̃a, itón   (those)
               ng̃a mg̃a
Objective.—    Hitó, hitó ng̃a mg̃a, hitón mg̃a,     (of, etc., those)
               hitón ng̃a mg̃a

Adto.—Singular.

      Subjective.—   Adto, adto ng̃a, adton      (that)
      Objective.—    Hadto, hadto ng̃a, hadton   (of, etc., that)

Plural.

Subjective.—   Adto, adto ng̃a mg̃a, adton mg̃a      (those)
Objective.—    Hadto, hadto ng̃a mg̃a, hadton mg̃a   (of, etc., those)


The forms adton and hadton are frequently used instead of itón, hitón
when the object referred to is very close to the listener. Itón is
sometimes replaced by the forms hadto and haton. Examples:


       mopáy adtón hiní            (that one is better than this)
       condî darodacô iní hadton   (but this is larger than that)
       say co hatón                (I prefer that one).




POSSESSIVE.

They are the following:


SINGULAR                               PLURAL
acon, co   (my, mine)                  aton, ta, amon   (our, ours)
imo, mo    (thy, thine, your, yours)   iyo              (your, yours)
iya        (his or her)                ira              (their)


The forms co, mo, ta are used only after the nouns.

The same distinction exists between aton and amon, as between quitá and
camí. [71]

They have also two cases: subjective, and objective.


DECLENSION.

Acon.—Singular.

           Subjective.—   Acon, co            (my, mine)
           Objective.—    Ha acon, han acon   (of, etc., my)

Plural.

Subjective.—   Aton, ta, amon                         (our, ours)
Objective.—    Ha aton, han aton, ha amon, han amon   (of, etc., our)

Imo.—Singular.

       Subjective.—   Imo, mo           (thy, thine, your, yours)
       Objective.—    Ha imo, han imo   (of, etc., your, thy)

Plural.

           Subjective.—   Iyo               (your, yours)
           Objective.—    Ha iyo, han iyo   (of, etc., your)

Iya—Singular.

          Subjective—   Iya               (his, her, hers)
          Objective.—   Ha iya, han iya   (of, etc., his, her)

Plural.

           Subjective.—   Ira               (their)
           Objective.—    Ha ira, han ira   (of, etc., their)

These plurals refer to the subjects possessing. The plural referring to
the objects possessed, is formed in each case by using the particle
mg̃a, as

             Acon mg̃a cabogtóan   (my brothers or sisters)
             Iyo mg̃a láuas        (your bodies)
             Ira mg̃a cabalayán    (their houses)




RELATIVE

They are as follows:


               Ng̃a                         (that, which)
               anó                          (what)
               bisan anó                    (whatever)
               hín’o or sin’o [72]          (who)
               bisan hin’o or bisan sin’o   (whoever)
               háin                         (which)
               bisan háin                   (whichever)


These pronouns, except hin’o and bisan hin’o have no inflection for
cases.


NG̃A.

This relative always refers to the subject of the verb. It never
relates to the complement. So the sentence:

    “the house that Peter builds is big”,

cannot be translated literally into Bisayan. It is expressed by passive
voice. Thus:

    “an baláy ng̃a guintitindog ni Pedro, dacô”;

literally “the house that is being built by Peter is big”, And this:

    “the book which you gave me yesterday”

is translated:

    “an basahón ng̃a ihinátag mo ha acon cacolóp”;

literally “the book which was given by you to me yesterday”

This pronoun is indispensable when a substantive is qualified by an
adjective, as


   maópay ng̃a táuo     (good man,)         not   maúpay táuo,
   bucad ng̃a mahamót   (fragrant flower)   not   bucád mahamot [73]


It differs from the conjunction ng̃a (that) in that the pronoun always
refers to a noun, never to a verb.

NOTE.—This particle ng̃a expresses in some instances the idea of
“saying,” “question,” “answer,” etc., as when we say:

    Ng̃a ni Pedro: “tágui acó hin salapí.” Dáyon batón ni Juan, ng̃a
    niya: “uaray co salapí.”

Peter said: “give me money.” John immediately replied by saying: “I
have no money.”

    Pacanhía hi Guillermo. Ng̃a natón [74] “guinquiquína hang̃lan ca
    didto.”

    Make Guillermo come. Tell him: “you are needed there.”

When applied to the third person it is frequently combined with the
particle laóng̃ as:

    Násiring̃ hi Pedro, ng̃alaóng̃: “magtotoón aco.”

    Peter said: “I shall study”.

This special idea conveyed by the word ng̃a seems to show in other
instances in the Bisayan tongue, as when it is said depreciatively:

    ¡Ca damò hin im ng̃ang̃a!

    How many things you ask or talk!

where the doubled ng̃a means request or talking.


ANÓ.

This pronoun has the same use as the English what, except when the
latter is used as an objective relative, in which case the said English
pronoun is translated by the article an. As when it is said:

    “What you need is patience, not science,” which is translated:

    An guinquiquinahang̃lan mo an pag-ílob, dirì hibaró.


BISAN ANÓ.

Bisan ano means “anything” or “whatever.” Examples:

    Whatever you do I’ll know it.

    Bisan ano in buháton mo, hisasabotán co.

    Give me anything eatable.

    Tágui aco hin bisan anó ng̃a hacaraón.

It is frequently replaced by ano lâ, or anoano lâ. Ex.:

    Anything you may desire, I’ll give you.

    Ano lâ ng̃a caruyágon mo, ihahatag co ha imo.

    You wish to see everything.

    Anoano lâ buót mo hiquit’an.

When it is preceded by an article, it means “which,” as

    Which horse do you like?

    ¿An anó ng̃a cabayo in buót mo?


HIN’O

This relative is only used in the interrogative phrases. It is not
employed as the English “who” when this relative serves as “that”. So
this phrase

    “that person who talks is my brother” is translated: “itón tauo ng̃a
    nagyayácan, acon bugto,” not “itón tauo hin’o nagyayácan, etc.”

It has two cases: subjective and objective.


DECLENSION

                SINGULAR                   PLURAL

  Subjective—   Hin’o        (who)         Hirá hin’o    (who)
  Objective—    Canáy, can   (of, etc.     Canda canáy   (of, etc.,
                canáy        whom whose)                 whom, whose)


BISAN HIN’O

Bisan hin’o means “whoever” or “anyone”. Example:

    Whoever is there, let him come.

    Bisan hin’o in adâ, pacanhía.

    Anyone knows him.

    Bisan hin’o náquilála ha iya.

It also has two cases: subjective and objective.


DECLENSION.

                  SINGULAR                   PLURAL
   Subjective.—   Bisan hin’o   (whoever)    Bisan hirá    (whoever)
                                             hin’o
   Objective.—    Bisan canáy   (of, etc.,   Bisan canda   (of etc.,
                                whomever)    canáy         whoever)


HAIN.

Hain means “which.” Examples:

    Which of these hats is yours?
    ¿Háin hiní ng̃a mg̃a calò in imo?

Similarly to “ano,” the pronoun “háin” is only used in the
interrogative forms, never as ng̃a (that). So the phrase

    “the book which you saw”

is translated

    “an basahón ng̃a imo quinità”

(literally: the book that was seen by you), and not

    “an basahon háin icao quinmità.”


BISAN HÁIN.

It is equivalent to the English “whichever,” Examples:

    Whichever of those books satisfies me.

    Didâ hitó ng̃a mga basahón bisan háin maopay co.

NOTE.—These relatives hain and bisan háin must not be confounded with
the adverbs of the same form, háin (where) and bisan háin (wherever).
The former refer only to nouns, the latter to verbs.




CONTRACTIONS.

The pronouns are frequently contracted as follows:


                       acó, ácon,   to   ac
                       nácon        ,,   nac
                       dácon        ,,   dac
                       camí         ,,   cam
                       quitá        ,,   quit
                       námon        ,,   nam
                       ámon         ,,   am
                       náton        ,,   nat
                       áton         ,,   at
                       dámon        ,,   dam
                       dáton        ,,   dat
                       icáo         ,,   ic
                       nímo         ,,   nim
                       imo          ,,   im
                       dimo         ,,   dim
                       camó         ,,   cam
                       adi          ,,   ad
                       iní          ,,   in
                       itó          ,,   it
                       adín         ,,   ad
                       itón         ,,   it
                       hadí         ,,   had
                       hadín        ,,   had
                       hiní         ,,   hin
                       hinín        ,,   hin
                       hitó         ,,   hit
                       hitón        ,,   hit
                       hatón        ,,   hat
                       ácon         ,,   ac
                       áton         ,,   at
                       ámon         ,,   am
                       imo          ,,   ini
                       bisan anó    ,,   bis ano
                       bisan háin   ,,   bis hain




VERBS

The verbs may be grouped in the following classes:

As to their conjugation: active, passive, negative, interrogative,
suppletory, impersonal, defective.

As to their inflections: primitive, and progressive.

The Active verb represents the subject as acting, as:

    acó násugò (I order).

The Passive verb represents the subject as being acted upon, as:

    acó sinúsugò (I am ordered).

The Negative verb involves a negation, as:

    ayáo catúrog (do not sleep).

The Interrogative verb involves a question, as:

    ¿diín ca cadto? (where did you go?)

The Suppletory verb supplies the lack of all auxiliary and a few other
verbs as from ini (this), we have:

    íiní acó (I am here), to express the verb “to be,” in Bisayan.

The Impersonal verb has not a definite subject, as:

    náurán (it rains).

The Defective verb lacks one or more of its principal parts as,

    iyá (receive it).

The Primitive verb is used in its original and simplest form as:

    acó násurát (I write).

The Progressive verb denotes continuance of the action, as:

    acó nagusurát (I am writing).




CONJUGATION

VOICES

They are active and passive. The passive voice has three classes:
direct, indirect, and instrumental.

The direct passive is where the subject is the direct object in active
voice, as:

    suratá an acon ng̃aran (write my name; literally: let my name be
    written by you).

The indirect passive is where the subject is an indirect object of the
verb in its active voice, as:

    suratí an imo amáy (write to your father; literally: let a letter
    be written by you to your father),

The instrumental passive is where the subject is the instrument or real
object of the action, as:

    igsurát iní ng̃a pluma (write with this pen; literally: let this pen
    be used by you in writing.)




MOODS AND TENSES

There are four moods: infinitive, indicative, imperative, and
subjunctive,

The infinitive has two tenses: present, and gerund; three in passive
voice: present, gerund, and past participle.

The indicative has three. The ordinary forms have present, past and
future. The irregular forms have present, imperfect past, and past.

The imperative and subjunctive, have each one tense: present.

Infinitive: The present is frequently used as a noun, as:

    an pagcáon (the meal).

The gerund is frequently used in compound sentences for past tenses,
as:

    han pag-abot co (when I arrived: literally: upon my arriving).

The past participle is employed as an adjective as:

    hinigugma co ng̃a iróy. (my dear mother; literally: mother loved by
    me).

NOTE.—There are in Bisayan forms resembling and equivalent in many
instances to the Latin infinitive future ending in rus, in active, and
in dus, in passive, as amaturus and amandus. Such Bisayan forms are
those formed by the particle um combined with the interfix r or its
substitutes (See page 20), as:

    cumaráon (one who is to eat)

    caraonón (a thing to be eaten).

Indicative. Ordinary forms. The present corresponds to the same tense,
in English, and also to the Spanish and Latin imperfect past. As:

    nácaon acó (I eat)

    nácaon acó han pag-abot mo (I was eating when you arrived)

The past tense represents the English present perfect, and past,
indicative mood. As:

    nagsurát acó (I have written, I wrote)

The future corresponds to the English future tense, as:

    másurat acó (I shall write)

Suppletory forms. The present represents the English present and future
tenses, indicative. As:

    He is here: hiyá háhani.

    He will be here tomorrow: hiyá hahaní buás.

The imperfect past and past tense corresponds to the same tense of the
Latin and Spanish languages: as

    didinhi [75] hi Juan han pag-abót co (John was here, when I
    arrived)


Imperative and Subjunctive. The single tense (present) of each of these
moods corresponds to the same tense in English, as:

    cadto búas (go there to-morrow)

    cun cumadto ca buas, tauága acó (If you go there tomorrow, call
    me).

Observations. 1. The English past perfect, indicative, is supplied in
Bisayan by the present tense, indicative, of the potential form which
we shall see later. [76] As:

    han imo pag-abót nacacatima na acó (when you arrived, I had already
    finished).

2. The English future perfect tense is supplied in Bisayan by the
future tense, indicative, of the potential form. As

    umabút ca ng̃anì macacatima na aco (when you arrive, I shall have
    finished).

3. The Latin and Spanish imperfect past tense, subjunctive mood, is
supplied in Bisayan by the present, subjunctive, and future indicative.
As

    Cun gumican acó niyán, diri co hiya igquiquita buás (If I should go
    today, I would not meet him tó-morrow).

4. The Latin and Spanish perfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied
in Bisayan by the past tense, indicative.

5. The Latin and Spanish plusquamperfect past tense, subjunctive, is
supplied in Bisayan by the past and future (potential) tenses,
indicative, respectively. As

    Cun nagdágmit acó, hinaabután co cunta hiyá (If I had hastened, I
    should have reached him).

6. The Latin and Spanish imperfect future tense, subjunctive, is
supplied in Bisayan by the present subjunctive.

7. And the perfect future tense, subjunctive, of said languages, is
supplied in Bisayan by the present, indicative, potential form.




NUMBER AND PERSON.

There are two numbers: singular and plural.

There are three persons: first, second, and third. Except in the
imperative, the inflections of the verbs generally do not change, in
each tense. However, the progressive and suppletory forms frequently
undergo some changes in plural, as

    acó nagsusurát (I am writing),

    camí nanunurát (we are writing)




INFLECTIONS.

The inflections are determined by particles, which are shown in the
following tables:

(In the tables below, the dash represents the root; the sign (d) means
that the first syllable of the root is doubled; s and p mean singular
and plural, respectively).


TABLE 1

PRIMITIVE ACTIVE

Infinitive
    Present, and gerund:   PAG—, s; PANG—, PAM—, PAN—, p

Indicative
    Present:               NA—
    Past:                  INM—, or —INM—
    Future:                MA—

Imperative
    (the root unaltered)

Subjunctive
    UM—, or —UM—


OBSERVATIONS:

Infinitive. The present and gerund are formed by the prefix pag, and
the root. In the plural, the g of pag undergoes the following changes:

When the root begins with a vowel o: with the consonant c, the pag is
changed into pang the c then being suppressed. Examples:


    from   “arò”       (to ask),     pag-arò,      pl. pang̃aro.
           “catúrog”   (to sleep),   pagcátúrog,   pl. pang̃atúrog.


If the root commences with a labial consonant, except m, pag is
transformed into pam, and then the labial consonant disappears.
Examples:


        from   “báyad”   (to pay),      pagbáyad,   pl. pamáyad.
               “pilì”    (to select),   pagpilì,    pl. pamilì.


When the root begins with m, pag is transformed into pan, the m of the
root remaining in it. Example:


        from   “múlay”   (to teach),   pagmúlay,   pl. panmúlay.


If the root commences with any other consonant, pag is replaced by pan,
the said consonant being then suppressed except when it is a g or h.
Examples.


       from   “hapon”   (to perch),    paghápon,   pl. panhápon,
        ,,    “gúbat”   (to invade),   paggúbat,   pl. pangúbat,
        ,,    “búao”    (to visit),    pagdúao,    pl. panúno,
        ,,    “tubò”    (to grow),     pagtubò,    pl. panubò,
        ,,    “surát”   (to write),    pagsurát,   pl. panurát.


Indicative.—Present. The transformative particle of this tense is the
prefix na, which must always be pronounced long, in order not to
confound it with the short na of the passive potential form, as it will
be seen later. [77] As


              (long na)    nápilì acó   (I select)
              (short na)   napílì acó   (I was selected).


Past.—This tense is determined by the interfix inm placed between the
first consonant and the first vowel of the root.

When the root commences with a vowel, this particle is simply prefixed
to the root. As,


    from “surát” (to write), “abót” (to arrive) acó sinmurát [78] (I
    write), inmabót hirá (they arrived)


NOTE.—The m of imn is frequently suppressed. As,


           from   “múlay”    (to teach),   abót   (to arrive)
            ,,    minúlay,   inábot.


Future.—The particle determining this tense is the prefix ma which must
be always pronounced long, so as not to confound it with the short ma
used among the verbal and derivative nouns. As,


          (long ma)    hiyá mácáon   (he or she will eat)
          (short ma)   hiyá macaón   (he or she is a glutton)
          (long)       máborong̃     (there will be fog)
          (short)      mabórong̃     (confuse)


Imperative.—It is simply the root without any transformative particle.

NOTE.—There is a form consisting in doubling the first syllable of the
root. But this form is used only in the preceptive language, as when we
say: “tauágon ca ng̃anì, bábatón” (whenever you are called, always
answer).

Subjunctive.—The single tense of this mood is determined by the
interfix um which is placed between the first consonant and the first
vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is
added to the beginning as from “arò” (to ask), “umarò,” from “cáon” (to
eat) cumáon.

Example:

Root: surát.

Infinitive

    Present, and gerund { singular: pagsurát } (to write, writing)
                        { plural:   panurát  }

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR                                 | PLURAL
acó  }         { I,        }             | camí quitá }         { we   }
icao } násurat { they, you } write, etc. | camó       } násurat { you  }  write
hiyá }         { he, she   }             | hirá       }         { they }

PAST

          acó, etc.   (I, etc. wrote)   camí, etc.   (we, etc.
          inmurát                       sinmurát     wrote)

FUTURE

       acó, etc.   (I shall, etc.   camí, etc.   (we shall, etc.
       másurat     write)           másurat      write)


Imperative

     surát icao    (write)       sumurát [79]        (let us, them
                                 camí, hirá          write)
     sumurát[79]   (let him or   surát quitá, camó   (let us, you
     hiya          her write)                        write)


Subjunctive

         acó, etc.   (I may, etc.   camí, etc.   (we may, etc.
         sumurát     write)         sumurát      write)




TABLE 2.

PROGRESSIVE ACTIVE

Infinitive.
    (the same as that of the primitive active)

Indicative
    Present:      NAG(d)—, s; NANG(d)—, NA(d)—, or NAN(d)—, p.
    Past:         NAG—, s: NANG—, NA—, or NAN—, p.
    Future:       MAG(d)—, s; MANG(d)—, MA(d)—, or MAN(d)—, p.

Imperative.
    PAG—, s; PANG—, PA—, or PAN—, p.

Subjunctive
    MAG—, s; MANG—, MA—, or MAN—, p.


OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive. Its forms are exactly the same as those of the primitive
active.

Indicative. Present. Its singular is determined by doubling the first
syllable [80] of the root, prefixed by nag.

Its plural is formed according to the first letter of the root. When
the root commences with a vowel, or with the consonant c as


                            arò    (to ask)
                            cáon   (to eat)


the formation takes the following process: ng̃ is added to the beginning
of the root, c being suppressed, as


                            ng̃aro, ng̃áon;


the first syllable is doubled,[80] as


                        ng̃ang̃aro, ng̃ang̃áon,


to which the particle na is prefixed, as


                      nang̃ang̃arò, nang̃ang̃áon,


which is the final form.

When the root commences with a labial consonant, as


                         báyad    (to pay)
                         múlay,   (to teach)
                         pili     (to select),


the formation of the plural is as follows: the first consonant of the
root is replaced by m, or not altered if it is an m, as


                          máyad, múlay, mili;


then the first syllable is doubled,[80] as


                       mamáyad, mumúlay, mimilí;


and the prefix nan is employed, as


                   nanmamáyad, nanmumúlay, nanmimili,


the final form.


The last n of nan is frequently suppressed, as


                               namamáyad
                               namimili.


When the root begins with a dental consonant as


                         dapò    (to approach)
                         tábon   (to cover)
                         surát   (to write)


the formation of the plural consists in replacing the first consonant
by n, as


                          napó, nabon, nurat,


whose first syllable is doubled [81], as


                       nanapo, nanabon, nunurat,


to which the particle na is prefixed as


                    nanánapó, nanánabon, nanúnurat,


the final form.


If the root commences with any other consonant, the plural is formed by
doubling the first syllable of the root, and by prefixing the particle
nan to the root so transformed. Examples:


             from   hugas   (to wash),         nanhuhugas.
                    lohód   (to kneel down),   nanlolohod.
                    rabot   (to pull),         nanrarabot.


Past. The singular is formed by adding to the root the prefix nag.

The plural is formed exactly as the plural present, except in that the
first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled.

Future.—The formation of this tense is the same, both in singular and
plural, as that of the present, except in that the prefixes used here
are mag, ma, man, mang, instead of nag, na, nan, nang.

Imperative.—In singular, the prefixes pag and mag are employed. In
plural, the prefixes, pa, pan, pang, ma, man, mang, are used in the
same way and cases as the prefixes na, nan, nang, in the present
indicative.

Subjunctive.—It is formed in the same way as the future indicative,
except in that the first syllable of the root is not doubled here.


Root: surát (write)

Infinitive

Present, and gerund { singular: pagurát } (to be writing, being
                    { plural: panurat   }  writing)

Indicative

PRESENT

SINGULAR                            | PLURAL
acó, etc.,         (I am, etc.      | camí, etc.      (we are, etc.
nagsusurát         writing)         | nanunurát       writing)
                                    |
PAST                                |
acó, etc.          (I was, etc.     | camí etc.       (we were, etc.
nagsurát           writing)         | nanurát         writing)
                                    |
FUTURE                              |
acó, etc.          (I shall, etc.   | camí, etc.,     (we shall, etc.
magsusurát         be writing)      | manunurát       be writing)
                                    |
Imperative                          |
                                    |
pagsurát icao      (be writing)     | panurát quita,  (let us, you be
                                    | camó            writing)
magsurát hiya      (let him or her  | manurát camí,   (let us, them be
                   be writing)      | hirá            writing)
                                    |
Subjunctive                         |
                                    |
acó etc. magsurát  (I may, etc. be  | camí, etc.      (we may, etc. be
                   writing)         | manurát         writing)




TABLE 3

PRIMITIVE DIRECT PASSIVE

Infinitive

Present, and gerund:       PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p

Past participle:           IN—, or —IN—

Indicative
    Present:               IN(d)—, or —IN(d)—
    Past:                  IN—, or —IN—.
    Future:                (d)—ON.

Imperative
    —A.

Subjunctive
    —ON.


Infinitive. The present and gerund are determined in singular by the
prefix pag and the affix á. Pag is used as in the active voice. The
affix a is accented (if the last syllable of the root is accented) and
simply appended to the root prefixed by pag. This affix is sometimes
ha. The use of a or ha follows the same rules established for the use
of the affixes an and han (See page 15 of this book).

In plural the prefixes pang, pam, pan, are employed in combination with
the affix a. The said prefixes are used in same way as their similar in
the primitive active. (See page 62 of this book).

The past participle is formed by the interfix in placed between the
first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If this begins with a
vowel the in is prefixed to the root. As


            from   “cáon”   (to eat),     quináon   (eaten)
             ,,    “inóm”   (to drink),   ininóm    (drunk)


Indicative.—Present. This tense is formed by doubling the first
syllable of the root and by then placing in it (after doubling the said
first syllable) the interfix in, in a similar way as in the past
participle. (See the preceding observution). As,


                      from   cáon,   quinacáon
                       ,,    inóm,   iníinóm [82]


Past.—The formation of this tense is exactly the same as that of the
past participle seen above.

Future.—This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root
and appending to it the affix on. As


              from   “caón,”   cácaónon
               ,,    “inóm,”   iinomón, contracted iinmon.


Imperative.—The single form of this mode, consists in the root appended
by the affix “á.” It must be observed that this affix “á” in the
imperative bears the idea that the order or command is always directed
to the second person or first plural, If such order or command is
directed to some other person, not to the second, or first (quitá)
plural then the subjunctive is used. As


    higugmaá an Dyos (love God; lit.: let God be loved by you)
    higugmaá ta an catadúng̃an (let us love justice; lit.: let justice
    be loved by us).
    higugmaón nira an igcasitáuo (let them love the fellow-man: lit.:
    let the fellowman be loved by them).


The last form is also frequently used for the second person, singular
and plural, and for the first person, plural. As


    higugmaón mo an Dyos (love God)
    higugmaón niyo, etc.
    higugmaón námon, etc.
    higugmaón ta, etc.


Subjunctive. The single form of this mode consists in the root appended
by the affix on, as it is seen in the preceding examples.


Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratá } (to be written, being.
                    { plural: panuratá    }  written)

Past participle: sinurát (written)

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR                           | PLURAL
acó, etc.          (I am, etc.     | camí, etc.  (we are, etc.
sinúsurat          written)        | sinúsurat   written)
                                   |
PAST                               |
acó, etc. sinurát  (I was, etc.    | camí, etc.  (we were, etc
                   written)        | sinurát     written)
                                   |
FUTURE                             |
acó, etc.          (I shall, etc.  | camí, etc.  (we shall, etc
susuratón          be written)     | susuratón   be written)

Imperative

suratá acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hírá (let me, thee, you,
him, her, us, you them he written by you)

Subjunctive

        acó, etc.   (I may, etc.   camú, etc.   (we may, etc. be
        suratón     written)       suratón      written)




TABLE 4.

PROGRESSIVE DIRECT PASSIVE.

Infinitive.

Present, and gerund: PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p.
Past participle:     GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p.

Indicative
    Present:         GUIN(d)—, s; PIN(d)—, PINAN(d)—, p.
    Past:            GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p.
    Future:          PAG(d)—ON, s; PA(d)—ON, PAN(d)—ON, p.

Imperative
    PAG—A, s; PA—A, PAN—A, p.

Subjunctive
    PAG—ON, s; PA—ON, PAN—ON, p.


OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive. Present and gerund. The singular is formed by the root
prefixed by pag and affixed by a. In plural the prefixes pa, pan, or
pang are employed in the same cases as those mentioned for the use of
nang nam, and na of the present tense, indicative, of the progressive
form, active voice. [83]

The past participle is formed by the prefix guin added to the root.

Indicative. Present. In singular the first syllable is doubled, [84]
and the prefix guin is employed.

In plural the prefix pina is used and the root is transformed exactly
in the same way as the plural, present tense, indicative; of the
progressive form active voice. [85]

Past. The same as the present, except in that the first syllable of the
root transformed is not doubled.

Future. Its singular is formed by the prefix pag, added to the root
whose first syllable is doubled, [86] and by the affix on.

Its plural is formed by the prefix pa, pang or pam and the root
transformed in the same way as in the use of na nang or nam and as the
trasformation of the root in the plural, present tense, indicative of
the progressive form, active voice. [87]

Imperative. It consists in the root prefixed by pag and affixed by a.
We reproduce here the observation made on the imperative, primitive
form, direct passive. [88]

Subjunctive. Its singular is formed by the root prefixed by pag and
affixed by on. Its plural consists in the use of pa pang or pam in the
same way as in the plural, present tense indicative, progressive form,
active voice, [89] and of the affix on.


Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund { singular: pagsurátá } (to be written, being
                    { plural: panuratá    }  written)

Past participle: guiusurát s.; pinanunurát p. (written).

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR                       | PLURAL
acó, etc.      (I am, etc.     | camí, etc.    (we are, etc.
guinsusurát    being written)  | pinanunurát   being written)
                               |
PAST                           |
acó, etc.      (I was, etc.    | camí etc.     (we were, etc.
guinsurát      being written)  | pinanurát     being written)
                               |
FUTURE                         |
acó, etc.      (I shall be,    | camí, etc.    (we shall be,
pagsusuratón   etc. being      | panunuratón   etc. being
               written)        |               written)

Imperative

Pagsuratá acó, icao, hiya, camí, hira (let me, you, him or her, us,
you, them be being written).

Subjunctive

      acó, etc.    (I may be, etc.   camí, etc.   (we may be, etc.
      pagsuratón   being written)    panuratón    being written)




TABLE 5

PRIMITIVE INDIRECT PASSIVE

Infinitive.
    Present, and gerund: PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.
    Past participle:     —IN—AN, or IN—AN

Indicative.
    Present:             IN(d)—AN, or —IN(d)—AN
    Past:                —IN—AN, or IN—AN
    Future:              (d)—AN

Imperative.
    —I

Subjunctive.
    —AN


OBSERVATION:

Infinitive. Present and gerund. This form consists in the root
transformed by the affix i, and by the prefix pag in singular, and
pang, pan, or pa in plural, according to the rules above established
for the use of these prefixes. [90]

Past participle,—This form consists in the root transformed by the
interfix in and the affix an. The use of the interfix in follows the
same rules as those hereinbefore established for the said interfix.
[91]

Indicative.—Present. This tense is determined by doubling the first
syllable of the root, and then (after the said first syllable being
doubled) by placing the interfix in between the first consonant and the
first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix
in is prefixed to the root whose first syllable has been already
doubled.

Past.—This tense has the same form as the past participle.

Future.—The form of this tense consists in doubling the first syllable
of the root and by appending to it the affix an.

Imperative. Its form consists in the root appended by the affix i.

The same observation is made here, as that on the imperative of the
primitive direct passive. [92]

Subjunctive. It’s form is the root appended by the affix an.

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratí } (to be addressed with a
                    { plural: panuratí    }  letter, being addressed
                                             with a letter) [93]

Past participle: sinuratán (addressed with a letter)

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR                         | PLURAL
acó, etc.     (I am, etc.        | camí, etc.    (we are, etc.
sinusuratán   addressed with a   | sinusuratán   addressed with a
              letter)            |               letter)
                                 |
PAST                             |
acó, etc.     (I was, etc.       | camí, etc.    (we are, etc.
sinuratán     addressed with a   | sinuratán     addressed with a
              letter)            |               letter)
                                 |
FUTURE                           |
acó, etc.     (I shall be, etc.  | camí, etc.    (we shall be,
susuratán     addressed with a   | susuratán     etc. addressed
              letter)            |               with a letter)

Imperative

uratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quita, camó, hirá (let me, thee, you, him,
her, us, you, them be addressed with a letter)

Subjunctive

      acó, etc.   (I may be, etc.    camí, etc.   (we may be, etc.
      suratán     addressed with a   suratán      addressed with a
                  letter)                         letter)




TABLE 6.

PROGRESSIVE INDIRECT PASSIVE

Infinitive
    Present and gerund:  PAG—I, s; PAN—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.
    Past participle:     GUIN—AN.

Indicative
    Present:             GUIN(d)—AN, s; PINA(d)—AN,
                         PINAN(d)—AN, PINANG(d)—AN, p.
    Past:                GUIN—AN, s; PINA—AN, PINAN—AN,
                         PINANG—AN, p.
    Future:              PAG(d)—AN, s: PA(d)—AN, PAN(d)—AN,
                         PANG(d)—AN, p.
Imperative
    PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p.

Subjunctive
    PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.


OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive.—Present, and gerund. Their single form is the same as their
corresponding primitive form indirect passive.

Past participle. It is distinguished by the prefix guin.

Indicative.—Present, singular. The first syllable of the root is
doubled [94] and the affix guin added. Its plural is formed as its
corresponding in the progressive direct passive, except in that here
the affix an is added. [95]

Past.—The forms of this tense are the same as those of their
corresponding form in the progressive direct passive, except in that
here the affix an is added. [96]

Future.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in
that the affix an is used here instead of on.

Imperative.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except
in that the affix i is used here instead of a.

Subjunctive—Also the same as that of the progressive direct passive,
except in that the affix an is here used instead of on.


Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

    Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratí }
                        { plural: panuratí    }

Past participle: guinsurát

Indicative

    PRESENT
    SINGULAR                 | PLURAL
    acó, etc. guinsusuratán  | camí, etc. pinanunuratán
                             |
    PAST                     |
    acó, etc. guinsuratán    | camí, etc. pinanunuratán
                             |
    FUTURE                   |
    acó, etc. pagsusuratán   | camí, etc. panunuratán


Imperative

    pagsuratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hirá

Subjunctive

    acó, etc. pagsuratán   camí, etc. panuratán




TABLE 7

PRIMITIVE INSTRUMENTAL PASSIVE.

Infinitive.
    Present, and gerund: PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.
    Past participle:     I—IN—, IIN—

Indicative
    Present:             I—IN(d)—, IIN(d)—
    Past:                I—IN—, IIN—
    Future:              I(d)—

Imperative
    I—
    —AN

Subjunctive
    I—


OBSERVATIONS:

Infinitive, Present, and gerund. The same observation is made as that
on the same tenses of the primitive, active, with the addition that
here the affix an is appended to the root.

Past participle. It is formed by the prefix i and the interfix in. If
the root commences with a vowel, the prefix and the interfix are
joined, as

from “arò” (to ask), iinarò.

Indicative.—Present, past. They are the same as the present and past
tenses indicative of the primitive direct passive, with the addition of
the prefix i.

Future.—It is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by
using the prefix i. As

isusurát, iaaro.

Imperative.—The first form consists in prefixing to the root the
particle i. The second form consists in affixing to the root the
particle an.

Subjunctive. It consists in prefixing to the root the particle i.

NOTE.—The instrumental passive is also employed to express
substitution; as when we say in English:

Read this word for me: ibása acó hiní ng̃a polong̃ (literally: let me be
substituted by you in reading this word).

Example:

Root: surát

Infinitive

Present and gerund { singular: pagsuratán } (to be used in writing,
                   { plural: panuratán    }  being used in writing)

Past participle: isinurát: used in writing

Indicative

    PRESENT
    SINGULAR                        | PLURAL
    acó, etc.    (I am, etc. used   | camí, etc.   (we are, etc.
    isinusurát   in writing)        | isinusurát   used in writing)
                                    |
    PAST                            |
    acó, etc.    (I was, etc. used  | camí, etc.   (we are, etc.
    isinurát     in writing)        | isinurát     used in writing)
    FUTURE                          |
                                    |
    acó, etc.    (I shall etc. be,  | camí, etc.   (we shall etc.
    isusurát     used in writing)   | isusurát     be, used in
                                    |              writing)

Imperative

isurát or suratán acó, icao, hiya, camí, quitá, camó hira (let me,
thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be used in writing).

Subjunctive

    acó, etc.   (I may etc. be,    | camí, etc.   (we may etc. be,
    isurát      used in writing)   | isurát       used in writing)




TABLE 8.

PASSIVE PROGRESSIVE INSTRUMENTAL

Infinitive
    Present and gerund: PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.
    Past participle:    IGUIN—

Indicative
    Present: IGUIN(d)—, s; IPINA(d)—, IPINAN(d)—, IPINANG(d)—, p.
    Past:    IGUIN—, s; IPINA—, IPINAN—, IPINANG—, p.
    Future:  IG(d)—, s: IPA(d)—, IPAN(d)—, IPANG(d)—, p.

Imperative
    PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p.
    IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p.

Subjunctive
    IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p.




OBSERVATIONS:

The observations made on the conjugation of the progressive direct
passive are applied to the above conjugation except in that the
present, and gerund take the affix an, and that the past participle,
the present, and past indicative, and the subjunctive, plural, take the
prefix i, and in that the imperative has the affix an, and the
subjunctive singular the affix on, and the future, imperative, and
subjunctive have a g after the prefix i.

Example:

Root: surat

Infinitive

    Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratán }
                        { plural: panuratán    }

Past participle: iguinsurát.

Indicative

    PRESENT
    SINGULAR                 | PLURAL
    acó, etc. iguinsusurát.  | camí, etc. ipinanunurát
                             |
    PAST                     |
    acó, etc. iguinsurát     | camí, etc. ipinanurát
                             |
    FUTURE                   |
    acó, etc. igsusurát      | camí, etc. ipanunurat

Imperative

Pagsaratán or igsarát acó, icáo, hiyá. Panoratán or ipaanrát camí,
quitá, camó, hirá.

Subjunctive

               acó, etc. igsurát.   camí, etc. ipaaurát.




NEGATIVE FORMS

These forms consist in employing the adverbs “diri” before the
inflections of the infinitive, present and future indicative, and
subjunctive; “uaráy” before the past indicative, and “ayáo” before the
imperative.

As to the inflections of the root, they are the same as those of the
corresponding; affirmative except the past indicative, which always
takes the inflections of the imperative.

Example:

Negative Primitive Active.

Root: surát

Indicative.

    Present, and gerund { singular: diri pagsurát } (not to write,
                        { plural: diri panurat    }  not writing)

Indicative

PRESENT
SINGULAR                           | PLURAL
diri acó, etc.    (I do not, etc.  | diri camí, etc.   (we do not,
násurát           write)           | násurát           etc. write)
                                   |
PAST                               |
uaráy acó, etc.   (I did not,      | uaráy camí,       (we did not,
surát             etc. write)      | etc. surát        etc. write)
                                   |
FUTURE                             |
diri acó, etc.    (I shall not,    | diri camí, etc.   (we shall not,
másarát           etc. write)      | másurat           etc. write)

Imperative

ayáo surát icáo, quitá, camó (let you, us not write)

diri sumurát hiyá, camí, hirá (let him, us, them not write)

Subjunctive

diri acó, etc.   (I may not, etc.  | diri camí, etc.   (we may, etc.
sumurát          write)            | sumurát           not write)


NOTE.—The past consists sometimes, among the primitive forms, in the
root having the first syllable doubled; and among the progressive
forms, it consists in the prefix pag and the root whose first syllable
is doubled. In plural, the pag undergoes the same changes as in the
active conjugation.

Examples:

                uaráy acó susurát      (I did not write)
                uaráy acó pagsusurát   (I did not write)


Negative Progressive Active.

Root: surát

Infinitive

  Present, and gerund { singular: diri pagsurát } (not to be writing,
                      { plural: diri panurát    }  not being writing)

Indicative

  PRESENT
  SINGULAR                          | PLURAL
  diri acó, etc.   (I am, etc. not  | diri camí, etc.   (we are, etc.
  nagsusurát       writing)         | nanunurát         not writing)
                                    |
  PAST                              |
  uaráy acó etc.   (I was etc. not  | uaráy camí etc.   (we were etc.
  pagsurát         writing)         | panurát           not writing)
                                    |
  FUTURE                            |
  diri acó etc.    (I shall etc.    | diri camí, etc.   (we shall not,
  magsusurát       not be writing)  | manunurát         etc. be
                                    |                   writing)

Imperative

  ayao icao   (do not be       | ayao quitá, camo   (let us, you, not
  pagsurát    writing)         | panurát            be writing)
  diri hiya   (let him not be  | diri camí, hirá    (let us, them not
  magsurát    writing)         | manurát            be writing)

Subjunctive

diri acó, etc.   (I may, etc. not  | diri camí, etc.   (we may, etc.
magsurát         be writing)       | manurát           not be writing)




INTERROGATIVE FORMS

They are determined by the phrases “cay anó” (why), and by “diín”,
“háín” (where), and by “san-o”, “cacan-o” (when, past and future
respectively).


CAY ANO

The interrogative conjugation by this phrase simply consists in the
regular conjugation of the verb, placing before every inflection the
said phrase followed by the particle ng̃a. As


   ¿cay anó ng̃a nasurat ca?      (why do you write?)
   ¿cay anó ng̃a sinmurát hiya?   (why did he or she write?)
   ¿cay anó ng̃a macadto quita?   (what shall we go there for?) etc.


DIIN, HAIN.

The interrogative primitive formed; by these adverbs, has only two
inflections: one which consists in the original root, and which is the
past tense indicative; and the other which consists on the same root,
its first syllable being doubled; this last form is for the present and
future tenses, indicative. These three tenses are the only tenses that
this conjugation has. The adverb “diín” is for the present and past
tenses. The adverb “háin” is for the future. Thus:


        Present:   ¿diin acó susurat?    (where do I write?)
        Past:      ¿diin ca surát?       (where did you write?)
        Future:    ¿háin camí susurát?   (where shall we write?)


The interrogative progressive only differs from the preceding one in
that the particle pag precedes all of the inflections. In plural this
pag becomes pa, pan, or pang, according to the same rules laid on the
progressive active form. [97] Thus:


          ¿diín ca pagsusurát?    (where are you writing?)
          ¿háin camó panunurát?   (where will you be writing?)


In passive voices, these same forms are followed except in that the
root takes the affix a in the direct passive and the affix i in the
indirect passive, and the prefix i for the primitive form, or the
prefix ig for the progressive form, in the instrumental passive. Thus:


                          ¿diín suratá?
                          ¿diín suratí?, etc.


NOTE.—Instead of the prefix ig or i, in the instrumental passive, the
affix an is frequently employed. As


              ¿diín susuratán? for ¿diín isusurát? etc.


CACAN-O SAN-O

“Cacan-o” is placed before the past indicative; “san-o” is used before
the future, indicative. They are the only two tenses of this kind of
conjugation. As to the inflections in the primitive form, the past is
simply the root, and the future is the root, whose first two letters
are doubled. As


              ¿cacan-o camo surat?   (when did you write?)
              ¿san-o ca cácanhi?     (when will you come?)


In the progressive form the root takes the prefixes pag for the
singular and pa, pan, pang in plural.

In the passive, the affix a is used in the direct passive; the affix i,
in the indirect passive; and the prefix i or ig in the instrumental.
These prefixes are frequently replaced by the affix an. Examples:


                          ¿cacan-o surata?
                          ¿Ban-o susuratí? etc


IMPORTANT OBSERVATION. The verb referred to by any adverb of time takes
the same form, as to the indicative, as the adverbs cacan-o and san-o.
As


    buás acó cacanhi              (tomorrow I shall come)
    canina han ága acó pagsurát   (this morning I have written) [98]




SUPPLETORY VERBS

Irregular conjugation

The suppletory verbs in Bisayan are those formed by the pronouns “iní”,
“adí”, “itó”, “itón”, “adtó”, “adtón”; to supply the English “to be”,
and those formed by the adverbs “dinhi”, “didi”, “dida”, “dídton”,
“díthon”, “dídto”, to supply the same verb “to be” and also the verbs
“to come”, and “to go.” Of these verbs we call pronominal those derived
from pronouns, and adverbial those derived form adverbs.




PRONOMINAL FORM.

This is a defective form, as it has only one inflection which consists
in doubling the first vowel it being for the present tense, indicative
mood. Ex.:


                   iini acó      (I am here)
                   aadí camí     (we are here)
                   iito hiya     (he or she is there)
                   iiton hira    (they are there)
                   aadto ca      (you are there)
                   aadton camo   (you are there)


NOTE. In same places of Leyte, as Dulag, these forms are not used but
instead of them, the pronouns are doubled as: iniini, adiadi, itoito,
etc.

In using these forms it is preferable to have the pronouns follow them.




ADVERBIAL FORM.

This conjugation is common to the adverbs dínhi, didí, didto, dithon,
didto.

Root: dinhi (here)

Infinitive

    Present, and gerund { singular: pagdinhi } (to be here, being here)
                        { plural: paninhi    }

Indicative

PRESENT, AND FUTURE
SINGULAR                               | PLURAL
acó, etc. aanhi or     (I am, etc.     | camí, etc.   (we are, etc.
hahaní                 shall be, etc.  | aanhi or     shall be, etc.
                       here)           | hahani       here)

Imperfect past, and past.

acó, etc. didinhi or   (I was, etc.    | camí etc.    (we were, etc.
nacanhi                here)           | didinhi or   here)
                                       | nacanhi

Imperative

    dinhi icao, etc. (be here, etc).

Subjunctive

acó, etc. maanhi   (I may etc. be  | camí, etc. maanhi   (we may, etc.
or mahani          here)           | or mahani           be here)




OBSERVATIONS.

Infinitive.—Present and gerund. Here the particles pag and pan are
employed in the same way as among the primitive active voice [99]. As


                          SINGULAR    PLURAL
                          pagdinhi    paninhi
                          pagdidí     panidí
                          pagdidâ     panidâ
                          pagdidton   panidton
                          pagdithon   panithon
                          pagdidto    panidto.


Indicative.—Present and future. It is formed by replacing the first two
letters of the root with the prefix a doubled. As


                         from   dinhi    aanhi,
                          ,,    didí     aadí
                          ,,    didâ     aadâ
                          ,,    didton   aadton
                          ,,    dithon   aathon
                          ,,    didto    aadto


NOTE.—The form hahani is the transformation of aanhi, where the h is
doubled and transposed by placing each h before each a. The other
pronouns have not such a form.

Imperfect past and past. Their single form consists in doubling the
first two letters of the root, as


                     from   dinhi    dídinhi
                      ,,    didi     dídidi
                      ,,    didâ     dididâ
                      ,,    didton   dídidton
                      ,,    dithon   dídíthon
                      ,,    didto    dídidto [100]


Imperative.—It simply consists in the root.

Subjunctive.—It has two forms. The first consists in in prefixing to
the root the particle ma; the second form consists in replacing the
first two letters of the root with the prefix maa. As


                  from   dinhi,    madínhi,    maánhi
                   ,,    didí.     madidí,     maadí
                   ,,    didâ,     madidâ      maadâ
                   ,,    didton,   madidton,   mandton
                   ,,    dithon,   madithon,   maathon
                   ,,    didto,    madidto,    maadto.


NOTE—The form mahani is a transformation of maanhi like hahani of
aanhi.

The verbs that supply the English “to come” and “to go” are conjugated
as ordinarily. But they have a basis for conjugation, derived from the
original root, and which we call conjugational root. So from the
original roots

    dinhi, didí, didá, didton, dithon, didto,

we have the corresponding conjugational roots:

    cánhi, cadi, cadá, cadton, cathon, cádto.

The form followed in this conjugation is that of a primitive. Thus from
the root “canhi”, we have:

Infinitive, present and present participle: pagcanhi (to come, coming)

NOTE.—But the plural of this tense is irregular. It is

pagpacánhi (to come, coming, plural).


             Indicative   present:   acó, etc., nácanhi.
                 ,,       past:      acó, etc., quinmánhi.
                 ,,       future:    acó, etc., mácanhi.


Imperative: cánhi, etc.

Subjunctive: acó, etc. cumánhi.


NOTE. The past, indicative, and the present, subjunctive, have the
irregular forms, nacanhi and macanhi respectively, which must not be
confounded with the present and future, indicative, as the accent of
the former in past and subjunctive is on the penult and not on the
first syllable as in the present and future indicative.




OBSERVATION.

We have seen that when the verb “to be” refers to a place it is
frequently expressed in Bisayan either, by the pronominal form or by
the adverbial form.

But when the verb “to be” is equivalent to the Spanish “estar”, i.e.,
when it represents state, situation, or contingent condition, it is
then expressed by the particles pag, nag, ma, na added to the words
which are predicate of “to be” in English. As


    I shall be sorry: magmamabidò acó.


In cases where the verb “to be” needs to be represented by an
independent word, the expressions “amo”, “asya”, “asáy”, “say” (which
express identity, rather than a mere essence, substance or existence)
are frequently employed. As


                                 { Hi Pedro ámo an tag-iya hiní ng̃a
                                 {    baláy
Peter is the owner of this house { hi Pedro asya an tag-iya, etc.
                                 { hi Pedro asáy tag-iya, etc.
                                 { hi Pedro say tag-iya, etc.


In other cases, the verb “to be” is not translated into Bisayan. As


    God is omnipotent: an Dyos macagagáhum.




IMPERSONAL VERBS

The impersonal verbs follow the two forms: primitive, and progressive.

Owing to the fact that the Bisayan tongue has indirect and instrumental
passive, all of the verbs, no matter to what class they belong, have
passive voice. So the intransitive verbs of other languages have
passive voice in Bisayan, The same thing happens to the impersonal
verbs. They have indirect and instrumental passives which are complete
in their conjugation.

Thus, in passive, there is no impersonal verb in Bisayan. The forms of
conjugation of this kind of verbs are the same as those of the regular
verbs.

Examples:

nagdadalogdog    (it thunders)
nagiinuran       (it rains persistently)
inuuranán hirá   (the rain falls on them; literally: they are rained)
etc.




DEFECTIVE VERBS

The following belong to such class: may (to have) which has only, one
form.


                       á     (no, I do not wish)
                       iyá   (receive it)
                       ohò   (look at it)


May is also used as impersonal and then it means “there, is, there was,
etc.”; conó (he or she says or said; they say or said;—it is said, it
was said)


                        ambót   (I do not know)


The English “to have” is also expressed in Bisayan by the root may-adà,
whose irregular conjugation as follows:


Infinitive

Present, and gerund: pagcaada or pagcamay-adà (to have)

    PRESENT
    SINGULAR                            | PLURAL
    acó, etc. may ada    (I etc. have)  | camí, etc. may   (we, etc.
    or nagcacaada.                      | adá or           have)
                                        | nangagcacaada
    PAST                                |
    acó, etc. nagcaada   (I, etc. had)  | camí, etc.       (we, etc.
                                        | nangagcaada      had)
    FUTURE                              |
    acó etc. magcacadá   (I shall, etc. | camí, etc.       (we shall,
                         have)          | mangacacaada     etc. have)

Imperative
    pacaadá

Subjunctive
    magcaadá


NOTE 1. The strict meaning of the form may-ada is “to acquire”, rather
than “to have”, for which the defective may is used.

2. The impersonal and defective may is very frequently joined to verbs
in passive voice, it keeping its impersonal character. As


    May naquita co nga bucad (I saw a flower; literally: There is a
    flower seen by me),


its regular order being:


    may bucad nga naquíta co.

    May tinagan co hin salapi (I gave money to someone; literally:
    there is some one given by me with money);—where the words “tauo
    nga” are tacit, the regular form being:

    May tauo nga tinagan co hin salapi.




OTHER CLASSES OF VERBS

There are other kinds of verbs whose distinguishing character consists
in their conjugational roots. They are always derived from the ordinary
verbs, but bear different meaning, although conjugated as ordinarily.

The conjugational roots in active voice are different from those in
passive.

From the original root SURAT we have the following classes:


ACTIVE VOICE

    Conjugational root       Indicative Present   Classes

    sinurat                  nagsisinurat         CONTINUATIVE
    casurat                  nacacasurát          ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL
    cagsurat                 nacacagsurát         RELATIVE POTENTIAL
    isusúrat                 náisusurat           ABSOLUTE APTATIVE
    ipagsusúrat              náipagsusurat        RELATIVE APTATIVE
    pagpasurát               nápasurát            ABSOLUTE PERMISSIVE
    papagsúrat               napapagsurát         RELATIVE PERMISSIVE
    papágsurat               pinasusurát          ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE
    papagsurát               pinapagsurát         RELATIVE IMPERATIVE
    susúrat                  nasusúrat            IMPREMEDITATIVE
    suratsúrat               nasuratsúrat         ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE
    suratsurát               nágsusuratsúrat      RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE
    suratsurát               násuratsurát         ABSOLUTE REPETITIVE
    suratsurát               nagsusuratsurát      RELATIVE REPETITIVE
    pasuratsúrat             nagpapasuratsurat    RECIPROCATE

    From the original root “hadì,” we have

    pacahádi                 napacaháhì           IMITATIVE

    From the original root “buság,” we have

    pagticabusag             náticabusag          ABSOLUTE GRADUAL
    pagticabusag             nagtiticabusag       RELATIVE GRADUAL

    From the original root “sayáo,” we have

    sayáo                    nagsasayáo           FIGURATIVE


As it may be observed above, one original root may give a great number
of different classes of verbs, as the nature of the root and use may
permit. The subdivision absolute and relative of these classes
corresponds exactly to the primitive and progressive forms already
explained.

The continuative is distinguished, in its conjugational root, by the
interfix in and it expresses persistence of the action. As


        nagtitinóoc an batà   (the child is crying persistently)


The potential is determined, in its conjugational roots, by the prefix
paca or pacag (absolute and relative) and it means ability on the part
of the subject to execute the action expressed by the original root. As


dirì hiyá nacacasurát, cay dirí    (he cannot write, because does not
maaram                             know how to)
dirì hiyá nacacagsurát, cay damò   (he cannot write, because he is
in buhat                           busy)


The optative has, in its conjugational root the prefix i or ipag
(absolute and relative), and it represents the idea of desire. The
absolute means a desire about to be executed; the relative signifies a
mere intention; As


     náilalacat na hiyá han ac   (he was about to depart when I met
     pag-abotá                   him)
     naipagsusurat acó ha imo    (I was intending to write you)


When the absolute optative bears the particle ca, it expresses then
proximate passivity, as


         naicahorológ an bung̃a   (the fruit is about to fall)


The permissive is distinguished in its conjugational root by the prefix
pagpa or papag (absolute and relative) and it means leave or
abandonment. As


  diri hiya napaútang hin   (he does not lend any money; literally: he
  salapí                    does not permit any money to be lent)


When the original root of this form is a substantive referring to a
place, then the idea of “going” or “coming” is represented. As


              mapa Manila camí    (we shall go to Manila)
              napahorón hi Juan   (John went to the farm)


The imperative, which means order or command, is determined by the
prefix papag and the interfix in. As


            pinacacadto ca     (you are ordered to go there)
            pinapagtoón camo   (you are commanded to study)


The impremeditative is determined by the repetition of the first
syllable of the original root, and expresses a sudden and inconsiderate
action. As


              náyayácan ca lá   (you talk inconsiderately)


The formation of the diminutive class follows that of a diminutive
noun. [101] As


nagtatanomtanom cami hin camote   (we are cultivating a little camote)


The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive.

The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive, except in that
the accent is always on the last syllable of the repetitive. It follows
the formation of the figurative nouns,[101] when the root has more than
two syllable, or when the last syllable is preceded by more than one
consonant or is pronounced separately from the preceding consonant. The
repetitive expresses a repeated action. As


     magtatanomtanóm acó hin abacá   (I shall cultivate hemp again)
     macarocánhi acó buás            (I shall come again to-morrow)


The reciprocate is formed exactly as the diminutive, except in that the
reciprocate uses the prefix pa. It means a mutual action. As


        nagpapasuratsurat camí   (we are writing to each other)


It is also formed by the prefixes pag and ig, and the affix an. As
“pagquítáan (to meet), iguinquiquita iguinhihisugat”. It has a passive
character.

The imitative is formed by the prefix paca, the same as the absolute
potential, but here the root is always a noun, the object of the
imitation. As


           hiyá napacamaáram    (he pretends to be learned)
           hiyá napacacatsilà   (he affects to be a Spaniard)


The gradual is determined by the prefix pagtica, and means an action by
degrees. As


       nagtiticapasò inin adlao   (the day is becoming hotter)
       nagtiticalamrag an bulan   (the moon is becoming brighter)


The figurative verb has the same form as its original, except in the
accent which is always on the last syllable. As


    nagsasayáo hiyá tung̃ud han   (he jumps as if he was dancing, on
    caol-ol                       account of the pain he feels)




DIRECT PASSIVE


CONTINUATIVE VERB

Conjugational root: sinúrat

Infinitive:  present and gerund: pagsinurata s; pagpinanuráta p.
Indicative:  Present:            guinsisinúrat s; guinpipinanúrat p.
             Past:               guinsinúrat s; guinpinanurat p.
             Future:             pagsisinuraton s; pagpipinanuraton p.
Imperative:  pagsinuráta s; pagpinanuráta p.
Subjunctive: pagsinuraton s; pagpinanuraton p.


ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL

Conjugational root: hisurát

Infinitive:  paghisurát s; panhisurát p.
Indicative:  Present: nahasusurát
             Past:    nahasurát
             Future:  mahasusurát
Imperative:  (no imperative)
Subjunctive: mahasurát.


RELATIVE POTENTIAL

Conjugational root: hisurát

Infinitive:  paghisurát s; panhisurát p.
Indicative:  Present: nahapapagsurát s; nanhihisurát p.
             Past:    nahapagsurát s; nanhisurát p.
             Future:  mahapapagsurát s; manhihisurát p.
Imperative:  (no imperative)
Subjunctive: mahapagsurát s; manhisurát p.


ABSOLUTE OPTATIVE

Conjugational root: isusurat

Infinitive:  pag-isusurata s; pag-ipanunurata p.
Indicative:  Present: guin-iisusurat
             Past:    guin-isusurat.
             Future:  pag-iisusuraton.
Imperative:  pagisusurata
Subjunctive: pag-isusuráton.


RELATIVE OPTATIVE

Conjugational root: isusúrat

Infinitive:  pag-ipagsusurata s; pag-ipanunuráta p.
Indicative:  Present: guin-iipagsusurat, s; guin-iipanunurat.
             Past:    guin-ipagsusurat s; guin-ipanunurat.
             Future:  pag-iipagsusuráton s; pag-iipanunuraton.
Imperative:  pag-ipagsusurata
Subjunctive: pag-ipagsusuraton.
(The permissive verbs have no passive)


ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE

Infinitive:  papagsuratán s; papanuratán p.
Indicative:  Present: ipinasusurat.
             Past:    ipinasurat.
             Future:  ipasusurat.
Imperative:  ipasurát.
Subjunctive: ipasurát.


RELATIVE IMPERATIVE

Conjugational root: pasurát

Infinitive:  papagsuratán, s; papanuratán, p.
Indicative:  Present: ipinápagsurát, s; ipinápanurát, p.
             Past:    ipinapagsurát, s; ipinapanurát, p.
             Future:  ipápagsurát, s; ipápanurát, p.
Imperative:  ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p.
Subjunctive: ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p.


IMPREMEDITATIVE

Conjugational root: susuráta

Infinitive:  pagsusuráta, s; panunuráta, p.
Indicative:  Present: sinususurat.
             Past:    sinusurát.
             Future:  sususuráton.
Imperative:  susuráta.
Subjunctive: susuráton.


ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE

Conjugational root: sinuratsúrat

Infinitive:  pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p.
Indicative:  Present: sinusuratsúrat,
             Past:    sinuratsúrat.
             Future:  susuratsuraton.
Imperative:  suratsurata.
Subjunctive: suratsuráton.


RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE

Conjugational root: guinsuratsúrat

Infinitive:  pagsuratsuratá, s; panuratsúrata, p.
Indicative:  Present: guinsusuratsurat, s; pinanunuratsurat, p.
             Past:    guinsuratsurat, s; pinanuratsurat, p.
             Future:  pagsusuratsuraton, s; panunuratsuratón, p.
Imperative:  pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p.
Subjunctive: pasuratsuraton, s; panusatsuráton, p


(The repetitive have the same form as the diminutive)


(The reciprocate have no passive)


(The imitative, gradual and figurative have no passive)




INDIRECT PASSIVE

The indirect passive is similar to the ordinary progressive indirect
passive (see page 76), except in that in the continuative form the
interfix in is used.

The potential have no indirect passive.

The optative have their indirect passive as that of the ordinary form
(see page 73 et seq.), as to the affixes.

The imperative have no indirect passive.

The impremeditative has its indirect passive the same as that of the
primitive indirect passive (see page 74) as to the affixes.

The indirect passive of the diminutive is the same as that of the
ordinary, primitive (See page 78 et seq) as to the affixes.




INSTRUMENTAL PASSIVE.

The instrumental passive of the continuative impremeditative and
diminutive verbs is similiar to that of the progressive (page 79 and
80) as to the prefixes.

The other verbs above mentioned have not instrumental passive.

NOTE. There are other classes of verbs formed by other particles and
combinations; but their conjugation will be of no difficulty if the
different forms hereinbefore given are thoroughly mastered.




DEPRECATIVE VERBS

There are verbs used in a depreciative tone. Examples.


              for   cáon    (to eat)    ásoc, lámon, etc.
              ,,    lacát   (to walk)   laág
              ,,    yacán   (to talk)   yaquimbot, etc.


These verbs are conjugated as ordinarily.




ADVERBS

The adverbs are of the following classes:


ADVERBS OF PLACE

DIIN (where),—BISAN DIIN (wherever, anywhere),—DIDI (here, nearer to
the speaker then to the listener),—DINHI (here),—DIDÂ (there, nearer to
the listener than to the speaker),—DIDTO (there),—HARANI (near),—HARAYÒ
(far).


ADVERBS OF TIME

CACAN-O (when, past),—SAN-O (when, future),—BISAN CACAN-O (whenever,
past),—BISANSAN-O (whenever, future),—NIYÁN (now),—CANINA (before,
short time ago, in the same day),—CAGAB’I (last night),—CACOLÓP
(yesterday),—CASANGAB’I (the night before last),—CASANGCOLOP (the day
before yesterday),—CASANGYADTO (the day previous to the day before
yesterday),—ANAY (before, anciently),—UNINA (after, in the same
day),—BUAS (to-morrow),—ISANGBUÁS (the day after to-morrow),—ISANGYÁDTO
(the day following the day after to-morrow),—CANONAY (always),—DAYÓ-DAY
(persistently),—LAYON (soon),—DÁYON (immediately),—HADTO (then,
before),—NG̃ANÌ, CUN (when, whenever),—NAMAN (again),—LIUAT (again),—PA
(yet),—NA (already),—AGSOB (frequently),—DANAY (sometimes),—NGÁHAO
(then).


ADVERBS OF DEGREE

CAPIN, LABIS, LAPÁS (more),—ORÓG (most),—URAÚRA (excessively),—TUMAN (a
little scarcely).


ABVERBS OF MANNER

AMO, ASYA (so, thus),—ONAN-O (how),—MAN (also),—COLAÓNG, COLASÓT,
COLANTOY (for example, for instance).


ADVERBS OF DOUBT

ADÂ, MAHAMOC, MASAGNI, MAHARANI, CADUÁS TING̃ALI, BANG̃IN, SABALI
(probably, perhaps),—BAGÁ (as).


ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION

OO (yes),—MANGUD (indeed),—CAIYA, UGA, CAY UGÂ, GUI-HÁPON (of course).


ADVERBS OF NEGATION

DIRI (no),—UARAY (no, past),—AYAO (no, future).


ADVERBS OF CAUSE

CAY (because),—TUNG̃ÚD (because).


OBSERVATIONS 1. Many adjectives and phrases are employed as adverbs, as


                      igbao              (above)
                      niyán ng̃a adlao   (to-day)
                      damò               (much)
                      etc.


2. Some of the adverbs are frequently contracted, as those composed of
“bisan” which is contracted into “bis.” Examples:


                   bisan diín   contracted   bis diín
                   guihapon         ,,       guiháp.


3. The adverbs have diminutive, comparative and superlative. As


    from harani, haraníay, haroharaní, guihaharanií; etc.




PREPOSITIONS

HA (to, from, over, under),—TIPA (against, towards),—TUNG̃UD
(for),—PATI, UPOD (with),—GAUÁS (without),—CAN (of, to),—TICANG, GUICAN
(from, since),—TUBTUB (up to, till, until),—TALIUAN (after),—LÁBUT
(except).




CONJUNCTIONS

The conjunctions are of the following classes:


COPULATIVE

UG, NG̃AN (and),—MAN (also),—NG̃A (that).


DISJUNCTIVE

O, CUN,  [102] BA (or).


ADVERSATIVE

CUNDÌ (but),—SABALI, UGARING (but, though), CUN, NGANÌ (if),—BISAN
(even, though),—BACAY (as),—CUNTÀ (which bears the idea of past or
future desire: it may frequently be translated in English with the
phrase: “if possible”).


CONDITIONAL

CUN NG̃ANÌ, ABI, [103] UGARING (if).


CAUSAL

CAY, TUNGUD, BACAY, SANGLIT, CAY (inasmuch, because).


FINAL

BASI (in order to),—BANGIN (lest).


CONTINUATIVE

TACAY (then),—BUSA (therefore),—TARA (then).




INTERJECTIONS


Admiration: ¡a!, ¡ay!, ¡báá!, ¡abaá!, ¡baadao!, ¡abaadao! ¡pastilan!,
¡pauican!, ¡pauísac!, ¡palipac!, ipalísac!, ¡pauiday!, ¡aguimpauican!,
¡aguimpastilan!, ¡aguimpauisac!, ¡aguimpali, pac!, ¡aguimpalisac!,
¡aguimpauiday!, ¡pascalan!, ¡bongansiso!, !odoy!, ¡alágad!, ¡alagad
dao!, ¡an ac pa!, ¡ito ngahao!, etc.

Pain and sorrow: ¡ay!, ¡ayhay!, ¡aguí!, ¡aroy!, ¡óhoy!, ¡pastilan!,
etc.

Attention: ¡óho!, ¡ohondá!, ¡tabí!, ¡oy!, ¡acay! ¡hacay!, ¡solibangco!,
etc.

Insistence: ¡gad!, ¡daó!, ¡uga!, ¡lugá!, ¡ugaring!, ¡lugaring!,
¡caiyá!, ¡pudó!, ¡haromámay!, etc.

Reprobation: ¡diri!, ¡uaráy!, ¡ayao!, ¡hulát!, ¡bodó!, ¡buró!, etc.

Surprise: ¡ay!, ¡an!, ¡alágad!, ¡ús!, ¡balitao!, ¡bayá!, etc. [104]

Pity: ¡cairó!, ¡in tauo!, ¡pastilán!, ¡odóg!, ¡baadao!, ¡aguí!, etc.

Desire: ¡cunta!, ¡upayda!, ¡unta!, ¡mangad pa!, ¡ihinaotpa!, ¡tubangan
pa la!, etc.

Joy: ¡ay!, ¡ahay!, ¡upayda!, ¡salamat!, ¡ta!, etc.

Aversion: ¡á!, ¡aguí!, ¡ambot!, ¡sabá!, etc.

Invitation: ¡cadí!, ¡taná!, ¡halá!, etc.

Self-correction: ¡au!, ¡ay!, ¡sapayán!

Suspension: cuan.... inín.... ¡hulat!, ¡niyan!, etc.

Despair: ¡sahó!, etc.

Gratitude: ¡salamat!, ¡Dyos mag báyad!, ¡Dyos mag sugá!, etc.








SYNTAX


SUBJECTIVE RELATION

The subject of a verb may be either a noun or its equivalent, namely a
pronoun, a verb in the infinitive mood, or an entire phrase. As


  An Dyos macagagáhum                (God is omnipotent)
  Acó nagsusurát                     (I write)
  An paguaon maopay                  (The meal is good; literally: the
                                     eating is good)
  An guinquiquinauanglan ta ámo an   (what we need is union).
  pag-orosa




PREDICATIVE RELATION

The verb agree with its subject in person and number. As


                 panurát quitá   (let us write)
                 magsurát hiyá   (let him or her write)




ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION

The nouns and their equivalents may be modified by substantives,
adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, and
participles. Except in cases of possessive pronouns, relative ng̃a is
placed between the noun or its equivalents, and the modifying word. As


    batá ng̃a sorogóon       (the young servant; literally: the boy
                             servant)
    an sangcay ng̃a macpay   (the good friend)
    iní ng̃a baláy           (this house)
    an acon amáy             (my father)
    hinigugma nga iróy       (loved mother)


NOTE.—When the pronoun “adton” and its inflections are equivalent to
“deceased”, “late”, the particle ng̃a is not employed. As


                     adton Pedro   (the late Peter)


The article also modifies the noun and its equivalents, in that it
limits them. The articles always precede the word or words to which
they refer. As is seen before (page 9) the personal article is always
employed before the proper nouns, except in the vocative case. As


                 an lang̃it   (the heaven, or the sky)
                 hi Eudong    (Peter)


The definite article is sometimes used before proper nouns, and
frequently before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. The
indefinite article is sometimes employed before the possessive
pronouns. The personal article is sometimes used before the personal
pronouns, except the third person. As


         an Dyos                   (God)
         an iní ng̃a batà          (this boy)
         an amon búngto            (our town)
         macanhi in acon sangcay   (a friend of mine will come)
         hi camó ng̃an hi acó      (you and I)




COMPLEMENTARY RELATION

The object of the verb is always in the objective case determined by
the corresponding article, or by a preposition. As


  hi Pedro nagbabasa han surat      (Peter reads the letter)
  hirá nang̃atúrog ha sacayán       (they sleep on the boat)
  hi Tomás naruruyag hin pagcanhi   (Thomas wishes to come; literally:
                                    Thomas wishes a coming)
  mácadto acó ha Abúyog             (I shall go to Abuyog).


The object of the verb to be is in the nominative case. As


              an imo bahín, amo iní   (your part is this)
              an táuo mamarátyon      (the man is mortal)




ADVERBIAL RELATION

The adverbs and the adverbial phrases modify a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb. As


   “dánay” acó cumádto                    (I go there sometimes)
   nabasa ng̃ani acó, nábasa “man” hiyá   (If I read, he reads also).


The adverbs are generally placed next to the word that they modify,
some before the said word as “agsob” (frequently), “dánay” (sometimes),
“masócot” (often), “macatalagsa” (seldom), etc., and other after the
said word as “pa” (yet), “na” (already), “man” (also), “gud”
(precisely), etc., and some before or after the said word as “lugúd”
(on the contrary), etc.




REPRESENTATIVE RELATION

The important Bisayan word that expresses representative relations is
the relative pronoun nga, which is invariable.


      an batá nga tinmauag ha acon       (the boy who called me)
      an cabatáan ng̃a tinmawag ha acon   (the boys who called me)


As to cases, we have seen (page 52) that this relative nga never refers
to the object of the verb. The sentences in the English and other
languages, where the corresponding relative pronoun relates to the
object of the verb and where consequently the said relative is in the
objective case, are expressed in Bisayan in passive voice which is the
most used in this tongue. [105] Thus, if we wish to say


    the boy whom I called


we should say


    an bata ng̃a tinauag co


which literally is: the boy who was called by me.

The personal, demonstrative and possessive pronouns agree in person and
number with their antecedents or the word or words that they represent.
There is no agreement in gender because the pronouns have no gender.




CONNECTIVE RELATIONS

The prepositions join the nouns, their equivalents, or the pronouns to
some other word. They place in the objective case the word that depends
on them.

The most important preposition in, Bisayan is ha, which is equivalent
to nearly all of the prepositions of other languages. Examples:


           He saw me—              hiyá quinmitá ha acon
           He wrote to me—         hiyá nagsurát ha acon
           I come to Tacloban—     nacanhi acó ha Tacloban
           I come from Palo—       ticang acó ha Palô
           I pass by your house—   linmabáy acó ha iyo baláy
           He is in the room—      aadto niyá ha solód
           etc.




ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS

Absolute and independent constructions take place in Bisayan with
vocatives, and interjections.

Vocatives, as


      Pedro, ng̃a niya, cadí dao   (Peter, he said, come, please)


Interjection, as


           Pastilan, caloóyi gad acó   (oh!, have pity of me)


Some independent phrases are connected with the rest of the thought by
the adverb man, as


    naabot camí, natutunod man   (when we arrived, the sun set;
    an adlao                     literally: we arrived, the sun also
                                 set).




SYNTAX OF VERBS

THE INFINITIVE. The present has the construction of the noun, as


    an pag-arám hin maopay ámo an   (to learn well is the duty of a
    catungdánan han batà            boy).


The gerund expresses the idea of past when preceded by the particle
han, contraction of the preposition ha and the article an, as


    han pagsírang han adlao, nagmamatá   (when the sun raised, I was
    na acó                               already awake).


The past participle has the construction of an adjective, as


     binilangò ng̃a táuo   (prisoner; literally: an imprisoned man)


INDICATIVE. Besides its ordinary use, its present is frequently
employed with the particle cuntà, to express the idea of an interrupted
or intended action. As


cun uaráy ca cánhi, nalacát cunta   (If you had not come, I would have
acó                                 gone)


SUBJUNCTIVE. It being used in a subordinate propositions, it is always
constructed with the conjunctions ng̃a (thato), cun, ng̃anì (if), cuntà
(if possible).

Ng̃a and cun always precede the verb; ng̃anì and cunta when used for the
subjunctive, is always placed after the verb. As


caruyag co ng̃a cumanhi ca buas   (I wish you to come to-morrow;
                                  literally: I wish that you may come
                                  to-morrow). [106]
cun lumabay hi Juan, tanága.      (If John passes by, call him)
lumabáy ng̃anì hi Juan taúaga.
lumabáy cuntà hi Juan             (God grant that John passes).


NOTE.—The subjunctive form is frequently constructed with the modal
adverbs and adjectives and then such combinations have the construction
of an adjective. As


   táuo ng̃a maopay sumurat      (a good writer: literally; a man who
                                 writes well)
   macosóg sumáog ng̃a carabao   (a strong dragger carabao)
   etc.




ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

The adjectives and verbs are always preferably employed, whenever
possible, at the beginning of a phrase, clause, or sentence.

Examples:

                     maópay ng̃a táuo   (good man)
                     nagsusurát acó     (I write)
                     etc.




VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE


BARBARISMS

The most frequent violation of good use of the Bisayan tongue is the
Barbarism.

It is committed by using foreign words, and foreign constructions.




FOREIGN WORDS

Many foreign words have been and are being introduced in the Bisayan
conversations and writings. Must of such words are being adopted, not
because they are necessary, but simply thru affectation and love of
innovation, thus attempting against the purity of Bisayan. Some of the
words introduced however are necessary as they have no corresponding
word in Bisayan.


FOREIGN WORDS UNNECESSARILY USED IN BISAYAN

SPANISH WORDS

Abierto, abre (open)                  for   Binucsan, inucáb, bucás
                                            ucáb.
Adorno (adornment)                    ,,    Dayan, rayandayan
Agua (used to mean perfume)           ,,    Talamhot
Aguanta (wait suffer)                 ,,    Ílob, hulát
Alisto (from listo)                   ,,    Andam
Amigo (friend)                        ,,    Sángcay
Apique (close)                        ,,    Sóoc
Apura, apurado (hurry)                ,,    Dagmit, cadagmitan
Atrever, atrevido (bold)              ,,    Paggahúm, gamhánan
Aver (for “give me”)                  ,,    Icadí
Aver pa (God grant)                   ,,    Mangad pa
Bajado, Bajar (low)                   ,,    Habobó, obós
Bancó (bench)                         ,,    Pongcóan, lincoran, pápag
Bando (edict)                         ,,    Pahamatngon
Batido (for “experienced”)            ,,    Lasgud, hiara
Bote (for boat)                       ,,    Sacayan
Cada usá (each one)                   ,,    Tágsa
Calabozo (jail)                       ,,    Bilangóan
Calculo (calculus)                    ,,    Igoigo
Calle (street)                        ,,    Dalan
Campana (bell)                        ,,    Linganay
Canta (sing)                          ,,    Laygay, laylay
Cantodes (from “cantores”)            ,,    Paralaygay
Carcel (jail)                         ,,    Bi1angóan
Cargo (for “debt”)                    ,,    Útang
Carne (flesh meat)                    ,,    Unód
Capaz (able)                          ,,    Sadang, angay, tacús
Castigo (punishment)                  ,,    Siroc
Cocina (kitchen)                      ,,    Lotoán
Coger                                 ,,    Pagdacóp pacasacób
Colá (from “colar”)                   ,,    Bacá
Color (color)                         ,,    Tina, samay, culay
Comósta (from “como está” how are
you)                                  ,,    Matiónan-o ca
Común (common)                        ,,    Casahirác
Convida (invite)                      ,,    Áabiabi, sabi
Contra (against)                      ,,    Tipa, patoe, caauay
Cortina (curtain)                     ,,    Biráy
Cuarta (money)                        ,,    Salapí
Cuarto (room)                         ,,    Solód
Cuerdas (strings)                     ,,    Dolós
Cuello (collar)                       ,,    Balióg
Cuenta (account)                      ,,    Iháp, ísip
De balde (unusefully)                 ,,    Cáuaug
De buenas (fortunate)                 ,,    Paláran
Decir (for “ask”)                     ,,    Siring hingyap
Defecto (defect)                      ,,    Casaquihán, carát’an
De malas (unfortunate)                ,,    Uaráy palad
Derecho (right)                       ,,    Tádong, dáyon, catadung̃an
Descanso (rest)                       ,,    Pahúuay
Despedida (farewell)                  ,,    Panamilit
Dibujo (drawing)                      ,,    Badlis, Baguis
Diferencia (difference)               ,,    Guincalainan, guicaíbban
Dilatar (for delay)                   ,,    Pag-uláng, pagpahalawig
Disgusto (unlikeness)                 ,,    Cangalas
Dispensa (excuse)                     ,,    Pasaylo, paguará
Diversion (amusement)                 ,,    Caliáuan, liáoliáo
Dulce (sweet candy)                   ,,    Matam’is
Empezar (to commence)                 ,,    Pagticáng
Entra (for “to make love”)            ,,    Pangasáua
Entremés (joke)                       ,,    Tíao
Escuela (school)                      ,,    Liborán
Espejo (glass)                        ,,    Salamíng
Esquina (corner)                      ,,    Casóngnan
Estampa (image)                       ,,    Ladáuan
Fino (fine)                           ,,    Gamay, pilí
Firme (for always)                    ,,    Agsub, ónob
Fuerza (strength)                     ,,    Cusóg
Fuerte (strong)                       ,,    Macusóg, mabácod
Fusil (gun)                           ,,    Lutbang
Ganancia (gain)                       ,,    Polós, tubo
Gracia (grace, favor)                 ,,    Parábul
Gratis (used for “payment”)           ,,    Himúdlay
Gusto (wish)                          ,,    Caruyag
Hasta (until)                         ,,    Tubtub, ngadá
Hechura (shape)                       ,,    Daguay
Interes (interest)                    ,,    Guinsisiring, guinlalánat
Jardin (garden)                       ,,    Tanáman
La mesa (table)                       ,,    Dulang
Latigo (whip)                         ,,    Latós
Lavá (from “lavar”, to wash)          ,,    Búnac
Lavandero, a (launderer, laundress)   ,,    Magburunác
Licencia, pag (to take leave)         ,,    Sárit, panamilit
Limós (from “limosna”, alms)          ,,    Calóoy, hatag
Limpio (clean)                        ,,    Mahínis
Lóa (praise)                          ,,    Dáyao
Lugar (for “near” or “almost”)        ,,    Dapit, ma
Macetas (flower-pot)                  ,,    Tinanóm, taranman
Maestro (teacher)                     ,,    Magtorótdo
Manteca (butter)                      ,,    Pinahagas
Mantel (tablecloth)                   ,,    Basnig ha dulang
Mantilla (mantilla)                   ,,    Taóng
Masiado (from “demasiado”, too)       ,,    Uraura
Masque (from “por más que”,
although)                             ,,    Bisan
Medio (half)                          ,,    Catunga, bagá
Mismo (self-same)                     ,,    Ngábao, gud
Muchacho (for servant)                ,,    Surogóon
Número (number)                       ,,    Iháp
O bien (or)                           ,,    O cun, ó, lugúd
Oración (prayer)                      ,,    Pangadye, paugamuyo
Orden (order)                         ,,    Sugo
Pabyon (from “pabellón”)              ,,    Biráy
Paciencia (patience)                  ,,    Pag-ilub
Pago (for “debt”)                     ,,    Utang
Palati (from “palatico”, from
“práctico”)                           ,,    Mag-oróna
Paño (cloth)                          ,,    Panapton, pudóng
Pañolito (handkerchief)               ,,    Modongpódong
Para (for, halt)                      ,,    Basi, ngada, hulat, ocóy,
                                            toróoc
Parecer (opinion)                     ,,    Sagbang
Parejo (equal)                        ,,    Sáma, sandag
Paseada (from “paseo”)                ,,    Lacatlácat
Peligro (danger)                      ,,    Cataragman
Pensar (for talent)                   ,,    Talíno
Perdona (from “perdonar”)             ,,    Pasaylo
Pero (but)                            ,,    Cundi
Pertina (for “pretina”, waistband)    ,,    Háuac
Pierde (from “perder” to lose)        ,,    Lupig, nara
Pintar (to paint)                     ,,    Dum-it, díhog
Pintura (paint)                       ,,    Idirihóg
Plato (plate)                         ,,    Pingan
Platito (a little dish)               ,,    Lampay
Pliegues (plaits)                     ,,    Lopi
Pobre (poor)                          ,,    Cablas
Polvo (powder)                        ,,    Bócboc
Posta (from “apuesta” bet)            ,,    Butáng
Precio (price)                        ,,    Pulít
Preparar (to prepare)                 ,,    Pag-andam, pagtíma
Preso (prisoner)                      ,,    Binilangá.
Probar (to taste)                     ,,    Tilao, sari
Propecto (from “perfecto,” perfect)   ,,    Guinóod
Prueba (proof, evidence)              ,,    Paacamatóod
Principal (chief, capital)            ,,    Labáo, pohonan
Provecho (profit)                     ,,    Polós
Puerta (door)                         ,,    Ganghaán
Pulido (neat)                         ,,    Hag-id, mahamis
Puro (pure)                           ,,    Putli, lonlon, sandag,
                                            sáhid
Queja (complaint)                     ,,    Sumbong
Querido (dear)                        ,,    Hinigugma, pinalanga
Que ver (for “to do”)                 ,,    Láhot
Quinolá (from colar)                  ,,    Bináchan
Rabenque (from “rebenque”, whipe)     ,,    Latob, latos
Recibi (from “recibir”)               ,,    Carauat
Reclamo (claim)                       ,,    Paglánat
Redondo (round)                       ,,    Lipóron, malídong
Regalo (present)                      ,,    Higugma, hatag, bucad
Regular (regular)                     ,,    Igó, socol
Relo, relos (from “reloj” watch,
clock)                                ,,    Orasán [107]
Remo (oar)                            ,,    Gaód
Renuncio (from “renunciar”, to
renounce)                             ,,    Pagdiri, pagdiuara
Reventa (from “reventar” to
explode)                              ,,    Pagbotó
Rico (rich)                           ,,    Mangáran
Rugal (from “lugar”, spot)            ,,    Caraanan, tuna, umá
Saco (sack)                           ,,    Sopót
Sadá (from “cierra”, close)           ,,    Locób
Sala (hall)                           ,,    Ruáng
Saya (skirt)                          ,,    Tampí, Talapí
Seguro (for “probably”)               ,,    Mahámoe, angay la
Señor (Sir, Mister)                   ,,    Guinoo
Sirve (from “servir” to serve)        ,,    Pagmangno pag-ágad
Suerte (for “talk”)                   ,,    Himangrao
Sustento (maintenance)                ,,    Pagbubi, iburuhi, cabuhian
Tabla (board)                         ,,    Bugha
Tachar (for “contempt”)               ,,    Yúbit, támay
Taza (cup)                            ,,    Yahóng
Tiempo (time)                         ,,    Adlao, túig
Tienda (merchandise, store)           ,,    Baligya, baligyáan
Tieso (stiff)                         ,,    Dángag, tadóng
Tocar (to play)                       ,,    Pagtonóg
Tocador (for glass)                   ,,    Salamíng
Tonto (fool)                          ,,    Lórong, palinqui, pádlas
Trabajo (work)                        ,,    Buhat
Tranea (cross-bar)                    ,,    Síol, Balabág
Tumba (to tumble)                     ,,    Púcan
Vacio (empty)                         ,,    Lungág
Ventana (window)                      ,,    Tambóan
Verde (green)                         ,,    Saguindáhon
Vicio (vice)                          ,,    Casaquihán
Virtud (for “power”)                  ,,    Gahúm
Zurce (for “zurcir” to darn)          ,,    Pagtábing,

And many others.


CHINESE [108] WORDS

Bochang (for sow)          for   Cablas
Buísit (unfortunate)       ,,    Uaray pálad
Camsya (for “thank”)       ,,    Salámat
Gonggong (foolish)         ,,    Uaray salabótan
Lamloc (dear, fat)         ,,    Matamboc
Laotuy (old)               ,,    Lagás, gurang
Syâ (for eat)              ,,    Cáon
Sinqui (new)               ,,    Bag-o
Tampuâ (excess, present)   ,,    Táuad, labis
Uchang (rich)              ,,    Mangáran
Uísit (fortunate)          ,,    Paláran.

and some others.


ENGLISH WORDS

Haló (halloo)          for   Ohó
Miting (“meeting”)     ,,    Catirócan
Háyc (“hike”)          ,,    Paglacát, sódoy
Moning (for “money”)   ,,    Salapí
Sausau (chow-chow)     ,,    Pagcáon, caraonón

And others.


NOTE.—At present, among the students it is frequent to hear “¿háin an
ac dyografi (geography), an ac arismitic (arithmetic)?” “¿aada ca ha
fif (fifth) greyd (grade)?” “maaram na acó mag espeling (spelling)”—Why
do they not talk in English?

OBSERVATION. There are some Tagalog words and constructions used in
Bisayan; but we do not consider their use as a barbarism, because
Tagalog and Bisayan are both dialects of a common tongue, and because
such use may help the formation of a possible Filipino language.




FOREIGN CONSTRUCTIONS

Among others, the following is a barbarism in the construction:
“maoroopay iní QUE hitón”, (this is better than that). The use of the
QUE (which is Spanish meaning “than”) is entirely Spanish and is not
necessary in Bisayan, as the mentioned sentence is expressed simply and
with the same strength and more purity and correctness: “maooropáy iní
hitón”.




FOREIGN WORDS NECESSARILY ADOPTED IN BISAYAN

But there are many words now in use in Bisayan the adoption of which
enriches rather then destroys the language. We refer to those words
that have been necessarily imported from other languages to express
ideas not represented by any word, or whose corresponding words are
lost in Bisayan.

We do not consider their use as a barbarism, as it is not considered us
such in English, Spanish, French and other European languages the
adoption of Greek and Latin words. We not only do not criticize such
adoption in the Filipino dialects but rather desire and encourage it,
because it will undoubtedly enable our dialects to be used in all kinds
of scientific and artistic expressions.

Among the foreign words already adopted, the following may be counted:

Dyos (from the Spanish Dios). It is true that we have the Tagálog
Bathala which refers to the omnipotency, and the Bisayan Laón which
refers to the eternity. But in view of the fact that the word Dyos
derived from the Latin Deus, from the Greek Zeus which means Divinite,
Supreme Being, has been so much used in Bisayan, and it represent
another phase of the attributes of God, we think that the said word
DYOS ought to be adopted in Bisayan, adapting its form to the
inflections of our dialect.

Oras (from the Spanish hora “hour”).—We have to adopt this word, as
there is no corresponding expression known in Bisayan. By its adoption
we have a way to avoid the use of reloj, with the derivative orasan
already used.

Bapor (from the Spanish “vapor” steamboat). It has no corresponding in
Bisayan. We have sacayán (boat), but it does not include the idea of
the “steam.”

Papel (from the Spanish “papel”).—It has no corresponding in Bisayan.

The Spanish names of the days of the week, and of the months of the
year, which must be written in Bisayan form, as: LUNES, MARTES,
MYERKOLES, HWEBES, BYERNES, SABADO, DOMINGO, ENERO, PEBRERO, MARSO,
ABRIL, MAYO, JUNYO, HULYO, AGOSTO, SEPTYEMBRE, OKTUBRE, NOBYEMBRE,
DISYEMBRE.

Arorú (from the English “arrow-root”). A plant. And many others.








APPENDIX

NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS


FIGURES OF SPEECH

Simile. This figure is one of the most used in Bisayan, even in
ordinary conversations.

Examples:

1.  Bagá an násirong ng̃a dila.


Applied to a person or thing intended to be kept out of the rain, but
which becomes wet, like the tongue (dila) which is always wet in the
mouth.


2.  Canogon pa dao la—san imo catindog
    maópay si báyhon—maráot an bántog
    igpapananglit co—bayábas ng̃a hinóg,
    maópay an panit—olóron an onód

                                (A popular song,)

Where the resemblance is between “maopay si bayhon” and “maopay an
panit”, and also between “maráot an bantog” and “olóron an onód”.

Metaphor. It is also used, especially in poetry.

Example:

1.  Cáhoy ca ng̃a linauáan
    sa búquid nanauantáuan
    cun canan Dyos ca pagbut-an
    matopóng sa ulasiman.

                    (A popular song)

Applied to one who is in a high position in life, like “cahoy ng̃a
linauáan”, the “lauáan” tree being one of the tallest trees.

Allegory. It is also found in Bisayan.

Example:

    Ugá ng̃a cáhoy si láuas,
    patáy na, layâ si dáhon
    nanaringsing sin casáquit
    namúng̃a sin camatáyon

                (A popular song)

Here the life or body (láuas) is called a dry tree (ugá ng̃a cáhoy),
already dead (patáy na), whose leaves are withered (laya si dahon), and
which sprouted sorrow (nanaringsing sin casáquit), and gave as fruit,
the death (namúng̃a sin camatáyon).

Personification. One of the most frequent cases of personification in
Bisayan is that consisting in applying to things and objects the
personal article si.

Example:

    Nagtitinang̃is si tucmo
    cay tiarábut an bagyo.

                (A popular song)


Where the turtle-dove, (tucmo) is personifed by si. The expression
would lose much of its charm if the article an is employed instead of
si.

Antithesis. We have this figure in Bisayan.

Example:

    Canógon pa dao la—san imo catindog
    maópay si bayhon—maráot an bantog, etc.


Where “maopay” (good) and “maraot” (bad), “bayhon” (face) and “bántog”
(fame) are contrasted.

Epigram. This figure, in its modern meaning, is used in Bisayan.

Example:

    Gumhúlat pa an naghínay.
    an nagdagmit, uaráy.


Which literally means: he who went slow was awaited for; he who
hastened was not waited for. Its point is equivalent to that of the
English “slow, but sure.” “Guinhulat” (was awaited for) “uaráy” (was
not), “naghínay” (went slow) and “nagdágmit” (hastened) are contrasted.


Metonymy. It is also found in Bisayan.

Example:

    An patay palang̃it, an buhi pacauít.


Literally: let the dead go to heaven; let the living go to the “cauít”
(a bamboo where the tubâ wine is ordinarily placed). The figure
consists in this word “cauít,” container, for “tuba wine,” the thing
contained.

Synecdoche.

Example:


    Pag árog hin damò nga bugás cay damo camí ng̃a babà.


Literally it means: “Prepare much rice because we are many mouths.”
Here the mouths (baba) a part, is used for person, the whole.

Apostrophe. We have it also in Bisayan.

Example:

    Ohoy mg̃a lang̃it—mga cahatas’an.
    tabang̃i, buligui—adin may pinas’an
    an iní nga pálad—con diri mabáui
    nouontan dao adá—sinin quinabuhi

                            (A popular song)


Literally: Heavens, altitudes, protect, help this who suffers
something; if this fate is not averted, it will undoubtedly affect the
life.

Exclamation.

Example:

    ¡Pastilán bidíday,—bididay ca man la
    ng̃a nacacalucmay—sinin hunahuna! ...
    ¡ayáo pag saquita!—¡ayáo pagbidóa,
    cay mag titinangis—canugon san luha! ...

                                (A popular song)


Interrogation.

Example:

    Mg̃a langit, mg̃a langit;
    ¿háin dao dapit an sáquit? ...

    sa calibutan uaráy man:
    sabali sa panomdoman.

                    (A popular song)


Hyperbole. It is frequent in Bisayan.

Examples:


1.  Macapánas hin buquid. (Man able to level a mountain)
2.  Macasagpo bin bahá. (Man able to suspend a flood)

2.  Cun totóo, intoy—ng̃a imo tinguha
    pag biling la anay—sílot ng̃a may bóa.

                                (A popular song)


Literally: If your love is true, look for a “silot” (a young fruit of
cocoanut) which has “bua” (the bulb of the old cocoanut fruit when it
is old enough to be used as a seed).

Climax

Example:

    ¡ ............
    nanaringsing sin masáquit,
    namúnga sin camatáyon.


Irony.

Example:

¡Camaopay mo! uaray ca gud pag tuman han imo pólong̃.

Literally: How good are you! you did not keep your word.


Asyndeton.

Example:

    Ohoy mg̃a lang̃it—mg̃a cahatas’an
    tabang̃i, buligui, inín may pinas’an, etc.

                                (A popular song)


Repetition.

Examples:

1.  Dirì co cay yubit—diri co cay dáyao
    pamahonpáhon mo—baga may parayao; etc.

                                (A popular song)

2.  Pastilán, bididay—bididay ca man la
    ng̃a nacacalúcmay—sinín hunahuña, etc.

                                (A popular song)


Concatenation.

Example:

    Pastilán ca curi—cacuri capinan
    capin ca mabide—san bido sa dughan,
    dughan co pagílob—ilob calauasan,
    láuas co naponò—pono casaquitan.

                            (A polular song).




PROSE

Of the three universal important forms in prose, i.e., description,
narration, and exposition nothing in general needs be observed.


LETTERS

At present, one of the forms most generally employed in Bisayan prose
is that belonging to the class of narration, the letter.

Nothing special needs be observed about letters, at present times,
apart from their external forms and the tendency to innovation
prominently shown in them, more than anywhere else, by frequent
barbarisms.

As to the external forms of the Bisayan letters, it is to be observed
that a routinary introduction is almost universally followed. We refer
to the ordinary introduction consisting in the following ideas and
order: “This letter has no other purpose” 2) “but to ask how you are”
3) “because as to me” 4) “I am in a good health”.

And after such an invariable introduction, the writer goes on in a
paragraph apart; “And I shall add that”, etc.

Example:


    Uaráy láin ng̃a tuyó hiní ng̃a acon surat cúndi an damo ng̃a mg̃a
    pang̃omósta co ha imo, cay cun acó in ipaquiána, calooy sa Dyos
    maópay.

    Ng̃an isonouod co liuát, etc.


This is the introduction generally adopted. We do not hesitate to state
that more than fifty per cent of the letters written in our Bisayan
commence with these or equivalent ideas and in the same order.

As to the barbarisms, they are employed thruout the entire letter.

On the heading it is usually written:


    Tacloban, á 2 de Octubre de 1908.


instead of:


    Tacloban, ica 2 han Octubre han 1908.


On the introduction it ordinarily appears


    Sr. D ........................................

or

    Sra. D.a ........................................

    Mi estimado amigo:

or

    Muy estimada Señora:


The body of the letter is usually as follows:

    Uaray lain ng̃a objeto hini ng̃a acon surat, sino an damo ng̃a mg̃a
    pangomosta ha iyo ngatanán, cay cun camí in iyo ipaquiána, calooy
    sa Dyos, uaray ano man ng̃a novedad.

    Y de consiguiente, tatay, isusunod co liuat; cun uaray mo
    inconveniente, gusto co cunta comadá pag vacacion; pero como
    guinadvertir mo man aco han nacadi ca ng̃a mag procurar acó hin pag
    obtener anay han titulo, por eso amo iní ng̃a dirí aco na atrever
    pag guican mientras dirí paca aco macacarauát han imo contestation
    ng̃a pag hatag hin permiso, bisan cun sobra y basta gud an acon mg̃a
    deseos pag visita ha iyo. etc.




POETIC FORMS

Of the three main classes of poetry, epic, lyric and dramatic, the
lyric is the only one preserved in Bisayan in the form of popular
songs. The dramatic form is found at present mainly in the translations
of Tagalog and Spanish dramas, usually employed as plays on the
Patron’s days in the towns.


VERSIFICATION

Rhythm and rhyme are observed in Bisayan poems.

The rhyme is not so perfect as that of the Spanish verses. Consonant
words or with similar sounding endings are employed in Bisayan.

Kinds of meter. There are two kinds of meter most used in Bisayan
poetry: verses of six syllables, verses of eight syllables, and verses
of twelve syllables divided in two fragments of six syllables each.

Examples:

Verses of six syllables:


    ¿Háin ca na, punay?...
    cadí na panambo,
    tambo madalíay,
    liaua si casbo;
    basi humalayhay

    inín saquit, bido
    nga asay tiónay
    san casingcasing co.


Verses of eight sy11ab1es:


    Acó iní sugadsugad
    san bánua nga tarotánglad,
    bisan cun diín italad
    mabubuhi cun may palad,


Verses of twelve syllables:


    Togon co sa imo,—mahal nga inógay
    di ca gud padará—san damo nga sangcay;
    an paglacát nime—gabay magmahinay,
    nga diri hatócso,—lumiscad san látay.


Note.—The verses of twelve syllables are really verses of six, the odd
verses not being rhymed.

Combinations. As seen in the preceding examples the combinations are
the following:

The verses of six syllables are grouped in four verses, the even verses
being rhymed.

The verses of eight syllables are grouped also in four verses all
rhymed.

The verses of twelve syllables are also grouped in four rhymed verses.




COLLECTION OF SOME BISAYAN SONGS


NOTE—In transcribing the following songs, we shall use, the orthography
proposed in the note of the first page of this book using only three
vowels: a, i, o.


MORAL POETRY

    Si nanay, si tatay di ko babayuán
    kay damò ng̃a dogô an akon naotag̃
    kun pag-ilsipon an siyam ka botan.
    g̃a pag-inókoy ko sa kan nanay riyán.

    Togon ko sa imo, mahal g̃a inógay:
    di ka god padará san damò g̃a sangkay;
    an paglakat nímo gabáy mag mahinay,
    g̃a dirí katokao, lomiskad san látay.

    Kamakaroroyag sa matá pagkit’on
    sinin mag-asawa g̃a waray sin limbog,
    kon daw naabot na ira kamatayon
    náboká an lang̃it bási nira sadlon.

    Ayaw gani kahihilig
    ayaw karirikandikan,
    kay di man bagyo an toig,
    di man kikilá an bolan.


PHILOSOPHIC POETRY

    Mg̃a bitoón sa lag̃it
    may mapawà, may mag̃itg̃it,
    con sa tawo igpanag̃lit,
    may malípay, may masákit.

    Kahoy ka g̃a linawaán
    sa bokid nanawantawan,
    kon kanan Dyos ka pagbot’an
    matopóg̃ sa olasiman.

    Di ko ginkakasorok’an
    an salapí, an bolawan;
    say ko ginkikinahag̃lan
    maopay g̃a ginawian.

    Sogad gud akó san gamót
    g̃a nailarom sa kotkot,
    kon kanan Dyos pagboót
    malábaw akó san ódlot

    Diri ba ako pagsirig̃.
    indayon, paghang̃narig̃,
    kay bag̃in kitá kapadg̃an,
    harayó an borogkátan.

    Guin holát pá an naghinay;
    an nag dagmit, waráy.

    Waráy hiní balos báyad
    bas’la an boót longáyad


LOVE POETRY

    An bató bantilis náibas, nákilot
    sa toró san tóbig sa darodagínot:
    ¡kasig̃kasig̃ pa ba an diri homómok.
    sa gógma san tawo kon sa tarinónot.

    Di ba sadto ánay imo akó sig̃sig̃
    sa walá g̃a kamót, todló tamoyig̃kig̃;
    baman itó niyán di ka na násiplat,
    ¿anó an solá ko sa imo nabóhat?

    An sakít sa domdom og sa honahona,
    makori ilig̃kod, makori íhigda:
    ¿ihagád sa láng̃it? ¿itamod sa tona?...
    ¡A baá Dyos ko, máonan’o dao la!...

    Pastilán kakori, ka kori kapinan
    kapin kamabido san bido sa dóghan;
    doghan ko pag-ilob, ilob kasawásan,
    láwas ko g̃a ponó pone kasakitan.

    Pastilán, bididay, bididay ka man la
    ga nakakalokmay sinín honahona:
    ayáo pag sakita, ayao pag bidóa,
    kay mag titinangis kanógon san loha.

    Pastilán ka kori, ka kor ig̃akapin
    san may pag kasákit sinin kasig̃kasig̃:
    igpapanag̃lit ko sa osá ga borig̃
    bisan parigóson may gihapon bilin.

    Háin ka na ponay,
    kadi na panambo,
    tambo madaliay.
    liawá si kas’bo.
    basi homanáyhay
    inin sakit bido
    g̃a asáy tiónay
    sa kasigkasig ko.

    Abá Tig̃tig̃ abá Tig̃tig̃.
    ioli an akon sig̃sig̃.
    opayda kon logarig̃on,
    kondi kanan taklobauon.

    Akon iglilibaglibag̃
    inin kasákit sa doghan
    baman ha banig ig matag̃
    sakit ga magtitilógag̃.

    Kadto na, kadto na, kadto na soranga
    kadto na pag bilig̃ sin ibá g̃a gogma
    ayaw gad pag hig̃yap sin sogad sa akon
    asáy tig̃ohán maópay ga láyhon

    Kon boot ka mang̃asáwa
    inín barás pag pisia,
    di ka g̃ani makapisi
    pag toraw na la ganoli.

    Kon daw ha kasirig̃anon
    tobig ka g̃a irinómon
    diri sa dáhon pahonbon,
    pahónbon sa doghan nakon

    Kon bagá kahoy si lawas
    patay na, laya si dahon
    nanarig̃sig̃ sin kasákit
    namóg̃a sin kamatáyon

    Kap’atán ka tuig an akon paghig̃yap
    pag-imasisirig̃ sa imo, binórak.

    Han nákadto ka ha pantaw
    akon ka gintitinan-aw
    harápit ako matónaw
    sa dako g̃a pag kahidlaw

    Anó iní g̃a nádoróy
    kamasakit, kamakapoy,
    an lawas sogád sin káhoy
    g̃aginhaharoharópoy

    Bohi pa an bató g̃a pinamonakan
    didto la katikag̃ an karokayakan

    Pastilán ka kori san pag-ig̃irikan
    natag̃is si inday g̃a binabayáan,
    gabáy daw la habsan inín kalalawdan
    g̃a diri tomólin inín pagsarakyan

    Han nakadto ka ha lawdon
    akon ka gintinan-awon
    hapit kó ikaw karawton
    ha barás diri patonbon.

    Kon nag-iimót ka san imo kamathom
    san pag kamabaysay san imo pamayhon,
    bisan la an todló, an bohók, panapton
    kon asay somirag̃, maopay na nakon,

    Hiará ako magnawá
    magsakaysakay sa bará
    og didto ako hidagsa
    sa kam g̃awan g̃a tuna

    Katlóan ka tuig g̃a akon kahidlaw
    sogád ka sin tobig nakon ikaóhaw

    Kon baga ako si taro
    tonáw na sa pag kaálo;
    maopay si alimag̃o
    kay may pag kalonolóno

    Mga lagit, mga lagit,
    ¿háin daw dapít an sakit?....
    sa kalibótan waráy man
    sabáli sa panomdoman

    Sin pag kamamig̃aw sinín kakorolpon
    waráy god nabantad bis osá g̃a dahon
    bis an mg̃a tamsi sáhid mabidó an
    ¿say pa ba an tawo, di aipan gihapon?....

    Hinógay na intoy, siton pakalipog̃
    sin kinarokanhi sinin amon libog̃
    opayda kon hiro iton imo bayhon
    maamog̃ ka daw la sinín bantog namon


SUNDRY

    Adto na si adlaw
    linmoyó sa bokid,
    oli na, indayon,
    kay waray pa tóbig.

    Hi nonay g̃a kawayánon
    malobaylobay hag̃anon
    naglilinakat ha kógon
    hi hawak royokdoyókon.

    Itón imo baba
    g̃a nagyayabora
    g̃a nagyiyinákan
    sitón lonlun bowa;

    kon di ko kahadlok
    pághirót sin gaba
    pag-oonloton ko
    itón imo dila

    Akó magtotóon diri ko sasabwan
    mangad na maloto, diri ko sosog̃-an
    si akó mátimo di ko poporoton
    mangad na mabosóg, diri ko totolnon.

    Anó man in akon kon diin ka kadto,
    di mo la pag dad-on an tubig, kalayo:
    di mo mam binohi ini g̃a lawas ko
    tinmobo si inday kosóg san amáy ko.

    An tansman nimo mandig̃
    ginsisinólod san kand g̃
    an taranman nakikil g̃
    kay gin bobowad san baktin.

    ¿Ano ba, Dyos ko, an nakakasógad,
    an isda sa dagat g̃a nagkakalópad?...
    ¿ano ba, Dyos ko, iní ga nadoróy,
    inin katamsihan g̃a nagkakalag̃oy?...

    Kanogon pa daw la san imo katindog
    maópay si bayhon, maráot an bantog:
    igpapanag̃lit ko, bayabas g̃a hinóg,
    maópay an pánit, oloron an onód.

    Ambot daw ada maorán
    si dampog nag̃o odtóhan
    bisan la inin pag̃ánod
    doróyog tipailáwod

    Busa, bayái, balitaw,
    ayáw gad tood kay tíaw
    iní g̃a akon pagbolaw
    igpapahaoli g̃ahaw.

    Hilag̃kag kitá, hilag̃kag
    sinín palawán g̃a pankag
    kay bag̃in, idáy, makárag
    dó loktan sinín alámag.

    Makadí kamí maoli,
    maoli g̃a bagá diri,
    naghihiawil pa g̃ani
    san ka maopay sangawi

    An di ko iginpinólog̃
    an kabasólan in akon:
    si kahoy di mag torópog̃
    may balíko, may matadog̃

    Anó man in akon kon diín ka hanoy
    di mo la pagdad-on an tobig, an kahoy
    iní g̃a lawas ko g̃a makalolóoy
    tinmobo kan tatay, kan nanay g̃a iróy

    Diri ko kay yóbit, diri ko kay dayaw
    pamahonpáhon mo bagá may paráyaw;
    an imo pamálod pagkasadag̃ana,
    baga nagkokori an akon ginhawa.

    Ayáw gad hin tamay, ayáw gad hin yóbit
    kay magsáma man la inín aton pánit;
    an aton logárig̃ ginkakalainan,
    kay diri mag-osá inín aton g̃aran.

    Busa, bayái, bayái,
    bayái ayáw baliki,
    bisan dahon sin kamoti
    mabobohi kami dinhi.

    Abá Lolay, abá Lolay
    ligid ligid sinin baybay
    kon igkita ka sin away
    dalagan, ayaw papátay

    Makadí kami maoli
    sa baláy g̃a sinorambi
    bisan la mawaráy bóg̃bog̃
    maoli kay logarig̃on

    An di ko iginkinanta [109]
    an kabasolán onína;
    si kahoy di magsaráma
    may baliko, may balísa

    An akon pagkinantáhon[109]
    báyad san akon kináon;
    bisan la akó tog̃boyón
    g̃a diri oraoráhon.

    Nag sisirom na daw inín kakorolpon
    g̃atanán g̃a tamsi sa káhoy na hapon
    kitá man an tawo ga may isip domdom.
    máoli sa balay g̃a kalogarig̃on








NOTES ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY


It is beyond any question that most of the Filipino dialects are
derived from a common origin: the Malay tongue.

For this reason many Bisayan words are exactly the same in other
Filipino dialects, and many others bear some local dialectal
differences, thus always showing a common origin.

The following lists are short collections of such words.




WORDS EXACTLY THE SAME IN BISAYAN AND IN TAGALOG


A

Ako. [110]—I
Agaw.—To snatch
Ag̃lit.—A little pot
Amihan.—North wind
Anák.—son, daughter
Anino.—Shadow
Apo.—Grandson, grand-daughter
Apog.—Lime
Asawa.—Wife
Asín.—Salt
aswag̃.—Witch
Atáy.—Liver
Away.—Fight


B

Baboy.—Pig
Baga.—Red-hot
Bagá.—as, like
Baga.—Lung
Bagon.—To raise
Bantay.—Watch
Bantilis.—A kind of rock
Basa.—To read
Bata.—Child
Bató.—Stone
Bawi.—To recover
Bayabas.—Guava
Bayad.—Pay
Bayáw.—Brother-in-law
Boká.—Open, untied
Bokás.—Open
Bokó.—Knot
Bohók.—Hair
Bog̃a.—Fruit


K

Kabig.—Pull
Kahoy.—Tree, timber, wood
Kawayan.—Bamboo
Kilala.—To know
Koha.—Take
Kólag̃.—Insufficient
Kota.—Wall


D

Dagat.—Sea
Dahon.—Leave
Dalí.—Quick
Dila.—Tongue
Dogó.—Blood


I

Ibabaw.—Over
Ikaw.—Thou, you
Init.—Heat
Inóm.—Drink


H

Habagat.—West
Hagdan.—Staircase
Hayop.— Animal
Hiláw.—Unripe
Hínay.—Slow
Hinog.—Ripe
Hógas.—Wash


L

Labis.—Excess
Lakbay.—Go over
Lag̃aw.—Fly
Lag̃it.—Heaven, sky
Lalaki.—Male
Laway.—Saliva
Likod.—Back
Limá.—Five
Liwanag.—Clearness
Lokso.—Jump
Lohá.—Tear
Lorâ.—Spit
Lotò.—Cooked


M

Manók.—Chicken
Matá.—Eye
Matambók.—Fat
May.—There is, etc.
Maya.—A kind of bird


N

Nipá.—Nipá
Nipis.—Thinness
Nosuos.—To rub


O

Ogát.—Vein, nerve
Olo.—Head
Oo.—Yes
Opa.—Payment
Otag.—Debt
Owák.—Raven
Owáy.—Vine


P

Pakpak.—Applause with palms
Pait.—Bitterness
Palad.—Palm of the hand
Patay.—Kill
Pati.—Also, with
Patog̃.—To place over
Payog̃.—Umbrella
Paypay.—Fan
Pili.—A tree so called
Pili.—To select
Pingan.—Plate
Pitó.—Seven
Pokpok.—To beat
Pola.—Red
Posod.—Navel


S

Sa.—To, at, from, on, etc.
Sabaw.—Broth
Sakay.—To embark
Sakit.—Sickness
Sagig̃.—Banana
Saló.—Receive
Saway.—To correct
Sawsaw.—To wash
Siko.—Elbow
Sig̃ba.—To adore
Sili.—Pepper
Siyá.—He, she
Siyam.—Nine
Soka.—To vomit
Sog̃ay.—Horn
Solog̃.—Forward
Sonod.—Follow
Sonog.—Fire


T

Táas.—Height
Tabas.—To cut
Tadtad.—To prick
Tag̃is.—To weep
Tahí.—To sew
Timog.—South
Tiyán.—Belly
Tobâ.—A wine
Tobig.—Water
Tobó.—Sugar cane
Tobò.—Profit, to grow
Tohod.—Knee
Tohog.—To string
Tonóg.—Sound
Twad.—To face dawnwards


W

Waló.—Eight




WORDS WITH SOME DIALECTAL DIFFERENCES

Differences in the vowels i, o.


    BISAYAN   TAGALOG   ENGLISH

    Akon      Akin      my, mine
    Amon      Amin      our
    Aslom     Asim      acidity
    Aton      Atin      our
    Atóp      Atíp      roof
    Bitóon    Bitúin    star
    Bokog     Bikig     fish-bone, bone
    Bogás     Bigas     rice
    Bog-at    Bigat     weight
    Bolad     Bilad     to sun
    Bog̃ol    Big̃í     deaf
    Kan-on    Kanin     cooked rice
    Kaon      Kain      to eat
    Katol     Katí      to itch, itching
    Dámò      Dami      amount, much
    Datóg̃    Datig̃    to arrive
    Dokót     Dikit     to adhere, adhered
    Dolóm     Dilim     dark
    Gorót     Gilit     slice
    Hábol     Habi      to weave
    Harok     Halik     kiss, to kiss
    Hatod     Hatid     to accompany
    Horám     Hiram     to borrow
    Iuomon    Inumin    potable water
    Itom      Itim      black
    Liog      Liig      neck
    Pawod     Pawid     weaved nipa
    Salóg     Sahig     floor
    Sandig    Sandal    to lean
    Takóp     Takíp     cover
    Tanom     Tanim     plantation
    Taróm     Talim     edge of a sword, etc.
    Tindok    Tundok    a kind of banana
    Tindog    Tindig    to stand
    Tonok     Tiník     thorn


Differences in k, h, l, r, d, t.

    BISAYAN    TAGALOG    ENGLISH

    Adlaw      Araw       Sun, day
    Aram       Alam       Wisdom
    Badò       Barò       Chemise
    Balay      Bahay      House
    Balo       Bao        Widow, widower
    Balon      Baon       Provision
    Barahibo   Balahibo   Feather, dawn
    Bari       Bali       To break
    Bolan      Bwan       Moon, month
    Kagód      Káyud      To scrath
    Kalot      Kámot      To scratch
    Kamó       Kayó       You
    Koló       Kukú       Nail
    Dalan      Daan       Path, road
    Daraga     Dalaga     Young girl
    Digò       Ligò       To bath
    Dirì       Hindì      Not
    Hadì       Harì       King
    Halabà     Mahaba     Long
    Halarom    Malalim    Deep
    Harayò     Malayò     Far
    Higdà      Higà       To lay down
    Iróg       Ilog̃      Nose
    Lakát      Lakad      To walk
    Lawod      Láot       Ocean
    Mahínis    Malinis    Clean
    Namok      Lamok      Mosquito
    Napolo     Sampù      Ten
    Parabol    Palaboy    Favor, grace
    Pirit      Pilit      To force
    Poro       Pulò       Island
    Roag̃      Lwag̃      Broad
    Salod      Sahod      To receive
    Sarapati   Kalapati   Pigeon
    Sarowal    Salawal    Pants
    Sira       Sila       They
    Sirag̃     Silag      To appear
    Sirog̃     Silog̃     Beneath
    Sodlay     Suklay     Comb
    Sorat      Sulat      Letter
    Sorok      Sulok      Corner
    Talig̃a    Taig̃a     Ear
    Tarog̃     Talog̃     A plant
    Torò       Tulò       Drop
    Torog      Tulog      To sleep
    Toktok     Togtog     To sound, to play


Differences in the accent, and in the separation of the syllables.

    BISAYAN   TAGALOG   ENGLISH

    Bálik     Balík     to come back
    Kohà      Kuha      to take
    Gaód      Gáod      oar
    Hipág     Hípag     sister-in-law
    Laón      Láon      old, ancient
    Sábay     Sabáy     simultaneous
    Tawá      Táwa      laugh
    Kab-it    Kabít     connected
    Kam-aw    Kamao     a dish
    Kan-on    Kanin     cooked rice
    Koan      Kwán      so and so
    Gab-i     Gabí      evening, night
    Sab-a     Sabá      a kind of banana
    Sab-it    Sabit     to hook
    Tan-aw    Tanaw     to look
    Tig-a     Tigás     hardness
    Tul-id    Twid      straight


Transformation from a to o, and viceversa.

    Alapoop   Alapaap   cloud, fog
    Kamót     Kamay     hand
    Doha      Dalawá    two
    Habobò    Mababà    low
    Sokól     Sukat     measure
    Toló      Tatlo     three
    Onóm      Anim      six
    Opat      Apat      four
    Otok      Utak      brain








NOTES


[1] We write Bisayan, and not Visayan for the reason, among others,
that there is no V or sound of V in our dialect, and that there seems
to be no necessity for changing in English the B of the original Bisayâ
into V.

[2] A commitee has been found lately in Manila for this purpose.

[3] According to the nature of the Bisayan dialect and according to
what some Filipino philologists have written, Rizal among them,
referring to the dialects in the Philippines, the letters of the
Bisayan language must be the following:

a, b, d, e, g, g̃, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, y, w.

As it can be noticed, the letters c, f, j, ñ, q, v, x and z are omitted
from the preceding list, and g̃ and w are introduced. The reason for
this is as follows:

    c, in its sound as in city, can be substituted by the letter s;
    and, in its sound like c in cup, it can be substituted by k.
    f is never used in Bisayan.
    j, in its Spanish sound, can be substituted by h, which has an
    aspirate pronunciation in Bisayan in all cases. In Bisayan, there
    is no sound like that of the English j; however, in some places on
    the western and southern coasts of Leyte, the y is pronounced like
    the English j, as in maayo (pronounced mah-ah-joh) good.
    The Spanish letter ñ, or a sound like it, can be written in Bisayan
    more properly with the combination of these two letters ny, as in
    minyo (pr. mean-yo) married.
    q is not necessary, since the k can be used in all cases, where q
    is needed. The phrase quiquilàon co (I shall see it) can be
    perfectly written kikiláon ko.
    v is never used in Bisayan.
    x, in its Spanish sound, can be substituted by ks; and, in its
    English sounds, it can be substituted by gs or ks, respectively.
    z, in either its English or its Spanish sound, is never used in
    Bisayan.
    The g̃ is for the nasal sound that is very often used in Bisayan,
    like the ng in song, longing. The g is preferable to the
    combination ng̃, which would sometimes lead to confusion; because
    this combination ng in Bisayan, is not pronounced as one letter, in
    many instances, but each of these letters is pronounced; as, for
    example, the word bug̃a (fruit), if written bunga, should sound
    booong-ghah, which means to dart or to be darted.
    w is needed in all cases of sounds like Spanish dipthongs; but it
    must be used in Bisayan always as a consonant, never as a vowel.

Notwithstanding the preceding considerations, the orthography used in
this book is the old one, but simplified to a certain extent, on
account of the fact that this alphabet (if it can be properly called an
alphabet, it having no f or sound of f) is not yet used, even known,
but by very few persons among the Bisayan speaking people.

It would be very desirable for the people to adopt the new orthography
proposed in this note, because it is evidently more simple and proper
for the particular nature of the Bisayan dialect.

A study of the method of reducing the number of Bisayan vowels is also
to be desired, as it seems that not more than three are needed, to wit:
a, e or i, o or u.

The nature of the Bisayan tongue argues for such a simplicity. Dr. T.H.
Pardo de Tavera, referring to the ancient Filipino alphabet, says: “The
alphabet was composed of seventeen letters, three of which were vowels.
A consonant standing alone was always pronounced with an a sound
following; by the use of a dot or dash near and above the consonant
stem, in much the same fashion as is used in certain systems of
shorthand, instead of the sound of the a, the sound of the vowels e or
i was produced: when the dot or dash was placed below the consonant
stem the vowel sound given was equivalent to o or u.” (See Census of
the Philippine Islands: 1903 Volume One, page 327).

[4] In most of the towns of the island of Sámar, such separation as
well as that by apostrophe is frequently disregarded, this being one of
the most noticeable differences between the Sámar and Leyte dialects.

[5] See the note on the first page of this book. This is one of the
facts that urge the adoption of a more logical alphabet (?) for the
Bisayan tongue.

[6] Except o and u when used as consonants, their function then being
properly that of a w.

[7] The author believes that it is better to adopt these contractions
than to invent others of Bisayan origin for the reason that they afford
signs universally understood, and because every tongue has a tendency
to assimilate such universal signs.

[8] We do not write “Dios”, because it would be pronounced Di-os.—See
“Vowels”, supra.

[9] The use of s instead of the h, in these articles, depends upon the
place where Bisayan is spoken. In the towns of Burawen, Dúlag and
Abúyog, of the island of Leyte, and in some places in Sámar, the h is
never used, but the s instead for these articles. Generally, it is
considered more solemn to use the s instead of the h, in speeches,
letters and poetry. But many times it is considered as a ridiculous
affectation, in places where the h is used.

It will be noted that, in some instances, the Bisayan people show a
tendency to change the aspirate sound of the h, or soft sound of the
Spanish j, into s. So in olden times, the name Juan was pronounced
Suan; Jueves was pronounced Suebes; and from the Spanish jugar, they
made the Bisayan word sugal, which is still in use.

[10] See “Contractions”, supra. As it is seen, the m is for ma. This
contraction shows exactly the way in which the Bisayan original letters
were used. It is simply the ancient way of writing preserved after the
adoption of the Spanish letters.

[11] This diminutive as well as the preceding does not need to be
accented with grave and angular accent, as originally, first, because
such accents are onlv used at the ending of the words (see the rule,
page 3), and second, because the suspended guttural suund of the last
vowel of its primitive is in some way preserved by means of the
separation with which the vowels oa are pronounced (see “Vowel”, page
5)

[12] But if the primitive is mapulá, the diminutive will be mapulapula,
as will be noted later.

[13] In some places in Leyte and Samar, this particle is hi, not ha,
where it is said  hibobò, hilipot, hilabà, hitáas. But, in my opinion,
it is simply a result of confounding the particle ma which is more
proper for adjectives as it bears the idea of abundance, with the
personal article hi with which it is thus intended to personify the
abstract ideas of bobò, lipat, labà, táas.

[14] It has also the regular form “halabáay”.

[15] This is a metathesis of “dacoalay”, by the transposition of the
liquid consonant l; and this l in “dacoalay” has been substituted, for
phonetical reason, for the y of “dacoayay”, which is the diminutive of
“dacoay” not used.

[16] It seems that this diminutive is the contraction of “gutiay nya
durò”; it is not strictly a diminutve, it is a superlative.

[17] Transformed from bobonbòbon.

[18] We do not write can-on, because it is a contraction of caran’on,
which is also contracted from caraonón.

[19] See “Comparative” and “Collective”, infra.

[20] The last u is not a vowel properly; it should be the consonant w.
See notes on pages 1 and 5 of this book.

[21] It also means anxiety for dancing. So from isóg (to enrage), it is
said: “daco it ac isogón” (contracted from irisogón), my rage is great.

[22] The second syllable of the combined prefix is sometimes doubled to
make the sentence more emphatic.

[23] Interfix is there used to designate the particle placed within a
word.

[24] Such is the name of the present capital of the province of Leyte.
According to a tradition, this name originated from the fact that
before the town was formed, a point of the eastern coast of its present
site was known as a place where fishes were taken from the sea by a
bamboo instrument, like a cover called taclob.

[25] It is the name of one of the most important towns in Leyte,
located on the eastern coast of said island. Also according to a
tradition, in the southwestern part of the present site of that town,
before the town was built, there was a large tall tree, from whose
prominent branches the people used to watch (tan-ao) the Moros from
Sulu, when invading the coasts of Leyte.—The last o of this tan-ao is
properly the consonat w.

[26] From lolodhanan from lolohodanan, where the ó is suppressed, and
the h and d, transposed, for phonetical reasons.

[27] As when we say: “macaoncaón iní ng̃a bayábas” (this guava is
inviting). The idea of fondness sometimes takes the same form, as
“macaoncaón ini ng̃a sorogóon” (this servant is fond of eating
surreptitiously). This form is also used for impersonal verbs, as will
be seen later, as: “macaoncáon na” (I have appetite already).

[28] I say “is”, because this combination ng̃ is properly one letter in
Bisayan, which should be called ng̃a, as anciently.

[29] This is also a verbal of sapód (to gather).

[30] The particle hi sometimes with the verbs and especially among the
derivative nouns conveys the idea of “payment for”, as when from the
verbs budlay (to tire one’s self), salacáy, (to embark), and the nouns
apóy (grandfather or grandmother), púsod (navel), it is said: himudlay
(any thing given as in payment of any work);—hinálacay (payment for
passage);—hingapóy (a present given to a grandfather or grandmother
upon the the marriage of his or her grand daughter under the
consideration of the former’s being the grandfather or grandmother of
the latter);—himósod (present given to the midwife for cutting and
attending to the navel of a new-born child).

[31] We use a hyphen in this word on account of the angular accent of
the last o of the first verb.

[32] When the brothers or sisters referred to are more than two, then
the interfix r is used, as magburugtò.

[33] The second u must be the consonant w.

[34] This is the modern way of pronouncing this word. The old way
consisted in making two syllables out of this word, and according to
that pronounciation, it is written Diyos (prouounced Di-yos), not Dyos.

[35] See “Hi”, under the heading “Verbal” supra.

[36] See note 2 on page 20.

[37] So we say dolúo-ha-Sulúg, which means a medicinal plant (duláo)
from (ha) Sulu (Sulúg).

[38] See “an, on” under the heading of “Verbal”, page 15 supra.

[39] From paladan, the d having been solved into r.

[40] It is believed that the name of one of the towns of Leyte, called
by the Spaniards “Burauen” and, by the natives, “Burauón”, has been
originated from burabáron (Contracted and made Burauón), on account of
the fact that there are many fountains in that place. There is no
reason why the native name “Burauón” used by the natives until the
present time should not be employed for all uses, the u of said word
being replaced by the w, if the letters proposed in the note of the
first page of this book are adopted.

[41] This word does not follow the rule. For phonetical reasons, in its
formation an h is used and it is made maasinhanon contracted maasinhon
instead of maasinánon which is the regular form.

[42] The natives, especially the low people pronounce   Mericá instead
of America; mericano instead of the Spanish “americano” for American.

[43] The name Calyarâ (native name of the town of Carigara, Leyte) has
been probably originated from Cangara (placed of one called Garâ). A
similar explanation might be given for the formation of the names
Calbigà and Calbáyog (towns of Sámar).

    Besides the particle can the pronoun hira was probably used for
    similar cases. We think that the word Hiraite (Bisayan name of the
    word Leyte, applied to a town of the island of the same name) is
    formed by the said pronoun hirá and Ite. probably the name of the
    ancient owners of that place.

[44] Mano and mana are probably a corruption of the Spanish “hermano,”
“hermana.”

[45] See page 12 et seq. of this book.

[46] The word capin sogóng, uraura, in some localities are replaced by
the Spanish word duro (hard). So they say “duro ca maopay”, maópay ng̃a
duro, or maopay hin duro (very good). It is proper to adopt foreign
words when there are not words coresponding in Bisayan, but we do not
see why the pure Bisayan words should be forgotten when they are
expressive, pure and original. The preposition cundí (but) is suffering
the same fate, by the introduction of the Spanish pero.

[47] Instead of uraura, the word masiado, a corruption of the Spanish
demasiado, is much in use. Read the preceeding note.

[48] It must be noted that the accent in the superlative is on the last
syllable, masiromstróm, while in the dimunitive (which has exactly the
same form, except the accent) the accent is upon the pennit,
masiromsírom. The meaning is different in the phrases masiromsírom pa,
and masiromsiróm pa; the first means “it is a dark yet”; the second “it
is very dark yet”.

[49] The Bisayan cardinal show that the original system of Bisayan
people in counting was the decimal. So napulo is a compound word from
na (made) and pulò (pile, island). Napulo means “one pile made”,
wherefrom the decimal system clearly shows.

[50] This word cag (and) is used in the island of Panay, but not in
Sámar or Leyte where ngan, ug are employed for the said conjunction.

    In the southern part of Leyte it is said: napala ug osá.

[51] A collective noun formed by the prefix ca and the primitive duha
whose d is transformed into r, and by the affix an. It means the
reunion of two piles.

[52] There seems to be no doubt that this word ribo has the same origin
as the Tagalog “libo”; but each one has a different meaning: while the
Bisayan libo means ten thousand, the Tagalog libo means only one
thousand. To express ten thousand, the Tagalogs have the word lacsá.

[53] This word may have been derived from lagtuc which means the
swelling of a thing due to dampness, humidity, or water.

[54] An onomatopoetic word bearing the idea of littleness.

[55] An onomatopoetic word meaning a thing that makes noise (caradul).

[56] As it will be seen later there are despective verbs, as; of lacat
(to walk) laag; of yacán (to talk), yaquimbot.

[57] See page 31 of this book.

[58] These nouns are originated, in our opinion, from Spanish. See the
note on pape 31. supra.

[59] We also believe that these nouns are Spanish.

[60] See “Collective,” supra.

[61] This is the origin of “Borong̃an” a town on the eastern coast of
the island of Samar, on account of the fact that during certain epoch
of the year, that place is more or less covered with fog.

[62] See “Vowels”, page 5 of this book.

[63] See “Rule”, page 3 of this book.

[64] However, the correct and proper form is the first, Panalaron, a
verbal derived from panalad a plural infinitive of the verb pagsálad
which means “to sound”. The said suburb of Tacloban, it is believed
took this name from the fact that, anciently, the people used to sound
(panálad) in such place which was then covered by the sea.

[65] Quita means “we”, the listener included; camí means “we”, the
listener excluded.

[66] Only used after the verb.

[67] Hiyá and siyá are the same. See the note 2 on page 7 of this book.
The same may be said about hirá and sirá.

[68] Contracted from ni (of) and ácon (mine).

[69] Contracted from da and ácon. This particle da is used in some
places as equivalent to the preposition ha or the contraction han. So
in Carigata, Leyte, they say dahani (at old times), instead of hanhaní
used in Tacloban and other towns of Leyte. The forms damon, daton,
dimo, diyo, diya, dira have the same explanation.

[70] Quita is frequently used for “acó”, as when we say tagui quitá hin
salapî, (give me money), instead of tagui aco hin salapî.

[71] See “Personal pronouns” page 47.

[72] See the note 2 on page 7. We use apostrophe and not hyphen,
because hin’o, sin’o are contracted from hi ano and si ano.

[73] However in this form in which the substantive precedes the
adjective the suppression of ng̃a is permissible in poetry.

[74] This is another irregularity of the pronoun quita. Here it is
equivalent to nimo; but this last form is inadmissible in such phrase,
naton being the special pronoun for the same.

[75] In Dulag and other places of Leyte, this word is pronounced
didínhi.

[76] See “Other classes of verbs”, infra.

[77] See “Potential Form”, infra.

[78] In Basay, Sámar the m is frequently suppressed, the first vowel
becoming long on account of said suppression. So they say there:
sínurat, ínabot.

[79] This form is taken from the subjunctive, as in the Spanish
language.

[80] In the towns of Dúlag, Burauen, and Abúyog, of the island of
Leyte, these forms are always contracted, the first syllable of the
verb so formed becoming long on account of the said contraction. Thus
it is said in the mentioned places: nágsurat instead of nagsúsurat.

[81] See the note on page 65.

[82] See the note on page 63.

[83] See page 65 et. seq.

[84] It is not doubled some places, See note on page 65.

[85] See page 64 et seq.

[86] It is not doubled some localities. See note on page 65.

[87] See page 61.

[88] See page 65.

[89] See page 68.

[90] See page 62 et seq.

[91] See page 68.

[92] See page 69.

[93] The translation made in those conjugations is literal. We try to
express in English the exact idea contained in these forms.

[94] See note on page 65.

[95] See page 70 et seq.

[96] See page 71.

[97] Page 61 of this book.

[98] The future of this form is the same as in the regular Tagalog
form, where it is said susulat aco (I shall write), bucas aco susulat
(tomorrow I shall write).

[99] See page 61.

[100] In Dúlag and other places of Leyte, the accent is transposed to
the penult. So it is said: dididâ, etc.

[101] See the page 10.

[102] This conjunction is seldom used, at present, for the disjunctive
or. The English or and the Spanish o are difficult to translate into
Bisayan with cun. For this reason the Spanish o is frequently employed
in Bisayan, as well as in Tagalog for the English or.

[103] It also conveys the idea of “Saying”, as in the example: nasiring
an catsila, ngalaong: “págame”, abi tapa: “bayari acó”.

[104] There is another, viz: susmaryosep or susmarosèp the corrupted
Spanish “Jesús, María y José”.

[105] The fact that there are three classes of passive voice in Bisayan
show the great importance of the said voice in this tongue. Thus if we
wish to say “I love you”, it is more expressive to say: hinihigugma co
icao (literally: you are loved by me) than to say: nahigugma aco ha
imo.

[106] In Bisayan, there is no construction similiar to that of the
English tongue, consisting in putting the subject in the objective
case, and its verb in the infinitive: which is an exact Latin syntax,
as

                    he wishes me to come
                    Ille vult me venire

Such sentence is expressed in Bisayan with the aid of the conjunction
ng̃a, the subject in nominative case, and the verb in subjunctive mood,
thus

caruyag niya ng̃a acó camánhi.

[107] See “Foreign words necessarily adopted in Bisayan”, infra.

[108] We do not refer to those Chinese words imported to Philippines
with Chinese objects. Such words are to be kept necessarily in Bisayan,
because their equivalent vernacular expressions, either are lost, or
never existed.

[109] Derived from the Spanish “cantar” (to sing)

[110] A: We use in these lists the orthography proposed in the first
page of this book, as an orthography practically the same is now being
much used in Tagalog. But we employ only three vowels: a, i, o.