LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS

                  [Illustration: CRYSTAL OF SAPPHIRE

                                CEYLON

                              Exact size.

                          HAMLIN COLLECTION]




                          LEISURE HOURS AMONG
                               THE GEMS


                                  BY

                          AUGUSTUS C. HAMLIN

                AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON THE TOURMALINE
   FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
     MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF NORTHERN EUROPE
                      CHEVALIER OF ST. ANNE, ETC.

 “Now in matter of the knowledge of the works of nature, I would
 have thee give thyself curiously; so that there be no sea, river,
 nor fountain of which thou dost not know the fishes; all the fowls
 of the air; all the metals that are hid within the bowels of the
 earth; together with the precious stones that are to be seen in the
 east and south of the world. Let nothing of all these be unknown to
 thee.”--RABELAIS.

                          BOSTON AND NEW YORK
                     HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
                    The Riverside Press, Cambridge
                                 1891




                          _Copyright, 1884_,
                        BY AUGUSTUS C. HAMLIN.

                        _All rights reserved._


           _The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A._
                 Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.




                              DEDICATION.

                            [Illustration]


     _Whatever of interest or value there is to be found in these
                     pages is earnestly inscribed_

                             To the Memory

                                  OF

                       JEAN ANDRÉ DE PEYSONNEL,

_who ventured to announce to the men of science of the Royal Academies
 of Europe in the eighteenth century that the_ CORAL _was the product
 of animal life, and not of vegetable growth. In answer to his simple
 discovery and honest declaration, the naturalist was met with a storm
of contempt and derision that eventually wrecked his happiness and his
                                life._




                               CONTENTS.


                                                                    PAGE

  THE DIAMOND                                                         13

  THE EMERALD                                                        285

  THE OPAL                                                           335

  THE SAPPHIRE                                                       367




                             THE DIAMOND.




  Le diamant: c’est l’art des choses idéales
  Et ces rayons d’argent, d’or, de pourpre, et d’azur
  Ne cessent de lancer les deux lueurs égales
  De pensers les plus beaux, de l’amour le plus pur.
  Il porte du génie et transmet les empruntes,
  Oui, de ce qui survit aux nations éteintes,
  C’est lui le plus brillant trésor et le plus dur.

  ALFRED DE VIGNY.




                     LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS.




                              CHAPTER I.

                             THE DIAMOND.


The advice of Rabelais quoted on our titlepage indicates sound
judgment, if not a glimmer of prophetic feeling; but we doubt very much
whether the quaint philosopher had any conception of its extent and
scope when he gave it. Could the queer, sceptical old fellow return
to earth again after his long quiet sleep of almost four centuries,
how astonished would he appear at the revelations of the students
who have followed his suggestion during the last century even! And
yet in reality how little has been revealed to the limited vision of
man, compared with the vast resources of nature still unexplored and
shrouded in mystery. In enumerating the precious stones among the
works of nature worthy of the contemplation and earnest study of man,
Rabelais not only exhibited a prophetic discernment, but he disclosed
the fancies which invested these mineral objects in his day and in
earlier times, and which have in a measure descended to the present
era, and still exert some influence.

The study of the gems is one of the most interesting of all the
objects of natural history; and although the field of research appears
somewhat limited at first glance, the scene expands as we advance,
and we are soon lost in the beauty and mystery of the subject, which
as yet no man has been fully able to comprehend and explain. It is
commonly understood that this study is simply a matter of commerce,
or belonging to the province of the jeweller or the mineralogist. But
the subject is really of far greater importance. Several of the ablest
of our philosophers have been deeply interested in this pursuit, and
have revealed to us startling phenomena, many of which have been turned
greatly to the aid of science and the comfort of mankind. After so many
years of study and research, the field of observation and discovery is
by no means exhausted.

We may take another view of the subject solely with the artistic eye,
and find much for enjoyment and contemplation. In the art of ancient
times the precious stones played an important part, and by means of the
engraved gems we are enabled to form an idea of the wonderful skill
of the artists of those periods. By means of these engraved stones
the portraits of many of the illustrious characters of antiquity have
been preserved, and also representations of some of the masterpieces
of sculpture, which have since been destroyed by time or the hand of
barbarism. If the reader, exercising a little credulity and patience,
will kindly follow me through the observations of many years here
condensed and recorded, he may in a slight degree partake of some of
the enthusiasm and interest of the author.

But, before we proceed very far on the pleasant and seductive journey,
let us understand each other, and, above all, allow the author to
confess that his knowledge of the subject is decidedly imperfect, and
perhaps somewhat visionary at times.

We will consider first the diamond, not because we regard it the
foremost in interest among minerals, but because it is to-day reckoned
commercially, as it was in the time of the Latin philosopher, Pliny,
nearly two thousand years ago, “Maximum in rebus humanis,”--“The most
costly of human possessions.” But we must, however, slightly modify
the remark, and now apply it to the rare colored varieties of the gem,
since commerce and refined taste rank the red sapphire far above the
colorless diamond in value, and sometimes even the emerald and rare
blue sapphires exceed it in price. It is interesting, and at times
amusing, to read the views of the ancient gem-writers, and even those
of mediæval times, relating to this remarkable mineral, and compare
them with the accepted opinions of the present day. The ancients were
completely ignorant of the nature of the stone, and called it “adamas,”
or the invincible, from the mistaken idea that it could resist all
external violence, and was also perfectly indestructible. Modern
science, however, has disclosed the fact that the gem is not only quite
delicate in its structure, but that it is also utterly perishable in
its nature. The revelations of chemistry have clearly demonstrated that
the glittering stone, known as the diamond, is simply crystallized
carbon, and one of the allotropic forms of that protean element which,
by the aid of some mysterious agency, can deposit its substance in
the shape of a sooty blackness, as in the coal, or in the transparent
crystal of diamond, which may be regarded as the very emblem of light.
Furthermore, the gem is not only the concentrated embodiment of human
valuation, but it is also the standard of hardness among all mineral
substances; and yet, strange to say, plumbago, which apparently is of
the same composition, is exactly the reverse, and quite as soft as talc.

Here, then, we may behold one of the strangest antitheses to be seen
in the whole mineral kingdom, for we have a simple and singular
mineral composed of the meanest of elements, yet whose different forms
illustrate the extremes of hardness, and may also be considered to
represent the antipodes of material treasures.

The crystallized and transparent variety, when it occurs in its
greatest perfection, and especially with the rare colors of red, blue,
and green, forms indeed the most beautiful of all the decorative stones
yet known to man. For it not only far exceeds all others in degree of
hardness, but it also surpasses them in its extraordinary brilliancy
and the wonderful display of the prismatic colors, especially by
artificial light, which charm it alone possesses of all the gems and
precious stones.

Although it is widely distributed over the world, and has been known
to man for many centuries, yet its distribution, its deposition, its
geological age, are not only puzzling themes to the mineralogist, but
they are yet subjects of startling interest to the philosopher.

The origin of the stone has long been a subject of inquiry among
experimentalists, and it has received more attention from them than
all the other gems reckoned together. As for our humble opinion, after
long consideration of this multitude of hypotheses, we are inclined
to assert the diamond to be the product of decomposition of vegetable
material, and derived from one of the numerous chemical compounds of
carbon and hydrogen. We find some of these forms generated wherever
vegetable matter is decomposed under water, and in the gem strata of
the diamond placers we may observe abundant evidence of material for
metamorphosis. If we admit the origin of the gem to be from vegetable
matter, or derived from any transformations of organic débris, we then
reduce the history of the diamond to a simple problem; for it is quite
easy to explain, or rather imagine, the required chemical change under
the action of electricity or telluric magnetism, and all along the true
gem formations the phenomena of the earth’s vitality in this respect
are remarkable.

Carbon is commonly mentioned as the meanest of elements, yet, when
we come to consider its bearing in the mineral kingdom, and its
vast relations in human industry, or its effect in the progress of
civilization, it deserves a higher rank, or certainly a more generous
classification among the constituents of the earth. For it not only
occurs in various states in the air, the sea, and the more solid
portions of the earth, but we find it an essential ingredient in the
structure of all animal and vegetable life. It is really one of the
most interesting and important of the elementary bodies, and may
present itself in a variety of allotropic forms of remarkable and
striking character. To its combination in the mineral substance known
as coal the world owes its greatest blessing, save the golden grains
Triptolemus gave to mankind. From its purest and crystallized form art
derives its richest and most dazzling object of ornamentation. Without
it the globe would soon become desolate and all organic life cease to
exist.

In contemplating the transcendent beauties of the purest of its states,
the observer can hardly realize that between the sparkling diamond and
the black, lustreless mineral known as graphite, there is only the
difference in the arrangement of their invisible atoms. Yet, so far
as we know at the present day, the two objects are apparently of the
same composition, differing only in their system of crystallization.
The first we recognize as the perfection of natural beauty, the
concentration of brilliancy, and the standard of limpidity, while the
other is directly the opposite in its effects and relations. The
diamond, when exposed to sufficient heat, parts with its wonderful
beauty and disappears, leaving only a minute trace of seemingly
carbonized matter.

It often perplexes the student in chemistry to explain the varied
forms and the different properties of substances having apparently
the same composition. It is not especially in the mineral kingdom
that he meets with these strange anomalies, but his mystery becomes
intensified when attempting to solve the problems of organic life. For
instance, in seeking to explain the odors of vegetable substances,
he finds that ten parts of carbon and sixteen of hydrogen appear to
form the sole constituents of many perfumes,--like the oil of lemons,
lavender, turpentine, etc. And yet, with the elements known, he not
only finds himself unable to combine them artificially so as to produce
the perfumes, or explain satisfactorily why bodies possessing the same
constituent parts exhale odors so different.

Among all these investigations and reasonings the question comes
forcibly to the mind, why was the gem created, and has the day gone by
when the conditions required for its formation no longer exist? With
due respect to the phenomena connected with the crystallization and
deposition of metals and minerals at the present time, we cannot answer
this inquiry hastily.

We may affirm, perhaps, that nature possesses the power to form the
diamond to-day, but are the conditions requisite for its evolution
present and complete? We will not now attempt to discuss the arguments
bearing upon this interesting theme; but we will, however, modestly
state that it is our belief that the diamond is the last gem placed
upon the earth, and that the period of its deposition was subsequent
to the introduction of some of the higher forms of animal life on the
globe, and, possibly, since the appearance even of man.




                              CHAPTER II.

                  ANTIQUITY OF THE DIAMOND AS A GEM.


It is quite certain that the diamond is not one of the earliest gems
known to man, and the facts of the stone not having been found among
the ruins of Nineveh or Bassora, the Etruscan sepulchres, or the
jewels of the ancient tombs of the Phœnicians of the island of Cyprus,
recently explored by Di Cesnola, afford strong presumptive evidence
that its discovery dates within historic times. As the gem in its
natural state is not often finely crystallized with smooth planes
and perfect transparency, like the limpid crystals of quartz, it was
probably long overlooked by man, and its adoption in the decorative
arts preceded by the bright-colored and softer stones. The rough
crystals are not attractive when placed in comparison with many other
gems, and their degree of hardness, coupled with their rarity, probably
gave them their value among the ancients. We are inclined to think that
their use was governed by the fancy of the rich and powerful nobles,
and that the emerald and the blue and red stones took precedence in the
selection of gems until the art of polishing was discovered.

In the time of Pliny the stone was acquired only by the richest of
kings; and in the days of Alexander Severus, in the third century, it
was remarkable for its price, while the emerald was estimated for its
beauty. Lollia, at the Banquet of Caligula, glittering with the spoils
of Asia Minor, of fabulous value, did not wear the diamond, so far as
we can ascertain.

There is evidence to lead to the presumption that the gem was regarded
in the early periods more of a curiosity possessing talismanic powers
than as an ornamental stone. The famous crown of Chosroes, made in the
latter part of the sixth century, and brought to light by Shah Abbas
after a thousand years of concealment in an obscure fortress among the
mountains of Lauristan, does not contain diamonds among its ornaments,
but is incrusted with pearls and rubies.

The absence of the stone in this royal tiara, constructed at this early
period of time, is certainly significant, and indicates that it was not
high in estimation, or that the art of polishing in a definite manner,
so as to reveal the hidden splendors of the gem, had not then been
discovered.

The early practice of polishing the natural faces of the crystal did
not reward the patient lapidary by a corresponding increase of beauty.
Hence we can explain the setting of rough diamonds in mediæval times
long after the process of polishing had been discovered and put in
practice by the Orientals.

The crown of the Khan of the Tatars, captured on the Oxus by the
Persians in the fifth century, is described as being ornamented with
several thousand pearls, but there is no allusion to any stones
resembling diamonds; yet the Tatars had undoubted access to the
commercial marts of India.

The cup of Chosroes I., of the seventh monarchy of Persia, and which
is still extant, is composed of small disks of colored glass united
by a gold setting, and having at the bottom a crystal engraved with
the figure of the monarch. This royal relic is destitute of diamonds.
When the treasures of the Persian palace of Dastagherd were captured
in the seventh century, no mention of the diamond was made in the
enumeration of the articles. Among them were the famous throne of gold
called “Takdis,” supported on feet composed of rubies; also the crown
formed of a thousand huge pearls. If diamonds were abundant at this
period, why do we not find them among the decorations of the royal
jewels? Macondi, however, says that the Sassanian king had nine seals
of office, the first of which was a diamond with a ruby centre, bearing
the portrait, name, and titles of the monarch.

The sacred standard of Persia, the famous “durn-foh-Kawani,” or
leathern apron of the blacksmith Kawak, which was eighteen feet long
by twelve feet broad, was richly adorned with silk and the finest
gems when it was captured by the Arabs in 636, at the great battle of
Cadesia. Its value was then estimated at $150,000, but the diamond is
not mentioned among its ornaments, and if it had been abundant we
might expect to see it prominently displayed among the decorations.
However, we must admit that many of these historical descriptions
are very incorrect, and often partake largely of the nature of the
fabulous. And so, in the description of the capture of Ctesiphon by the
Arabs in the seventh century, the historian states that vast quantities
of gems and precious stones and treasures of wondrous beauty, of more
than one hundred millions of dollars in value were obtained. Among the
descriptions of the articles comprised in this immense booty we fail to
find any allusion to the diamond, and yet we know that the gem was not
unknown to Persians at that time.

To give the reader an idea of the magnificent tastes of the Persian
nobles at that period, we will mention some of the articles captured at
this time by the freebooters of the desert.

A wonderful carpet woven of white brocade is described as being one of
the marvels of the world. It was four hundred and fifty feet long by
ninety feet in breadth, and exhibited a border worked in with precious
stones of various hues to represent a garden of all kinds of beautiful
flowers. The leaves were formed of emeralds and other green colored
stones, while the buds and blossoms were composed of pearls, rubies,
sapphires, and other gems of immense value.

The captured robe of state was thickly embroidered with the most
beautiful rubies and pearls. The arms, helmets, and scimetars found
in the royal treasury fairly flashed with the gleams of the rarest
precious stones, so thickly were they incrusted over the metal.
At a later period of the monarchy the Sassanian kings adorned the
paraphernalia of their courts to a degree of magnificence which is
almost incredible. Some of the coins and sculptures yet extant have
preserved faithful representations of their luxury in dress. Many of
the robes were beautifully embroidered and covered with gems and pearls.

The royal crown at this period, it appears, was not worn by the
monarch, but was suspended from the ceiling in the throne-room directly
over the king’s head when seated on the throne.

Theophrastus, a Greek writer living three centuries before the
Christian era, does not mention the gem in a clear and distinct manner.
It is true he alludes to adamas, but it is now thought by several
mineralogists that this term was then applied to steel and some of the
varieties of corundum. The descriptions of the splendid fêtes given
by the army of Alexander at this period, when the wealth of India and
Persia was brought forth to deck the Persian maidens, do not mention
the diamond.

At this period, and even in later times, the royal insignia and the
emblems of Persian authority were such as wreaths and vines of pure
gold laden with flowers and clusters composed chiefly of emeralds,
rubies, carbuncles, and other bright-colored gems, but not including
the adamas. Of like description were those famous canopies under which
the ancient potentates of Persia sat and gave their audiences.

Pliny, three centuries later, was the first to describe the gem in
unmistakable terms, but even then but very little of a definite
character was known of it.

The Romans had access at an early period to the gem-producing
countries. Ceylon and India had long been known to the Roman merchants,
and their caravans traversed entire Asia from the coast of Syria to
the Chinese ocean in two hundred and forty-three days. Their fleets
sailed regularly in the time of Claudian from the Red Sea to Ceylon,
Coromandel, and Malabar. Ceylon was then famous for its luminous
carbuncles and the lustre of its pearls. The famous fairs of Armenia
and Nisbis, which attracted the merchants of Asia, also furnished the
Romans with many of their luxuries. There certainly were no serious
obstacles to the introduction of the gem into the bazaars of the
wealthy nations of the Mediterranean in early times and subsequent
periods if it was then an article of commerce.

With the ancient history of the gem there is also a remarkable fact to
be considered in its study,--its diminutive size. It is believed by
many antiquaries that the diamonds known or used by the Romans were
well-defined octahedral crystals, of not over four or four and a half
karats weight. It may be stated in reply that the exportation of larger
gems may have been forbidden by the Hindoo rulers, as we have seen in
later times concerning the rubies found in Burmah. But we place but
little confidence in this objection. Large and fine gems, had they been
known in the days of Roman prosperity and luxury, would surely have
found their way from time to time to the wealthy marts of the empire.

There is other evidence to found the belief that most, if not all, of
the diamonds of antiquity were of small size. The celebrated traveller
and diamond merchant Tavernier boldly asserted in his day, that prior
to the sixteenth century the largest diamonds seen in India were about
ten to twelve karats weight. Tavernier was well informed of the history
of the gem, and had visited several times the most famous mines of
India. We are inclined to support the views of the French traveller,
and believe that the famous diamonds known as the paragons are of
modern discovery, or since the sixteenth century.




                             CHAPTER III.

                          DIAMOND LOCALITIES.


The diamond is widely dispersed over the earth, and undoubtedly occurs
in countries where its existence is not now suspected. The difficulty
of detection has restricted its geographical area in history, yet
enough is known to regard its deposition as almost universal, or at
least quite as frequent as that of gold. In some countries the deposits
are very limited, while in others, like those of Africa, Brazil, and
India, they stretch away over immense distances.

We will proceed to give brief descriptions of the well-known diamond
districts, and mention others but little known to commerce or the
mineralogists. For more extended accounts of the historical mines we
must refer the reader to the works of the authors quoted in our text.
We will commence with those of Asia.

The diamond fields in India are very extensive, and occur everywhere
among the hills of the great range that extends from Cape Comorin
through the whole of Bengal for a distance of several hundred miles and
with an average breadth of fifty miles.

How long these mines have been known to man must always remain a matter
of conjecture; but it is nevertheless certain that the famous mines
have been discovered within the past thousand years, and probably a
much less period of time. It is stated that many of the gem districts
along this range have not been explored carefully, and that the
kingdoms of Golconda and Visapour alone have supplied most of the gems
known in India. And it is also related that none of these localities
have been scientifically mined or surveyed with a view to thorough
development.

The most ancient of the diamond mines in India are supposed to be those
of Soumelpour, near the river Gonet, a tributary of the Ganges; but the
celebrated mines of Golconda and Raolconda have been known only since
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

The richest mine of India, and the most extraordinary of any yet
discovered in the world, is that known by the name of Gani, or Couleur.
It is situated under a plain at the foot of a mountain about seven
days’ journey west of Golconda, and was discovered by accident about
the middle of the sixteenth century.

A native digging the earth to sow millet threw up a bright, clear
crystal of twenty-five karats. It was soon recognized to be a diamond,
and crowds of Hindoos flocked to the fields to reap the most wonderful
harvest of gems yet known. A vast number of large gems were obtained,
and among them the Great Mogul, which weighed in its rough condition
seven hundred and ninety-three karats. The gems of this mine were
remarkable for their large size, but they were not of the clearest and
purest water, the color and lustre of the stone seeming to partake of
the quality of the earth composing the matrix.

This idea, which prevails among the miners in other gem districts in
India and also in other countries, lends support to the belief that
the diamonds were formed in the strata of gravel where they are now
found, and not in the hard crystalline rocks and afterwards set free by
disintegration.

The matrix of these mines, as well as of all the others in different
parts of the world, is essentially the same; and consists of rolled or
broken masses of quartz, mixed or united with sand or earth impregnated
with a ferruginous oxide. Amongst this conglomerate, or immediately
below it, mixed with clay, the diamonds are found, and generally
unattached to any substance.

The earliest and best accounts of the mines of Golconda are to be
found in the narrative of Tavernier, who visited them in the middle
of the seventeenth century. At this time they were in prosperous
condition and furnished occupation to many thousand men. There were
but four mines then worked in Hindostan, and more than sixty thousand
miners were employed at the mine of Gani, or Couleur, alone. About
thirty years after the last visit of Tavernier, the Earl Marshal of
England, who had previously examined the diamond mines on the coast
of Coromandel, visited those in Bengal. He found that diamond mines
occurred everywhere along the slope of the hills extending through the
country; but that very few of them were worked, and that nearly all of
the diamonds then supplied to commerce were obtained from the kingdoms
of Golconda and Visapour. He gives descriptions of twenty-three mines
in Golconda and fifteen in Visapour.

The most famous of these at that time was called Currure, and was
worked by the king for his own use. Several very large gems are said
to have been found at this locality. It is related that a Portuguese
gentleman from Goa, having received permission to explore a part of
this mine, had the good fortune to discover a diamond of two hundred
and six karats, which so overjoyed him that he erected a large stone
over the spot with an inscription in Hindoo commemorative of the event.

Near this place there was another famous mine which yielded stones
of fine form and water, occurring in black earth, which is regarded
in India as a singular formation. In all the mines of Visapour the
diamonds are found in red and yellow earth, and this is generally the
color of the matrix elsewhere.

William Methold visited the mines of Golconda at a later period, and
relates that at that time they gave employment to about thirty thousand
laborers. The means for exploration were then exceedingly simple,
and no mechanical contrivances were adopted for excavating the pits
or bailing out the water. Shafts were rudely sunk in the earth to the
depth of sixty or seventy feet, and the cascalho found at even that
depth. It appeared to be reddish, mixed with white and yellow chalk,
and was rich in diamonds. Rarely, stones of one hundred and twenty to
two hundred karats were found, while those of ten to fifteen karats
were quite abundant; but by far the greater number were so minute that
it required from eight to twenty of them to weigh a karat.

Within the present century Dr. Buchanan and Mr. Voysey visited the
mines of India, and have left interesting and accurate descriptions of
their examinations and observations.

The famous mine of Pannah was examined in 1813, and found to be
situated in a table-land of great extent a thousand feet or more above
the Gangetic plain. The whole plain, wherever the gravelly formation
appeared, afforded diamonds at various depths ranging from six feet
to twenty-four. Many mines were worked in beds or borders of rivers
because they were easy of access, and the lazy natives lacked the
ability and means to explore the adjacent plains, which abounded in
diamonds, but were destitute of the water required for washing the
gravel.

The effect of the Brazilian discovery and its yield of several tons of
diamonds was severely felt in Hindostan, and many of its mines were
stopped in consequence. Yet there is abundant virgin territory left in
India for future successful exploration, if conducted scientifically
and with ample means.

The natives, with their rude methods of mining, generally ceased
operations when the deposit required the removal of twenty-four feet of
superincumbent soil. Hindoo labor, also, though apparently very cheap,
is in reality costly when we come to compare their slow and feeble
results to the efforts of well organized and conducted operations.
Hence the diamond has always been a costly gem in Hindostan, and it is
worth more in that country at the present time than in Europe.

Concerning the widespread idea of the reproduction of diamonds in India
we will make only a brief allusion at the present time.

This theory does not seem to be of a very recent date, for the
Portuguese traveller Garcias, who had been physician to the Viceroy at
Goa in the early part of the sixteenth century, and who visited the
mines, has left in his treatise published in 1565, some curious notes
on the rapid generation of diamonds at that time. And he affirms that
the soil a few feet below the surface will, in the interval of two
or three years, produce diamonds again; but he also admits that the
largest gems are only found at much greater depths.

Mr. Voysey, who examined the principal mines in Southern India in 1821,
was also assured by the miners of this reproduction; and from his
investigations he was led to adopt similar views.

Dr. Buchanan in 1813 visited the famous Pannah mine, and these views
then prevailed at that locality. He examined the diamond-bearing earth,
but observed nothing very peculiar in its formation. It seemed to be
very red, and characterized by pebbles stained by iron and a great
variety of quartz in broken fragments, chiefly white in color, or
stained red in places, or dotted with black spots.

The miners who were then operating the mines assured the Doctor “that
the generation of diamonds is always going forward, and that they
have just as much chance of success in searching earth which has been
fourteen or fifteen years unexamined as in digging in what has never
been disturbed; and in fact,” he says, “I saw them digging up earth
which had evidently been before examined, as it was lying in irregular
heaps as thrown out after examination.”

Borneo is thought to be rich in diamonds, but concerning the extent
and productiveness of the placers but little definitely is known. The
island has long been known as abounding in the gem, but travellers
and mineralogists have been prevented from exploring it by a variety
of causes, chiefly arising from opposition of the native rulers and
difficulty in penetrating into the interior of the country where the
mines are found.

Tavernier was desirous of visiting these mines, but was dissuaded from
going by these supposed or fancied difficulties, and the fact that the
Queen at that time forbade the exportation of the gem. Therefore we
have to regret the absence of the report which this able and truthful
traveller would have made if he had visited those regions.

The Borneo diamonds are reported to be the best in the world, and to
owe their excellence to a faint steel-like tinge and a very vivid
adamantine flash. We are inclined to think, however, that diamonds of
this description may be found in various countries, and that commerce
assigns their locality to Borneo as a matter of convenience and trade.

Borneo is yet a _terra incognita_, and its features have not yet been
made known to geography or even commerce. The second island in size in
the world, and itself almost a continent, it presents a vast field to
the explorer, with its broad prairies, immeasurable forests, deep and
impenetrable jungles, interspersed with lofty ridges of mountains. Its
mineral wealth is undetermined, but enough is known to found the belief
that the island is one of the richest in this respect on the globe.

Concerning the diamond mines we have but imperfect accounts and none
of very recent dates. However, it is known that the character of the
mines is the same as that of India and elsewhere, and that the gems
are found in a gravelly stratum at various depths below the surface.
The best of these mines are said to be situated along the river Lavi,
near Sukkademia, and to be worked in a rude manner by the Malays
and Chinese. Mines on the northwest coast of the island have been
worked extensively, but it is reported that no large diamonds have
been discovered there. The Colonial Secretary, Mr. Low, states that
the gems are found in the greatest quantities in Sango, Landak, and
Banjarmassin, and that the stones, although of small size, are of the
purest water.

The quantity of diamonds afforded by Borneo is not exactly known, but
a recent writer in the Journal of the Geographical Society of London
gives it as about two thousand karats annually. It is also stated by
various authorities that the mines of the island have never yet yielded
a diamond of thirty-six karats in weight.

If these reports are correct, how can we explain the accounts of the
great diamond belonging to the Sultan of Mattan, which may be found in
the History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, and also in the Memoirs
of the Batavian Society?

The famous mines of Brazil, which gave rise to a new era in the
commerce and history of diamonds, were discovered by accident. And
we are not aware of an instance of the discovery of a single diamond
district or region of country, with the exception of the Urals, which
can be ascribed to the results of scientific research. Even the
wonderfully rich mines of the Province of Bahia in Brazil were first
made known by a slave who noticed the similarity of the soil to that
of the diamond mines of Minas Geraes, where he had formerly worked.

In 1727 a Portuguese by the name of Lobo, while visiting the gold mines
of the Sierra do Frio, a desolate country about four hundred miles
north of Rio Janeiro, noticed some bright crystals of stone which the
ignorant miners picked up from time to time and treasured as trifles.
Gathering a number of them, he submitted them to some Dutch traders,
who informed him as to their valuable character. The Dutch at once
contracted with the Brazilian Government for all of the rough diamonds
that might be found, and for a long time controlled the trade. The
mines where the gems were first discovered were situated in the midst
of a desolate country destitute of vegetation and of considerable
elevation above the level of the sea. Since this period other mining
districts have been discovered, and it is now ascertained that the
whole of the vast territory situated between the twelfth and twentieth
parallels of latitude and extending even to Matto Grosso, a thousand
miles distant, belongs to the gem-bearing formation.

This vast space of territory has not been examined scientifically,
and but little is known of its condition except that it is diamond
yielding. Since their discovery the mines have been worked with more
or less activity with slave labor under the direction of companies of
large capital. Skilled labor with the modern appliances of science has
not yet been employed in these mining districts. And the condition
of the country, its laws, and the controlling power of the diamond
corporations, will render the application of scientific skill a
difficult and hazardous task. The explorations are conducted in a
primitive manner during the dry season, which lasts from April to
October. They are made generally in the beds of the streams which have
been dried up by the summer’s drouth. Rivers are sometimes diverted
from their natural course, and their gravelly beds completely removed
to sheds on the banks to await the rainy season, when water, which is
required for washing, will be in abundance. The cascalho, a name given
to the peculiar gravel, composed of quartz fragments mixed with sand
and clay united with a ferruginous cement, which contains the diamonds,
is then placed in shallow troughs, and a stream of water directed upon
it until it is well cleansed, when it is removed and dried in the sun.
The dried residue is then carefully searched for diamonds, and it is
not always easy to distinguish them among a great variety of pebbles,
of which the _débris_ is chiefly composed.

Some of the diamond mines were of great extent and required many
laborers to conduct the operations. That of Mandanga employed twelve
hundred slaves in its excavations alone, besides many free persons
engaged in other duties. The yield of the Brazilian mines at first was
enormous, and one thousand one hundred and forty-six ounces of the
precious gem were shipped to Lisbon in one year. The vast quantities
of the gem thrown upon the markets brought the price of them down to
five dollars per karat.

Consternation speedily spread among the diamond dealers all over the
world; and many of them, believing that the gems would soon be as
common as transparent quartz, declined to invest largely, even at
these low prices. But a panic was checked by the prompt action of
the Brazilian Government, in claiming the working of the mines as a
royal monopoly, and also regulating the supply. In this condition of
affairs the working of the mines and the trade remain at the present
day; but the African discoveries and free explorations may change
this restriction and monopoly if the Cape fields continue to yield
their present supply. According to the estimates of Baron d’Eschwège,
the quantity of diamonds obtained from the Brazilian mines under the
Government restrictions averaged between 1730 and 1814 thirty-six
thousand karats annually, the cost of which amounted to nearly four
dollars per karat.

From a variety of causes the supply gradually diminished until about
the year 1830, when the diminution was so great, coupled with the
increased cost of exploration, that the rough stones cost eight dollars
per karat. In 1843 the discovery of the Bahia mines increased greatly
the yearly supply, which was then about thirty thousand karats. For two
years after the discovery of the Sincora mines the supply amounted to
six hundred thousand karats. But the great distance of the mines from
the large towns and the coast, the fearful malaria which prevailed
in the district, together with the difficulty of obtaining supplies,
have prevented the working of the mines to any great extent; and in
consequence the supply in 1852 sank to one hundred and thirty thousand
karats. In 1732 the price of the rough gem was five dollars per karat,
but in three years after it rose to about eight dollars per karat, and
remained at that figure as late as 1742.

The Brazilian diamonds are generally very small compared with those
yielded by some of the India mines, like that of Gani, which produced a
great many gems of ten to forty karats weight. Of the Brazilian yield
it was found by Professor Tennant that out of one thousand diamonds,
one half weighed less than half a karat; three hundred, less than one
karat; eighty, one and a half karats; one hundred and nineteen varied
from two to twenty karats, and only one reached twenty-four karats.

Brazil still exports annually diamonds to the value of several millions
of dollars, but the exploration has probably been checked by the influx
from South Africa and the consequent fall in prices.

Out of the immense number of gems yielded by these mines,--the district
of Minas Geraes is said to have produced two tons in weight,--it is
strange that more large gems have not been found.

Quite a number of diamonds exceeding fifty karats have been
discovered, and several over one hundred karats, the largest being
known as the Star of the South, which weighed two hundred and
fifty-four karats. This fine gem was found in 1853 in the mines of
Begagem by a negress. It was in the form of a dodecahedral crystal.
Another fine gem, called the Abaethe, was found in 1797 in the alluvium
of the river Abaethe. Three convicts, banished into the interior of the
savage country, wandered about from thicket to thicket and mountain
to mountain, in hope of discovering some treasure that would restore
them again to their friends. After six years of weary wanderings and
severe privations they at length stumbled upon a diamond of one hundred
and five karats in the bed of the river above named. They ventured
to return to the inhabited regions and confided their good fortune
to a priest. He took them at once to the Governor of Villa-Rica, who
suspended the sentence of the convicts and sent the priest to Rio
Janeiro with the gem.

A frigate was despatched with the treasure and the clergyman to Lisbon.
The King, delighted with his acquisition, fully pardoned the convicts
and advanced the priest to a high rank in his profession.

Many attempts have been made to trace the diamonds of Minas Geraes to
primitive and unbroken rocks on the more elevated plateaux or even
among the more distant mountains. And sometimes the gems have been
found in cascalho at a great elevation, or perhaps in crevices of the
sandstones; and hence the idea has arisen that the solid matrix has
been found. The cascalho is the true matrix, whether found in the
lowlands or on the mountain peaks. The color of this conglomerate is
not uniform and varies in many districts. At the rich St. Antonio’s
mine it is of a dark gray; at the Veneno it is of a light ochre with
lumps cemented with ferruginous oxide; in the Pitanga mine it is of
a light gray and almost white, and contains but few diamonds, but of
the finest quality. The observer is sometimes led to believe that the
abundance of the ferruginous oxide is evidence of the abundance of
gems, and this fact is also noticed in the famous mines of Ceylon,
where, however, the diamond does not occur.

Concerning the accounts of finding the diamonds in Brazil in their
native rock, as described by Claussen and later still by Redington,
we are not yet willing to give full credence any more than to the
stories of diamonds having been found in the “old rock” in India. We
have no doubt of the gem having been found in what appears to be a
soft sandstone, but which is in reality a secondary product like the
heterogeneous cascalho. And we can conceive this sandstone-like deposit
to be formed at the bottom of lagoons under like conditions which gave
origin to the conglomerate.

Claussen published in the Bulletins of the Academy of Sciences and
Belles-lettres at Brussels, in 1841, an interesting account of his
observations while searching for a matrix of the diamond.

He affirms that the gems are found at the mines of Grammagon in beds
of a soft sandstone, which he calls a psammite sandstone, and which
resembles the itacolumite, which is much harder. He also describes
several specimens in which the gems are embedded in the sandstone,
but admits that they are not very common. The same writer mentions
instances where they are said to have occurred between plates of mica
like the flattened garnets. Furthermore, he states that the crystals
found in the itacolumite are rounded octahedrons and those found in
psammite sandstone are perfect octahedrons.

Claussen, although he believed the itacolumite to be the matrix of
the gem, was unable to explain its total absence in places where the
itacolumite was greatly developed. He was also forced, when tracing
the origin of the cascalho, to admit the existence of a secondary
itacolumite posterior to the transition formation.

It is interesting as well as perplexing to follow the multitude of
views expressed by mineralogists when attempting to explain the
formation of the diamond. Most of them are determined to give the
gem an ancient origin, and insist upon the action of plutonic forces
upon dioritic veins. Humboldt maintained that the gems of the Ural
Mountains had a geological relation to the carboniferous dolomite of
Adolfskoi as well as to augitic porphyry. But Verneuil and Murchison,
examining the mines, found the alluvia which contained the diamonds
had no carbon; therefore the hypothesis was incorrect, and the matrix
of the stone must be sought in another direction. The mines of Brazil
have been examined during a century past by a number of geologists and
amateurs like Mawe, Martins, St. Hilaire, Claussen, Eschwège, Burton,
Hartt, and others; and to their works we must refer the reader for
extended descriptions of the geological features of the country and the
peculiarities of the gem mines.

In the recent exploration of the diamond fields by Professor Hartt, the
Professor decidedly opposes the views of Claussen by saying, “I do not
believe that the diamond ever occurs in the true palaeozoic itacolumite
in Brazil, but that it is derived from the tertiary sandstones.”
After casual examination of the diamond-bearing sands of the mines
in Bahia, he is also led to believe that they have resulted from the
disintegration of Chapada sandstones; and he regrets that they have
never been critically examined, for he thinks that the mystery of the
origin of the diamond may be solved from their study.

However, from the multitude of hypotheses to which the study of the
subject has given rise, we find nothing to shake our confidence in the
belief of the formation of the diamond in the secondary gravel beds
where they are now found.

Shortly after the opening of the Bahia mines, black, brown, and even
clay-colored pebbles were found associated with the transparent
diamonds in the cascalho. These pebbles were of various sizes,
generally quite small, but sometimes appearing in masses as large as
one thousand karats. Their nature was not at first recognized, and they
were thrown aside with all other stones of little or no value. Finally
a quantity was gathered and sent to a merchant in Paris, where they
were seen by Count de Douhet. The Count in 1867 presented a notice
of them to the Academy of Sciences and pronounced them to be massive
carbon, and a variety of the diamond. The exact localities in Brazil
where it occurs we are unable to describe, but believe them to be
situated in the Province of Bahia. As to the quantity gathered we are
also unable to give a definite opinion, but have reason to think that
it is quite limited; and, moreover, we have yet to learn that it occurs
in any other diamond mines in the world.

The color of the carbon, or carbonado, as it is called by the
Brazilians, is generally black, but it may be light-brown or of a
greenish gray color, when diluted with clay. It is always opaque, but
is not always compact, being sometimes quite porous, like pumice-stone.
It never crystallizes, but generally appears in angular pieces in lumps
or concretionary masses whose specific gravity is 3 to 3.4, while that
of the transparent diamond is 3.5.

The black and perfectly crystallized diamond, which is very rare, is
not to be confounded with this variety.

The hardness of the carbon is equal to that of the transparent diamond,
and probably some of the purest and most compact specimens are harder
even than the limpid variety; for the black gems are generally harder
than the light-colored, and we have for instances the deep-blue
sapphire, the black tourmaline, etc.

At first this newly discovered mineral was pulverized, and its powdered
dust used to polish diamonds and other gems, and was then sold for a
few francs the karat. Lately, however, science has applied its use to
new inventions; and the demand for it in its application to the drill
and the saw has increased its value to several dollars the karat, and
the price is still increasing. Its advantages over the crystallized
varieties are very decided, and it is as hard and has no cleavage
planes, and is therefore far better able to resist the effects of shock.

The only diamond known to have been found in modern times in Western
Europe is that picked up in a brook in the County of Fermanagh in
Ireland. Its weight was not given, but it was stated to be of a reddish
cast and valued by Mr. Rundell at twenty guineas. Some mineralogists
have maintained that the stone in question was not in place and was
probably brought in the crop of some bird of passage from Brazil or the
tropical countries of America.

To us, however, a more plausible and probable theory would be that the
stone was in place, and that its presence is no more remarkable than
the gold nuggets found in the same country. In fact, this instance
is no more strange than the finding of the great American diamond
in Virginia, which was also a solitaire and many miles below the
auriferous fields whence it is supposed to have drifted. We shall not
be surprised to learn of the occurrence of diamonds in other parts
of Europe. Pliny ends his chapter on the diamond by stating on the
authority of Scepsius that diamonds are found in Germany and in the
island of Basilia along with amber.

Eastern Russia was long ago suspected of being diamondiferous; and as
early as 1826 Maurice Englehardt pointed out the resemblance of the
Ural districts to those of Brazil. It was, however, left to Humboldt
and his companions to make known the actual occurrence of these gems
in this country. For in 1829, during their visit to Siberia, they
discovered several diamonds on the estates of Count Porlier, about one
hundred and sixty miles west of Perm, on the western declivity of the
Ural Mountains. Active search having been instituted, forty diamonds
were found in the detritus on the banks of the Adolfskoi. Strange to
relate, they were discovered in the gold-bearing alluvium twenty feet
above the stratum containing bones of mammoths and rhinoceroses. Since
this period they have also been found at several other places along the
Uralian chain.

In commenting upon the occurrence of these diamonds of the Adolfskoi
which are preserved in the collection of Prince Butera, some of our
best geologists have come to a startling conclusion.

Humboldt, Sir Roderick Murchison, and M. Verneuil, obtaining
information from different points in Siberia, have been led to the
belief that the diamond in these localities was formed at a date
subsequent to the destruction of the mammoths.

Since this period Colonel Helmersen has made known other points along
the Uralian chain of mountains where the gem has been found, as
Ekaterinsburg, Kushvinsk, and Versch-Urak. But we have no information
of “placers” of any considerable extent having been discovered, or
the finding of the gem in sufficient numbers to warrant systematic
explorations.

Future research may reveal other localities in Siberia where this gem
occurs, for the country was known to the ancients as furnishing the
adamas.

Amnian in the fourth century mentions the region of Agathyrsi as one of
the gem-bearing countries; and this country included the Ural Mountains
and part of Siberia. It is not at all strange that the exact localities
should have been forgotten during the long intervening space of time
and the many political convulsions that have interrupted commercial
intercourse with those far-off regions.

It was well known that Scythia furnished the ancients with gold for
centuries; but in modern times all trace of the localities was lost
until revealed by the researches of German miners exploring for copper
and iron. Stranger still, the locality of the gold mines in Spain, so
famous in ancient times, is unknown at the present day.

The gold fields of the Southern States of North America have been
known to be diamond-bearing for forty years or more, but as yet no
earnest or well-directed search has been made for the gems. During
this period of time more than thirty diamonds have been picked up by
accident along the gold belt which extends from the central and eastern
portion of Alabama, through Georgia, North and South Carolina, even
to the interior of Virginia. All along this auriferous formation the
itacolumite appears in the gravel beds or in ledges or even in large
mountains in some localities.

In Alabama, where the itacolumite is abundant, several fine diamonds of
three or four karats weight have been found.

The northeastern portion of Georgia has also yielded some beautiful
stones to the miners while washing for gold. Some of these we have
seen and found them to be of the purest water. The Glade mines, a few
miles north of Gainesville, have yielded several fine diamonds, some
of which have been cut in London. They were found by accident in the
riffles of the gold-washing machines, and were preserved by the miners
simply as curiosities. At the Horshaw gold mines, a few miles farther
to the northeast, a large diamond was picked up, but unfortunately
destroyed by the ignorance of the laborers, who unluckily reasoned
like the ancients concerning its destructibility, and therefore tried
the effects of a heavy sledge upon it while placed on an anvil. An
examination of this last deposit in 1866 convinced the writer that it
was a true diamond field; and search was rewarded with the finding of
two small but well-crystallized diamonds. So far as we can ascertain,
all the diamonds thus far discovered in these regions have been finely
crystallized.

North Carolina has also yielded some fine specimens of three and four
karats weight; but the largest diamond thus far found in the United
States and preserved was picked up in 1856 on the banks of the James
River, opposite the city of Richmond in Virginia. The spring floods
had probably washed it down from the gold fields which are situated a
few miles above. The stone was a well-defined octahedral crystal. Its
weight, while in the rough state, was about twenty-five karats, and
its color was of a faint greenish white tinge. Its transparency was
perfect, but its refractions were somewhat impaired by a flaw or a
speck in the interior.

The American diamond-cutting establishment of Morse, Crosby, & Foss, of
Boston, cut this gem very successfully at the cost of about $1,300. The
stone was purchased by a distinguished American athlete in New York,
and worn by him in a breast-pin for many years.

None of these diamond fields have been examined systematically by
experienced miners with a view to their development, and in fact no
definite idea of their limit or their value can be given. But we have
the impression that they are far more extensive than has been imagined
by mineralogists. The returning gem-seekers who have been educated
in the diamond mines of South Africa may investigate ere long these
unknown districts and settle the question beyond further inquiry. In
California, a few diamonds are reported to have been found here and
there among the gold fields, but nothing like a gem placer has yet
been revealed. The geological formations of Arizona and New Mexico are
more promising than any part of the United States, and explorations
may disclose extensive and valuable gem deposits in those regions.
The originators of the famous diamond swindle in Arizona chose their
locality with more than ordinary sagacity.

The account of this daring scheme reads more like romance than reality,
and it was more than ordinary boldness that prompted the perpetrators
to visit foreign lands, purchase quantities of rough diamonds and then
plant them in a distant, desolate, and hostile country to entrap the
wary speculator. The success of this piracy was fortunately checked
by the sagacity of one of the United States geologists exploring the
adjacent territory, who quickly disclosed the fraud, but not in time
to prevent the swindlers from pocketing large sums of money from
speculators in California.

Pliny mentioned Arabia as one of the localities of the gem; but modern
investigators believe that he founded his views on the facts of the
diamonds being obtained from Arabian merchants, and that they really
came from other countries.

This probably is the true version of the commerce of the Arabians
in those days; but we see no objection to the belief that Arabia
may have been a diamond-bearing country in early times, and may
possess undeveloped fields at the present day. Northern Africa was
also asserted to be diamond yielding, and modern investigators have
established the truth of the assertion.

In the year 1867 the attention of gem-seekers was turned to vague
reports of the discovery of rich diamond fields in South Africa, and
the pages of history were examined closely to prove that in ancient
times this continent was known as a diamond country. It is undoubtedly
true that Africa yielded diamonds to the ancients, for within thirty
years several have been found in Algiers, and are now preserved in
the collections of Paris. They were discovered in the auriferous
sands of the river Goumal, in the Province of Constantine, by natives
while washing for gold. They were small in size but of unmistakable
character. This discovery strengthens the ancient report of the
Carthaginians’ procuring the gems from the Etrurians, who brought them
from the interior of Africa.

In 1867 a diamond was discovered by accident in the soil several
hundred miles north of the Cape of Good Hope. The report was not
credited, and it was not until a number had been found and tested that
the attention of adventurous men was fairly aroused. Success soon
rewarded the labors of the first bands of gem-seekers; and the news,
widespread over the world, soon brought thousands of determined and
hardy men, who are even yet earnestly exploring the gem districts and
also revolutionizing the country.

The gem mines now under process of exploration are situated on the
Vaal River and its tributaries, the best of them being found near the
junction of the Vaal and Orange Rivers and from five to six hundred
miles north of the Cape. The locality known as Du Toits Pan soon
became famous and yielded a great number of diamonds, some of them
over 100 karats and one reaching the great weight of 288³⁄₄ karats.
The topography of the country around these mines is characterized by
low, flat-topped hills, which strike the observer at once by their
singularity. The storm clouds, their frequency, their dull gray hue,
their constant commotion, and the nearness of their approach to the
earth are also quickly noticed by the new-comer, so strangely different
are they from the ordinary atmospheric changes.

Five miles to the north of Du Toits occurs one of the most remarkable
mines yet discovered in any part of the world. It is called Colesberg
Kopje, and although one of the richest spots of the globe, it is also
one of the meanest places on God’s earth. Several thousand men have
been actively engaged upon it for a number of years past, and many
thousand diamonds have been taken from it. So rich has been its yield
that it is stated that four thousand have been obtained in a single day.

The extent of the excavation is enormous, and yet all has been done by
simple and even rude means. But little advantage has been taken of the
use of machinery and skilled labor, and most of the operations have
been conducted in a primitive manner. The distance to the coast and the
great expense of transportation is perhaps the principal reason why
different and more satisfactory arrangements have not been made.

The photographs of the appearance of this field and its excavations
strike one with amazement. The countless array of tents in the distance
on the borders of the deposit; the thousands of busy miners; the huge
and deep ditches stretching across the plain, vast enough to float a
fleet of men-of-war; the lofty mounds of thrown-up earth,--all together
present a startling picture never to be forgotten.

The depths of these enormous ditches vary from ten to more than one
hundred feet.

All this herculean labor has been performed in less than twenty years
under the stimulus of extraordinary prosperity, and it indicates a
determination to explore the country thoroughly.

As yet there has been no complete survey of these regions, and the
extent of the diamond fields is still unknown. Sufficient evidence,
however, has been received to indicate that they cover an area of one
thousand square miles, and are situated principally in the Orange
River Free State, but also extend into the Transvaal Republic and Cape
Colony. These districts alone will afford remunerative labor for some
time to come, and we have little doubt but that other fields of even
greater extent will before long be discovered in other parts of Africa.

For a long time past we have been led to regard this continent as
containing the most extensive and richest diamond deposits on the
globe. A great portion of Africa belongs to the geological conditions
which produce the diamonds, and the present explorations will educate
a host of gem-seekers, who will not only investigate other parts of
Africa, but will also explore other countries. Therefore we may expect
the diamond trade to receive a strong impetus for some years to come,
and that new mines may for a time reduce the present prices of the gem.

The largest diamond yet afforded by the South Africa mines is that
called the Stewart. It was found at Waldeck’s plant, in November, 1872,
by a man named Antonies. Its form was that of a modified octahedron,
beautifully crystallized, and exhibiting a faint tinge of yellow.
On the outside of the crystal were a few specks and flaws, but the
interior appears to be free from imperfections. Its original weight was
288³⁄₈ karats.

A vast number of the diamonds found in these fields are tinged with a
faint hue, generally yellow or faint brown. This peculiarity was also
noticed with the yield of the Brazilian mines.

It is quite impossible to give a correct account of the quantity
afforded by these mines up to the present time. It amounts to many
millions of dollars, and is sufficiently large to produce a marked
effect upon the market, but nothing like the panic which followed the
discovery of the Brazilian mines. The value of the diamonds exported at
Cape Town in 1871 is said to have been $7,500,000, but it was probably
much greater.

Australia has afforded to the gold miners quite a number of small
diamond crystals, and gem fields undoubtedly occur within its
borders. Among the auriferous sands of the Maguarie River minute
crystals have been picked by the careless miner from time to time,
and other localities have also afforded specimens of the mineral, but
no systematic search has yet been made for them. A number of these
specimens of diamonds, although of minute form, were exhibited at
Melbourne in 1865.

The islands of Java and Sumatra yield diamonds among their mineral
treasures, but, strange to say, the island of Ceylon, which is the
most remarkable gem deposit in the world, does not produce a single
specimen. The island is not far distant from the gem districts of lower
Bengal. The formation appears to be of the same character, but it is
evident that the geological conditions which deposited the sapphire,
the zircon, spinel, etc., differed from those required by the diamond.




                              CHAPTER IV.

                        ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND.


The origin of this precious stone has been a favorite study with man
from the earliest times of its history; and, as we have already stated,
it has given birth to a multitude of hypotheses.

The peculiar fascination which attends the contemplation of the gems
arises partly from their commercial distinction, as well as from
certain mysterious properties with which they have been invested not
only by tradition but even by scientific research.

We will not, however, venture to affirm that they are more wonderful or
deserving of a higher place in the estimation of man than the beautiful
and more transient flowers of vegetation. Both are indeed objects of
our highest consideration.

The transparent diamonds always occur in crystalline forms, although
they sometimes appear almost amorphous or even cylindrical or globular.
Its primitive form, however, is the octahedron.

They are found generally in limited deposits, which are often as
shallow and well defined as the gold fields, which are termed placers;
and therefore we will also call the diamond fields “diamond placers.”

In some “placers” the shapes of the crystals are perfectly regular,
while in others they are greatly modified and rendered indistinct. In
some mines they occur in fine octahedrons with beautifully truncated
edges, but in other districts the rare form of the regular cube may
abound. Every section of the diamond-bearing countries seems to have
some peculiarity either in color, form, or arrangement of crystal. It
is indeed true that experts, from an examination of the rough specimen,
are sometimes able to detect the locality whence the diamond was
obtained. The same facility may be applied to the natural crystals of
other gems, but it cannot be established as a fixed or general rule.
The diamond “placers,” distinct and well defined, are far more numerous
on the earth’s crust than is generally believed.

A thousand plausible and often ingenious theories on the geological
character of the diamond have been advanced in modern times or within
a century past; and a great variety of rocks or mineral substances
extending from itacolumite to xanthophyllite have been affirmed to be
the parent mineral. The real matrix, or such as we believe it to be,
of the diamond is the same all over the world. The associate minerals
which form the conglomerate in which it is generally found may vary
somewhat, but the character of the deposit is but little changed. This
matrix is a secondary product, and consists of a conglomerate gravel
which once abounded in remains of animal and vegetable life.

The keen eye of Buffon early detected the formation of the true gem
strata; and believing that the gems were produced in these peculiar
beds by the solar forces, he boldly asserted that they were formed in
the superficial strata from _débris_ of older formations, mineral,
animal, and vegetable. “On ne peut leur donner d’autre origine, d’autre
matrice que la terre limoneuse qui rassemblant les debris des autres
matieres.”

This matrix is a well-defined conglomerate, which is found generally
on elevated plateaux, and which corresponds to the bottoms of shallow
lagoons or lakes of inconsiderable depth. In the earthy portion, which
is composed of a variety of _débris_, occur the diamonds, interspersed
among the quartz or rock pebbles, and in a marked and continuous layer.
These formations are well known to the geologist, for they occur in
almost every country on the globe.

In various parts of the earth’s structure we find solid strata
of conglomerate and sandstone, which have been formed at distant
and different periods of the world’s history. In other places we
may observe the loose materials of the same formation awaiting
transformation when exposed to the action of water highly charged with
iron, lime, or silica, and we may even see the process taking place at
the present day. For example, we will take the broad tracts of level
country known in the south of France as the “Landes.” Here we have an
excellent illustration of the formation of the gem beds, lacking,
however, the precious stones. Below the surface of these plains, and
generally at the depth of about three feet, a conglomerate called
“allios” has formed, and is still in the process of forming. This stony
layer, which is composed of quartz pebbles mixed with sand, has been
cemented strongly together by the vegetable and organic matter which
has trickled down from the surface of the earth during indefinite
periods of time. The action of this organic _débris_ soon renders the
conglomerate quite impervious to water, and retards its passing into
the sand beds or other strata below. In consequence thereof these broad
tracts of level lands become stagnant lagoons of water during the rainy
seasons, and all the remains of vegetable and other organic life sink
down into these layers of stone, gradually filling up the interstices
among the rocks and lesser pebbles.

This collection of decayed various organic substances is generally
of a gray or blackish color, or may be of a rusty yellow-hue like
ferruginous sandstone. Its cementing power has given a special name
to the formation it has caused; and to the gold-miner it is known as
hard-pan, to the gem-seeker as cascalho or “mellan.” Its peculiar hue,
together with the metallic fracture of its layers, has given rise to
the belief that it was composed chiefly of a ferruginous oxide. Recent
analysis, however, of the “allios” has shown that this idea is partly
erroneous, and that the color and the substance of the formation
in reality arises from the juice and _débris_ of plants loaded with
tannin and other matter. Iron, it seems from these investigations, is
present only in small quantities, and also is afforded by the secretion
of vegetable life. However, the quantity of iron in the conglomerate
varies considerably in different localities, but most of it seems to be
acquired from the action of vegetable vitality.

These conglomerates of the Landes have been a long time in process of
formation; but in other localities, like those of the Cape de Verde,
to which the waves of the sea have had access, we may witness the
transformation going on with rapidity. No great time is required by
nature for this production, but rather the application or conjunction
of certain materials exposed to the action of chemical changes and
telluric forces.

It has been asserted that the diamond has been found embedded in
the singular quartzite to which Count D’Eschwège gave the name of
itacolumite, but we are inclined from examination of one of these
specimens to think that its presence is quite accidental.

In the State of Georgia there are immense beds of itacolumite,
appearing, also, here and there along the auriferous formation which
extends from Virginia to central Alabama; and they afford ample fields
for proof of the statement that the mineral is really the true matrix
of the gem. But, after careful examination of some of these exposed
rocks, we are led to regard the itacolumite as an associate mineral
to the diamond, and that any farther connection with the gem is very
distant. Fragments of this rock are quite often found together with
quartz in the conglomerate; but we do not regard their presence
as essential as that of a ferruginous oxide, which is one of the
distinguishing features of all gem mines, and especially of the famous
deposits of Ceylon, where the diamond is never found.

The best and most characteristic mines of India, Brazil, and Africa are
situated on elevated plateaux, where there is at present but little
vegetation.

To give the reader an idea of the formation, we will describe one
of the districts of South Africa, which may serve to illustrate all
others. At Pnict Kopje, in the Vaal region, the diamonds are found
on an elevated plateau one hundred and fifty feet above the river
bed; and many of them have been discovered but two or three feet
below the surface, in company with fossil wood and even bones. In the
Orange River Republic they occur frequently in peculiar isolated and
circumscribed spots, called by the miners “pans.” These are basin-like
hollows which are filled with water during the wet seasons. In these
pans none of the diamonds exhibit signs of abrasion caused by shock
or attrition, although the quartz pebbles forming the gravel and
conglomerate show in their rounded angles evidences of aqueous action.
The gems are not only found in the shallow edges of these hollows,
but are taken from depths of one hundred feet and more. And they are
always found in their peculiar and connected conglomerate, which seems
to have formed at the bottom of some pool or lake. Hence we may explain
the superficial depth of the cascalho at the shores of the extinct
pond, and the increased depth at central parts of the fields. If motion
had taken place among the pebbles forming the conglomerate after the
deposition of the diamond, we might properly look for worn surfaces on
the gems from shock with contact with loose rocks; for slight blows
will mar the surface of the diamond, even if its edges scratch all
other minerals with perfect ease.

In these pans the diamonds are natural in form, indicating that they
have not moved since the time they were deposited. But in the beds of
the rivers which have in later times worn deep ravines in the face of
the country we find diamonds with abraded surfaces, having been rolled
about by the torrents for indefinite periods of time. Whence come the
alluvial soils and the gravel beds which cover the gem strata and
completely fill up the lake depression, especially when there are no
surrounding elevations to furnish disintegrated material?

This serious question will naturally arise in the minds of all
observers; and to answer it clearly will be a difficult task. Sometimes
the thought occurs to us that much of the quartz gravel has formed in
these pools at subsequent periods and has been broken up and rolled
about by the waves until another stratum of alluvium has formed above
it; but we will not venture to assert an opinion to this effect.
Still, it is a great mystery to ascertain whence some of the quartz
pebbles came from in the present elevated condition of the placers and
the absence of similar rocks in the vicinity. There is another fact
connected with the diamond placers which deserves consideration, and
that is their great elevation above the sea level.

The mines of India, Africa, and Brazil are situated at a considerable
altitude above the ocean. Those of India are generally a thousand feet
above the sea level; while the wonderful gem mines of the adjacent
island of Ceylon, which are also true placers, occur but few feet above
the line of the tides, but do not yield the diamond. It is certainly
remarkable that Ceylon does not afford this gem among the great number
of other precious stones. At first thought the idea occurs to the
observer that as flora and fauna have their distribution according to
certain elevations a similar rule may be applied to the deposition of
minerals. But there are too many exceptions known to oppose this view,
however pleasing the theory may be.

One of the strongest arguments in favor of the theory of the recent
deposition of the gem is connected with its discovery in the gold mines
of the Adolfskoi in Siberia. Here they were found in alluvial strata
twenty feet above those deposits which contained the bones of the
mammoth and the rhinoceros. Hence Humboldt, Murchison, and Verneuil
were led to the conclusion that they had been deposited there since the
introduction of animal life. There are also some remarkable evidences
to sustain the view that these gems were formed in the conglomerate
and earth where they are now found. In some of the mines of India they
have been taken out of red earth with the earth clinging to their
sides as if it had become attached to them, while the crystals were
of a soft, glutinous substance. In the Museum of Rio Janeiro there is
a large rounded diamond which has very distinct impressions of grains
of sand upon its sides. The British Museum contains an octahedral
crystal attached to alluvial gold, and Dr. Nello Franka mentions
another which enclosed a leaf of gold. A number of specimens have been
observed containing splinters of ferruginous quartz and crystals of
other substances. The microscope often reveals in the interior of these
stones germs of fungi and even vegetable fibres of higher organization,
some of which resemble the moss-like appearance seen in the moss agates.

It was from the study of these conditions, connected with the fact
that the stone becomes black when strongly heated, that Goppert was
led to assert that it could not be of igneous origin. It was also
from investigation of the refractive powers of the gem that Sir David
Brewster was induced to assume the hypothesis that it was, or that
it might be, a congealed secretion of a vegetable production. This
distinguished philosopher was seeking a perfect lens for microscopic
use; and discovered that the diamond, notwithstanding its immense
refractive power, was of very doubtful character in its adaptation
to this purpose, and that its laminæ were sometimes of different
shades and even arranged in a series of stratification. They not only
differed from each other in color and purity, but did not exhibit a
common focus. Therefore, Brewster was led to infer from these and other
phenomena that the mineral was of vegetable origin, and that its parts
must have been held in solution before crystallization took place.

There is nothing very startling in this hypothesis, no more so than
in the case of the amber, which is now admitted to be a fossil resin,
and which is, in its refractive powers, second only to the diamond.
Therefore we cannot object to the theory of vegetable origin on account
of the property of brilliancy.

Tavernier observed that the color of the diamonds in India
often partook of the color of the gravel in which they were
deposited,--white, reddish, blackish, or greenish, according to the
color and purity of the matrix. This fact has also been noticed in
Brazil; and it lends support to the view that the gems have been
deposited under stagnant water, and have received some tinge from its
color.

The diamond is admitted by microscopists to be one of the foulest gems
known to them; and specimens are rare that do not exhibit cavities,
imperfections, or foreign matter in their interior. A painstaking
microscopist, after examining the large collection of rough crystals
of the East India Company in London, which numbered several hundred
specimens, came to the following conclusion: “It seems to be a general
truth that there are comparatively few diamonds without cavities and
flaws, and that the diamond is a fouler stone than any other used in
jewelry.”

Berzelius first called attention to a black substance which he found in
a diamond belonging to the collection of Countess Porlier; and since
then many other examples have been observed. Frequently black specks
resembling anthracite have been noticed in the Brazilian diamonds.
Tavernier saw in India a large diamond of one hundred and four karats,
whose central portion was so foul as to render the stone worthless.
When it was cut open the cavity yielded about eight karats of filth,
resembling that of a rotten weed.

The diamond is now recognized by the chemist as a crystalline form
of pure carbon. Newton, in 1675, with the wonderful penetration of
his genius, and reasoning from the high refractive power of the gem,
which so far exceeded the degree due its density, believed it to be
combustible. More than a century later the experimentalists of the
Academy of Florence strengthened this view by destroying it in the
focus of powerful burning mirrors. Lavoisier, however, dispelled
all doubts concerning its combustibility by burning it under a
receiver filled with oxygen gas. It has since been ascertained that
a temperature of 14° Wedgewood completely volatilizes the diamond,
producing carbonic acid gas. An English experimentalist, however, has
recently declared that the gem may be consumed at a red heat, and
maintains that he has accomplished this result by enveloping the stone
in certain alkalies.

It has been admitted by eminent geologists that the diamond proceeded
from the slow decomposition of vegetable material, and even animal
matter, as the requisite carbon could be obtained from either source.
But they have also strenuously maintained that the gem was formed
under the same conditions of heat as produced the metamorphism of
argillaceous and arenaceous schists, these schists being supposed
to have once been altered from shales impregnated with carbonaceous
substances of organic origin. To this theory the revelations of the
microscope offer decisive objections, since this instrument shows that
there has been no action of heat in the formation of the stone, for the
vegetable remains often detected in the interior of the mineral forbid
the development of any considerable degree of caloric. Therefore, as
there is no evidence of the influence or effect of heat upon these
organic matters within the diamond, the theory must be abandoned.

Geologists have been, perhaps, too tenacious in their views of the
origin of many of the rocks that compose the earth’s crust, and
especially in maintaining that many crystalline rocks are as old
as the dawn of creation. We know that some of these minerals may be
produced artificially at the present day, and that the forces that
arranged all rocks of a high molecular organization are still in force.

We sometimes speak of old crystalline rocks with the inference that
their age is beyond comparison, and therefore undetermined. Yet
the microscope is constantly lessening the force of these views by
revealing prodigious numbers of minute and animal forms in fossil
condition in various kinds of crystalline rocks.

We also observe that various forms of silex have been deposited on the
earth in recent periods of its history, and even since the appearance
of animal life, for we find their remains transformed into agate. Thus
it is evident that nature still possesses the power to deposit certain
forms of mineral substances.

Arago and Biot, reasoning from the energy of the refractive power of
the diamond, were inclined to believe that it contained hydrogen. Sir
Humphrey Davy suspected the presence of oxygen, but sought for it in
vain after many careful experiments. Chaucourtois, however, deriving
a theory from chemical results, came to the view that the stone is
derived by the humid process from a hydrocarburet. Reasoning from the
process of forming sulphur from hydro-sulphuretted emanations, he
believed that in the humid oxidation of a carburetted hydrogen the
hydrogen is oxidized, while part of the carbon becomes carbonic acid,
and the rest remains as carbon and may crystallize into diamond.

Supposing this hypothesis to be correct, where do you find the required
materials for the formation of the diamond? the reader may ask. At
the bottom of these lagoons the decomposition of organic matter
furnished abundant means for the production of the gem. Carbonic acid
is everywhere produced from the decomposition of animal and vegetable
matter. It is constantly evolved from the earth, and has the property
of decomposing many of the hardest rocks. It is the cause of that
mysterious decay which Dolomieu called “La maladie du granite.”

In carburetted hydrogen we have the united force of two of the most
active substances known as organogens, or generators of organic bodies.
But of the vast range of their properties, their affinities, and their
interior changes we are still profoundly ignorant. We may, however,
easily recognize the fact that their combinations and also almost every
other chemical compound may be decomposed by electricity or galvanism.

Here then we have a clew, though perhaps distant, to the formation
of the gem. Is not the production of drops of water by passing the
electric spark through a mixture of hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen
suggestive of the manner in which the diamond might be formed from
carburetted hydrogen? It is true this experiment in the laboratory
has failed to produce the transparent and crystalline form of carbon,
although it has thrown down the element in an amorphous state. This
failure is by no means decisive, for many of the simple acts of nature
are beyond the imitative power of man.

And then again the chemist may exclaim, “How is it possible for the gem
to be produced in this manner, when the combination of these elementary
bodies is always or nearly always attended with the development of a
considerable degree of heat, while the diamond contains at times germs
of organic matter? Would not these organic remains be destroyed during
this process? On the contrary, they do not exhibit the least trace of
the effect of combustion or even heat, and are as well defined as the
insects in the fossil resins.” In reply we will point to the formation
of fulgurites through the agency of the lightning without the evolution
of heat.

History presents some almost incredible examples of the stupidity and
obstinacy of mankind in the explanation of natural phenomena. It seems
quite impossible that when the German philosopher Chladni, less than
a century ago, asserted that meteorites were extra-terranean bodies,
the Academies of Europe laughed at him in scorn. Several meteoric
showers falling in Europe shortly after did not convince the bigoted
philosophers. And when Pictet in 1802 read a paper before the French
Institute in favor of the theory, he was insulted by his learned
audience. It was not until a year afterwards, when the great meteoric
shower occurred in Normandy, that Biot, deputized by the French
Government, succeeded in convincing the most sceptical. Yet only a few
years previous De Luc, the first meteorologist of Europe, the founder
of geology, declared that he would not believe it even if a stone
should fall at his feet from the skies. In 1751, Peysonnel presented
to the Academy of Sciences at Naples an elaborate memoir in which he
very plainly proved that the coral belonged to the animal and not
the vegetable kingdom. But his admirable paper was hooted at by the
European naturalists; and even the distinguished philosopher Reaumur
declared that the idea which was advanced was really too absurd to be
discussed.

When we come to review the hypotheses of science during the last
century, we shall feel more inclined to be generous and flexible in our
views of natural phenomena.

  “There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
  Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.”

The nodular or globular forms of the gem present no serious objection
to the idea of vegetable or animal origin; and we may refer for
argument to the calcareous nodules of the old red sandstone. These
concretionary and radiated masses are merely sarcophagi of animal
remains; and their arrangement plainly shows the chemical influences
of decaying animal matter and also the multiple and varied effect
of crystalline attraction and electric force. Can we say that the
crystallized diamonds occurring in well-defined placers are any
more remarkable than the little globular petrifactions found in the
cretaceous formation and known as the _Coscinopora globularis_, and
which nature provided with a perforation so that ancient man adopted
them as ornaments in place of beads?

We are often reminded by the antiquary of the remarkable foresight or
acuteness of the ancient poet Lucretius in his explanation of certain
natural phenomena which have since been verified by modern science. But
of all the heaven-inspired dreamers none have come nearer the truth in
terrestrial matters than the Arabian poet Fizee, who wrote:--

  “The sun from whom the seven seas obtain pearls,
  The black stone from his rays obtains the jewel,
  The mine from the correcting influence of his beams obtains gold.”

Plato believed that the gems were produced by a sort of vivifying
spirit descending from the stars. It is undoubtedly from the influence
of the solar forces and the magnetic and electric currents which are
constantly playing through the crust of the earth that the gems derive
their origin.

These phenomena of the earth’s vitality are manifested in their
greatest force along certain elliptics, which may be traced over the
true gem districts of Asia, Africa, and Brazil, and in marked contrast
to adjacent territories. The miners in South Africa, disturbed by the
severe whirlwinds and frequent thunder-storms, soon began to imagine
that the excessive electric action had something to do with the
creation of the gems they sought. Mr. Voysey, Geologist to the India
Survey, also observed the very marked telluric action in the diamond
formations of India, and moreover that the process of crystallization
took place there with wonderful rapidity. So convinced was this
keen observer of the present reproduction of gems in the alluvial
soil or conglomerate that he commenced to collect the proofs of
recrystallization. Unfortunately for science, Mr. Voysey died shortly
after he adopted these views. Dr. Buchanan, another traveller who
visited many of the mines of India, was impressed with this idea; and
he was assured by the miners all over India that the regeneration of
diamonds is always going on in the peculiar gravel. In proof of their
statements, many men were then engaged in working over the _débris_
that had been examined many years before. An interval of fifteen years
was sufficient in their estimation to reproduce new gems, at least to a
certain extent. This reproduction, or rather, we will say, assertion of
a reproduction, reminds one of the mysterious action of the nitre beds,
which yield rich returns after a rest of a few years, and especially
those which occur among rocks which are destitute of potash.

It is to the learned Abbé Haüy we owe the theory that crystals are
made up of an assemblage of minute parts or molecules, each having the
same definite form. To the diamond especially this hypothesis may be
applied, since it is composed of thin laminæ covering or concealing
its primary form. With the aid of the skill of the artisan we can
remove these coverings one after the other, until the definite and
elementary form of the crystal be revealed. In the time of Louis
XIV. it was thought that the size of diamonds might be increased by
placing them in certain solutions, as crystals of salt are enlarged by
immersing them in solutions of the same substance. But the difficulty
then was to find the required liquid; and even at the present day we
have not yet succeeded in discovering the composition of the water of
crystallization of crystals of quartz or topaz, although Nature has
shown the fluid to us in the cavities of certain crystals.

These curious speculations which were discussed in the days of the
“Grand Monarque” are again revived by the theory that gold nuggets are
not only deposited from aqueous solutions, but are actually increasing
in size under certain influences and conditions.

But where does this metal come from? the inquirer may ask. From a
variety of sources, we may reply. Does not the water of the ocean
contain it in appreciable quantities, and did not M. Sage extract
it from the ashes of certain burned vegetable substances? We also
know for a certainty that iron is produced by vegetable vitality, but
we will not attempt to explain the manner or whence the material is
primarily derived. Cosmic dust or the invisible atoms of the atmosphere
may be the source. The origin of the gold nuggets and the particles of
gold-dust in the well-defined placers, as advanced in the hypotheses of
Raymond and Murray within the past few years, is connected very closely
with the theory of the recent formation of diamonds in similar placers.

In connection with this theme, it is proper to make a digression in
explanation of the condition and formation of the gold placers, as they
seem to be highly suggestive of the depositions of the diamond placers.
Gold is often found in the same strata with the diamonds, and the
presence of the one sometimes indicates the deposition of the other.
But this is not invariably the fact. Yet the peculiar formation in
which the metal and the gem occur leads the geologist to similar trains
of reasoning when seeking to explain their presence in the tertiary
strata of very recent times. It has been generally supposed that all
alluvial gold is the result of disintegration of the old crystalline
rocks. But we now distinguish placer gold into two kinds, as the
alluvial and that which results from decomposition of quartz reefs.
The distinction between these two qualities of the same metal arises
from differences which are quite strongly marked. The alluvial gold is
generally much purer than the reef gold; and the reefs rarely, if ever,
contain nuggets. The appearance of the nuggets and particles from the
true placers, in comparison with the gold-dust evidently set free by
aqueous action, is suggestive of a theory that they have been deposited
by different agencies.

It has been suggested by Mr. Selwyn, the Government Geologist of
Victoria, while studying these differences, that the gold nuggets found
in the drift may have been deposited from solutions containing gold by
means of electric and chemical agencies. Mr. Skey, analyst to the New
Zealand Geological Survey, has recently come to similar conclusions
from his researches on the subject. The theory is well illustrated by
the formation of crystals and masses of iron pyrites from solutions of
that metal; and as gold is often found associated, free and uncombined,
in these pyritiferous depositions, there is sufficient evidence to
believe there may be some connection in the manner of formation.

From the results of certain chemical experiments in the laboratory,
it would appear that organic matter is one of the necessary chemical
agents for the decomposition of some of the solutions of gold.
Therefore, if we assume this hypothesis to have a positive bearing
upon this question, the abundance of organic matter occurring in the
gravel beds adds to its weight as an argument. Selwyn found in the
gold-bearing drifts of Australia quantities of fragments of wood,
roots of trees, and other organic _débris_ to serve as nuclei, or as
reagents for the reduction of mineral solutions. We may introduce as
evidence the formation of iron pyrites in crystalline forms, which is
taking place at the present day under the action of sea-water. The
metal in these instances replaces the organic structure of wood, or
assumes definite forms with a particle of organic matter as a nucleus.

The formation of gold nuggets from solutions of the metal is by no
means as wonderful or difficult of explanation as some other phenomena
witnessed in metallurgy. The strange play of pseudomorphism is well
defined in some instances, if not well understood. Here we observe
that the peculiarity of form may be rigidly adhered to, while the
composition is completely changed. In the waters of certain copper
mines, drills, rings, and bars of iron that have accidentally been left
have in course of time become transformed into pure copper. The iron
of the implements has changed places with the atoms of copper held in
solution.

In connection with this interesting theory, there are some puzzling
facts to be deduced from the phenomena of the auriferous sand beds
of some of the rivers of Europe. The gold placers along the coast
of the Danube and the Rhine are situated far from the mountains,
the supposed sources of the metal, and there are also wide barren
districts intervening. The river Tesino affords no gold in its sands
until its waters have passed through and beyond Lake Maggiore. From
these and other examples, it is quite evident that the gold which
appears in these river beds has been derived from the placers through
which the rivers have passed, and not from quartz reefs in the distant
mountainous regions. The situation of these placers, with the evenness
and regularity of their deposits, also the absence of auriferous ledges
among the contiguous rocks, permit the observer to indulge in the idea
that the gold may have been deposited from solutions and not from
the decomposition of crystalline rocks. We certainly have sufficient
evidence to object to that final explanation which ascribes all these
depositions to aqueous action in distant times, and to the abrasion
of primitive mountains, the evidence of whose existence is alone and
doubtfully afforded by the _débris_ which form the strata of the gold
and diamond placers. The ancients long ago noticed the deposition of
gold in the beds of rivers; hence the phrase “The gold-breeding sands
of Pactolus.”

It has been a favorite theory with many persons of a philosophic turn
of mind that all organic forms were created upon the earth not by
mere chance or hap-hazard, nor by what have been called by the early
geologists “freaks of nature,” but, on the contrary, with some definite
intent on the part of the Creator, and perhaps for the welfare of
mankind. Some of these far-sighted thinkers have advanced their views
so far as to maintain that even obscure animal and vegetable forms
may have some indirect or distant effect upon the well-being of man.
We all must admit that it is indeed a beautiful hypothesis, even if
it be contested by stern and savage arguments. But if we indulge in
this manner of reasoning, there seems to be hardly a limit in natural
philosophy in which we may not seek for evidence.

Can we not include the subject of our treatise among those things
which are supposed to have some influence upon the moulding of human
character? Certainly its geological age, its origin, the beauties and
wonders of its physical properties, and their application to art and
science as well as to the wants of society, furnish evidence to sustain
an inference.

But how can a cold, inanimate object like a gem influence the condition
or expansion of the human intellect? the rigid materialist may say. The
gems, he will maintain, apply only to the superficial wants of man, and
directly tend to degrade rather than elevate our natural morals; that
they are articles of commerce, and that commerce debases our natural
instincts.

On the contrary, we may say that the beautiful in nature of whatever
degree is calculated to assist in the development of mental culture;
and without these beautiful lessons and examples constantly spread
out before us, man would always have remained in a state of utter
barbarism. As we look back upon the history of life, how many of the
triumphs of human architecture may be traced to the suggestions arising
from the observance of the varied forms of nature! Nearly all of the
beauties of the Gothic or Grecian styles may be found existing in the
fossil relics of by-gone ages or even in the multiple forms of existing
vegetation. What grand deductions Newton derived from his studies of
the glories of the opal and the iridescent gleams of the soap-bubble!

Let us follow our theme a little longer. In reviewing the fragmentary
remains of the early periods of the earth’s history, the observer
will admit that there has been a marked progress in even vegetable
life as well as in the animal. For in the primitive ages we find the
non-flowering plants were more numerous than the flowering species.
Therefore, in contemplating the precedence of succession of animal
and vegetable life, the thought naturally occurs to us that perhaps
the most delicate and beautiful of all our flowers elate from recent
geological periods.

We may also apply this hypothesis to the gems, and perhaps maintain
that they too have arrived at perfection by progressive stages. The
corundum, for instance, in the primitive rocks is never so pure and
perfect as the nodules and crystals found in the true gem strata of
recent formations. The emerald of the limestone is also incomparably
above the beryls of the granites. The spinels, the chrysoberyls, the
zircons, and the topazes of the gem beds are generally far superior
to those found in the old crystalline rocks. There are, however, some
plain exceptions to this plausible theory; and the finest of the
tourmalines are found in cavities in granite ledges that appear to be
of an early age.

We are also sometimes inclined to think that color in the early ages
of terrestrial life was wanting in the rich hues which now deck
animate nature. For of all the relics of the old geologic forms that
are preserved to us their colors are either greatly faded or were at
first faintly painted. Even in the tertiary division the hues are
not beautiful. The shells, however, exhibit a trace of the pearly
hue of the nacre, which may once have shone as brightly as in the
modern mollusca. Some of the fossil fishes display a gleam of the
silver tints that now glisten on the sides of the living species.
Fossil corals preserved in the marble, however, have retained the
beauty of form but lost all delicacy of hue, if they ever possessed
any. Still, absence of bright and glowing colors of the animals in
a fossil state is by no means conclusive evidence that nature was
then devoid of external decoration. For we may see on every side
how the beautiful hues of animal and vegetable life may fade and
disappear altogether on the suspension of vital activity; and also
how the process of solidification and petrifaction may modify or even
obliterate all traces of organic color. It is, however, a fact that the
richest-colored gems and minerals are found near the surface of the
earth, as though they required the direct influence of the solar rays,
like the finest varieties of colored coral and the gorgeous flowers of
vegetation.

In reflecting upon these phenomena, and in seeking for the causes that
led to the creation of the diamond, and sifting down the evidence
that science has patiently brought to light, we are naturally led to
philosophic musings. It is a singular reflection that much of our
commercial greatness is derived from luxuriant vegetations of early
ages of the earth’s history. How much pleasure, how many of the
comforts of civilization and even the necessities of life, do we owe
to the extinct fauna of by-gone ages! Even invalid man, seeking to
restore the exhausted fountains of his shattered nature in the waters
of some of the sulphur springs, quaffs the life-restoring principles
from the mineral and animal _débris_ of the lower ocean of the old
red sandstone. Here, then, is a happy adaptation of the vague and
empty theory of transmigration of the ancients,--the metempsychosis of
Empedocles. Certain elements imprisoned in the earth for ages return
again at last to reanimate exhausted man and improve his social life.
The same agency in recent times, and by natural though mysterious laws,
has produced from similar materials the gem, which seems to be quite as
necessary for the superficial wants of mankind as gold or silver.

In studying the earth’s history and examining the successive phases
of its development, we are insensibly led to the idea that all these
stages, seemingly progressive, never retrograde, were for a definite
purpose, if not for the exclusive benefit of mankind. For it is only
just before the introduction of man that some of the highest orders
of vegetation, such as the _Rosaceæ_, appear on the earth. There is
certainly a marked intent in the appearance of the pear, the apple,
plum, cherry, peach, and other fruits, with the true grasses, late in
the tertiary period.

We may also trace this suggestive progression in the development
of even insect life. In the Silurian age the hum of the insect was
unheard; and it was not until the oölitic period that this form of
animal life appeared. A fossil gem--the amber--reveals the time of the
birth of the insect dearest to man; and it was not until the eocene
change that the earth heard for the first time

  “The soft murmur of the vagrant bee.”

May we not also place in the same category of possible intents the late
deposition of the diamond? It is not so very strange, after all, when
we come to consider the vast field that lies within the range of the
argument.




                              CHAPTER V.

                       PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ETC.


Before explaining, or rather attempting to explain, the phenomena
of some of the prominent physical properties of the mineral, it is
proper that we should give a description of its forms and its natural
appearance as it is taken from the mines, so that our reader may become
more familiar with the subject. We will not, however, venture very far
among the dry details of crystallography, even if it be a subject of
great interest to the student in science. The stone which so readily
attracts the eye by its dazzling splendors after it has received a
definite form and polish from art, is seldom attractive to the view
unless it occurs in a rare and perfect form of crystallization. Even
then, in this primitive state it exhibits none of the rainbow play
of color which makes the stone so celebrated and so beautiful. In
reality, in these rare conditions it is seldom if ever so lustrous and
pleasing to the sight as crystals of many other minerals. In general,
the diamond is so obscure in its attractions that practised eyes are
required for its search.

Recently the distinguished savant Von Tschudi, in visiting some of
the diamond mines of Brazil, was unable to distinguish readily the
gems as they lay in the washed cascalho, while the trained eyes of the
negro miners picked them out with ease. It has been stated that the
diamonds are always or nearly always covered with an earthy crust of
various hues, especially greenish or yellowish, which is hardly the
fact; for what appears to be a crust is often caused by the salient
edges of the laminæ, among which a little earthy or coloring matter
has been introduced. These extraneous colors generally disappear when
the surface of the stone is removed; and, in fact, the degree of their
intensity is very much modified when the rough gem is placed in alcohol
or in any fluid of high refraction.

The dull, whitish appearance seen in the natural diamonds is also
produced by the action of fire, which raises the edges of the laminæ,
producing a faint milky aspect.

The primitive form of the mineral is the octahedron, and many irregular
masses may be reduced by cleavage to that of a double pyramid.
These octahedral crystals are sometimes as perfect in outline as a
mathematical model, with clean-cut angles and smooth faces. In some
specimens the edges may be truncated, that is, as if they had been
flattened or ground off by mechanical means. Generally, however, the
crystals are of the form of the octahedrons with rounded faces. The
dodecahedrons, with their twelve faces, and the cubes, with their
four sides, may also be reduced by cleavage to the primitive form of
the double pyramid. Sometimes two crystals are united, forming what
are called hemitrope or twin crystals. Then, again, a number may be
grouped together, assuming on the whole a globular-like mass. But they
are decidedly different from the globular, which in their form of
crystallization radiate from the centre of the crystal.

The variety of diamond called boart, or bort, deriving its name from
the supposed abortive attempt of nature to form a perfect crystal,
is also quite deficient in cleavage, or its laminæ are so irregular
as to render splitting quite impossible and the cutting of the stone
equally so. The transparency of these forms is also affected by the
arrangement of crystallization; hence they are generally crushed into
powder for polishing material or used for various purposes in the
arts. The specific gravity of these varieties seems to be influenced
by the manner of crystallization. For instances, we find that the fine
transparent crystals have a specific gravity of 3.55 (water being
considered the standard as 1), while the bort is somewhat less; and the
massive variety called the carbonado varies from 3 to 3.4, according to
the amount of earthy matter it may contain. It has also been asserted
that the blue, the green, the orange, and the red varieties are heavier
than the white. The phenomena of electricity observed in the diamond
are not remarkable, and are inferior to most of the gems. Some of the
precious stones when excited retain their electrical properties for
hours or even days, but the diamond loses it almost immediately. It
exhibits vitreous electricity when rubbed.

Much has been said and written concerning the artificial
phosphorescence exhibited by the diamond when removed to a dark room
after having been exposed for a short time to the sun’s rays. We are
not able to verify this statement, and feel inclined to doubt its
correctness, although we have been assured by experimenters of the fact.

One of the most remarkable properties of the diamond is its extreme
hardness, in which it far exceeds all known substances in the mineral
kingdom. This peculiarity is due to the substance itself, but appears
to be modified by its color and its form of crystallization like some
other minerals.

The more perfectly the crystal is formed, the easier its laminæ become
detached, and the softer the substance appears to be. In the globular
forms, which are quite deficient in cleavage planes, the hardness
is excessive, and often resists the most determined efforts of the
lapidary. Even in fine crystals we shall find that certain angles are
harder than others; and we may observe the same relative degree among
crystals of other minerals, like those of the topaz. In the large
transparent diamonds of irregular form, spots of excessive hardness are
often found. These are called by the lapidaries “knots,” and appear to
be due to a change in the process of crystallization. The coloring
matter, or the mode of its formation, seems to affect the degree of
hardness in many minerals; and in respect to the diamond, the rare
crystallized black form is harder than the limpid or lighter colored.

Some years ago a black diamond from Borneo was placed in the hand
of Gallais the lapidary, to be experimented upon at the expense of
the French Institute. The chief object of the test was to ascertain
the relative degree of hardness in comparison with some of the other
varieties of diamond. In this trial the lapidary wore out his steel
wheel and a large quantity of ordinary diamond dust without making
the least impression on the surface of the black diamond. Although
heavily loaded with weights, it lost none of its roughness, and was
heated almost to whiteness by the friction of the wheel, which revolved
with great velocity. During the period of this extreme velocity it is
reported that a shower of sparks was emitted; but how shall we account
for this scintillation, when the ordinary transparent diamond does not
give forth sparks when struck by steel?

The carbonado, which is amorphous and without cleavage, is also
extremely hard. The term “adamas,” which the ancients bestowed upon it
as denoting an invincible infrangibility, is not quite appropriate; for
although it is far superior in hardness to all other known substances,
it is in reality very fragile. And in the power to resist the effect
of shock it is also inferior to some of the other gems, and especially
the sapphire. Therefore several mineralogists have thought that the
ancients really applied the term to steel or to some of the varieties
of corundum, like the ruby and the sapphire, and not the diamond.
It is curious that this property should be ascribed erroneously to
the diamond for so many ages, when a trifling experiment would have
disclosed the real condition of things. In the days of the poet
Lucretius the gem was believed to be able to resist violent blows.

                      ----“adamantina saxa
  Prima acie constant, ictus contemnere sueta.”

Pliny entertained the same idea, and also that its infrangibility
could be overcome only by first steeping it in goats’ blood. Even in
mediæval times Ben Mansur, the Persian mineralogist, gravely states
that a diamond laid upon the anvil and struck by a hammer would not
be broken, but would be driven by the violence of the blow into the
substance of the anvil. This stupid but wide-spread idea has prevailed
even in modern times; and many a gem has been sacrificed by the
ignorant in testing the character of the stone. The brittleness of the
gem is partly due to its singular cleavage, which in regular crystals
is so perfect and uniform as to permit the lapidary to remove the
laminæ so as to entirely demolish the structure of the crystal. But
when once accomplished, no artisan, however skilful, can replace them
again. The facility with which the stone may be separated was known in
ancient times among the Hindoos, and probably in Europe as early as the
sixteenth century, as De Boot knew of a physician who could divide the
diamond into thin scales like a piece of talc; but it was forgotten
until Wollaston not many years ago stumbled upon the secret of cleavage
and made it known to modern science.

The real charm and value of the diamond lie in its remarkable
brilliancy, and in the wonderful prismatic display of the bright and
beautiful colors, which are constantly fugitive, but perpetually
returning, as the learned Abbé Haüy elegantly expresses it. When a
ray of light is reflected from the surface of a body, a particular
impression is conveyed to the eye, which we may properly term the
eclat. This impression is often so decided and so varied in its
effects, that we are able to distinguish certain substances at a
glance; and the reflection from the diamond exhibits a peculiarity
which is seen only in a very few substances. This is known as the
adamantine flash, and none of the gems display it to any marked degree
except the rare zircon. We witness the perfection of this property in
the black and opaque but crystallized diamond, when faceted by art; and
also in some few minerals of which we shall soon make mention. When
the rays of light are refracted, after passing through the transparent
diamond after it has been cut in a certain manner, and its facets
are arranged in an exact relation to each other, then we obtain
the remarkable exhibition of color which is known as the prismatic
display. This singular property is seen in perfection, or even to any
considerable degree, only in the diamond, among all the gems thus
far known. But art, however, has succeeded in imitating it in one
of her productions of glass, and so admirably, that under favorable
circumstances it is quite impossible for the eye alone to distinguish
the artificial from the real gem. Some of the theories relating to the
causes of these phenomena we will discuss hereafter, and at the present
will only say that it is to modern science the diamond owes the full
development of its latent beauty; and that the result was not attained
until Newton demonstrated the laws that govern the refraction of light.
It is only in the brilliant and rose-cut forms, or their modifications,
when made with mathematical precision, that the brilliancy and beauty
of the stone is displayed in perfection. The ancients, therefore, were
not acquainted with the full splendors of the gem. For, being ignorant
of the laws of refraction of light, they polished the stone chiefly
with the view of preserving its greatest weight; and, at the same time,
producing perfect transparency. Hence most of the specimens of ancient
and barbaric art are rudely cut, and therefore do not exhibit the
degree of beauty which is latent in the mineral. This is also one of
the reasons why the luxurious Romans preferred the opal to the diamond,
since the polished, or even the rude specimens of opal exhibited their
glorious reflections of wondrous hues, both by day and in artificial
light by night; while the diamond, with its natural or polished faces,
gave forth no prismatic display in the daylight, and but a slight
degree comparatively in artificial light at night.

Whence arises this remarkable brilliancy, and to what particular cause
is the property due? This inquiry has afforded a fruitful theme of
speculation among philosophers, but at the present time we are content
to say that the refractive power of the gem is due to the nature of its
substance. This is somewhat indefinite, it is true, but what else can
we say?

Under the general belief that the harder the gem the higher its
refractive powers would be, it has been maintained that the brilliancy
of the diamond arose from the simple property of its excessive
hardness. Investigation, however, does not sustain this widespread
view. Hardness, indeed, may have considerable relation with the
arrangement and form of the molecules composing the gem, for in the
same crystal it is not uniform,--some faces and angles being harder
than others,--but it does not determine the degree of brilliancy. To
strengthen this statement we will take for instances the soft minerals,
crocroisite, the chromate of lead; the Greenockite, the sulphuret of
cadmium; and the octahedrite, the oxide of titanium, which exceed even
the diamond in brilliancy. There are also other decided examples among
the transparent minerals to sustain this view; the most remarkable
of which perhaps may be found in the zircon, a gem which is soft
as quartz; yet it ranks next to the diamond in brightness, and far
surpasses in eclat every other gem, even the sapphire, which is next
to the diamond in hardness. Density does not seem to have anything to
do with the determination of the refractive power of gems, for the
garnet, spinel, sapphire, and zircon are much heavier than the diamond,
and are yet far inferior in brilliancy. The topaz is exactly of the
same specific gravity as the diamond (3.55), but nevertheless its
refractive powers have but little more than one half the energy of the
diamond. The relative brilliancy of the diamond to that of the purest
limpid quartz is 8 to 3; but the relative density is only as 4 to 3.
All diamonds do not exhibit the same degree of brilliancy, because
they do not possess alike the same quality of purity or perfection of
crystallization.

We often observe among the minerals that the most perfect specimens
are found of a diminutive size; and we shall also find that the finest
and purest types of the diamond occur in stones of little weight. The
larger crystals, or amorphous masses, seem to be wanting in purity
and brightness as compared with the lesser; and this peculiarity may
be observed well marked in some of the other gems. Here, then, we may
find material for the argument that the degree of brilliancy is in a
measure due to the perfection of the crystallization of the stone;
and, therefore, the larger and coarser the laminæ of the crystal the
less will be its brightness. One thing, however, is certain; that the
most brilliant gems are obtained from stones of no great weight, and
which also seem, from their form, to indicate a nodular arrangement of
particles in their formation; or, in other words, a certain concentric
manner of crystallization. This form of deposition is not peculiar
to the diamond, but is clearly shown in the sapphires, topazes,
chrysoberyls, tourmalines; and the finest specimens of these gems are
cut from these nodular forms. We think we are correct in stating that
the greatest brilliancy and the most beautiful prismatic display may
be observed in diamonds of less than ten karats in weight. In fact,
the diminution of brilliancy in the gem, when above twenty karats,
is easily discerned by the eye alone, as compared with the vivid and
adamantine flash of a pure and perfect four or eight karat stone. The
same peculiarity may be observed in the little globular masses of the
chrysoberyl, which are seldom larger than a pea in size, but which,
when cut, exhibit flashes of fire which are only equalled or excelled
by the diamond, or the rarer zircon. We can hardly realize that the
little rounded pebbles of white topaz, known as _gouttes d’eau_, “drops
of water,” will yield gems of such lustre as to be often exhibited,
and even sold for the diamond. Yet the larger irregular masses, or
finely crystallized specimens of the same mineral, do not afford gems
of unusual brilliancy. In these instances we may affirm that the form
or mode of crystallization has something to do with the degree of
brilliancy.

The prismatic play of color which this gem alone possesses to any
considerable degree constitutes its chief charm, and its cause has
been a matter of earnest study among opticians. A plausible theory has
lately been advanced by an English philosopher that the colored rays
are produced by the relation of the high refractive to its very low
dispersive power. For instance, this refractive power in the diamond,
or, in other words, its property of bending a ray of light falling
obliquely upon its surface, is 2.439, while that of water is only
1.336, and that of glass 1.500. But its power of dispersing a ray of
white light, or, in other words, of separating it into its compound
colors in reference to its refractive power, is only 0.038, while
that of glass is 0.052. Hence it is surmised that this inferiority
of dispersive power is required for the production of the splendid
colored reflections which constitute the glory of the gem. It is also
maintained that this high refractive power separates the red and the
blue rays more than a high dispersive power would in other transparent
bodies, and to such degree as to allow each color of the spectrum its
full force. As example, the zircon, with its inferior reflections, is
offered, its refraction being 1.99 on the established scale, while its
dispersive power is as high as 0.044. The relations of the spinel are
also as 1.81 to 0.040, and neither does the gem display the rainbow
hues. This theory is certainly ingenious, and if correct the test
may be applied to other transparent minerals possessing similar
relations. We may, therefore, expect the white garnet to exhibit the
property of prismatic display, as it has a refractive power of 1.81 and
a dispersive power of 0.033. But, unfortunately, perfectly pure and
transparent white garnets are unknown, and we must therefore turn to
other minerals for comparison.

To the white tourmaline, then, we will apply the test, since this
mineral has a refractive power of 1.66, with a dispersive power of
only 0.028. Here, then, we have nearly the same relation as observed
in the diamond; and, if the theory be correct, we may reasonably
expect the exhibition of the same phenomena. But, upon examination of
several perfectly white and transparent tourmalines from Mt. Mica,
cut into regular brilliants, we have failed to detect an increase of
prismatic display, or even discover any evidence to lend support to
the plausibility of the hypothesis. We, therefore, reluctantly turn to
other arguments for a solution of this most interesting problem.

The snow-white diamond displays the rainbow hues in the greatest
perfection; and this is the reason why this quality is sought for in
preference to the light buff or deeper yellow, which are in reality
more brilliant. The deeper the hue of the gem, the less becomes the
prismatic display; and when the diamond becomes of deep and decided
hue, the colored reflections cease altogether. It is somewhat
singular that the colored gems are generally more brilliant than the
pure white, that is, if the color is not so deep as to affect the
transparency of the stone. For examples, we shall find that the white
sapphire has an index of refraction equal to 1.768, while the blue has
1.794, and the red 1.779. The refractive of the white topaz is 1.610,
while the yellow is 1.632.

The brilliancy and rainbow play of the diamond is not so apparent by
daylight as by certain kinds of artificial light, when all its latent
beauties are called forth as if by magic. The light of the camp-fire in
the obscurity of night produces a marvellous effect upon the polished
stone; and it is no wonder that the savage heart of the Russian
General, Suvaroff, was fascinated by the vivid gleams of his treasured
diamonds when viewed at night in the flickering beams of his bivouac
fire. It may seem singular that the brilliant white light of gas does
not display the qualities of the diamond as the duller flame of the wax
candle. The secret lies, perhaps, in the difference in their spectra.
Nevertheless, there is a great difference in their effects upon the
gem, and it is a fact that the wax candle far exceeds the gaslight in
calling forth the latent splendors of the gem. Therefore, we can assert
that the brilliancy of toilets where the diamond is much worn depends
greatly upon the manner of illuminating the apartment.

We now come to another interesting problem in the study of the nature
of the diamond. We refer to the various colors of the gem. As we have
maintained that the mineral is of vegetable origin we may be expected
to explain the phenomena of its color upon this hypothesis, and also
account for the various changes of the gem when exposed to the effects
of heat or the fire test. But we must admit with candor that our views
concerning this physical property are decidedly unsatisfactory, and
shall refer the reader to one of the chapters in our treatise on the
Tourmaline, in which are grouped some of the theories relating to the
subject. In fact, we may repeat the remarks of Huyghens, who said at
the end of the seventeenth century: “In spite of the labors of Newton,
no one has yet fully discovered the cause of the color of bodies.”
“We must, then,” says M. Babinet, “admire, without penetrating their
secret, the unparalleled red of the Oriental ruby, the pure yellow of
the topaz, the unmingled greenness of the emerald, the soft blue of the
sapphire, and the rich violet of the amethyst. This is not the only
thing the discovery of which we shall leave to posterity.”

The color-suite of the mineral is much more extensive and varied than
has been generally admitted by mineralogists. We are led to infer from
their works that white is the prevailing hue of the gem; but Beudant
declares that perfect limpidity and whiteness is rare comparatively,
and that the stone is generally affected with yellowish or brownish
tints. But what becomes of the vast numbers of these clouded or tinged
and inferior gems, if the mines yield so many of them in comparison
with the snow-white? Are they consumed in polishing others, or
expended in the arts, or have the lapidaries secret processes by which
these objectionable tints are expunged from the stone?

Barbot, the French jeweller, declares that, by means of certain
particular and energetic agents, aided by a proper degree of heat, he
is able to remove the greens of all shades, the light-red, and the
yellow, when the coloring matter is superficial, or even situated
between the external laminæ. We are inclined to believe Barbot in this
particular reference, especially as he admits that he is unable to
change much the deep-yellow, the brown, and the smoky-tinted stones.
Of the yellow tints, the diamond affords the most beautiful examples,
and far surpasses in variety all the other gems, with the exception
perhaps of quartz. To the yellow topaz it is decidedly superior in its
range of shades, and in some of its chrome-like tints it is without
an equal among the gems. This hue of chrome mixed with a faint tinge
of green is a delicate, yet gorgeous, shade, and is not often seen.
Stones of a canary-yellow are quite common, and perfect resemblances to
the Brazilian topaz are not rare. From these hues they pass insensibly
into brown and black. The transparent light-brown stones are often
modified in hue when exposed to the action of heat, and some of them
exhibit remarkable changes of color. M. Halpen, in 1866, exhibited to
the French Academy of Sciences a singular diamond of this description.
It was a stone of sixty grains weight, and of a whitish hue tinged
slightly with brown. But when it was exposed to the action of heat it
changed its tint to a fine rose-color, and retained it for six or eight
days, when it gradually returned to its natural hue. This remarkable
effect was not an accidental result, but was tried five times at the
Academy with success and without injury to the stone. In other colored
diamonds the action of fire often produces permanent effects, and
sometimes a brownish hue is converted into a decided red color. Buckman
saw a diamond with a large brown spot in its interior change to a
beautiful red, like that of the Balais ruby, after the stone had been
placed in borax and exposed to a red heat. Another stone, however, of
similar appearance, likewise exposed, changed to a permanent black,
to the great injury of the gem and dismay of the experimenter. The
red varieties of this mineral are rarely of deep tints, but when they
exhibit a decided red color they form the most gorgeous of gems. The
largest and finest of this description known is the ten-karat stone
purchased by the Emperor Paul of Russia for one hundred thousand
roubles. This gem may be considered the marvel of the mineral kingdom.
The princely collection of the late Mr. Hope possessed one of a
blood-red garnet shade, also a fine twelve and a half karat stone of an
apricot hue, besides several others of a beautiful hyacinth red, or of
a lilac pink.

The celebrated cabinet of gems belonging to the late Marquis de Drée
contained a large and beautiful rose-colored diamond. Prince Riccia,
of Naples, acquired in 1830 a very fine rose-colored brilliant of
fifteen karats weight. M. Halpen, in 1838, exhibited a magnificent
gem of this description of twenty-two and a half karats. Among the
crown jewels of France there are several splendid brilliants of a
peach-blossom hue, and there are also quite a number to be seen among
the princely caskets of Europe. It is, however, somewhat remarkable
that this gem, although possessing several shades of red, never, or
very rarely, occurs of a decided violet or purple color. Diamonds of a
light aqua-marine of greenish and bluish tints are not rare, but those
of a positive grass-green color are uncommon. Perfect stones of decided
green form the most magnificent gems of this color. The velvety green
flashed forth by the extraordinary power of the stone surpasses beyond
comparison the finest emeralds with their duller reflections. In fact,
we may term the splendid green diamond of forty karats, now in the
Green Vaults at Dresden, as being one of the five paragons among all
the gems of the world.

In the Museum of Natural History in Paris there are some small diamonds
of very fine shades of green, which were collected by the celebrated
Werner. Some of the diamonds which have a slight milky hue, when cut
so as to allow the play of light within the stone, present a very
beautiful appearance. The varied flashes of colored rays, in contrast
with the duller hues of the stone, appear like the charming effects of
the finest specimens of Siberian adularia, and are therefore entitled
to the name of aventurine diamonds.

The asterism, or star-like form of six rays, which is so beautifully
displayed by the sapphire when it assumes a certain form of internal
arrangement of crystallization, is sometimes, though very rarely,
witnessed in the diamond. There is one of this description to be seen
in the Museum of the _Jardin des Plantes_ in Paris.

The diamond is rarely found of a perfect shade of blue; but there are
now in Europe several magnificent gems of this description. Foremost of
all of them stood the famous blue diamond of 67²⁄₁₆ karats, belonging
to the French crown. This marvel of Nature’s work, with two other
diamonds of paler hue and lesser weight,--thirty-one and ten karats
respectively,--disappeared on that fatal night of September, 1792,
and have never since been discovered. At the present day, the finest
known is that which belongs to the princely collection of the late Mr.
Hope, and weighs 44¹⁄₄ karats. It is of a fine blue; but exhibits that
steel-like tint which is so often seen in sapphires. The next in value
and beauty is that which is preserved at Munich. It is a magnificent
gem of thirty-six karats weight, and of superb color.

The crystallized black diamond is a very rare stone; and, when
polished, it forms a unique gem, since it exhibits a remarkable
brilliancy, proceeding, as it were, from darkness itself. We do not now
refer to the compact variety, known as carbon or carbonado, which is
never found except in the amorphous form, but the crystalline variety,
which is of greater density and more homogeneous. The famous collector,
Dogni, possessed a very fine specimen of this kind which had been cut
with small facets, and exhibited a vivid eclat. It afterwards came into
the possession of Mr. Bapst, who disposed of it to Louis XVIII. for
the sum of twenty-four thousand francs. A large and unique diamond,
almost black, formerly belonged to the late Duke of York. Several of
the European mineralogical cabinets have interesting and valuable
collections of colored diamonds; but the finest is to be seen in the
Imperial Cabinet of Minerals at Vienna. This beautiful and complete
series, which illustrates the great range of the color-suite of the
gem, was the life-long labor of a Tyrolese gentleman, by the name of
Helmreicher. This enthusiastic amateur went to Brazil, and passed most
of his life in the mines, searching for the gems.

We will not fatigue our readers with long quotations of authors and
philosophers concerning the spiritual properties of this gem; but we
will briefly say, that a well-selected compilation of all these views
and speculations, extending back to very early times, would form a
chapter by itself, and quite as interesting as absurd. Even the good
sense of the Latin philosopher Pliny was affected so far as to indulge
in the belief that the gem was not only an antidote to poison, but also
freed the mind from vain fears. Late in mediæval times, the adamas
was invested with supernatural powers, and regarded as a spiritual
creation. And even in the commencement of the seventeenth century
Boetius de Boot, in his treatise on gems, asserts that the diamond
possesses wonderful metaphysical properties; but remarks that they do
not reside in the stone _per se_, but belong to the angelic spirits
whom it has pleased the Almighty to connect, in a mysterious manner,
with certain substances in nature.




                              CHAPTER VI.

                 THE TURKISH CASKET AND ANCIENT GEMS.


The Sultan of Turkey is said to possess many wonderful diamonds
and other gems among the regalia and ornaments treasured up in the
strongholds of the Seraglio; but very little is known, definitely and
positively, concerning them.

In 1840 the Sultan granted a firman to the Duke of Devonshire and a
party of friends, permitting them to examine the court-jewels. One
of this party, my illustrious kinsman Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, has recently
described to me the impression they made upon his memory, more than
thirty years ago. The number of articles was too great, and their
effect too dazzling, for the memory to be able to particularize them
after so long an interval of time. He remembers that in two strongly
built rooms, and displayed on mats, or cushions of velvet, were a
vast number of decorations and insignia, crescents, tiaras, clasps,
and necklaces, etc. Among the latter was one of wondrous beauty and
perfection, which the Sultan wished to present to the Princess of
Wales on her visit to Stamboul. The beautiful Princess wore it at the
reception she gave the Sultan and his cabinet, but for various reasons
was obliged to return the magnificent gift.

Among the arms of former Sultans were the swords of Al-u-deen, and
Solyman the Magnificent. Besides their historical renown, they
were interesting on account of their superb workmanship, and their
decorations with gems of wonderful beauty.

In 1880 an American traveller was admitted to a view of some of the
rooms in the Treasury of the Seraglio, and from memory of what he saw
there wrote the following description:--

 “In the centre of the first room is a throne. It is a platform
 about two and one half feet square, with a cushion of cloth-of-gold
 embroidered with pearls, rubies, and diamonds. Around three sides of
 the cushion is a low rail supported by miniature columns, and standing
 about eight inches high. The whole body of the throne is overlaid
 with plates of gold, and the rail is studded with clusters of rubies
 symmetrically arranged. The first thought that strikes one on seeing
 this throne is the surpassing value of its jewels, and the second is
 the superlative discomfort of the concern viewed as a resting-place.
 The rail, which answers for arms and back, is perpendicular and
 rectangular, and could rest neither the arms nor the back of the
 enthroned Sultan. Uneasy the man that sits the throne, must be the
 Turkish equivalent of the proverb concerning the wearer of the crown.
 In one corner of the room is another throne, said to be the throne
 of Nadir Shah, of Persia. It is of some dark wood, delicately inlaid
 with ivory and pearl, and has a canopy of the same materials, from the
 centre of which hangs a great gold ball decorated with precious stones.

 “In one of the cabinets is the cradle of the imperial babies. It
 stands low on its rockers, like the cradles now in use in Turkey. The
 two ends rise a foot above the mattress, and are connected at the top
 by a bar which runs lengthwise of the cradle. The whole is of solid
 gold, and the outside of the cradle is crusted with pearls, diamonds,
 rubies, and turquoises.

 “In one of the galleries are the effigies of all the Sultans of
 Turkey down to Mahmoud the Reformer. The figures are dressed in what
 professes to be the state robes actually worn by the Sultans whom
 they represent. The costumes are all different, and differ very
 much in cut, indicating the changes of fashion during the last five
 hundred years. But all these dresses agree in the feature of richness.
 Cloth-of-gold and silk brocade are the materials, and many of the
 figures are weighed down with jewels. The swords or daggers which all
 of the figures wear are especially magnificent in their display of
 precious stones. The dagger of Sultan Mahomet II., the conqueror of
 Constantinople, has in its handle an emerald full two inches long and
 an inch thick. I use the adjective ‘thick’ advisedly, for solidity of
 splendor is the impression left on the mind by that emerald. All of
 these gentlemen wore large turbans, and bedecked their turbans with
 diamonds. The only exceptions are seen in the case of the boy Sultan,
 Osman II., who was killed by his janissaries before he had attained
 man’s estate, and in the case of Sultan Mahmoud, the Reformer,
 who alone of all his kinsmen appears in European broadcloth. His
 head-dress is the fez cap, with a plume of bird-of-paradise feathers
 fastened in place by a great spray of diamonds.

 “But there is no such thing as describing in detail the splendors
 of these rooms. There are antique arms and armor heavy with gold
 and jewels; there are innumerable horse-trappings and saddles,
 covered with plates of gold and studded with emeralds, rubies,
 topazes, diamonds, and pearls; there are saddle-cloths embroidered
 with precious stones. Several sofa-covers hang in the cabinets as
 background to the smaller articles. They are worth $150,000 apiece,
 and are heavy cloth-of-gold embroidered with seed pearls. In one of
 the cabinets are three uncut emeralds, the largest being the size of
 a man’s fist, and the smallest larger than a hen’s egg. The birds of
 the palace realized the experience of dwelling in cages of gold, for
 here they hang,--these ancient cages of gold wire. Some of the cages
 have a clock in the bottom, face downward, so that the royal household
 might see the time of day as they lolled on the divans beneath. The
 Imperial Princes appear to have gone to school in childhood, for here
 are the satchels in which they carried their books,--bags of velvet
 embroidered with gold and pearls and diamonds. In another place you
 see many mottoes from the Koran, embroidered in diamonds on red
 velvet. There are amber mouthpieces for pipes, studded with diamonds
 and rubies. There are coffee-sets and tea-sets of all degrees of
 magnificence; and vases of crystal and agate and onyx,--some of these
 profusely bejewelled. There are inkstands and snuff-boxes innumerable,
 all glittering with priceless gems. There are royal knives and forks
 and spoons of solid gold, with jewels on their handles. There is an
 immense array of clocks. One would suppose that every Sultan had his
 private clock, which ceased to tick when his heart stopped beating.

 “Among the articles in this imperial treasure-house are many
 which must be regarded simply as toys. Of such is a tea-set of
 tortoise-shell as thin as paper. Another toy is a lady’s parasol of
 white silk exquisitely embroidered with gold, the staff of which is
 a single branch of coral so long and true and well adapted to its
 purpose that one might search years and fail to find its like. There
 are also very many fans of varying degrees of splendor. Another one of
 the toys is a figure of a sultan seated on his throne under a golden
 canopy ribbed with alternate rubies and emeralds. The whole structure
 is, perhaps, six inches high. The body of the figure is a single
 huge pearl, the lower extremities are carved from a blue turquoise,
 and the turban is a solid mass of diamonds. There is literally no
 end to the marvels of this place. After every conceivable use has
 been made of jewels, the surplus unmounted stones are gathered by
 handfuls into crystal bowls at one end of the cabinets in the second
 room. The spoils of all the empires which preceded the Ottoman Empire
 are heaped up in these two dingy stone rooms in the old Seraglio at
 Constantinople.

 “It requires some time fully to realize the enormous wealth of this
 treasure-house. But slowly one becomes convinced that these treasures
 can only be the accumulation of centuries, and represent the heritage
 of the Ottomans from all their predecessors. Once assured of this,
 the traveller will find a peculiar fitness in the aspect and attitude
 of the guards of the place. They stand, dressed in spotless black
 broadcloth, four or five feet apart, in line along the cabinets,
 perfectly motionless. And they are solemn of countenance, as if
 standing by the catafalque of some deceased monarch lying in state for
 the homage of his subjects.

 “I first visited this place shortly after the late war with Russia.
 The Turkish Government was in sore straits for the means of daily
 existence. The Sultan had just sent his gold and silver plate to the
 mint to be coined in order to buy up the depreciated paper currency.
 The people of whole districts were at the verge of starvation because
 the $80,000,000 of paper money in circulation had lost its purchasing
 power. I was naturally incredulous as to the reality of what I had
 seen. If these jewels were real, their value must be sufficient to pay
 off the dishonored bonds of Turkey. It did not seem reasonable that
 the Turkish Government could have passed through such straits as those
 to which it had been reduced by the war without having recourse to
 their treasure-house. Multitudes of articles in those rooms have an
 immense antique and artistic value entirely aside from their intrinsic
 value.

 “I spoke in this strain to one of the officers of the Imperial Ottoman
 Bank, and he replied that the jewels were unquestionably genuine.
 He said that during the war the Turks borrowed $30,000,000 from
 the bank. The loan was to be secured by pledge of jewels from this
 treasure-house, and the bank officials were told to help themselves
 from its riches. They selected enough of the jewels to guarantee them
 amply against loss. These jewels were packed in three small boxes and
 removed to the vaults of the bank. But their removal left no gap in
 the great accumulation. Afterward I asked a Turk why the Government
 did not sell this treasure and be at ease. ‘Sell it?’ said the Turk;
 ‘why, it is the treasure of all the Sultans! It cannot be sold.’

 “So there is this treasure-house to-day--a grand relic of ancient
 splendor--in the hands of the broken, ruined remnant of the house of
 Osman. The possession of this enormous wealth must be a terrible
 temptation at times to the worn man who wears the Sacred Sword of
 Turkey. But he clings to it through all his adversity, for it is the
 only relic left to the Empire of the glory of its past.”

Two of the oldest authenticated diamonds in Europe belong to the
Sultan. One of them, a beautiful stone of twenty-four karats, and
which adorns the aigrette of the Imperial plume on days of parade, was
found in Constantinople in the time of Mahomet IV. It was picked up
by a poor man upon a heap of dirt not far from the gate of Egrikapon.
The finder had no idea of the value of his treasure, and sold it for a
trifle. Passing through the hands of several purchasers, the gem was
finally brought to the notice of the guild of goldsmiths, when its true
character was made known. It was then seized by the Grand Vizier and
annexed to the Imperial treasures by an edict. The other diamond, which
is of greater beauty and weight, was found by a child playing in the
Haiwanserai, or the Hebdomon, during the reign of Mahomet II., or about
the middle of the fifteenth century. It was believed by the antiquaries
that these gems belonged to the treasures of ancient Byzantium, and
that the last may have adorned the crown of the Byzantine emperors.
This jewel was lost by the fault of the masters of the wardrobe on the
place of the Hebdomon during a triumphal march in the twenty-second
year of the reign of Justinian, or 548 A.D. We can learn nothing more
concerning the condition of these diamonds when found, but infer that
they were polished, otherwise they probably would not have attracted
the notice of the finders.

Lamartine and other historians of the Ottoman Empire allude to its
treasury as in reality a wonderful museum of art, whose wealth is
unknown and perhaps incalculable. They state that in four vast
apartments beneath the Seraglio, vaulted subterraneously to shelter
them from the ravages of fire, are collected the sacred relics, the
jewels, the gems, and a great variety of objects of value that have
accumulated since the origin of the monarchy. The antiquary may well
say in viewing this collection of treasure, “The spoils of the universe
are here represented.” For whatever of value and historic worth was
saved from the wreck of Rome or preserved from the accumulations of
the Greek conquests was gathered at Byzantium. In this fatal Acropolis
at the extreme point of the continent of Europe, the Greek Empire
had indeed collected all its monuments, all its masterpieces, all
its riches, as if to tempt fate and render the prize all the more
glittering to the eyes of the Ottomans.

Many, if not the most, of these priceless relics and treasures fell
into the clutches of the Turks when Constantinople was won. Nothing
escaped at that time. There is no doubt but that many remarkable gems
were captured at this period, but concerning their nature and their
value history has left us but little more than conjecture.

However, the historians speak definitely of the Greek emperors during
their prosperity as displaying a magnificence worthy of the luxurious
periods of Rome. The costumes of these rulers are described as marvels
of art, and their jewels as of inestimable price. The accounts remind
the reader of the descriptions left by Claudian of the treasures of
Theodosius:--

  “Sidonian mantles rich with purple fold,
  Belts bossed with pearls, robes stiff with gems and gold,
  And breastplates shining green with emeralds bright,
  And helmets rich with precious sapphires dight.”

That diamonds were then used as gems and held in high estimation may
be inferred from the single remark of the indignant historian, “One
man buys entire Syria with the diamonds of his wife.” Perhaps the word
diamond was thus used figuratively, and the expression referred to gems
and jewels in general.

Besides these accumulations of the Greeks, much of the spoil collected
by Timour in his merciless sack of India and Persia came afterwards
into the possession of the Emirs of Asiatic Turkey, and eventually
drifted to Constantinople. What these treasures were may be imagined
from the glowing descriptions given by the historians of the last
scenes of the life and reign of the great Tatar conqueror. The
magnificent fêtes given by Timour on his return to Samarcand after the
conquest of Arabia and Eastern Turkey, surpassed in historic splendor
even the descriptions of Oriental fable. In the gigantic palace
erected by him during the days of leisure between his conquests, and
which was one of the marvels of the architectural world, he celebrated
in a single day the marriage of six of his grandsons. The spoils of the
universe were displayed in the decorations of the marriage feasts. The
wealth of the Indies had been transferred to the home of the Tatar.
Pearls, sapphires, and diamonds were showered in profusion upon the
married pairs. Nine times did they change their apparel, and, arrayed
in different solid cinctures of a tissue of pearls and diamonds,
present themselves to the view of Timour,--the last festivities of the
great Tatar chieftain.

This wonderful display of mediæval times recalls to the mind of
the antiquary the magnificent marriage feasts of Alexander and his
eighty lieutenants with their beautiful Persian brides. This historic
festivity took place in Persia 324 B. C., when the Greek army returned
from India, and continued for five days. Like that of Timour, it
displayed in its magnificence the gems and art treasures of conquered
Asia. The diamond, however, does not appear. Art evidently had not
then acquired the process by which the natural and rough crystal is
developed into a gem of sparkling and lustrous beauty. And the selected
brides, to enhance their natural charms, wore pearls, emeralds, rubies,
and turquoises wreathed among their tresses of hair, or in their
necklaces, amulets, anklets, and bracelets.

Among the treasures supposed to be gathered in these catacombs, of
an Empire’s wealth at Constantinople, there is one especially dear
to the _dilettante_,--the wondrous ring of Ahmed. Vanquished in the
long, bloody, and desperate battle fought upon the slopes of Olympus
when entire Turkey was the prize, Ahmed offered to his victorious
brother Selim I. a single gem to purchase the honors of a tomb. This
precious stone was set in a ring richly chased in gold, and was the
gift of Bajazet II. to the most beloved of his children. It was as
dear as the ring Solomon wore, and which was gifted with wonderful
powers extending even to the invisible world. But it was as fatal as
that which Polycrates cast into the sea as an offering to the gods for
his long-continued prosperity. History does not mention the nature of
this remarkable treasure, nor relate whether it was diamond, sapphire,
or emerald. However, we may glean some idea as to its rarity and
beauty from the statement that the Genoese jewellers who were then the
gem-venders of the world placed its value at a year’s revenue of all
Asia Minor.

The antiquary may also find among these dusty and forgotten collections
some of the lost gems and beautiful works of art of ancient Rome, or,
perhaps, the rich ornaments brought home by the Macedonian soldiers
from their Eastern triumphs, or the holy relics which the Arabs removed
from the Gothic treasury at Toledo, and concealed in their fortresses
and fastnesses of Syria. In mediæval times the precious stones and all
that was marvellous in decorative art that fell into the hands of the
Genoese and Venetian merchants went to Constantinople to adorn the
magnificence of the Turkish nobles. Whatever the Mamelukes had gathered
together in their treasury in Egypt, rescued from the dust of the
catacombs, or wrested from the isolated strongholds of Western Africa,
was seized by one fell swoop of the Turkish horsemen and transferred to
the Bosphorus.

The extravagance of the Turkish nobility during some of the brilliant
reigns of the Empire was extreme, and seems to belong to the golden
age of fable rather than to the truthful periods of history. We can
form some idea of the wealth of these favorites of the Sultans from the
glowing descriptions left by the Ottoman historians.

Sinan-Pasha, the Turkish Marius, seven times exiled and seven times
consul, yet dying at last at eighty while conducting the army
to Hungary, left a heritage worthy of a king. Among his immense
possessions the historian enumerates thirty-two cuirasses incrusted
with rubies, fifteen strings of huge pearls, sixty bushels of fine
pearls, seven tablecloths bespangled with diamonds, all accumulated
during campaigns in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Another potentate,
the Grand Vizier Sokolli, exhibited a love of magnificence worthy
of the most reckless Roman profligates. His garden, near Tokat, was
the wonder of Asia Minor, and was called the garden of Paradise,
“Djennet-bagni.” Its parterres, instead of being covered with natural
flowers, sparkled with rubies and precious stones imitating the form
of flowers and surpassing them in splendor. This unique display of art
was finally destroyed by the victorious barbarian hordes from Asia,
and the beautiful imitations of flowering vegetation were borne off
to the distant steppes to be transferred into ornaments for arms and
horse-gear.

In forming a conjecture of the value of the treasures of the Turkish
Seraglio, the antiquary naturally and justly recalls to memory the
magnificence of early history and the numerous spoliations of ancient
nations that eventually fell into the grasp of the Greek and Roman
Emperors. Let us follow briefly the historian among some of the
fragments of history which relate to this subject, and seem to indicate
that the treasures of the earth gathered during the last two thousand
years in reality drifted in course of time and by the fortunes of war
to the Greek Capitol. It is the sad epitome of man’s greatness and his
insignificance. For the pillage which graced the triumphs of the Greek
and Roman arms not only represented the peaceful industry of nations,
but they were also often the memorials of the destruction of the
earth’s fairest hopes.

Rome, in the height of her glory, displayed a magnificence worthy of
the valor of her arms and the magnitude of her conquests. Her temples
were profusely decorated with gems, and her nobles vied with each other
in the possession of the rare and the beautiful. At times the Coliseum
exhibited the wealth of the nation and the liberality of its rulers.
The poet who describes the games of Carinus affirms that the porticos
of the immense edifice were gilded, and the extensive circles which
divided the ranks of spectators from each other were studded with a
precious mosaic of beautiful stones,--

  “Balteus in gemmis in lita portico aureo
  Certatim radiant,” etc.

In the triumphs of Rome the spoils of the last conquest were not only
displayed, but the accumulated riches of the Empire were ostentatiously
exhibited to view at the same time.

To give the reader an idea of the magnificence of these celebrations,
we will describe the triumphal entry into the eternal city by Aurelian
when returning from the conquest of Palmyra and the nations situated
along the great commercial highways to Asia. This was one of the
greatest of the Roman triumphs, and spread a dazzling glory over the
name of the conqueror. The pomp was opened by the stately procession of
twenty enormous elephants, followed by four royal tigers and more than
two hundred of the most curious animals from all parts of the world.
Then came a fierce and haughty band of sixteen hundred gladiators,
selected for their beauty, strength, and skill. The wealth of Asia
followed this vanguard of brute strength. Displayed in charming
arrangement or carelessly heaped in immense piles, the spectators
witnessed the arms, ensigns, and a vast collection of the objects of
value and luxury of many conquered nations. Among the articles of
gold were exhibited the numerous crowns of Aurelian, together with
the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian queen. Amidst this
glittering array appeared the embassies of foreign and distant nations;
and the ambassadors of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, India, and China,
with their brilliant or picturesque costumes, added greatly to the
interest and splendor of the scene. Following these came long trains
of captives from various nations,--Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Gauls,
Syrians, etc.,--with the ill-fated emperor, Tetricus, and his son,
dressed in Gallic costume. But the most attractive figure of all to
the Roman populace was the beauteous form of the celebrated queen of
the Syrian deserts. Zenobia was on foot and alone. As if in mockery of
human ambition, she preceded the magnificent chariot in which she once
hoped to have entered Rome. Her elegant figure was shackled with solid
chains of gold, while she tottered under the weight of the inestimable
jewels which adorned her natural graces. In the rear appeared the still
more sumptuous chariots of Odenatus and of the Persian monarch. The
triumphal car which carried Aurelian was resplendent with gems, and was
drawn by four stags.

One of the most magnificent exhibitions of extravagance and luxury of
ancient times was displayed on the march of Tiridates and his Parthian
nobles, when they went to Rome to receive the nominal crown from the
hand of Nero. Four thousand selected Parthian cavalry, clothed in rich
apparel, escorted the King. The entire expense of the journey, which
lasted several months and amounted to more than thirty thousand dollars
a day, was paid by the Romans. The triumphal procession traversed Asia
Minor, crossed the Hellespont, passed through upper Greece, around the
Adriatic, and then down the peninsula to Rome.

It was a great day for Rome when the Parthians approached its walls.
The city was illuminated, and decorated with garlands and the movable
wealth of the Empire. The Roman nobles were clad in white; and the
splendid Pretorian guards, glittering with their arms and decorations,
were drawn up in two lines stretching from the end of the Forum to the
Rostra. Through these lines of steel, flanked by a vast assemblage
of citizens, Tiridates and his proud nobles marched to the Rostra,
and received from the hands of Nero the promised diadem. The Empire
impoverished herself in this barbaric display and attempt to awe and
charm her haughtiest foe. The accumulated spoils of three hundred
triumphs at Rome formed a glittering prize to the minds of Alaric and
his devoted Goths.

But six years before the capture of the city, Rome displayed her
magnificence and her wealth in the ovation given to St. Melania on
her return. The extent of the decoration of the temples and their
shrines may be inferred from the quotations of the historians. Serena,
the wife of the Roman general, Stilicho, on great occasions wore a
magnificent necklace which she borrowed from the statue of Vesta. But
the protection of the goddess could not protect the unfortunate woman
from being strangled by the Romans during the siege by the Goths.

The fame of these treasures had spread all over the known world.
And to the Goths the beauty of gems and the delights of luxuries
were not entirely unknown. For, in previous times, they had invaded
the coasts of the Euxine Sea and sacked many of the rich cities,
like Trebizond. In the pillage of the city by the Goths, Alaric is
said to have protected the consecrated plate and ornaments of the
temples; but he undoubtedly confiscated the most valuable and notable
of the treasures. The booty of the army was immense; and when the
victorious soldiers took their departure the roads were incumbered
with the rich and weighty spoils. The haughty victors, clad in the
vestments of unexpected luxury, might have been seen resting by the
wayside, waited on by their captives,--the sons and daughters of Roman
senators,--drinking the wine of Italy in golden goblets, decorated with
gems.

The treasures obtained by the Goths in the conquest and sack of Italy
were borne away with them to Gaul. Besides these, the Gothic chieftains
are said to have possessed many valuable gifts from other nations. The
record of these wonderful works of art has been lost; but a few scraps
of history, here and there, give glimpses of marvellous treasures.
When the Franks pillaged the palace at Narbonne in France, in the
sixth century, they found many curious and costly ornaments of gold.

But most of the treasures and choice works were undoubtedly carried
along with the army into Spain, and deposited in the Gothic treasury
at Toledo. These were eventually captured by the Saracens and sent
to Damascus. Thus, by the singular fortunes of war, these remarkable
and beautiful relics returned to the Holy Land whence some of them
had been taken centuries before. Among these articles was the famous
“Missorium,” or great dish for the service of the table, weighing five
hundred pounds. It was formed of solid gold of exquisite workmanship,
richly inlaid with gems, and was the pride of the Goths.

The wonderful emerald table, which has been so enthusiastically
described by the Arabian writers, was also seized at the same time. The
transparent top of this table was encircled with three rows of fine
pearls, supported on three hundred and sixty-five feet, formed of gold
and gems. This superb piece of workmanship was valued at five hundred
thousand pieces of gold.

The marriage feast of Adolphus, the successor of Alaric, with Placidia,
the daughter of the great Theodosius, was a memorable occasion in
ancient history. It was celebrated at Narbonne, and displayed the
prodigality and magnificence of the Goths. The ceremony was performed
according to the lavish fashion of the Romans and the rude customs
of the victors. Adolphus offered to his bride, in accordance with
the manner of his nation, the spoils of her country. Fifty beautiful
youths, attired in silken robes, presented the happy maiden with one
hundred basins, one half of which were filled with gold, and the rest
were heaped with gems of an inestimable price. Such was the inconstancy
of fortune in those days, and such the cruelty of the times, that only
a year after this grand event the beautiful woman, the daughter of a
Roman emperor, and the wife of the Gothic chieftain, might have been
seen marching on foot with a crowd of vulgar captives, in front of the
horse of the assassin of her beloved husband. However, a few short days
after the usurpation, the Gothic army, struck with pity and indignation
at the sufferings of Placidia, attacked and slew her barbarous master.

Genseric, with his Moors and Vandals, fiercer in their pillage than the
Goths of Alaric, ravaged Rome for fourteen days and nights. Everything
of value, sacred or profane, was seized and borne away to the galleys
of the invaders. Even the Empress Eudoxia was rudely stripped of her
ornaments; and the holy relics, brought from Jerusalem by Titus and
spared by Alaric, were taken from the temples and transferred to
Carthage. One of the vessels, containing a part of the sacred utensils
and other treasures, was shipwrecked on the same shore which a thousand
years later swallowed up the wonderful and blood-stained emeralds
which Cortez wrested from Mexico and carried with him when wrecked
with the Admiral of Castile. The remainder were saved to swell the
ponderous pile of booty when Carthage fell before the arms and genius
of Belisarius. All these treasures, the collections of the Moor and the
Vandal, were transported to the Bosphorus to enrich the city of the
conquerors.

To the successful army and its general a triumph was decreed; and it
was the first Byzantium had ever seen. The display on this historic
occasion was worthy of the army and its hero. The wealth of nations was
brought forth to heighten the splendor of the scene. Rich armor, golden
thrones, chariots, varied forms of sculpture and furniture, statues,
vases, and other objects of art, together with the holy relics of the
Jewish Temple, were displayed in the procession.

But the grandest object of all was presented by the noble and majestic
form of Belisarius, marching on foot at the head of a band of his
bravest officers. Later in life, at the capture of Ravenna, Belisarius
obtained the treasures of the Gothic army, which had been collected
in that stronghold. These were transferred to the Byzantine palace;
but the deserving general was deprived of his hard-won triumph, for
Justinian had now become envious of the glory of his subject. The
magnificent spectacle of the booty was not exhibited to the populace;
but shown only to the flattering and subservient senate.

The results of the Persian conquests largely increased the number,
variety, and value of the art and gem collections at Constantinople.
The Persian monarch, Chosroes, to arrange and preserve the treasures
gathered by rapine or tribute, constructed an elegant palace at
Dastagherd beyond the Tigris. In this stronghold, protected in a
hundred vaults, were deposited most of the gold, silver, gems, silks,
aromatics, and other objects collected from Persia and other countries
of Asia. All these fell into the bold hands of the Roman Emperor
Heraclius; but a part of them, during an unlucky tempest, were lost
in the waves of the Euxine Sea. In the capture of Tauris, Heraclius
obtained what were supposed to have been the spoils of Crœsus, which
had been transported by Cyrus from the citadel of Sardes.

Once only, before the coming of the Turk, was Constantinople, during
its many centuries of varied prosperity and adversity, subjected to
serious pillage. Hostile armies had again and again surged up to its
almost impregnable walls, only to retire in discomfiture; and it seemed
as though the grand old city was protected by some invisible agency
from external violence. Internal dissension, however, was the bane of
the capital, and was the true cause of the success of the Latins, and
finally that of the Turks. The successful attack by the combined forces
of the Latins and Venetians was one of the results of the Crusades. It
took place in the commencement of the thirteenth century.

The city, however, remained under the Latin power for only fifty-seven
years, when it was recaptured by a bold stroke of the Greeks. Injured
by the pillage of the Latins, and many of its beautiful edifices
destroyed by fire during the siege or subsequent occupation, the
Greek capital not only lost its prestige of divine protection, but it
has never recovered its former splendor. How much of the spoils were
removed by the captors is a matter of conjecture. The historians of the
Greeks and Latins--the spoiled and spoiler--undoubtedly exaggerate the
injury of the conquest and the quantity of booty obtained.

Two of the Emperors, succeeding by usurpation, fled from the city
with much treasure before it was finally captured. Even then one
quarter of the accepted plunder was reserved for the elected ruler
of Constantinople. And as to the remainder, which is said to have
been divided equally between the French and Venetians, and valued at
11,125,000 marks of silver, or $11,000,000, there is no record extant
of the articles. We know that the bronze horses of the Hippodrome
were transferred to Saint Mark’s Palace, and the crown of thorns
to the Sainte Chapelle at Paris. We also learn that many gems-the
adamas, emerald, jacinth, ruby, sapphire--were among the spoils; but
if the sack was complete, why did Venice years afterwards offer ten
thousand ducats for the seamless vesture of the Redeemer, which was
then among the sacred reliquaries of Constantinople? If these spoils
were divided between the conquerors, how explain the fact recorded in
French history, that the sacred relics sent to Paris and placed in
the church erected to receive them were purchased? It is a matter of
history that the crown of thorns, with the piece of the true cross, the
antique gems, and other relics that were deposited in Sainte Chapelle,
together with the construction of the building, cost Saint Louis of
Baldwin, Emperor of Constantinople, a sum of money equal to 2,800,000
francs. This fact, coupled with the offer of the Venetians for the
holy vestment, renders the accounts of the sack of the city still more
obscure. The historian Yriarte declares that the only monuments of art
deemed by the Venetians as worthy of transporting to their capital were
the famous bronze horses. If this statement is correct, the Venetians
must have been sadly deficient in taste, or history has wrongfully
accused the founders of Constantinople of spoliation.

According to the early accounts, Constantine, in the reconstruction
of Byzantium, despoiled the cities of Asia and Greece of their most
valuable ornaments, the trophies of memorable wars, the objects of
religious veneration, the most finished statues of the gods and heroes,
of the sages and poets, of ancient times. The most celebrated works
of the age of Pericles and Alexander were remorselessly seized by
the Emperor and transferred to his capital to enhance its beauty and
its renown. So many statues and architectural masterpieces had been
transported to the Bosphorus that the historian Cedrenus ironically
said, “Nothing in this great city was wanting except the souls of
the illustrious men whom those admirable monuments were intended to
represent.”

In the reign of Justinian the city was decorated by the best of living
artists. In the construction of the public edifices, the richest
materials were sought for and used with lavish hand. The bright hues,
the primitive lustre, of many of the stones of which the buildings were
composed were so remarkable as to form the theme of a poet. Distant
countries were explored for choice materials. The costly marbles of
Asia, Gaul, Greece, and Africa were transported to the Bosphorus.
Among the rare stones used by the Greek architects, one may recognize
in the ruins of the present day, the emerald-green marble of Laconia,
the golden-hued of Mauritania, the black of Gaul, and the purple and
red, with intersecting veins of sea-green, of Phrygia. The shrine which
stood in the Mosque of Saint Sophia a thousand years ago or more must
have been of marvellous beauty. The wealth and energy of the ancient
world was expended upon it; and we can form some picture of it in our
imagination from the fact that the Emperor Justinian, on beholding it
after its completion, exclaimed, with outstretched arms, “Solomon, I
have surpassed thee.”

The magnificence displayed by the wealthy houses of Byzantium in their
internal arrangements must have been of an extraordinary character
if we can judge correctly from the invectives of Chrysostom; and
the utensils of silver and gold were in massiveness far beyond the
prodigality of modern times. Ramusio, the Venetian historian, dazzles
the reader with his glittering descriptions of the acquisitions of his
countrymen. He mentions with preciseness the vases whose forms were as
grotesque and varied as the caprice of man,--the murrhines Pompey won
in his triumphs over Mithridates and Tigranes; chalices decked with
gems or formed of turquoise, jasper, and amethyst; crowns of gold,
studded with pearls; unnumbered emeralds, sapphires, topazes, jacinths,
and other gems; also the matchless carbuncles which afterwards adorned
the altar at Saint Mark’s, and which were believed by the superstitious
to have the power of dissipating the darkness by their refulgent beams
of light.

Constantinople, with its remaining works of art, again fell into the
power of the Greeks and was retained by them until captured by the
Turks. To describe the treasures of the Greek capital before its
capture, and correctly estimate the character and value of the objects
removed, and those secreted and again brought to light, will be a
difficult task for some restless antiquary. We are, however, inclined
to believe the Greeks successfully secreted many of their choicest
gems. All through the pages of early and mediæval history, the reader
will observe that by a strange caprice of fortune many of the richest
and rarest works of art and nature passed into the possession of the
rulers of Byzantium, Constantinople, or Stamboul. These three names,
distinct in their meaning, yet relate to one and the same city, which,
during its existence of more than a thousand years, passed successively
under the sway of the Roman, the Greek, and the Turk. Stamboul is still
the Mecca of the antiquary.




                             CHAPTER VII.

                           RUSSIAN REGALIA.


The empire of Russia has the most splendid collection of diamonds of
any country in the world, with the exception, perhaps, of Persia. In
the Kremlin at Moscow, and the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg, are
preserved a multitude of gems of the highest perfection and beauty,
and also many interesting ornaments formed or captured by the early
rulers of Russia. Possessing many of the avenues of approach and trade
with the countries of Central and Southern Asia, this country has long
enjoyed excellent facilities for obtaining the gems from Upper India
and Persia. The enormous quantity the treasury still possesses, added
to the great number given away in past times by various sovereigns,
naturally gives rise to the inquiry, whence this great abundance of
precious stones came. We may say that this grand accumulation commenced
in the earliest days of the Russian dynasty, and has been steadily
increasing by direct intercourse with the gem-producing countries.

Many of the fine gems that fell into the hands of the Turks in their
various conquests, have indirectly passed, by purchase or otherwise,
into the possession of the Russians.

Some others recall the times of the incursions of the Cossacks of the
tenth century, when the fearless hordes of the North marched even to
the gates of Constantinople, and imposed menaces and ransoms upon the
Greek emperors.

The crafty policy of the Russian dates back from those distant times.
“Let us be content,” said the old Russian chieftain to his impetuous
warriors complaining of treaties and tributes; “is it not better to
obtain, without fighting, the gold, the silver, the silk, the precious
stones of these people?”

The still earlier Scythians, with their light active horse, performed
incredible journeys even into Illyricum and Thrace. The river Danube
offered but a slight barrier to these fearless riders; and they boldly
traversed flood, forest, and plain, sweeping, with impunity and menace,
even up to the walls of Byzantium. They pillaged, without remorse, the
rich towns and country palaces of the nobles, and returned to their
forest wilds accompanied by thousands of captives, and laden with booty
of immense value.

We are also reminded by the historian, that a part of Russia,
especially Poland, was the Sarmatia of the ancients, whence issued
the fearless swarms of invincible Huns and Goths and Sclavonians, who
spread desolation at various times over nearly the whole of Europe.
Although these fierce hordes seldom returned to their native plains,
preferring the sunnier portions of the conquered countries, yet they
did not abandon all communication with the land of their birth. Many of
their incursions into the Roman provinces were rewarded with immense
booty of captives, and a variety of plunder. For fifteen hundred years
the customs of the Poles were but little changed. The love of nomadic
life, of magnificence, of arms, dress, ornaments, was a predominating
trait until a very recent period. The famous political assemblies of
the Poles on the plain of Volo were among the grandest displays of
barbaric splendors of any age; and sometimes one hundred thousand Poles
were assembled in conclave.

The chivalry, the wealth of the country, was represented there. All
the nobles and citizens of note attended, mounted upon the finest
horses, and caparisoned and decorated in the most lavish manner. As the
historian says, “The children of the desert strove to hide the furs and
skins in which they were clothed, under chains of gold and the glitter
of jewels. Their bonnets were composed of panther skin; plumes of
eagles or herons surmounted them; on their front were the most splendid
precious stones. Their robes of sable or ermine were bound with
velvet or silver; their girdles studded with jewels; over all their
furs were suspended chains of diamonds. One hand of each nobleman was
without a glove; on it was the splendid ring on which the arms of his
family were engraved,--the mark, as in ancient Rome, of the equestrian
order,--another proof of the intimate connection between the race, the
customs, the traditions of the Northern tribes, and the founders of the
Eternal City.” But nothing in this rivalry of magnificence could equal
the splendor of their arms: double poniards, double scimetars set with
brilliants; bucklers of costly workmanship; battle-axes enriched in
silver and glittering with emeralds and sapphires.

After reviewing the history of ancient and mediæval Poland, we are
not surprised at the accumulation of gems in Russia, nor at the fact
that some of the fine gems now in the modern cabinets of Europe were
obtained from that country. For instance, the splendid green diamond of
Dresden came from Warsaw.

The grand repository of the Empire is in the towers of the Kremlin;
and here are preserved the sacred relics and the almost innumerable
treasures of the Empire. In the galleries of this ancient castle of
the Muscovites are gathered such an accumulation of wonders that the
visitor is fairly dazzled, and is forcibly reminded of the tales of
Eastern romance, of the munificence of the store-house of the Caliph
Haroun-Al-Raschid, and the wells of Aboul Kasem.

Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, topazes, and other gems, of
large size and wondrous beauty, flash from every side of the apartment;
and their profusion astonishes the mineralogist, who has been
accustomed to regard these natural treasures as rare. It will be quite
impossible to enumerate or explain properly the glittering arrangement
of these marvellous works of art and nature. The sceptres, the crowns,
the caskets, the reliquaries, the globes, thrones, and the insignia
of religion and royalty collected here, fairly dazzle the eye by the
reflections from the immense number of gems which decorate them. The
scene reminds one of the prismatic effect of the rays of the morning or
evening sun upon the numberless raindrops on the grass, after a shower
has passed.

Here we shall find the crowns of the Muscovite Czars, together with the
captured diadems and regalia of the countries that form a part of this
vast realm. Among them may be seen, in all of their original quaintness
and splendor, the crowns of Siberia, Novgorod, Kazan, Moscow, Poland,
and the Crimea. To this imperial display we may expect to see added, at
no distant day, the jewels of the Southern countries, which seem to be
the inevitable heirlooms of the sagacious Cossack.

To describe correctly, and in a proper manner, the works of ancient,
mediæval, and modern art collected here, would require a large volume
by itself. We will, however, attempt to give a brief description
of some of the beautiful crowns, which, though generally of rude
workmanship, are yet studded with gems of an immense value, and are
also objects of great historic interest.

Foremost of all, appears the magnificent diadem worn by the former
Empress Anna Ivanovna, and which is, perhaps, one of the most splendid
jewels of its kind in the world. It is well proportioned, and lightly
formed of open gold work, incrusted with a vast number of exquisite
gems, and among them 2,536 diamonds of great perfection. On its top,
serving as a base to a slender cross of pearls, is placed the immense
and wonderful ruby, which the Russian ambassador purchased at Pekin, at
the price of 120,000 roubles.

The crown of Vladimir, which is used at the crowning of the heir to
the throne, is composed of filigree gold-work, surmounted by a cross
of plain gold, with a large pearl on each arm. It is surrounded at its
base by a band of sable fur, and is ornamented with 4 fine emeralds, 2
rubies, and 25 pearls.

This crown was a gift from the Emperor Alexis Comnenus, and was brought
with ceremony from Constantinople, by a Greek embassy, in the year 1116.

This circumstance recalls to memory the history and fate of the last of
the Comnenuses, the self-styled Emperor of Trebizond, and who afforded
so many themes of ridicule to the knights and troubadours of the
fifteenth century.

In connection with our subject, it may be proper to give a sketch of
the appearance of this potentate when he gave an audience to foreign
ambassadors.

His dress was a tight gown of scarlet silk; around his neck, down the
front of his gown, and around the bottom of it, were bands of gold
about four inches wide; these were edged with pearls, and ornamented
with large rubies and emeralds in rows down the centre of each band
of gold. On his arms, above the elbows, were golden armlets, and
around his wrists gold bracelets, all set with precious stones of
various colors. His girdle was of the same pattern, about three inches
wide, and had a hanging end about two feet long, which the Byzantine
emperors, for some undiscovered reason, always carried over the left
arm. In his right hand he bore a golden sceptre about three feet long,
with a large cross at the top, set with enormous pearls. On his head he
wore a close golden crown, of which the top was arranged in metal like
a helmet. From this crown a fillet set with pearls hung down on each
side of his face as far as his beard, which was of considerable length.
Scarlet silk hose and golden sandals completed the Imperial costume,
except two round ornaments of gold, each of the size of a plate, which
were affixed to his robe on the outside of his thigh.

Such was the appearance of this vain ruler when he gave audience to
the envoys of Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constantinople. The plain
steel-clad warriors of the Sultan briefly said, “Wilt thou secure thy
treasures and thy life by resigning thy kingdom; or wilt thou rather
forfeit thy kingdom, thy treasures, and thy life?”

The sceptre of Vladimir is also preserved here. It is about three feet
long, and contains among its ornaments 268 diamonds, 360 rubies, and 15
emeralds. The enamel covering of the rest of the surface, unadorned
by the gems, represents religious subjects, painted and treated in the
Byzantine style.

The tiara of Astrakhan is far more complex in its construction, and is
very rich in barbaric taste. It is now known as the gold Imperial Crown
of the First Order of the Czar; and is a tall, imposing structure,
covered with brilliant gems. Among them are many fine rubies, emeralds,
pearls, and an enormous sapphire of great value.

The crown of Kazan, captured in 1553 by John IV., is a very interesting
specimen of mediæval workmanship, and shows the influence of Persian
art in its arrangement. It is of gold filigree-work, intermixed with
black, and is adorned with splendid rubies, turquoises, and pearls. On
the summit is placed a very large ruby, surmounted with two pearls.

The ornament known as the diamond cap of the Czar is a singular
combination of the rude and the beautiful in art. It is profusely
garnished with 817 diamonds of the first water, besides 4 magnificent
rubies and 8 emeralds. This is also surmounted with an enormous ruby,
which sustains on its summit a solid Greek cross, composed of gems and
pearls set in gold.

We have not space to describe the remaining diadems of ancient rulers,
or those of recent times, nor the rich breast-crosses, the sceptres,
and the various regalia used in the coronation of the Russian Emperors,
but will mention the Grand Imperial Orb, before proceeding to the
description of the ancient and curious thrones.

The Orb is an immense globe of gold, heavily chased and richly
incrusted with large and beautiful gems. It is surmounted with a tall
Greek cross, also studded with precious stones of the purest water and
color. It is of Byzantine workmanship, as early as the tenth century,
and is said to have served as model for several other ornaments of this
character, made at Venice in later times. The upper portion of the
exterior of the globe is arranged in four triangular spaces, whereon
are enamelled in color scenes from the life of David. Among the gems
which are set in enamelled gold are 58 diamonds, 89 rubies, 23 blue
gems(?), 50 emeralds, and 38 pearls.

The three unique chairs used as thrones in the coronations of the
rulers of Russia are objects of historical interest and are of great
value intrinsically. The smallest of the three, designated as the
Stool, is the most ancient of all, having been presented in 1605 by
Shah Abbas of Persia to the Czar Boris Godunoff. It is completely
covered with polished sheets of beaten gold decorated with pearls and
precious stones. The second seat is in the form of a high-back chair
of rude workmanship, and is intended for the reigning Empress, and
is called the Golden Throne. Although its proportions are uncouth, a
mine of wealth has been expended in its decorations, and it is inlaid
with 1,500 rubies, 8,000 turquoises, 2 magnificent topazes, and 4 rare
amethysts. The third chair, of rude construction, was made as early as
1660, and is intended for the Emperor, and designated as the Diamond
Throne. It is literally a mass of sparkling diamonds; and every portion
of the chair is aglow with brilliant colored flashes of the diamonds,
so profusely is this gem used in its decoration. The rude and imperfect
cutting of these beautiful stones indicates their Oriental origin as
well as their antiquity.

The Priests’ Treasury in the Kremlin is a wonderful accumulation of
wealth. We will attempt to describe but one of the articles to be
seen there. In a golden casket studded with the finest gems may be
seen some ancient holy relics given by one of the Greek Emperors of
Constantinople. Among them there is a fragment of stone from the tomb
of Christ, and a bit of wood from the cross. The elegance and richness
of the casket will remind the antiquary of the receptacle of the tooth
of Buddha, which was formerly preserved at Kandy, the capital of Ceylon.

This relic was kept in a golden casket incrusted with the finest
gems. This was also encased in four other boxes, all of which were
studded with precious stones of enormous value, and forming together a
priceless reliquary to which none of the shrines of civilized countries
could offer an equal in comparison, not excepting that of the famous
Virgin of Loretto in Italy.

In the great hall devoted to the collection of arms and armor may be
seen a great number of articles highly interesting to the antiquary
and historian. Arms and armor of all periods from Europe and Asia are
represented here,--the plain steel-clad vestments of the Crusader;
the richly chased and inlaid coats of mail of the knights of mediæval
times; the light defences of the Persian and Saracen horsemen,
glittering with those gems which were supposed to possess the power of
averting fatal missiles; the casques of the Circassian mountaineers,
brilliant with barbaric decorations; scimetars, bucklers, scabbards,
and a great variety of other arms, resplendent with the most beautiful
of the rarest and most precious stones.

There is also a most costly and unique collection of saddles and
horse-gear to be seen. These are mostly presents of Emperors of
Constantinople in early times, and from Grand Turks and Persian Shahs
of later periods. Some of these are of great value and contain gems of
historic interest. Their decorations are profuse; and the bits, curbs,
bridles, headstalls, and, in fact, all portions of the trappings that
will admit of the setting of precious stones, are literally incrusted
with splendid gems, forming stars, suns, and various ornaments of
grotesque shapes.

In one of the rooms of the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg are
deposited many of the jewels of the Empire, and especially those
required in the court ceremonies.

Among them may be seen the beautiful crowns and coronets of the late
Emperor and Empress. The crown of the Emperor is of magnificent
workmanship, and dazzles the eye with the splendor of its gems. In
outline it resembles the dome-formed patriarchal mitre, which was a
favorite shape among the Byzantines. Upon the summit appears a cross
formed of five beautiful diamonds, which is also supported by a large
spinel ruby, polished, but not faceted. This ruby and cross are
supported by a foliated arch composed of eleven great diamonds and
rising from the back and front of the base of the crown. On either
side of this central arch is attached a hoop formed of thirty-eight
large and perfect pearls. The spaces on either side of these arches
are filled with leaf-work and ornaments in silver, incrusted with
diamonds underlaid with the richest purple velvet. The band which forms
the base of the crown is of gold, and is ornamented with twenty-eight
magnificent diamonds.

The coronet of the Empress is thought to be the most beautiful
collection of diamonds ever presented to the view in a single ornament.
It is composed of four very large diamonds of the purest water, and
eighteen others of slightly smaller size, together with a multitude of
lesser diamonds of exquisite water. The flash of these beautiful gems
reminds the observer of a collection of rainbows.

Among the other regalia of this collection may be seen the most
remarkable necklace of diamonds in Europe. In the links which form the
chain are twenty-two huge brilliants of great value, and, as pendants
to the connecting chain, fifteen other diamonds of surprising size
appear, forming an ornament of great beauty.

In this room may also be seen the plume of Russia’s great general,
Suvaroff. It is an aigrette composed entirely of diamonds of wonderful
lustre, and was the gift of the Sultan of Turkey.

Among the curiosities preserved here are the Order of Saint Andrew,
mounted with five pink diamonds; also two of the famous Siberian
beryls,--one green, the other blue,--surrounded in their settings with
diamonds.

In the museum of the Hermitage, adjoining the Winter Palace, may be
seen one of the finest and largest collections of gems in the world.
It is composed of choice selections from some of the most celebrated
cabinets that have been formed in Europe during the past two centuries,
and comprises the better portions of those known as the collection of
the Duke of Orleans (Philippe Egalité), that of the famous Strozzi, and
that of the Beverly, which had been formed under the direction of the
learned antiquary Dutens. The cabinet is not only extremely valuable in
its art treasures, in the form of engraved gems and cameos, ancient,
mediæval, and modern, but it is a noble monument of the good taste and
liberality of the sovereigns of Russia. The description of these alone
would require a ponderous volume.

In another gallery in the same palace may be seen the plume of Prince
Potemkin, glittering with gems of the purest ray, presented to him by
the Sultan of Turkey; also the two magnificent bouquets of artificial
flowers composed of the finest colored diamonds, topazes, pearls,
sapphires, rubies, and other gems, which rival in their hues the most
beautiful of the productions of the vegetable kingdom; the identical
parrot which was carved from a single emerald, and given by King Pedro
II. of Portugal, to his bride, the Princess of Savoy; together with a
vast number of priceless objects of virtu of various ages, many of them
profusely decorated with interesting and valuable gems. The Hermitage,
like the Green Vaults at Dresden, is one of the jewel-boxes of the
civilized world.

In the museum of the School of Mines at St. Petersburg may be seen the
finest collection of the gems in their natural and rough condition
in the world, not even excepting the magnificent collections of the
British Museum, or that of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. The
glittering treasures of Siberia are here displayed in lavish profusion.
Natural crystals of diamond, of chrysoberyl, of topaz, beryl, and
emerald attest, by their beautiful forms, the great mineral wealth of
that vast country. The crystals of emerald are enormous and exceed
in size all others in the world. The topazes are unsurpassed in
their beauty and variety of tints. The collection of beryls is truly
wonderful, and contains specimens of exquisite color and of great
value. They may be seen not only of green, blue, white, and yellow,
but even pink, which is an exceedingly rare hue for this mineral. The
cabinet of tourmalines is superb, and nobly illustrates the beauty and
variety of colors and forms of that wonderful mineral.

In the arsenal of the Alexander Palace may be seen a curious and
valuable collection of arms and armor of all ages, and among them
many ornaments beautifully worked in precious stones. Prominent among
them are the two sets of horse-gear which came as presents from the
Sultan of Turkey. The first is a souvenir of the conclusion of that
peace which was signed at Adrianople when the Cossacks had passed the
barriers of the Balkan Mountains and almost clutched the long-coveted
prize of Istamboul in their grasp. It is superb in its construction,
with its mountings and stirrups of gold, and its velvet trappings
studded with flashing diamonds. But the second saddle is even far
superior in its ornaments and its effects to the first. It is indeed a
glorious specimen of Persian handicraft and ornamentation, and worthy
of one of the heroes of the Arabian Nights. It fairly glitters with the
multitude of diamonds of which it is composed, and some of which are of
great size and wondrous lustre. It is indeed a barbaric mine of wealth.

This costly present was given to the Czar by the Sultan after the
fatal battle of Konieh, when the Porte supplicated Russia to send an
auxiliary force to defend a tottering throne against the attacks of a
rebellious vassal.

Many of the cathedrals, convents, and monasteries of Russia are
richly endowed with gems and jewels of great beauty and value. In the
Kazan Cathedral at St. Petersburg may be seen the miraculous image of
the Virgin brought from Kazan in 1579. It is covered with gold, and
incrusted with diamonds and other gems. The sacristy of the Monastery
of Solovetsk is one of the richest in the realm, and is filled with
jewels and gems which have been presented in times past by kings,
princes, and nobles.

In the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, in Moscow, there are some
ancient reliquaries adorned with gems of remarkable beauty. The
diamonds, however, are surpassed by the magnificent emeralds.

In the sacristy of the Holy Synod in Moscow are preserved some
wonderful sacerdotal robes and ornaments. One of the sakkos of crimson
velvet is so heavily laden with diamonds, rubies, pearls, emeralds,
etc., that its weight amounts to fifty-four pounds. The great mitre
is also so studded with gems, such as the finest diamonds, rubies,
emeralds, pearls, and sapphires, that it weighs five and a half pounds.
The decoration of these sacred objects has been made by lavish hands
and from an abundance of the most costly materials.

The famous Convent of Troitza possesses rare and beautiful gems and
jewels among its gifts and reliquaries, which are well worthy of
examination by _dilettanti_. From a great variety of sources these
riches have accumulated. The shrine has been famous for many centuries
past; and czars, princes, boyars, and peasants have deposited their
offerings both in ostentation as well as with the hope of divine
dispensation.

Its treasury is indeed a colossal jewel-box, whose wealth must amount
to many millions in value, and which rivals, if it does not surpass
in richness, the famous shrine of Loretto in Italy. The variety of
articles decorated with gems exhibited here is marvellous. Art has made
use of the precious stones in her decorations with lavish hand. Some of
the frames in which are set sacred pictures are literally composed of
gems of the largest size and also costly in price. Even the robes of
the Madonnas are spangled with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes,
and emeralds, forming the richest mosaics.

It is impossible, from the imperfect information we have received from
travellers concerning this wonderful museum of ancient and mediæval
art, to give an accurate account of its treasures; but we hope some of
the learned antiquaries of Western Europe may be induced to examine
them, and make known their history. Among the great numbers of engraved
gems, skilled search may reveal some of the most beautiful forms of
ancient art, and supply some of the missing links in glyptic history.

According to these vague accounts a volume might be written on the
description of the _armoires_, among which are comprised Bibles,
Gospels, liturgical books, bound with covers of silver gilt and
incrusted with precious stones, such as the onyx, sardonyx, agate,
chrysoprase, aqua-marinas, lapis lazuli, malachite, turquoise. The
clasps of these volumes are made of gold or silver, in which antique
cameos are set. Among the sacred utensils and relics are described
chalices of gold belted with rows of diamonds, and a great variety of
vessels richly ornamented; also crosses studded with beautiful emeralds
and rubies; sapphire rings; vases and chandeliers of silver; dalmatics
of brocade embroidered with flowers composed of gems, and with legends
in old Sclavonic, written in pearls; enamelled censers; triptychs
storied with countless figures. Besides these articles we have
enumerated, the museum contains a great number of others, including
images of saints and Madonnas richly decorated, masses of precious
metals, and heaps of precious stones in their natural state. What a
glorious field of study for the amateur and the historian is presented
here!

Among the paragons possessed by the Crown is the diamond known as
the Orloff, which derives its name from one of the counts of that
celebrated family, who purchased it for the Empress Catherine. It is
one of the finest gems in the world, and is the largest in Europe. It
rivals in beauty the famous Regent of the French regalia, which it
surpasses in size. The weight of this diamond is 194³⁄₄ karats, and it
is exactly of the form of the famous diamond described by Tavernier as
the Great Mogul. In shape it is ovoid, or rather, in gem nomenclature,
of a high-crowned rose-pattern. It is possible that this gem is the
long-lost Mogul. Were it not for the remarkable accuracy of the
distinguished French traveller, we should at once pronounce the Orloff
to be the missing Mogul. Hence the question arises, may not Tavernier
have made an error in his calculation of weight? It is certainly very
remarkable that two rare stones of such great weight, and such unusual
form, should possess so great and so many degrees of resemblance. And
it may be possible that the Mogul diamond is concealed in some of the
obscure fastnesses of Persia, and may appear again to the world, like
the crown of Chosroes, after a thousand years of concealment.

The Orloff disputes with the Regent the claim of being the finest
known gem in the universe. Both have their ardent admirers. The Regent
owes much of its fancied superiority to the regularity and perfection
of its form, which is that of a perfect brilliant, and may therefore
be regarded as the type of the style. The Orloff, likewise, may be
selected as the perfected model of the form known as the rose-cut.
Therefore, either gem may be considered as the perfection of the
brilliant or the rose-style of cutting. The brilliant is certainly
the most symmetrical of all the forms; but does it enable the gem to
exhibit to a full degree its powers of refraction? It may exhibit
the prismatic play of color in greater perfection; but does not the
rose-cut project brighter beams of light in a more extensive proportion
than the brilliant? Let the opticians decide.

The Orloff now adorns the Russian sceptre, being placed in the top,
just under the golden eagle.

Concerning the history of the Orloff there is considerable obscurity,
even in that which relates to the time and the manner in which it came
into possession of the Russians. At all events, there is no doubt but
it formed a part of the spoils of Delhi, and was brought to Persia,
along with the Koh-i-noor and other gems, by the conqueror, Nadir Shah.
Its subsequent history, however, is somewhat mixed up with other gems.
Dutens relates a romantic story of its having formed one of the eyes
of the great idol at Seringapatam, and having been stolen by a French
deserter, who managed to be installed as a priest and attached to the
temple. Pallas, however, gives a totally different version, which he
is said to have derived from the son of the Armenian who sold the gem
to the Russians. This Armenian purchased the diamond from one of the
Afghan generals, who formerly served with Nadir, and who received it as
his share of the booty. But so far as we can learn, the gem was brought
to Europe by the Earl of Effingham, who obtained it when Governor
General of India. It frequently changed owners before it fell into the
possession of the Greek merchant who took it to St. Petersburg and sold
it to Prince Orloff. The price said to have been paid for it is given
at $450,000, besides an annuity of $20,000 and a patent of nobility.

The Shah is a remarkably irregular prism of slab of diamond, partially
faceted by art. Tradition has associated with it adventures of a
startling and bloody character.

It was one of the gems possessed by Nadir Shah, and at the time of his
death was received as booty and secreted by one of the assassins. Long
after the event, an Afghan visited an Armenian by the name of Shafras,
who lived at Bassora with his two brothers, and offered him a large
diamond, an emerald, a ruby of fabulous size, a sapphire of wonderful
beauty, together with a hundred other stones of less value. The
stranger asked an insignificant price for these valuable gems, but the
Armenian was not at the time able to furnish the means of purchase, and
entreated the Afghan to return at another time with his treasures. But
suspicious of the good faith of the jeweller, the mountaineer departed
and disappeared. Several years afterward the Armenian met, by chance,
the Afghan at Bagdad, where the gems were sold to a Jew for 65,000
piastres. Shafras summoned his two brothers, and they assassinated
the stranger and the Jew, and flung their bodies into the Euphrates.
The brothers fled to the desert, and while attempting to divide their
spoils fell into dispute. In the depths of night the elder brother slew
his two companions in crime, and fled to Constantinople. From thence
he passed to Holland, and informed several of the Courts of Europe
of his treasures. Catherine is said to have invited him to Russia,
but would not accede to his terms of purchase. The Armenian, while at
St. Petersburg, was induced by some of the courtiers to lead a life
of dissipation, with the view of ultimately obtaining his treasures.
But, soon perceiving the intentions of his associates, he secretly
quitted the country, and was heard of no more for ten years, when by
accident it was discovered that he was living quietly at Astrakhan. New
overtures were at once made to him by the Russians, but he would not
consent to meet the negotiators, except at Smyrna. At this city the
purchase was finally made, and the Shah passed into the possession of
the Muscovites for an immense sum of money,--said to be $650,000.

Unfortunately for this romantic story, only the outlines of which we
have here given, it is now reported that Chosroes, the son of Abbas
Mirza, presented the gem to the Emperor of Russia. Another account
states that it was purchased of Chosroes by the Russian Government. At
all events, no matter what its true history may be since the death of
Nadir, it is a gem of the most perfect purity of color and freedom from
blemish. Upon one of its sides an inscription in the Persian language
has been engraved by some lapidary of extraordinary patience. Its
weight is ninety-five karats.

Many of the Russian nobles possess fine diamonds, which are not well
known to the public. We know that the Princess Yassopouff owns the fine
brilliant of forty karats called the Polar Star; but what has become of
the fine gem of ninety karats, which was cut for Russia by the French
lapidary Jarlet, at the close of the seventeenth century?

While we are speaking of lost gems, we will call the attention of
the reader to the large pear-shaped diamond of 157¹⁄₄ karats, which
Tavernier bought at Amadabad in India, and brought to Europe on his
return. This gem also has disappeared from history, and thus far evaded
all attempts for its recovery. The history of all the large and famous
diamonds brought to Europe would form a most interesting chapter, if
some tireless antiquary could be induced to take up the subject and
clear away the obscure wanderings of some of them.

The history of Potemkin, as related by a recent writer, reveals an
extravagance unequalled since the days of the Roman follies; and it
reads in these sober times more like romance than reality. The Prince,
when fully attired, wore a collar of the Order of Saint Alexander,
which was the gift of the Empress, and profusely ornamented with
diamonds of the value of 60,000 roubles. A laurel wreath, which he wore
on state occasions, also the gift of Catherine, was beautifully wrought
in gold, and set with superb emeralds and diamonds which were estimated
as worth 150,000 roubles.

The picture presented by this bold favorite in his sunniest days,
when, for instance, he assisted the Empress to alight from her
carriage, surpasses the display of Prince Esterhazy in later times.
Orloff was then dressed in a scarlet coat, over which hung a long cloak
of gold lace extravagantly ornamented with precious stones of enormous
value. In fact, his dress was completely covered with beautiful
gems; and his hat was so heavily laden with precious stones, that an
_aide-de-camp_ carried it for him when not in use.

Catherine was not only passionately fond of belles-lettres and the
arts, but she had a generous heart withal, as evinced by the numerous
gifts she bestowed upon her friends. The value of the gems and the
jewels she gave to her favorites exceeds almost the bounds of belief,
and far surpasses the munificence of any of the sovereigns of history.
The total estimate of the worth of these gifts amounts to the enormous
sum of 88,820,000 roubles. We will enumerate some of them. To Zoritz
she gave diamonds of the value of 200,000 roubles. To Plato Zouboff,
gems worth 100,000 roubles. To Zawadoffsky, to Lanskoi, to Zermoloff,
she presented caskets of diamonds of the value of 80,000 roubles each.
Wasulitschikoff and Kozzakoff each received presents of the same
precious stone, costing 60,000 and 50,000 roubles. The five brothers of
the Orloff family, and especially Potemkin, received gifts amounting in
value to many millions of roubles. To the famous house of Bariatinsky
Catherine gave many beautiful gems which are still preserved among the
treasures of the family. Among them is a splendid solitaire diamond
with a pendant, which was given to one of the Princes at his baptism.

Some of these jewels are of unique patterns and workmanship, and of
immense value. Among them is a necklace of solitaires, each stone
as large as the end of the thumb, with large pear-shaped pendants
attached. There is also a bracelet of rude Persian art, made of beaten
gold, and set with uncut crystals of diamonds, thus indicating a very
ancient origin, or singular caprice on the part of the maker.

There are still preserved among the princely families of Russia, as
well as in the Royal casket, many diamonds yet in their rough and
crystallized forms, or imperfectly cut in the Oriental and ancient
manner.

The remarkable soldier, Suvaroff, although careless of his dress and
his personal appearance, was passionately fond of jewels. And the
allied sovereigns of Europe, learning of his love of the beautiful,
sent him several superb gems, among which was a large diamond of great
beauty, from the Empress Catherine.

Like Charles _le Temeraire_, the terrible Cossack carried his gem
treasures with him during his campaigns; and he took infinite delight
in examining their charms, in times of danger and fatigue. They were of
various kinds and of great value; but the one he prized the most was
the gift of the Czarina. This splendid gem he always reserved for the
last look, after toying with the others; and seemed fascinated with the
strange gleams of the prismatic display, as the stone was viewed in the
dim and flickering light of the camp-fire.

What a picture is presented of the grim and fearless veteran, deriving
a gleam of comfort from his treasures during that lonely bivouac on the
summit of the high Alps, in Switzerland, on that fearful night in 1799,
when the victorious French, under Lecourbe, forced the Tatar general,
with his twenty-four thousand desperate soldiers, and with terrible
losses, over the desolate and rarely trodden pass of the Kenzig Culm!




                             CHAPTER VIII.

                            FRENCH REGALIA.


Previous to the time of the French Revolution, and commencing from
periods dating back beyond mediæval days, France had accumulated a
casket of gems and jewels of extraordinary richness and value. The
amateur may form an idea of their beauty and magnificence, from the
famous report made to the French Assembly by M. Delattre in 1791. In
this list there were enumerated with special care, 9,547 diamonds, 506
pearls, 230 rubies, 134 sapphires, 150 emeralds, 71 topazes, 3 Oriental
amethysts, 8 Syrian garnets, and 8 other stones not designated.

The estimated value of these treasures, together with the bijou and
mounted parures belonging to the Crown, amounted to nearly thirty
million francs. From this carefully arranged inventory, we have made
the following selection, which will be interesting to the reader at the
present day, as not only showing the estimated worth of the gems at
that time, but also describing some of the fine gems whose history has
since been lost.

 +-----------------------------------------------+----------+----------+
 |                                               |  Weight. |  Value.  |
 |                                               +----------+----------+
 |                                               |     k.   |  fr.     |
 |                                               |          |          |
 |  1 A brilliant diamond called Le Regent       | 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ |12,000,000|
 |  2 A diamond cut in facets, perfect in lustre |          |          |
 |      and brilliancy, called Le Sancy          |  33¹²⁄₁₆ |1,000,000 |
 |  3 Diamond cut in facets                      |  28⁶⁄₁₆  |  250,000 |
 |  4 A brilliant diamond                        |  26¹²⁄₁₆ |  150,000 |
 |  5 A pear-shaped diamond, of a peach-blossom  |          |          |
 |      hue                                      |  24¹³⁄₁₆ |  200,000 |
 |  6 A diamond called the Mirror of Portugal    |  21²⁄₁₆  |  250,000 |
 |  7 Pear-shaped diamond, of a yellowish cast   |  20¹⁴⁄₁₆ |   65,000 |
 |  8 Rose-colored diamond, with flaws           |  20¹²⁄₁₆ |   48,000 |
 |  9 An olive-shaped diamond, clear             |  18¹³⁄₁₆ |   85,000 |
 | 10 A brilliant, of a greenish cast, and flawed|  18¹¹⁄₁₆ |   20,000 |
 | 11 A pale wine-colored brilliant              |  18⁹⁄₁₆  |   75,000 |
 | 12 A steel-colored brilliant                  |  17⁷⁄₁₆  |   18,000 |
 | 13 Brilliant, cloudy                          |  17      |   50,000 |
 | 14 The 10th Mazarin, cloudy                   |  16      |   50,000 |
 | 15 A brilliant, of peach-blossom hue          |  14¹⁴⁄₁₆ |   25,000 |
 | 16 A fine white brilliant                     |  14¹⁴⁄₁₆ |  150,000 |
 | 17 A brilliant, of peach-blossom hue          |  14¹²⁄₁₆ |   30,000 |
 | 18 Brilliant                                  |  13¹⁰⁄₁₆ |   60,000 |
 | 19 A brilliant, of brownish hue               |  13⁸⁄₁₆  |   35,000 |
 | 20 A brilliant, of yellowish hue              |  11¹⁰⁄₁₆ |   15,000 |
 | 21 A brilliant, of brownish hue               |  11¹⁰⁄₁₆ |   10,000 |
 | 22 Brilliant, of yellowish cast               |  11⁶⁄₁₆  |   15,000 |
 | 23 Brilliant, of peach-blossom hue            |  11²⁄₁₆  |   10,000 |
 | 24 Pale-blue brilliant                        |  10⁷⁄₁₆  |   30,000 |
 | 25 Brilliant, of brownish hue                 |  10⁴⁄₁₆  |   25,000 |
 | 26 White brilliant                            |  10      |   30,000 |
 | 27 15 brilliants (of unknown weight)          |   ...... |  833,000 |
 | 28 54 brilliants, each from                   |  5 to 10 |  756,000 |
 | 29 227 brilliants, each from                  |   1 to 5 |  332,700 |
 | 30 1,631 small diamonds, together             |      425 |   77,228 |
 | 31 12 diamonds, rose-cut and flawed           |       84 |   82,700 |
 |                                               |          |          |
 |      ROYAL STATE DRESS, WHITE PARURE.         |          |          |
 |                                               |          |          |
 | 32 12 brilliants, each from                   |          |          |
 |      and 163 smaller ones                     |   2 to 20|  413,000 |
 | 33 The Order of St. Esprit, 9 brilliants,     |          |          |
 |      each from, and 286 smaller ones          |  7 to 14 |  324,000 |
 | 34 The Epaulette, composed of 12 brilliants,  |          |          |
 |      each                                     |  3 to 19 |  306,000 |
 | 35 The Croix du Cordon, 6 large brilliants    |          |          |
 |      and 143 smaller diamonds                 |   ...... |  200,000 |
 |                                               |          |          |
 |               COLORED PARURE.                 |          |          |
 |                                               |          |          |
 | 36 A rich sky-blue brilliant                  |   67²⁄₁₆ |3,000,000 |
 | 37 Pale-blue brilliant                        |  31¹²⁄₁₆ |  300,000 |
 | 38 Croix du Cordon, 13 large brilliants,      |          |          |
 |      362 smaller                              |   ...... |   10,000 |
 | 39 Epaulette, 9 large brilliants, 197 smaller |   ...... |   47,000 |
 | 40 Epée de diamonds, 2,189 rose-cut diamonds  |      400 |  329,075 |
 | 41 Diamond buttons, large and small           |      552 |  294,851 |
 | 42 Other diamonds of various qualities        |   ...... |  315,000 |
 +-----------------------------------------------+----------+----------+

This magnificent and matchless collection was mysteriously stolen in
September, 1792, and many of the fine gems have not been recovered.
Neither has time yet divulged the authors of this bold theft, nor
explained clearly the motives that led to the act. The circumstances
connected with this celebrated robbery are interesting although
obscure. They are as follows:--

After the fearful and bloody scenes of the 10th of August and the
2d of September, fears were entertained by the Republican chiefs
concerning the safety of the public treasures. Therefore the building
which contained the gems was closed to the public; and the Commune of
Paris, representing the domain of the State, placed its seals upon
the apartments wherein were placed the crown, sceptre, the golden
wreath left by Cardinal Richelieu to Louis XIII., and a great number
of gems and bijou. On the morning of the 17th of September M. Sergent
and two other Commissioners of the Police perceived that during the
night thieves had entered the halls of the Garde Meuble by scaling the
colonnade from the side of the Place Louis XV., and opening the windows
on that side. They had broken the seals, picked the locks, and, after
removing many of the inestimable treasures, had disappeared, without
leaving a trace of their flight.

The city was thrown into consternation at the boldness of the act
and the magnitude of the robbery. Active and untiring search was at
once made, but not a trace of the plunder nor the least clew to the
perpetrators could be obtained.

Not long after, however, an anonymous letter revealed the information
that a part of the spoil was then secreted in a ditch beside one of the
alleys of the Champs d’Elysées. Sergent, with his colleagues, hastened
to the spot indicated, and found there the Regent diamond and the
magnificent agate cup then known as the Chalice of Abbé Suger.

Search was thus stimulated to further exertions, but without avail and
twelve years passed without affording the least clew to the robbers. At
this time a forgery was committed upon the Bank of France, and several
persons were arrested for the act. Among them was a veteran soldier who
had formerly served in the Pandours, and who was called by his comrades
“Baba.”

When arraigned before the court, Baba made the following singular
confession after betraying his accomplices in the forgery: “This is
not the first time,” he exclaimed in an excited manner, “that my
confessions have been useful to society; and if you condemn me I shall
implore the clemency of the Emperor. Without me Napoleon would not
be on the throne, for it is to me alone the success of the battle of
Marengo is due. I was one of the robbers of the Garde Meuble. I aided
my accomplices to bury in the ditch in the Champs d’Elysées the Regent
and the other objects which, being easily recognized, would have led
to detection. Upon the consideration of a promise which has been
perfectly kept, I revealed this hiding-place. The Regent was found;
and, gentlemen of the court, you are not ignorant of the fact that the
magnificent diamond was placed in the hands of the Dutch by the First
Consul to procure the funds which were so much needed after the 18th
Brumaire.”

Baba was nevertheless condemned to the galleys, but the sentence was
not enforced, and shortly afterwards he was sent to the prison in the
Bicêtre, where he remained until he died. Nothing further than this was
ever made known publicly, but suspicions of complicity in the robbery
were directed towards the Orleans family.

Napoleon, when crowned as Emperor, and with the wealth of Europe at
his command, made great efforts to restore the National regalia to
their former beauty and value. The various countries of Europe were
ransacked for the lost gems; and it is stated that a number of them
were recovered. Great numbers of other gems were also bought and added
to the Regalia; so that in 1810 the inventory of the Crown exhibited a
list of 37,393 precious stones.

The changes of the one hundred days and the Restoration left the
National property untouched. Under the reigns of Louis XVIII. and
Charles X. additions were made, and the casket contained 64,812 gems
and precious stones of all kinds. The inventory of 1849 presented
the same number of articles, with a total valuation of over twenty
millions of francs, without estimating the value of the bijou.

There must have been a large augmentation during this time, for the
present which Louis XVIII. ordered to be made deducted from the
collection diamonds of the value of three quarters of a million of
francs. This costly present was in the form of the Order of Saint
Esprit and constructed of superb diamonds.

Of the robbery of 1792, the Sancy diamond and the unique blue one of
sixty-seven karats have never been recovered. Since the inventory of
1810 two beautiful gems have also disappeared. One of these was the
magnificent opal which Josephine wore, and which was known as the
Burning of Troy. The other was the beautiful brilliant of thirty-four
karats which was obtained by M. Elias for Napoleon. This was the
much-loved gem which the Emperor is said to have carried with him on
his person, and which was asserted to have been lost in the rout at
Waterloo.

The magnificent blue diamond, which was regarded as one of the marvels
of the mineral kingdom, has never been recovered. Its early history
has also been lost, but the gem is believed to be the identical stone
which Tavernier brought from India and sold to Louis XIV. At that time
it was described as a gem of a beautiful violet hue, but of a bad form,
being flat and thin. Its weight in this condition was 112³⁄₁₆ karats,
which would probably afford a fine brilliant of the size of the missing
stone, 67²⁄₁₆ karats. History has failed to trace the wanderings of
this gem since its departure from the Louvre, but suspicion rests upon
the superb blue diamond which was in the possession of the English
banker, the late Mr. Hope. However, the English diamond weighs but
44¹⁄₂ karats. Therefore a loss of quite 22 karats was incurred in
recutting the stone in order to escape detection.

The Regent diamond, which was found uninjured in the ditch of the
Champs d’Elysées, is in reality the most beautiful diamond yet known
in the world. It is not the largest, but it is the most perfect of all
the paragons, being almost faultless in its transparency and purity, as
well as in its exact and symmetrical form.

It derives its name from the fact that it was purchased and added to
the French casket by the Regent of France. This magnificent gem was
found in the diamond mines of Puteal, about one hundred and thirty-five
miles from the city of Golconda. It weighed in its natural condition
four hundred and ten karats, but during the process of cutting it
was reduced to 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats. A Parsee merchant by the name of
Jamcund, who was a famous collector of diamonds, obtained possession
of the stone and brought it to Madras, where he sold it to the English
Governor, William Pitt, for $60,000. Pitt brought the stone safely
to London, and, after having had it cut, offered it for sale. The
Royal House of England declined to invest in the gem; but after long
negotiations the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France during the minority
of Louis XV., purchased it in 1717 for the sum of 3,375,000 francs.
Seventy-four years afterwards a commission of experts reckoned its
value at 12,000,000 francs, and even this enormous sum is exceeded by
the valuation of the present day.

Napoleon, after establishing his fortunes, redeemed the Regent from
the Dutch bankers, and had it set in the handle of the sword of state.
Since then it has been removed and so arranged in its setting as to be
placed at will either in the crown or used separately.

To the historian this beautiful gem is singularly interesting, for
it has indirectly exercised a mighty influence upon the destinies of
Europe and the progress of civilization. It was of infinite aid to
Napoleon after the 18th Brumaire; and probably without the help of
the little glittering pebble as a collateral for the Dutch loan, the
decisive battle of Marengo never would have been fought. And it is no
less certain that William Pitt, England’s Premier, never would have
been the leading statesman of Europe had not his grandfather acquired
the diamond in India and established the prosperity of his family by
its sale. Pitt was the master of European politics; and even after
his life was crushed out by the defeat at Austerlitz, the heritage of
his genius and his hate was apparent in every coalition, every blow,
against Napoleon that finally culminated at Waterloo. Therefore, in
reviewing the history of the Regent diamond, the philosopher might be
tempted to say that it was to the same gem, by a singular fatality or
caprice of fortune, the “Great Captain” indirectly owed his success and
his downfall.

The jewels belonging to the Crown of France, as collected and restored
by Napoleon, and increased by the good taste of the succeeding rulers
of the country, are of great beauty and value. It is, indeed, one of
the finest collections of Europe. The casket, at the present time,
contains sixty perfect diamonds, varying in weight from 25 to 28
karats, besides the splendid and matchless Regent. The actual crown
displays eight great diamonds of the purest water, weighing from 19 to
28 karats each, besides the Regent, which may be adapted at will.

During the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1855, the jewels of the
Crown were displayed to the public. Many of the gems were mounted for
the occasion in new parures; and the arrangement presented one of the
most charming exhibitions ever seen in civilized countries.

We will now turn to the history of one of the lost diamonds of the
Crown, and relate the facts and hypotheses concerning it as fully as we
have been able to collect them. They form, indeed, a perplexing theme.

The beautiful diamond inventoried as the Sancy, and of the weight
of 33¹²⁄₁₆ karats and valued at 1,000,000 francs, was also stolen
and never recovered. This gem has been associated with the fortunes
of the redoubtable Burgundian warrior, Charles the Bold; and its
history has done more to perpetuate his name than the record of all
his misdeeds and his desperate battles. To prove, however, that this
is the identical gem lost to the Swiss will be a difficult task; for
the antiquaries have unearthed more Sancy diamonds than there were
“Richmonds in the field.” The name of Sancy has, indeed, become famous
by embracing in one story the fortunes of three distinct gems.

The erudite King has patiently traced out the traditions connected with
the name of Sancy, and appears to prove that three stories instead of
one are included in the history of Baron Sancy. But the stone that was
stolen from the French casket in 1792 is inventoried at the weight of
33¹²⁄₁₆ karats, while the gem that has lately gone back to India, and
is supposed to be the stolen gem, weighs quite 54 karats. Here is a
new mystery for the antiquaries to clear away; or did Delattre and his
associates, who made out this inventory with exceeding care, write 33
instead of 53?

The histories of these diamonds are so interesting that we will attempt
to repeat them here, following, in part, the views of Mr. King. Not
long after the invention, by Berquen, of diamond-cutting by the process
of abrasion, Charles the Bold, then in the full blaze of martial glory,
submitted to him three large rough diamonds. The native of Bruges
succeeded so well in polishing them, that Charles presented him with
the princely sum of 3,000 ducats.

One of these gems Charles gave to Pope Sextus IV., and it was mounted
in the Tiara, where it is said to remain. The second was presented to
Louis XI. of France; while the third was reserved by the Burgundian
hero, and set in a grotesque manner to be worn as a personal ornament.

This jewel, of true barbaric design, was formed of a triangular shape,
with the newly cut diamond in the centre. This diamond was ⁵⁄₈ of an
inch in its widest diameter, and was shaped as a pyramid, with the apex
cut into a four-rayed star in relief. Around the gem were set three
large Balais rubies and four magnificent pearls, each more than half an
inch in diameter.

One of the Fugger family, in 1555, made a careful drawing of the jewel,
with a written description of it, and these were afterwards published
by Lambeccius in his Bibliotheca Cæsarea; so there can be no doubt
about the appearance of the original diamond of Charles the Bold in its
early days.

When the Duke led his band of freebooters into Switzerland on his
long-projected foray, he took most of his gems along with him, not
dreaming of disaster, and probably loving to view his treasures even
amid the hardships of a campaign. Rough soldiers are sometimes as
fond of the beautiful in art and nature as more delicate and refined
organizations; and Charles the Bold and Suvaroff are not the only
examples.

The terrific onslaught of the Swiss at Grandson crushed the Burgundian
ranks so quickly that Charles had only time to escape with his sword,
leaving all his cherished treasures in the hands of the dauntless
mountaineers.

In the sack of the camp which speedily followed the rout, a soldier
found the golden box in which the famous pendant was kept, but
regarding the jewel as a gaudy and worthless bauble, he tossed it away
under a wagon, and retained the box only. Shortly afterwards he began
to suspect that the contents of so beautiful a box must have some
relative value, and returning to the place he recovered the despised
jewel. He did not long retain his treasure, but sold it to a priest
for one florin. The priest also did not appear to have a high regard
for his purchase, for he disposed of it to the magistrates of his own
canton for three francs.

When it became known that the Bernese Government had possession of
the Duke’s famous jewels, Jacob Fugger, one of the members of the
celebrated Nuremberg family, went to Bern and negotiated for their
purchase. The famous pendant, together with the Duke’s cap, which was
made of silk covered with pearls and Balais rubies, and a plume case
set with diamonds, pearls, and Balais rubies, were bought for the sum
of 47,000 francs. Fugger retained the pendant in his possession at
Nuremberg for many years, indulging in the hope, it has been said, that
the Duke’s great-grandson, the Emperor Charles V., would purchase it
as a family relic. When the celebrated capitalist died the ornament was
still in his possession; but his great-nephew, who inherited the jewel,
sold it to Henry VIII. of England. After the death of this monarch,
his daughter presented the diamond to her bridegroom; and thus, by a
remarkable coincidence, and after an absence of seventy-six years, the
royal gem is again restored to the rightful heir of its original owner.
So far the history of Sancy No. 1 can be clearly traced.

Now for the stories relating to the Sancy diamond No. 2. But, before
proceeding further in this interesting and misty search, we will
explain the history of the nobleman who has inseparably connected his
name with so many gems.

Nicolas Harlai, Seigneur de Sancy, was of French descent, and the
treasurer and intimate friend of King Henry IV. He had filled several
positions of high responsibility, and served as ambassador to several
of the Courts of Europe. He was also known as a man of culture, a lover
of the fine arts, and an amateur in gems.

In the year 1589, Baron Sancy is said to have obtained a large diamond
from the Pretender to the Crown of Portugal, as security for a loan
of one hundred thousand livres. The antiquaries have thus far failed
to ascertain whence this gem was obtained; but it cannot be supposed
that it was the identical jewel Philip II. of Spain had received from
the English Princess, for the Spaniard was then the bitterest foe of
Don Antonio. Furthermore, Philip, when dying, in 1598, ten years later
than the above-mentioned period, gave to the Infanta a diamond of great
beauty saying that it once belonged to Queen Mary of England. At all
events, it is quite certain that the French Baron had in his hands a
large and valuable diamond.

Not long after this acquisition, Henry IV. wished to engage the
services of a select body of Swiss soldiers, to serve in his army; and
as security for the pay of these hirelings, he sent the gem by a trusty
servant to Harlai, who was then in Switzerland. The faithful valet,
whilst on his way to Bern, was beset by robbers in the forests that
conceal the entrance to the pass of the Dôle, one of the mountains of
the Jura. He managed to swallow the diamond without being perceived by
the bandits, before he was stripped and assassinated.

The Baron, on learning the fate of his envoy, mistrusted that he had
resorted to this expedient of concealing his treasure. He therefore
sent a party of soldiers to the place, disinterred the body, and
recovered the gem. It was immediately placed in the hands of the Jews
of Metz, as security for a large sum of money; and it is also related
that the gem was never redeemed. Here ends the history of the second
Sancy; and no further account of it can be found.

Concerning the history of Sancy No. 3, it is related that when Baron
Sancy returned from Constantinople, where he had been as ambassador,
he exhibited a large and beautiful diamond, which he had acquired for
the sum of $120,000. This statement is somewhat obscure, from the fact
that the ambassador was not Harlai de Sancy, but his son Achille, who
was also sent on various missions by Richelieu during the years 1626
to 1635. However, it is certain that a new diamond was imported into
France by one of the Sancys, and that it was a remarkable gem. It was
described as being of the form of an almond, faceted all over its
surface with small facets, after the manner practised in India. The
weight of this gem has been variously stated; and these conflicting
statements have served to increase the mystery concerning the Sancy
gems. The weight of the diamond has been given as high as one hundred
and twenty-six karats; but Delisle assured Dutens that he saw M.
Jacquemin, the Crown jeweller, weigh the gem, and that it did not
exceed fifty-four karats. Nevertheless, the famous inventory of the
French gems in 1792 gives 33¹²⁄₁₆ karats as the true weight of the
famous Sancy diamond. How shall we explain this wide discrepancy?

Forty-two years after the death of the Baron, the diamond passed
into the hands of Henrietta Maria, the queen-dowager of England, and
subsequently into the possession of James II. The unfortunate king,
while in exile, sold the gem to Louis IV. for the sum of $125,000; and
here its history ends.

During the latter part of the seventeenth century, Robert de Berquen,
a descendant of the famous lapidary, wrote his “Merveilles des Indes,”
and therein he describes the diamond brought from India by Baron Sancy,
as then in possession of the Queen of England, and being almond-like
in form, faceted on both sides, and of fifty-four karats in weight.
This account agrees with those of the French jewellers, and serves to
connect the history of the gem up to this period.

Not many years after the bold robbery of 1792, a large diamond was
acquired, by some mysterious means, by the widow of Charles IV. of
Spain, who gave it to the notorious Prince of Peace Godoy. In 1838,
Princess Paul Demidoff is said to have purchased it for half a million
of roubles; and it is also certain that the Demidoff family sold it in
1865, to the Parsee millionnaire, Sir Jansetjee Jejeebhoy of Bombay,
for $100,000.

Now the question arises, which was the true Sancy? And to settle the
inquiry satisfactorily, will be a difficult task. From all these
accounts, the reader may infer that there are three distinct diamonds
included under the history of Sancy. The first is the diamond of the
Duke of Burgundy, weighing, from its description, about thirty-three
karats, and of a well-marked form. This gem is clearly traced to Philip
II. of Spain. The second, which was of unknown weight, was last noticed
in the hands of the Jews at Metz. The third was of the form of a
brilliolette, and of fifty-four karats weight, and has lately returned
to the land of its birth, with the honors of the name of Sancy. Which
of these gems deserves the name of the Sancy diamond?

Madame de Pompadour, in the bright days of her prosperity, possessed
some rare gems, but we can learn but little concerning them. Her will
indicates that the beautiful ring containing white and rose-colored
diamonds was given to the Duke de Goutaud, and also that the rare
diamond of an aqua marine tint went to the Duke de Choiseul.

After having referred to the political importance of the Regent
diamond, it may be proper for us to briefly mention the famous affair
of the diamond necklace, which unjustly cast a stain upon the prestige
of royalty in France, and ultimately exerted a certain influence, among
other causes, that led to the downfall of the monarchy, and the fearful
scenes that followed. The details of this daring scheme read more like
romance than reality; yet they are well substantiated in history.

It appears that Böhmer, a jeweller of Paris, had collected, in 1784, a
large number of beautiful diamonds, with which he formed a magnificent
necklace valued at 1,600,000 francs. The jewel had been offered to the
Queen Marie Antoinette; but she had declined the purchase as beyond her
means at the time. Her regrets at her inability to obtain the splendid
decoration reached the ears of Prince Cardinal de Rohan, who was then
living at Paris, in disgrace, for having divulged some court secrets
while he was ambassador at Vienna. The Prince was not only handsome
and conceited, but he was notorious for his gallantry and his follies.
Unfortunately for himself and the court, he sought at this time to
regain the favor of the Queen, and made it the grand object of his life.

He had among his intimate acquaintances a bold, dashing woman by the
name of Madame de la Motte, who pretended to be a countess of the
family of Valois. She had married a man by the name of La Motte, who
was intimate with the notorious quacks Villette and Cagliostro, who
were then in the zenith of their fame. The Countess was well known
in Paris as a woman of immorality and deeply versed in the arts of
intrigue.

She became acquainted with the facts of the Queen’s admiration for the
necklace and the infatuation of Rohan for the Queen; and upon these
she arranged her scheme for duping the Prince and obtaining possession
of the property. She soon won the confidence of Rohan, and represented
to him the Queen’s intense longing for the necklace, and the favor he
would gain in loaning the means which would enable her to obtain the
coveted jewel and pay for it at her leisure. She promised, furthermore,
through the aid of Cagliostro, to obtain an interview with the Queen on
this subject. The promised interview took place one night in August,
1784, in the garden of Versailles; but the Queen was represented by a
low character by the name of D’Oliva, who was almost a counterpart of
Marie Antoinette.

Rohan was completely deceived, and agreed to purchase the necklace;
which he did not long after, giving his notes for half-yearly payments,
and receiving as security a bond from the pretended Queen, which,
however, was forged by La Motte’s husband. The Prince Cardinal then
intrusted the jewel to the Countess for conveyance to the Queen;
but she passed it over to her husband, who lost no time in hurrying
to London, where he immediately converted its gems into money. The
Countess, however, did not hasten to join her husband, but remained at
Paris, rejoicing in her audacity and good fortune, and with the hope of
plucking more feathers from her princely victim. Nearly a year passed
away before the secret was discovered.

Böhmer, anxious for his pay, approached the King; and the fraud was
at once discovered. The Cardinal Prince was arrested just as he was
about to perform mass before the court, and sent to the Bastile.
After a short imprisonment, he was tried by a court of justice, but
acquitted of criminal offence. However, he was sent in disgrace to
reside at an abbey of his in Auvergne. Madame la Motte paid dearly for
her crime and her dalliance in Paris after the prize had been secured,
for she was sentenced to be branded on the shoulders, scourged in
public, and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. She bore her trials
with fortitude, and had the good fortune to escape from her prison
in less than a year after her sentence. She joined her husband in
London, and there published a bitter pamphlet against the French Court,
and especially the Queen. It is generally supposed that the Countess
died in London in 1791, either from a fever or the result of an
accident caused by a drunken debauch. But a startling story comes from
Russia, giving another account of the last moments of this celebrated
adventuress.

It appears that the Emperor Alexander, disgusted with the conduct
of three lady reformers who attempted to establish a revolution in
religious opinion at St. Petersburg, banished them to the Crimea. They
were Princess Galitzin, Madame de Krudener, and a mysterious personage
who went by the name of Countess Gauchin. After death, which occurred
during her banishment to the Crimea, the strange Countess proved to
be the notorious De la Motte, who many years before had been publicly
branded on the Place de la Grève in Paris.

It would appear from statements in mediæval history that necklaces were
not much known in France, or at least were not in fashion, until the
times of Charles VIII. For one of the earliest known in that country
was that given by the above-named monarch to the beautiful Agnes
Sorel. The uncut gems, which were of great beauty and value, weighed
heavily upon the delicate neck and bosom of the fair creature; and she
complained of it to her lover as being an instrument of torture as well
as a decoration. The King, fascinated with the charming effect of the
gems, together with the natural entrancing beauty of the maiden, begged
her to wear it, saying, with a supplicating smile, “One might surely
bear some little inconvenience to please those we love.”

The late Madame Thiers possessed a rare jewel, which came to her by
inheritance, and which she wisely bequeathed to the Louvre collection.
This jewel is a necklace of precious stones of the sixteenth century
workmanship, and is regarded as without a rival in Europe except among
the regalia preserved at St. Petersburg.

There are a great many diamonds owned in France among the nobility, the
landed proprietors, and the successful merchants. Paris has been for a
long time the chief market in the world for the sale of the gem; and
most of the stones cut at Amsterdam find their way, primarily, to the
Parisian bazaars. Many of these are taken as securities by the rich;
but the most of them are absorbed by the requirements of fashion and
the love of display.

Adventurers, during the tide of success, prefer to invest their gains
in gems, and especially diamonds, rather than in lands or bonds. There
is a twofold reason for this preference. Great wealth can be concealed
in a handful of gems which can be easily transported; and the glitter
of the stones adds vastly to the fascinations of the investment.
Disastrous wars and commercial panics generally betray hoards of this
description; and new sources of the precious stones are thus opened to
commerce. It is reported that the Bonaparte family, since the disaster
at Sedan, have thrown upon the market diamonds to the value of several
millions of dollars.




                              CHAPTER IX.

                THE REGALIA AND OTHER GEMS OF ENGLAND.


The casket of gems belonging to the English Crown is not of
ancient date, for the followers of Cromwell--iconoclasts and
economists--ordered all the ancient regalia to be sold. However, some
of the finest of the gems were recovered not long after, and were used
in the decorations of the coronation of Charles II.

The present crown of England was made by English artisans, in 1838,
with gems taken from old diadems and others bought by Victoria. It is
described by Professor Tennant as follows:--

 “The imperial state crown of Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, was made
 in the year 1838, by Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, with jewels taken
 from old crowns, and others furnished by command of Her Majesty. It
 consists of diamonds, pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, set in
 silver and gold; it has a crimson-velvet cap with ermine border, and
 is lined with white silk. Its gross weight is 39 oz. 5 dwts. Troy.

 “The lower part of the band above the ermine border consists of a
 row of 129 pearls; and the upper part of the band, of a row of 112
 pearls; between which, in the front of the crown, is a large sapphire
 [partly drilled] purchased for the crown by His Majesty, King George
 IV. At the back is a sapphire of smaller size and 6 other sapphires,
 3 on each side, between which are 8 emeralds. Above and below the 7
 sapphires are 14 diamonds, and around the 8 emeralds 128 diamonds.
 Between the emeralds and sapphires are 16 trefoil ornaments containing
 160 diamonds. Above the band are 8 sapphires surmounted by 8 diamonds,
 between which are 8 festoons, consisting of 148 diamonds. In the
 front of the crown, and in the centre of a diamond Maltese cross, is
 the famous ruby said to have been given to Edward, Prince of Wales,
 the Black Prince, by Don Pedro, King of Castile, after the battle of
 Najara, near Vittoria, A.D. 1367. This ruby was worn in the helmet of
 Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt, A.D. 1415. It is pierced quite
 through, after the Eastern custom, the upper part of the piercing
 being filled up by a small ruby. Around this ruby, to form the cross,
 are 75 brilliant-diamonds. Three other Maltese crosses, forming the
 two sides and back of the crown, have emerald centres, and contain
 respectively 132, 124, and 130 brilliant-diamonds. Between the 4
 Maltese crosses are 4 ornaments, in the form of French _fleurs de
 lis_, with 4 rubies in their centres, and surrounded by rose-diamonds,
 containing respectively, 84, 86, 86, 87 rose-diamonds. From the
 Maltese crosses issue 4 imperial arches composed of oak-leaves and
 acorns; the leaves containing 728 rose, table, and brilliant diamonds;
 32 pearls forming the acorns, set in cups, containing 54 rose-diamonds
 and 1 table-diamond. The total number of diamonds in the arches and
 acorns is 108 brilliant, 116 table, and 559 rose diamonds. From the
 upper part of the arches are suspended 4 large pendent pear-shaped
 pearls with rose-diamond cups, containing 12 rose-diamonds, and
 stems, containing 24 very small rose-diamonds. Above the arch stands
 the Mound, containing in the lower hemisphere 304 brilliants, and
 in the upper 244 brilliants; the zone and arc being composed of 33
 rose-diamonds. The cross on the summit has a rose-cut sapphire in the
 centre, surrounded by 4 large brilliants and 108 smaller brilliants.”

The value of this beautiful ornament has been estimated by Barbot, the
French jeweller, at the sum of $600,000, which, however, is probably
very far below its real value.

The great prize and boast of the English treasures is the diamond
called the Koh-i-noor, one of the spoils of the East India loot.

From the many descriptions given of it and its real and supposed
history, it is better known to the English reader than any other
gem; yet there are in Europe several diamonds of greater size and
perfection, and a number of gems of greater beauty, and certainly of
a higher value. The Koh-i-noor is said to have been discovered in the
mine of Gani, near Golconda, about the middle of the sixteenth century.
It is thought by some to be a portion of the Great Mogul diamond; but
of the correctness of this view there is considerable doubt.

The form in which it was found by the English at the time of capture
certainly conveys the idea that it may have been cleft from a larger
specimen; but, according to Tavernier, the Great Mogul was ground down
and not rifted by means of its cleavage planes at all. At all events,
the gem, when it reached England, weighed one hundred and eighty-six
karats, and its sides were polished and faceted in the Oriental
manner, without regard to a symmetrical form. In this condition it was
uncouth, it is true, but it was supposed to be the famous Koh-i-noor,
“the mountain of light,” of Eastern romance and history. Now, in its
new shape, it is no longer one of the giants of its species, and the
prestige which the Hindoos bestowed upon it has also vanished. The
recutting of this gem, and the attempt to reduce its irregular form
into the shape of a brilliant, was most unfortunate. It is now only a
brilliant in name, and it is far too thin in substance to exhibit the
beautiful and natural refractive powers of the mineral.

In reality, the form of the brilliant should be cut according to
mathematical laws; and its depth and breadth must be of a certain fixed
ratio to call forth the natural brilliancy and prismatic display of the
stone. This relative degree of form and its wonderful results is well
exemplified in the gems cut by Ralph Potter at the commencement of this
century, who was, without doubt, the best diamond-cutter the world has
seen. It is also laid down as a mathematical problem in the scale which
Jeffries has prepared.

The Koh-i-noor, before cutting, weighed one hundred and eighty-six
karats; and was the second diamond in Europe. It is now reduced
to 102¹⁄₄ karats, with its splendors but little increased; and is
reckoned as the fifth in size among the European diamonds; and, to
our view, is inferior in value to many of the diamonds of less size,
and especially the green diamond of Dresden, or the blue of the Hope
collection. In fact, it is far exceeded in beauty and splendor by the
imitations of art. The prestige has been injured, if not destroyed, by
cutting; and its position among the great gems of the world reduced to
a comparatively low degree, notwithstanding its great weight.

No amateur will say that the gem has gained any advantage in cutting,
when he sums up the arguments in favor of and against the operation. He
will not say the Koh-i-noor, exhibited in the London exhibition, was
superior in all respects to the time-honored gem displayed among the
crown jewels of the Tower of London a few years before. In reality,
its appearance in the Crystal Palace was inferior to that of its glass
models; and a comparison of its form with the examples offered by
Jeffries will at once show its imperfections.

In its spread, as compared with that of a properly proportioned
one-hundred-karat brilliant, it is quite one third too large; or, in
plainer language, it is now a badly shaped stone, and cannot display
its latent splendors unless surrounded by a great number of wax candles.

A comparison with the outlines of the Regent will at once show the
want of harmony in its shape so far as development of brilliancy and
prismatic display are concerned; and to obtain the display of these
properties, without which the diamond is not much better than common
limpid quartz, the form of the gem must be invariably of a certain
size and depth. A lustreless mass of diamond, no matter how large it
may be, is not a choice example of the mineral, in comparison with a
smaller stone, radiant with its natural, or rather developed, beauties.
Size alone, without special excellence, brings no charm with it, but
rather places it among mineralogical curiosities. Therefore, we regret
exceedingly the recent cutting of the Koh-i-noor, which has injured its
prestige, and reduced its value incomparably.

Had the lapidaries adopted the form of the Sancy, that is, the shape
of the almond, with small facets all over it, a far greater brilliancy
would have been obtained. Such is the opinion of Babinet and other
connoisseurs, who are able to judge on this subject. The Koh-i-noor,
before cutting, was submitted by Prince Albert to the examination
of several eminent men, amongst whom was Sir David Brewster; and a
variety of opinions were expressed upon the subject. It is generally
believed that ideas of fashion directed the shape of the stone to
be adopted; and that if its form had been left to Coster, the model
of the brilliolette would have been copied, and but little of the
stone sacrificed in the cutting. However, it is too late to lament
the accident or the error; but we hope that the experience acquired
will preserve other specimens for the admiration of art, although it
availed nought in the case of the Star of the South, another stone
admirably adapted for the exhibition of the beauty of the brilliolette
model. This form, with numerous small facets, in both instances would
have given more luminous points, and therefore produced more splendid
effects.

Babinet properly exclaims against the mode of cutting the large gems
with large facets, as thereby much of the glory of the gem is lost. Had
the Regent, even, been cut with smaller and more numerous facets, its
splendors would have been greater. As we have previously stated, the
most vivid play of light and color is exhibited in diamonds of about
ten karats or less; we may, perhaps, attribute the difference to the
violation of some law in optics, as well as to the difference in the
laminæ or substance of the larger stones.

Babinet, in defence of his remarks on this interesting subject, states
that the beautiful rainbow hues are produced by the light entering
the upper surfaces of the gem, and, being reflected backwards from
the bottom surfaces, is then refracted, after traversing the side
facets. The white light is then decomposed into every variety of hue,
the perfection of which depends upon the condition of reflection and
refraction. If the facets are too large and the light too voluminous
there is danger of neutralization of these colors, and that white light
be reproduced.

We doubt very much if this historic gem has been known to history for
more than five hundred years. If it is, as it has been alleged, a part
of the Great Mogul, its appearance among mankind dates from 1550.
Had it been known in the times when Timour so mercilessly attacked
India, it could hardly have escaped the rapacity of the Tatar. And
the history of this conquest, in the latter part of the fourteenth
century, leads us to believe that all, or nearly all, of the great
diamonds of Bengal have been discovered since that time. Had this gem
been added to the Mogul treasury at Delhi in 1304, from the conquest
of Malwa by Ala-ud-deen, it probably would have been known to Timour.
The last Tatar invasion, in 1736, under Nadir Shah, found the gem set
in the turban of the Great Mogul, and it was carried away to Khorasan
by the victorious host, together with all the fabulous wealth which
had been garnered up during nearly four centuries of prosperity. From
Nadir it was wrested by assassination, and passed from ruler to ruler,
with strange vicissitudes, until the Sikh power succumbed to the arms
of England; when it passed, in 1850, with other treasures, from the
stronghold of Lahore to the jewel-chamber of Windsor Castle.

Ill fortune has always attended the possession of this gem, it is
said; and certainly the reduction of the stone in the blind attempt
to improve its brilliancy may be classed in this category. The
Hindoos have always maintained that it inevitably brought ruin to
its possessor; and surely, the history of the Mogul Empire, the reign
of Nadir Shah, its conqueror, the Dooranee dynasty, and the rule of
the Sikhs give strength to the plausibility of the tradition. In the
chapter on the gems of Asia we shall again refer to this stone.

England has had the opportunity, during her Indian conquests, of
collecting the most magnificent parure of gems the world has seen. The
pride of the French Crown, the matchless Regent, was brought to London
by the English Governor, Pitt, and offered to the Royal House; the
great Orloff, the boast of the Russian regalia, was brought from India
by an Englishman, Earl Effingham; and many other fine diamonds and
gems from Hindostan have been brought within the reach of the English
Crown before being offered elsewhere for disposition. The neglect to
secure these beautiful and matchless treasures is inexcusable even in a
commercial view, for a gem paragon is “an empire made portable.”

Among the diamonds brought from India by Englishmen, the Pigott and the
Nassac deserve some mention.

The Pigott was a splendid gem of 47¹⁄₂ karats, and derived its name
from its importer. In 1801 it was placed in a lottery in London, and
valued at $150,000. The lucky drawer of the prize was content to part
with it for $30,000 to an English jeweller, who afterwards sold it to
Ali Pacha of Egypt. The Egyptian prince conceived a strange attachment
to the gem. He did not display it among the ornaments on his person;
but concealed it in a silken bag which he attached to his girdle. The
story goes that when Ali was mortally wounded by Reschid Pacha he
gave orders to have his favorite wife, Vasilika, strangled, and also
commanded Captain D’Anglas to crush the diamond in his presence. A
single blow of the hammer crushed to atoms this beautiful gem, which
was really one of the finest in Europe on account of the perfection of
its form and the absolute purity of its water. The model alone remains.
The fascinating Vasilika by some means managed to escape the sentence
of death.

The Nassac diamond was brought from India by the Marquis of Hastings,
and formed a part of the Deccan booty. After passing through several
ownerships it was finally purchased by the Marquis of Westminster for
about fifty thousand dollars. It has since been recut into a triangular
form, and its original weight reduced from eighty-nine to about
seventy-eight karats. In its new form it has gained vastly in lustre
and brilliancy.

The famous blue diamond known as the Hope diamond, from the fact that
it belonged to one of the distinguished family of bankers of that name,
is really one of the most valuable diamonds in Europe, for it is indeed
one of the marvels of the mineral kingdom. Its weight is 44¹⁄₂ karats,
but its history is unknown; and this obscurity leads to the suspicion
it may be the lost gem of the French casket since reduced in size. It
is now mounted as a medallion with a border of rose-cut diamonds and
twenty brilliants, each of one karat weight and of the finest water.

This beautiful gem was shown to the public at the great Exhibition of
1851 in London, and the description given of it by Mr. Hertz is worth
repeating here. It is “a most magnificent and rare brilliant of a
deep sapphire-blue, of the greatest purity and most beautifully cut:
it is of true proportions, not too thick nor too wide-spread. This
matchless gem combines the beautiful color of the sapphire with the
prismatic fire and brilliancy of the diamond; and on account of its
extraordinary color, great size, and other fine qualities, it certainly
may be called unique, as we may presume that there exists no cabinet
nor any collection of crown jewels in the world which can boast of the
possession of so curious and fine a gem.”

The value of this wonderful specimen of Nature’s work has been
variously estimated. It is understood that Mr. Hope paid but $65,000
for it, which is a mere bagatelle to its comparative worth. To our
view this matchless gem should be valued as highly as any of the fine
paragon diamonds of the world, and we do not include the Koh-i-noor as
among this number. In this estimate we refer only to the comparison of
actual merits and qualities, unbiassed by the whims of royalty or of
fashion.

A hundred years ago and more the citizens of London, transported with
joy over the victory at Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland, hailed the
soldier as a hero and a deliverer, and presented him with a beautiful
diamond. It was a splendid gem of thirty-two karats weight, and cost
the city the sum of $50,000. Not many years ago, however, the House of
Hanover laid claim to the gem by reason of certain laws of inheritance;
and we are informed that Queen Victoria, after investigating the claim,
ordered the gem to be given up to the claimant.

Mr. Hertz, of London, in the course of his long experience collected a
very costly, as well as unique and beautiful, collection of gems. His
cabinet of diamonds, embracing almost every shade and color, rivalled
in excellence the celebrated Wernerian cabinet at Freiburg, and that of
Abbé Haüy at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris; but was surpassed by that
of Helmreicher now preserved in the Imperial Museum at Vienna.

As the reader may be interested in the tastes of the English nobility
in the good old times, we will look over a few of the pages of English
history, and relate some of the incidents of court life, and describe
the appearance of some of the distinguished characters of different
reigns.

Eleanor of Provence exhibited great extravagance at her coronation
as Queen of King Henry III., who was called the greatest fop of his
time (1236). It was probably Eleanor who established the fashion of
wearing chaplets of gold and gems over the hair. On the occasion of
her coronation she had on no less than nine garlands or wreaths formed
of gold and clusters of colored precious stones. She had, also, among
her regalia, a great crown glorious with gems, and girdles radiant
with the most beautiful specimens of the mineral kingdom. The wedding
present from her sister, Queen Marguerite of France, was a large silver
peacock, whose train was set with sapphires and pearls and other
precious stones. It was used as a reservoir for perfumed waters.

It seems that the old Crusaders were wont to deck themselves with
gems; and Provençal traditions declare that the first intimation Queen
Berengaria had of the seizure of Richard Cœur de Lion was the sale of a
belt adorned with gems, which she knew he wore and would not part with
except by violence.

The coronation of Henry VIII. was attended with extraordinary splendor,
and the King was arrayed with the finest gems that could be obtained.

At the famous Tournament of the Cloth of Gold, the English and French
nobility attempted to outshine each other in the magnificence of their
dresses and decorations. And the vanity of the festival caused the
financial distress or ruin of many a gallant knight.

At the banquet at this time King Henry gave Anne Boleyn a beautiful
jewel valued at 15,000 crowns.

When Bluff King Hal went to meet his bride, Anne of Cleves, he was
arrayed so magnificently as to be likened by the wits of the time to
the “king of diamonds.” He wore a coat of purple velvet curiously
embroidered with gold and lace. “The sleeves were cut, and lined with
cloth of gold, and clasped with great buttons of diamonds, rubies,
and Orient pearls; his sword and girdle set with stones and special
emeralds; his cap garnished with stones, but his bonnet was so rich of
jewels that few men could value them. Besides all this he wore a collar
of such Balais rubies and pearls that few men ever saw the like.”

Henry demanded of Francis I. of France, the gems and jewels which
had belonged to his sister Mary, who had married Louis XII. Among
them were a ruby two inches and a half long, some great pearls, and
large diamonds, forming together a casket which the Earl of Worcester
describes as the “goodliest and richest sight of jewels he ever saw.”
But they were never returned; and Francis refused to allow the claim on
account of the loss of the fine diamond known as the Mirror of Naples,
and which he valued at 30,000 crowns. What this diamond really was, and
its subsequent history, is still a matter of historical conjecture.

Mary Queen of Scots, when married to the Dauphin of France in 1558,
was decked in a marvellous manner with all that art could afford at
the time. Her crown was of exquisite workmanship, and was composed of
gold, with diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds of immense value,
having a huge carbuncle suspended in the middle valued at half a
million crowns. Around her neck was hung the esteemed jewel known in
Scottish history as the “Great Harry.” The inventories of her property
show that she possessed a large number of valuable gems. It seems that
she lavished upon Bothwell, before they parted at Carberry Hill, jewels
of more than $30,000 in value.

One of the most magnificent pageants known in English history was
that celebrated by the wealth of England and illustrated with the
poetry of Ben Jonson, and which was the occasion of investing the
eldest son of Queen Anne with the rights of the Prince of Wales, in
1609. The “Glorious Masque,” which took place at this time, has never
been excelled in England. The whole court of England and all the
aristocratic beauties of the day were engaged in the event. The palace
of Whitehall was transformed into a scene of enchantment under the
hands of the best artists of the time, guided by the taste of Inigo
Jones. This magnificent festival, characterized by so many beautiful
and dazzling scenes, was the happiest in the life of Queen Anne of
Denmark.

A few years after this glorious celebration, which lingered in the
memory of the participants like a golden dream, Queen Anne died; and
the King, on opening her coffers and cabinets, discovered that all of
her beautiful gems and jewels had disappeared; and notwithstanding the
Queen’s maid and attendants were arrested, and diligent search made in
all directions, there is no evidence that even a trace was ever found
of the missing treasure. No vestige was ever obtained of the jewels
which Herrick made for her, and which were worth nearly $200,000.

When the Duke of Buckingham was sent to Paris, in 1625, to bring over
to England Queen Henrietta Maria, he carried with him twenty-seven rich
suits of clothing, as beautiful and valuable as the invention of the
times could make them. The suit arranged for his entry into Paris was
reckoned of a value of more than a quarter of a million of dollars. It
was made of white satin and uncut velvet, set all over with diamonds.
His spurs, hat-band, feather, girdle, and sword were all covered with
diamonds. For the wedding day, at Paris, he had a suit of purple
satin, embroidered all over with Orient pearls, and a cloak to match,
made after the Spanish fashion, all of the value of about one hundred
thousand dollars.

Charles I. had many fine gems and jewels at his disposal; and,
according to the documents still extant, he made free use of them. The
very first year of his reign, he examined the contents of the jewel
house, with a view of pledging them in the future; and it is said that
his queen, Henrietta, raised in one year ten millions of dollars on the
royal jewels. The great collar of rubies was sold in Holland.

Charles, in the days of his prosperity, was an eager purchaser of gems
and jewelry; and a record is preserved which shows that he bought in a
year and a half, a quarter of a million dollars’ worth of jewelry, and
chiefly to use as gifts. It is also related that he bought the great
diamond which Sir Paul Pindar brought home from Constantinople, and
which he valued at $150,000. The subsequent history of this rare gem is
to be placed among the mysterious things of the past.

The queen of James II. was ornamented for the coronation in a manner
that would have startled even Lollia Paulina; and a half million
dollars were expended in dressing her up. The diadem also was a
wondrous piece of extravagance for the times, and cost more than five
hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The historian of the times states
that “the jewels she had on were reckoned at a million’s worth, which
made her shine like an angel.” The exiled Queen, in the after years of
her widowhood, said to the nuns of Chaillot, “My dress and royal mantle
were covered with precious stones; and it took all the jewels that the
goldsmiths of London could procure to decorate my crown.”

When Queen Caroline was crowned as consort of George II., she made use
of all the material she could find in London. And Lord Hervey exclaims
that “the appearance and the truth of her finery was a mixture of
magnificence and meanness not unlike the eclat of royalty in many other
particulars, when it comes to be nicely considered, and its source
traced to what money hires and flattery lends.” For it is stated that
she used upon her head all the pearls and necklaces she could borrow
from the ladies of quality; and that she placed upon her petticoat all
the diamonds she could hire of the Jews and jewellers in town.

When Philip of Spain went to England to receive his bride, Queen Mary,
the ceremonies on the occasion were conducted with great splendor. The
King was accompanied by sixty of the most distinguished grandees of
Spain, clad in royal array. He was dressed in a robe of rich brocade
bordered with large pearls and diamonds. His trunk hose were of white
satin worked with silver. He wore a collar of beaten gold full of
inestimable diamonds, and from which hung the jewel of the Golden
Fleece. Around his knee was the Garter, studded with beautiful gems of
various colors.

The daughter of Henry VIII. inherited her father’s love for ornamental
display; and at the time of her marriage with Philip of Spain, she
appeared magnificently arrayed. She is described as wearing a robe
whose ample train was bordered with pearls and diamonds of immense size
and value. The large sleeves were ornamented with clusters of gold set
with pearls and diamonds. Her coif was bordered with two rows of large
diamonds; and she wore on her breast a splendid diamond of inestimable
value, which Philip had sent her as a gift. Mary, on her death-bed,
sent the most of her jewels to her sister Elizabeth of England; and
King Philip added to them a casket of very beautiful gems.

Elizabeth, when she became Queen of England, gradually acquired a
passion for jewelry, which finally became absurd and grotesque. She
possessed at one time two thousand dresses and an immense quantity of
gems. The portrait of Queen Elizabeth at Henham Hall represents her
in a blaze of jewels. She appears with an enormous ruff, which rose
as a bird-like structure behind the fabric of jewels which adorned
her head, until it overtopped the cross of her regal diadem. A rich
collar of gold, woven in delicate filigree work, set with pearls,
rubies, and amethysts, adorned her neck. The bodice of her dress was
also ornamented with gold filigree set with many gems; and the sleeves
were profusely ornamented to match the bodice. Horace Walpole, in
describing her portraits, says, “There is not one that can be called
beautiful. The profusion of ornaments with which they are loaded are
marks of her continual fondness for dress; while they entirely exclude
all grace, and leave no more room for a painter’s genius, than if he
had been employed to copy an Indian idol, totally composed of hands and
necklaces. A pale Roman nose; a head of hair loaded with crowns, and
powdered with diamonds; a vast ruff, a vaster fardingale, and a bushel
of pearls,--are features by which everybody knows at once the picture
of Elizabeth.”

Sir Walter Raleigh dressed himself in a gorgeous manner, and was
profusely decorated with gems. On court days, even his shoes wore gems
of the value of more than $30,000 (£6,600). His armor was of solid
silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls.

The Duke of Buckingham, the favorite of King James, wore his diamonds
loosely attached, so that he might shake off a few at pleasure. His
cloaks were trimmed with great diamond buttons; his hat-bands were of
diamonds; also his cockades. Among his many rich suits was one of white
uncut velvet, set all over with diamonds, to the value of £80,000;
besides a great feather bespangled with diamonds, as well as his sword,
girdle, hat, and spurs.

In olden times the shrine of Thomas à Becket was famous throughout
England and attracted countless devotees from all parts of the realm.
One hundred thousand persons of all ranks are said to have visited it
in one year, offering a vast variety of gifts. In the twelfth century
Louis VII. of France, disguised as a common pilgrim in the meanest
garb, visited the shrine and presented it with a famous precious
stone, called the Regale of France, and as large as a bird’s egg. Not
a fragment of this glittering and splendid shrine--a mass of gold and
jewels--remains at the present day to interest the antiquary; and its
treasures have been scattered to the winds, leaving no trace behind.

The churches of England, as well as France and Spain, were at one time
enormously rich in precious stones and ecclesiastical ornaments of the
jewellers’ art; but wars and insurrections are fatal to collections of
the rare and the beautiful; and the fury and cupidity of the Leaguers,
the iconoclasts, and the revolutionists have destroyed these treasures
of art and nature, or dispersed them so that their identity is lost.

The magnificence of the English clergy led Pope Innocent III. to
exclaim, “O England, thou garden of delights! Thou art truly an
inexhaustible fount of riches. From thy abundance much may be exacted.”




                              CHAPTER X.

                             ASIATIC GEMS.


To Asia we naturally turn for the history of the diamond, and a
solution of some of the phenomena connected with the mineral. But
here we have to contend with vexations at all points; and instead of
clearness, we have obscurity, disconnected histories, conflicting
traditions, and superstitious fancies. However, from the mass of
fragments which have been preserved, the patient antiquary eventually
may be able to arrange an interesting story relating to the gem in the
early days of its discovery and its adoption in ornamentation.

We will now proceed to mention some of the celebrated stones whose
history has been more or less clearly defined; and regret to say that
there are a large number of others of great interest and value, but of
which we are unable to give a correct description.

The Hindoos prize diamonds greatly on account of their supposed
spiritual properties, and they reluctantly part with them unless
compelled by dire necessity, or induced by the hope of greater
gain. Many of the fine diamonds brought to Europe from Asia have
blood-stained histories, and some of them are connected with appalling
atrocities. Therefore we may with propriety say that few of the noble
gems would have found their way to Europe had the free will of their
rightful owners been consulted.

The foremost gem in the history of the diamond was that which was
called the Great Mogul. This was the largest of all known diamonds,
and was found in the rich mines of Gani about the year 1650, or nearly
a century after their discovery. It became the property of Vizier
Mirgimola, who, although a Persian by birth, had by ability and tact
risen to the honor of general and vizier to the King of Golconda. By
means of his rapacity in war, and his success in working the diamond
mines, he became enormously wealthy, and accumulated immense numbers of
gems. The King finally became jealous of the wealth and power of his
favorite, and resolved to destroy him. But Mirgimola, warned of his
danger in time, succeeded in escaping with all his treasures to the
capital of Shah Jehan, the Great Mogul. The wily Persian gained the
favor and protection of the Hindoo monarch by magnificent presents of
gems, the chief of which was the immense diamond which has since been
called the Great Mogul.

The original weight of this mammoth gem is said to have been 787¹⁄₂
karats; but during the process of cutting it was reduced to 279 karats.
Tavernier relates that the work had been intrusted to a Venetian
lapidary by the name of Hortensio Borghis, who, ignorant of the duties
of his task, removed the flaws and external imperfections by grinding
the surface of the stone away. The labor required by this operation
seems almost incredible when we come to consider the hardness of the
stone, and estimate the difficulty of polishing it, especially with
the rude means then in use by the Oriental lapidaries. The cutting
of the Pitt diamond (now the Regent) required two years’ time, with
the aid of modern appliances and the facilities afforded by means of
cleavage, by which large fragments were removed and utilized. Therefore
the statement that this stone was reduced solely by grinding from
787¹⁄₂ karats to 279 karats is likely to meet with disbelief among the
lapidaries; for the operation must have required more than the fifteen
years which had elapsed from the discovery of the gem to the time
Tavernier examined it. Tavernier says distinctly that cleavage was not
resorted to in facilitating the reduction of the stone. We quote: “Had
the Sieur Hortensio been well acquainted with his profession he might
have obtained from this great stone some good pieces without doing
any injury to the King, and without having taken so much trouble in
grinding it away; but he was not a very skilful diamond-cutter.” This
statement establishes the fact that the secret of reducing diamonds by
cleavage was known at that time.

Fifteen years after the discovery Tavernier saw the gem in the hands
of Aurungzeb, who was then Mogul, Shah Jehan having been deposed and
placed in confinement. The distinguished traveller was allowed to
examine the gem, weigh it, and make a drawing of it. It was then of
the form of half an egg, and very high-crowned, and had been cut with
many facets, quite regularly arranged over its superior surfaces. It
was also of fine water, and disfigured by only one crack on its lower
border, and a little flaw in the interior.

The French traveller gives an account of the ceremony of his
examination as conducted with great precision and the utmost solemnity,
as though the gems were the crystallizations or the embodiments of
departed spirits. The gems were brought in upon two lacquered trays
covered with brocade, and were counted over thrice, and three lists
made of them by different scribes. This process was not particularly
flattering to the pride of the guest, but it serves to illustrate or
establish the fact that the Hindoo character for deception and theft
was quite as marked then as now.

Since this period no further mention has been made of the gem by
any authentic writer; but it is supposed to have formed a part of
the plunder of Delhi, when Nadir Shah captured all the treasures
accumulated during four hundred years of prosperity, and which were
valued at from $150,000,000 to $350,000,000.

The next largest diamond shown to Tavernier was one of only 54¹⁄₂
karats, and all the rest were much inferior. Hence it is surmised that
the Koh-i-noor, the Shah, and the Daria-i-noor were then unknown, and
were discovered at a later period. But it is stated that the former
Mogul, who was still in confinement, retained many of the gems of
his own collecting, and that they may have been among them. Or they
may have been in possession of Mirgimola. At all events, the Mogul
disappeared with the last Tatar invasion; and new paragons, like the
Koh-i-noor, became known to the world. After the assassination of Nadir
Shah his treasures were scattered among many chieftains, and all record
of many of them has been lost.

The fate of the Mogul is shrouded in mystery. The famous gem preserved
in the Persian treasury and called Daria-i-noor, “the ocean of lustre,”
which Forbes saw and described, is not the lost stone. By some it is
believed to be hidden away in some obscure fortress, to appear at
some future day when the possessor may display his hidden treasure in
safety. This view is certainly warranted by the discovery of the large
flat diamond of one hundred and thirty karats among the jewels taken
from the harem of Reeza Kooli at the capture of Coocha by the Persian
army in 1832. Also the finding of the celebrated crown of Chosroes by
Abbas in the treasury of one of the Princes in the Lauristan Mountains
near the Persian Gulf, where it had lain concealed for a thousand years.

Were it not for the general accuracy and truthfulness of Tavernier,
and the drawing he has left of the diamond, we might claim the Orloff
as the missing Mogul. Certainly the resemblance in form is very
remarkable; and the location of the flaws, with the rare circumstance
of shape, are facts very strongly in favor of the Orloff. The question
now arises, did Tavernier make an error in his weight and draw the
outlines carelessly or from memory? We have seen how confused history
has become regarding the identity of the Sancy diamond.

The real Koh-i-noor of Hindoo history is probably the great Mogul
or the Orloff; and the name would be appropriately applied to the
dome-like shape of both of the stones, with their flashing beams of
light, rather than to the flattened form of the English stone now
called the Koh-i-noor, and which exhibited but little lustre. It
is highly probable that the diamond of Runjeet Sing, the English
Koh-i-noor, was one of the magnificent diamonds surrendered to Nadir
Shah by Mohammed Shah at the sack of Delhi in 1739, but there is no
positive proof of his obtaining the great heirloom of the descendants
of Aurungzeb.

In reviewing the history of the Great Mogul gems, from the time of
Tavernier down to the present day, we are inclined to regard the term
Koh-i-noor, or “mountain of light,” as a misnomer, and that the gem
received this distinction only after its arrival at Kabul, or came
into the possession of Runjeet Sing; neither have we any evidence to
prove that the Koh-i-noor was the Great Mogul; for that appellation is
not given to it by the early writers. But it is not probable that the
term, so superlative of excellence and superiority, would be applied
to an inferior gem, while the great diamond of the Mogul, weighing two
hundred and eighty karats, was in existence.

The history of all these great diamonds is very obscure; and as the
value of the Indian weights and measures varies so much at different
places and at different times, it is quite impossible to follow with
precision the fragments of history that relate to them.

Several accounts have been given of the manner in which the Koh-i-noor
fell into the clutches of Runjeet; but that of Dr. Wilson, as published
in the official catalogue of the great Exhibition at London, is
probably correct. It is as follows:--

 “When Shah Soujah was driven from Kabul, he became the nominal guest
 and actual prisoner of Runjeet Sing, who spared neither opportunity
 nor menace until, in 1813, he compelled the fugitive monarch to resign
 the precious gem, presenting him on the occasion, it is said, with a
 lakh of rupees, or about £12,000 sterling.

 “According to Shah Soujah’s own account, however, he assigned to
 him the revenues of three villages, not one rupee of which he ever
 realized. Runjeet was highly elated by the acquisition of the diamond,
 and wore it as an armlet at all public festivals.

 “When he was dying, an attempt was made by persons about him to
 persuade him to make the diamond a present to Juggernaut; and it is
 said he intimated by an inclination of the head his assent. The
 treasurer, however, in whose charge it was, refused to give it up
 without some better warrant; and Runjeet dying before a written order
 could be signed by him, the Koh-i-noor was preserved for a while
 for his successors. It was occasionally worn by Khurruk Sing and
 Shir Sing. After the murder of the latter it remained in the Lahore
 Treasury until the supersession of Dhulip Sing and the annexation of
 the Punjaub by the British Government, when the civil authorities took
 possession of the Lahore Treasury, under the stipulation previously
 made, that all the property of the State should be confiscated to the
 East India Company, in part payment of the debt due by the Lahore
 Government, and of the expenses of the war. It was at the same time
 stipulated that the Koh-i-noor should be surrendered to the Queen of
 England.

 “The diamond was conveyed to Bombay by Governor General the Earl of
 Dalhousie, whom ill health had compelled to repair to the coast, and
 was then given in charge to Lieutenant-Colonel Mackeson, C. B., and
 Captain T. Ramsay, the Military Secretary to the Governor General,
 to take to England. These officers embarked on board Her Majesty’s
 steamship ‘Medea,’ and left Bombay on the 6th of April, 1850. They
 arrived at Portsmouth on the 30th of June; and two days afterwards
 relinquished their charge to the Chairman and Deputy-chairman of the
 Court of Directors, by whom, in company with the President of the
 Board of Control, the Koh-i-noor was delivered to her Majesty on
 the 3d of July,--an appropriate and honorable close to its eventful
 career.”

We are led to infer from the accounts of history that some of the
Indian rulers collected enormous quantities of the precious stones.
It is stated that Mahmoud, in his campaign in India about the eleventh
century, captured the temple Bheen, which, according to Ferishta,
contained a greater quantity of precious stones and pearls “than was
ever collected in the royal treasury of any prince on earth.” They were
carried off to Ghizna.

In another campaign the idol at Sumnat, fifteen feet high, was
captured, which being broken open yielded great quantities of rubies,
diamonds, and pearls which had been concealed in it. These were
carried to Ghizna. Ferishta says Ala-ud-deen obtained from the Raja of
Mahrattas fifty pounds of diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires,
and also one hundred and seventy-five pounds of pearls.

In the middle of the sixteenth century Acber of India gave a splendid
banquet in honor of his birthday; and, if the reports concerning it are
correct, it was one of the most magnificent entertainments ever given
on the earth. Acres of land were covered with silken and flaxen tents,
and the horses and elephants were bespangled with gold and gems. The
tents of the Nabob were not only exquisitely made and adorned, but even
the carpets which covered the earth were richly embroidered with gold,
pearls, and precious stones. In describing the beauty and magnificence
of the Hindoo nobles, the historian states that they were adorned with
diamonds that “sparkled like the firmament.”

Shah Jehan, the greatest of Mogul sovereigns since Timour, collected
the wealth of India around him, and lavished it in a manner that reads
more like a chapter in the “Arabian Nights” than a page of historic
reality. At his death the treasury contained $150,000,000; and his
palace, with its embellishments and ornaments, was the most beautiful
the world has ever seen. The Peacock Throne was valued at $30,000,000,
and his crown at $12,000,000. The diadem had twelve points, each tipped
with a diamond of large size and the purest water. In the centre was
embedded a huge pearl, and the rest of the crown was a glittering mass
of rubies, diamonds, and other gems.

The dress of the Emperor was in keeping with his extravagance: around
his neck he wore three strings of immense pearls; his arms were covered
with armlets of diamonds and bracelets of other gems; his sword and
buckler were incrusted with diamonds and rubies; and his sceptre was
entwined with a chain of pearls, rubies, and diamonds. Besides his
crown, he had a rich turban plumed with long heron feathers; on one
side was a huge ruby, on the other a diamond, while an immense emerald
decorated the front.

The famous Peacock Throne of Indian history is no myth; for Tavernier
examined it with care, and has left a description of it so clear, that
its reality and its value are matters of fact. It was so called from
the figures of two peacocks with expanded tails standing behind it as
large as life. These figures were constructed of gold and precious
stones of all varieties, and so arranged as to represent the natural
colors of the birds. The beautiful hues of the feathers were closely
imitated by the arrangement of fine rubies, diamonds, sapphires,
emeralds, and other gems.

The throne was six feet long and four feet wide, and was constructed
of solid gold, inlaid with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. Steps of
silver were placed in front of it; while a canopy of gold, fringed with
pearls, supported by twelve pillars emblazoned with flashing gems,
surmounted the whole. Between the peacocks stood a representation of
the parrot, carved from emerald or some green stone. On each side of
the throne was placed one of the sacred umbrellas, called chattars,
made of richly embroidered crimson velvet fringed with pearls. Their
handles were of solid gold, about eight feet long, and studded with
diamonds. This was the most costly and superb work of art of its kind
ever invented.

Its rival was the Cerulean Throne of the House of Bhamenee in the
Nizam. It was constructed in the seventeenth century, and, according to
the description of Ferishta, the Persian historian, was nine feet long
by three feet wide, made of ebony, covered with plates of gold, and
incrusted with gems. Its value was estimated at quite twenty millions
of dollars. At the sack of Delhi, the Peacock Throne, with many other
priceless relics, fell into the hands of Nadir Shah and his ravenous
followers, and was carried off by them, and broken up.

We may form an idea of the magnificent costumes worn by the Eastern
monarchs, from the description given by Mr. Elphinstone, the British
envoy to the King of Kabul, in 1808. At the reception given to the
embassy, the king was literally covered with gems. At first sight, he
appeared to be clothed with an armor composed of jewels; but, on close
inspection, his dress was found to consist of a green tunic covered
with large flowers in gold and precious stones. Over these a large
breastplate of diamonds shaped like two flattened _fleurs de lis_ was
worn. Upon each thigh, ornaments fashioned after the same manner were
placed; while large emerald bracelets appeared on the arms, and many
other jewels were adjusted to different parts of the body. In one
of these bracelets flashed the Koh-i-noor, then regarded as one of
the largest diamonds in the world. Over the chest were arranged some
strings of very large pearls, like loose cross-belts. The crown was
about nine inches high, and formed entirely of precious stones, like
the wonderful plumes of Prince Esterhazy. It seemed to be radiated,
like the ancient crowns; and behind the rays appeared peaks of purple
velvet. Several small branches with pendants apparently projected from
the crown; but the ornament was so complicated and so dazzling, that it
was difficult for the spectators to understand it, and quite impossible
to describe it.

Other famous diamonds besides the Mogul are missing; and modern history
is unable to account for them. What has become of the splendid flat
diamond weighing two hundred and forty-two karats, which Tavernier
examined in Golconda; or the immense Agrah of six hundred and
forty-five karats, in the rough, which the same traveller saw in India?
Were they also gathered by the followers of Nadir, and divided in the
spoliation of the property of the conqueror? We know that Persia,
enriched by the last conquest of India, is immensely rich in precious
stones of all descriptions; but the number, the character, and the
value of them, are as shadowy as those of Turkey. However, we have a
ray of intelligence from Bernier, who hastily estimated the value of
the Persian jewels at thirteen and one half milliards of francs.

This prodigious estimate has been strengthened by the gorgeous
appearance of the last Persian ambassador to France. The costume of
this Emir fairly blazed with the brilliancy of the most costly gems,
and recalled the departed glory of the last Prince of Esterhazy. The
presents sent at the same time by the Sultan to the Empress Eugenie
were most magnificent, especially the diamond bracelets, and were
glorious emblems of Oriental favor.

Among the diamonds possessed by the Persian Crown, besides the
Daria-i-noor, which is said to weigh two hundred and thirty-two karats,
we have information of three others of remarkable size and beauty.
They are named the Taj-Mah, or Crown of the Moon, of one hundred and
forty-six karats; the Sea of Glory, of sixty-six karats; and the
Mountain of Splendor, of one hundred and thirty-five karats, valued at
$729,000.

Dr. Beke, at the meeting of the British Association, in 1851, read a
paper on a new diamond that had lately come into the possession of
Persia. He referred to the diamond slab of one hundred and thirty
karats that had been captured at Coocha, in 1832, and which he thought
might have been a part of the Koh-i-noor when in its natural state.
The only account of its history the Persians could obtain, was the
statement that it was found in the possession of a poor man, a native
of Khorasan, who used it for the purpose of lighting his fires, by
striking it against steel [the mineral does not possess the property],
and that it had thereby sustained some damage. The gem was presented by
Abbas Murza to his father, Futteh Ali Shah, and is presumed to be now
among the crown jewels of Persia.

One of the latest accounts of the Persian treasures is given by Mr.
Eastwick, who was permitted to examine them. He found them placed in
a small, strongly built room, to which access was had by means of a
narrow, steep stairway and very small door. In this apartment, spread
out upon thick, velvety carpets, were displayed gems and jewels of the
value of $35,000,000. Conspicuous among them was the Kaianian crown,
which was shaped like a flower-pot, and topped by an immense uncut
ruby as big as a hen’s egg, which is supposed to have come from Siam.
Beside this tiara were spread two lambskins covered with beautiful
aigrettes of diamonds; and before them lay trays of pearl, ruby, and
emerald necklaces, with countless rings. The famous Kaianian belt was
also an object of wonder. This relic of barbaric splendor weighs about
twenty pounds. It is nearly a foot in depth, and is incrusted massively
with splendid diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds.

The exhibition of arms was worthy of the Oriental taste for martial
decoration, and recalled to memory the ancient fondness for such
things, and the sword and scabbard of Mithridates, which has been
mentioned in history as being of enormous value. Some of these, now
belonging to the Persian Shah, are magnificently decorated with gold
and gems, to the value of more than a quarter of a million of dollars.

The arms of defence of the Oriental nations have been noted from the
earliest times for the beauty and splendor of their decorations, in
which lavish use has been made of the finest diamonds, emeralds,
rubies, and other precious stones, set in a variety of metals. The
excellence of these precious productions was made known to the nations
of the Mediterranean by means of commercial caravans long before the
invasions of Xerxes or Alexander; and some of them are objects of
admiration to the skilled artisans of the present day.

In Lahore, Benares, and Lucknow are yet preserved the secrets of the
gold workers of Assyria and ancient Phœnicia, which have long been
forgotten in the countries where they were invented. The enamels of
these artisans, especially the green, red, blue, and turquoise hues,
are not surpassed in beauty of tint by the finest enamels of Paris.

As Persia is the home of the turquoise, the traveller would expect
to see the finest representative of the mineral species in this
collection. And he will not be disappointed, for the specimen of
turquoise treasured here above all others is of a magnificent color,
from three to four inches long, and without a flaw. Its value is not
given; but we may draw an inference from Shylock’s turquoise, which was
worth “a wilderness of monkeys.”

Besides the above enumerated articles the treasury contains numberless
objects of value not described, and among them piles of gauntlets and
belts, massive with pearls and diamonds.

The present ruler of Persia, Nasiru’d-din, during his late visit to
Europe, displayed upon his person many of the chief treasures of his
crown. They were not, however, exhibited to advantage, for his costume
was an incongruous mixture of the amplitude of nomadic ideas with the
close-fitting symmetry of the French tailor. The ridiculous figure of
the Shah, surmounted by the ancient lofty Persian hat, heightened in
comicality by a pair of gold-bowed spectacles, presented a picture
that detracted from the splendor of the gems which he wore. His coat,
which was made after the style of the Parisian frock, was plaited over
the hips and adorned with extraordinary gems. From waist to shoulder,
arranged in _echelon_, were placed five enormous diamonds, each said
to be larger than the English Koh-i-noor. The collar and sleeves of
this garment were also fairly incrusted by brilliants of great beauty;
while over his breast hung his various insignia and orders set with the
finest of gems. His sword-belt and sheath were formed of gold, studded
with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds; while his golden spurs were formed
of diamonds of such perfection as to flash like sunbeams as he walked
along.

Many fine diamonds are undoubtedly to be found among the nabobs and
princes of India. And their concealment may have been advised by the
lessons of the past. Fears of English rapacity may have caused the
fracture of the famous Nizam diamond, or a report to that effect. This
beautiful gem, which is said to have weighed three hundred and forty
karats, belonged to the King of Golconda, and is said to have been
broken at the commencement of the last Indian revolt.

In 1807 a fine diamond of seventy-seven karats was obtained by the
Ranee Ruthen from the bed of the river Sumbhulpore; and in 1809 a fine
gem of one hundred and sixty-eight karats was found in the sands of the
river Mahamuddee.

The King of Ava possesses many diamonds, but of unknown value. Colonel
Symes saw, in his visit of 1795, many rude ornaments of remarkable
splendor and value. One of the state carriages fairly blazed with its
decorations of burnished gold, covered with diamonds and other gems.

The Sultan of Mattan in Borneo is said to possess a remarkable diamond;
but there is some doubt as to its authenticity, like its great rival,
that of the King of Portugal. But Mr. Hugh Low, Colonial Secretary
of the Island, declares in his work on Sarawak and its productions,
published in 1848, that the gem of the Sultans is a real diamond,
and of the great weight of three hundred and sixty-seven karats. It
was, at that time, in the rough state, and its shape was that of an
egg indented on one side. Its value was estimated by Mr. Crawford
to be £269,378. Sir Stamford Raffles relates that the stone has
remained as an heirloom in the royal family for four descents, and
is almost the only appendage of royalty now remaining. The Governor
of Batavia, desirous of obtaining the gem, is said to have sent Mr.
Stewart to Borneo to negotiate for it. But although the tempting offer
of $150,000, with two brigs of war with their guns and ammunition,
was made to the Sultan, he refused to deprive his family of the rich
inheritance which was supposed to be in the possession of the diamond.

In the time of Sir Stamford Raffles few courts in Europe could boast of
a more brilliant display of diamonds than was exhibited by the ladies
of Batavia in the prosperous days of Dutch commerce, when the trade of
India and Eastern Asia was to a very great extent in the control of
Holland.

We cannot properly close this chapter on the gems of Asia without
making a brief allusion to that master-piece of architecture, the Taj
Mahal, the palace-tomb, which Shah Jehan erected at Agra in memory
of his beautiful and beloved wife. The Mogul Emperor promised the
dying Empress the most beautiful tomb the world had ever seen; and he
kept his promise. Even to-day, after so many centuries of neglect and
pillage, the fairy-like structure rises to the view more like one of
the dreams of the “Arabian Nights” than a material edifice constructed
by human hands.

In its construction the wealth of India was placed at the service
of its architects, and thousands of laborers were employed for many
years. The chief architect was a Frenchman, M. de Bordeaux, who also
designed the famous Peacock Throne at Delhi. Enormous quantities of
precious and semi-precious stones of all descriptions were used in its
ornamentation, and inlaid in its walls, its columns, and ornaments. The
images were masses of glittering gems, and some of the mosaics were
marvels of beauty and human skill.

In a curious manuscript, still preserved, is given an account of the
gems, jewels, etc., and their value, used in the construction. All
parts of Asia were searched for the richest gems,--Thibet for its
turquoises, Ceylon for its lapis lazuli, Persia for its amethysts,
Lunka for its sapphires, and Pannah for its diamonds. The famous Hindoo
temple of Sumnat was, in the days of its perfection, one of the most
renowned of all the shrines of India, and must have been a structure of
wonderful richness, when its fifty-six pillars, incrusted and inlaid
with multitudes of precious stones, sparkled in the morning light. Even
at the present day its ruins, though despoiled of their ornaments, are
very beautiful and impressive.




                              CHAPTER XI.

                            MISCELLANEOUS.


The royal family of Brazil are said to possess diamonds of great
beauty, selected for their superiority from the best of the products of
the mines of the country. But we have not been able to obtain reliable
descriptions of them.

The Crown of Portugal, by virtue of its inheritance, is said to own
immense numbers of the gem; and it is understood that they are held in
reserve, and only a certain quantity are to be sold from time to time
according to the demands of the market. In corroboration of this report
it is said that the Bank of Lisbon, sold, in 1863, rough diamonds to
the value of 1,800,000 francs out of the collection brought from Brazil
by John VI. in 1821. It was also stated that the value of the remainder
was estimated at 35,000,000 francs.

Mr. Mawe, at the time of his visit to Lisbon, stated that the treasury
of the King contained diamonds amounting in weight to four thousand or
five thousand karats. The same traveller and gem-expert says that a
vast number of the Brazilian diamonds have passed into the possession
of the King of Portugal. And he furthermore states that he examined
diamonds belonging to this potentate, which were worth more than two
million pounds sterling.

Among the crown jewels of Portugal there is a gem of large dimensions
which has been reported to be a diamond weighing 1,680 karats. Mr.
Murray described it to be as large as an ostrich egg, and added that
Mr. Mawe informed him that it was a white topaz. Romè de L’Isle, in his
treatise on Crystallography, published in 1783, describes the stone
as a diamond, but admits that it is suspected to be a white topaz.
It is a little singular that this discrepancy and obscurity has not
been definitely cleared up during all this time, when the character
of the stone can so easily be ascertained. As the massive variety of
diamond is found in masses of more than one thousand karats, it is even
probable that the crystalline and transparent variety may occur of
equal weight.

Mr. Murray mentioned a beautiful gem of two hundred and fifteen karats,
called the Round Brilliant of Portugal, and estimated its value at
£388,290. Mr. Mawe describes another a little less in size, and also
two nearly perfect octahedrons of one hundred and thirty-four and one
hundred and twenty karats each.

The state waistcoat of Joseph I. had twenty buttons, each button being
composed of a solitaire diamond of the value of $20,000, and the
rest of its ornaments were corresponding in beauty and value. This
garment is said to have been the richest ever seen in Europe, with the
exception of the recent grand illumination by the Shah of Persia. It
has also been stated that the golden cane of John VI. had in its top a
splendid brilliant of the value of a million of francs.

The largest of the Brazilian diamonds was discovered as late as 1852,
by a negress working in the mines of Begagem. Like most of the large
diamonds, its form was not symmetrical, and its shape was much modified
from the regular crystalline forms. In 1856 it was brought to France
and exhibited to the members of the Academy of Sciences. The gem then
weighed in its rough state 254¹⁄₂ karats, and appeared perfectly
transparent and without tint. It was placed in the hands of Coster, of
Amsterdam, for cutting, and reduced in weight to 127 karats. The form
given it was the brilliant; but the gem was cut too thin to exhibit
its full beauty. The spread of its table will be found, on comparison,
to be much greater than that of the Regent diamond, which weighs 136
karats, or almost 10 karats more; therefore Babinet properly exclaims
against the taste which adopted an imperfect brilliant, at a great
reduction of weight, when the form of the brilliolette, like that of
one of the Sancys, would have preserved three fourths of its weight and
given it a more splendid lustre. It would then have been the second
diamond in weight and beauty in Europe. This gem is known as the Star
of the South, but is sometimes called the Halphen diamond, from the
name of the gentleman who bought it on its arrival in Europe.

The gem treasures of the Elector of Saxony are among the most valuable
and unique in Europe. The commencement of their collection dates from
an early period. The famous silver mines, prior to the discovery of
America, placed the Saxon princes among the richest sovereigns of
Europe; and they took pride in exhibiting their magnificence, in
expending vast sums of money in the purchase of gems, jewels, and works
of art.

The treasures thus accumulated during a long period of time are of
immense value; and the apartments where they are displayed remind
the observer of the gorgeous descriptions of Oriental magnificence.
And unless we except the unknown collection in the Turkish Seraglio
and those of the Crown of Russia, it is the most extensive and
interesting in the world. All that is rare and beautiful on earth is
here represented; and the total valuation of all the objects of art
and nature must amount to many millions of dollars. They are contained
in eight large consecutive rooms, each surpassing the previous one
in the splendor and richness of its contents. Among the diamonds are
some large and unique gems of the rose pattern. The gala dress and the
decorations of the Elector, which fairly dazzle the eye with their
floods of brilliancy, are also kept here. In the epaulette there are
three splendid brilliants which weigh nearly fifty carats each.

But the chief attraction among all this vast collection of gems is the
famous green diamond. This wonderful stone is of oblong form, 1¹⁄₁₂
inches in length by ¹⁰⁄₁₂ of an inch in width, and weighs 31¹⁄₄ karats.
It is mounted in a clasp, set with large white brilliants. The price
paid for it is kept a profound secret; but it is reported that it was
obtained at Warsaw by Augustus the Strong, and that he paid 60,000
thalers for it. Amateurs generally regard the blue diamond as the most
astonishing and perfect of the products of the mineral kingdom; but we
fail to perceive, in the exhibition of this color, any advantage over
the fine green or the pure red diamonds.

There is another diamond in this collection which is one of the
finest in Europe, although it weighs but 48³⁄₄ karats. It is known
as the Saxon white brilliant, and is of rare perfection of form
and brilliancy. It is about 1¹⁄₁₂ inches square, and is set in the
insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, surrounded with other fine
brilliants. Augustus purchased it, and is said to have given more
than $700,000 for it. This gem has a great reputation for its beauty.
Comparison with the Regent, the Orloff, and others, can alone determine
its degree of excellence.

The fifth and sixth divisions of the eighth apartment are devoted to
the display of diamonds, and the insignia of Saxony. The decorations of
the Elector, consisting of buttons, collar, sword-hilt, and scabbard,
all glittering with diamonds, present a charming appearance. There are
also to be seen, profusely decorated with gems, the Saxon Order of the
Rue Garland, and the seven orders of the Golden Fleece.

Among the royal treasures in Munich there are several beautiful pink
diamonds of large size, and a magnificent blue one of thirty-six
karats, which is set in the Order of the Golden Fleece.

In the treasury of the royal palace may be seen many fine single
diamonds, together with magnificent emeralds and sapphires of great
value. The King’s and Queen’s crowns, resplendent with brilliants,
are kept here, with others of older date which belonged to the former
Counts Palatine. Among the relics are preserved the ancient diadems of
Henry II. and his Empress Kunigunda of the date 1010; also, the orb and
sceptre of the Emperor Charles VII., together with his crown.

Prussia has but few diamonds, the policy of the Hohenzollerns having
been adverse to the purchase of gems as baubles. Austria, however, is
rich in diamonds, and possesses some extraordinary gems. The Imperial
Jewel Office at Vienna contains a rare collection of great value. Here
is preserved the famous Regalia of Charlemagne, which were buried
with the great conqueror in his tomb at Aix la Chapelle. Barbarossa,
in 1165, dared to violate the sanctity of this sepulchre, and removed
the barbaric jewels, which are of great interest to the antiquary and
the historian. For several centuries past they have been used at the
coronation of the German emperors. The crown is a magnificent specimen
of the art of the Middle Ages, and is ornamented with rough diamonds
and other gems in their natural state.

The crown and sceptre of Rudolph II. may be seen here. They are also
adorned with uncut diamonds and gems, and were formerly worn by the
German emperors elect on their entrance into Frankfort.

The chains, collars, decorations, regalia, belonging to the dresses
of the various Austrian Orders, namely, Golden Fleece, Maria Theresa,
etc., and worn by the Emperor, exhibit a splendid collection of
diamonds, topazes, emeralds, etc., unique in size and perfection.

Here is also to be seen the famous yellow diamond known as the
Florentine. It is in the form of a double rose with facets cut all
around, and weighs 139¹⁄₂ karats. It is of a fine lustre, but of
a yellow tinge, sufficient to impair the beauty of the prismatic
reflections. The Emperor Francis, as Grand Duke of Tuscany, inherited
the gem, which accounts for its presence in Vienna.

This gem has been confounded with the diamond given to the Pope by
Charles the Bold; but its history is very obscure, and its introduction
into Europe is unknown. There is, however, a story among the Italians
that it was first discovered by an amateur while hunting over the
relics and objects of virtu in a curiosity shop at Florence, where
it was regarded as a crystal of yellow quartz. Tavernier saw it in
Florence in the middle of the seventeenth century, but does not mention
its history. Besides this gem there are several large diamonds in
Europe whose history has become very confused, and it is now difficult
to trace their identity in several instances.

The Florentine is the rarest specimen of the kind known, and, although
it is not cut with regularity, its lustre and its brilliancy are
greatly increased by its star-like cut. It is 1¹⁄₆ inches in length,
by one inch wide, and is neatly set in a large _sevignée_, surrounded
by other fine diamonds. Its value is placed at $450,000. There is also
another large and fine diamond intended as a button for a hat, but its
history is unknown.

The finest rose-colored diamond known belongs to the Austrian jewels.
It is of a beautiful rose-color, thirty-two karats in weight, and of
remarkable lustre. It is now placed in the centre of a knot of white
brilliants to which the decoration of the cross of Maria Theresa is
attached. Here is also the beautiful bouquet of flowers made for Maria,
and constructed out of colored diamonds and other precious stones.

The finest collection of colored diamonds in the world is to be seen
here. It was made by a Tyrolese named Helmreicher, who went to Brazil
and spent the most of his life there in searching for them among
the different mines. They illustrate finely the wide range of color
possessed by the gem.

The Empress of Austria, in 1800, during the war with France, wishing to
emulate the manners of ancient warriors, sent to the Archduke Charles,
then in command of the army of Bohemia, a helmet set with magnificent
gems.

In ancient times it was not rare for Eastern monarchs to array
themselves richly, which the stern Romans affected to despise,
believing in the virtues of unadorned steel. The decorations of
Artaxerxes Mnemon and Mithridates are said to have amounted to millions
of dollars in value. It is also reported that Alexander, at the battle
of Arbela, wore a helmet with a gorget of polished steel set with
gems. Murat, however, the gayest of all modern generals, obtained his
picturesque effects by means of colored fabrics and feathers rather
than from gold and gems.

There were few persons among the frequenters of the courts of Europe
during the past three-quarters of a century who had not heard of the
value and the splendor of the Esterhazy jewels. It appears that near
the close of the last century Nicholas, Prince Esterhazy, assisted at
the crowning of Francis II. as King of Hungary. He was then captain
of the Guard of Honor, which was composed of twenty-four nobles and
princes of inferior rank, and on this occasion first appeared in his
ornaments of precious stones. The Prince, not content with the usual
decorations belonging to his rank and his corps, transformed all parts
of his equipments which were of metal into open gold-work incrusted
with gems. The effect was so beautiful as to stimulate the Prince
to continue and complete his designs in a magnificent manner. And
therefore he sought far and wide for the finest gems to adorn his
person.

This passion for collecting and decorating soon ripened into a mania,
and developed a prodigality greater than the Curii or Fabricii
ever dreamed of. Ample means were at hand to foster this love of
magnificence, for the Prince was feudal proprietor of a third of
Hungary, being possessor of thirty-three manors, and lord of seventeen
grand seignories.

The uniform of his rank as general of Hungarian huzzars, composed
of jacket, pelisse, and pantaloons, was woven with pearls of the
finest description; and among the multitudes of gems which formed the
decorations were fifty thousand fine diamonds of the brilliant form.
The weight of these mantles of magnificence was more than one man could
endure for a length of time; and its profusion of ornament recalled the
barbaric splendor of Lollia Paulina as she appeared at the banquet of
Caligula. Gems of all colors and varieties were employed by the Prince,
and many fine rubies, emeralds, and topazes were made use of. The most
valued and the most delicately formed of all his ornaments was the
aigrette of diamonds which replaced the ordinary plumes on his huzzar
cap. It was called the most beautiful jewel in the universe. These
artificial plumes, which flashed like flames of fire, contained five
thousand diamonds of the purest transparency and most beautiful colors.
Their weight amounted to one pound and a half avoirdupois. Around the
huzzar cap were placed a wreath and a band, over which were ranged, in
many rows, the finest and most brilliant pearls. The sword and scabbard
were incrusted with the rarest brilliants. The broad band which hung
over the shoulder to the belt was a remarkable article of workmanship.
It was a simple band covered with fine pearls and the most precious
diamonds, one of which, at the shoulder, was valued at 20,000 livres
and another at the waist at 12,000 livres. Besides these ornaments he
had for decorations six orders,--of the Toison d’Or, of the Bath, Saint
Andrew, and others, all constructed of unequalled magnificence.

These costumes were worn by the Princes Nicholas and Paul at the
coronation of Francis II., of George IV., of William IV., of Victoria,
and of the Emperors of Russia and Austria; and were the themes of
admiration, even among the glittering uniforms of higher ranks. But
finally, by the fatality that attends collections of all that is
beautiful on the earth, there came a change in the fortunes of the
heir of Esterhazy. Paul, the last Prince, died some years ago harassed
with debts. His estates were hypothecated; but his jewels passed into
the hands of his creditors, and many of them were sent to London to
be separated and sold. Since then most of the beautiful gems, which
sparkled so brilliantly in former times in the courts of Europe, have
been scattered over the world, and their identity lost, their history
forgotten.

There is a very beautiful diamond of thirty-six karats owned in
Holland, but its history we have not learned.

The famous crown of St. Stephen of Hungary, which disappeared during
the Revolution of 1848, is said not to have any diamonds among its
gems. Whether the absence of this stone is due to the extreme antiquity
or to the whims of the constructors of the crown, we are unable to
state.

The late Duke of Brunswick had before his death a marvellous collection
of diamonds, partly acquired in gratification of his eccentric tastes
and partly obtained by inheritance. Among the latter was the famous
Cumberland diamond of thirty-two karats, which had descended to the
heir of the House of Hanover. We have not been able to obtain a
description of these treasures, nor can we learn of their disposition
by the remarkable will of their late possessor.

Among the church regalia of Catholic Europe, and the offerings
presented in past times to the various shrines of the saints of their
religion, are yet preserved many gems of great beauty and value, and
among them a great number of diamonds. Some of them have been stripped
during the ravages of war, or by the iconoclastic fury of civil
disturbances; and the pious monks have, in instances, restored their
loss by the substitution of paste, which has pleased the pilgrim’s eye
quite as well. For instance, the celebrated shrine of the Three Magi at
Cologne has been despoiled of a great part of its vast treasures. And
the skulls of the kings, inscribed with their names--Gaspar, Melchior,
and Balthazar--written in rubies, were once crowned with gold diadems,
resplendent with brilliant gems, now replaced by silver, gilt, and
paste, or imitations. The custodians of the relics and jewels still
assert, through pious fraud or a convenient ignorance, that their value
amounts to 6,000,000 francs.

Catholicism, when it had the means, spared no expense in decorating
its shrines and beautifying its relics. It well understood the effect
of the glitter of gold and the brilliancy of gems upon the human
imagination. The examples of this barbaric and yet cultivated taste
are to be seen in all parts of Europe. Relics and insignia were not
only lavishly adorned, like the Remonstrance at Prague with its 6,666
diamonds, but the bones of their saints were committed to the earth
ornamented with costly gems, like those of Cardinal Borromeo interred
at Milan two hundred years ago. The shrine of Loretto in Italy has been
the most favored of all in Europe in attracting gifts from the rich
and powerful as well as from the sick and the conscience-stricken. If
reports are true, it has been and now is the receptacle of many of the
most beautiful treasures of the mineral kingdom. As its history is not
generally known, we will briefly allude to it, and give a still briefer
description of its jewels.

Casa Santa denotes the chapel of the Holy Virgin at Loretto in Italy.
Its chief room is the chamber in which the Blessed Virgin is said to
have been born, where she was betrothed to Joseph, where the angel
saluted her, and where the Holy Ghost overshadowed her, etc. Tradition
says it was carried, in May, 1291, through the air by angels from
Galilee to Tersato in Dalmatia, and four and a half years afterwards
was taken to Italy and set down in a wood in the district of Recanati,
a thousand paces from the sea.

Strange to relate, it was more than two hundred years before any author
in that country took any notice of the event or of the building. It
was, when first brought to notice, simply a house of one room; but as
religious enthusiasm became excited it also became necessary to repair
its decayed condition and improve its appearance. Therefore, Clement
VII. caused a vaulted roof to be placed upon it and new foundations
to support its tottering walls. At a later period it was completely
encased in the finest Carrara marble, under the directions of the most
celebrated sculptors of the age and during the pontificates of Leo X.,
Paul III., and Gregory XIII. The edifice which encloses the chamber
within its spacious walls was designed by Bramante, and its sculptures
were designed and executed by the most famous artists. This is
composed of Istrian stone resembling the Travertine stone so much used
at Rome.

Within the ancient chamber, which is regarded as one of the holiest of
all the holy precincts known, stands the sacred image, called the Great
Madonna, five feet high, made of cedar, and carved, as tradition says,
by St. Luke, who was a carver as well as a physician. Upon her head
is placed a triple crown of gold, enriched with diamonds and pearls,
a gift from Louis XIII. of France. Over her shoulders an ample robe
is cast, glittering with jewels of all descriptions and said to be of
inestimable price.

The niche in which the image is placed is also decorated with gems,
and among them are seventy-one of the finest of the Bohemian topazes
[quartz].

Adjoining the Virgin on the right side appears a statue of an angel
cast in pure gold. This is also profusely enriched with diamonds and
other gems. Some of these, which are said to have cost 50,000 ducats,
were the offering of Eleanora of the House of Este, the Queen of
King James II. of England, when she sought for the intercession of
the Virgin to grant her an heir. The Pretender to the British Crown
was born not long after, to the delight of all those who believed in
miraculous intervention.

On the left side of the Virgin a silver statue of an angel is placed,
and still further on the right appears another costly image. This last
was the gift of Louis XIII. of France, in gratitude for the birth of
the Dauphin, afterwards “Le Grand Monarque,” Louis XIV.

Seven lamps of solid gold are continually burning with a sacred flame
before the image of the Virgin, and other parts of the room are
illuminated with thirty-seven silver lamps.

Although many of the reports concerning the valuables belonging to this
famous shrine are probably fiction, there is no doubt of the immense
value of the gems and jewels that have been presented to it. The
donations to the wealth of this famous shrine have been given from all
parts of the world where the Catholic religion has been venerated. And
all classes, both rich and poor, have zealously invoked the blessing of
the mysterious spirit by their liberal bequests.

The rich Abbey of St. Denys, before the Revolution, is said to have
possessed a rare and costly assemblage of gems, jewels, and jewelled
relics. They were reported to have been the accumulation of many
centuries, dating back to the Carlovingian kings.

Among them were said to have been valuable presents from the Emperors
of Byzantium. But this is doubtful, for the Greeks despised Catholicism
and the Crusaders. There may have been, and probably were, fine gems of
various kinds from the spoils obtained by the Franks in the conquest
of Constantinople. There is no doubt, however, as to the richness of
the works of mediæval art; for we find sufficient evidence in the old
work of Dom Doublet’s, “Tresor of St. Denys,” although the collection
itself has long since been dispersed and almost forgotten.

The iconoclastic fury of the Revolution collected many of the treasures
of this Abbey, with those of other chapels of Paris, and offered them
at public sale in 1794. It is said that this collection embraced
a great quantity of precious stones,--rubies, topazes, sapphires,
etc.,--both in the rough crystal and rudely cut, thus proving their
Oriental origin. It is also stated that this much-to-be-lamented
assemblage of beautiful things brought but 80,000 francs.




                             CHAPTER XII.

                        CUTTING OF THE DIAMOND.


The art of polishing the diamond was discovered by man at an earlier
age than history has generally ascribed to it. Positive evidence,
however, is wanting as to exact dates; and the proof is chiefly
presumptive. However, there is no doubt but that it was far anterior
to the times when Berquen announced his improvements on the process.
We are quite willing to admit that the process of abrading the diamond
against diamond was really discovered by the native of Bruges; but we
cannot entertain the idea that the Hindoos were too stupid to pulverize
the diamond and use its powder in polishing the gems. The natives
had made use of powdered corundum in the earliest days, and it is
preposterous not to admit they pulverized the diamond also.

Most of the gems of antiquity, whether rubies or diamonds, are cut
rudely; and often, with the latter gem, the natural faces of the
crystal are alone polished. Tavernier found that the native Hindoos
polished the natural faces of the crystal if it was clear, and covered
the flawed and the defective with facets to disguise them. And so
common was this practice, that the traveller was always suspicious of
the quality of the stone, whenever it was offered to him cut in this
manner.

The improvement with many of these diamonds is so slight, that we
consider the fact to be one of the reasons why certain natural
crystals, like those in the crown and clasp of Charlemagne, for
instance, were left in their rough state; the advantage derived from
cutting not being equal to the time and labor expended.

It is true that we have no direct evidence of the cutting of the
diamond in ancient times, and those that have descended to us from
undoubted early Roman periods are in the shape of natural crystals; but
still there is indirect testimony bearing in favor of the view.

The ancient gem engravers were wont to use splinters of broken
diamonds in their labors upon various kinds of gems; and they probably
powdered the adamas, as well as varieties of corundum, for the purpose
of polishing the hard stones. Scarcity of the mineral, rather than
ignorance of its properties, may have prevented its general use.

Janon de St. Laurent, in his work on engraving tools, maintains that
the ancient instruments for the purpose of cutting gems were the same
as the modern; and not only the wheel was used, but diamond dust was
also employed in the process. There is no doubt that the wheel and
other tools were in use in Asia for a long period before their adoption
by the nations on the Mediterranean. So far as we know, Persia was
the birthplace of gem engraving. Why are there not more examples of
polished diamonds, if the process is so ancient? the reader may ask. We
may in part answer this question by saying, that the process of cutting
regular facets on the gems was not early known, or the custom adopted;
and, the polishing being so difficult, that the lapidaries were content
to polish the natural faces only. Polished crystals of diamonds of this
character have descended to us from early times, and other examples are
to be seen in ancient jewels. So little beauty was obtained by this
polishing, that not much was gained in the vast labor required; and
the native crystals were often used without any aid from the lapidary.
We may see them in their rough crystalline forms in the crowns of
the Gothic princes, the Iron Crown of Italy, and the ornaments of
Charlemagne, besides other relics of ancient and even mediæval times.

This custom of using the rough gems prevailed to some extent in recent
times; and De Laet states that as late as the middle of the seventeenth
century rough spinels were preferred to the cut for ornamentation.
However, we will briefly allude to one or two instances in history,
which lead the reader to infer that the diamond received a definite
polish at an early day. Chrysostom, an authentic writer of the fourth
century, in describing the magnificence of the Greek emperors at
Byzantium, mentions the dazzling splendor of the diamonds scintillating
by agitation. If the historian does not use this description for the
gems in general, we may infer that the diamonds had been polished;
since the unpolished stones do not exhibit much, if any, play of the
prismatic hues. The maxim, “diamond cut diamond,” is of ancient origin,
and may perhaps be referred to the saying in vogue among the Greeks
as early as the seventh century, “that for the purpose of cutting
diamonds, a diamond was most effectual.”

The accounts of the Oriental historians concerning the fêtes of Timour
in the fourteenth century, where diamonds were showered in profusion
upon the guests, leave no doubts as to the art of polishing the gem as
early as that period.

The inventory of the _joyaux_ belonging to the Duc d’Anjou, in 1360,
shows that diamonds were then cut, although rudely. It makes special
mention of several diamonds, and one in particular set in a reliquary,
and cut in escutcheon. Other polished diamonds are described in the
account given of the splendid entertainment given at the Louvre, by the
Duke of Burgundy, to the King and Court of France.

There is also evidence to prove that diamond lapidaries were at work
in Paris, when Berquen came to reside there. However, it was not until
1475, after Berquen returned to his native city, Bruges, that the mode
of polishing diamonds by direct abrasion became known in Europe. And
when Charles the Bold intrusted the three famous gems to his skill,
and rewarded him with 3,000 ducats for his labor, the name of Berquen
became famous and widespread throughout Europe.

Nearly two centuries after this success, Cardinal Mazarin attempted
to establish the business of diamond-cutting in Paris, and confided
to the lapidaries he had invited to reside there, twelve of the
finest diamonds belonging to the Crown to be recut. These gems, from
their beauty, and the circumstance of cutting, were called the twelve
Mazarins. History has neglected to record the fate of these magnificent
gems save one. In the inventory of the French jewels in 1791, there
is the solitary description, “the tenth Mazarin.” The others have
disappeared.

The Cardinal made every attempt to establish the favorite project
on a firm basis; but they were in vain; for the Dutch marine had
complete control of most of the exports of India, and decided in favor
of Amsterdam. Moreover, the establishment of the diamond trade in
Holland was one of the indirect results of the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes, and it was controlled by Israelite refugees from France.
The business gradually languished at Paris, and of the seventy-five
diamond-cutters of Mazarin’s industry, but five were left in 1775; and
soon after this, in spite of individual efforts and influences, it
ceased altogether. Even at the recent period of 1852, Paris did not
possess a single diamond-cutter. At this time M. Philippe resolved
to make the attempt to revive the good intentions of Mazarin, and has
thus far succeeded well. But, in spite of all the English and French
opposition, the diamond trade is still controlled by the Amsterdam
Jews, several thousand of whom are engaged in the business of cutting
the stones.

Diamond-cutting was also practised to some extent in London during the
last century and the early part of this; but concerning it we have
learned but few particulars. It was conducted on strict mathematical
principles, however; and the gems cut during this time in London are
eagerly sought for by amateurs, under the name of the “Old English
Style.” The brilliants of Ralph Potter, cut at the commencement of this
century, are by far the finest exponents of the art as well as of the
natural powers of the gem. Since the discovery of the African mines the
London establishments have been actively engaged, and we also learn
that branches of the business have been located in other cities of
England.

The process of diamond-cutting is a very simple matter to those
acquainted with the nature of the gem. To cut the facets, two stones
are cemented on two sticks and rubbed against each other until a
facet is cut; then the position of one of the stones is changed, and
another flat surface cut. The process is thus continued until the gem
is faceted all over, at the expense, however, of the other stone,
which does most of the cutting. After the facets are cut, and a
definite form given to the stone, the gem is placed in the hands of the
polisher, who fastens it in solder, and then places it upon a small
steel disk which revolves horizontally with a rapidity of 1,500 to
3,000 times a minute. This disk is moistened with diamond powder mixed
with oil, and one facet is polished at a time. The diamond-cutting
proper is a rapid operation; but the polishing is slow and tedious. One
cutter can generally furnish sufficient work for four or five polishers.

There are a number of forms adopted by the lapidaries for these gems,
but the two principal ones are the brilliant and the rose. The first
pattern, which was invented in Europe in the seventeenth century, is
perhaps the best of all to call forth the powers of the gem. The second
is of unknown age, and was practised by the Hindoos in ancient times.
It affords the largest beams of light for the weight, but it lacks in
colored reflections when compared with the brilliant.

For the perfection of the rainbow play of hues, it is essential that
the facets of the superior and inferior parts of the stone should
correspond in exact proportions and at fixed distances, so as to
multiply the reflections and refractions, and produce the colors of the
prismatic spectrum. Therefore the perfect cutting of the diamond is a
mathematical problem, governed by rigid laws.

All limpid and white gems must be cut according to this rule, but in
case of colored stones the case is far different; for perfection
of color is to be attained, and brilliancy is a secondary thought.
Therefore a fine ruby or sapphire may be decidedly thin in form, and
yet be a gem of great beauty and value. It is very rare we obtain
the full perfection of brilliancy and color in the colored gems; for
generally the depth of the finest hues prevents a display of the
refractive powers of the stone.

The process of rifting diamonds by splitting them in their cleavage
planes was known long ago to the Hindoos; but, strange to say, it
was forgotten by modern lapidaries until revived by Wollaston not
many years ago. By this means masses of the crystal may be removed to
escape a flaw or remove a spot, and yet preserve material that may be
utilized, and which would have been lost by the process of grinding
away the exterior.

Some diamonds of the spheroidal form are deficient in cleavage
planes, and are quite impracticable for cutting; and the fact of the
impossibility of polishing them is sufficient proof of their peculiar
origin, and that their form is not due to aqueous action.

Others, known as bort, seem to be of concentric arrangement, as though
crystallization radiated from the centre; and it is very difficult to
polish them. The Hindoos avail themselves of this natural cleavage, and
form table diamonds by adroitly striking along one of the planes of the
stone with a sharp-edged tool, thereby separating the layers of the gem
as the slate is rifted by the miner.

The operation, which seems so simple, really requires considerable
skill and much of that acquired instinct or tact which is best
exhibited by our Western Indians, who chip, with marvellous rapidity
and certainty, a glass bottle into symmetrical arrow-heads. This method
of reducing diamonds by cleavage was early known to the Hindoos, and
is mentioned by Tavernier in an unmistakable manner in his published
travels.

The process of reduction by this means is very rapidly accomplished by
the skilful workman. At a glance he ascertains the direction of the
laminæ, which remind one of the layers of the onion, and then cuts
a small notch with another diamond in the place he selects. In this
minute rift he places the edge of his blunt steel knife, and, tapping
the back of it with a light iron rod, the diamond is split with perfect
ease. By this process flaws and imperfections in the external layers of
the stone are removed without delay. In reducing the natural diamond
to a regular form much of its substance is lost, and sometimes as much
as one half of the weight of the stone. This loss, however, depends
greatly upon the natural form of the crystal. The perfect octahedrons
lose but one fifth of their weight when transformed into the shape of
the brilliant; but the rhombohedrons lose over one third in taking the
same form.

The following will give the reader an idea of the losses of the rough
stones when converted into fine gems. However, it must be remembered
that these great stones are generally of irregular shape and are
rarely of fine crystalline forms. The Mogul weighed in the rough 780¹⁄₂
karats, but was reduced in cutting to 279⁹⁄₁₆ karats. The Regent
weighed 410 karats, reduced to 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats. The Koh-i-noor weighed
186¹⁄₂ karats, reduced to 102¹⁄₂. L’Etoile du Sud, 254¹⁄₂ karats,
reduced to 124⁴⁄₁₆.

The process of cutting diamonds of large size is always attended
with risk, and is necessarily a costly operation. The Regent cost in
cutting $25,000, and occupied two years’ time. The Star of the South,
which was cut by Coster, occupied but ninety days, and the Koh-i-noor
only thirty-eight working days. This great feat in diamond-cutting
was performed by the ablest of the Holland lapidaries, with the aid
of steam power. Although the time expended was less than forty days,
yet the cost of cutting is said to have been $40,000, which sum was
lessened by the sale of the rifted fragments.

The Oriental lapidaries, destitute of mechanical appliances of any
considerable aid, consumed years in cutting some of the paragons of
India. This condition of affairs will explain the reason why the
Armenian lapidaries asked the immense sum of $80,000 to cut the slab of
diamond weighing 130 karats, which was captured by the Sultan of Persia
at Coocha, in 1832.

The process of diamond-cutting has within a few years been established
in the United States, and is due to the energy and superior inventive
talent of Mr. Henry D. Morse, of Boston. This gentleman conceived the
idea of arranging a machine for the cutting and polishing of these
gems, to enable the American jewellers to have their work performed at
home, instead of sending it to Europe.

While engaged in perfecting his appliances, chance threw in his way
an itinerant vendor of porcelain, who had in former years served as
laborer in the diamond ateliers of Amsterdam. The sight of the rough
gems and the apparatus recalled to the Jew the scenes of his youth, and
awakened a desire of renewing his former occupation; and he offered to
perform the part of diamond-cutter. But, as the process was carefully
considered, it was discovered that the Jew could only cut the facets
of the diamond, and the art of the subsequent polishing he did not
understand. It seemed strange that an artisan who possessed the rare
ability to tell at a glance how large a gem the stone would cut, how to
avoid internal imperfections, and how to take advantage of its cleavage
planes, could not polish the facets after he had cut them. But such was
the fact; for the two processes of cutting and polishing are widely
different, and require separate instruction. However, the deficiency
was soon supplied by an acquaintance, who was induced to leave Holland
and act as polisher in the American diamond adventure.

The establishment was now complete, but the business was at first
confined to recutting and repolishing gems that had been damaged by
long use or accident. The inventive genius of Mr. Morse made several
important changes in the machinery required by the lapidary, and
displaced the rude and cumbersome apparatus of the old system. At first
but two or three men were employed; but after the discovery of the
South African diamond mines, the rough gems imported to this country
soon furnished material for a more extensive establishment than was at
first contemplated; and so the workshop was enlarged, and the workmen
increased, until twenty-four polishing wheels were put in operation
by steam power, and a force of thirty persons employed in the various
parts of the process. At first none but foreigners were employed in the
labor; but Mr. Morse believed that American ingenuity could master all
the difficulties of the process, and finally succeeded in educating
a corps of workmen who soon proved to be far superior to any of the
artisans imported from the diamond-cutting establishments of Amsterdam.
Now the atelier of Mr. Morse may be considered as essentially American
both in its artists and its arrangements.

Many fine gems of large size have been polished by Mr. Morse, and among
them four of the great weight of fifty karats each. And very recently
he has ventured to attempt the cutting of a great diamond from South
Africa, weighing one hundred and twenty-five karats. The operation was
a successful one, and after three and a half months’ labor a beautiful
gem of seventy-seven karats weight was obtained, which is greatly
admired by amateurs and experts, not only on account of the rare
beauty and perfection of the mineral itself, but also as a remarkable
specimen of workmanship in shaping its present form.

The process of cutting the diamond is divided at Amsterdam into several
distinct branches, and workmen are educated to perform one part, but
not another. Thus the cleaving, the cutting, and the polishing have
special operators, who become expert in performing well the parts
assigned to them without attempting the others.

This ceremony and care adopted by the Jews has undoubtedly produced
skilful workmen; but we see no reason why all the parts may not be
perfectly acquired by an intelligent mechanic. The art of cleavage,
however, requires tact, and ought to include some knowledge of
mineralogy.

For the particulars of the art of diamond-cutting, we will refer our
readers to the interesting chapters by Jeffries, Mawe, and Barbot; but
we will, however, briefly mention some of the forms adopted for the
diamond, and how they are produced.

The table and the rose patterns were the first regular forms adopted
by the lapidaries. The first was simply the top of the stone ground
flat with a corresponding flat bottom of less area, with its four upper
and lower sides parallel to each other. As the light passed through
the stone without much refraction, the beauty of the mineral was not
developed by this pattern.

It has been stated that the rose shape was invented in Paris under the
auspices of Cardinal Mazarin, but Tavernier describes the diamonds of
Aurungzeb of India as being of the rose-cut. Therefore we must give a
more ancient date to the pattern than Mazarin’s day. The form of the
rose-cut is simply that of a hemisphere covered with small facets. Its
flattened base is therefore admirably adapted for incrustation work,
and the foil on which it is generally set serves as a refracting mirror
for the entering rays of light.

The rose pattern has several names which indicate the number of facets
which they may bear. If it has but twelve or less facets it is called
an Antwerp rose; if but eighteen or twenty it is a semi-Holland, and a
Holland rose if it bears twenty-four facets. At the present time these
gems are not in much demand, unless for incrustation work, for which
they are superior both in effect and in adaptability to the surface of
the object to be ornamented.

The form which appears to exhibit the splendors of the gem to the
best advantage is that known as the brilliant, and is rightly named
from its effects. It was discovered in Italy in the latter part of
the seventeenth century by Peruzzi of Venice, which city was then one
of the chief gem marts of the world. The conclusions which led to
the adoption of the shape were derived from experiments upon colored
stones. This form of the brilliant is that of the ancient deep table
modified by receiving thirty-two facets above and twenty-four below its
girdle. The great relative depth of the gem, aided by the numerous
facets of the sides, appears to increase the natural refractive power
of the stone by confining, as it were, the rays of light inside of it.

Another pattern, called the brilliolette, shows the beautiful qualities
of the gem to great advantage. It is formed like two rose diamonds
joined together at the base; or may be flattened and elongated like the
almond, and faceted all over with small facets. This is the form of the
Sancy, and should have been given to the Koh-i-noor and the Star of the
South. The Austrian yellow diamond is of this pattern, and was probably
cut in India, but when and where is still a mystery. And it is thought
that the famous twelve Mazarins were also cut after this shape.

The star pattern, which was invented by Caire, is but little used at
the present time.




                             CHAPTER XIII.

                     TESTING OF THE DIAMOND, ETC.


The testing of the diamond is generally an easy matter to the expert,
but the merchant and the amateur are often unable to decide quickly
concerning the character of a gem that may be offered to them. The
learned Abbé Haüy was often called in consultation upon matters of this
kind, and even appeared in court as an expert of diamonds. Fortunately,
the methods of ascertaining the diamond beyond a doubt are now so easy
and numerous that few attempts are made like those of the last century,
when white topazes and zircons were sold or substituted for diamonds.

We may be permitted to say that the first and surest test of the
gem is that of hardness, and that the diamond scratches all other
substances with ease. The application of this test is not always made
with facility, but a little practice with a rough crystal of diamond
will soon enable the experimenter to perform it satisfactorily.
In performing the test for hardness for all gems it is well to be
provided with a fine English file, and splinters of quartz, topaz, and
sapphire. The file, adroitly applied, will detect the character of gems
below the quartz in hardness, and the splinters above mentioned will
determine all others but the diamond.

In applying these tests, it is well to touch the middle of a facet, if
the gem be polished, and remember that the edges of many of the gems
are very brittle. The diamond, for instance, although it is so very
hard when its surface is directly tested, yet its thin edges, when cut
into a gem, are broken down with the greatest ease; therefore the test
of hardness should be applied to the polished face of the stone.

But when the stone has been polished and set in such a manner that the
test of hardness cannot be easily applied, then the easiest method of
distinguishing its character is to expose it to the rays of artificial
light and observe their effects. If the stone, when placed at a certain
distance from the candle, flashes out the prismatic hues in a marked
manner, then the observer may safely conclude that the object is either
a diamond or one of the artificial gems known as strass. To distinguish
them by means of the eye alone will be a difficult task, for both
possess very high refractive powers and exhibit remarkable displays
of the prismatic hues; but the application of a fragment of diamond,
sapphire, or topaz to the object will at once make known its character,
and even the test of the steel file will betray the softness of the
glass.

The transparent zircons closely approach the diamond in brilliancy,
and are among the rarest of gems; in fact, a fine specimen of perfect
purity would be worth more to the amateur than a diamond of equal
weight. The pure yellow are declared by King to be among the rarest and
most beautiful of gems on account of their remarkable brilliancy and
lustre. He also states that they are seldom found above two karats in
weight.

The white zircon, which resembles the diamond so closely, is always
minute and rarely above one karat in size. All that are known in
commerce come from Matura, in Ceylon, and are sometimes called Matura
diamonds. In times past they were in great demand for incrustation
work of watches and jewelry, for when cut in the form of roses and set
upon brilliant foil they could not be easily detected by the eye from
the diamond. At the present day they are seldom seen in commerce, but
whether from scarcity, or from an improvement in the ideas of honor
in the jewellers, we are unable to state. We know, however, that they
are still mined by the natives of Ceylon, and are used in Asia for
ornamental purposes. The white spinel is sometimes mistaken for the
adamas; but its inferiority in hardness and its want of the prismatic
hues render its detection easy. The white topaz, when of two or three
karats weight, resembles the diamond in the rough very closely,
especially when in the modified or globular forms of crystallization.
The degree of specific gravity is exactly the same; but the test
of hardness and the want of the prismatic display serve to dispel
all doubts as to its nature. Neither of these gems, nor the white
sapphire, has that peculiar sharp flash of the diamond which is known
as the adamantine eclat. It has been stated by Hoppè that some of the
Brazilian diamonds do not exhibit any more play of color when cut than
rock crystal; but we have no doubt but that the writer is in error,
and has probably been deceived by some of the white spinels or topazes
which are sometimes found in the diamond mines of Brazil and are of
great brilliancy.

To estimate the value of a rough diamond and ascertain its purity
is often a difficult task, and one that requires both education and
tact. For the surface of the natural gem, especially the modified and
spheroidal crystals, is generally dull and chatoyant. This singular
appearance, which has been erroneously represented as a thin crust, is
in reality produced by the salient edges of the laminæ of which the
stone is composed. The same or a similar effect may be artificially
produced in the polished diamond by heating it to a white heat, as has
been seen in the diamonds injured in the great fires of Hamburg and
Chicago.

Barbot, the French jeweller, declared that he had discovered a means
by which the apparent rough, translucent coating could be changed into
perfect transparency so as to give a clear view of the condition of the
interior. This statement, however, is very much doubted by lapidaries.

When the rough diamond is placed in turpentine, alcohol, or even
water, it appears more transparent than before and like a bubble
of air. We have therefore sometimes thought that Barbot had really
discovered some fluid of high refractive power, immersed in which the
rough diamond became transparent. For it is a well-established fact
known among chemists, that rough gems of a lower refractive power, like
sapphire, chrysoberyl, spinel, etc., if placed in a fluid possessing
an equal refractive energy, like that of muriate of antimony, become
clear, and the observer is enabled to look through them. This discovery
strengthens Barbot’s statement and places it within the possibilities;
but as yet we know of no fluid that possesses a refractive power equal
to the diamond. Topaz, emerald, and other gems of low refractive power
can be readily examined by using the oil of cassia, which has the
refractive energy of 1.64.

The rough diamonds often exhibit various colors, but generally of
faint tints. Sometimes the hue is not perfectly distributed throughout
the stone, but may be confined to a part of it, as in the sapphire,
or even in one of its laminæ. It is a singular fact that the external
coverings of the mineral often contain the shades which render the
rough gem of a disagreeable hue, and which may be made to disappear by
the process of cutting. Therefore, it sometimes requires experience
and tact to determine the value of a rough diamond which possesses a
decided hue. However, those stones which exhibit a greenish or reddish
color are considered safe stones for investment, and will develop
into superior gems after cutting. The bluish and the blackish are
thought to be harder than the others; while the yellowish and grayish
colors indicate inferior stones. The brownish and yellowish hues may
disappear in process of cutting, but there is greater uncertainty in
these shades than in the others. Sometimes a stone which promises to
yield a perfectly white gem, after cutting turns out to be of a decided
disagreeable tinge. Therefore the cutting of a rough diamond is often
attended with some hazard.

The Hindoos have a practice of examining their stones before purchase
by placing them in an aperture in the wall, with a lighted lamp in
the rear. And to ascertain their color they take them under the cover
of a tree thick with foliage, where the verdure of the shade quickly
reveals any other tinge, especially the bluish. It is quite difficult
to distinguish the snow-white, except by contrast. The officers of
the Junta Diamontina, in Brazil, have a rough way of testing the
native diamonds from quartz, white topaz, and spinel, by rubbing them
together close to the ear. The sharp tone which is thus produced is
characteristic, but the test requires a keen and practised ear.

Specific gravity is one of the best tests for determining the nature
of polished stones. By this means some of the precious minerals can be
detected with ease, like the zircon and the emerald, notwithstanding
their color. But when applied to the diamond the experimenter should
remember that its weight is exactly that of the white topaz; yet
to distinguish them, the degree of hardness or the phenomena of
electricity will at once enable the expert to discriminate with ease
and without a doubt. For the best methods of ascertaining the specific
gravity of the stones, we must refer the reader to elementary works on
chemistry and physics.

The test of its electrical phenomena is an important one, as one can
thereby almost instantly detect it from other gems, especially the
white topaz. When rubbed it exhibits vitreous electricity like glass,
but loses it in a very few moments.

Another curious phenomenon, called single refraction, enables the
observer to distinguish the mineral from all other gems except the
garnet and spinel, the others having double refraction, or, in other
words, giving a double image of a candle-light when it is viewed
through their facets.

For the purpose of observing this phenomenon, Sir David Brewster
invented an instrument which he called a lithoscope. It consisted of a
small glass prism which moved around a fixed joint so that the lower
surface of it could be laid upon the surface, or a facet of the stone
to be examined. In this position, the two surfaces being parallel, the
image reflected from the lower surface of the prism would coincide with
that reflected from the surface of the stone. A drop of the oil of
cassia or of sulphuret of carbon is placed between the prism and the
facet, and then the observer turns a screw to raise the prism a little
round its joint. The effect of this is to separate the image of a light
or a small luminous aperture as given by the prism from that given by
the facet; and the difference in the intensity and the color of these
two images is an infallible indication of the nature of the stone. The
image from the diamond will be many times brighter than that reflected
from the face of the prism when testing any of the other precious
stones.

A simpler mode is sometimes adopted by experts, but it requires some
dexterity to exhibit the property. The method is this: the diamond is
held up to the eye, and a needle point or a small hole pierced in a
card is looked at. If the object is seen double, as if there were two
needle points or two holes, then the stone examined is not a diamond,
as but one aperture should be seen.

With the aid of the tourmaline tongs, however, we have an easier
method--subject to a few exceptions--of detecting the properties of
refraction of all gems even when they have been cut. The transparent
tourmaline, when cut in thin plates parallel to the axes of its
natural crystals, possesses the strange and extraordinary power of
extinguishing or causing to disappear one of the rays of polarized
light, while the other is preserved. Therefore, when a body possessing
single refraction, although perfectly transparent, is placed between
the two thin slices of tourmaline composing the tourmaline tongs or
polariscope, no light passes through; the instrument does not afford
the least glimmer of a ray of light. But when the transparent body
interposed in the polariscope is of double refraction, light passes
through as if by magic.

When the gem has been cut for ornamental purposes it is often difficult
to adjust the faces of it to the plates of the polariscope. Then
recourse may be had to the use of a glass cell containing a fluid of a
high refractive power, like the oil of cassia, turpentine, sulphuret
of carbon, etc. The stone immersed in these fluids admits the light
in all directions, and is then easily viewed through the plates of
the instrument. These fluids, however, are not of sufficiently high
refractive powers to do justice to the diamond and the zircon, but they
answer admirably for all gems of a less refractive power, like the
varieties of sapphire, spinel, topaz, garnet, tourmaline, emerald, etc.

The tourmaline tongs furnish the expert with a rapid and easy method
of detecting many of the gems by reason of the phenomena of their
refraction. But the experimentalist must be on his guard lest he
pronounce substances to be of double when they really possess but
single refraction. Glass has a tendency to crystalline regularity when
heated and cooled suddenly, and may therefore acquire the property
of polarizing the ray that passes the first plate of tourmaline and
dispose of a part of that which passes the second. Certain minerals
of the cubic system produce the same result by reason of a certain
rare but forced arrangement; and some crystals, like the topaz, when
cut in a certain direction to their optical axes cease to exhibit the
phenomena of double refraction.

One of the chief tests used by the jewellers of olden times to
distinguish the diamond was the test of the tincture. This tincture was
a varnish made of ivory black and mastic, and when applied to the back
of the diamond seemed to increase its lustre, while other gems were
impaired in their natural effects. Modern investigators, however, have
shown that this procedure is a fallacious one, and is in reality one of
the absurd traditions which have been attached to the gem from early
times, like some of the supposed spiritual properties.

A perfect diamond must stand the tests for purity, faultlessness, and
transparency, and when these are carefully applied to the stone perfect
gems will be found to be very rare.

As we have said before, the diamond is the foulest of gems, and is
exceedingly liable to be injured by faults, such as are described
in the technical terms of the jewellers as ashes, gray spots, rusty
places, flaws, cavities, fissures, veins, feathers, foreign bodies,
wavy and vitreous spots. Very few diamonds can stand the test of the
microscope and be pronounced perfect. Still these microscopic faults
are not to be considered in the commerce of the gem, but only in the
study of its origin and nature. The jeweller may properly pronounce
perfect the gem whose faults cannot be detected by the human eye. Even
the magnificent Regent has one small foul speck in it, according to
Jeffries; and Sir David Brewster found in the Koh-i-noor three specks,
or rather cavities, in its central portion, which appeared to view in
more or less distinctness according as the light reached them.

After a diamond has been cut it is not easy to ascertain its degree of
perfection without careful examination, and this occupies considerable
time. And gems which appear at first glance to be pure and perfect are
often found to be defective after examination.

Babinet, of the French Institute, adopted the following method to study
the effects of the diamond, and it was his intention to apply the test
during his leisure moments to the principal diamonds in France; but
other important labors diverted him from his purpose. He pierced a
hole in a white card, a little larger than the diamond to be examined,
and then passed a ray of sunlight or of the electric lamp through this
hole. In the pathway of this ray, at a certain distance from the hole
behind the card, he placed the diamond so that the ray of light fell
upon the anterior surface of the stone. The rays reflected from this
anterior surface, or, in other words, the table of the diamond, and
those which pass through the stone are reflected back on the card,
where they exhibit a white image of the table surrounded by small
bands iridescent with the prismatic colors. By this simple method
Babinet found that if the diamond had been well cut the colors were
considerable in number, were well separated, and equally spread around
the white reflection of the table. As each of these bands indicates
one of the lustres of the stone, it is easy to estimate them both in
number, quality, and symmetry. Therefore the observer can not only
detect the errors of the cutting of the gem, but decide upon the form
best adapted for the stone.

The term used to express the weight of the diamond and all the gems
is derived from the word _Keration_, a kind of vetch, whose seeds,
being generally of a uniform weight, furnished the Orientals with the
means of estimating the value of precious stones. It is supposed to
represent the equivalent of four Troy grains, but by actual measurement
the diamond karat weighs but 3¹⁄₃ Troy grains at the present day, and
it may descend even lower in the scale, unless the unit be established
by law. The history of the series of diminutions by which the karat
has reached its present weight is obscure, but as the term is supposed
to represent four Troy grains it should equal them in reality. That
it is a mere conventional weight is shown by its variance in European
countries, as well as in the gem-producing countries of Asia. In
making use of the term to express the weight of precious stones we
would suggest that it be written karat, as more in accordance with
its derivation, and that the commonly accepted word carat be used when
we wish to define the alloy of certain metals, like that of gold and
silver coins.

Before proceeding to the subject of the valuation of diamonds, we
will say a few words concerning the imitations produced by the skill
of man. Many attempts at imitating the diamond have been made by
experimentalists for a long time past, and much ingenuity shown by
them. To those of our readers who desire to study especially these
experiments we will refer them to the works of Silliman, Hare, Latour,
Saix, Despretz, Dumas, Ebleman and Gaudin, Mohler, St. Clair, Deville,
Gaunal, Becquerel, Joyce, Cagnard de la Tour, Mactear, Hannay, and many
other well-known experimenters.

Despretz’s experiments, which were based upon certain combinations
of carbon, are deserving of mention. The chemists have discovered
that in combining sulphur and carbon a colorless liquid is produced
resembling water, and apparently containing nothing but sulphur and
carbon. Therefore, Despretz reasoned, if he could get rid of the
sulphur by some manner, the carbon might be crystallized. And to
obtain this result, the action of the volcanic battery offered the
most plausible means. With the aid of this battery the experimenter
really succeeded in obtaining on a thread of platina, passed through a
solution containing carbon, some small crystalline depositions, which
by their form and hardness seemed to be embryonic diamonds. But here
the experiment ended. Nature refused to reveal her secrets.

The alchemists of the Middle Ages seeking the transformation of gold
from baser metals, have been well represented by the chemists of the
present century attempting to imitate the diamond. Philosophy and
science have united their efforts in these fascinating experiments; but
Nature still defies the most determined efforts of art in respect to
the reproduction of the diamond.

The mineral appears to be an allotropic form of a simple elementary
body which Nature offers to us with lavish hand. And when we consider
the triumphs of chemistry, the process of transforming this element
into the coveted form does not seem to be so very difficult to the
casual thinker. But Nature is stubborn in revealing her simple acts.
However, we are not without faith in these determined efforts of
scientific skill; for we know that art now produces the brother of
the diamond, graphite, at will. And we see that at the soda works at
Aussig this form of carbon is obtained as a secondary product by the
decomposition of cyanogen and its combinations. We do not, however,
look forward with much pleasure to the realization of this idea; for
success in producing the diamond will annihilate at a single blow an
important article of commerce, and rob ornamentation and investment of
one of its most desired objects.

Art, however, in its researches on this subject, has succeeded in
producing a glass which, when cut, approaches very closely the
brilliancy and prismatic display of the diamond. The artificial gems
made from this glass, which is supposed to have thallium as a base,
instead of lead, are really superior examples of art. “Nothing but
glass,” is a phrase too often used contemptuously and unjustly; for
these imitations are quite as charming as the adamas itself. In the
flash of their rainbow hues, they surpass some of the great diamonds,
like the Koh-i-noor; and in brilliancy they exceed all other gems.
Their refraction reaches 2 on the established scale, while that of the
diamond is reckoned at 2.4, and that of the sapphire, 1.79. They lack,
however, hardness; and the effect of time dims their lustre. But this
defect may yet be remedied; for the ancients made glass quite as hard
as quartz. And when we come to examine those wonderful specimens of
ancient glass, with their exquisite colorings, exhumed by General Di
Cesnola in the Phœnician tombs of Cyprus, who will venture to establish
a limit to the art of glass-making? Even within the past few years, a
process has been discovered by which the elasticity and hardness of
glass have been increased to a remarkable degree; and if the defect of
brittleness can be overcome, a new era in glass-making will have been
reached.

Artificial diamonds are often worn at the present day; and the fair
wearer consoles herself with the hope that, when sunnier days come,
the artificial will give place to the real. It will not be soon
forgotten by the votaries of fashion, that the Duchesse de Berri,
arriving in France, received for her bridal ornaments only the
imitation, and that she wore them.




                             CHAPTER XIV.

                         VALUE OF THE DIAMOND.


The history of the commercial value of the diamond, extending back
to a distant period of time, forms an interesting chapter for the
philosopher as well as the merchant. It would appear that the gem had
been comparatively independent of the caprice of fashion, and that it
has had for many years a value quite as fixed as gold or silver. This
comparative valuation only applies to the snow-white diamonds, and to
those whose imperfections are not readily discernible to the naked eye.

In estimating the value of diamonds, Barbot divides their shades into
fifteen degrees, as follows: In the first degree he places the rare
diamonds which exhibit the vivid gleam like the flash of polished
steel; second degree, snow-white, first water; third degree, white,
first water; fourth degree, white, with faint shades, red, yellow,
and blue; fifth degree, white, yellow, or green, second water; sixth
degree, grayish-yellow or green, second water; seventh degree, orange
yellow; eighth degree, translucent topaz yellow; ninth degree,
translucent deep green; tenth degree, translucent brick-red; eleventh
degree, translucent deep red; twelfth degree, quite opaque, dingy blue;
thirteenth degree, quite opaque, deep bottle green; fourteenth degree,
quite opaque, brown or blackish; fifteenth degree, quite opaque, black
as jet.

In ancient times, the gem probably had no fixed commercial value,
and was sought for as a curiosity or as a talisman. In the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, the goldsmiths of Italy, which was then the
richest country in the world, established a comparative valuation for
the four precious stones, ruby, emerald, diamond, and sapphire. From
these accounts we learn that the diamond of one karat was valued at
100 gold scudi, and that the emerald was estimated at 400, and the red
sapphire, or ruby, at 800, or eight times the price of the adamas.
These valuations, if we estimate the scudi at nine English shillings,
make a diamond of one karat worth $225, and the ruby of the same weight
at $1,800, or nearly two thousand dollars, a statement which is quite
incredible.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and even before these dates,
Venice was the chief gem mart of Europe. Her merchants had control of
a great part of the trade with the Eastern countries; and most of the
Oriental luxuries passed through their hands. From the account of the
auction sale, in the year 1606, of the effects of a diamond merchant
in that city, we learn the value of diamonds of one karat weight at
that time. They were then valued at £21 13_s._ 4_d._, which was an
enormous sum, compared with the value of money at the present day.

In 1750, the price of the stone in Europe was $40 for one-karat gems.
This was just before the discovery of the Brazilian mines. The sudden
influx of the gems reduced the price shortly after to $5 per karat;
but the market soon recovered from the panic, and in 1791, at the time
the inventory of the French jewels was made, the price had arisen to
$30 for the same class of diamonds. Since this period, the prices have
varied, from the influences of the wars of Europe, sinking at the time
of the disturbances of the Revolution of 1848, to $20 and $25 per
karat. But after the year 1850, the price of the gem steadily advanced,
and in 1865, its quotations were almost the same as that of Venice in
1606. This comparison, however, should not be made without remembering
the vast difference in the value of money of the two periods.

The valuations of the diamond for more than a century past have been
based upon the form of the brilliant, while those of the star, table,
rose, and others, have been valued at lesser and sometimes almost
nominal prices.

The price of the rose diamonds has been affected by the views of
fashion for a long time, and at the present day we are unable to
establish any fixed scale. We will, however, append the views of some
of the gem experts as to the valuation of this pattern, during the past
two centuries.

Robert de Berquen, in 1669, valued the rose cut

  of  1 karat at   100 francs.
  ”   2   ”   ”    500   ”
  ”   4   ”   ”  1,500   ”
  ”   8   ”   ”  6,000   ”
  ”  10   ”   ”  9,000   ”

This estimate, however, was not founded upon any principle; and it was
not until the celebrated Tavernier formed his rule for the valuation of
the rose cut, that the diamond had any definite value. Tavernier, in
1692, took for an example a rose of one karat, of fine water, white,
and of good form, and fixed the valuation at 150 francs, and for gems
of greater weight multiplied this figure by the square of their weight.
The justly celebrated jeweller and traveller also followed the same
rule with fine diamonds that were not of regular form. The brilliant
cut was not then known.

In 1858, in France, the comparative values were: for one karat, fine
brilliant cut, 300 francs; for one karat, fine rose cut, 200 francs.

The following list has been kindly furnished me by Henry D. Morse,
Esq., of Boston, as giving the value of diamonds in the United States
at the present time, January, 1884. The prices have fluctuated
considerably during the past year, and the estimates given are
wholesale prices, and regarded as being quite low for fine stones:--

  Lots averaging   ¹⁄₂ karat each,   $60 per karat.
   ”       ”       ³⁄₄   ”     ”      80  ”    ”
   ”       ”     1       ”     ”     100  ”    ”
   ”       ”     1¹⁄₄   ”     ”     110  ”    ”
   ”       ”     1¹⁄₂   ”     ”     125  ”    ”
   ”       ”     1³⁄₄   ”     ”     145  ”    ”
   ”       ”     2       ”     ”     175  ”    ”

Above two karats the prices are not much increased per karat, because
of their not being as much in demand. Stones of five karats and
upwards, being very slow to sell, at the present time can be bought at
$175 to $200 per karat, of the same qualities as the two-karat stones
quoted above. Very extra white perfect stones, when well cut, bring,
when sold singly or few at a time, from 20 to 25 per cent more than the
prices quoted. The lower grades of stones are generally sold in lots,
and the sizes do not make much difference in price. The larger they are
the less desirable, and oftentimes stones of from five to ten karats
are sold cheaper than stones of one to two karats; the price depending
upon the shade of color and skill in cutting. Lots of this description
can be bought for from $75 to $90 per karat. If the tinge is a little
more decided they will bring but $60 per karat. The yellow diamonds
even ranging as high as ten to twenty karats bring about $45 per karat.
Flawy stones bring from $15 to $35 per karat, according to their color,
size, and brilliancy. Fine rough stones of assorted sizes, varying
from three to ten karats, bring from $30 to $45 per karat according to
their shape and perfection. Smaller sizes are reckoned in value from
$15 to $20 per karat. Cheaper grades and off-colored crystals are sold
as low as $8 to $12 per karat. The bort diamonds vary in value; those
coming from Africa bring but $1.50 per karat, while the same variety
found in Brazil bring $6. The carbon variety of the best sizes bring
about $20 per karat. Fifteen years ago the same mineral could be bought
for $2.50 per karat; while the Brazilian bort was quoted at $9.

Of colored diamonds, those slightly tinged with various colors,
especially the yellow and brown, were valued in London and Amsterdam,
in 1872, as follows:--

  Under 1  karat   30s. to  £2 10s. per karat.
   1 to 2    ”     40   ”    4 10    ”    ”
   2 ”  3    ”     £3   ”    5 10    ”    ”

The following account of Cape of Good Hope diamonds which were sold by
auction at Covent Garden, February, 1872, may interest the reader in
comparison with other sales at various periods of time:--

One white rough diamond, 9¹⁄₂ karats, £60; one slightly off color, 7¹⁄₄
karats, £37; a curious cabinet specimen of native diamond in matrix,
£14, one large rough gem, drop shape, 14¹⁄₂ karats, £42. Among the cut
diamonds the following were sold: a magnificent brilliant, 8 karats,
430 guineas; a fine yellow brilliant of great lustre, 7¹⁄₂ karats,
140 guineas; a brilliant of great spread and good water, about 7¹⁄₂
karats, 140 guineas; a large, lustrous brilliant of fine color weighing
about 7 karats, 480 guineas; a court tiara of five graduated brilliant
stars, 185 guineas; a brilliant necklace of forty graduated collets,
£300.

The following sale by auction, in London, of some of the Imperial
jewels belonging to the Empress Eugenie, may also interest the reader;
and we have therefore thought proper to insert the account. It took
place in July, 1872, at the rooms of Christie, Manson, & Co.:--

Lots 16 and 17. A bracelet, with forget-me-nots formed of turquoises
and small diamonds, and another, with pearls and diamonds,--175
guineas. (Attenborough.)

22, 23. A heart-shaped locket, formed of bands of brilliants, and a
pair of gold solitaires, with large diamond centres,--215 guineas.
(Copeland.)

24. A very small keyless watch, with E. in diamonds, with gold chain,
set with rubies and emeralds,--120 guineas. (Agnew.)

26. A chased gold snuff-box, the top set with flowers in brilliants,
with the Pasha of Egypt’s cipher in brilliants on blue enamel,--165
guineas. (B. Benjamin.)

33. A brooch, with pendants, formed of five large turquoises and
brilliants,--105 guineas. (Streeter.)

35. A brilliant brooch, with sprays set with brilliants,--120 guineas.
(Attenborough.)

36. A pair of large pink pearl ear-rings in enamelled setting with
brilliants,--105 guineas. (Thompson.)

37. A heart-shaped pendant, formed of a fine large turquoise surmounted
by brilliants,--250 guineas. (Martin.)

38, 39. A large black pearl, with brilliant top, and a heart-shaped
brilliant locket,--300 guineas. (Woodgate.)

40. A pair of shell-shaped brilliant ear-rings with pearl centres and
drops,--106 guineas. (B. Benjamin.)

41. A brilliant brooch, formed as a corn-flower and group of
foliage,--348 guineas. (Phillips.)

43-45. A ring with a large brilliant, a fine single stone brilliant
ring, and a ring with a large brilliant and two fine emeralds,--485
guineas. (Woodgate.)

46. A ring, with a splendid ruby and two brilliants,--300 guineas.
(Challens.)

47, 48. Three very fine emeralds, set as a ring, and a pair of hairpins
formed as rosebuds, of pink pearls and brilliants,--275 guineas.
(Gibbons.)

49. A marquise ring, with a pink diamond surrounded by brilliants,
formerly the property of the Empress Josephine,--400 guineas. (Martin.)

50. A beautiful pendant, the centre a fine emerald, surrounded by bands
of brilliants, with emerald and pearl drop,--605 guineas. (Brown.)

51, 52. A group of three wheat-ears tied with a ribbon formed of
fine brilliants, making a brooch or head ornament, and the companion
group,--975 guineas. (Lennox.)

53, 54. A group of two wheat-ears, en suite, and the companion
group,--£810. (Martin.)

55. A fine pendant, with a large square emerald, surrounded by
brilliants, with very large pearl drop,--620 guineas. (Ford.)

56. A scroll-pattern brilliant brooch, for a miniature, with large
pearl drop,--470 guineas. (Challens.)

57. A broad chain-band bracelet, with sapphire and two large
brilliants,--340 guineas. (Lomax.)

58. Two fine emeralds and three large brilliants, mounted as a
bracelet,--810 guineas. (Hancock.)

59. A beautiful cross, formed of eleven large brilliants,--900 guineas.
(Carter.)

60. A ribbon tie brilliant brooch,--335 guineas. (Grindley.)

61. A handsome pendant of brilliants and pearls, with a fine large
black pearl centre and drop,--420 guineas. (Martin.)

62. Two fine large brilliants and an emerald mounted on a buckle set
with small brilliants,--430 guineas. (Harborough.)

64. A splendid brooch, formed as a rosebud and leaves, composed
entirely of brilliants,--820 guineas. (Attenborough.)

65. A magnificent bracelet, with sapphire centre, surrounded by rubies,
brilliants, and emeralds,--£650. (Rothschild.)

67. A fine large pearl, mounted as a hairpin of chased gold, with chain
set with small diamonds,--188 guineas. (Chapman.)

68. A splendid fly brooch, the body a very large opal, the head
and wings set with rubies, brilliants, emeralds, sapphires, and
opals,--£320. (Greenwood.)

69. A beautiful watch, in blue enamel setting, surrounded by eleven
large brilliants, suspended from a hook, set with a cluster of
brilliants,--£1,660. (James.)

70, 71. A fine polished emerald, surrounded by brilliants, and a
bracelet with splendid ruby centre and large brilliants,--975 guineas.
(Hancock.)

72, 73. A brooch, formed as an anchor, composed entirely of brilliants,
and the companion brooch,--£2,150. (Eaton.)

74. A tiara, formed of a band of brilliants, the centre a cluster of
fine brilliants and emeralds, surmounted by a large oval emerald, with
brilliant sprays and pearl drop,--780 guineas. (Challens.)

75. A bracelet, the centre a very fine sapphire surrounded by large
brilliants, with trellis pattern open-work bands, studded with
brilliants,--£1,105. (Martin.)

76, 77. A brilliant set as a brooch, with fine pearl drop, and a
brilliant brooch with colored stone centre and pearl drop,--730
guineas. (Keane.)

78. A brilliant tiara, formed as a group of leaves,--£970. (Carter.)

79. A pearl necklace, composed of forty-one large pearls of the highest
quality, with cluster brilliant snap,--£2,400. (Marquis of Bristol.)

80-84. A pair of polished emerald drops, four pairs of larger ditto,
and a single ditto,--750 guineas. (Masters.)

85-89. Two pairs of emerald drops, with brilliant tops, three pairs of
larger ditto,--550 guineas. (Carter.)

90-92. Three pairs of very large emerald drops,--£1,275. (Garrard.)

93-103. A brooch, with a fine large emerald surrounded by brilliants,
nine larger ditto, and one with a square emerald,--5,000 guineas.
(Keane.)

104-106. A brooch with emerald centre, surrounded by fine brilliants,
with emerald and brilliant drop, and two larger ditto,--£3,525.
(Graham.)

107. A tiara, composed of ten fine large emeralds, surrounded by bands
of brilliants,--£2,625. (Keane.)

108. A brilliant brooch, formed as a group of leaves, with six large
brilliant drops and pendants, set with smaller brilliants,--1,050
guineas. (Keane.)

109-111. Three brilliant pendants composed of very fine large stones,
with brilliant drops and pendants of false pearls,--2,600 guineas.
(Keane.)

112. A bracelet, composed entirely of brilliants, the centre an oval
sapphire,--£2,250. (Carter.)

113. A pair of long ear-rings composed of very large
brilliants,--£3,255. (Stevens.)

114. A brilliant brooch, formed as a double pink,--£1,470. (Stevens.)

The whole realized upwards of £50,000 ($250,000) gold.

The quantity of diamonds now in circulation in fashion, and hoarded
by commerce, is enormous, and may be estimated by the ton. Yet the
requirements of society and the arts are so vast that the gem
apparently seems to be a rare stone, while in reality it ranks low down
in the scale of rarity.

Although we believe that there are immense diamond placers yet to be
discovered in Africa, Asia, and America, we do not think that the gem
will ever lose its high rank in the wants of fashion and ornamentation,
or that its price will ever again descend to the valuation of 1848
except in transient times of far-extended commercial distress. The
misfortunes of any one country will not affect the established price to
any great extent, since the demand from other countries is so great as
to preserve a well-marked equilibrium.

India, with its millions of people who prefer to invest their gains in
a gem to all other known property, will furnish an eager market for the
diamond for many ages to come. The history of the influx and absorption
of silver by that country furnishes an interesting parallelism.

Most of the people of the earth entertain superstitious fancies, and
especially invest the gems with spiritual powers or special attributes.
Hence the innate love of ornament, combined with the desire of
possessing a rare treasure, will always give to the gems a prestige
and a commercial value above all other things. Puritanical morality
may rail against the gems as luxuries; but the nature of man must be
changed before these ideas can be universally adopted. The refinements
of civilization, as well as the follies of barbaric ages, call for
the ornamentation of jewels and gems. And modern economy may, with
Tiberius, complain in vain of that “rage for jewels and precious stones
which drains the empire of its wealth, and sends, in exchange for its
baubles, the money of the commonwealth to foreign nations.”

A brilliant writer has lately stated that “Pictures, gems, china,
bronzes, _bric-à-brac_ of every sort, rare shawls, rare engravings,
and even rare fruits, flowers, and dogs are steadily tending upwards
in value, as if their price depended upon a want and not a caprice. It
is the most curious illustration of the unchangeableness of the law
which governs even caprices that we are acquainted with; and tends to
indicate that the desire for the rare, which we all notice and smile
at, in bibliopoles, antiquarians, entomologists, and every variety
of the genus collector, is not an exceptionable eccentricity, but a
permanent attribute of the human mind, though only noticed in those who
have wealth to indulge in some unusual or splendid form. It is like the
desire of accumulation, one of the passions, and not one of the mere
tastes of men; and may be relied on in business, almost as certainly as
self-interest, vanity, or ambition.”

The relative worth of the diamond has never been better described than
by the following lines from the pen of an able English author:--

 “It is in truth the very essence of property. It is riches condensed
 and wealth secured; too small to be seen by the midnight burglar; too
 easily hid to be seized by the tyrant; and too quickly carried away to
 be wrested from the patriot exile or torn from the hunted outlaw. In
 vain would the vanquished monarch strive to remove his bags of gold,
 or transport his territorial domains; but a diamond is an empire made
 portable, with which he might purchase a better kingdom, and mount a
 prouder throne. Had the treasure of Crœsus been invested in brilliants
 he might have founded a nobler Lydia beyond the reach of his Persian
 invader.”




                             THE EMERALD.

  “The emerald burns intensely bright,
  With radiance of an olive light;
  This is the faith that highest shines,
  No need of charity declines,
  And seeks no rest and shuns no strife,
  In working out a holy life.”

  MARBODEUS.




                             THE EMERALD.


Dutens and several others who have written upon gems and precious
stones during the last two centuries, have asserted that the ancients
were unacquainted with the true emerald, and that Heliodorus, when
speaking nearly two thousand years ago of “gems green as a meadow in
the spring,” or Pliny, when describing stone of a “soft green lustre,”
referred to the peridot, the plasma, the malachite, or the far rarer
gem, the green sapphire. But the antiquary has come to the rescue with
the treasures of the despoiled mounds of Tuscany, the exposed ashes of
Herculaneum and Pompeii, and now exhibits emeralds which were mounted
in gold two thousand years before Columbus dreamed of the New World, or
Pizarro and his remorseless band gathered the precious stones by the
hundred-weight from the spoils of Peru.

Although these specimens of antique jewelry set with emeralds may be
numbered by the score or more in the museums and reliquaries of Europe,
but very few engraved emeralds have descended to us from ancient times.
This rarity is not due to the hardness of the stone, for the ancient
lapidaries cut the difficult and still harder sapphire; therefore we
must believe the statement of the early gem-writers that the emerald
was exempted from the glyptic art by common consent on account of its
beauty and costliness.

Stones possessing a green color have been used for ornamental purposes
from the very earliest periods of the social life of man. And as we
review the archæological history of the human race, it would seem as
though minerals of this hue had been especially selected among all
others for ornamental purposes.

For instances of this primitive selection, we will refer to the green
stone hatchets found among the ancient tombs of Brittany; the axe heads
of jade in New Caledonia; the green serpentine implements of Africa;
the articles carved from green zoisite, revered among the Chinese from
time immemorial; as well as the green jade and amazon stones, which
the Mexicans wrought with wondrous skill into strange and grotesque
forms, and which they prized above even their magnificent and matchless
emeralds. It is also clearly evident that the emerald was discovered in
very ancient times, and that it was early adopted in ornamentation, and
was prized as among the most valuable of the gems, if not the highest
in estimation, for its color and fancied virtues.

Pliny was undoubtedly familiar with the true emerald, and expressed
his satisfaction in the following language:--

 “There is no color so pleasing to the eye as that of the emerald.
 Whoever delights in the verdure of herb and leaf must enjoy infinitely
 more the contemplation of emeralds; for no verdure can compare to
 theirs. They are the only stones that charm the eye without wearying
 it. It loses its lustre neither in sun nor in shade, nor in artificial
 light. It shines continually with the same soft glow.”

In the time of Alexander, the emblems of authority of the Persians
consisted of golden imitations of vines, loaded with clusters of
emeralds, carbuncles, and other gems. At the famous marriage feast
of Alexander and his eighty companions with their beautiful Persian
brides, emeralds appear to have been the favorite gem used, and to have
been esteemed above all other ornaments except the beautiful pearls of
the Persian Gulf.

In ancient times this gem was not only prized as an ornament, but also
as a talisman, and even as a medicine in the powdered state. Its beauty
captivated the vain and frivolous, and its supposed virtues endeared
it to the rich and the wise. It was supposed to exercise a good effect
upon the eyesight; hence it was worn as a seal to be looked at; when
worn as an amulet it endowed the wearer with courage, drove away evil
spirits, assuaged terror, and prevented attacks of epilepsy.

Pliny states that Paulina, at the Banquet, was literally covered with
emeralds and pearls, arranged over her dress in alternate rows.

The famous and fatal ring which Polycrates cast into the sea, as an
offering to the gods in return for forty years of prosperity, was set
with a beautiful emerald.

The ancient Etruscans carved the emerald at a very remote period, and
the fact is proven by the scarabeus in the Townley collection.

The Castellani collection exhibits ear-rings of gold set with pendants
of emeralds which were found in the tombs at Bolsena.

In the Devonshire gems there is a large emerald cut into a Gorgon’s
head, in high relief,--evidently a gem of great antiquity and of
exceeding value at the time of its conversion into a work of art.

Within the sarcophagus of Maria Honorii fifty rings set with different
stones were found, and among them an emerald set in gold and engraved
with a head supposed to be that of Honorius himself. It was probably
fashioned for a royal signet and buried with the remains of its owner.

The famous mirror or lens, in or through which the cruel and
near-sighted Nero was wont to view the bloody combats in the arena at
Rome, is supposed to have been cut from an emerald; but it was probably
a lens cut from green glass.

It appears, however, from the researches of the antiquaries, that the
gem was very rare until the Imperial epoch, when they were introduced
from Asia and other countries in accordance with the luxury and
extravagance of the age. Castellani’s collection displays some fine
examples of the jewelry of this period set with emeralds. Among them
there is a beautiful necklace formed of sixteen natural crystals of
emerald fastened in gold; and also another composed of ten natural
crystals of emerald set in double chains of gold. Among the engraved
gems may be seen an emerald intaglio, representing a Nereid on a sea
bull, and two other intaglios of beryl, with pictures of Mars, and a
portrait of Julia Paula.

From the earliest times of history monarchs and potentates of all
ranks and races, from Solomon to Montezuma, were wont to wear signet
rings, which were sometimes engraved, and were then often used to
impart authority either by the exhibition of the ring itself, or its
impression upon papyrus, parchment, or wax. The most celebrated ring of
this description we have any authentic knowledge of, was that formed
of a large emerald set in gold and worn by Alexander the Great, whose
portrait was engraved upon the stone. The hero, when dying, bestowed it
upon his favorite general, Perdiccas, and thereby invested him with the
authority of succession. History refuses to make known the fate of this
splendid gem. It is probable that Ptolemy Soter obtained possession
of it when Perdiccas was slain in Egypt, and that eventually Augustus
Cæsar may have worn it for his first imperial seal, which was an
emerald engraved with the head of Alexander.

After the death of Pompey in Egypt, his seal ring, which represented
a lion holding a sword in his paw, was taken to Rome and presented
to Cæsar, who burst into tears on receiving the signet of his former
associate and unfortunate rival.

The practice of interring with the dead some of the jewels worn in
life, has been practised in recent times. When Cardinal Borromeo was
buried at Milan two hundred years ago or more, a large gold cross,
containing seven large and fine emeralds surrounded with diamonds, was
placed in his tomb. When Lord Palmerston was buried at Westminster
Abbey, the officiating clergyman threw into the grave several diamond
and gold rings as a peace offering. In ancient times the custom was
of frequent occurrence, and to this habit we owe the preservation of
many beautiful gems and jewels, which have in this manner escaped the
pillage and fury of thieves and iconoclasts.

The mineral has borne the name of emerald since the middle of the
seventeenth century, at which time it was adopted by the mineralogist,
Wallerius. But whence it is derived, and on what particular grounds, we
are not informed. In Asia, in ancient times, it was described under the
Sanskrit name, “marakat,” which is connected with “esmark,” signifying
a sea monster, or “makara,” meaning the sea. As it passed westward,
among the Persians it became “zabargat,” and still farther on its
journey it was changed by the Greeks and Latins into “smaragdus.” The
derivation of its ancient terms is also exemplified by the use or
purposes in which the gem and its varieties were used. It was therefore
frequently chosen by the antique gem cutters and engravers, as the
proper material for the representation of all maritime subjects or any
allusions to the sea gods.

The emerald is now one of the rarest of gems; and its scarcity gives
rise to the inquiry as to what has become of the abundant shower of
emeralds which fairly rained upon Spain during the early days of the
conquest of Mexico and Peru, bringing down the value of fine stones to
a trifling price. As with all commercial articles, there is a waste and
loss to be accounted for during the wear of three centuries; but this
alone will not explain their present rarity in civilized countries.
Even in the times of Charles II., when the destitution of the country
was extreme, the Dukes of Infantado and Albuquerque had millions in
diamonds, rubies, and precious stones, yet hardly possessed a single
sou. So impoverished was the land, and so slender were the purses of
all, that the Duke of Albuquerque dined on an egg and a pigeon, yet it
required six weeks to make an inventory of his plate. At this period,
when the nobles gave fêtes the lamps were often decorated with emeralds
and the ceilings garlanded with precious stones. The women fairly
blazed with sparkling gems of fabulous value, while the country was
starving. Most, if not all, of this missing treasure was transferred
to Asia, and with the silver current which flowed steadily from the
Spanish coffers into India went many of the emeralds also; for in those
regions this gem is regarded as a foreign stone, and the natives,
investing it with the possession of certain talismanic properties,
prize it above all earthly treasures.

When the Spaniards commenced their march toward the capital of Mexico,
they were astonished at the magnificence of the costumes of the
chiefs who came to meet them as envoys or join them as allies; and
among the splendid gems which adorned their persons they recognized
emeralds and turquoises of such rare perfection and beauty that their
cupidity was excited to the highest degree. During the after years of
conquest and occupation the avaricious spoilers sought in vain for
the parent ledge where these precious stones were found. Recent times
have, however, revealed the home of the Mexican turquoise, which has
proved to be in the northern part of Mexico, as the Totonacs informed
the inquiring Spaniards. The first of these mines, which is of great
antiquity, is situated in the Cerrillos Mountains, eighteen miles
from Santa Fé. The deposit occurs in soft trachyte, and an immense
cavity of several hundred feet in extent has been excavated by the
Indians while searching for this gem in past times. Probably some
of the fine turquoises worn by the Aztec nobles at the time of the
Spanish Conquest came from this mine. Another mine is located in the
Sierra Blanca Mountains in New Mexico, but the Navajos will not allow
strangers to visit it. Stones of transcendent beauty have been taken
from it, and handed down in the tribe from generation to generation as
heirlooms. Nothing tempts the cupidity of the Indians to dispose of
these gems, and gratitude alone causes them to part with any of these
treasures, which, like the mountaineers of Thibet, they regard with
mystical reverence. The Navajos wear them as ear-drops, by boring them
and attaching them to the ear by means of a deer sinew. Lesser stones
are pierced, then strung on sinews, and worn as necklaces. Even the
nobler Ute Indians, when stripping the ornaments of turquoise from the
ears of the conquered Navajos, value them as sacred treasures, and
refuse to part with them even for gold or silver.

All the Spanish accounts of the invasion of Mexico agree in the
great abundance of emeralds, both in the adornment of the chiefs and
nobles and also in the decoration of the gods, the thrones, and the
paraphernalia. The Mexican historian Ixtlilxochitl says the throne of
gold in the palace of Tezcuco was inlaid with turquoises and other
precious stones; that a human skull in front of it was crowned with an
immense emerald of a pyramidal form.

The great standard of the republic of Tlascala was richly ornamented
with emeralds and silver-work. The fantastic helmets of the chiefs
glittered with gold and precious stones, and their plumes were set
with emeralds. The mantle of Montezuma was held together by a clasp of
the green chalchivitl (jade), and the same precious gem, with emeralds
of uncommon size, ornamented other parts of his dress.

The Mexicans carved the obdurate jade and emerald with wonderful skill,
using, like the Peruvians, nothing but silicious powder and copper
instruments alloyed with tin. They also worked with exquisite taste
in gold and silver, and they represented Nature so faithfully and so
beautifully that the great naturalist Hernandez took many of these
objects thus portrayed for his models when describing the natural
history of the country.

When Cortez returned home he displayed five emeralds of extraordinary
size and beauty, and presented them to his bride, the niece of the
Duke de Bejar. On his famous expedition along the Pacific coast and up
the Gulf of California he was reduced to such want as to be obliged to
pawn these jewels for a time. One of them was as precious as Shylock’s
turquoise, and Gomara states that some Genoese merchants who examined
it in Seville offered forty thousand golden ducats for it. One of the
emeralds was in the form of a rose; the second in that of a horn; the
third like a fish with eyes of gold; the fourth was like a little bell,
with a fine pearl for a tongue, and it bore on its rim the following
inscription in Spanish: “Blessed is he who created thee!” The fifth,
which was the most valuable of all, was in the form of a small cup
with a foot of gold, and with four little chains of the same metal
attached to a large pearl as a button: the edge of the cup was of
gold, on which was engraved in Latin words, “Inter natos mulierum non
surrexit major.” These splendid gems are now buried deep in the sand
on the coast of Barbary, where they were lost in 1529, when Cortez was
shipwrecked with the Admiral of Castile whilst on their way to assist
Charles V. at the siege of Algiers.

Mariana, in his history of Spain, declares that Cortez had, besides
the five great historical emeralds, also two emerald vases which were
valued at 300,000 ducats. Whether these remarkable treasures were
swallowed up by the sea with the other five when the conqueror of
Mexico was shipwrecked, history does not relate.

Among the presents sent to Charles V. of Spain by the first Spanish
commissioners, Puerto Carreso and Montijo, in 1519, and also by
Montezuma through his governor Teuthlili, were the following articles,
according to the description given by Peter Martyr, the learned
Italian, who enjoyed the friendship of Columbus and the confidence of
the Spanish Court. The Chronicles of Gomara also contain the same list:
a gold necklace composed of seven pieces with 183 small emeralds set
in it, and 232 gems similar to small rubies, from which hung 27 little
bells of gold and several fine pearls; another necklace composed of
four pieces of gold with 102 red gems like small rubies, 172 emeralds,
and 10 fine pearls, with 26 little bells of gold attached.

The historians, Gomara and Martyr, mention among the prizes which fell
into the hands of Cortez, an immense emerald of a pyramidal form,
whose base was as large as the palm of the hand; and which may have
been the identical stone which crowned the skull which stood before
the throne in the palace of Tezcuco. At all events, an emerald of this
description Cortez sent as a present to the Emperor of Spain, together
with his letters of explanation, after the fall of the city of Mexico.
The letters and the various presents were intrusted to the care of
two of his confidential officers, Quinones and Avila. Arriving at the
Azores, Quinones lost his life in a brawl, and jeopardized the mission;
but Avila escaped and put to sea, to be captured shortly after by a
French privateer; and the rich spoils of the Aztecs were presented to
the King of France, instead of the Emperor of Spain. Francis I. gazed
with delight upon the splendors of the gem, and with a feeling of envy
exclaimed that he “would like to see the clause in Adam’s testament,
which entitled his brothers of Castile and Portugal to divide the New
World between them.” What has become of this historic stone?

The quantity of emeralds obtained by the Spaniards in their pillage of
Mexico was large; but it was trifling when compared with that collected
by Pizarro and his remorseless followers in the sack of Peru. Many
large and magnificent stones were then obtained by the Spaniards; but
the transcendent gem of all, called by the Peruvians the Great Mother,
and nearly as large as an ostrich egg, was concealed by the natives,
and all the efforts of Pizarro and his successors to discover it proved
unavailing.

Previous to the plunder of America by Cortez and his followers,
emeralds were not numerous in Europe; but early in the sixteenth
century they began to appear in Spain, and were soon afterwards
distributed among the powerful and wealthy throughout Europe. England
seems to have had at one time a large share of them, and perhaps many
of them were taken by her freebooters from the richly laden Spanish
galleons. In the days of Queen Elizabeth emeralds were exhibited in
profusion, if we can give credence to the chronicles and inventories of
that period.

The parure of emeralds which the Queen of Navarre bequeathed in 1572,
to her daughter Catherine, must have been of wonderful beauty and
perfection.

What is the stone lately given to Mustapha, the ex-premier of Tunis,
by the Bey, and described as the famous emerald once belonging to the
Spanish Crown? Was it one recovered from the shipwreck of Cortez, or
was it one of those given away by the Spanish rulers in the early days
of the conquest of Peru, when they imagined the emerald mines were as
broad and exhaustless as the silver beds of Potosi?

The finest emerald in Europe is said to belong to the Emperor of
Russia. It weighs but thirty karats; but it is of the most perfect
transparency, and of the most beautiful color. There are many other
fine emeralds among the imperial jewels of the Czar, some of which
are of great size and rare beauty. The ancient crown of Vladimir
glitters with four great stones of unusual brilliancy. The grand state
sceptre is surmounted by another emerald of great size. The sceptre
of Poland, which is now treasured in the Kremlin, has a long green
stone, fractured in the middle. It is not described, and may be one of
the Siberian tourmalines, some of which closely approach the emerald
in hue. The imperial orb of Russia, which is said to be of Byzantine
workmanship of the tenth century, has fifty emeralds. This fact alone
would seem to prove that emeralds were known in Europe or Asia Minor
long before the discovery of America; but, on the other hand, the
ancient crown which was taken when Kazan was subjugated in 1553,
is destitute of emeralds. And hence we are inclined to believe the
imperial orb to be of modern workmanship, especially as some of the
ancient state chairs do not exhibit emeralds among their decoration of
gems and precious stones.

The immense uncut Peruvian emerald, given by Rudolph II. to the Elector
of Saxony, is still preserved in the Green Vaults at Dresden.

Queen Elizabeth of England sent to Henry IV., the champion of the
Reformed faith, a beautiful emerald, which she herself had worn. She
gave it as a token of esteem, and reminded the gay monarch that the gem
possessed the virtue of not breaking so long as faith remains entire
and firm.

It has been stated that the Emperor Charlemagne regarded the gift
from the Empress Irene as the dearest of all his talismans. This
treasure consisted of a piece of the true cross, enclosed in a large
emerald, which was attached to a strong chain of golden links. When
his sepulchre was rifled of the treasures deposited with the deceased
monarch, this relic was removed with the rest of the jewels; and
in 1811 was presented to Napoleon by the Burghers of the city of
Aix-la-Chapelle. Bonaparte one day playfully threw it over the neck
of Queen Hortense, declaring that he had worn it on his breast in the
bloody battles of Austerlitz and Wagram, as Charlemagne had worn it on
the field of battle in the Middle Ages. Hortense wore it until the day
of her death.

The emeralds of the French Crown at the time the famous inventory was
taken in 1781, do not appear to have been of very great purity. Several
of them exhibited fine color, but had many faults. Five of the best
were valued at that time at fifty thousand francs, or ten thousand
dollars, each.

In the famous Hungarian crown, the large sapphire is surrounded with
four green stones of oblong form, whose species are unknown. It is
also a mystery how they came there, as they are not mentioned in the
inventory made of the jewel when Queen Elizabeth of Hungary pledged it
to the Emperor Frederick IV.

The Sultan of Turkey is known to possess some exquisite emeralds; and
Rambusson, a French writer on gems, declares that they are the finest
in the world. One of them is said to weigh one hundred and twenty-five
ounces, and is probably another lump of antique glass. Another of three
hundred karats weight, and of less doubtful character, is a gem of
great purity and perfection of color. It adorns the handle of a poniard.

In the museum at Florence there is a small vase carved in emerald, and
also another ornament of similar form, fashioned from a fine beryl.
The mineralogical collection at Munich boasts of some immense emeralds
which are supposed to have been obtained from Spain, and part of
her Peruvian booty. There are also some splendid specimens of uncut
emeralds in the cabinet of minerals at Vienna. The Saxon and the Papal
crowns contain very beautiful emeralds.

Probably the most beautiful specimen of the natural emerald in the
world is that presented to the renowned shrine of Loretto in Italy, by
Don Pierre Daragon, when Spanish ambassador at Rome. He was formerly
viceroy in Peru and obtained the treasure at that time. The specimen
is a mass of white limestone, crowned with great crystals of emeralds
more than an inch in diameter and of exquisite color and lustre.

The name of Emerald Isle is generally supposed to have been derived
from the ever green appearance of its shores but an antiquary asserts
that it arose from the ring which was set with “Optimo Smaragdo,” and
which Pope Adrian sent to King Henry II. as the instrument of his
investiture with the dominion of Ireland.

There is a very fine and large crystal of emerald in the museum at
Leiden, but its history is unknown.

Dhuleep Singh of India possesses a flattened crystal of three inches in
length by two in width, and half an inch in depth, which is regarded as
of great value in India. It is said to be of very fine color and with
but few imperfections.

The Duke of Devonshire’s crystal in its natural state is reckoned as
one of the finest, if not the finest single specimen in the world. It
is from Muzo in New Granada, and more than two inches in length. Its
form is that of a hexagonal crystal, and its weight is 8 oz. 18 dwts.
The color of the stone is beautiful, but several flaws impair the value
as a gem.

During the visit of the Prince of Wales to India, many fine emeralds
were exhibited to the royal party by the Hindoo nobility. At the
grand reception given them at Madras, the Prince of Virianagram wore
a bracelet composed of three splendid emeralds of very great size.
At Kandy, in Ceylon, the Buddhist priests brought forth from their
sanctuary for the inspection of the Prince, an immense emerald four
inches long by two inches in depth.

A ring cut out of a single emerald, 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter, with the
name of the Emperor Jehangir engraved upon it, was presented to the
East India Company.

One of the most costly and difficult works in engraving upon the
emerald in modern times, was that executed by Carlo Costanzi during the
last century. Upon a table of emerald two inches in diameter, the head
of Pope Benedict and those of St. Peter and St. Paul were engraved. Two
years and a half were required by the lapidary for the execution of his
task. The engraved gem may now be seen in the treasury of St. Petronio
at Bologna.

Some very fine emeralds are said to be preserved in the royal
collection at Madrid, one quite as large as the Devonshire emerald and
without many flaws.

The Spanish freebooters, returning home from their American fights
laden with gems, did not forget the shrines of Spain in their peace
offerings. Marshal Lannes, in sacking the church of our Lady of the
Pillar, which was one of the richest in Spain, obtained an immense
booty. Madame Junot declares in her memoirs that it was not far below
five millions of francs in value.

Harsh stories are also told of the acts of vandalism of Marshal Junot
while he was military governor of Spain. It is related that when
he visited the Cathedral of Toledo, the church dignitaries freely
exhibited to him the magnificent jewels and treasures which belonged
to the church and had been accumulating for many ages. The crown of
the Virgin, which was beautifully constructed of gold and adorned with
exquisite gems, was placed in his hands for close examination. The
summit of this admirable and holy piece of human art was surmounted by
a large emerald of almost transcendent beauty. The French freebooter
examined the beautiful jewel for a few moments, and then coolly
twisted off the emerald from its setting and placed it in his pocket,
exclaiming, with a Parisian grimace, “Ceci doit être à moi.”

Finely formed crystals of emerald, when not too large, were in early
times mounted in gold and in jewelry without receiving any artificial
polish from the lapidary. Examples are often found in the tombs of
antiquity. The Princess Bariatinsky has a valuable necklace of ancient
emeralds fashioned in this manner.

The Orientals, taking advantage of the facility with which the prisms
are broken at right angles to the axis, frequently used slices of the
crystals, sometimes artificially polished, but often with the natural
planes of cleavage preserved. This practice was quite common prior to
the fifteenth century. They also adopted the unfortunate custom of
engraving them with condensed quotations from the Koran, and often
drilled holes through the centre of the stones so as to string them as
necklaces or as ear ornaments.

One of the finest gems that adorned the gorgeous harness of Runjeet
Singh was a beautiful emerald maltreated in this manner. Major Pearse
found in a Punjaub tope a reliquary formed from an emerald three inches
long and two inches thick, with the ends rounded off. It was originally
a gem of fine color, but had been bored half through its axis to
contain two finger joints of some revered Buddhist saint or petted
monkey.

The emerald has been a subject of controversy among the chemists and
mineralogists, and its character, especially the cause of its beautiful
color, is not clearly defined even at the present day. But that
distinguished chemist, Professor Lewy of Paris, seems to offer, thus
far, the most correct and plausible theory. More than ten years ago
he boldly asserted that the hue is not due to the oxide of chromium,
and with this opinion he confronted such eminent men as Vauquelin,
Klaproth, and others of high rank in the scientific world. Not
content with his researches in his laboratory in Paris, he resolutely
crossed the ocean and sought the emerald in its parent ledges in the
lofty table-lands of New Granada. Here he obtained new information
of a geological character which goes far to strengthen his position.
The experiments of M. Lewy indicate, if they do not prove, that the
coloring matter of the emerald is organic, and readily destroyed
by heat, which would not be the case if it was due to the oxide of
chromium. All my own fire-tests with the Granada emerald corroborate
the views of M. Lewy, for in every instance the gem lost its hue when
submitted to a red heat.

Nevertheless, the recent researches of Wöhler and Rose give negative
results. These experienced chemists kept an emerald at the temperature
of melted copper for an hour, and found that, although the stone had
become opaque, the color was not affected. They therefore considered
the oxide of chromium to be the coloring agent, without, however,
denying the presence of organic matter. The amount of the oxide of
chromium found by many chemists varies from one to two per cent, while
Lewy and others found it in a quantity so small as to be inappreciable,
and too minute to be weighed.

Before the ordinary blowpipe the emerald passes rapidly into a whitish
vesicular glass, and with borax it forms a fine green glass, while its
sub-species, the beryl, changes into a colorless bead; with salt of
phosphorus it slowly dissolves, leaving a silicious skeleton.

M. Lewy visited the mines at Muzo in Granada, and from the results of
his analyses, together with the fact of finding emeralds in conjunction
with the presence of fossil shells in the limestone in which they
occur, he arrived at the conclusion that they have been formed in the
wet way,--deposited from a chemical solution. He also found that when
extracted they are so soft and fragile that the largest and finest
fragments can be reduced to powder by merely rubbing them between the
fingers, and the crystals often crack and fall to pieces after being
removed from the mine, apparently from loss of water. Consequently,
when the emeralds are first extracted they are laid aside carefully for
a few days until the water is evaporated.

This statement relative to the softness of the gem and its subsequent
hardening has been met with a shout of derision from some of the
gem-seekers,--none louder than that of Barbot, the retired jeweller.
Barbot seems to forget that the rock of which his own house in Paris is
constructed undergoes the same change after being removed from the deep
quarries in the catacombs under the city.

This phenomenon is observed with many rocks. Flints acquire additional
toughness by the evaporation of water contained in them. The yellow
gneiss of Ceylon is soft when quarried, but hardens on exposure to the
atmosphere. The Egyptian verde antique marble, which was named after
Augustus and Tiberias, was easily quarried with steel implements, but
quickly hardened on exposure to the external air. The mosaic plates
of this mineral which are inlaid in the decorative work of the Tuscan
Gothic buildings are yet quite hard. The steatite of Saint Anthony’s
Falls grows harder on exposure, and other minerals, when quarried
from considerable depths, become firmer on exposure to the action of
the air. Observations of this kind led Kuhlman to investigate the
cause; and he believes that the hardening of rocks is not owing
solely to the evaporation of quarry-water, but that it depends upon
the tendency which all earthy matters possess to undergo a spontaneous
crystallization by slow desiccation, which commences the moment the
rock is exposed to the air.

The coloring matter of the emerald seems to be derived from the
decomposition of the remains of animals who have lived in a bygone age,
and whose remains are now found fossilized in the rock which forms the
matrix of the gem. This rock in Granada is a black limestone, with
white veins containing ammonites. Specimens of these rocks, exhibiting
fragments of emeralds _in situ_ and also ammonites, are to be seen in
the mineralogical gallery of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Lewy
believes that the beautiful tint of these gems is produced by an
organic substance, which he considers to be a carburet of hydrogen,
similar to that called chlorophyll, which constitutes the coloring
matter of the leaves of plants; and he has shown that the emeralds of
the darkest hue, which contain the greatest amount of organic matter,
lose their color completely at a low red heat, and become opaque and
white; while minerals and pastes which are well known to be colored by
chromium, like the green garnets (the lime-chrome garnets) of Siberia,
are unchanged in hue by the action of heat.

At the present time the composition of the emerald is supposed to be
a silicate of alumina and glucina, with traces of organic matter and
also other earths and oxides; but silica, alumina, and glucina are the
principal component parts. It resembles quartz in some of its physical
properties, having a specific gravity of 2.6 to 2.7, and a refractive
energy of 1.58, but its degree of hardness is slightly greater, ranging
from 7.5 to 8.0, while that of quartz is but 7.0.

The Peruvians maintain that the emerald ripens and deepens in color
after having been mined and exposed to the air and light. Whether
this assertion has been corroborated or not we cannot yet say; but it
is a well-substantiated fact that some minerals do gain in color and
hardness on exposure, and equally well proved that many others lose
their tints very perceptibly. Strange to say, the cystine calculi
undergo a similar change of color, and assume a fine greenish-blue tint
when exposed to the light, changing from a fawn color. The specimens
in Guy’s Museum described by Dr. Marcet in 1817 were of a pale
brown, but according to the report of Golding Bird they now resemble
the green sulphate of iron. Dr. Peter observed the same mysterious
change of color in the two cystine calculi preserved in the museum of
Transylvania University, and noted the fact that the change takes place
on the side exposed to the light.

But one locality thus far has been discovered in the United States or
even in North America, and this occurs in North Carolina. For several
years previous to the year 1880, Mr. J. A. Stephenson, a collector of
minerals, had obtained in Alexander County a number of beryls and
crystals of transparent minerals which had the shape of beryl with a
tint of the emerald hue, also other crystals of acicular form which
exhibited the true color of the finest Granada specimens of emeralds.

Some of these minerals were shown in 1880 to William E. Hidden, a
young naturalist then engaged in searching the mineral belts of North
and South Carolina and Georgia for rare minerals. The beauty of these
specimens led the young enthusiast to make a thorough search for the
parent ledge; and, after a few weeks of earnest labor in cutting deep
ditches in the soil near the spot where a number of crystals had been
found, he was rewarded with the discovery of the original deposit in
a rock of gneiss. In this rock, in which felspar preponderates, he
found implanted in open pockets and lenticular fissures crystals of
emeralds, quartz, rutile, monazite, beryl, and also many crystals
of long and slender shapes which appeared to be diopside, but which
exhibited colors of white, yellow, and green of the most beautiful
emerald hues. The mineral which appeared to be diopside was submitted
to the examination of the distinguished chemist, J. Lawrence Smith,
who soon pronounced it to be a new form of spodumene, and named it
Hiddenite after the young explorer. Since then the explorations have
been continued, and have yielded many very beautiful specimens of
both the emerald and the hiddenite. At the depth of thirty-three feet
below the surface of the rock several pockets were discovered which
yielded some beautiful emeralds and hiddenites. They occurred at the
bottom of the pockets, just as the finest crystals of tourmaline are
found in the cavities of the granite ledges at Mount Mica in Maine.
Twelve of these pockets were found within an area of forty feet square,
extending to thirty feet in depth. The largest crystal of emerald found
was more than three inches in length and three quarters of an inch in
breadth, but its color, although of the true emerald hue, is, however,
rather faint. Some of the smaller crystals are of much deeper tint,
and resemble the pure specimens from Granada. But the most interesting
treasures of the mineral kingdom revealed by this exploration were
the crystals which analysis proved to be composed of a silicate of
alumina and lithia, otherwise known as spodumene. Some of these
crystals were white or light yellow, others were of a rich yellow hue
shading into brown, while others exhibited the purest prismatic green
of various depths of hue. In some of the green crystals the color has
been uniform, while in others it is more intense at one end of their
extremities.

Quite a number of the crystals and their fragments have been cut and
polished into gems which rival, by their lustre and beauty of color,
the best of the South American emeralds. On account of their extreme
rarity, as well as their beauty, they have been sought for by amateurs,
and have commanded high prices. As the field of deposit thus far known
is quite limited, we fear that the yield of this charming mineral will
not meet even the demands of science.

Professor Cleaveland, who was one of the best authorities of his day,
maintained more than half a century ago that emeralds which exhibited a
lively and beautiful green hue were found in blasting a canal through
a ledge of graphic granite in the town of Topsham in Maine. Several
of the crystals presented so pure, uniform, and rich a green, that he
ventured to pronounce them precious emeralds. But to-day we are unable
to verify the assertion, or point to a single specimen similar in hue
to the emerald from the above-mentioned locality.

The nearest approach to the emerald in color, with the exception
of the incomparable green tourmalines from Maine, and the emeralds
and hiddenites of North Carolina, are the beryls of North and South
Royalston, in the State of Massachusetts. These beautiful stones
exhibit the physical characteristics of emeralds, with the exception
of the color, in which they differ very perceptibly. But to appreciate
fully the difference in hue we must compare the two gems. Then the
lively green of the beryl fades away before the overpowering hue of the
emerald, whose rich prismatic green may be taken as the purest type of
that color known to the chemist or the painter.

Several years ago we visited the localities in Massachusetts which were
famous in the days of Hitchcock and Webster. We found that the beryls
occurred in a very coarse granite, where the quartz appeared in masses
and the felspar in huge crystals. These also occur in finer granite,
and exhibit no indications of veins or connection with each other.
They are few in number, and are soon exhausted by blasting, being
generally very superficial. After removing several tons of the rock at
the locality at North Royalston, where the beryls appear on the summit
of the loftiest hill, our labors were at length rewarded with two
beautiful crystals. One of them was a fine prism an inch in diameter,
of perfect transparency and of a deep sea-green color, which, however,
is far from being similar to the transcendent hue of the Granada
emeralds, which exhibit an excess of neither blue nor yellow. The other
was yellowish-green, resembling the chrysoberyls of Brazil.

Other but imperfect crystals were brought to light, some fragments
of which exhibited the deepest golden tints of the topaz, and others
the tints of the sherry-wine colored topazes of Siberia. Magnificent
crystals have been found in these localities in times long past, and
from the fragments and sections of crystals found in the _débris_ of
early explorations, we observed the wide range of color, and the deep
longitudinal striæ which characterize the renowned beryls from the
Altai Mountains, in Siberia. Lively sea and grass green, light and deep
yellow, also blue crystals of various shades, have been found here.

At the quarries on Rollestone Mountain in Fitchburg, beryls of a
rich golden color have been blasted out. Some of these approach the
chrysoberyl and topaz in hardness and hue. Others so closely resemble
the yellow diamond that they may readily be taken for that superior
gem. The refractive power of these yellow stones is remarkable; and the
goniometer will probably reveal a higher index than is accorded to all
the varieties of beryl by the learned Abbé Haüy.

Beautiful transparent beryls have been found among the granite hills of
Oxford County in Maine; and the late Governor Lincoln, nearly half a
century ago, possessed a splendid crystal, quite three inches in length
and of great purity and brilliancy. Some very beautiful transparent
blue crystals of beryl have recently been found in the western part of
Oxford County, Maine, which have yielded gems of considerable value.
Probably active search for this mineral in this region will bring to
light some charming specimens.

New Hampshire is famous for its gigantic beryls; and the localities
of Acworth and Grafton have yielded some enormous crystals. One was
removed by Mr. Alger, of more than a ton in weight; and a still larger
one was observed by Mr. Hubbard, who estimated its weight at two
and one half tons. These gross specimens are generally opaque, with
patches of translucent or even transparent mineral on their sides.
The regularity of their crystalline forms is also much impaired or
distorted.

At Haddam, in Connecticut, beautiful crystals of beryl have been
discovered; and one of these of fine green color, an inch in diameter
and several inches in length, was preserved in the cabinet of Colonel
Gibbs. Professor Silliman possessed another fine one, seven inches in
length.

The mountains in Colorado have yielded some fine specimens. But the
finest of the beryl species come from Russia. In the Ural Mountains
the crystals are small, but of fine color; in the Altai Mountains they
are very large and of a greenish-blue; but in the granitic ledges of
Odon Tchelon in Daouria, on the frontier of China, they are found in
the greatest perfection. They occur on the summit of the mountain
in irregular veins of micaceous and white indurated clay, and are
greenish-yellow, pure pale-green, greenish-blue, and sky-blue. The
chief matrix of the beryl all over the world is graphic granite, but it
may occur in other rocks. The light green stones of Limoges, in France,
appear in a vein of quartz traversing granite. At Royalston we observed
them to spring seemingly from the felspar and project into smoky
quartz, becoming more transparent as they advanced into the harder
stone.

The beryl possesses the same crystalline form and specific gravity
as the emerald, but its hardness, especially in the blue and white
varieties, is sometimes greater. They are both silicates of alumina,
and the only perceptible difference in the two stones is in the
color. Cleaveland thought that as the emerald and beryl had the same
essential characters, they might gradually pass into each other; and
Klaproth, finding the oxides of both chrome and iron in one specimen,
was led to take the same view. The crystals of true emerald are almost
always small, with the exception of those found in the Wald district
in Siberia, whilst those of the beryl vary from a few grains to more
than a ton in weight. The crystals of both are almost invariably
regular hexahedral prisms, sometimes slightly modified. Those of the
beryl we sometimes find quite flat, as though they had been compressed
by force; then again they are acicular and of extraordinary length,
considering their slender diameter. Sometimes their lateral faces are
longitudinally striated, and as deeply as the tourmaline, so that the
edges of the prism are rendered indistinct. Other crystals are curved,
and some perforated in the axis like the tourmaline, so as to contain
other minerals. Sometimes they are articulated like the pillars of
basalt, and separated at some distance by the intervening quartz. These
modified forms give rise to curious speculations as to their formation
and origin. If we admit the action of fire (which is improbable), then
the separation may be easily explained; but if we insist that they were
deposited in the wet way and by slow process, how can we account for
the dislocation? “By electricity,” whispers a friend,--“by telluric
magnetism, that wonderful unexplained and mysterious force which has
caused the grand geological changes of the globe, and is still at work.”

Sometimes the crystals of beryl are of two distinct colors, but
generally they are of one color, often shading into white at either
extremity. They may exhibit the richest golden-yellow, or a light
cerulean blue, or a clear sea-green like those described by Pliny, now
called aqua-marines. “Qui viridatem puri maris imitantur.”

One distinction between beryl and quartz is afforded by the appearance
of its fracture. A crystal of beryl breaks into smooth planes, the
faces of which are at right angles to the axis of the prism; while the
fracture of the surface of broken quartz is invariably conchoidal.

Blue beryls were highly prized by the ancients. Beautiful specimens
are found in the glens of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. But finer
gems are brought from the granite district of Nertschinsk, in Siberia,
and also from various localities in the Uralian and Altaian Mountains,
where the Romans were supposed to have obtained them in early times.

Its name is derived from the Persian “belur,” which the Romans changed
into “beryllus.” Sometimes it occurs of a rose color. A few have
been found at Elba and one at Haddam by Colonel Gibbs. One of the
most beautiful specimens of beryl known was discovered in Siberia.
It consisted of a magnificent crystal of smoky quartz, in the base
of which appeared several fine crystals of beryl, of an exquisite
yellowish-green and greenish-blue.

In the princely collection of Mr. Vaux, of Philadelphia, may be seen a
crystal of beryl from the Mourne Mountains of Ireland, two inches in
length by five eighths of an inch in diameter. It is of a celestial
blue color, much deeper in hue at one extremity than at the other. But
the gem of this collection among the beryls is a specimen purchased
in Russia, in 1875. It is a six-sided prism nine inches in length and
six inches in circumference. The color is of a rich oily green, and
several inches of its upper extremity is transparent, while the rest
is translucent. It rests upon a mass of granite, and is a specimen of
extraordinary size and beauty.

Mr. Clay of the same city has a remarkable prism of Siberian beryl two
inches in diameter, which exhibits a tint of celestial blue externally
but which appears of a decided green hue in its interior.

At the Centennial Exhibition Brazil exhibited a fine crystal of a warm
celadine green color. Russia displayed some very beautiful specimens of
the yellow, green, and blue beryls from Siberia. Some very beautiful
crystals of emerald, both solitary and fixed in the matrix, were also
exhibited from the same country.

Several of the mineralogical cabinets of Europe possess fine suites
of the emerald and beryl in a great variety of forms and degrees of
perfection. Those of the École des Mines at St. Petersburg, the Jardin
des Plantes at Paris, and the British Museum, are of very great
commercial value and mineralogical interest.

At the French Exposition in 1867, the celebrated jeweller, Froment
Meurice, exhibited a beautiful specimen of modern glyptic art cut in
beryl. It comprised the bust of the Emperor Napoleon III. carved in
pure aqua-marine. The image was placed upon a miniature pedestal of
blood-red jasper, before which the imperial eagle spread his wings and
perched upon a base of red jasper, which was studded with stars of
topazes, bosses of pearls, and bordered with roses formed of minute
amethysts.

A beautiful blue stone adorns the summit of the crown of England, and
has been described as a sapphire of unusual purity. But mineralogists
affirm, that the gem is a blue beryl, and it is surmised by others that
it is the identical and famous stone which Edward the Confessor wore
in a ring. It is of a lovely color, oval in form, and measures 2¹⁄₁₀
inches in length by 1¹⁄₂ in width, and 1¹⁄₅ in depth.

A superb aqua-marine formerly adorned the tiara of Pope Julius II.
and was considered as one of the most celebrated in the world,
notwithstanding it exhibited a slight flaw. This gem, which was of
an exquisite sea-green color, was 2¹⁄₁₀ inches in length and 2²⁄₅ in
depth. After having been kept in the Museum of Natural History in Paris
for more than three hundred years, Napoleon presented it to Pope Pius
VII.

The Asiatics, and especially the Turkish officers, prize the prisms of
beryl as handles to their scimetars and daggers. This fondness for
decoration of sword-blades and arms is by no means confined to the
soldiers of the East. The officers of Napoleon’s armies exhibited the
same taste. Murat adorned the hilt of his sword with one of the finest
beryls ever seen in Europe. Another famous aqua-marine formed the
handle of the sword of the poet Moncrif, who, like another celebrated
swordsman, the painter Caravaggio, compelled admiration of his works at
the point of his sword. This blood-stained gem bore as inscription the
epitomized history of the author, a quotation from the poet Theophile,
“Tous mes jours sont des Mardis-gras.”

One of the most beautiful beryls known is that purchased by the English
banker, Mr. Hope, and placed in his collection of gems. It weighs six
and one half ounces, and cost its princely owner nearly twenty-five
hundred dollars. It is reported to have come from the mine of Cangazum,
in the district of Coimbatoor in India, a locality which has been long
famous for its fine beryls.

The most magnificent aqua-marine described in history is that belonging
to Dom Pedro. It was found in the diamond districts of Minas Geraes,
in Brazil. In form and size it resembles the head of a calf. Only on
one side does it preserve any trace of a crystalline form; the rest
is water-worn. It is said to be of a fine color, without a flaw, and
perfectly transparent.

For many ages the shrine of the Abbey of St. Denys, at Paris, received
rare and valuable gems as offerings; and at the time of the French
Revolution the collection had become very valuable. The iconoclasts
ordered it to be separated and sold. It brought 80,000 francs, and
was scattered along the commercial highways of the world, never again
to be reunited. One of the finest aqua-marines, mounted in sapphires
and pearls, and engraved with the portrait of Julia, the daughter of
Titus, was fortunately rescued, and may now be seen in the collection
of the National Library of France. This splendid gem is of the unusual
magnitude of 2¹⁄₂ inches by 2¹⁄₈. For quite a thousand years it formed
a part of a golden reliquary celebrated as “l’escrain de Charlemagne.”
History relates that it was presented by the great Emperor before his
death to the Abbey of St. Denys. This is one of the finest specimens of
an ancient intaglio carved upon beryl that has survived the destructive
pillage of armies and the wreck of time since the early days of the
Roman Empire. It is said that specimens of antique engraving upon this
gem are about as rare as those carved upon the emerald, and their
rarity is believed to be due to their great value, as well as to their
scarcity in the gem markets in ancient times.

Several royal relics of the lower Empire containing emeralds are still
preserved, to attest the use of the gem in those days as well as the
esteem in which it was held. The famous Iron Crown of Lombardy, made
perhaps before the sixth century, contains several emeralds. This
renowned relic is simply a circlet of gold, covering an iron nail
of the cross, beaten out thin. The crown of the queen of one of the
Gothic kings of Spain, of the seventh century, was recently exhumed
at Toledo, and also exhibits emeralds among other gems. And there are
other examples to prove the use of the emerald in mediæval times for
ornamental purposes.

No other gem has been counterfeited with such perfection as the
emerald; and in fact it is utterly impossible to distinguish the
artificial from the real gems by the aid of the eye alone; even the
little flaws, which lull the suspicions of the inexperienced, are
easily produced by a dexterous blow from the mallet of the skilled
artisan. Not only emeralds, but most of the gems and precious stones,
are now imitated with such consummate skill as to deceive the eye; and
none but experts are aware of the extent to which these fictitious gems
are worn in fashionable society, for oftentimes the wearers themselves
imagine that they possess the real stones. There is not one in a
hundred jewellers who is acquainted with the physical properties of the
gems; and very few can distinguish the diamond from the white zircon or
the white topaz, the emerald from the tourmaline of similar hue, the
sapphire from iolite, or the topaz from the Bohemian yellow quartz.
Jewellers are governed generally by sight, which they believe to be
infallible, whilst hardness and specific gravity are the only sure
tests.

Artificial gems, rivalling in beauty of color the most brilliant and
delicately tinted of the productions of Nature, are now made at Paris
and in other European cities. The establishments at Septmoncel in the
Jura alone employed a thousand persons, and fabulous quantities of the
glittering pastes were made there and sent to all parts of the world.

A fine specimen of prase, when cut, affords a fair imitation of
the emerald. The green fluor-spar which Haüy called “emeraude de
Carthagène” may also be substituted, but the application of the file
detects the trick with ease. Some of the green tourmalines approach the
emeralds in hue very closely, and by artificial light it is impossible
to distinguish them from each other. Fragments of quartz may be stained
by being steeped in green-colored tinctures. The Greeks stained quartz
so like the real gem, that Pliny exclaimed against the fraud, while
declining to tell how it was done. The Ancona rubies at the present day
are made by plunging quartz into a hot tincture of cochineal, which
penetrates the minute fissures of the rock.

But notwithstanding the high art reached by modern glass-makers, they
are yet far behind the ancients in imitating the emerald in point of
hardness and lustre. Many emerald pastes of Roman times still extant
are with difficulty distinguished from the real gem, so much harder and
more lustrous are they than modern glass. The ancient Phœnician remains
found in the island of Sardinia by Cavalier Cara, in 1856, show fine
color in their enamels and glass-works. The green pigment brought home
from the ruins of Thebes by Mr. Wilkinson, was shown by Dr. Ure to
consist of blue glass in powder, with yellow ochre and colorless glass.
From Greek inscriptions dating from the period of the Peloponnesian
war, we learn that there were signets of colored glass among the gems
in the treasury of the Parthenon.

Of all the emerald imitations that have descended to us from antiquity,
none are more remarkable, none more interesting to the antiquary and
historian, than the famous Sacro Catino of the cathedral of Genoa. This
celebrated relic is a glass dish, or patera, fourteen inches in width,
five inches in depth, and of the richest transparent green color,
though disfigured by several flaws. It was bestowed upon the Republic
of Genoa by the Crusaders, after the capture of Cæsarea in 1101, and
was regarded as an equivalent for a large sum of money due from the
Christian army. It was traditionally believed to have been presented
to King Solomon by the Queen of Sheba, and afterward preserved in the
Temple; and some accounts relate that it was used by Christ at the
institution of the Lord’s supper. The Genoese received it with so
much veneration and faith, that twelve nobles were appointed to guard
it, and it was exhibited but once a year, when a priest held it up in
his hand to the view of the passing throng. The State, in 1319, in a
time of pressing need, pawned the holy relic for 1,200 marks of gold
($200,000), and redeemed it with a promptness which proved its belief
in the reality of the material, as well as in its sanctity. And it
is also related that the Jews, during a period of fifty years, lent
the Republic 4,000,000 francs, holding the sacred relic as a pledge
of security. Seven hundred years passed away, when Napoleon came; and
as he swept down over Italy, gathering her art treasures, he ordered
the “Holy Grail” to be conveyed to Paris. It was deposited in the
Cabinet of Antiquities in the Imperial Library, and the mineralogists
quickly discovered it to be glass. It is due to the memory of Condamine
to state that he was the first to doubt the material of the Sacro
Catino; for, when examining it by lamplight in 1757, in the presence
of the Princes Corsini, he observed none of the cracks, clouds, and
specks common to emeralds, but detected little bubbles of air. In
1815, the Allies ordered its return to the cathedral of Genoa. During
this journey the beautiful relic was broken; but its fragments were
restored by a skilful artisan, and it is now supported upon a tripod,
the fragments being held together by a band of gold filigree. This
remarkable object of antiquity, which is of extraordinary beauty of
material and workmanship, furnishes a theme over which the antiquaries
love to muse and wrangle.

Another of the antique monster emeralds, weighing twenty-nine
pounds, was presented to the abbey of Reichenau, near Constance, by
Charlemagne. Beckman has also detected this precious relic to be
glass. And probably the great emerald of two pounds weight brought home
from the Holy Land by one of the dukes of Austria, and now deposited in
the collection at Vienna, is of the same material. Another, more than
eight inches long, was preserved in the chapel of St. Wenceslaus at
Prague. The hardness of our glass is yet far inferior to that of the
ancients; and even the ruby lustre of the potters of Umbria, which was
so precious to the _dilettanti_ of the Cinque Cento period, has not
been recovered.

The enormous emerald dishes and statues and obelisks described
by Herodotus, Theophrastus, Appian, and others were undoubtedly
constructed of glass, and exhibited to the ignorant multitudes as
formed of monster emeralds.

One of the most curious of these impositions was the sculptured lion
on the tomb of Hermias on the island of Cyprus, which had emerald eyes
which shone so brightly as to frighten away the fish in the sea near by.

The wonderful “Table of Solomon” which formed a part of Alaric’s Roman
spoils, and was taken by his Goths to Spain, where it was captured by
the Arab invaders and afterwards sent to Damascus, was probably another
specimen of the ingenuity of the glass-workers of Alexandria or Tyre.
It is described by one of the Arabian historians as of a marvellous
beauty, being formed of a single slab of solid emerald, encircled with
rows of pearls, and supported on many feet composed of gems and gold.

The famous Barberini vase, found in one of the tombs of the Roman
emperors, and exhibiting white figures upon a dark-blue ground, was
long thought to be carved from some variety of sardonyx, but proved
in modern times to be of hard antique glass. Of similar material
the unique ewer in the Brescian Museum and the vases in the Palace
Borbonico are composed, and all of these are of great antiquity. The
sapphire cup of Theolinda, the once celebrated Queen of Lombardy, now
preserved in the Cathedral at Monza, is glass.

There are but very few stones whose colors resemble that of the
emerald, and therefore frauds are easily detected. A well-selected
specimen of prase may be passed as an inferior emerald, as well as
the translucent stones cut from the Chinese jade; but their want of
transparency offers a serious objection to them as a gem. The green
tourmaline, when it approaches the emerald in hue, is of equal value.
The green zircon and the green spinel would be far superior to the
emerald in brilliancy, and therefore of greater value to the amateur.
The chrome-green garnet of Hungary and the emerald-green garnet of
Siberia would command a high price, if of pure color, as they surpass
the glucina emerald in eclat and are moreover exceedingly rare. The
peridot may assume the exact hue of the Granada emerald. The glass
imitations are almost _fac-similes_ in hue, and are far superior in
brilliancy to the mineral itself; but their softness, which readily
yields to the file, betrays their nature without difficulty.

Since the time of the Spanish Conquest, New Granada has furnished the
world with the most of its emeralds. The most famous mines are at
Muzo, in the valley of Tunca, between the mountains of New Granada
and Popayan, about seventy-five miles from Santa Fé de Bogota, where
every rock, it is said, contains an emerald. At present the supply of
emeralds is very limited, owing to restrictions on trade, and want of
capital and energy in mining operations.

Blue as well as green emeralds are found in the Cordillera of the
Cubillan. The Esmeraldas mines in Equador are said to have been worked
successfully at one period by the Jesuits. The Peruvians obtained many
emeralds from the barren district of Atacama, and in the times of the
Conquest there were quarries on the River of Emeralds near Barbacoas.
Emeralds of a poor quality are found at Limoges in France, and also in
Norway. In some of the felspar quarries in Finland they occur in large
thick crystals, several feet in thickness, of a fine color, but not
transparent.

Emeralds are found in Siberia, and some of the localities may have
furnished to the ancients the Scythian gems which Pliny and others
mention. In the Wald district magnificent crystals have been found
embedded in mica-slate. One of these--a twin-crystal, now in the
imperial cabinet at St. Petersburg--is seven inches long, four inches
broad, and weighs four and a half pounds. There is another mass in the
same collection which measures fourteen inches long by twelve broad
and five thick, weighing sixteen and three-quarter pounds troy. This
group shows twenty crystals from a half inch to five inches long, and
from one to two inches broad. They were discovered by a peasant cutting
wood near the summit of the mountain. His eye was attracted by the
lustrous sparkling amongst the decomposed mica where the ground had
been exposed by the uprooting of a tree by the violence of the wind. He
collected a number of the crystals, and brought them to Katharineburg
and showed them to M. Kokawin, who recognized them and sent them to
St. Petersburg, where they were critically examined by Van Worth and
pronounced to be emeralds. One of these crystals was presented by the
Emperor to Humboldt when he visited St. Petersburg, and it is now
deposited in the Berlin collection. Quite a number of emeralds are
now brought from the Siberian localities, and it is believed that
enterprise and capital would produce a large supply of the gem.

Near Salsberg, in the Tyrol, the emerald occurs in a mica-slate which
appears on the face of a very steep precipice difficult of access,
and about 8,700 feet above the sea-level. They are of good color, but
much impaired in their transparency by foreign matter and imperfect
crystallization. Some of the finest stones yielded by this locality
were exhibited as cabinet specimens by the Emperor of Russia at the
Paris Exposition.

The supply of emeralds from South America is very limited, and
may be ascribed to want of skilful mining, as well as to climate,
the political condition of the country, and the indolence of its
inhabitants. The localities cannot be exhausted, for they are too
numerous and extensive. The elevated regions in Granada admit of
scientific exploration by Europeans, and at the present day the
only emerald-mining operations conducted in South America have been
prosecuted near Santa Fé de Bogota by a French company, which has paid
the Government $14,000 yearly for the right of mining, all the emeralds
obtained being sent to Paris to be cut by the lapidaries of that city.
In the Atacama districts, and along the banks of the River of Emeralds,
the physical obstructions are difficult to overcome; and pestilential
diseases of malignant character forbid the long sojourn of the
European. Yet the introduction of Chinese labor may prove successful
and highly remunerative, since the coolie reared among the jungles and
rice-swamps of Southern China is quite as exempt from malarial fevers
as the negro.

Hassaurek was surprised not to find emeralds for sale at Guayaquil,
as they had been found in abundance in Equador at the time of the
Conquest. The Alcalde of the region around the River Bechile gave
Stephenson, the traveller, three emeralds which were found in the sands
at the mouth of the river.

Concerning the emerald mines whence the ancients drew their supplies
of gems, there remains but little positive information. They were
undoubtedly established in Arabia, Africa, and Scythia, but all record
of them is lost. As regards the Egyptian mines, modern travellers have
proved their existence. At the ancient mines at Gebel Zabara, which
were worked in the time of the Ptolemies, M. Callaud found the tools of
the miners as they had left them, and also many inferior emeralds among
the _débris_ of the pits. Mehemet Ali attempted to reopen them, but was
unsuccessful, as the matrix of the gem proved to be exhausted. This
discovery establishes the truth of Pliny’s remark concerning some of
the localities of the emerald. They are the same gems whose beauty was
praised by the Persian poets. We have no evidence of ancient mines of
emeralds in Asia; and Tavernier, who sought in vain to discover them,
ventured to state that he believed that some of the emeralds he saw in
India must have come from Peru, by way of the Philippine Islands, long
before the Conquest by the Spaniards.

Other mines undoubtedly were worked in Africa; and we know that in the
time of Justinian, the Abyssinians searched the coast, even as far as
the equator. The African emeralds were not of the first quality; and at
a later period of Roman history the Scythian emeralds were reckoned as
the first in value and beauty, the Bactrian second, while the African
were classed as third. About the fourth century the throne of the White
Huns was famous for the splendid Scythian emeralds which adorned it.

The price of the emerald has no fixed and extended scale, like that
of the diamond, and the fluctuations of its value during the past
three centuries form an interesting chapter in the history of gems.
In the time of Dutens (1777) the price of small stones of the first
quality was one louis the karat; one and a half karats, five louis;
two karats, ten louis; and beyond this weight no rule of value could
be established. In De Boot’s day (1600) emeralds were so plenty as
to be worth only a quarter as much as the diamond. The markets were
glutted with the frequent importations from Peru, and thirteen years
before the above-mentioned period one vessel brought from South America
two hundred and three pounds of fine emeralds, worth at the present
valuation more than seven millions of dollars. At the beginning
of this century, according to Caire, they were worth no more than
twenty-four francs (or about five dollars) the karat, and for a long
time antecedent to 1850, they were valued at only $15 the karat.
Since this period they have become very rare, and their valuation has
advanced enormously. In fact, the value of the emerald now exceeds that
of the diamond, and is rapidly approaching the ratio fixed by Benvenuto
Cellini in the middle of the sixteenth century, which rated the emerald
at four times, and the ruby at eight times, the value of the diamond.
Fine stones (the emerald is exceedingly liable to flaw, the beryl is
more free, and the green sapphire is rarely impaired by fissures or
cracks) of one karat in weight are worth at the present day $200 or
more. Fine gems of two karats weight will command $500; while larger
stones are sold at extravagant prices.

Most of our aqua-marines come from Brazil and Siberia, and small stones
are sold at trifling prices. Some of them, however, when perfect and
of fine color, command fabulous sums. The superb little beryl found at
Mouzzinskaia is valued by the Russians at the enormous sum of $120,000,
although the crystal weighs but little more than one ounce. Another
rough prism preserved in the Museum at Paris, and weighing less than
one hundred grains, has received the tempting offer of 15,000 francs.




                               THE OPAL.

  “What radiant changes strike the astonished sight!
  What glowing hues of mingled shade and light!”

  FALCONER.




                               THE OPAL.


What is the composition of this wonderful stone, which displays such
wondrous hues? What is the nature of this remarkable mineral, which
seems to concentrate within its substance all the glories of the
rainbow, and which rivals in its hue the finest gem of the mineral
world? The Turk believes that it falls from heaven in the lightning’s
flash, and it is often regretted by the mineralogist that the theory
cannot be sustained. Surely a gem so beautiful, so delicate and so
pure ought to be of celestial origin, and free from the impurities and
imperfections of the earth. Alas, we have but one precious stone that
comes to us from the far-off region of celestial space,--olivine,--and
that as yet has been found only in minute grains.

But if we cannot ascribe the origin of our beautiful gems directly to
the stars and other bodies in space, we may affirm that their birth or
development in the bosom of our earth may be due in a great measure to
extra-terrestrial influences. And as regards the precious opal, if we
cannot prove it of divine origin, we can with truth affirm that there
is a deep mystery connected with the mineral both in its composition
and its physical properties. The liberal-minded physicist to-day finds
himself somewhat baffled when attempting to explain the phenomena of
the gem in accordance with our imperfect knowledge of natural laws.
Apparently it is nothing more than hydrated silica or quartz; but it is
of a lower specific gravity, and some of its varieties are so tender
and delicate in structure as to be at the caprice of the atmosphere.

It has been maintained that the peculiarities of the opal depend in
a great measure upon the quantity of water it contained, and which,
mixed mechanically with the silica, varies from three to twenty per
cent. But some chemists who have interested themselves in the study
of the composition of the mineral do not regard the presence of water
as absolutely essential for the development of the varied flashes of
color. We will only state in this brief sketch that there is certainly
a mystery connected with the part water plays in producing and
perfecting the beauty of the opal. This quantity or factor of water
varies greatly in the different varieties of opal. Apparently when heat
is applied to the mineral the brilliancy of its hues is increased,
either from evaporation of its water or some structural change. But
if the degree of heat is too great, or its application too prolonged,
the hues of the opal vanish and cannot be recalled by human skill. The
same results from the effects of heat may be noticed in other gems
of greater density and hardness, as the emerald, the topaz, and the
tourmaline. It has been maintained that a faded opal may be restored to
beauty by immersion for a time in water, with the view of restoring the
fancied loss by evaporation; but we fear that the experimentalist will
be often disappointed with his results. However, there is one singular
variety of the mineral known as the hydrophane, which does not exhibit
colors until after it has been immersed for a time in water, and when
removed from its bath and becomes dry again its hues vanish. Therefore,
we may justly affirm that there is a mystery in connection with the
influence of water in producing the color of the opal. The optical
properties of this mineral do not afford decisive distinction, and it
never crystallizes in regular and definite form like quartz, neither
does it exhibit a trace of double refraction.

We will say no more at present concerning the composition of this
interesting substance except to allude briefly to the experiment of
Damour, who found the opal to turn black when sulphuric acid was
applied to it; hence he inferred that the substance contained some
organic matter, but precisely what he could not determine, although
he suspected the presence of bituminous matter. Similar foreign
bodies have been detected in many other precious stones. In fact,
many of our gems are impaired by impurities; and so generally, that
a stone of absolute purity is of rare occurrence. Even the diamond,
which is regarded as the emblem of light and purity, is reckoned by
microscopists as one of the foulest of gems.

Werner divided the opal into four sub-species, and Jameson has
separated it into seven varieties. The principal divisions, however,
may be classed as follows: precious or noble opal, presenting refulgent
tints; fire opal, with fire-like reflections; girasole, with reddish
reflections when exposed to the sunlight; common opal, translucent
and without reflections; wood opal or petrified opal, possessing the
characters of common opal; hyalite, clear and colorless as glass.
There is another kind of opal which we have never seen, but which is
described as the asteriated opal. We are not able to give a minute
description of its appearance or draw a comparison between it and that
of asteriated quartz, sapphire, or garnet. It is said to display great
beams of light which undulate over its surface like the flashings of
lightning piercing the storm cloud. The variety known as the moss opal
sometimes displays in its interior dendritic crystallization of a dark
substance resembling delicate mosses, ferns, or trees. And the gleam of
the colored rays flashing amidst these miniature forests and groups of
foliage often present charming effects.

The grand characteristic which gives to the gem its value and renown is
the wonderful play of the colored reflections which it displays, and
which embrace all of the prismatic tints of the solar spectrum. As we
view its vivid rainbow flashes when the gem is held in the sunlight,
we must admit it to be the most magnificent of gems, and join with the
Latin philosopher, who remarked that it was made up of the glories
of the most precious stones. For as the light falls upon it in varied
directions, its reflections recall the lively green of the emerald, or
the tender blue of the sapphire, the rich yellow of the topaz, or the
gorgeous red of the ruby.

This mineral has not only been an object of delight to the fashionable
world, but it has also been a wonder and a perplexity to the
philosophers. In admiring its beauties and attempting to account for
its phenomena, Newton was led to the series of experiments and to that
train of sublime reasoning that gave to science the most brilliant
and extraordinary of his discoveries. The colored refractions of the
gem reminded the philosopher of the iridescence of the soap-bubble,
and the soap-bubble suggested the undulatory theory of light. Newton,
after long study of the opal, is said to have declared that its hues
were produced by the refractions and reflections of light at the
numerous minute fissures which traverse the stone in all directions.
But this theory is denied by many at the present day, and especially by
Mohrs, who maintains that the thin films of air filling the cavities
of the stone would produce iridescence only. Other opticians believe
the colored reflections to be due to laminæ formed by incipient
crystallization, as seen in the equally remarkable mineral known as
labradorite. Babinet believes the brilliant colors of the opal to be
due to the narrow fissures in the stone, like those produced in the
partial fracture of glass or quartz. He also refers for example to
the colors of thin transparent plates, and believes that the colors
of flowers are produced in like manner from the overlaying of the
transparent tissues of which the petals are composed. This, then,
according to the French philosopher, is the secret of the gorgeous
hues of vegetation from their first development to the period of their
final decay. The diamond, when cut in a regular form, displays the most
magnificent flashes of the prismatic hues by artificial light; and
although the mineral is composed of an infinite number of laminæ, no
one maintains the theory that the color is produced by thin films of
air like those in the soap-bubble. We also may observe the same hues
sparkling among the dew-drops in the morning sunlight, and likewise
in the artificial diamonds, which are composed of solid glass and
apparently homogeneous.

In examining the interior of an opal, we often fail to perceive any
cause for the reflections of color, especially in the limpid varieties.
The flashes appear when the light enters the stone at a certain angle,
but when viewed in any other direction the gem presents the usual
appearance of common transparent quartz. In other varieties of the
mineral, however, especially the milky or translucent, a cause for
the colored reflections is easily observed. We have under observation
the beautiful opal known as the “Oberon,” and beneath its translucent
surface appear thin films of a faint reddish hue suspended at different
depths within its interior. They are so well defined that their edges
may be recognized, and they lie like thin clouds suspended in a hazy
sky. But as the gem is turned so that the light strikes the film at a
different angle, the scene is instantly changed, and a mass of flame
replaces the sombre tint. It is a little curious that some of the films
exhibit the different colors of the spectrum as the angle of light is
changed, while others display only the green and blue color, no matter
how the light strikes them. In fact, the films or patches, which are
apparently alike, produce different results from the same rays of
light; and some display the continuous spectrum, while others exhibit
but one color. It is a little singular that all transparent minerals
when fractured do not exhibit alike in their fractures the prismatic
gleams displayed by quartz and glass. We have before us a beautiful
transparent white crystal of adularia or moon-stone from St. Gothard,
and although it is fissured and fractured in a thousand places, yet we
observe little iridescence in it even when exposed to the sunlight.

The localities where the precious opal is now found are but few, and
none of them were probably known to the ancients. All record of the
old opal mines is now lost; but there were undoubtedly deposits of the
mineral in Arabia, Syria, and in Asia, whence the ancients derived
their gems. The famous Hungarian mines were not discovered until late
in the fifteenth century, and the country was quite unknown to the
Romans.

The principal mines explored at the present day, and whence most of our
opals are now derived, are those of Hungary and Honduras. The Hungarian
mines are of great extent and are now scientifically explored, but
those of Central America are undetermined and but rudely mined. It is
believed that there are other mines in Central America besides those of
Honduras, for the natives at times bring fine specimens to the coast
from localities widely separated. It is quite true that most of the
opals of America are less hard than the Hungarian, but they are no
less brilliant, and some of them withstand atmospheric effects and the
wear of time quite as well. The Honduras opals are found near Gracias
a Dios in porcelain earth, and are extracted in irregular masses,
sometimes uniform or globular concretions, with rough and deeply
indented surfaces. These masses do not exhibit the least tendency to
crystallization like quartz, and they are generally quite small. Their
natural colors are pale, and vary from brown to a pearly gray. They
often exhibit a rich and varied play of the rainbow hues, even in their
natural and rough condition. But sometimes, when this rough exterior is
removed by the lapidary’s wheel, and the gem is highly polished, the
colors vanish as if by magic. The polished stone no longer displays
a single ray of the brilliant fires which illuminated every angle of
the stone when in its rough state. This singular disappearance may be
explained by the theory that the surface has been too highly polished,
and the substance of the stone is rendered too transparent to permit
the requisite degree of reflection, for when the surface is slightly
roughened the play of colors again returns. The finest specimens
are therefore those which are translucent, or those which, being
transparent, are backed by an opaque ground which refracts the light.

The opal-bearing districts in Central America are far more extensive
than is generally supposed. The Province of Honduras abounds in them,
and we have evidence of others occurring in the State of Guatemala on
the Pacific coast. The following descriptions of some of the opal mines
of Honduras were published by Dr. J. Le Conte, in 1868, in his report
of the Inter-oceanic Railroad survey:--

 “Extensive beds of common opal and semi-opal are seen along a belt
 extending through the central part of the department of Gracias; but
 these varieties, though very beautiful and possessing high interest
 to the mineralogist, are without commercial value from the ease with
 which artificial products may be made which precisely resemble them.
 The localities worthy of exploration are those in which the opal
 forms veins (not beds) in compact but brittle trachyte of a dark
 color. The veins, as will be seen, are not confined to such rock, but
 seem to have their origin in it, and are probably not found except
 in connection with it. The best-known mines of precious opal are in
 the department of Gracias; several localities have yielded valuable
 gems, but they are all remote from the line of road. Some are in the
 vicinity of the town of Gracias, others near Intibucat; but the most
 important are at Erandique. The working is now carried on in a very
 small way; but the locality is extensive, and in my opinion mining
 on a large scale would be attended with profit. The country near by
 abounds with beds of common opal, as in many other places, but the
 gems occur in somewhat irregular veins running in a northeast and
 southwest direction, and with a nearly perpendicular dip. The veins
 are not continuous, but branch off and disappear at short intervals;
 neither are the contents of uniform quality, but the valuable parts
 are usually in belts in the vein, and limited on each side by portions
 of ordinary opal without play of colors. These lines of light are
 sometimes numerous and narrow, alternating with the common opal
 forming a very beautiful gem. Many again, even of large size, are
 uniform in structure, and exhibit a play of colors as brilliant as the
 finest opals from Hungary. The hill in which they are found is about
 two hundred and fifty feet high, and two or three miles in length, and
 for a width of half a mile for its whole length opals have been found
 wherever excavations have been made. The rock in which they occur is
 a hard, brittle trachyte of a vitreous lustre, and splintering into
 acute fragments when struck; a bed several feet in thickness overlying
 this rock is of a gray color and soft consistence, and also contains
 opal veins; it is probably a trachyte changed by atmospheric action.

 “Other localities within two leagues of Erandique have furnished very
 fine opals, but as they are not now worked I did not visit them. Many
 places on the road between Intibucat and Las Piedras appear favorable
 to the existence of opal mines; but only careful scrutiny by a number
 of explorers can discover them. I would mention as most worthy of
 future attention the vicinity of Lepasale and of Yucusapa and the
 ascent of the great mountain of Santa Rosa. Greater expectations and
 indeed almost certain success will attend the search for opal mines
 in the valley leading from Tambla towards the pass of Guayoca, nearly
 on the line of the proposed road. Within half a mile of Tambla are
 immense beds of common opal of various shades of color. Near Guayoca
 are banded opals of alternate layers of opaque and semi-transparent
 white, having the appearance of onyx; these occur in a red vitreous
 trachyte and sometimes in contact with the masses of petrified wood
 which strew the ground for a considerable distance. Veins of a
 pearl-colored opal, with red reflections, are also found here; they
 have no commercial value, but serve as indications of better things in
 the neighborhood.

 “Between the two localities mentioned (that near Tambla and that of
 Guayoca), Mr. W. W. Wright, chief assistant of the survey, has, by
 following some obscure indications, arrived at a vein of very pretty
 glassy opals and yellow fire opals, not of great value, but serving to
 strengthen the opinion expressed of the ultimate discovery of precious
 opals in the vicinity. Near Choluteca are found fire opals, some of
 which I was told possess merit. One (not of the best) given me is
 precisely similar to those obtained by Mr. Wright near Tambla. Within
 one league of Goascoran, as I am informed by Fernando Gaillardo, a
 resident of that town, is a mine producing opals with a good play of
 colors.”

Another remarkable deposit of opal was found by Mr. Wright about five
miles east of Villa San Antonio in the plains of Camayagua. Though not
of high value, it may be of use for ornamental purposes, being of a
fine red color with transparent amethystine bands. It occurs in veins
in gray porphyry, sometimes several inches thick, and may be procured
in large quantities. Precious opal has been discovered in the iron
mines at Barcoo in Queensland, and a number of specimens were exhibited
at Philadelphia, at the Centennial. Some of these specimens were very
fair, and gave promise of choice gems. The blue tints displayed by some
of them were of great purity. They appeared to be of the hard variety,
and therefore less liable to be affected by the ravages of time, or
influence of exposure.

We will not fatigue our readers with a long dissertation on the
formation of the opal. We will however, quote one theory which all may
understand.

The boiling waters of the Iceland geyser are projected into the air
at a considerable height, and are heavily charged with silica. As the
waters fall upon the earth, large piles of earthy and stony material
are formed in process of time. When these silicious masses are broken
open, translucent and transparent portions of silica are found,
exhibiting the colored reflections of the noble opal as long as they
remain hydrated, or, in other words, as long as they retain a certain
quantity of water in their composition. This observation has led
M. Descloizeaux to the belief that opals found in volcanic rocks or
igneous rocks have had their origin in phenomena analogous to those of
the Iceland geysers. The matrix of the opal is a varied one. The gem is
not only found in porcelain earth, but it occurs in fissures and seams,
in what appear to be old igneous rocks. It has also been deposited in
recent periods, as in the limestones of the argillaceous beds, and even
in the formations of the silicious waters of the hot springs of the
present time. The decomposed cement of the old Roman ruins around the
hot springs of Polombieres, uniting with certain chemical properties of
the waters, has changed into opal and hyalite. Trees within historic
times have been transformed into opal or semi-opal; and on the island
of Unja one may see blocks and trunks of trees (some even showing the
marks of the hatchet) converted into opal. Silicified trees forty or
fifty feet in length, may be seen stretched from Cairo to Suez. In many
other parts of the world trees and plants have been transformed by the
mysterious processes of nature into a silicious substance possessing
the characters of opal; but none of these vegetable metamorphoses
exhibit the rainbow hues to any marked degree. Quartz, when flawed in
the interior, sometimes exhibits a remarkable iridescence, and may
imitate the opal, especially if viewed at a distance. Such specimens
of iridized quartz are called “iris,” and they may be artificially
produced by a sudden blow upon the stone, or by heating it and
suddenly dropping it into cold water. The superb iris ornaments worn by
the Empress Josephine were of remarkable brilliancy and play of colors.
In ancient and mediæval times, iridescent quartz was held in great
esteem; and fine specimens mounted in antique jewelry are preserved at
the present day. It is described in the “Lapidarium” of Marbodeus as
follows:--

  “By the Red Sea the swarthy Arabs glean
  The iris, splendent with the crystal’s sheen;
  Its form six-sided, full of heaven’s own light,
  Has justly gained the name of rainbow bright.”

The fire opal occurs in its greatest perfection in the porphyritic
rocks at Zimapan in Mexico. It is generally of a translucent
hyacinth-red color and flashes forth dazzling beams of fiery
carmine-red with yellow and green reflections. This Mexican gem is the
most beautiful and gorgeous of all the varieties of opal; but, alas!
it is also the most sensitive, and is frequently irreparably injured
by water or exposure, or even by sudden atmospheric changes. So easily
affected are the opals by the vicissitudes of the weather that they
are almost always brighter in summer than in winter. But there are
some varieties that are not so easily influenced, and are not injured
by contact with water. The fact that this variety of opal is injured
in course of time by contact with moisture or careless exposure is not
remarkable when some of the harder gems undergo a change from similar
exposure. The hard amethystine quartz, when worn as a finger ornament,
will completely bleach out and become colorless in a few years. The
black opal is the product of art, and for this purpose harlequin opals
are used. The harlequin opal is simply the matrix of other gems spotted
here and there with flakes of color dispersed over an opaque ground,
and its name was suggested by the resemblance to the motley tints of
the harlequin’s dress. Masses of the matrix, with fragments or specks
of opal interspersed in its substance, are soaked for a time in a
saccharine solution, and afterwards in diluted sulphuric acid. The
porous parts of the matrix absorb a minute quantity of the solution,
which is afterwards charred by the sulphuric acid; while the solid and
transparent parts remain unchanged and exhibit an increased play of
colors upon the black ground.

The ancients undoubtedly obtained their opals from Syria and Arabia
or other Eastern countries, for the Hungarian mines which now supply
the world with most of the finest gems were not discovered until the
fifteenth century. The famous mines are situated on a mountain which
is one of the spurs of the Carpathians. They belong to the Seignory
Peklin, and are near the village of Czernizka. In the early days of
their discovery, and for a long period afterwards, they were explored
casually and from time to time. At the present day, however, the
explorations are conducted with regularity and the appliances of
skilled labor. The surface of the mountain has been removed to a great
extent during this long-continued search of many centuries, but as yet
no explorations have been attempted into the interior of the ledges.
The true matrix appears not to be more than four to eight yards in
depth below the alluvial soil. It is arranged in continuous beds of
little hardness, but resembling porphyry in color. The opal formation
appears to extend to a considerable distance beyond the flanks of the
mountain; for, in the cultivated fields below, the laborers often find
beautiful gems washed out by violent rain-storms from the exposed and
superficial soils.

The opals from these mines are the hardest and most enduring of all the
known localities of the earth, yet they have to be carefully tempered
to heat and moisture before they can be utilized. M. Frangoll Delius,
the Commissioner of the Austrian mines, states that these opals, when
first extracted from their rocky beds, are soft, friable, and tender,
and not in a condition to be worked. But after they have been exposed
to the air and sunlight for some days or a definite time, they become
harder, and the stones also become decidedly smaller from contraction.
This exposure is required to be carefully regulated lest the stone
become fissured by sudden contraction. When exposed to the effects of
artificial heat, colors appear sooner than when it is submitted to the
action of the sun’s rays. It is curious to watch the gradual unfolding
and the display of these beautiful hues. At first the stone is limpid
and rayless as pellucid quartz. But as the quarry water is evaporated
by the effect of heat or time, and the stone contracts in volume, the
iridized reflections then begin to appear, increasing in perfection and
variety, until the requisite degree of moisture is expelled. If this
evaporation is carried too far by heat the splendors of the gem vanish
completely, never to be recalled. It is a singular fact that exposure
to the sun’s rays gives the opal much finer hues than the action of
artificial heat. And it is also a remarkable circumstance that of
all the variety of prismatic hues displayed by this gem, the violet
invariably appears the first, according to M. Delius.

The ancients rarely engraved upon the opal, influenced perhaps partly
from its enormous value in those times, and partly from its soft and
fragile nature. They imitated the gem, however, with such perfection
that Pliny declared that it was almost impossible to distinguish
the false from the real. Modern gem imitators have utterly failed
in producing anything approaching the precious opal in beauty. The
assertion of Pliny in regard to the imitation of the glories of this
gem has always been received with incredulity by the moderns on account
of the failures of our most skilled artisans; but the discoveries among
the ancient Phœnician tombs in the island of Cyprus by Di Cesnola
rather strengthen Pliny’s remark.

In this collection we may view a great and elegant variety of
glass-ware exhumed from the tombs of the Phœnician nobility who
lived three thousand years ago or more. Many of these vessels gleam
with what appear to be iridescent tints of gold, blue, red, and other
colors of the loveliest tints, recalling to mind the most beautiful and
gorgeous reflections of the opal. Some of the articles are entirely
of one color, while others are composed of patches of various hues
resembling enormous opals with broad gleams of pure color. Peligot
maintains that these superb colors are clue to the effect of great
age; and the substance of the glass being separated into laminæ, the
colors may be explained by the law of iridescence. But we are half
inclined to believe that they may be due to the skill of the artisan in
a great measure,--hence the variety of color in different vessels of
the same age. In the famous collection of Signor Castellani there is a
solid glass ring quite two inches in diameter taken from the ancient
Etruscan tombs. This interesting relic exhibits patches of color as
bright as the prismatic gleams, and they do not appear to arise from
any disintegration of the material, but rather to be produced by the
design of the workman. We surely will not ascribe to effect of age
the decided iridescent glaze which we see in the Maiolica pottery of
Hispano-Moresque objects of the thirteenth or fifteenth centuries, or
in the Gubbio products of the sixteenth century.

The famous opal of history was that which was worn in a ring by the
Roman Senator Nonius in the days of the Triumvirate. Its size scarcely
exceeded that of a hazel-nut, yet its beauty and perfection were such
that it was considered a marvel among the _dilettanti_ of Rome, and
valued at the enormous sum of nearly a million dollars. Marc Antony,
remembering the sacrifice of the matchless pearl by Cleopatra, and
still enslaved by her irresistible charms, sought to obtain the opal,
intending it as a present to the siren queen of Egypt. But Nonius
refused to part with the treasure which was the idol of his heart,
and sought safety in flight. The beauty and charm of the gem may be
estimated by the fact that banishment then to a Roman was worse than
death. History makes no further mention of this wonderful opal, and
even if preserved among the spoils of ancient Byzantium its glories
have probably vanished ere this, yielding to the destructive effects of
time.

The finest opal of modern times was that which was worn by the Empress
Josephine in the days of Imperial splendor. It was indeed a magnificent
gem. Its flashing beams of light were so strong and vivid as to
give the appearance of living flames of fire, and hence the name of
_l’incendie de Troie_,--“the burning of Troy,”--was bestowed upon it.
The base of this opal was completely opaque, but the superior portion
was perfectly transparent, and through it were reflected a multitude of
fiery gleams of red light. The fate of this beautiful gem is unknown.
There are two splendid opals still to be seen among the Crown jewels
of France, notwithstanding the frequent change of dynasties. One is
placed in the centre of the Order of the Toison d’Or, and the other
forms the clasp of the royal mantle.

In the imperial cabinet at Vienna is exhibited the grandest specimen of
this gem yet discovered. It was found in the mines of Hungary in 1770,
and purchased by the Austrian Government. It measures 3³⁄₄ inches in
length, and is 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness. Its weight is about seventeen
ounces, and its value is estimated at about $300,000. Although it
is injured by several cracks and fissures, it possesses a brilliant
play of color, and is justly regarded as the finest specimen known,
even surpassing the beautiful fire opal brought home from Mexico by
Humboldt, and which is still preserved in the museum at Berlin.

At the close of the last century, but before the Revolution broke out
in France, Mons. D’Auguy, a financier of Paris, came in possession
of a most remarkable opal of the harlequin variety. It was of oval
form, ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in length by ⁵⁄₈ in breadth. This gem was of
wondrous beauty, and was pronounced perfect by the connoisseurs. It
is now in the hands of the family of Count Waliski. At the same time
the well-known amateur Fleury owned a rival to Auguy’s opal, which it
exceeded slightly in size.

Another magnificent opal is described by Jackson as having been
exhibited at Vienna. It was nearly an inch in length, and was of the
harlequin order, having three longitudinal bands from which flashed
resplendent flames of light and color. It was pronounced by the
virtuosi of Dresden and Vienna to be the third in rank of all the fine
opals then known.

In the Musée de Minéralogie of Paris may be seen a splendid opal which
has been carved into a bust of Louis XIII. when a child. King very
properly exclaims against the barbarism and extravagance where work and
material mutually destroy each other’s beauty and value. The Spanish
historians, in their marvellous stories of the wonders seen in Mexico
at the time of the Conquest, describe the image of the mystic deity
Quetzalcoatl (God of the air) on the great pyramid of Cholula, as
wearing a mitre waving with plumes of fire, and which was supposed to
have been produced by masses of the fire opal.

Dr. Le Conte brought home from his geological surveys in Honduras, a
number of beautiful opals from the mines in that country. They have
since been cut and mounted in gold with diamond settings, in the form
of a necklace, which is regarded by connoisseurs as one of the most
valuable jewels in the United States.

At the Centennial Exhibition of the United States, Austria exhibited
some very beautiful opals of various kinds, both polished and in the
natural state. One of the polished gems was two inches in diameter and
valued at $25,000. It was of a faint milky white tint, like most of
the Hungarian opals, and displayed a charming arrangement of colors.

The splendors of the opal are best seen when exposed to the direct rays
of the sun, and viewed through a magnifying glass of low power. The
dazzling scene has no equal in art or nature, for the vivid hues of the
solar spectrum are here displayed with the most charming effect. The
colors are in broad patches and not blended with their complementary
hues as seen in the continuous spectrum, and the effects of the pure
green, red, blue, and yellow, flashing forth in perfect purity and
intensity, without definite arrangement, remind the observer of the
brilliancy of the kaleidoscope. In this fascinating display of hues one
might expect to see the colors pass into each other as in the solar
spectrum, and as the field of view is changed; but such is not always
the result. The red may exhibit a tinge of yellow, or the green a shade
of blue before they disappear from view; but generally the patch of
color ends abruptly, preserving its purity of tint to the last.

The alternate and irregular flashing of all these varied hues always
presents a harmonious spectacle, such is the wondrous power of Nature
in all her arrangements and groupings. The stone, when arranged by
the art of the lapidary, is almost always cut with a convex surface.
However, when the opal is attached to an opaque substance which serves
as a reflector to the rays of light, the stone may then have its
surface cut almost flat. The colors displayed by this gem embrace
quite all of the tints seen in the solar spectrum, and they are as
pure. The shades of green, blue, yellow, and red will bear comparison
with the hues of the solar spectrum, and the gems of other minerals
are rare that can bear this decisive test. Sometimes but one color is
visible in the stone, and then it is called emerald or golden opal,
according to the tint exhibited.

The purchase of opals in the rough natural state is attended with
danger, for often the glittering mass, after being shaped and polished
by the lapidary, is transformed into a transparent but hueless stone.
The cutting of the opal is always a hazardous operation, from the
fragility of the material and the special tact required in determining
the shape to be given the gem. We will relate an instance to illustrate
the history of the whole.

A traveller from Central America brought home a splendid rough fire
opal which dazzled the eye with its fiery reflections. We took it to
an honest lapidary, who received it with a doubtful look. The next day
the opal was returned, having been shaped into the usual oval form,
but only a faint gleam of any of the colored rays flashed from its
surface, or the interior. “Is this the gem we gave you yesterday?” we
demanded of the artisan. With a smile the lapidary took the transparent
stone and roughened its finely polished surface upon the wooden
wheel. In an instant the lost fire returned as if directed by magic’s
wand. The perfect transparency of the gem, with its high polish,
had allowed the rays of light to pass directly through it, and there
was but little refraction, but on roughening the surface the light
was interrupted and the peculiar property of the mineral displayed.
Unfortunately the lesson was not concluded here. At the last touch
of the wheel the beautiful gem flew into two parts, and its glories
departed in an instant. Saddened with the day’s experience, we took
the two fragments, cemented them together, and tossed the stone into a
drawer which contained other mineral specimens of no great value. Some
months after, while searching for a misplaced mineral, a gleam of light
suddenly flashed out as we opened the drawer. It was the neglected and
abused opal, which now gleamed with the energy of a living coal of
fire. It had recovered its beautiful reflections, and still adorns,
notwithstanding its fracture, a most cherished jewel.

Whence this mysterious change? the reader may ask. We can only say that
the complete transparency of the stone had been lessened, and perhaps
the change was due to the action of some of the ingredients of the
cement with which we united the fragments of the broken gem.

Some of the Central American opals have the reputation of fading and
becoming translucent and opaque in course of time, or according to the
circumstances of exposure. We will relate an instance which forms a
part of our experience and education in the study of gems.

A few years ago, two Spaniards arrived in New York with a bag of rough
opals brought from Central America, but from what particular locality
we never learned. The specimens varied in size from that of a bean to
that of an English walnut, and were extremely beautiful. They had a
fresh appearance, as though they had been recently extracted from the
mines, and many of them had portions of the soft sandy matrix still
attached to them. They excited suspicions of not having been properly
tempered and hardened by exposure; but their beauty, which reminded
one of the perfect glow-worm, or lumps of phosphorus moistened with
oil, did not allow the spectator to hesitate about the purchase of
them, especially as they were offered at a moderate price. We invested
in the purchase of several charming specimens, and never wearied in
examining their exquisite effects. Still, we felt a vague suspicion
of the enduring qualities of our newly acquired treasures. The most
beautiful stone, the size of a small almond, we carried in our pocket
for a long time, not only for our gratification but for the purpose of
studying the effect of the atmosphere upon its reflections. Soon after
our acquisition, we fancied a slight shadow or nebulosity appearing
in one end of the stone. We carefully watched it, and before long an
indistinct cloudiness began to appear, like the dim and distant haze
of a summer sky on the commencement of a storm. Even then we thought
it might be mere fancy on our part. But when the shadow changed
to opacity, and the transparency of the gem, with its beautiful
reflections, vanished, never to return, we were compelled to admit that
even substances of the mineral kingdom had their diseases as well as
forms of the organic world.

This is indeed but one example to illustrate a theory; but most of
those we purchased at that time of the Spaniards have altered in
appearance, and some of them quite as seriously. Therefore we have
arrived at the conclusion that recently mined opals should be bought
with caution; and that the perfection of a rough opal as a gem cannot
be safely estimated until after it has been cut by the lapidary.

No definite idea can be given in relation to the price of the opal,
so much depends upon the degree of its brilliancy and play of colors.
The gem is not sold by weight, but its value is estimated by its size
and the perfection of its charms. An opal half an inch in diameter
exhibiting fair colors may be worth $5, and another of the same size,
of greater perfection, may bring $5,000, or more. The palmy days of the
opal were during the period of Roman luxury, as the beauties of the
diamond were not then fully revealed, and the opal flashed forth its
marvellous beams of color both by daylight and artificial light. The
gem then commanded enormous prices. According to the tables of Dureau
de la Malle, the opal of Nonius was valued at twenty million sesterces,
or about eight hundred thousand dollars. Enormous as this sum of money
appears, Catherine of Russia would have given as much for the gem, if
its beauty had been in keeping with its reputation.

The commerce of the opal affords a curious example of credulity and
superstition, which is in singular contrast with the progressive ideas
of our advanced civilization. In times past the changes that sometimes
occur in the opal from physical causes have impressed the minds of
some excessively superstitious people as due to supernatural causes.
And from these trivial fancies the most beautiful and _recherché_ of
all that Nature has offered to us in the mineral kingdom has been
placed under ban. This superstitious dread may be of ancient origin,
and whence its source we know not. But it is a matter of history that
the opal was the favorite gem among the Romans in their best periods
of intelligence and refinement. So far from being feared at that time,
it was eagerly sought for, as it was supposed to possess the power
of warning against disaster, and exhibiting the rosy herald of joy.
Hence it has been thought that a feeling of superstition as well as of
avarice influenced Nonius when his paragon was demanded of him.

It is possible that the dread of the opal may be derived from the
superstitious fancies that have descended to us from neolithic times,
like the superstitions connected with the ancient stone implements
which are now called in Western Europe elf-stones. In Scotland at the
present day the ancient arrow-heads of stone are known as elf-bolts
or fairy shots, and believed to protect the wearer from disease or
misfortune. Thus it appears that stone weapons of an extinct race
are used as ridiculous charms by later nations far advanced in
civilization. History shows us how elves and fairies were created in
the popular imagination from neolithic sources, and how weapons and
ornaments of stone, amber, and metal became invested with mystic powers
as objects of handicraft of the elves themselves. These objects are
not only regarded as fairy charms among the races of the East, but the
belief in their powers and use is quite as strong and tenacious among
the Celtic portions of Europe. In other countries these primitive
ideas of fairies and charms have become modified, and blossomed into
poetic fancies to please chiefly the innocence of childhood. Some of
these the genius of Shakspeare and other poets have made beautiful,
and to these we offer no objection. Poetic license may sometimes
invest an object with a positive effect which eventually may assume
the appearance of fact. Thus the allusion to changes in the beauty of
the opal in connection with misfortune, which was made by Sir Walter
Scott, in his novel “Anne of Geierstein,” was taken to heart seriously
by many of his readers, and the gem was placed under ban. The popular
imagination became so strongly affected that the commerce of the opal
in England became very seriously injured; and even at the present
day many a timid maiden hesitates over the selection of the opal for
ornamentation. Every mineralogist and man of science will rejoice to
learn that Queen Victoria exhibits sterling good sense in selecting the
opal among her choicest family gifts, thereby presenting a pleasing
contrast to the superstitious and foolish fancies of the Empress
Eugénie.

To the amateur who loves the rare and beautiful, with a feeling
untrammelled by any of the misty traditions of the past or the caprices
of fashion of the present, the opal is the dearest of all the gems. For
it is not only rare, but it displays the glories of all the other gems;
and it is the only one that defies the skill of the modern artisan to
imitate. Its flash instantly betrays its character, and places it above
suspicion, while quite all of the precious stones regarded as gems are
now imitated so perfectly as to require close and careful inspection,
and sometimes the application of scientific tests.

When we recall the phenomena of the opal, and the wonders of its
reflections, with their strange and sudden disappearance, we may pardon
the credulity of the Arabian romance writers in ascribing to the gem
supernatural powers. It was a beautiful theory with them that it falls
from heaven in the lightning’s flash, and is the veritable Ceraunia.
Its charming and mysterious play of colors suggested to their ardent
imaginations the glories of Paradise, and hence they invested it with
wonderful talismanic properties, and believed it to be the abode of
afreets and genii. Alas for romance! Science clearly demonstrates that
many of the phenomena which puzzle the superstitious are simply due to
atmospheric influences and to the natural laws which regulate the decay
of organic and inorganic forms.




                             THE SAPPHIRE.


  “The azure light of sapphire stone
  Resembles that celestial throne,
  A symbol of each simple heart
  That grasps in hope the better part,
  Whose life each holy deed combines,
  And in the light of virtue shines.”

  MARBODEUS.




                             THE SAPPHIRE.


The colored varieties of sapphire were probably known to primitive
man, and were gathered in their rough state to serve as rude ornaments
long before the diamond, with its less attractive natural appearance,
was recognized as a treasure or a gem. The mountain torrents, laying
bare the superficial strata of the gem beds, early exposed to view
the sapphires of bright and attractive colors, which readily caught
the close, observing eye of the savage; while the diamond, lustreless
within its apparent crust, was unnoticed and unknown until civilization
became far advanced and revealed the hidden splendors of the gem by the
application of art.

We may therefore infer with a reasonable degree of probability that the
colored sapphires, though perhaps not the most ancient in mineralogy,
were in reality among the earliest gems known to man. The researches
of the antiquary and the archæologist rather strengthen this view, for
specimens of these stones are found among the ruins of the ancient and
long-forgotten cities of Arabia and Persia, while the diamond is not.

This beautiful mineral has been known in the land of its birth from
time immemorial as “korund;” and under this harsh name were included
all those beautiful gems known to commerce as the Oriental ruby, topaz,
emerald, and sapphire. The ancients in the days of Pliny bestowed upon
the blue variety the more euphonious name of “hyacinthus.” Modern
nomenclature, however, has adopted the term “sapphire” for all the
transparent forms of the mineral, reserving the name “corundum” for the
opaque and translucent or non-crystallized varieties.

In making use of this word, we have another illustration of the strange
adoption of a term which is destitute of any relationship to the
characters of the object it is intended to describe. The “sapphirus” of
the ancients referred to lapis-lazuli, a blue opaque mineral spotted
with minute metallic flakes; and the only significance it bears in
connection with any of the forms of corundum is the simple fact that
it means azure. If we follow the antiquaries still farther into the
mists of early language, in seeking the etymology of the name, we
shall probably find even less satisfaction. The nature of this gem, as
well as most of the other precious stones, was mere conjecture to the
ancients, and they formed their estimate of them chiefly from their
hardness and color.

Among the early Greeks, Theophrastus strove in vain to discover some
satisfactory basis of arrangement for these minerals, and to explain
their forms, their constituents, and the manner of their creation. But
his efforts and those of his contemporaries were of little avail; and
so Ictinus, when he constructed the marvellous façade of the Parthenon,
and Phidias, while he adorned it with immortal statues of marble and
other stones, were alike ignorant of the nature of the materials
they employed in their work. Several centuries later the treatises
of the Latin philosopher Pliny show that science had made but little
progress in this respect. The people of India and of the valley of the
Euphrates, however, undoubtedly studied at a very early period the
internal structure of the precious stones, and the revelations thus
obtained had some effect in shaping their religion and their views of
civilization.

In searching for the mysterious in the gems, the Assyrians discovered
the cuneiform crystals in the interior of transparent sapphires, and
adopted the forms for their own use, believing them to be the language
of the genii. We have little doubt but that the cuneiform character
which now reveals the history of the extinct Oriental empires had
its origin from the wonderful crystallizations sometimes seen in the
internal structure of the sapphire. These crystals are sometimes
visible to the naked eye; but when the polished surface of the mineral
is exposed to a magnifying lens of even low power, they appear with
startling distinctness, and exhibit forms of perfect arrow-head shape
of all colors. The field of vision may at first include but a single
arrow-head crystal of perfect symmetrical outline floating in the
azure of the stone; but as the field is shifted myriads of crystals may
suddenly come into view, presenting a scene of such remarkable beauty
and fascination that the observer ceases to wonder at the credulity of
Arabian superstition. These crystallizations may occur in sapphires
of any hue, and then again we may search in vain for them in many
other specimens of the same mineral. Some specimens may contain a very
few of these arrow-head forms, while others seem to be composed of
multitudes and masses of them. One large red sapphire of four karats
weight submitted to our inspection appears to be composed of clouds
of these cuneiform crystals; and under the magnifying power of about
twenty diameters it presents fields of arrow-heads flashing forth the
most brilliant hues, and changing into new scenes of startling and
transcendent beauty as the focus is varied. Whatever startled the
imagination of the ancients with a new and mysterious beauty was at
once invested with supernatural power.

In connection with this theme it is interesting and instructive to
trace back the history of the gems and precious stones even within
the period of the past two hundred years, and read the descriptions
and definitions bestowed upon them by mineralogists. Some of the most
gifted of men, like Linnæus and Wallerius, labored diligently to place
them correctly in science; but their efforts to define and arrange them
properly seem at the present day like schoolboy fancies. Daubenton
conceived the brilliant but erroneous idea of arranging them according
to their color, taking the solar spectrum for a standard. His idea
was to place them in seven genera, according to the seven principal
prismatic colors, and constitute species according to the different
shades. This able man was not then aware that the sapphire and the
tourmaline exhibit quite all of the colors of his seven genera.

Romè de L’Isle was the first mineralogical writer who classed the gems
systematically; but it has since appeared that the amateur, Chevalier
Baillou, preceded him in his crystallogical ideas; for in 1747 this
observer described, in the catalogue of his collection, his views in
relation to the properties of gems, and how their characters might be
readily ascertained by the tests of hardness and specific gravity,
and also by the form of their crystallizations. The distinguished and
learned Abbé Haüy became interested and even fascinated with the study
of the history and physical properties of the gems and the precious
stones; and to his genius we are indebted for much of the information
we have at the present day on this subject. He was deeply interested
in the nature and characteristics of the Oriental precious stones;
and being dissatisfied with the harsh term and the vague synonomy of
“korund,” as applied to some of them, he proposed the more elegant
name, “telesie.” But science, often disdainful of new terms, finally
adopted the name proposed by Wallerius; and at the present time all of
the fine and transparent varieties of corundum are called sapphire.

This remarkable mineral is found in mineralogical specimens in China,
Siberia, America, and other parts of the world; but all of the fine
gems, with perhaps few exceptions, come from Burmah, Pegu, Siam, lower
Bengal, and Ceylon.

The island of Ceylon is the most famous of all the localities thus
far known, and it is in reality the most wonderful gem deposit in the
world. It was known in the period of the Roman Empire, as the land of
the luminous carbuncle. This island, which is situated at the southeast
extremity of the peninsula of Bengal, and separated from it by a broad
but shallow strait, is about as large as England in its area. In the
southern centre of the island a group of lofty mountains appears,
rising to the height of about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea.
On one side this great upheaval descends in successive ranges of hills
until the flanks of the mountains subside into the alluvial plains;
whilst on the other side the mountain range is characterized by abrupt
precipices sometimes of several thousand feet in height. The great
gem-producing districts of the island extend along the base of this
mountain range for about fifty miles; and the central and richest part
is considered to be located around Ratnapoora, which is scarcely two
hundred feet above the level of the sea. This want of elevation in the
Ceylon gem strata or placers becomes a marked feature when considering
the high plateaux in which the diamond occurs in other parts of the
world, also coupled with the fact that the two gems are not found
together in the same placers. Here are situated the celebrated mines
which have yielded vast quantities of the sapphire, especially the
blue variety, for an indefinite period of time. They are not small and
trivial deposits, but extend over large areas. Some of the plains which
cover the deposits are more than thirty miles in extent, and form a
large tract of country. Among them are the Kondapalle, Elk, Tolapella,
Horton, Bopatalava, Moonstone, Newera Ellia, and many others.

The amount of labor expended in excavations on these plains is
stupendous, and evidences still remain which indicate vast operations
and remunerative labor in far distant times. The eastern portion of
the plain at Newera Ellia furnishes a good example of the extent of
the explorations. This region is still called the vale of rubies, and
was mined on a grand scale by the ancient kings of Kandy. Many acres
of this plain have been completely upturned, and the surface is still
indented with numberless pits of large size, varying from three to
seventeen feet in depth. The period of these extensive operations is
unknown, and is so far distant as to be beyond the mention of history
or tradition.

Most of the gem-bearing districts are classed as wild lands, and belong
to the English Crown. As yet the authorities have never bestowed a
thought upon their value as a source of revenue, and the search for
gems is free to the world. Although much territory has been mined in a
rude manner in past times, the fields are by no means exhausted, and
offer excellent inducements to skilled labor. If some of the energy and
determination now exhibited in the South Africa diamond mines could be
transported to Ceylon, the gem marts would soon display the splendors
of ancient times.

Ratnapoora, which is the gem mart of Ceylon, and situated in the midst
of the mines, means literally the city of rubies. The mines adjacent to
it and in the district of Saffragan are the principal ones now worked
in the island, but the gems are found under the western plains that
extend from Adams Peak to the sea. The plains and valleys southeast of
Ratnapoora are all gem fields; and the beds of the torrents sometimes
contain so great a quantity of broken fragments of sapphire, garnet,
zircon, etc., that the sifted sands are used by the lapidaries in
polishing gems.

The mining operations are generally carried on by the native Cingalese,
who labor in the light of a pastime and only during intervals of their
agricultural employments. Some few, however, undertake the labor as a
regular business, but they belong to a low and dissipated class, and do
not work systematically or with regularity. Therefore, the gem-mining
of Ceylon cannot be regarded as a fixed and permanent business.

When an exploration has been determined upon, a small party of
villagers set out for the promising region provided with the implements
of mining and the means of camping out. The times selected for the
operations are after the heavy rains which prevail in June and October,
and the floods have subsided. The beds of rivers or smaller streams
are often chosen as easier of access than the plains. If the river-bed
is selected, the first act of the explorers is to seek for the proper
locality where the gem-bearing strata may be found. To ascertain
this, the Cingalese thrust a long iron rod of ten or twelve feet in
length into the earth, and test the nature of the sub-soil. By means
of long practice, the natives can adroitly penetrate the earth to a
considerable depth, and, by the resistance to the movement of the rod,
can detect the gem deposit of which they are in search.

If the indications are good, the natives proceed to build a hut if they
are at a distance from their village, and prepare for the operations,
which often extend over many weeks. After diverting a part of the force
of the stream so as to form a quiet pool, they proceed to excavate the
sand and gravel within a certain area. In order to accomplish this they
use hoes with handles fifteen or more feet in length. The top strata
are hurriedly raked up and thrown away; but as the pit deepens and the
gem stratum is approached, the work is performed with greater care. As
soon as the hoes bring up fragments and bowlders of white quartz, or
strike a thin ferruginous crust, every particle of the gravel drawn
up is carefully preserved. The gravel and sand thus obtained are then
placed in large baskets woven of split bamboo and shaped to a conical
point at the bottom. The basket thus filled is placed in the current of
water, and its contents washed by imparting to it a circular motion.
This washing process is kept up until the stones, gravel, and lesser
particles are cleansed. During this operation the gems, which are much
heavier than common stones, settle at the bottom of the basket, and are
there collected together, so that when the superincumbent gravel is
removed, the sapphires, garnets, zircons, etc., are easily discovered
at the bottom and removed. This is the manner in which the wet diggings
are carried on, and is the easiest mode of exploration; but it is by no
means as sure or often as profitable as the operations in dry ground
on the river banks or in the plains. The dry diggings are much more
laborious, as the soil is firmer and the gem strata must be transported
to water to be washed and sifted. These dry deposits are found the
richest beneath the alluvial plains, which seem to have been in distant
times shallow lakes and lagoons.

The gem stratum called mellan is always well defined, and occurs at
a certain depth, which seems to correspond to the bottom of the lake
at a definite period. This depth varies from two to twenty feet, and
is perhaps even greater; but the natives rarely excavate below the
depth of twenty feet. This peculiar formation, which is generally
horizontal, is composed of a conglomerate of quartz gravel resting upon
or mixed with a stiff clay, often indurated by a ferruginous oxide. In
among this cascalho, or just below it and adhering to it, are found
the fine pebbles and crystals of sapphire, tourmaline, garnet, zircon,
spinel, and chrysoberyl. Under these rocks and in peculiar hollows in
the plastic clay, which the natives call elephants’ footsteps, the gems
are found clustered together heterogeneously, and often so perfect in
form as to appear as though created there. At other places they are
collected together in these pockets in such a manner as to suggest the
idea that they had been washed in by a current of water.

All these varieties of gems, some of them widely differing from each
other in composition and form of crystallization, are here embedded
together, and seem to have one common origin. This is the true matrix,
and the gems are not found in other portions of the soil unless some
disturbing force has removed them, like a strong current of water
breaking up the cascalho and transporting the gems to alluvions of its
own deposit.

It is maintained and generally believed by mineralogists that the
sapphire is formed in crystalline rocks; that in process of time the
matrix is disintegrated, the gems set free, and washed down to the
alluvial soils where they are now found. It is also thought that the
gem-seekers might with patient care trace the precious stones to their
source in the primitive ledges or the mountains, as the gold miner
often follows for long distances the particles of gold in the soil
until he discovers the parent vein in the solid ledge. But in Ceylon
this view is not entertained by the natives; and all scientific efforts
to find the sapphires in the mountain ledges have utterly failed. All
trace of the sapphire and its attendant gems ceases as soon as we reach
the limit of the gem stratum, and what seems to have once formed the
shore of the lagoon. Beyond this plainly marked outline we may search
in vain for the least sign of a connection with the older rocks either
adjoining or at a distance. The result is the same if we examine the
ledges on the same level or those of a higher elevation.

In some countries, in the granular limestone of New Jersey for
instance, or the ripidolite of North Carolina, the granite of Siberia,
or the dolomites of Switzerland, we find sapphire, or more properly
corundum, of undecided colors, of inferior transparency or even of
opacity; but it is very rare that a specimen is found of sufficient
purity for ornamentation. The most transparent and perfect of these
sapphires are generally impaired by cleavage planes which traverse the
stone in several directions, preventing refraction of light, and often
so marked as to appear like flaws. This circumstance indicates that the
forces that deposited corundum and the fine sapphires were certainly
different in character, or that the conditions in which they were
exerted were not the same. For in Burmah, Pegu, India, or Ceylon, and
wherever the perfect sapphires are found, they have one common matrix,
and that is the peculiar ferruginous conglomerate.

This conglomerate is recognized as a recent formation; and how came
these gems, which are believed to be as old as creation itself, to be
found among it? This formation is not only recent, but it is actually
taking place all over the world at the present day, and examples may
be found in almost every country. We find in many places the peculiar
strata of sand, gravel, and masses of stone in proper position to
change into conglomerate, which requires the action of water highly
charged with iron and lime or silica. Darwin found these stony layers
in process of forming on the beaches of the Cape de Verde Islands,
and in vain attempted to knock out a bolt of iron which had been cast
ashore from some wreck not long before, and had in a short space of
time become firmly fixed in the conglomerate. We may observe the same
process taking place to-day on the coast of Cornwall, and among the
_débris_ of the ledges of the Abrolhos Islands. In dredging rivers
large masses of solid conglomerate are often brought to light.
The Thames has furnished many examples; and not many years ago a
cannon-ball embedded in a crystalline calcareous rock was taken from
the bed of the Mediterranean not far from the mouth of the Rhone. Fresh
water laden with _débris_ of vegetable matter also possesses the same
cementing action as sea water, and an excellent example is seen in the
allios now forming in the Landes of southern France. This allios is
also a conglomerate, which has formed and is now forming at the depth
of about three feet below the surface. Here the conglomerate of sand,
pebbles, and angular fragments of rock is firmly cemented together by
the rain-water, which filters down from the surface of the earth laden
with vegetable matter. The cascalho in which the diamond is found is of
similar character, and has a similar origin, for we likewise find there
traces of vegetable _débris_, and the diamond itself contains germs of
fungi and vegetable fibres of higher organizations.

But whence come the elements which form the gems? the inquirer will
say. Can we gather figs from thistles? Marco Polo in the thirteenth
century visited these gem beds, and has left his views in the
following lines: “In ista insula nascuntur boni et nobiles rubini et
non nascuntur in aliquo loco plus. Et hic nascuntur safri et topazii,
amethisti et aliquæ aliæ petræ pretiosæ et rex istius insulæ habet
pulchriorem rubinum de mundo.” Buffon, four centuries later, in
seeking for the causes of the formation of this mineral, observed the
peculiarities of the matrix on this island, and boldly stated that
the origin of the precious stones like the rubies, the sapphires, and
topazes of the East is the same as that of the diamond. He also stoutly
maintained that these stones form and are found in the conglomerate
in which is collected the _débris_ of other matters. The researches
of Sir Samuel Baker and others on these deposits seem to indicate, if
they do not prove, that the sapphire in particular was formed in the
sands, clay, or conglomerate where it is now found, and was not set
free by the disintegration of the old crystalline rocks. Nordenskiold
recognized these gem beds as true placers, but was inclined to think
the gem strata had decayed and left the gems free. An article published
some years ago in “Once a Week,” and supposed to have been from the pen
of Sir Samuel Baker, who had lived many years at Ratnapoora, and had
attentively examined the gem-bearing formations, gave the following
account:--

 “A common but erroneous belief is that the gems are formed in the
 mountains and washed down by the abrasion of the rocks and deposited
 in the alluvial bottoms. If it were so, they would have been traced
 to their source and sought for in the mountains, where they would
 naturally be found in greater quantities; but the natives never
 think of searching for precious stones in such places, and in the
 localities where they are found there does not appear to have been
 any local alteration in the veins of gravel since they were first
 thrown there; and my own conviction formed from observation on the
 spot, and for this and other reasons following, is that the sapphire
 and other gems have been formed and are still forming in the places
 where they are now found. In the first place, rounded sapphires and
 sapphire crystals with facets of brilliant lustre are found lying side
 by side. Secondly, both the rounded stones and the numerous perfect
 crystals, with their pyramids unbroken, show that they were never
 broken from other rocks, but were formed unattached to any matrix, in
 a soft medium such as fine sand or clay. I have seen hundreds of these
 taken loose from the same spot. Thirdly, crystals of sapphire are
 found with their edges reduced, yet with brilliant facets, which is
 inconsistent with their reduction by rolling. Fourthly, sapphire being
 much harder than any other stone with which it could come in contact,
 it is not easy to understand how any attrition could be brought to
 bear upon it to bring it to the beautifully translucent polish which
 the rounded stones usually bear more especially considering the short
 distance from the mountains to the alluvial bottoms between which the
 water-wearing process is supposed to be effected.

 “It is remarkable that the rounded sapphires and rubies are always
 the densest and of the finest water and color; showing that they were
 formed by different chemical forces from the others. In short, there
 is no more reason for supposing rounded sapphires to be water-worn
 than for supposing that the bowlders of jasper, for instance, on the
 Egyptian desert were so formed, when a fracture shows them to have
 been formed in concentric layers and to be in their original state.
 The same remarks apply to the crystals of some other minerals, as
 zircon, tourmaline, and spinel.”

The mineralogist, in contesting this opinion, will point to the round
pebbles of sapphire as evidence of disintegration and subsequent
aqueous action. But upon careful inquiry we shall find that these
nodular masses are regular concretions and natural formations, which
do not owe their form to the abrasion of exterior force, but are the
results of crystalline action. We shall also find that these peculiar
stones always form the finest specimens of the class of gems to
which they belong, whether sapphire, diamond, tourmaline, topaz, or
chrysoberyl.

In regard to beauty of color, density, hardness of texture, and
brilliancy, these apparently water-worn masses are decidedly superior
to the perfectly shaped crystals, and among all the true gem mines of
the world this rule is observed. In the conglomerate of Ceylon we often
find gems whose appearance indicates the shock and abrasion of waves or
currents of water, while we find in adjoining places perfectly formed
crystals whose facets display a lustre as brilliant as on the day of
their creation. Some, then, have perhaps been moved about by aqueous
action, while others have never stirred from their first position.

Among all the multitudes of sapphires taken from the mines of Ceylon,
we have never seen or heard of a specimen fairly attached to any rock
as a matrix. Sometimes the ferruginous cement which is one of the
necessary components of the matrix unites accidentally the rough gem to
a mass of quartz, but all the sapphires we have seen exhibit no sign of
having been attached permanently to any mineral substance. In fact, all
the rounded stones and the more perfect crystallized specimens have the
appearance of having been formed in a soft medium like sand or clay.

Whence come the masses of quartz that are always found in the
conglomerate, and which sometimes occur of a large size? may be
asked by the inquirer. This is a question which cannot be answered
satisfactorily, especially when the adjoining ledges do not contain the
material. We can, however, solve the problem by supposing that beds of
quartz have been formed on the beds of the lagoons, and were afterwards
broken up by the action of the waves, frost, or other agencies.
The clay, which is often a component of this matrix, is sometimes
argillaceous and at other times kaolin. We are generally inclined to
believe that these substances are always the results of decomposition;
yet there are abundant evidences to show that they may be original
deposits. The distinguished geologist Jameson was forced to admit this
from his extended observations. We find blue, reddish, and yellowish
mud in cavities of the hard crystalline rocks enveloping crystals of
quartz and topaz, as at Greenwood, in Maine, or Schneckenstein, in
Germany. The phenomena are well marked in the felspar quarries at
Bowdoinham, in Maine, and also at Schemnitz, in Hungary, in a vein four
or five inches wide traversing porphyry. Whence comes this substance,
when there is no opportunity for infiltration, if it is not an original
deposition? Perhaps by pseudomorphism.

How and why were these sapphires deposited in globular forms when the
law of crystallization is so rigid and inflexible? This is a question
which requires considerable assurance to answer, in the view that they
are original depositions; but Nature offers many examples to sustain
the theory if we search her domain; for instance, how were the rounded
nodules of flint formed in the chalk-beds? Their shape is not due to
attrition, and their peculiar arrangement forbids the belief that they
have been rolled or abraded by the agency of water. In the interior of
solid ledges we find nodules of quartz with rounded edges, as though
they had been exposed to some dissolving agency or abrading force; yet
they have been beyond the reach of external violence. Hence we must
conclude that their globular form is perhaps due to some deviation in
the usual process of deposition or crystallization. Huronite occurs in
spherical masses in hornblendic bowlders; and we may find nodules of
tourmaline in the interior of the most perfect crystals of the mineral.
There are other examples.

The Cingalese do the mining and sell the gems to Moors, who resort
to Ratnapoora to attend the jewel fair, which is held at the annual
Buddhist festival of the Pera. Purchasers not only from all parts of
Ceylon, but India, come to buy gems at this time. It has therefore
become the great jewel mart of the world; and one can find there many
of the rare and beautiful gems found in other parts of the world: the
emeralds of Peru, the topazes of Brazil, the opals of Honduras, the
turquoises of Persia, the jade of China; in fact, most of the gems
that have a commercial value, or any tradition attached thereto, are to
be found at these fairs. They are of greater importance than the famous
fairs at Novgorod in Russia, to which the gems and precious stones of
Northern and Central Asia are annually sent.

The Hindoos are the best buyers of gems of all the nations of the
world. Their rajahs and princes pay the highest prices for the
paragons; and the poor native had rather invest in a gem, which to
his simple belief adds to his security and happiness, than hoard
gold coins, which are no better for concealment. The Moors are also
generally the lapidaries. The tools which they use in cutting the gems
are rude and primitive, and often the stones are much impaired under
their hands; but some of the workmen are skilful and are able to copy
with exactness the most perfectly cut gems of the European lapidaries.
Workmen of the inferior class may be found in the little towns all over
the island; but the artists of the first rank are located at Callatura
and Colombo. Immense numbers of garnets, zircons, and inferior
sapphires, with other gems, are cut by these rude artisans, who place
but little value on their time, and therefore work for a trifle. These
precious stones are then sold on the island or exported to foreign
lands, but are generally taken to India by travelling merchants, who
exchange them for produce or money. The demand is so great from the
populous Mohammedan nations, that many of these gems are really higher
in price in India than in the gem marts in Europe, as in the time of
Tavernier, three hundred years ago. Another potent reason prevents the
market from being glutted: the Hindoo parts with his gem reluctantly,
and only in case of necessity or in hope of greater gain; and the
wealthy Parsee prides himself upon his display of gems, as well as
upon his degree of caste. The quantity of gems treasured up by the
inhabitants of India must be immense.

The composition of the sapphire, when found in the clear, transparent
form, is pure alumina. Its degree of hardness is 9, being inferior only
to the diamond; and its range of colors is very extensive, embracing
most of those seen in the solar spectrum. Its specific gravity varies
from 3.9 to 4.3; and, with the exception of the zircon, it is the
heaviest of all the gems. It is also compact and exceedingly tough in
its texture, and resists the shocks and wear of time better than any
other gem, not excepting even the diamond, which is harder, but far
more fragile. In point of brilliancy, it is below the zircon, garnet,
and the spinel, its refractive index being 1.77 to 1.79. This mineral
possesses remarkable electrical properties, but not so marked in degree
as in the tourmaline or topaz; when this property is excited in the
polished specimen, the attraction continues for a considerable length
of time. The property of double refraction is not often very distinct,
and by means of this peculiarity it is sometimes detected from the
spinel.

The term corundum is now applied to the coarser and less transparent
kinds of the stone, which have been used as a polishing material from
time immemorial. The granular variety known as emery is largely mixed
with iron ores, and is far inferior to the transparent and purer
varieties as an abrading agent. It is always of a blackish or dark-gray
hue, and is often mistaken for iron ore. Asia Minor furnishes nearly
all of the emery used in the arts. It is found there in masses or
bowlders, either free or in granular limestone. In the United States it
is found along the gold belt in the Southern States; and in Chester,
a town of Massachusetts, it occurs in a large and valuable vein
associated with diaspore, ripidolite, etc., which generally accompany
it. At this mine at Chester, translucent sapphires of bi-pyramidal form
are sometimes found. Dr. C. J. Jackson found one small blue crystal
quite transparent and doubly terminated.

The corundum belt of the United States has been traced, with wide
intervals, however, from Philadelphia to Northern Georgia. All along
this distance of several hundred miles, masses of corundum, more or
less transparent, have been found during the past forty years, but
active search failed to reveal the mineral in its matrix. A few years
ago exploration in the extreme southwestern part of North Carolina
discovered the long-looked-for corundum _in situ_. It was found on the
side of a mountain, in a mica-like substance called ripidolite. The
corundum from this locality appears in geodes and also in well-marked
crystals, ranging from small size to even the weight of three hundred
pounds. It is often of perfect transparency, but may be translucent
or opaque. The transparent crystals and masses, although possessing
limpidity, are traversed in all directions with cleavage planes, which
prevent their use in ornamentation. The colors are also irregularly
distributed in patches, clouds, or in thin veneers; many specimens have
been seen of variegated hues,--red, white, yellow, and blue,--and even
the whole of these colors have been seen in a single specimen.

From the great number of specimens submitted to our examination we
have no hesitation in saying that gems cannot be quarried at will from
these mines. The inequality of color and the frequency of cleavage
planes will forbid. Small gems of few grains weight may be cut from
some of the transparent masses if the clear portions are selected with
care, and cut with that skill which is required in the shaping of gems
whose color is unequally distributed. But it is doubtful if fine gems
are found in this formation, for the conditions which deposited the
corundum here, and the more perfect specimens in the true gem strata
elsewhere, are quite different.

The colors of the North Carolina corundum are often very fine, and
we have seen specimens of a superb blue that retain their hues
by candlelight. None of the reds we have ever seen have the true
pigeons’-blood tint, but are tinged with blue, and are therefore of a
finer shade when seen by artificial light than by daylight. The yellows
are also of a decided shade, and generally form a portion only of the
crystal or mass of sapphire.

Some fine crystals have been found here, but we have seen none so
perfectly crystallized as the pyramidal specimens from the Asiatic
mines. Several large crystals have been exhumed, one of which
weighs three hundred pounds, and is well defined in its form of
crystallization. It is now preserved in the valuable cabinet of
Professor Shepherd, of Amherst College.

A few years ago the gold-miners, while seeking for gold in the
river-beds and alluvial deposits among the mountains of Montana,
observed little transparent crystals of stone among the nuggets and
flakes of gold, as they cleared out their rude apparatus used in
washing the auriferous soils. But little notice was taken of these
limpid stones, as their colors were generally faint; but the observing
gold-seekers remarked their great weight and the remarkable coldness
to the touch, as they passed them around to each other in wonderment.
For a long time the miners flung these minerals away with other refuse,
unconscious of their character or their value; but one day there
appeared in the dark sands of the gold-pans a stone which flashed forth
such brilliant red gleams as to excite anew the curiosity and cupidity
of the miners. This discovery led to inquiry, and the gold-seekers
learned too late concerning the value of the treasures they had
carelessly thrown away. Afterwards the gems were preserved and sent
with the gold-dust to the States. They proved to be sapphires. Some
of them were finely crystallized in long, regular prisms, but the
most of them were without definite form. None of the several hundred
specimens that have been submitted to us exhibited smooth faces, like
the brilliant facets of crystals found in cavities of the crystalline
rocks or in the gem mines of Ceylon; but all exhibited a roughness of
the exterior, as though they had been abraded by aqueous action.

The colors of these sapphires are generally faded or faint; some are
snow-white, but the most of them are of a faint bluish or greenish
cast. We have, however, seen small gems of fine red, yellow, hyacinth,
light-blue, and celadine green. We have also information of a beautiful
red sapphire of six karats, but failed to trace it after it was sent
from Montana.

This discovery establishes the fact beyond a doubt that the gem occurs
in quite perfect form in the territories of the United States. Most
of the specimens we have seen were collected at El Dorado Bar, which
has since been abandoned by the gold-seekers. From this superficial
search and incomplete information concerning the locality of the gem,
we are unable to determine whether regular gem mines are to be found in
this country, or along the slope of the mountains, which extend either
north or south to a great distance. We have been assured, however, by
officers of the army, that fine sapphires have been brought to them
by the Indians in Colorado living on the same range and formation
that stretches into Montana. Therefore we shall not be surprised if
well-directed search along this formation should reveal gem beds of
value; and the mere circumstance that the gold-washers do not discover
them is of but little weight; for gem-seeking and gold-mining are two
different explorations.

It is a little singular that none of the beautiful gems occur in huge
specimens, like some of the products of the vegetable kingdom. Nature,
however, in the mineral line, or certainly with the gems, creates
her perfections in small bodies. We sometimes find a clear crystal
of topaz, tourmaline, or emerald of a few ounces or even pounds in
weight, but they are very rare; while the generality of all the choice
specimens are comparatively of a diminutive size. When occurring above
a certain weight they become defective either in color, limpidity,
or form. They are precious stones, it is true, so far as composition
is concerned, but they are not gems according to the acceptance of
the word. By the word gem we not only mean a precious stone, but its
transformation into a form possessing limpidity, brilliancy, attractive
color, or some other charm.

As regards the sapphire, its perfect forms occur in diminutive
size. This mineral is also found in Bohemia, near Merowitz, in an
argillaceous or marly cement, with garnets, zircons, and even fossil
shells. Tavernier relates that he saw in possession of General
Wallenstein, when at Prague, some beautiful rubies, which were obtained
in Bohemia. Fine stones of even five karats weight have been discovered
at these mines. Concerning the mines of Lower Bengal we have but little
information, and will not venture to give a description. We think they
have the same characteristics as those of the gem beds of Ceylon. The
Ilmenes Mountains, in Siberia, furnish sapphires of a strong blue. In
Greece and Saxony they are also found in small quantities of undecided
colors, and generally opaque. Impure specimens of well-defined colors
are found in the volcanic _débris_ of Expailly, in France, or among the
snow-white dolomites of St. Gothard; in the granite ledges close to
the base of the glacier of Bois, in the Alps of Savoy, we may observe
regular prisms of sapphire, quite transparent and sometimes of a
decided blue or a tender green.

The massive and opaque varieties known as adamantine spar are said
to be found in granitic rocks in China, and on the coast of Malabar;
but very little is known concerning the exact condition of these
localities. Fibrolite and magnetic iron are said to accompany the
corundum in several of its localities. Brard believes that the blue
diamond of Pliny of the Island of Cyprus is no other than the blue
sapphire. And this belief is not without foundation, as some of the
varieties of corundum are found on the islands and coasts not far
distant. Occasionally stones of fine blue tints and of considerable
size are found. In 1853, a large and beautiful piece was found in the
gem strata near Ratnapoora, and sold to a Moor at Colombo for $20,000.
Fragments as large as goose eggs are also sometimes found in the
Saffragan district, but are of an inferior character, according to Dr.
Davy. Mawe describes one of three hundred and ten karats. We have in
our collection a transparent, light-blue, and finely shaped crystal of
three hundred and eight karats, but we fear that it will not match the
distinct crystal of three inches in length which belonged to Sir Abram
Hume.

The suite of blues exhibited by this gem is very extensive, and
embraces all known shades and even the purest prismatic hue. The deep
regal blue is too intense a color for a night gem, as by artificial
light it becomes black. But there are sapphires of a celestial blue
possessing perfect limpidity and rich velvety reflections that retain
their splendid colors by night as well as by day, and they merit the
distinction bestowed upon them by the ancients when they consecrated
them to Jupiter. These superb gems are, however, exceedingly rare, and
are eagerly sought for by amateurs at prices far above that of the
colorless diamond. The general color of the blue sapphire is a light
shade, from which it passes through various gradations to a blue black.
Perfect stones of fine colors are quite rare, for they are apt to be
clouded, and the color distributed unevenly in the mass. Frequently
the color is in one extremity of the crystal, or appears as a spot on
the surface of a nodule. In other specimens it is arranged in bands or
thin clouds. Hence much skill is often required to cut them so that the
gem may display a proper distribution. Frequently the color is left in
the bottom of the gem, and when the stone is set the color is diffused
by refraction through the upper portions, so as to give the gem the
appearance of being colored throughout.

One of the most perfect and beautiful specimens of sapphire is the
magnificent blue gem now in the Natural History Museum of Paris. It
was given by M. Weiss in exchange for a collection of choice minerals.
It is of the form of an oblique angular parallelopipedon of 132¹⁄₁₆
karats. Haüy thought it had been cut and polished; but Satrin believed
that only its natural faces were polished, and that the form of the
primitive crystal was not altered. This is the most probable view,
for no lapidary of even ordinary skill would select the rhomboidal
form for so beautiful and valuable a gem. This remarkable gem, without
defects, notwithstanding its great size, was found in Bengal by a poor
wooden-spoon maker. It finally was acquired by Rospoli, of Rome, but
was purchased for the French Crown after several vicissitudes. It was
obtained at the price of 170,000 francs, which price is certainly below
its true value. France also possesses several other superb sapphires
of large size. There is also in Dresden a fine sapphire, a gift from
Peter the Great.

There was in the ancient Hungarian crown a fine large sapphire,
surrounded with four oblong green gems, the nature of which has not yet
been made known. These mysterious green stones, rendered still more
interesting by the disappearance of the crown, are perhaps of modern
introduction, as they are not mentioned in the inventory of the jewel
when Queen Elizabeth pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV. Hence the
inquiry arises, are they green sapphires, emeralds, tourmalines, or
antique glass?

In the Universal Exhibition at London, in 1855, two immense and
beautiful sapphires were displayed among the collection of gems and
jewels which had been gathered from all parts of the world; they
belonged to Miss Burdett Coutts, and were valued at nearly $200,000.
At the same exhibition might have been seen a beautiful oval sapphire,
and another in the form of a drop, and of very unusual size and beauty,
belonging to a rich Russian countess.

The Imperial Crown of the First Order of the Czar of Russia contains an
enormous blue sapphire of great beauty and value. The Russian treasury
also possesses some others of great size and rare beauty. Among them
is the famous light-blue stone which formerly belonged to the cabinet
of the English banker, the late Mr. Hope. There is also a very large
and celebrated sapphire, said to be of marvellous beauty in the Vienna
Kronenschatze. Most of the treasuries and regalias of Europe contain
fine sapphires of value and beauty. Among the Crown jewels of France,
there are two superb gems of twenty-seven karats each, one of nineteen
karats, and about a dozen ranging in weight from nine to thirteen
karats each.

The Hindoos took great pleasure in carving images of their idols, and
in making grotesque forms as well as talismans, from the precious
stones found in their country; and very many examples are shown to the
traveller. The sapphire was often chosen for this purpose; and neither
its excessive hardness nor its high price offered any serious obstacles
to the determined votary or the superstitious grandee. There is a
statuette of Buddha, one inch in height, carved by the Hindoos out of
a perfect sapphire, in the British Museum, which came from the sack of
India. One of the richest reliquaries of any age or any country is the
golden case at Kandy in Ceylon, which contains a tooth of Buddha, but
which the naturalists declare to be the tooth of a monkey. Never was
fancied sanctity so dearly enshrined. The dental specimen is enclosed
in five golden cases fitting each other _en suite_ and incrusted with
the finest rubies, sapphires, and other gems Ceylon and India has
afforded.

Philostratus describes a chamber in the ancient Royal Palace of the
Parthians at Babylon as follows: “It has a roof fashioned into a
vault like the heaven, composed entirely of sapphires, which are the
bluest of stones, and resemble the sky in color. This is the chamber
in which the King delivers his judgment.” The Asiatics, in all periods
of their semi-civilized history, made a lavish use of this gem in the
decorations of their dwellings and their temples. Even the partial
ruins of some of these edifices still to be seen in various parts of
India, exhibit great beauty in their impaired mosaics of precious
stones.

The red sapphire is known in commerce as the Oriental ruby, and when in
perfection is the most magnificent of gems, and is rarely approached in
the beauty of its gorgeous hue by any other gem. The term ruby is an
indefinite one, and refers to any stone of a rich red color. All these
gems were classed together in the time of Pliny, under the generic name
of “carbunculus,” but the red sapphire was reckoned a variety, and
especially referred to under the name of “lychnis.” It is seldom found
exceeding three karats in weight, and the distinguished mineralogist,
Beudant, declares that a perfect red sapphire of thirty troy grains
is unknown, and would be of inestimable value. It is a singular fact
that while the blue variety should occur in masses and crystals of even
several ounces in weight, the red is rare even at four karats. Modern
mineralogists now maintain that all of the large historic rubies are
spinels, but it is within the bounds of possibility that large red
sapphires do occur sometimes as exceptions to an apparently rigid rule;
for we have lately received from the Ceylon mines a transparent crystal
of pink color which weighs two hundred and forty-one karats. It is
also stated that the King of Arrakan possesses two magnificent prisms
of one and a half inches in length and an inch in diameter.

But of all the fine red sapphires which are known and proved, there
are but few above five karats. The largest one of which we have
any definite knowledge is the beautiful gem set in the Toison d’Or
of the French Regalia, and which weighs 8³⁄₁₆ karats (= 26 grains
troy). The inventory of the French gems in 1791 justly illustrates
the comparative rarity and diminutive size of the stone; for in this
splendid collection, which had accumulated during a long period of
time, and was then the richest in Europe, there were but four red
sapphires above five karats, and only five above four karats. This
variety is singularly liable to imperfections, and far more so than
either the blue or the yellow. It is rare to find a ruby of the pure
and characteristic pigeons’-blood tint that does not in some degree
exhibit silky and opalescent fibres. This defect, which generally
appears as a milkiness in the interior of the gem, is due to minute
crystals dispersed throughout the stone, and which become apparent when
the mineral is viewed parallel to the primitive axis of the crystal.
Hence, in cutting the rough stone, considerable care must be exercised
by the lapidary, so as to shape the gem and render its opalescence
invisible. Rubies of exquisite color are often rendered comparatively
valueless on account of fibres, clouds, and chalcedony-like bands.
All the red sapphires, however, are not affected in this way. The
blood-red are much more liable than those which have a tinge of
blue. We have examined a number of red sapphires perceptibly tinted
with violet, which were completely free from internal defects. This
opalescence is never possessed by the spinel, and is therefore one of
the distinguishing marks in testing the nature of the red gems. The red
tourmaline is also strangely liable to internal fibres, hollow threads,
clouds, and longitudinal streaks, and sometimes presents an appearance
similar to that of the ruby. The red sapphire is also distinguished
from the other varieties by being decidedly heavier, and also by being
softer than the deep-blue.

Ceylon is famous for the abundance of blue sapphires, while the red
variety is comparatively rare. In Burmah, however, the red variety is
the most abundant and of the finest hue. The Ceylon rubies are regarded
as inferior in tint to those found in Ava and Pegu of the Burmese
Empire; but they are less inclined to be opalescent, and are therefore
more brilliant. The violet tinge of the Ceylon rubies lessens their
beauty when viewed by daylight; but it disappears in a great measure
by artificial light, and the hue then becomes of a fine prismatic red,
accompanied by the most vivid lustre; therefore we may say in general
terms that the Burmese rubies are the most beautiful by daylight, and
that the Ceylonese are superior by night.

The finest mines of rubies in the world are near the Capelan Mountains
in Ava. But concerning their extent, history, and exploration, very
little is known. Colonel Symes, who visited the country in 1795, with
the British Embassy, stated that the richest and most valuable of the
mines were then situated in the vicinity of the capital; but that there
were many other mines in various parts of the kingdom. The information
concerning these remarkable deposits is vague and uncertain even at
the present day; but sufficient is known to establish the fact that
the geological formation is very similar to the gem beds of Ceylon and
Lower Bengal. According to the publications of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, the principal mines of Burmah are situated about seventy miles
east of the capital; and the deposits are discovered by sinking pits
at various depths in the earth until the gem stratum is reached. It
appears to be precisely like the conglomerate of Ceylon, and occurs at
a depth varying from two to forty feet below the surface.

It is stated that all of the fine gems above a certain weight are
monopolized by the king, who styles himself “Lord of the rubies,” and
consequently but very few find their way to the marts of other nations.
It is also stated that the gems are polished at Amarapoora, where there
are about twenty lapidary establishments; and that pulverized blue
sapphire, or the massive corundum spar, which is a trifle harder than
the red variety, is used as the abrading material. All of the mines
are jealously guarded from the visits of Europeans; and when Professor
Oldham was allowed to examine some of them in 1855, he could learn of
but one European who had previously seen them. This favored person
was a deserter from the British army, and was employed by the king as
superintendent of the mines.

This gem is so highly prized in Burmah that when a fine gem is
discovered a procession is formed of grandees, elephants, and soldiers,
and sent out to meet it and escort it to the royal treasury. The
long and exclusive possession of these mines has enriched the Crown
immensely; but nothing is known with certainty. Colonel Symes,
however, saw some of the state carriages of the King of Ava, which
were splendidly decorated with jewels. One of these carriages was a
magnificent and singular production of art. Its decorations were so
profuse and contained so many precious stones set in silver and gold,
that it presented one entire blaze of the most brilliant colors. A
vast variety of gems were used in the construction of this truly
Oriental vehicle; and among them were to be seen diamonds, rubies,
white and blue sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, garnets, topazes, and
crystals of all kinds. Another of these queer barbaric monuments of
art was lately exhibited at Rangoon. It is known as the Royal Hitee.
This grotesque piece of architecture, with fantastic name, is a light
edifice thirty-five feet high, formed of seven terraces, surmounted
by an umbrella, which is the emblem of royalty. The terraces were
richly inlaid with gold and precious stones; and the sacred umbrella
was profusely decorated with valuable rubies, pearls, diamonds, and
emeralds.

Rambusson has recently stated that none of the mines yielding rubies
have been worked for one hundred and fifty years; and that all of the
gems now offered in commerce have been collected previously. We think
this author is somewhat mistaken in this statement; for we know that
the Ceylon gem-deposit yields more of these gems at the present time
than for a long time past; and we do not quite believe that search
for them has been entirely suspended in Siam or in Burmah. During the
last years of the occupation of Ceylon by the Dutch, they exacted
from the tribes of the interior of the island an annual tribute in
the form of a certain quantity of precious stones. Hence the King of
Kandy forbade further exploration for gems by the natives; and so the
gem-fields lay neglected for a long time. Lately, however, under the
English rule, the ancient fondness for gem-mining has revived among the
Cingalese, and some fine gems have been discovered. In 1875 a native
hunter found in a remote district of Siam some remarkable mines of red
and blue sapphires; and explorations brought to light many valuable
stones, which found their way to the gem marts of Rangoon and Calcutta.
Splendid specimens were shown to Admiral Coote; and the consul at
Bangkok saw a magnificent stone of three hundred and seventy karats,
which yielded a blue gem of one hundred and eleven karats weight, and
of the finest water.

Rubies are even now scarce in India, and probably always will be,
since the demand for them is very great among the wealthy of the
populous nations of that country. Even three centuries ago Tavernier
found it profitable to buy them in Europe and sell them again in the
country whence they had been taken perhaps many centuries before. Red
sapphires not only exhibit singular internal structures, but they may
be colored strangely, thus puzzling the experimentalist to account
for the distribution of coloring matter. Davila possessed a fine and
rare ruby which exhibited a clear white band between two parts of red.
Another gem showing a strange arrangement of color was to be seen in
the cabinet of Chantilly. It was half red and half yellow. Stones of
such distribution of color are marvels of rarity; but it is quite
common to meet with them partly red and blue or white, or blue and
yellow. They sometimes display a vague dichroism which is not so well
defined as in the iolite or tourmaline. The naturalist Fanjas found
at Expailly, in France, a transparent sapphire which, viewed in one
direction, exhibited a green hue approaching the emerald in its beauty
of tint, but when seen in another light it appeared of a very beautiful
blue. In the Orleans collection there was a curious sapphire which had
been engraved with the figure of a woman, the head being formed of
white, and the dress of intense blue. It is related that M. Bossi, of
Milan, who was an excellent connoisseur in gems, saw in possession of
Prince Metsch a superb sapphire which appeared to be dotted with flakes
of gold. We sometimes notice this singular appearance in the interior
of other gems, and find by the use of the microscope that it is due
to internal flaws or reflections from plate-like crystals within the
stone. We are inclined to believe that this gem of Prince Metsch is
to be classed with the sapphire owned by Abbé Pullini, which had been
engraved upon by the ancients. This stone, when viewed in a certain
direction, exhibited flakes of gold in the interior, which disappeared
when the view was changed, which would hardly have been the case if the
reflections had been produced by opaque bodies. We have before us a
polished Siberian beryl which shows flakes of silver-white in certain
lights, but which appear of dark-brown when the axis of vision is
changed.

The Crown of England possesses some large and beautiful colored rubies,
but they are probably spinels. The large one standing in the centre of
the Maltese cross on top of the British crown is probably a spinel,
but nevertheless of great beauty. It is also a gem of considerable
historic interest, if we can believe the traditions that cluster around
it, and it is believed to be the identical stone given to the famous
Black Prince of England, by King Pedro of Castile, after the battle of
Najara. Tradition also asserts that King Henry V. of England wore it
in the front of his helmet, in the bloody battle of Agincourt, about
a hundred years later. Its earlier history seems to be lost. Perhaps
this is the identical ruby given in 1360 to Rudolph II. of Austria
by the Queen Dowager of France. When Peter the Great visited England
he gave one of the members of the royal family a very beautiful ruby
which he carelessly took from his vest pocket. The last message sent
by Mary, Queen of Scots, before execution to the Duke of Guise was
accompanied with a beautiful ruby ring, as proof of the credibility of
the messenger.

The King of Burmah is said to possess an immense ruby of wonderful
beauty, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, but there is no authentic record
of it. Tavernier mentions a ruby of 50 karats and another of 17¹⁄₂
karats, which he saw in possession of the King of Visapour; but as all
gems of fine red color were then classed as rubies, we are ignorant
of their nature. Among the numerous articles of loot obtained by the
French in the sack of the Summer Palace at Pekin, was the necklace
of the Emperor of China. This celestial jewel was formed of green
jade stones of delicate color, perforated and strung upon a cord, to
the centre of which was attached a monster red stone, of the nature
of which we are not informed. It has been stated that the East India
Company has the largest specimen of red sapphire known, but we are
unable to vouch for the statement. The largest ruby seen in India by
Garcia was of twenty-four karats weight. Chardin, however, describes
a magnificent one among the crown jewels of Persia, in the year 1666.
This matchless gem was as large as a hen’s egg cut in half, and was of
superb color. On its superior face the name of “Chaic Sophy” had been
engraved by one of its former possessors.

The Crown of Russia possesses the finest and most valuable collection
of rubies in the civilized world. Some of them are of enormous size and
are probably spinels, but they are nevertheless of great beauty and
value. The degree of color gives the true value to the gem, no matter
what its composition may be, if its hardness is equal to quartz. Among
the red gems of lesser size there are undoubtedly red sapphires of
value, but we have no positive details concerning them. In fact, all
of the red stones of fine hues are classed as rubies without regard to
their nature. The famous ruby placed under the cross in the Russian
crown of Anna Ivanovna is said to have been bought at Pekin by the
Russian ambassador for 120,000 roubles. It is indeed a wonderful gem,
and is one of the marvels of the mineral world, whether its material be
corundum, tourmaline, or spinel. It is now known that the Chinese have
mines of rubies in the mountains of the Province of Yu-Nan, and it is
possible that this gem may have come from that locality. The tourmaline
deposits of Nertschinsk, which yield gems of splendid red hues, are
not far distant from Pekin, and those mines may claim the honor of
producing this rare stone.

The throne of gold, called by the Persians Takdis, was supported on
feet formed of rubies. One of the seal rings of Chosroes II. was a
pink ruby, with the legend engraved upon it, “Riches are the source of
prosperity.” The fifth seal ring was a red ruby, bearing the legend,
“Splendor and prosperity.”

The flowers, composed of the finest gems afforded by the mines of
India, and placed by Shah Jehan on the tomb of his beautiful wife, in
that wonderful mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, were the most precious ever
made. The roses of these garlands were made of the finest rubies; and
the leaves were composed of emeralds, which were made to glisten with
diamond spray. The screen which was built around the tomb was carved
from marble, and as delicately wrought as a veil of lace; and along its
borders, lilies, tulips, roses, and other beautiful flowers, composed
of precious stones, were inlaid in the marble.

The tomb of Mahomet, at Medina, must contain some superb gems and
works of the goldsmith’s art. Here is to be seen that masterpiece of
embroidery, the veil of Kunderas, which is composed of inwrought pearls
and various precious stones of the value of ten millions of rupees. The
faithful relate, that when the rays of the morning sun glance over it,
its wonderful beauty seems enhanced by invisible influences. The famous
sympathetic ruby of the sacred Kaaba, now preserved in the temple at
Mecca, and believed to have fallen from the heavens at the beginning
of the world, is undoubtedly an aerolite. The fiery red hue which it
exhibited when traversing the sky, coming from unknown space, gave rise
to the tradition of its being a latent ruby whose gleams of beauty had
been temporarily suspended.

The yellow variety of sapphire is quite common, and exhibits many of
the finest shades of yellow; but they are generally very faint in
tint and often like the lemon in hue. They are exceedingly liable
to imperfections, and especially to that opalescence which so often
disfigures the red sapphire. Fine specimens, therefore, possessing
transparency and beauty of color, are rare gems. But when it does occur
in perfection, it forms a magnificent gem, which is only surpassed by
the yellow diamond and zircon. Its rich golden hues, with soft and
satin-like flashes, are far superior to the Brazilian topaz.

The Museum of Natural History in Paris possesses one of the finest
yellow sapphires known. It is a wonderfully lustrous gem of fine color,
and measures nearly an inch in length by half an inch in breadth. There
is also in the same cabinet a strange gem which was once placed among
the crown jewels of France. It was mentioned in the famous inventory
of 1791, as a singular corundum of 19²⁄₁₆ karats weight, and of 6,000
francs value. It had been polished in the form of an elongated oval,
and exhibited the remarkable appearance of being deep-blue at the
extremities and yellow in the centre. This singular distribution of
color is not often seen in fine specimens, although it is frequently
met with among the inferior. We have also had the pleasure of examining
another large gem, cut into the form of a brilliant, whose diagonal
corners were blue and yellow, and yet, such was its play of dichroism,
that light reflected through these two colors produced but a faint
tinge of green.

This double arrangement of coloring is sometimes seen with blue and
red sapphires, or yellow, blue, and white; but we have learned of but
one fine gem displaying the red and yellow. Several of the transparent
crystals from North Carolina exhibit the two hues in the same crystal;
and we have seen one that was actually red, yellow, white, and blue.
But the specimen was not sufficiently perfect to form a gem. Sometimes
the yellow hues are of a greenish cast, and then they resemble the
finest of the golden chrysoberyls, or they may approach the more
verdant shade of the peridot. It is said by the antiquaries that none
of the collections of ancient Greek and Roman engraved gems possess a
single specimen in yellow sapphire. This singular absence may be partly
accounted for by its rarity in perfection, and also from its liability
to appear pale when set in gold.

In the French casket of gems, in the year 1791, mention was made of
a superb yellow sapphire of 27¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats, two of 13 karats each,
and one of 11 karats, all of which were valued at 8,900 francs. The
beautiful specimen now exhibited in the Cabinet of Minerals, in the
Garden of Plants at Paris, which is of the purest and richest color,
joined with wonderful lustre, is supposed to be the gem mentioned above
among the crown jewels. The French amateur and writer on gems, Caire,
once possessed a remarkable and charming yellow sapphire of the great
weight of twenty-nine karats. Its former Hindoo owner had seriously
impaired its beauty by drilling a hole in one extremity for the purpose
of suspension; and had also engraved on its sides inscriptions in
Arabic, which were probably condensed quotations from the Koran to
preserve the possessor from harm.

The green variety is probably the rarest of all the forms of sapphire,
and finely tinted stones are very seldom seen. They are generally of
a faint sea-green tinge, and resemble beryls in their hues. But when
they do occur of grass-green color, they form magnificent gems and far
exceed the true emerald in lustre and brilliancy. We very much doubt,
however, if they ever approach the emerald in its exquisite shade of
green. We have examined many green stones from the Ceylon gem mines,
and with one exception have found them to be green spinels, zircons,
and tourmalines of various intensities of shade. The one undoubted
specimen referred to was of an impure hue. The celebrated Romè de
L’Isle possessed two beautiful crystals of green sapphire. When they
display the sea-green hue or the mountain-blue of the beryl, they are
then called Oriental aqua-marines, but fine stones of this description
are not common. We have seen some small but very beautifully tinted
gems of this class from the gold fields of Montana. Barbot speaks
with ecstasy of two green sapphires from Matura in Ceylon, and which
far exceeded any other gem in their velvety color, limpidity, and
brilliancy. It is possible that these two gems may have been zircons,
as these stones abound in Matura, and are of the most vivid lustre when
perfect. But stones of fine green hues of this mineral are exceedingly
rare. We have also seen a specimen of transparent corundum from Siam
which was dichroite, blue and green one way, and entirely green the
other. It called to mind that found at Expailly in France, by the
naturalist Fanjas, and which appeared of an almost emerald green when
viewed in one direction, or of a most beautiful blue when the axis of
vision was changed.

The name girasole is applied to those gems that exhibit a peculiar
radiance when exposed to the sunbeams. This curious play of light is
seen in the transparent and translucent stones, but especially in
the translucent. When the gem which possesses this quality is cut in
the boss form it shows a glimmering light brighter at one part than
at another, owing to a peculiar internal refraction. The effect is
very beautiful when the gem is of fine color, and the bright spot
moves mysteriously over a more sombre ground as the stone is turned
in various directions. The sapphire rarely shows this property to
the same perfection exhibited by one of the varieties of opal. We
have seen two specimens from the North Carolina corundum mines, which
would have been very superior gems if they had not been traversed in
all directions by numerous cleavage planes. They were quite an inch
in diameter, of a nodular form, and had been deposited in a ledge of
ripidolite.

One of the most remarkable varieties of the sapphire is known as the
asteria, which was so named by Pliny from the fact of its displaying
diverging rays of light. This phenomenon is only seen in stones of
semi-opacity or inferior clearness, and the star-like rays are so
arranged as to be inclined to each other at an angle of 60 degrees.
These stones may be of various colors,--blue, red, or gray,--yet the
rays of the star are always white or faintly tinged, and stream forth
in beautiful contrast to a ground of delicate blue or decided red.
The stars appear the most distinctly to view when the polished gem is
exposed to direct sunlight or a small bright flame. This mysterious
play is seen in but few of the gems, and the sapphire exhibits it
in its greatest perfection. It is indeed a curious thing to see a
six-rayed star with long silken beams of light suddenly appear to view
as the gem is turned to the light, and as quickly disappear as the
focus is changed. No wonder the ancients believed the appearance due
to supernatural powers. The microscope, however, has disclosed to the
moderns the cause of the asterism. This instrument reveals multitudes
of minute crystals within the stone, arranged in three different but
equal angles. To obtain the stellate appearance in perfection, then,
the stone must be cut and polished in cabochon or dome-like form.
The apex of the gem is then in a direct plane to these angles, being
perpendicular to the axis of the primitive form of the crystal, and
therefore the rays of light are reflected from the sides of these
multitudinous crystals producing the asterism.

As we have said before, some other minerals exhibit this phenomenon
at times. We find it in rare specimens of quartz and in some of the
mica group. In some rare fragments of quartz from Siberia the stellate
appearance is seen in extraordinary perfection. The six-rayed star is
not only seen by refracted light, but is even visible by transmitted
light. Sometimes these stones also exhibit reflections of red and blue
as the direction of the stone is changed, thus combining the girasole
and asteria in the same gem. Lancon relates that M. Desmaret possessed
a little plate of this variety of quartz, of so great beauty and
perfection as to refuse 25,000 francs for it. There is in the Museum
of the Jardin des Plantes a remarkable diamond asteria; and there are
also in this collection and in the cabinet of the École des Mines some
superb blue and red sapphire asterias.

The pure white sapphires are not often found. When well cut they
exhibit a vivid eclat, and are sometimes mistaken for diamonds; but
they are easily detected by the expert, since they do not possess
even three fourths of the degree of brilliancy of the diamond, nor
the prismatic play of color. Some of the faint-colored stones lose
their tints when subjected to a high degree of heat, and improve in
brilliancy and lustre. It is said that the Orientals practise this
trick extensively, and sell the altered gems for diamonds. We are not
aware of the refractive index of these fire-tested stones having been
measured with the view of ascertaining the degree of change; but it
is certain that their lustre is increased in a marked degree. Heat,
however, does not affect all colored sapphires. Some of the red are
often changed to deeper hues, and others are not affected. Brogniart
found that the French sapphires from Expailly were actually rendered
more intense in color by the action of fire. After numerous experiments
with the faint-colored sapphires from Montana, we also have come to
the conclusion that the stones from this locality are not perceptibly
affected by long-continued heat.

Sir David Brewster, in conducting his famous experiments in optics, was
of the opinion that the white sapphire, on account of its structure and
its refractive power, was superior to all other transparent minerals
for lenses for the microscope. The diamond, which one would naturally
suppose to be the most perfect material for the purpose, on account of
its high refractive power and apparent clearness, is really faulty, and
comparatively worthless on account of its internal structure. If the
white sapphire is of such excellence in this respect, on account of its
compactness and refractive power, why will not the white zircon prove
far superior as a lens, as it is the most compact, transparent, hard
mineral known, and its refractive power is much greater than that of
the sapphire? Black sapphires are now and then mentioned by authors,
but we are inclined to believe that they are very rare; for Davy
declares that he met with but two or three specimens in his travels
in India or Ceylon. Blue stones of very deep hue appear sometimes
quite black; but when they are placed in a strong light, and viewed in
another direction, the blue tinge clearly appears. The violet sapphire
of perfect hue is a very rare gem, and may be regarded as an accidental
stone, being formed of an admixture of the blue and the red. Davy,
in all his extended researches in Ceylon, found but two specimens of
violet sapphire; and in our examinations of the rough gems from the
mines, we are inclined to think the purple spinel is often supposed
to be a purple sapphire. Romè de L’Isle found that this variety of
sapphire is oftener ruby-violet than sapphire-violet, or that the red
tinge prevailed more distinctly than the blue. The lilac-blue are
exceedingly rare, and are eagerly sought for by amateurs.

There are some sapphires which exhibit a double play of colors when
viewed by natural and then by artificial light. For instance, they may
display a decided blue color by day and an amethystine tint by night.
D’Auguy possessed a stone that showed in the daylight a beautiful,
clear, and sparkling blue, but by candlelight it changed to a royal
purple. The cause of this phenomenon is perhaps due to an excess of
latent red in the stone, which, however, is not visible in the daytime;
but which is called forth by the difference in the illuminating lights,
as is shown in their spectra. The hyacinth sapphire is seldom seen, and
when perfect is regarded as among the marvels of the species. Dutens
possessed a fine one which had been engraved upon by the Greeks.

The subject of the glyptic art, or engraving upon stones, is very
interesting to the student who seeks for evidences and traces of the
social life of man in early ages. The engraved cylinders of Babylon
and Nineveh, with their cuneiform legends, carry us back to traditions
two thousand years before the Christian era; and from the engraved
scarabei of Egypt and Etruria we form some ideas of the people whose
history has otherwise been lost. We may, perhaps, consider the true era
of the glyptic art as dating from the time of the Macedonian princes
and the Persian conquests, although it had been practised in a rude way
from far earlier times. This art of cutting figures upon bright and
richly colored, though minute stones, was quite as much admired among
the ancients as the laborious skill, with its powerful blows, which
produced the heroic statues out of bronze or marble. And perhaps we may
say that these gems, in their estimation, were of greater value, not
only on account of their beauty and rarity and their minuteness, but
also on account of their hardness, which defied the steel instruments
of the ordinary sculptor, and yielded only to the dust and splinters of
the hardest minerals, like the sapphire and the diamond. We may also
safely affirm that the gem-engravers of the Alexandrian and Augustan
ages were, in all that concerns excellence of design and composition,
rivals of the most famous workers in marble and bronze. These admirable
and wonderful artists contrived to enclose within the narrow limit of a
little stone all the complicated details of an event in history, or of
a fable in mythology; and to make them stand forth in beautiful relief
as a cameo, or to sink them down as an intaglio, with all that truth of
design and power of expression which characterize the excellence of the
largest works of the most consummate masters.

By means of these engraved gems, miniature but accurate copies of some
of the celebrated masterpieces and noblest works of ancient sculptors
have been preserved to us, while the originals have been destroyed,
and even the record of them lost. An instance may be observed in the
engraved gem in the Orleans cabinet, which is the only representation
we now have of the famous statue of the Repose of Hercules, by
Lysippus. As a learned critic has said, in these gems we have the
emanations, ever fresh and unfaded, of the feelings and the taste
of those ages when the love of the beautiful was the all-prevailing
and almost sole religion, and flourished unfettered by tradition,
prejudice, and conventional rules; whilst from the universal demand
during those same ages for engraved gems, whether for signets or for
personal ornaments, artists of the highest ability did not disdain the
narrow field of the precious stone as the arena for the exercise of
their power. The unparalleled vigor and perfection of many of these
performances are a sufficient proof that they proceeded directly from
the master’s hand, and were not mere slavish copies, by a mechanic,
after designs created by the genius of another. The lovers of the fine
arts may derive much benefit from the study of the antique in this
particular branch of workmanship. What is there more pleasant than the
contemplation of the work of the artists of antiquity; and to behold,
shut up, as it were, within the narrow compass of a small gem, all the
majesty of a vast design and a most elaborate performance? During the
flourishing periods of the Greeks countless statues were carved by
numerous artists; and it has been stated that Lysippus alone executed
fifteen hundred, all perfect, and some of them colossal. Throughout
Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy every town had its temple, gymnasium,
or forum peopled with statues of those among her sons who had in any
way distinguished themselves in arms, letters, or public games. These
became the spoil of the later Romans, and an incredible number were
transported to Rome from time to time. Nero is said to have selected
from Delphos alone five hundred bronze statues for transportation to
Rome. The Etruscan bronzes were quite as plentiful; and Flaccus is
said to have carried away in triumph two thousand statues from the sack
of Volsinii.

From these statements in ancient history concerning the number of large
works in statuary, we can form some idea of the inexhaustible treasury
of portraiture in another and oftentimes less costly material. It is
estimated that for a period of three hundred years, the engraved gems
were manufactured in countless numbers all over the Roman world. It is
a little curious that licentious scenes and figures are never or rarely
found on antique gems.

Among the gems preserved in the museum of the Vatican may be seen two
engraved intaglios of early date, upon sapphires of an amethystine
hue. Among the most beautiful of the engraved sapphires that have been
preserved to us from ancient times is that of Cneus, now placed in the
cabinet of the Strozzi, in Italy, which represents the figure of young
Hercules. In the collection of gems at Turin there is a white sapphire,
on which a fine head of Tiberius has been engraved. There may be seen
among the crown jewels of Russia a beautiful sapphire of two shades,
engraved with a representation of a female figure enveloped in drapery.
The figure is engraved in the darker shade of the stone, while the
drapery is carved from the lighter part. The French cabinet boasts of
a very fine blue sapphire with an engraving representing the Emperor
Pertinax.

King, the excellent and tireless antiquary, mentions, in his chapter
on the hyacinthus, several beautiful and unique engraved sapphires. He
states that engraved gems of this class, dating to times previous to
the Imperial epoch, are extremely rare; still, there are extant some
undoubted specimens, among which are a small Etruscan scarabeus and a
magnificent head of Jupiter, executed in the purest Greek style. The
accidental discovery of the last indicates how many more of the fine
gems of antiquity may yet appear in course of time to gladden the
lovers of the glyptic art. This gem was an inch in diameter, and of
fine color; but to utilize it to the wants of the Turkish possessor,
who wished to set it in the handle of his dagger, the engraved side
was set downward and thus preserved from injury, while the back of the
stone was rudely faceted by some Eastern lapidary. A Medusa’s head of
the same style of execution, upon a stone of remarkable beauty, is
one of the chief glories of the celebrated Marlborough collection.
In the same museum there is another larger and deeper-hued sapphire
bearing the head of Caracalla, the short, curly hair of the irascible
tyrant being represented by a series of minute holes closely drilled
together. One of the most famous of all engraved gems of this material
is the signet ring of Constantius. The stone is one of great beauty and
perfection, and weighs fifty-three karats. Its engraving represents the
Emperor as spearing a monstrous wild boar before a reclining female
figure, personifying Cæsarea of Cappadocia, the scene of exploit.
It bears an inscription in proof of its royal use,--the letters
“Constantivs Avg.” King mentions another fine specimen of the time of
Hadrian, representing “Hebe feeding the eagle.” It was heart-shaped in
form, of fine color, and quite an inch and a half in diameter.

The museums of Europe contain many examples of mediæval and modern
engraved sapphires, one of the finest of which is the famous portrait
of Pope Paul III. among the Pulsky gems, and attributed to Il Greco.
It is a very beautiful stone, and three quarters of an inch square. In
the Marlborough cabinet there is an extraordinary specimen of a thumb
ring of high antiquity, cut from a single stone, but of rather a pale
tint. Rings containing both plain and engraved sapphires have been the
appointed symbol of church authority from a very early day. They have
often been bestowed as the badge of pontifical rank, and the custom has
descended to the present day. King devotes an interesting chapter to
the history and description of this class of ornaments and symbols; and
to his pages we must refer the interested reader.

Engraved red sapphires of ancient date are extremely rare, so rare
that the experienced antiquaries, Lessing and Clarac, deny the
existence of any antique intaglios of this variety. Investigation
has proved that many of the supposed engraved rubies are really red
spinel, garnet, or zircon. Nevertheless, there are a few examples to
prove that the ancients did make use of the gem in the glyptic art,
although the act was regarded as one of extreme extravagance, from
the rarity, costliness, and beauty of the material. The Devonshire
parure exhibits a convex red sapphire of about three karats weight,
of pure pigeons’-blood tint, and engraved with a Venus Victrix in the
latest Roman manner. Another shows a full-length figure of Osiris, in
half-relief, of the time of Hadrian. In the museum of the Jardin des
Plantes there are said to be two engraved red sapphires.

There are but few gems with which the blue sapphire can be confounded.
The blue diamond can be easily detected by its superior brilliancy and
hardness. It is very rare that the tourmaline appears of a deep blue,
and still more rare for the topaz to assume the appearance except of
the very light varieties, and the same may be said of the beryl. The
iolite, which, however, is a very rare mineral, may resemble the blue
sapphire, but its inevitable dichroism betrays its character. Turn the
gem before the eye, and the deception vanishes; the blue disappears as
if by magic, and the stone is gray. Kyanite sometimes appears of the
most beautiful blue tints, but its softness indicates its nature, and
prevents its use as a gem. The glass-workers, however, produce the most
beautiful and attractive imitations of sapphire, and of all colors,
lacking but one desideratum, and that is the thus far unattainable
degree of hardness. The red, green, yellow, and white varieties may
all of them be closely approached in color by other gems, and the best
methods of detection are the tests of specific gravity, degree of
hardness, and the optical phenomena.

The blue variety of sapphire being less sought after in ornamentation
than the diamond, has not had a fixed scale in valuation. Still, prior,
or for a few years prior, to 1850, the ordinary sapphire was placed
by jewellers upon the same valuation as the emerald, or at about $15
the karat. Since this period its value has quadrupled, but has not
kept pace with that of the emerald. The pale-blue stones have only a
nominal value, and the same may be said of the very dark blue. But
those sapphires which exhibit the perfect tint of the prismatic blue
can command very high prices.

The ancient Romans excelled in their imitations of the ruby, both
in hardness, color, and lustre; and a number of examples are yet
preserved in some of the European cabinets. The bold robber, Charles,
the Duke of Burgundy, was the possessor of several famous gems which
he carried with him on his campaigns, and used as personal decorations
on particular occasions. One of the choicest of them was a monster
ruby more than an inch in diameter, which the famous Margaret of Anjou
had given him. On that fatal day at Grandson it was placed with the
historic diamond in a golden box, and left in the tent of the Duke,
where it was captured by the mountaineers. The gems were carried to
Berne by the victorious Swiss, and afterwards offered for sale to the
rich Nuremberger, Jacob Fugger. Then it was discovered by the expert
that the ruby was indeed a lump of red glass of ancient make, and
probably of the date of the Roman Empire.

As the red sapphire is one of the rarest as well as the most beautiful
of all gems, its value is in keeping with its attributes. As it
overpowers all other gems with its gorgeous red, which is a pure
prismatic hue, so it transcends all others in price. There are but
very few gems with which it can be confounded in color. But no matter
what the material may be, provided it displays the royal tint. It is
extremely rare that the red tourmaline or spinel exhibit the perfect
tint which is the characteristic of the red sapphire. The zircon
sometimes displays a fine red color, and may imitate the sapphire. It
is also within the range of possibilities that the diamond and garnet
may closely resemble the true ruby. We have seen small garnets that
exhibited the pigeons’-blood tint. The scarcity of the ruby is so great
that fine gems are only to be acquired by the very wealthy. In the
times of Cellini, three centuries ago, the price of the red sapphire
was eight times that of the diamond. And to-day we may safely adopt
Cellini’s estimate, for the gem is so rare that we cannot readily
compute its value in comparison with the diamond, which is so abundant.

King, in commenting upon the valuation of precious stones during the
past three hundred years, mentions two fine rubies which were sold in
London recently for enormous sums of money. One of three karats brought
$1,500; while another of finer tint, of less than four karats (11
grains), was sold for $5,500, or for $500 a grain, which price is quite
equal to Cellini’s estimate made in the year 1560.




INDEX.


  A.

  Abbas Murza, 214.

  Abbé Haüy, views of, 75, 91, 253, 371.

  Abbey of St. Dennis, gems of, 236, 320.

  Acber, banquet of, 209.

  Achille de Sancy, 172.

  Adamas, 15, 89.

  Adamantine flash, 91.
    spar, 393.

  Adolphus, marriage of, 123.

  Advice of Rabelais, title page.

  Agrah diamond, 213.

  Ahmed’s ring, 116.

  Alaric and his Goths, 121, 122.

  Alexander, Emperor, 177.
    fêtes of, 115,
      helmet, 229.
    marriage of, 287,
      ring, 289.
    Palace, collections of, 146.

  Alfred de Vigny, poem on the diamond, 12.

  Alla-ud-deen, 209.

  Amsterdam diamond cutters, 242.

  Ancient gem localities, 48.
    gems and regalia, 106.
    glass, 323, 325, 351, 352.
    monster emeralds, 325.

  Anna Ivanovna, Empress, 136.

  Anne Boleyn, jewel of, 192.

  Antitheses of carbon, 16.

  Aqua marines, 318-320.

  Arabian romance writers’ fancies on gems, 363.

  Asiatic gems, 201.

  Assyrians and gems, 369.

  Asteria sapphires, 414, 415.
    quartz, 416.

  Augustus the Strong, gems of, 225.

  Aurelian, triumph of, 119.

  Austrian gems, etc., 226, 227.


  B.

  Baba, trial of, 161.

  Babinet, views of, 99, 185, 223, 263.

  Bahia, mines of, 39, 44, 45.

  Baillou’s views on gems, 371.

  Baker, Sir Samuel, views, 381, 382.

  Barbarossa, Emperor, 226.

  Barberini vase, 326.

  Barbot, views of, 108, 181, 256, 257, 269, 306.

  Bariatinsky, jewels of, 155.

  Baron d’ Eschwège, 39.

  Batavian display of diamonds, 281.

  Begagem mines, 223.

  Beke, Dr., account of large diamonds, 214.

  Belisarius, triumph of, 125.

  Bernier’s estimate of Persian gems, 213.

  Berquen, lapidary, 167, 238, 241, 272.

  Beryl, 145, 311, 320, 332.
    name derived from, 317.
    of English Crown, 318.

  Beudant, Prof., views of, 99, 398.

  Bheen, temple of, 209.

  Biot, views of, 72.

  Blue beryls of Ireland, 316.
    diamond of France, 163.
      of Mr. Hope, 189.
      of Munich, 226.

  Boetius de Boot, views of, 105.

  Bohmer, French jeweller, 179.

  Bordeaux, architect of Peacock Throne, etc., 219.

  Borghis, Hortensio, lapidary, 202, 203.

  Brewster, Sir David, views of, 65, 184, 259, 263.

  Bronze horses of Venice, 127.

  Brunswick, Duke, gems of, 232.

  Buchanan, views of, 32, 34, 74.

  Buffon’s views, 59, 380.

  Burial of Cardinal Borromeo, 290.
    Lord Palmerston, 290.

  Burning-of-Troy opal, 353.

  Byzantium, 129, 130, 139.


  C.

  Cæsar, ring of, 289.

  Cagliostro, 175.

  Canopies of the Persians, 26.

  Cape de Verde, conglomerate, 61.

  Capture of Ctesiphon, 24.

  Caravans of the ancients, 26.

  Carbon, combinations of, 18.

  Carbonado, 45, 89, 104.

  Cardinal Borromeo, 233.

  Cardinal Mazarin, 242.

  Carpet taken at Ctesiphon, 24.

  Cascalho, 60.

  Cassia oil, refractive power of, 257.

  Castellani, collection of, 288, 289, 352.

  Catherine, Empress, 153, 155.

  Cedrenus, the historian, 128.

  Cellini’s value of emerald, 331.
    ruby, 427.

  Ceraunia, 363.

  Cerulean throne of the Nizam, 211.

  Ceylon mines, 26, 56, 64, 372.

  Chalice of Abbé Suger, 161.

  Charlemagne, jewels of, 226, 239.

  Charles I., gems of, 194.

  Charles VIII. of France, 177.

  Charles the Bold, 167, 242.
    bogus ruby, 426.

  Chladni, 71.

  Chosroes, palace of, 126.

  Chrysoberyl, 95.

  Chrysostom, the historian, 129, 241.

  Church regalia, 232-234.

  Churches of England, ornaments of, 208.

  Cingalese gem miners, 374-378.

  Clay as an original deposit, 384.

  Claudian’s description of treasures of Theodosius, 114.

  Claussen’s views on the diamond, 42, 43.

  Cleaveland’s views, 315.

  Colesberg Kopje mines, 52.

  Coliseum decorated with gems, 119.

  Collection of armor, 142.

  Collections of the Arabs, 116.
    Mamelukes, 117.

  Color of fossils, etc., 82.
    gems, 82, 99-104.

  Comnenus, Emperor, 137.

  Conglomerate strata, 60.

  Connecticut beryls, 314.

  Constantine, 128.

  Constantinople, conquest of, 113, 126, 127, 130.

  Constituents of perfumes, 19, 205.

  Coocha diamond, 205.

  Cortez, emeralds of, 294.

  Cortez’s presents to Charles V., 296.

  Corundum, 368, 378, 388.

  Cossacks, 132.

  Coster, the lapidary, 184, 223.

  Count de Douhet, 45.

  Crawford’s estimate of Borneo diamond, 218.

  Crown of Anna Ivanovna, frontispiece.
    Austria, 227.
    Chosroes, 22.
    Goths of Spain, 321.
    Kazan, 139.
    Khan of Tartary, 22.
    Lombardy, 321.
    Muscovites, 136.
    Portugal, 222.
    Russia, 143.
    Saxony, 226.
    St. Stephen, 232, 300.
    Victoria, 179.
    Vladimir, 137.

  Cumberland diamond, 232.

  Cuneiform crystals, 369, 370, 378.

  Cup of Chosroes, 23.
    Theolinda, 326.

  Cutting of the diamond, 238.
    Kohinoor, 247.
    Mogul, 247.
    Regent, 247.
    Star of the South, 247.

  Cystine calculi, change in color, 308, 309.


  D.

  Daubenton’s ideas of the gems, 371.

  Davy, Dr., 394.

  De Drèe’s Cabinet, 101.

  De Laet, 240.

  Delattre, report on the French gems, 158.

  Delisle, 172.

  Demidoff, Prince, 173.

  Despret’s experiments, 265.

  Development of insect life, 84.
    vegetation, 84.

  Devonshire gems, 288.

  Diamond, antiquity of, as a gem, 21, 114.
    appearance of, in nature, 86.
    asteriated, 103.
    black, 45, 87, 89, 104.
    blue, 103, 163, 164, 222.
    bort, 87.
    Cascalho, or conglomerate, 60.
    celebrated Agrah, 213.
      blue, of France, 163.
      Daria-i-noor, 205, 213.
      De Drèe, 102.
      Holland, 232.
      Hope, 103, 164.
      Kohinoor, 151, 180, 206-208, 214, 263.
      Mogul, 181, 202, 205.
      Mountain of Splendor, 214.
      Munich, 103.
      Napoleon, 163.
      Nassac, 187.
      Orloff, 149, 187, 206.
      Paul Pindar, 195.
      Pigott, 187.
      Polar Star, 154.
      Prince Riccia, 102.
      red, of Russia, 107.
      Regent, 161, 164, 165, 187, 206, 223, 263.
      Sancy, 166.
      Sea of Glory, 214.
      Shah, 150, 205.
      Stewart, 55.
      Sultan of Mattan, 36.
      Sultan’s, 112.
      Taj-Mah, 213.
      yellow, of Austria, 227.
    Chancourtois, views, 69.
    cleavage of, 91, 245.
    color of, 97, 99, 100-104, 228.
      rough diamonds, 257, 258.
    comparative brilliancy of, 93, 95.
      density of, 94.
    Cumberland, Duke of, 191.
    cut diamond, 241.
    deposition of, 20, 65.
    diminutive size of, 26, 27.
    dispersive power of, 96.
    Du Toits Pan placer, 53.
    electric properties of, 88;
      hardness, 88, 90, 25.
    formation of, 59.
    forms of brilliant style, 244, 251.
      brilliolette style, 252.
      rose style, 244, 251.
      table style, 250.
    globular forms, 87, 95, 245.
    green, 102, 135.
    imitations of, 265, 267.
      worn by Duchesse de Berri, 268.
    influence of, 83.
    injured by fire, 256.
    in time of Emperor Severus, 22.
      Pliny, 15, 22, 26.
    localities of Africa, 53.
      Algiers, 52.
      America, 49, 50.
      Arabia, 51.
      Australia, 56.
      Borneo, 35.
      Brazil, 37.
      Golconda, 31.
      India, 30.
      Ireland, 47.
      Java, 56.
      Russia, 47, 48.
    necklace of Rohan, 174.
    old English style, 243.
    origin of, Arago’s views, 69.
      Buffon’s views, 59.
      Davy’s views, 69.
      Goppert’s views, 65.
      Hartt’s views, 44.
      Humboldt’s views, 43.
      Lavoisier’s views, 68.
      Newton’s views, 67.
    pans, 62.
    phosphorescence of, 88.
    physical properties, 85.
    pink, 159, 228.
    placers, 58.
    prismatic display, 91, 96, 244.
    purity of, 262.
    quantity of, in use, 279, 280.
    red, 107, 222.
    refraction of, 92, 97.
    rough, value of, 274.
    specific gravity of, 87.
    spiritual properties, 104.
    swindle of Arizona, 51.
    testing of, 253, 258-264.
    value of, 269-282.
    yellow, 159, 227.

  Diminutive size of precious stones, 392.

  Dogni collection, 104.

  Dolomieu, views, 70.

  Don Antonio, 171.

  Duke of Anjou, diamonds of, 240.
    Brunswick, diamonds of, 232.
    Buckingham, jewels of, 194, 198.
    Burgundy, fête of, 241.

  Duten’s views of the emerald, 151, 285.


  E.

  Earl of Effingham, 151.

  Eastwick’s account of Persian Treasury, 214.

  Eleanor of Provence, jewels of, 191.

  Electric properties of diamond, 88.

  Elf-bolts, 362.

  Elphinstone, British Envoy, 212.

  Emerald Isle, 301.

  Emeralds, 145-283.
    abundance of, in Peru, 291.
    ancient, 285-291.
    at Dresden, 301.
    at Florence, 300.
      Kandy, 302.
      Leiden, 301.
      Madrid, 302.
      Munich, 301.
      Rome, 301.
      Vienna, 301.
    carved by the Mexicans, 294.
    color and composition of, 304, 305, 307, 308, 315.
    derivation of name, 290.
    engraved by Carlo Costanzi, 302.
    found by Maj. Pearse, 304.
    given to Hortense, 299.
      Napoleon, 299.
    imitations of, 321-327.
    in times of Queen Elizabeth, 297.
    localities of Africa, 331.
      Finland, 327.
      France, 327.
      in ancient times, 330, 331.
      Norway, 327.
      United States, 309.
      Siberia, 328.
      South America, 306, 327.
      Tyrol, 329.
    mentioned by Heliodorus, 285.
      Pliny, 285, 287.
    of Dhuleep Singh, 301.
      Duke of Devonshire, 301.
      Charlemagne, 299.
      Cortez, 294.
      Emperor Jehangir, 302.
      French crown, 300.
      Mustapha of Tunis, 297.
      Pedro II., 11, 145.
      Prince of Virianagram, 302.
      Princess of Bariatinsky, 304.
      Queen of Navarre, 297.
      Rudolph II. at Dresden, 298.
      Runjeet Singh, 304.
      Russia, 298.
      Shrine of Loretto, 301.
      Sultan of Turkey, 300.
    pillage in Mexico and Peru, 296.
      of Marshal Junot in Spain, 303.
      of Marshal Lannes in Spain, 303.
    price of, at various times, 331, 332.
    rarity of, 291.
    sent by Elizabeth to Henri IV., 299.
    supply of, 329.
    the Great Mother, 297.

  Empress of Austria, gift to the Archduke, 229.

  Enamels of the ancients, 215.

  Englehardt, 47.

  English clergy, magnificence of, 200.

  Engraved gems, 14, 288, 289, 320, 351, 418, 424.
    abundance of, 421.

  Esterhazy, jewels of, 229-232.


  F.

  Fairs of Armenia, 26.
    gems, etc., in Ceylon, 385.
    Russia, 386.

  Ferishta, historian, 202, 211.

  Fêtes of Alexander, 25.

  Fitchburg beryls, 313.

  Florentine diamond, 227.

  Francis I., emerald of, 296.

  Franka, Dr. Nello, 65.

  Freaks of nature, 79.

  French Regalia, 158.
    display of, in 1855, 166.
    inventory of, in 1791, 159.
      in 1810, 162.
      in 1849, 162.
    stolen, 160.


  G.

  Garcias, 33.

  Gem engraving, 239, 240.
    Fair’s of Ceylon, 385.
    Fairs of Russia, 386.
    mining in Ceylon, 374-378.

  Gems as abodes of spirits, 364.
    meaning of, 392,
    of Palace of Tezcuco, 293.

  Genseric, pillage by, 124.

  Gifts to Charles V., 295.

  Girasole sapphires, 414.

  Glass gems, 267.
    ancient, 267.

  Globular forms of minerals, 385.
    petrifactions, 73.

  Glorious Masque, pageant of, 193.

  Glyptic art, 417.

  Godoy, 173.

  Gold nuggets, deposition of, 75.
    placers, 76.
      of Danube, 78.
      of Tesino, 78.

  Gomara, chronicles of, 295, 296.

  Goppert’s views of gems, 65.

  Gothic and Grecian forms, 81.
    treasury at Toledo, 123.

  Gouttes d’eau, topaz, 95.

  Grandson, battle of, 169.

  Graphite, production of, 266.

  Great Harry, jewel, 193.

  Great Mogul diamond, 181, 186, 202-206.

  Green diamond of Dresden, 225.
    garnets, 327.
    prase, 326.
    sapphires, 413.
    stones sought for by primitive man, 286.

  Greenockite, 93.


  H.

  Halpen gems, 100, 223.

  Hamlin, Dr. Cyrus, 106.

  Hardening of rocks on exposure, 307.

  Harlai de Sancy, 170.

  Hartt, Prof., 44.

  Haüy, Abbé, 75, 91, 253, 371.

  Helmreicher collection of diamonds, 104, 228.

  Henrietta Maria, 172.

  Henry VIII., 170, 192.

  Heraclius, capture of Persian treasures, 126.

  Hermitage, gems of, 144.

  Hervey, Lord, 196.

  Herz collection of gems, 190, 191.

  Hidden, Win. E., naturalist, 309.

  Hiddenite, 309-311.

  High refractive power of fluids, 257.

  Hindoo’s love of gems, 201, 386.

  Hitee, the royal, of Ava, 403.

  Holy synod of Moscow, ornaments, 147.

  Honorius, rings of, 288.

  Hope beryl, 319.
    blue diamond, 103, 190.
    collection, 101, 102, 190.

  Horse gear of the Turks, 146.

  Hughen’s views, 99.

  Humboldt’s emerald, 328.
    views, 43.

  Hungarian opal mines, 349, 350, 354.

  Hyacinthus, 368.


  I.

  Ictinus, constructor of the Parthenon, 369.

  Imitation gems, 265, 267, 321, 326, 351.

  Indian arms, decoration of, 215.

  Iolite, 425.

  Iridescence of minerals, 341.
    quartz, 347.

  Iris, Marbodeus’s description of, 348.
    ornaments of Empress Josephine, 348.

  Itacolumite, 61.


  J.

  James II., 172.
    jewels of, 196.

  Jansetsee Jejeebhoy, 173.

  Jarlet, lapidary, 154.

  Jewish Temple, spoils of, 125.

  John VI., golden cane, 223.

  Joseph I., diamonds of, 222.

  Justinian, 125, 129.


  K.

  Kaaba, sacred stone, 410.

  Kaianian Belt, 215.
    Crown, 214.

  Karat, weight of, 264.

  Kazan, Cathedral of, 147.
    Crown of, 139.

  King, views of, 167.

  King of Ava, gems of, 217.
    Kabul, 212.

  Kohinoor diamond, 181, 206-208, 212, 214.

  Korund, 368, 371.

  Kremlin, 132, 135, 141.

  Kyanite, 423.


  L.

  Lahore, Treasury of, 208.

  Lamartine, historian, 113.

  Lapis lazuli, 368.

  Lavoisier, views of, 67.

  Le Conte’s description of Honduras Opal mines, 343, 346.
    opals, 355.

  Lecourbe, General, 157.

  Lewy’s views on the emerald, 304-306.

  L’Isle, Romè de, his views, 371.

  Linnæus’s views, 370.

  Lithoscope, 259.

  Lollia Paulina, 22.

  Louis VII., 199.

  Low’s work on Borneo, 217.

  Lucretius, poet, 73, 90.


  M.

  Maine beryls, 313.

  Maiolica pottery, colors of, 352.

  Mandanga diamond mines, 38.

  Mansur Ben, views of, 90.

  Marbodeus’s poem on emeralds, 284.
    sapphire, 366.

  Marc Antony’s opal, 353.

  Marco Polo, celebrated traveller, 380.

  Maria Theresa, cross of, 228.

  Mariana, account of emeralds, 295.

  Martyr, account of emeralds, 295, 296.

  Mary Queen of Scots, jewels of, 193.

  Matura diamonds, 225.

  Mawe’s visit to Lisbon, 221.

  Mellan, or gem conglomerate, 374, 379.

  Minas Geraes diamond mines, 41.

  Mirror of Naples, diamond, 193.

  Missorium, or emerald table, 123.

  Mithridates, 130.

  Montezuma’s mantle, 294.

  Morse, H. D., diamond establishment, 247, 272.

  Mosaics of precious stones, 398.

  Murat, General, uniform of, 229.

  Murchison’s views, 43.

  Muzo, emerald mines of, 327.


  N.

  Nadir Shah, 151, 152, 186, 187, 204, 206, 211.

  Narbonne, pillage of, 123.

  Nassac diamond, 187.

  Navajos, turquoises of, 293.

  Nero’s Lens, 288.

  New Hampshire beryls, 314.

  Newera Ellia sapphire mines, 373.

  Newton’s views, 67, 81, 92, 99.

  Nizam diamond, 217.

  North Carolina sapphire mines, 388-390.


  O.

  Oldham, visit to the Burmah ruby mines, 402.

  Oliva, actress, 175.

  Opal, 335.
    ancient mines of, 341, 349.
    Babinet’s views of, 339.
    beauty of, 338.
    black variety of, 349.
    cause of its colored reflections, 339, 340.
    commerce of, 367.
    Count Waliski, 354.
    Damour’s experiments with, 337.
    dandritic, 338.
    Delius’ account of Hungarian opals, 350.
    Descloizeaux, views of, 347.
    described by Jackson, 355.
    division of, by Jameson, 338.
      Werner, 338.
    Dr. Le Conte’s, 355.
    engraved, 351.
    formation of, 346, 347.
    Harlequin variety, 349.
    Hydrophane variety, 337.
    imitations of, 351.
    mines of, 341.
      Central America, 343.
      Gracias a Dios, 343.
      Honduras, 342.
      Hungary, 341-349.
      Queensland, 346.
      Zimapan, 348.
    Mohr’s views of, 339.
    Newton’s views of, 339.
    of Austria, 354.

  Opal of D’Auguy, 354.
      Empress Josephine, 353.
      Fleury, 354.
      France, 354.
      Humboldt, 354.
      Nonius, 352, 353.
      U. S. Centennial Exhibition, 355.
    on image of Mexican deity, 355.
    physical properties of, 336, 337.
    purchase of, 357, 360.
    splendors of, 356.
    superstitious fancies regarding, 361-364.
    treatment of, when mined, 350.
    value of, in rough state, 360.
      Nonius’s gem, 361.
    varieties of, 338.

  Orb of Russia, 140.

  Order of the Golden Fleece, 225, 226.

  Origin of diamonds, 57.
    gems, 335.

  Orloff diamond, 149-152.

  Ottoman display of gems, 117.


  P.

  Passion for gems, etc., 280, 281.

  Paulina, gems of, 288.

  Peacock Throne, 210.

  Peligot’s views on ancient glass, 352.

  Persian emblems of authority, 287.
    treasures, 214-216.

  Peruzzi, inventor of the brilliant, 251.

  Peysonnel, 72.

  Phidias, 369.

  Philip of Spain, 170, 196.
    wedding of, 197.

  Pictet, 71.

  Piggot diamond, 187.

  Pitt, Wm., and Regent diamond, 164, 165.

  Placidia, marriage of, 123.

  Plato’s views on gems, 73.

  Pliny’s views on gems, 15, 285, 287, 288, 328, 330, 331, 368, 369,
    414.

  Plumbago, or graphite, 16, 18.

  Plunder of Delhi, 204.

  Polariscope, 261.

  Poles, customs of, 134.

  Polycrates, ring of, 116, 288.

  Pompadour’s jewels, 174.

  Pompey, 130.
    ring of, 290.

  Pope Julius II., beryl of, 319.

  Potemkin, gems of, 154.

  Potemkin’s plume, 145.

  Priest’s treasury in the Kremlin, 141.

  Prince Esterhazy jewels, 212, 229.

  Prismatic display of the diamond, 92, 93, 96-98.


  Q.

  Queen Caroline, jewels of, 196.
    Elizabeth, jewels of, 197.
    Mary, jewels of, 196.


  R.

  Raleigh, Walter, dress of, 198.

  Ralph Potter, lapidary, 243.

  Rambusson’s remarks on ruby mines, 403.

  Ramusso, Venetian historian, 130.

  Ranee Ruthen’s diamond, 218.

  Ratnapoora, sapphire mines of, 372, 374.

  Ravenna, capture of, 125.

  Refractive power of gems, 259-262.

  Regale of France, gem, 199.

  Regalia of Charlemagne, 226.
    England, 179.
    France, 158.
    Russia, 132.

  Regent diamond, 161, 165.

  Richelieu’s wreath, 160.

  Ring of Ahmed, 116.
    Polycrates, 116.

  Rohan, Cardinal de, 174.

  Rome, triumphs of, 119.

  Romè de L’Isle, description of diamond, 222.

  Rose-colored diamonds, 228.

  Rose diamonds, Antwerp form, 244, 251.
    Holland form, 244, 251.

  Round brilliant, 222.

  Royalston, locality of beryls, 311-313, 315.

  Ruby, lustre of the potters of Umbria, 325.
    of Crown of Persia, 407.
      Crown of Russia, 407.
      East India Company, 407.
      King of Burmah, 406.
      Prince of Wales, 180, 406.
    price of, 427.
    seen by Garcia, 407.

  Runjeet Singh gems, 206-208.


  S.

  Sacred standard of Persia, 23.
    vestments, 127.

  Sacro catino--emerald dish, 323.

  Saffragan sapphire mines, 374.

  Sancy diamonds, 166-171.

  Sapphire, 365.
    black variety, 417.
    carved by the Hindoos, 397.
    colors of, 394, 398, 411-420.
    composition and characters of, 387, 400.
    deposition of, 377-384, 389.
    engraved, 405, 412, 417-424.
    formation of, in Ceylon, 384, 385.
    imitations of, natural and artificial, 424, 425.

  Sapphire, mines of, 372, 378, 379, 388-390.
      Ava, 401.
      Bengal, 393.
      Bohemia, 393.
      Burmah, 400-403.
      Ceylon, 400-403.
      China, 408.
      Colorado, 392.
      Montana, 390, 391.
      North Carolina, 388, 411.
      Siam, 403.
    red, known as Oriental ruby, 398-400, 403-408, 424, 426.
    refraction of, 98.
    roof of the Parthian Palace, 397.
    varieties, early known, 367.

  Sapphires of the French Crown, 395, 397, 399, 411, 412.
      Hungarian Crown, 396.
      King of Ava, 402.
      Miss Coutts, 396, 398.
      the Russian casket, 397.
    price of, 425-427.

  Sapphirus, 368.

  Sarmatia, ancient, 133.

  Sassanian kings, 23, 25.

  Saxon white brilliant, 223.

  Saxony, Elector of, gems, 224.

  Sceptre of Vladimir, 138.

  School of Mines, St. Petersburg, 145.

  Scythian incursions, 133.

  Selwyn’s views of gold deposits, 77.

  Serena, 121.

  Shah Jehan, 202, 209, 210, 218.
    Nasiru’d-din of Persia, 216.
    Soujah, 207.

  Shrine of Thomas à Becket, 199.

  Siberian beryls, 313-315.

  Silicified trees, 347.

  Sinan Pasha, jewels of, 117.

  Sir Stamford Raffles, 36, 218.

  Smith, J. Laurence, discovers Hiddenite, 310.

  Sokolli, gems of, 117.

  Sorel, Agnes, necklace of, 177.

  Soujah and the Kohinoor, 207.

  Spanish Conquest of Mexico and Peru, 292.

  Specific gravity of diamonds, 87.
    emerald, 308.
    opal, 336.
    sapphire, 387.

  Spiritual properties of gems, 104.

  St. Chapelle of Paris, 127, 128.

  St. Laurent, views of, 239.

  St. Mark’s Palace, 127, 130.

  St. Melania, 121.

  St. Sophia, mosque of, 129.

  Stamboul, 130.

  Star of the South, 41, 223.

  Stewart diamond, 55.

  Sultan of Mattan diamond, 36.

  Sumnat, idol and temple of, 209, 220.

  Superstitious fancies about gems, 362.

  Suvaroff gems, 98, 144, 156.

  Sword of Solyman, 107.

  Symes’s visit to Ava, 217.

  Symes’s, Col., visit to Burmah, 401.


  T.

  Table of Solomon, 326.

  Taj Mahal, palace tomb, 218, 219, 408.

  Talasca, standard of, 293.

  Tavernier, the traveller, 27, 30, 34, 66, 67, 150, 154, 163, 182, 202,
    203, 205, 213, 227, 238, 246, 251, 272, 387, 404, 406.

  Telesie, a name proposed by Abbé Haüy, 371.

  Tennant, Prof., 40, 179.

  Theophrastus, 25, 368.

  Thiers, Madame, necklace of, 178.

  Throne of Nadir Shah, 107.
    Russia, 140.

  Throne of Takdis, 23.
    Turkey, 107.

  Timour, Fêtes of, 114.
    spoils of, 114, 186.

  Tiridates and the Parthian nobles, 120.
    march to Rome, 121.

  Titus and the spoils of Jerusalem, 124.

  Tomb of Mahomet, 409.

  Topaz, 95, 98, 145, 425.

  Tourmaline, 97, 99, 145, 310, 326, 408, 425, 427.
    tongs, 260.

  Tournament of the cloth of gold, 192.

  Townley collection of gems, 288.

  Treasury of the Seraglio, 107, 118.

  Troitza, treasury of, 147.

  Tschudi, Prof., 86.

  Turkish casket of jewels, 106.

  Turquoise of Mexico, 292.
    Persia, 216.


  U.

  Ural Mountains, 47.


  V.

  Vaal region diamond fields, 62.

  Value of gems in 15th century, 270.

  Vaux, mineral collection of, 317.

  Veil of Kunderas, 409.

  Venice, a gem mart, 270.

  Verneuil’s views of diamond, 43.

  Volo, plain of, in Poland, 134.

  Voysey’s views of diamond, 37, 74.


  W.

  Wallerius, views of, 290, 370, 371.

  Walpole, Horace, 195.

  Weight of large diamonds, 247.

  Werner collection of gems, 102.

  Wilson, Dr., descriptions of the Kohinoor, 207.

  Winter Palace, collection in, 142.

  Wollaston, Prof., 245.

  Wooden-spoon seller’s sapphire, 395.

  Wright’s discovery of opal mines, 345, 346.


  Y.

  Yellow diamond of Austria, 227.
    sapphires, 410, 411.

  Yriarte, history of Venice, etc., 128.


  Z.

  Zenobia, captivity of, 120.

  Zircon, 91, 93, 96, 255, 427.




Transcriber’s Notes

Errors in punctuation and accentuation have been fixed.

Page 140: “Boras Godunoff” changed to “Boris Godunoff”

Page 255: “gobular forms of crystallization” changed to “globular forms
of crystallization”

Page 281: “as it their price” changed to “as if their price”

Page 298: “Kasan was subjugated” changed to “Kazan was subjugated”

Page 343: “State of Gautemala” changed to “State of Guatemala”

Page 410: “a single speciimen” changed to “a single specimen”

In the Index, “Runjeet Sing” changed to “Runjeet Singh” and the page
numbers for the turquoise references have been corrected.