Transcriber’s Notes

  Text printed in italics and bold face have been transcribed _between
  underscores_ and =between equal signs= resspectively. Single
  superscript characters are preceded by ^, multiple superscript
  characters by ^{...}. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL
  CAPITALS.

  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.




  THE AUTOMOBILE
  OWNER’S GUIDE




  THE AUTOMOBILE
  OWNER’S GUIDE

  BY
  FRANK B. SCHOLL

  [Illustration]

  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
  NEW YORK LONDON
  1920




  COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY


  PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA




PREFACE


The automobile has taken its place as one of the most successful and
useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only by the internal
combustion gas engine, which is a factor in making it practical and
efficient.

Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s greatest aids in
business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very important that we
consider the facts, that the adoption of the automobile by man for
business, commerce and pleasure is on a very large scale, and that the
production by manufacturers is so great that very little thought is
given to proper care, which is an ever-present factor in economical
operation and a fair return for the investment.

The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for those who
own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an automobile.

The contents of this book cover the entire field that would be of
value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own repairs. The parts
and expressions are given in their simplest form; technical terms,
tables and scales have been entirely eliminated, as they mean little or
nothing to the average owner, and are of value only to the mechanical
engineer and draftsman.

The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only for the
purpose of bringing out points that are more readily understood and
explained in this manner. No attempt has been made to conform to
proportionate exactness or scale accurateness.

Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and equipment,
the functional action of all is practically the same, therefore we
use for illustration only those which are used by the majority of
manufacturers.

While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles efficient and
reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise that are somewhat
puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, we have written a chapter on
trouble hints conveniently arranged in three columns, headed troubles,
cause, and remedy.

The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so arranged, that
a man or a boy with a common school education can easily master it and
become an efficient mechanic.




INTRODUCTION


After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find that
only one-third of the present-day owners understand the mechanical
operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; the other two-thirds
know little or nothing of their cars, and are unable to locate
or detect trouble, or make the slightest adjustment necessary to
remedy it. This fact remains as the chief cause of the present high
depreciation in cars, and the loss of millions of dollars annually to
automobile owners.

After two years of observation and close investigation, I find the
vast majority of the present owners are eager to acquire mechanical
knowledge, but they have not accomplished their aim, chiefly because
the available books to attain that end are too technical, dry, and
overdescriptive for the average owner and beginner in mechanics.

The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of machinery,
but a combination of individual inventions, each adapted to a
functional purpose, which is necessary to the harmony of successful
operation. A great many of these mechanical achievements are of
delicate construction, and very apt to get out of adjustment. This,
however, is not always the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter
with which the various parts come in contact often prevent them from
operating properly.

Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a little care
will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, thereby avoiding
unnecessary trouble, damage and expense.

One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book interesting
and thorough, in order to hold the reader until he understands the
entire contents, after which he should be able to make any necessary
repairs and adjustments, or to hold a position as automobile mechanic.

In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a student from
becoming discouraged we use functional principle as the base for
explanation whenever possible.

The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely from
theory, but have been put into successful operation by the writer,
who for several years sold cars in outlying districts where garage
facilities were limited, and where it was necessary to make a
mechanic of every purchaser in order to sustain the high reputation
of the car sold. Later on his plan of instructions was used in an
automobile school where he was chief instructor, and still later they
were developed into a note system which he used in establishing an
automobile school in the city of Toledo, Ohio.

The students turned out by this school were very efficient and
successful, and finished the course in less than one-half the time
usually required for the average automobile course.

This book was written during the twenty months that the writer spent in
the U. S. Army, from the note system used in his automobile school.

  F. B. S.




CONTENTS


                                                                    PAGE

  PREFACE                                                              v

  INTRODUCTION                                                       vii


  INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

  HISTORY OF THE GASOLINE ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION     1

  Purchasing a new car                                                 3

  Purchasing a used car                                                4

  Selecting and testing a used car                                     5

  Driving instructions                                                 6

  Road rules for city and country                                      9

  What to do in case of accident                                      10


  CHAPTER I.

  GASOLINE ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS                             12

  The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods,
  bearings, crank shaft, cam shaft and fly-wheel.


  CHAPTER II.

  VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION                                    21

  Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in an
  8-cylinder V-type engine. Valve locations and valve grinding.
  Valve care.


  CHAPTER III.

  THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE 4-CYLINDERED GASOLINE ENGINE             29

  Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-cylindered engine --
  The Knight sleeve valve engine -- S. A. E. Horse Power Scale --
  Displacement-Engine charts -- Lubrication oils and greases --
  Lubrication systems -- Care -- Cleaning -- and adjusting of
  lubrication systems.


  CHAPTER IV.

  BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION                                       45

  The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Principle of action
  -- Installation -- Adjustment and maintenance -- Stromberg Model
  L adjustment.


  CHAPTER V.

  NITRO SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR                                          60

  Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and general
  care.

  The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment points.


  CHAPTER VI.

  STEWART CARBURETOR                                                  65

  Principle of operation -- Adjustment and maintenance.


  CHAPTER VII.

  CARTER CARBURETOR                                                   70

  Operating principle -- Adjustment and care.


  CHAPTER VIII.

  SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR                                      72

  Operation -- Instructions for installing, adjustment and
  maintenance.


  CHAPTER IX.

  KEROSENE CARBURETORS                                                76

  Operating principle -- Installation and adjustment.


  CHAPTER X.

  HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS                                      79

  Action -- Advantage and design.


  CHAPTER XI.

  COOLING SYSTEMS                                                     82

  Purpose of cooling system -- Circulating systems -- The force
  pump circulating system -- Overheating -- Radiator cleaning --
  Freezing -- Freezing solutions -- Radiator repairing -- The air
  cooling system.


  CHAPTER XII.

  MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION                                                86

  Purpose -- Advantage -- Type -- Assembly and Maintenance.


  CHAPTER XIII.

  VACUUM SYSTEMS                                                      89

  Operating principle -- Purpose of the air vent -- Failure to
  feed gasoline to carburetor -- Removing top -- Cleaning
  gasoline strainer screen -- Operating principle and general
  maintenance.


  CHAPTER XIV.

  ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS                     95

  Voltage -- Amperage -- Ohms -- Current -- Circuit -- Low Tension
  Current -- High Tension Current -- Induction Coil -- Commutator
  -- Insulation -- Shunt or choking coil -- Fuse -- Condenser --
  Dynamo -- Voltaic cell -- Accumulator -- Storage battery --
  Electrolyte -- Hydrometer -- Ammeter -- Circuit breaker --
  Switch -- Generator -- Regulator -- Contact-breaker --
  Non-vibrating coil -- Distributors.


  CHAPTER XV.

  THE MAGNETO                                                        101

  Parts -- Assemblage -- Operating principle.


  CHAPTER XVI.

  BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO, TYPE ZR                                105

  Operating principle -- Primary or low tension circuit --
  Secondary or high tension circuit -- Timing magneto gears --
  Timing magneto with engine -- The condenser -- Safety spark gap
  -- Interrupter timing range -- Cutting out ignition -- Caution
  -- Care -- Maintenance.


  CHAPTER XVII.

  MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING                              111

  Magneto cleaning -- Magneto repairing -- Magneto assembling --
  Magneto timing to engine.


  CHAPTER XVIII.

  NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM                                         114

  Wiring ignition distributor -- Ignition coil -- Breaker box and
  distributor head assembly -- Condenser -- Breaker contacts --
  Breaker cam -- Distributor head -- Automatic spark advance
  mechanism -- Manual spark control -- Timing the distributor --
  General care.


  CHAPTER XIX.

  ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS                                      126

  Type CC system -- Operating principle -- Setting or timing --
  Adjustment -- Oiling -- General care.


  CHAPTER XX.

  ATWATER KENT BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM                               132

  Type K-2-Operating principle -- Operation of contact maker --
  Contactless distributor -- Wiring diagram of current flowage --
  Setting and timing the unisparker -- Timing with engine --
  Automatic spark advance -- Contact point adjustment -- Oiling
  diagram -- Condenser -- Testing for ignition trouble.


  CHAPTER XXI.

  PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK, AND HIGH FREQUENCY DUPLEX IGNITION
  SYSTEMS                                                            141

  Operation of contact maker -- Current induction -- Duplex system
  -- Duplex switch -- Duplex switch action -- Wiring diagram --
  Adjustment of contact points -- General care.


  CHAPTER XXII.

  ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS                           147

  The generator -- The regulator -- The automatic cut-out -- One
  unit system -- Two unit system -- Three unit system -- The
  starting motor -- Lubrication -- Maintenance.


  CHAPTER XXIII.

  ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND STARTING SYSTEMS                             154

  Wiring diagram Bijur system -- Operation of Bijur system --
  Starting motor -- Operation of starting motor -- Wiring circuits
  -- Fuse -- Ground fuse -- Lamp controller -- Oiling -- Battery
  testing -- General care.


  CHAPTER XXIV.

  NORTH EAST STARTER USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS                    161

  Model G starter-generator operation -- Wiring diagram --
  Starter-generator action -- Mounting -- Drive -- Charging rate
  adjustment -- Fuse -- Locating trouble -- Starting switch and
  reverse current cut-out -- Running with battery disconnected.


  CHAPTER XXV.

  THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM                                        167

  Motoring the generator -- Cranking the engine -- Generating
  electrical energy -- Diagram of motor generator operation --
  Lubrication -- Ignition switch -- Circuit breaker -- Ignition
  coil -- Distributor -- Contact breaker and timer -- Care.


  CHAPTER XXVI.

  STORAGE BATTERY                                                    180

  Construction -- Chemical action -- Cells -- Electrolyte solution
  -- Battery charging -- Care and maintenance -- Hydrometer
  testing -- Battery idle -- Battery freezing -- General care.


  CHAPTER XXVII.

  SPARK PLUGS AND CARE                                               186

  Type -- Construction -- Connections -- Assembling -- Repairing --
  Cleaning -- General care.


  CHAPTER XXVIII.

  CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE                                 189

  Clutch operation -- Gear shifting -- Change speeds -- Cone
  clutch -- Cone clutch care -- Cone clutch adjustment -- Multiple
  disc clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch
  adjustment -- Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate, dry plate -- Cone
  clutch leather -- Cone clutch leather patterns -- Cutting --
  General care.


  CHAPTER XXIX.

  TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE                           198

  Operation of -- Planetary type -- Progressive type -- Selective
  type -- Gear shifts -- Unit-power-plant -- Transmission cleaning
  -- Lubrication -- Care.


  CHAPTER XXX.

  UNIVERSAL JOINTS                                                   204

  Universal joints -- Slip joints -- Operation -- Construction
  diagram -- Tightening -- Lubrication -- Care.


  CHAPTER XXXI.

  DIFFERENTIAL GEARS                                                 207

  Bevel gear action -- Construction -- Adjusting -- Gearless
  differential -- Action -- Adjustment -- Advantage -- Worm gear
  drive differential -- Operation -- Adjustment -- Lubrication --
  General care.


  CHAPTER XXXII.

  AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE                                     212

  Dead axles -- The semi-floating axle -- Adjustment --
  Lubrication -- The full-floating axle -- Construction --
  Adjustment -- Lubrication -- The I-beam front axle -- The
  spindle -- Steering knuckle -- Care of all types.


  CHAPTER XXXIII.

  BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE                                    218

  Brake adjustment -- Brake re-lining -- Brake care -- Brake
  cleaning.


  CHAPTER XXXIV.

  SPRINGS AND SPRING CARE TESTS                                      223

  Spring types -- Spring lubrication -- Weekly spring care --
  Bi-monthly spring care -- Spring wrapping.


  CHAPTER XXXV.

  ALIGNMENT                                                          229

  Wheel alignment -- Lengthwise -- Crosswise -- Axle alignment --
  Lengthwise -- Alignment tests -- Mechanical alignment --
  Lengthening wheelbase.


  CHAPTER XXXVI.

  STEERING GEARS, TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION                              232

  Operation of worm and sector type -- Adjustment of worm and
  sector type -- Worm and nut type -- Adjustment of worm and nut
  type -- Rack and pinion type -- Connections -- Drag link --
  General care.


  CHAPTER XXXVII.

  BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE                                        236

  Plain bearings -- Bushings -- Roller bearings -- Flexible roller
  bearings -- Radial ball bearings -- Thrust ball bearings -- End
  thrust -- Double thrust -- Cleaning -- Care -- Maintenance.


  CHAPTER XXXVIII.

  CAR ARRANGEMENT                                                    243

  Showing location and names of parts -- Adjustment -- General
  care.


  CHAPTER XXXIX.

  OVERHAULING THE CAR                                                247

  Instructions showing how to go about it -- And how to give the
  car a thorough overhauling.


  CHAPTER XL.

  REPAIR EQUIPMENT                                                   251

  Road repair necessities -- Shop repair necessities.


  CHAPTER XLI.

  CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE                                     253

  Body construction -- Body washing -- Running gear washing --
  Engine cleaning -- Cleaning upholstering -- Rug cleaning --
  Windshield cleaning -- Sedan or closed body cleaning -- Tire
  cleaning -- Rim cleaning -- Light lens cleaning -- Caution.


  CHAPTER XLII.

  TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY AND CARE                                     256

  Tire care -- Tire chains -- Cross chains -- Tube care -- Tube
  repairing -- Tire and tube storage.


  CHAPTER XLIII.

  ELECTRICAL SYSTEM                                                  259

  General overhauling and tuning hints.


  CHAPTER XLIV.

  AUTOMOBILE PAINTING                                                262


  CHAPTER XLV.

  CARBON REMOVING                                                    263

  TROUBLE HINTS                                                      264


  FORD SUPPLEMENT.

     I The car -- its operation and care                             269

    II The Ford Engine                                               277

   III The Ford Cooling System                                       287

    IV The Gasoline System                                           290

     V The Ford Ignition System                                      295

    VI The Ford Transmission                                         301

   VII The Rear Axle Assembly                                        307

  VIII The Ford Muffler                                              310

    IX The Ford Running Gear                                         311

     X The Ford Lubrication System                                   316

    XI Care of Tires                                                 320

   XII Points of Maintenance                                         323

  XIII The Ford One Ton Truck                                        325

   XIV The F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on Sedans
  and Coupés                                                         328

  INDEX                                                              335




ILLUSTRATIONS


  FIGURE                                                            PAGE

    1. Typical Four-Cylinder Block                                    13

    2. Cylinder Block with Head Removed                               13

    3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)                             14

    4. Typical Cylinder Piston                                        15

    5. Typical Piston Ring                                            15

    6. Typical Connecting Rod                                         16

    7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft                                   17

    8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft                                              17

    9. Cam Shaft                                                      18

   10. Flywheel                                                       19

   11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement                                   22

   12. Poppet Valve                                                   23

   13. Valve Types, Location and Operation                            24

   14. Valve Timing Marks                                             25

   15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 4-Cylinder                        27

   16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 8-Cylinder                        28

   17. 4-Stroke Cycle                                                 29

   18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine                   31

   19. Power Stroke Diagram                                           32

   20. Buick Engine -- Parts Assembly                                 36

   21. Buick Engine -- Location Inside Parts Assembly                 37

   22. Buick Motor -- End View                                        38

   23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine                                        39

   24. Splash Oiling                                                  41

   25. Plunger Pump Oiling System                                     42

   26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor -- Sectional View                 46

   27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Air Bleeder Action             47

   28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Accelerating Well              49

   29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Idling Operation               51

   30. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open                      52

   31. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle Wide Open                     53

   32. Stromberg Model M -- Adjustment Points                         55

   33. Stromberg Model “L” -- Adjustment Points                       58

   34. Sunderman Carburetor                                           60

   35. Sunderman Carburetor                                           61

   36. Sunderman Carburetor                                           62

   37. Sunderman Carburetor                                           63

   38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled                          64

   39. Stewart Carburetor                                             66

   40. Carter Carburetor                                              70

   41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Sectional View             72

   42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Adjustment Points          73

   43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor                                     76

   44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment                         77

   45. Hot Spot Manifold                                              79

   46. Holley Vapor Manifold -- Ford Cars                             80

   47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System                                   82

   48. Muffler -- Three Compartment                                   86

   49. Muffler                                                        87

   50. Vacuum System -- Top Arrangement                               89

   51. Vacuum System Installation                                     90

   52. Vacuum System Diagram -- Stewart Warner                        91

   53. Vacuum System -- Inside View of Parts                          94

   54. Coil Diagram                                                   96

   55. Dynamo -- Diagram of Action                                    98

   56. Magnets -- Pole Blocks                                        101

   57. Armature Core -- Wound Armature                               102

   58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction           102

   59. Breaker -- Slip Ring -- Distributor                           103

   60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor -- Housing Removed        106

   61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4                       107

   62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System -- on Dodge Car             115

   63. North-East Distributor -- Model O -- Ignition                 116

   64. North East Breaker-Box                                        118

   65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- North East               121

   66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram -- Type C. C.                    127

   67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Type C. C.                    128

   68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block                128

   69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor                   129

   70. Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram                        130

   71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
       K-2 System                                                    133

   72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
       K-2 System                                                    133

   73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
       K-2 System                                                    134

   74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
       K-2 System                                                    134

   75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block                135

   76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2                          136

   77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring                                       137

   78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- A-K Type
       K-2                                                           138

   79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Oiling Diagram -- A-K Type
       K-2                                                           139

   80. Philbrin Contact Maker -- Point Adjustment                    141

   81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade                  142

   82. Switch Case                                                   143

   83. Duplex High Frequency Switch                                  144

   84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram                                       145

   85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine                  149

   86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action                        151

   87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action                        152

   88. Wiring Diagram Model N -- Hupmobile                           153

   89. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six                    155

   90. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey Four                                158

   91. Hydrometer Syringe                                            159

   91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram                                       162

   92. North East Model G Starter Generator                          164

   93. Delco Motor Generator -- Showing Parts                        168

   94. Delco Motor Generator -- Diagram of Operation                 170

   95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate                                   173

   96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker -- Mounted              173

   97. Delco Ignition Coil                                           175

   98. Delco Wiring Diagram -- Buick Cars                            176

   99. Delco Ignition Distributor                                    177

  100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer                      178

  101. Storage Battery, Sectional View                               180

  102. Storage Battery, Sectional View                               182

  103. Hydrometer Syringe                                            183

  104. Spark Plug                                                    187

  105. Cone Clutch and Brake                                         190

  106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission          192

  107. Borg and Beck Clutch                                          193

  108. Cone Clutch Leathers -- Pattern -- Cutting                    196

  109. Friction Transmission                                         199

  110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts                                 200

  111. Sliding Gear Transmission -- Sectional View                   201

  112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly -- Unit Power Plant          203

  113. Slip Joint and Universal                                      204

  114. Universal Joint Construction Diagram                          205

  115. Differential Action Diagram                                   207

  116. Differential Assembly                                         208

  117. Differential Adjusting Points                                 209

  118. Allen Gearless Differential                                   210

  119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle                                       213

  120. Full-Floating Axle -- Wheel-End Arrangement                   214

  121. Full-Floating Axle                                            214

  122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts                         215

  123. I-Beam Front Axle                                             216

  124. Brake -- Types and Adjustment                                 219

  125. Brake -- Showing Toggle Arrangement                           220

  126. Transmission Brake -- Equalizer                               220

  127. Brake -- Arrangement and Adjustment -- “Buick”                221

  128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring                                   226

  129. Full-Elliptic Spring                                          226

  130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring                                    227

  131. Platform Spring                                               227

  132. Cantilever Spring, Front                                      228

  133. Cantilever Spring, Rear                                       228

  134. Wheel Alignment Diagram                                       230

  135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear                                 233

  136. Worm and Nut Steering Gear                                    234

  137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear                            234

  138. Steering Wheel                                                235

  139. Plain Bearings or Bushings                                    236

  140. Shims                                                         237

  141. Bock Roller Bearing                                           237

  142. Hyatt Roller Bearing                                          238

  143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing                                239

  144. Double Row Thrust Bearing                                     241

  145. End Thrust Bearing                                            241

  146. Car Arrangement                                               245

  147. Ford Motor -- Sectional View                                  278

  148. Ford Motor -- Valve and Cylinder Assembly                     279

  149. Ford Fuel System                                              290

  150. Ford Transmission Assembly                                    303

  151. Ford Rear Axle System                                         308

  152. Ford Brake                                                    309

  153. Ford Spindle                                                  311

  154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart                                     317




THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE




INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION


A great many experiments were conducted with the explosive type of
motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors were very heavy and crude
affairs and furnished little or no power. They were either abandoned
or given up by those conducting the experiments, and had all but
disappeared in the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could
not overcome were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, a
way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper proportion,
and a device to ignite it at the proper time. Many of these early
inventions used coal tar gases and gunpowder as fuel.

The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the four
stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de Rochas. These
designs were taken in hand by a German by the name of Otto, and many
experiments were conducted by him and two other Germans, Daimler
and Benz, which resulted in a fairly successful engine. The Otto
Gas Engine Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Daimler as
general manager. Experiments were carried on which resulted in many
improvements, such as valve adjusting and electrical spark ignition.
Many other smaller improvements were worked out which overcame many of
the difficulties of the former and cruder devices.

The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, very
heavily constructed and produced from three to five horse power. In
1886, Daimler conceived the idea of constructing the multiple type
of engine with water-jacketed cylinders. Benz also completed a very
successful motor in the late fall of 1886, which embodied the water
cooling idea. The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor
in vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Daimler applied
his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly resembled our
present-day motorcycle. While this machine ran, it was not considered a
very great success. Benz in the early part of 1887, connected his motor
to a three-wheeled vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate
of three miles per hour.

The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place in Paris,
France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the patent rights from Daimler
to use his engine. He then built a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried
some of the ideas of present-day construction, such as a steering
device and brakes. To this he applied his engine and was able to travel
at the rate of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Frères completed
their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or car, as
it was then called by the French government on account of its being
mechanically driven, was able to make from seven to eight miles per
hour.

The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much between the
years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had been enacted by the
French government, which all but prohibited the driving of a car on the
public thoroughfare.

The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled type was
completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. This car embodied
many of our present-day ideas but was very lightly constructed and
under-powered.

In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This car was built
by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning of the present-day Haynes’
line of famous cars.

The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, in the year
1894 with the Marquis de Dion as president. The purpose of this club
was to secure a reformation of the laws that had been enacted when the
automobile made its first appearance on the public thorough-fare, and
to make laws and rules to govern automobile racing.

At that time it was necessary when driving on a public highway to
have some one run seventy-five feet in advance of a car waving a red
flag, and to shout a warning at street intersections. These stringent
laws, however, were repealed by the government through influential aid
brought to bear on it by the automobile club assisted by the rapid
progress of the automobile industry.


PURCHASING A NEW CAR

THINGS TO BE CONSIDERED TO MAKE THE INVESTMENT SAFE

When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this manner and
protect your investment.

First.--Choose the car that suits you best in regard to cost,
operation, and appearance.

Second.--Inquire as to the financial status of the manufacturer. If
there is anything wrong with the car, or the management of the company,
it will show up here.

Third.--Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good service as
anybody could ask for, but when a company fails or discontinues to
manufacture a model, the car immediately loses from one-third to
one-half of its actual value. That is, providing you wish to trade it
in or sell it as a used car.

Fourth.--What kind of service does the agency in your vicinity give?
Do they take any interest in the cars they sell after they are in the
hands of the purchaser?

Fifth.--The amount of interest taken in your purchase by the agent or
service station usually determines the amount of depreciation at the
end of the season.

Sixth.--If you are purchasing your first car some little adjustments
will be required, and conditions will arise that require understanding
and attention. You, therefore, must acquire either a functional and
mechanical knowledge of the operation, or depend on the agent or
service station for help.

Seventh.--You will probably say that you can get along without such
help. You probably can, but what will be the results? Will you be
required to stand a loss in the long run resulting from excessive
repair bills and depreciation which could have been prevented to a
great extent?

Eighth.--Remember that an agent can fool you when you are buying, but
that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell or trade in.

Ninth.--Remember that this book, _The Automobile Owners’ Guide_, was
written to assist you in just such cases as we have presented, and that
by spending a little time in study you can acquire a working knowledge
of your car, and become independent of the service station and the
agent, which will result in a big saving in both repair bills and
depreciation.


PURCHASING A USED CAR

HOW TO ESTIMATE ITS VALUE

The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money in a
second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, and depends
entirely upon the condition of the car.

For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same time. A is rather
conservative. He is also a careful driver and gives his car the best of
attention. B is a careless driver and pays little or no attention to
adjustments and lubrication.

A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts properly
adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving has kept the
alignment in perfect condition. His car at the end of the first season
requires a little overhauling which will put it in as good condition as
it was when it was new as far as service is concerned, and it is worth
85 to 90 per cent of its original value.

B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his motor to
overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and worn, and the valves
are warped and do not seat properly. He drove into deep ruts and
chuck-holes, and bumped into curbs and posts while turning around. His
axles and wheels are out of line; the frame and all the running parts
which it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put this
car in A-1 condition, and it is not worth more than 30 per cent. of the
original cost price. It would be a poor investment at any price to an
owner who is buying it for his own use.

=Selecting and Testing a Used Car.=--First.--If you are buying from
a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of the condition of
a car according to his ability as a mechanic and according to his
reputation for accuracy. If you are buying from a reputable used
car dealer his word can usually be taken as a correct statement of
conditions as his business depends upon the accuracy of his statements
and he knows the condition of a car before he buys it.

Second.--See the former owner. Get his statement of the condition of
the car and the care it has had, and judge it by his appearance, and
the general appearance of his home and property.

Third.--If the car is listed as _Rebuilt_ or _Overhauled_, see if the
oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been removed. If
this has been done the old grease will either have been cleaned off
or show marks of the removal. If these marks are found the proper
adjustments and replacements have probably been made.

Fourth.--Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by its outward
appearance.

Fifth.--Examine the tires and figure the cost of replacement if any are
found in poor condition.

Sixth.--Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for loose or worn
bearings.

Seventh.--Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and wiggle it to
determine whether the spindle bolts or steering device connections are
worn.

Eighth.--Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever into
high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom to discover worn
bearings, and move the wheel, forward and backward, to determine the
amount of back-lash in the differential and universal joints.

Ninth.--Test the compression of the cylinders while the engine is cold
using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found weak, a leak exists and
the escaping compression can be heard.

Tenth.--Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness in compression
is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, or the rings may be
worn. The valves may also be warped, thereby preventing them from
seating properly.

Eleventh.--Examine the shoulders of the cross-members supporting the
engine, radiator, or transmission to see if they are cracked or broken.

Twelfth.--The battery may have deteriorated through improper attention.
Test the solution with a hydrometer. If it is found well up, it can be
passed as O. K.

Thirteenth.--Don’t judge the condition of the car by the model, as a
two or three-year-old model may be in better mechanical condition than
a six-month or year-old model.


DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS

A new driver should remain cool and take things in a natural way as a
matter of course. There is nothing to get nervous or excited about when
learning to drive a car. Any one can master the art of driving quickly
by remaining cool and optimistic.

First.--Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of the engine
and its accompanying devices.

Second.--Have some one explain the operation of the accelerator, spark,
and throttle levers.

Third.--Study the relative action of the clutch and gear-shifting
pedal.

Fourth.--The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a natural and calm
position with the muscles relaxed.

Fifth.--He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle lever is
advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quadrant. The spark
lever is set to one-half the sliding distance on the quadrant.

Sixth.--Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and press the
starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine begins to fire.

Seventh.--Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it is a good
idea to let the new driver feel out the different speed changes. This
is accomplished by pushing out the clutch and placing the shift-lever
into one of the four slots. Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts
to move the car, continue the feeling-out process until the reverse
speed gear is located, and at this point impress on him that first
and reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise either
on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed is always
crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is opposite first on the
other side of neutral.

Eighth.--Starting the car with engine running, advance the spark-lever
three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, advance the throttle until
the engine is turning over nicely (not racing). Place one hand on the
steering-wheel and with the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in
the clutch pedal, hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch
brake may stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed
slot and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven four or
five hundred feet on this speed until the driver acquires the “nack” of
steering.

Ninth.--To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle until the car
gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the clutch pedal and allow
three to five seconds for the brake to retard the speed of the clutch,
then shift the lever to second speed and release the clutch pedal
easily.

Tenth.--To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever a trifle (to
prevent the engine from racing), throw out the clutch and shift the
lever into the high-speed slot. Perform these operations slowly but
without hesitation.

Eleventh.--To shift to reverse speed go through the same operation that
you followed when first was used, except that the shift-lever is placed
in the reverse slot.

Twelfth.--The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless the car is at
a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite direction.

Thirteenth.--Always test the emergency brake lever and the speed
shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral position before
starting the engine.

Fourteenth.--Remember that in case of emergency the car can be stopped
quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pressure on the clutch pedal
disconnects the engine from the car, while pressure on the “foot” or
service brake pedal, slows up the motion of the car and will bring it
quickly to a stand-still.

Fifteenth.--Always push the clutch out when using the service brake to
check the rolling motion of the car.

Sixteenth.--When you wish to stop the car and motor kick out the clutch
and hold it in this position while you stop the rolling motion of the
car with the service brake and shift the gears to neutral. Then set the
emergency brake and turn off the switch to stop the motor.

If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low speed (due to
defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, engage reverse speed, turn
off the ignition switch, and let the car back down to level or a place
where you can turn around, and back up the hill. The reverse speed is
geared from one and a half to two times lower than first speed.

Nineteen.--To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the front wheels
in the direction which the back wheels are sliding and release the
brakes. Turning away or applying the brakes adds momentum to the
sliding motion.

Twenty.--If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driving into the
ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the car directly toward
the opposite bank. The front or rear springs will lodge in the bank
and prevent the car from rolling over and crushing the occupants, and
the car can be drawn out more easily from this position.


ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY

1.--Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your assistance if
necessary.

2.--When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the track on your
side, don’t drive in and force another machine coming towards you to
get out of the track. WAIT.

3.--Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and talk to some one,
drive to one side.

4.--Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, whether
moving or standing, except as prescribed in Paragraph 5.

5.--In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, always pass on
the left and blow the horn.

6.--In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down and sound the
horn.

7.--In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the
appropriate hand signal.

8.--Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. Straight out or
horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO
THE RIGHT.

9.--The distance between vehicles outside of towns and cities, 20
yards; between vehicles passing through towns and cities, 5 yards;
between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards.

10.--Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road
intersections.

11.--A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles in business
sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, 25 miles on
country roads.

12.--Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways before
crossing tracks.

13.--Always pass a street car on the right side.

14.--Always stop 8 feet from a street car when passengers are getting
off, unless there is a safety zone, then drive slowly.

15.--Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for signal of
traffic officer.

16.--Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn with hand signal.

17.--Always stop and wait for an opening when driving from a side
street or road into a main thoroughfare.

18.--Make square turns at all street corners unless otherwise directed
by traffic officer.

19.--If you wish to turn from one street into another wait until
the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then give the
appropriate signal to those in the rear.

20.--Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to the right, and
to the right of the center line of the street when you wish to turn to
the left.

21.--Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., and at
Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners handle more traffic
than any two corners in the United States. No turns are made at either
corner.

22.--Exercise care not to injure road ways.

23.--Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains when unnecessary.

24.--In case the car is not provided with chains, rope wrapped around
the tires will make a good substitute.

25.--In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as the
gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire extinguisher
or smother with sand or with a blanket.


WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT

1.--In case of injury to person or property stop car and render such
assistance as may be needed.

2.--Secure the name of person injured or of owners of said property.

3.--Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident.

4.--Draw diagram of streets as shown in Fig. A. Show relative
positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of pedestrian just
before the accident.

5.--Label streets and every object depicted and add measurements and
line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., and any explanatory
statements which would aid an understanding of the occurrence.

[Illustration:

  Main St.

  Side St.

Fig. A. Street Intersection]

6.--File this report at police headquarters.




CHAPTER I

GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS


We will use for purposes of illustration the common four-cylinder,
four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as this type is used
probably by 90% of the automobile manufacturers. The block of this type
of motor is cast with an overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand
side which contains a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in
which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is made, in
the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. This arrangement
allows both valves to seat in one chamber and to operate from one cam
shaft.

The operation of each cylinder is identically the same whether you have
a one or a many cylindered motor, consequently when you have gained a
working knowledge of one cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may
sound confusing when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is mentioned,
but is more readily understood when we consider the fact that an eight
or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more than two fours or two sixes,
set to a single crank-case or base in V-shape to allow the connecting
rods of each motor to operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement
also allows all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby
making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an absolute necessity
considering the small space that is allowed for the motor in our
present-day designs.

Fig. 1. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the whole
motor or engine, usually has a removable head which allows for easy
access to the pistons and valves. The block is cast with a passage or
compartment through the head and around the cylinders through which
water circulates for cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders.
This alleviates the danger from expansion and contraction caused by
the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion chambers.
This block also contains the cylinders and valve seats. The pistons
and valves are fitted to their respective positions as construction
progresses.

[Illustration:

  Exhaust Pt.

  Intake Pt.

  Re. Plate

  Det. Head

  Cyl. Block

  Upper Crankcase

  Lower Crankcase

Fig. 1. Typical Four-cylinder Block]

Fig. 2. The block with head removed shows the smooth flush surface of
the block face and the location of the cylinders in which the pistons
operate or slide, with each power impulse or explosion. When the piston
is at its upper extreme it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of
being flush with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in
Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, and are
operated by a stem which extends downward from the head through a guide
bushing in the block to the cam shaft.

[Illustration:

  Pistons

  Water Vents

  Intake Valve

  Exhaust Valve

Fig. 2. Cylinder Block With Head Removed]

The location of the water vents is also shown, through which water is
circulated to prevent the cylinders from overheating which would cause
the pistons to “stick” from expansion.

Fig. 3. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing the
combustion chambers. These chambers must be absolutely air-tight as
the charge of gas drawn in through the inlet valve is compressed here
before the explosion takes place, and low compression means a weak
explosion, which causes the motor to run with an uneven-jumpy motion,
and with an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket
is placed between the top of the block and the head before it is bolted
down. This gasket prevents any of the compression from escaping through
unevenness of the contact surfaces, as metal surfaces are prone to warp
when exposed to intense heat. It is necessary to turn the bolts in the
head down occasionally, as the heat causes expansion. The following
contraction, which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a
faulty operation of the motor.

[Illustration:

  Combustion Chamber

  Spark Plug Vent

  Water Circulating Vent

  Bolt Holes

Fig. 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)]

The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located directly
over the piston although in some cases they are over the valve head
and in some motors which are cast without a removable head they may be
at one side of the combustion chamber. The location of the spark-plug
does not materially affect the force of the explosion, although when
it is located directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as
the pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, and a
spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber will not become
corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually the case with a plug
which does not extend beyond the upper wall surface of the combustion
chamber.

Fig. 4. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly within the
cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders extending from the
inside wall.

[Illustration:

  Head

  Ring

  Wrist Pin

  Oil Ring

  Ring Groove

  Bushing

  Wrist Pin

  Set Screw

  Ring Groove

  Set Screw

  Bushing

  Wrist Pin

Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston]

Fig. 4A shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it near the
head to receive the piston rings. The width and depth of these grooves
vary according to the size of the piston. A hole is bored through the
piston and shoulders about half way from each end. The bushing or plain
bearing shown in Fig. 4B is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing
for the wrist pin also shown in Fig. 4B. Wrist pins are usually made
of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to severe
duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a sharp knock; this
may be remedied by pressing out the pin, giving it a quarter turn, and
replacing it in that position.

[Illustration: Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring]

Fig. 5 shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are usually made
from a high grade gray iron, which fits into the grooves in the piston
and springs out against the cylinder walls, thereby preventing the
compressed charge of gas from escaping down the cylinder, between the
wall and the piston. Fig. 5A shows a piston equipped with leak-proof
rings; this type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives
excellent service, especially when used on a motor which has seen
considerable service. Fig. 5B illustrates how piston rings may line up,
or become worn from long use, or from faulty lubrication. This trouble
may be easily detected by turning the motor over slowly. The escaping
charge can usually be heard and the strength required to turn the motor
will be found much less uniform on the defective cylinder.

The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, and by
applying new rings to the pistons at this time new life and snappiness
may be perceived at once.

The connecting rod shown in Fig. 6 has a detachable or split bearing
on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank pin of the crank
shaft. The small or upper end may have either a hinge joint or press
fit to the wrist pin. This rod serves as a connection and delivers
the power stroke from the piston to the crank shaft. These rods are
required to stand very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place
over the piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between the
upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connecting rod bearings
must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent the bearings from cracking
or splitting which will cause the rod to break and which may cause
considerable damage to the crank case.

[Illustration:

  Wrist Pin Bearing

  Upper Half Crank Pin Bearing

  Lower Half Bearing End Overlaps

  Shims

  Bushing

  Rod

  Shims

  Bolts

Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod]

Fig. 7 shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type of crank-shaft
is provided with weights which balance the shaft and carry the momentum
gathered in the revolution.

[Illustration:

  Rear Main Bearing

  Weight

  Center Main Bearing

  Front Main Bearing

  Fly Wheel Attached to this Ring

  Timing Gear Attached Here

  Crank Pin

  Crank Pins

Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft]

[Illustration:

  Main Bearings

Fig. 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft]

Fig. 8 shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing gear
attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to the rear end.
The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five main bearings, which
is an exception, as the majority of motor manufacturers use only three
main bearings to support the crank shaft, while in some of the smaller
motors only two are used. These bearings are always of the split
type, the seat for the upper half is cast into the upper part of the
crank-case, and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half by
four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of the bearing.
Small shims of different sizes are employed between the flanges of
each half of the bearing in order to secure a perfect adjustment which
is very essential, as these bearings are subjected to heavy strains
and severe duty. A shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing
begins to show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing the
metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case opposite the
bearing and the other end to the ear. If the bearing is loose or worn a
dull bump or thud will be heard. This looseness should be taken up by
removing a shim of the proper thickness.

[Illustration:

  Cam Gear

  Bearings

  Cams

  Cams

Fig. 9. Cam Shaft]

Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be found very hard
to adjust as the jar which they are subjected to invariably pounds
them off center which makes readjustment a very difficult task to
accomplish with lasting effect. New main bearings in a motor should
always be scraped to secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting
rod bearing will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined
from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. (Fig. 9.) The
cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located at the base of
the cylinders on the left hand side looking toward the radiator and
carries a set of cams for each cylinder. The cam pushes the valve open,
and holds it in this position, while the piston travels the required
number of degrees of the cycle or stroke.

The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually through a set of
timing gears, and operated at one-half the speed of the crank shaft in
a four cycle motor, as a valve is only lifted once, while the crank
shaft makes two revolutions or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings,
and the timing gears are usually self-lubricating and require very
little attention. Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter
and will be treated in a following chapter under the head of valve
timing.

[Illustration:

  Start Gear

  Key-Seat

  Shaft-Seat

  Cone Clutch Seat

  Disc Clutch Small Disc Bolt on Here

Fig. 10. Flywheel]

The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the crank
case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which will allow
the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of the crank shaft.
The timing gears receive their lubrication from the supply carried in
the reservoir by means of a plunger or piston pump which is operated
from the cam shaft. The balance of the motor is usually lubricated by
a splash system taken up in a later chapter on lubrication. The oil
is carried at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a
glass or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasket made
of paper or fiber is used between the union or connection of the oil
reservoir and the upper half of the crank case to prevent the oil from
working out through the connection.

Fig. 10 represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually keyed to
the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. This wheel is
proportionate in weight to the revolving speed of the motor, which
it keeps in balance by gathering the force of the power stroke. The
momentum gathered by it in this stroke carries the pistons through the
three succeeding strokes called the exhaust, intake, and compression
strokes. The flywheel also serves as a connection between the
power-plant and the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is
located on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on
the flange.




CHAPTER II

VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION


The proper and accurate functional operation of the valves is as
necessary to successful motor operation as the proper adjustment of
a hairspring is to a watch, for if a hairspring becomes impaired in
any way, a watch will not keep correct time. This is the case in a
motor when a valve becomes impaired. The valves in a motor, therefore,
must be considered the most vital part conducive to successful and
economical operation of the motor.

The valves are manufactured from a high grade tungsten or carbon steel,
and are designed to withstand the intense heat which the heads located
in the combustion chambers are subjected to, without warping. A perfect
seat is required to prevent leaking, which will cause low compression
and a weak power impulse, thus reducing the power and harmony of
successful operation.

The poppet valve is used by about ninety-five per cent. of motor
manufacturers. This type of valve is mechanically operated from the
cam shaft at one-half the crank shaft speed, as a valve is lifted only
once in every four strokes, or two revolutions of the crank shaft. The
reduction in speed is accomplished by using a gear on the cam shaft,
twice the size of that on the crank shaft.

The heads and chambers must be kept free from carbon which forms
and bakes into a shale and has a tendency to crack and chip as the
temperature changes in the combustion chambers. These chips are
blown about in the cylinders until they lodge or are trapped by the
descending valves. It then forms a pit on the seat and prevents the
valves from seating properly. This leaves an open space which attracts
more carbon, and the entire functional action of the valve is soon
impaired, necessitating regrinding in order that it may properly seat
again.

Carbon is generated from a poor gas mixture or from excessive use of
lubricating oil and may be considered the chief cause of improper
functional action of the valves.


VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION 8-CYLINDERED V-TYPE ENGINE

[Illustration:

  Valve Head

  Removable Plates

  Cam Shaft

  Valve Head

  Valve Seat

  Valve Seat

  Tappet for Adjusting Valves

  Tappet for Adjusting Valves

Fig. 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement]

Fig. 11 shows the location of the cam shaft, valves, and tappet
adjustment, on a V-shaped engine. The cylinders of this type of engine
are arranged in two blocks, consisting of four cylinders in each,
set directly opposite each other on an angle of 90°. The connecting
rods from opposite cylinders are yoked and take their bearing on the
same crank pin. This arrangement allows the intake and exhaust valves
of each opposite cylinder to operate from a single cam shaft, or in
other words the entire sixteen valves are operated by a single cam
shaft carrying eight cams. Consequently an eight or twelve cylindered
engine is identical in regard to valve timing to either a four or six
cylindered engine.

[Illustration:

  Valve Head

    „   Seat

    „   Guide

    „   Stem

    „   Spring

  Sp. Seat

  Cap Screw

  Tappet

  Lock Nut

  Guide Bushing

  Push Block

  Roller

  Cam

Fig. 12. Poppet Valve]

Fig. 12 shows a poppet valve. This type of valve has only one
adjustment, called the tappet. The adjustment is made by turning the
cap-screw out of the push block until the head comes into contact with
the valve stem. The lock nut on the cap screw is then turned down
tightly to the push block to hold the adjustment. A strong spring is
placed on the valve stem which causes it to close quickly and remain
closed until it comes into contact with the cam.

Valves are set and operate in three different positions as shown in
Fig. 13. The exhaust valve in this case seats on the floor of the
combustion chamber and is operated by the stem which extends through
the casting to the tappet, while the intake valve seats on the upper
wall of the combustion chamber and is operated from over head by a
push-rod extending from the tappet to a rocker-arm. When both valves
are operated from above and seat on the upper wall of the combustion
chamber the motor is referred to as the overhead valve type of motor.
In the majority of motors both valves seat on the floor of the valve
chamber.

[Illustration:

  Rocker Arm

  Valve Stem

  Valve Open

  Valve Seat

  Combustion Chamber

  Tappets

  Cam

  Cam Shaft

  Overhead Type Valve

  Push Rod

  Poppet-Type Valve

Fig. 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation]

=Valve Timing.=--Valve timing is usually accomplished by setting the
first, or exhaust valve cam, to correspond with a mark on the flywheel
and cylinder (shown in Fig. 14).

This is accomplished by lining up the ¹⁄₄, or ¹⁄₆ D-C mark on the
flywheel rim with the center mark on the cylinder block, and means
that ¹⁄₄, or ¹⁄₆, pistons are on upper dead center of the compression
stroke, the flywheel is then turned a trifle until the marks E-C,
or Ex-C, is at upper dead center and in line with the mark on the
cylinder block. This means that the exhaust valve closes at this point.
The cam shaft is then turned in the running direction and the cam shaft
gear meshed at the valve closing or seating point. This is all that is
necessary as the other cams take up correct operation when any one cam
is set properly.

Another method of valve timing used by some motor manufacturers is
shown in Fig. 14. It is simply necessary in this case to line up the
prick punch marks on the timing gears--after getting the first position
on upper D-C of the compression stroke--to acquire correct valve time.
No definite or average scale can be given for valve timing, as all
different types of motors are timed differently. These instructions
must be secured from the manufacturer when the motor is not marked.

[Illustration:

  Cylinder Marks

  Camshaft Gear

  1-4 Pistons on Upper Dead Center

  FLY-WHEEL MARKS

  Running Direction of Fly Wheel

  MARKS LINED UP Timing Gear Punch Marks

  Crankshaft Gear

Fig. 14. Valve Timing Marks]

=Valve Grinding.=--A valve-grinding compound can be purchased at any
garage or service station or one may be compounded by mixing emery
dust with a heavy lubricating oil until a thin paste is formed. The
valve spring is released next by forcing up the tension with a screw
driver or valve lifter. A small H-shaped washer is drawn from a groove
near the end of the stem, which frees the valve; it can then be pushed
up and raised through the guide. A small spring is placed over the
valve stem. This spring should be strong enough to raise the valve
one-half inch above the seat. A thin film of the grinding compound is
evenly applied to the seating face of the valve head, a screw driver
or ratchet fork is set in the groove on the head of the valve, and the
handle rolled between the palms of the hands, covering about one-third
of the distance around the valve seat; the valve is let up after the
motion has been repeated four or five times, and repeated at another
angle until the entire surface of the valve is smoothly ground and
allows the valve to seat perfectly.

=Valves.=--The sleeve valve type of motor was invented several years
ago by Charles A. Knight. He met with some difficulty in having it
manufactured in this country because the lubrication system was thought
to be inadequate and the poppet valve was then at the height of its
popularity with the manufacturer of engines.

Knight took his engine to Europe and made some slight improvements
on it. It was then taken over and manufactured by one of the large
automobile manufacturing companies of that continent and is now being
used by many of the celebrated automobile manufacturers of every
country.

The principle of operation does not differ in any respect from the
ordinary type of four cycle motor, except, that instead of having the
poppet type of valves it has a set of sleeves which slide up and down
on the piston. The sleeves are operated from an eccentric shaft by a
short connecting rod and carry ports which are timed to line up with
the ports of the intake and exhaust manifold ports at the proper time
in the cycle of operation.

Fig. 15 shows the method of timing the sleeves on the four cylinder
engine. First, turn the motor over in the running direction until the
marks (I-4-T-C) on the flywheel are in alignment with the marks on the
cylinder casting. Turn the eccentric shaft in the running direction
until the marks A, B, C, shown in Fig. 15 are lined up, and then apply
the chain.

[Illustration:

  Timer
  Shaft
  Sprocket

  Crank Shaft Sprocket

Fig. 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks--4-Cylinder]

To check up on the timing, back the flywheel up an inch or two and
insert a thin piece of tissue paper into the exhaust port and turn
the engine in the running direction until the paper is pinched, which
signifies that the valve is closed. The marks on the flywheel, timing
gears, and the crank case should be in alignment. Fig. 16 shows a
diagram of the timing marks on the eight cylinder Knight engine. The
method of timing this engine is as follows: (1) Turn the engine over
until the marks I-4-R-H--D-C align with the marks on the crank case.
(2) Turn the eccentric shaft and sprocket until the arrows shown in
Fig. 16 are in line with the guide marks on the front end of the chain
housing. Then put on the chain and check up the timing, using the thin
piece of tissue paper.

[Illustration:

  Eccentric Shaft
  Sprocket Hub

  Mark on
  Eccentric Shaft
  Sprocket

  Guide Mark on
  Crank Case

  Crank Shaft
  Sprocket

Fig. 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks--8-Cylinder]


VALVE CONSTRUCTION

If the sleeve rods are removed for some reason, the bearings should be
fitted very loosely to the eccentric shaft when they are put back. A
looseness of about .008 of an inch is permissible.




CHAPTER III

THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE


The four-cycle or Otto stroke type of gasoline engine should rightly be
called the four-stroke-cycle engine, as it requires four strokes and
two revolutions of the crank shaft to complete one cycle of operation.

This type of motor is used almost universally by the manufacturers
of pleasure cars due to its reliability, and to the ability it has
to furnish continuous power at all speeds with the minimum amount of
vibration.

[Illustration:

  Firing
  Stroke

  Exhaust
  Stroke

  Intake
  Stroke

  Compression
  Stroke

  1

  2

  3

  4

Fig. 17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 1--Cylinder in Action]

Fig. 17 shows a diagram of one cylinder in the four strokes of the
cycle, and the distance traveled by the crank shaft during each stroke.
No. 1 begins with a charge of compressed vapor gas in the cylinder and
is called the firing or power stroke. The ignition system (explained
in a later chapter) furnishes a spark at from five to fifteen degrees
early or before the piston reaches top dead center. Although the stroke
theoretically starts before the piston reaches its highest point of
ascent, the actual pressure or force of the explosion is not exerted
until the piston has crossed dead center. This is due to the fact that
the piston travels very rapidly, and that it requires a small fraction
of a second for spark to ignite the compressed charge of gas. It may,
therefore, be easily seen that, if the spark did not occur until the
piston is on or has crossed dead center, the piston would have traveled
part of the distance of the stroke, and as it is moving away from the
highest point of compression the pressure is reduced by allowing more
volume space which causes a weak explosion and a short power stroke.
The intake and exhaust valves are closed through the duration of the
power stroke.

No. 2. The exhaust stroke begins from fifteen to thirty degrees early,
or before the piston reaches lower dead center on the firing stroke.
The exhaust valve opens at the start of this stroke allowing the
pressure of the burnt or inert gas to escape before the piston begins
to ascend on the upward part of the stroke, and closes seven to ten
degrees late to allow the combustion chamber to clear out before the
next stroke begins.

No. 3. The intake or suction stroke begins with the piston descending
from its highest level to its lowest level. The intake valve opens ten
or twenty degrees late, and as the piston is traveling on its descent,
considerable vacuum pressure has formed which draws suddenly when the
valve opens and starts the gas from the carburetor in full volume. The
entire length of this stroke creates a vacuum which draws a full charge
of vaporized gas into the cylinder through the open intake valve. The
intake valve closes from ten to twenty degrees late in order that the
full drawing force of the vacuum may be utilized while the piston is
crossing lower center.

No. 4. The compression stroke begins at the end of the intake stroke
with both valves closed. The piston ascends from its lowest extreme to
its highest level, compressing the charge of gas which was drawn into
the cylinder on the intake or suction stroke; and at the completion
of this stroke the cylinder is again in position to start No. 1, the
firing stroke, and begin a new cycle of operation. The cam shaft is
driven from the crank shaft through a set of gears or a silent chain,
and operates at one-half the speed of the crank shaft as a valve is
lifted once through the cycle of operation, or two revolutions of the
crankshaft.

[Illustration:

  1

  2

  3

  4

  Firing
  Val. Closed

  Compressing
  Val. Closed

  Exhausting
  Ex. Val. Open

  Intake
  In. Val. Open

Fig. 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine]

Fig. 18 shows the operation of a four-cylindered motor as it would
appear if the cylinder block were removed. The timing or firing order
of the motor shown in this diagram is 1-2-4-3. No. 1 cylinder is always
nearest the radiator and on the left in this diagram. No. 1 cylinder is
firing. The intake and exhaust valve remain closed while this stroke
is taking place. This causes the entire force of the explosion to be
exerted on the head of the receding piston. The cylinders, as may
be seen in the diagram, are timed to fire in succession, one stroke
behind each other. While No. 1 cylinder is on the firing stroke, No.
2 cylinder is compressing with both valves closed and will fire and
deliver another power impulse as soon as No. 1 cylinder completes and
reaches the lowest extreme of its firing stroke. No. 3 cylinder, being
fourth in the firing order, has just completed the firing stroke and is
starting the exhaust stroke which forces the burnt and inert gases out
of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. No. 4 cylinder which
is third in the firing order has just completed the exhaust stroke and
is about to start the intake or suction stroke with the exhaust valve
open. This diagram should be studied and memorized as it is often
necessary to remove the wires which may easily be replaced if the
firing order is known, or found by watching the action of the exhaust
valves and made to conform with the distributor of the ignition system.
(Note the running direction of the distributor brush and connect the
wires up in that direction.) For the firing order given above connect
No. 4 wire to No. 3 distributor post, and No. 3 wire to No. 4 post, as
this cylinder fires last.

[Illustration:

  1-CYL.

  2-CYL.

  4-CYL.

  8-CYL.

Fig. 19. Power Stroke Diagram]

Fig. 19 shows a diagram of the power stroke impulse delivered to the
cycle in a one, two, four, and eight cylindered motor. A complete cycle
consists of 360 degrees, and as there are four strokes to the cycle an
even division would give a stroke of ninety degrees, which is not the
case, however, owing to the fact that the valves do not open and close
at the theoretical beginning and ending point of each stroke which is
upper dead center and lower dead center. The firing or power impulse
stroke begins at approximately five to seven degrees before the piston
reaches upper dead center on the compression stroke and ends from
fifteen to thirty degrees before the piston or cycle of rotation of the
crankshaft reaches lower dead center. This results in a power impulse
of less than ninety degrees, which varies accordingly with valve
timing in the different makes of motors. Consequently we have a power
stroke of a little less than ninety degrees in a one-cylinder motor;
two power strokes of a little less than 180 degrees in a two cylinder
motor, while the power impulse of the four-cylinder motor very nearly
completes the cycle. In the six, eight, and twelve cylinder motor the
power strokes overlap, thereby delivering continuous power of very
nearly equal strength.

=Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors.=--The operation of the twin
cylindered motor varies very little from the single four or six. It
is simply a case where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are
set to a single crank case at an angle which will allow the piston or
connecting rods from the opposite cylinders to operate on a single
crank shaft. When the cylinders are set directly opposite each other
the connecting rods are yoked and take their bearing on a single crank
pin of the crank shaft. This, however, is not always the case, for in
some motors the connecting rods take their bearing side by side on the
crank pin. The cylinders in this case are set to the crank case in a
staggered position to allow the connecting rods from each cylinder to
operate in line with the crank shaft.

The cylinder blocks are usually set to the crank case at an angle of
ninety degrees and are timed to furnish the power impulse or stroke
opposite each other in the cycle of operation. The advantage of this
formation is that two power strokes are delivered in one cycle of
operation, which increases the power momentum and reduces the jar or
shock of the explosion causing a sweet running vibrationless motor.

The valves are usually operated by a single cam shaft located on the
upper inside wall of the crank case. Valve timing is accomplished by
following the marks on the flywheel or lining up the prick punch marks
on the gears, as shown in Chapter II on valves.

When a magneto is used to furnish the current for ignition on an eight
cylinder motor it has to be operated at the same speed as the crank
shaft, as a cylinder is fired at each revolution of the crank shaft and
an interruption of the current is required at the breaker points to
produce the secondary or high tension current at the spark plug gaps.

Twelve cylindered motors are usually equipped with two distributors
or a dual system, or two magnetos driven separately through a set of
timing gears.

=Knight or Sleeve Valve Motor.=--The Knight or sleeve valve motor
operates on the same plan as the ordinary type of motor except that
the valves form a sleeve and slide over the piston. The sleeves are
operated by an eccentric shaft and are provided with ports which are
timed to conform with the ports of the intake and exhaust manifolds at
the proper time.

  MOTOR HORSEPOWER

  S. A. E. SCALE

  FOUR-CYCLE HORSEPOWER RATING

  ------+-------+-------+-------+------
  Bore  | 1 cyl.| 2 cyl.| 4 cyl.| 6 cyl.
  2³⁄₄  | 3.00  | 6.00  |12.00  |18.00
  2⁷⁄₈  | 3.00  | 6.50  |13.00  |20.00
  3.00  | 3.50  | 7.00  |14.50  |21.50
  3¹⁄₄  | 4.00  | 8.50  |17.00  |25.50
  3¹⁄₂  | 5.00  |10.00  |20.00  |29.50
  3³⁄₄  | 5.50  |11.00  |22.50  |34.00
  4.00  | 6.50  |13.00  |25.50  |38.50
  4¹⁄₄  | 7.00  |14.50  |29.00  |43.50
  4¹⁄₂  | 8.00  |16.00  |32.50  |48.50
  4³⁄₄  | 9.00  |18.00  |36.00  |54.00
  5.00  |10.00  |20.00  |40.00  |60.00
  5¹⁄₄  |11.00  |22.00  |44.00  |66.00
  5¹⁄₂  |12.00  |24.00  |48.00  |73.00
  5³⁄₄  |13.00  |26.50  |53.00  |79.50
  6.00  |14.50  |29.00  |57.50  |86.50
  ------+-------+-------+-------+------

  This scale gives the nearest equivalent to the whole or half
  horsepower, as is required by State where licenses are paid at so
  much per horsepower.

                     D² times N
  Formula--S. A. E. ------------ equals horsepower.
                         2.5

For sleeve valve timing see Chapter II on Valves.


DISPLACEMENT

There are probably few men operating cars to-day who fully understand
what is meant by the term displacement, often used in referring
to automobile races. It is one of the main factors or points in
determining the class in which a car is qualified to enter under the
laws that govern races. In looking over a race program, you will note
that there are usually two or more classes, one of which is open, and
another with a limited piston displacement, which gives the smaller
cars a competing chance in their class.

Consequently piston displacement is merely the volume displaced by
all the piston in moving the full length of the stroke. The volume of
a single cylinder is equal to the area of the bore multiplied by the
length of the stroke, and the total displacement of a four cylinder
motor will be four times this and that of a six cylinder motor, six
times this.

Piston displacement:

  D² times S times N times 3.14
  -----------------------------
               4

  Where D equals bore in inches
        S   „    stroke in inches
        N   „    number of cylinders

  Example: Required to find the piston displacement of a 3¹⁄₂ × 5 inch
  four-cylindered motor. D equals 3.5 S equals 5. and N equals 4.

Piston Displacement

  3.5² times 5 times 4 times 3.14
  -------------------------------
                4

  3.5 times 3.5 times 5 times 4 times 3.14
  ----------------------------------------
                     4

equals 173.58 cubic inches.

[Illustration:

  IGNITION COIL
  DELCO GENERATOR

  DISTRIBUTOR

  CONTROL LEVER

  PEDALS
  FAN

  BRAKE LEVER
  FAN BELT

  STARTER SLIDING GEAR CASE

  UNIVERSAL HOUSING
  STARTING CRANK SHAFT

  TRANSMISSION END PLATE
  TIMING GEAR CASE

  TRANSMISSION
  TIMING GEAR HOUSING

  CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING RETAINER GREASE CUP
  WATER PUMP

  MOTOR ARM
  FLY WHEEL HOUSING
  LOWER CRANK CASE
  DRAIN COCK

Fig. 20. Buick Engine--Parts Assembly]

[Illustration:

  VALVE KEY
  VALVE ROCKER ARM PIN
  OIL FILLER WING PLUG
  VALVE ROCKER ARM

  VALVE SPRING CAP
  VALVE ROCKER ARM WICK
  WATER OUTLET

  VALVE SPRING
  SPARK PLUG

  VALVE
  FAN

  VALVE GAGE
  VALVE PUSH ROD

  WATER JACKET

  COMBUSTION SPACE
  WATER INLET

  VALVE LIFTER
  VALVE LIFTER GUIDE

  PISTON PIN

  PISTON
  VALVE LIFTER CLAMP

  OIL PUMP DRIVING GEAR
  FAN BRACKET STUD

  FAN BELT

  CONNECTING ROD

  CRANK SHAFT
  TIMING GEARS

  CONNECTING ROD BEARING
  FAN PULLEY

  CAM SHAFT

  CRANK SHAFT BEARING
  CAM SHAFT BEARING

  STARTING NUT

  OIL PUMP
  GEAR COVER

  UPPER CRANK CASE

  FLY WHEEL
  TIMING GEAR HOUSING

  FLY WHEEL HOUSING
  CHECK VALVE
  WATER PUMP

  DRAIN PLUG
  OIL DIPPER
  SPLASH OIL TROUGH
  VALVE ROLLER

  LOWER CRANK CASE
  CRANK CASE OIL PIPE

Fig. 21. Buick Engine--Location Inside Parts Assembly]

[Illustration:

  ROCKER ARM
  OIL WICK

  WING PLUG
  VALVE STEM

  ROCKER ARM COVER
  VALVE SPRING

  ADJUSTING BALL
  VALVE CAGE NUT

  LOCK NUT

  VALVE CAGE

  WATER JACKET

  VALVE

  SPARK PLUG COVER

  EXHAUST MANIFOLD

  COMBUSTION SPACE

  INTAKE MANIFOLD

  PUSH ROD

  HOT AIR CHAMBER

  VALVE PUSH ROD COVER
  WRIST PIN

  CYLINDER

  VALVE LIFTER CAP
  PISTON

  VALVE LIFTER GUIDE CLAMP

  VALVE LIFTER SPRING

  VALVE LIFTER GUIDE

  VALVE LIFTER

  CAM ROLLER PIN

  CAM ROLLER

  CONNECTING ROD

  CAM SHAFT

  CRANK CASE

  CRANK SHAFT

Fig. 22. Buick Motor--End View]

[Illustration:

  Fan Belt Adjustment

  Split Collar with Locking Cup

  Valve Tappet Adjustment

  Cam Shaft End Thrust Adjustment

  Shims for Adjustment of Connecting Rods

  Oil Passage to Connecting Rod

  Oil Pipe to Piston Ring

  Oil Pump Filter Screen

  Oil Sump Filter Screen

  Oil Pump

  Felt Gasket

  Oil Drain Plugs

Fig. 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine]


LUBRICATION SYSTEMS, OILS, AND GREASES

Special attention should be given to regular lubrication, as this, more
than any one thing, not only determines the life but also the economic
up-keep of the car.

Whenever you hear an owner say that his car is a gas eater, or that
it uses twice or three times as much oil as his neighbor’s, which is
the same model and make, you know at once that he, or some one who has
used the car before him, either did not give sufficient attention to
lubrication, or used a poor grade of oil. It is almost impossible to
impress the importance of the foregoing facts upon the minds of the
average motorist, and we have, as a direct result, a loss of millions
of dollars annually through depreciation.

The manufacturers of automobiles and gasoline engines have earnestly
striven to overcome this negligence by providing their products with
automatically fed oiling systems which alleviate some of the former
troubles. These systems, however, also require some attention to
function properly.

=Grease.=--A medium grade of light hard oil grease is best adapted for
use in grease cups, universal joints, and for packing wheel bearings
and steering gear housings. The transmission and differential operate
more successfully when a lighter grade of grease is used, such as a
graphite compound, or a heavy oil known as 600 W.

=Oils.=--Great care should always be exercised in purchasing
lubricants. None but the best grades should be considered under any
circumstances. The cheaper grades of oil will always prove to be the
most expensive in the end. The ordinary farm machinery oils should
never be used in any case as an engine lubricant, for in most cases
they contain acids, alkalies, and foreign matter which will deteriorate
and destroy the bearings of the motor.

An oil to give the best satisfaction must be a purely mineral or
vegetable composition which will flow freely at a temperature of 33°
Fahrenheit and also stand a temperature of 400° Fahrenheit without
burning. Always choose an oil which is light in color as the darker oil
usually contains much carbon.

=Lubrication= (Lat. _Lubricus_, meaning slippery).---Lubrication is
provided on all types of automobile engines, and at various other
places where moving parts come in contact or operate upon each other.

Three different types of lubricating systems are found in common use.

Fig. 24 shows the splash system. The oil is placed into the crank case
and maintained at a level between two points, marked high and low, on a
float or glass gauge at the lower left-hand side of the crank case. The
oil is usually poured directly into the crank case through a breather
pipe provided to prevent excessive vacuum pressure.

The lower end of the connecting rod carries a spoon or paddle which
dips into the oil at each revolution and splashes it to the cylinder
walls and various bearing surfaces within the motor.

[Illustration: Fig. 24. Splash Oiling]

=Care of the Splash System.=--This type of oiling system does not
require any adjustments, or special care, except that the oil level be
constantly kept between the high and low level marked on the gauge.

=Cleaning the Splash System.=--Lubricating oils lose their
effectiveness and become thin and watery after a certain period of use
due to a fluid deposit called residue which remains in the combustion
chambers after the charge of gas has been fired. This fluid generally
works its way into the crank case, thinning the oil.

The crank case should, therefore, be drained, cleaned, and refilled
with fresh oil every fifth week or thousand miles that the car is
driven. This will prevent much wear and give a quiet and satisfactory
running motor. Draining and washing out the crank case is accomplished
by removing a drain plug at the bottom of the crank case. The old oil
is drained off and thrown away. Kerosene is then poured into the crank
case through the breather pipe until it flows out of the drain clear in
color. The plug is then replaced and the crank case replenished with
fresh oil until the three-quarter from low level is reached on the
gauge. The oil level should be carried as near this point as possible
to obtain the most satisfactory result.

Fig. 25 shows the plunger or piston pump pressure system usually
used in conjunction with the splash system. The oil is carried in a
reservoir at the bottom of the crank case and is drawn through a fine
meshed screen by the oil pump, which is of the plunger type operated
off the cam shaft. It forces the oil through copper tubes in the three
main bearings. The front and center bearings have an outlet which
furnishes the oil to the gears in front and to the troughs in which the
connecting rods dip. The troughs have holes drilled to keep the level
of the oil, the surplus being returned to the reservoir.

[Illustration:

  PLUNGER PUMP AND STRAINER
  OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT
  FRONT BEARING LINE

  REAR BEARING LINE
  CENTER BEARING LINE
  OIL FLOAT LEVEL

Fig. 25. Plunger Pump Oiling System]

There is a pipe line running from the pump to the gear case with a
screw adjustment to regulate the oil pressure by turning either in or
out. There is a pipe line running to a gauge on the dash which gives
the pressure at all times. The cam shaft and cylinder walls get the
oil by the splash from the connecting rods. The bottom rings of the
pistons wash the oil back into the crank case. The overflow from the
front bearings falls into a small compartment immediately under the
crank shaft gear where it is picked up by this gear and carried to the
other gears and the bearings of the water pump shaft. A small oil throw
washer on the pump shaft prevents any surplus oil from being carried
out on the shaft or the hub of the fan drive pulley. Any overflow from
the gear compartment is carried immediately to the splash pan where it
provides for the splash lubrication of the connecting rod bearings and
the cylinder walls. The dippers on the connecting rod bearings should
go ¹⁄₄ in. beneath the surface of the oil. The upward stroke of the oil
pump plunger draws the oil through the lower ball check into the pump
body and the downward stroke discharges it through the upper ball check
into the body of the plunger which is hollow and has outlets on either
side. This allows the oil to flow from the plunger into the by-pass in
the oil pump body and then into the lines running to the main crank
shaft bearings. The next upward stroke forces the oil through the lines
to the main bearings.

The oil pressure regulator is located on the body of the pump and
connects to the by-pass. It consists of a hollow sleeve screwed into
the body of the pump which has a small ball check held by a short
coiled spring the tension of which determines the oil pressure. The
tension and the pressure may be increased by turning the nut to the
right. The nut should not be given more than one turn at a time in
either direction as it is very sensitive. A loose main bearing will
allow more oil to pass through it. Consequently the pressure registered
on the oil gauge will be reduced. This will come about gradually. It
is not advisable to attempt to adjust the oil pressure without first
noting the condition of the main crank shaft bearings.

The most common cause of failure to operate is the collection of
dust and dirt on the sleeve at the lower end of the pump or from an
accumulation of sediment back of the ball check. This needs to be
cleaned from time to time.

=Force and Gravity Oiling System.=--The force and gravity oiling
system operates in much the same manner as the plunger pump system,
except that the oil is pumped into an elevated tank from which it
flows through lines by gravity to the various bearings. Oil pumps,
however, differ in construction and some manufacturers use eccentric,
centrifugal, and gear pumps. Oil pumps are very simple in construction
and action and can be readily understood by recalling their functional
action.

Oil pumps rarely give any trouble, and if they fail to function
properly, dirt should be immediately suspected, and the ball valves and
pipes inspected and cleaned.




CHAPTER IV

BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION


A carburetor is a metering device whose function is to mechanically
blend liquid fuel with a certain amount of air to produce as nearly a
homogeneous mixture as possible, and in such proportions as will result
in as perfect an explosive mixture as can be obtained.

If a gas is used as a fuel it is of course not so difficult to obtain
a homogeneous mixture due to the intimacy with which a gas will
mechanically mix with air. This intimacy is a result of the minuteness
of the molecules of both the gas and the air. With a liquid fuel, such
as gasoline, however, it is quite different, especially with low test
gasoline. If it were possible to completely transfer the liquid fuel
into its vapor the latter would act as a gas and would, therefore,
mix with the air to form a homogeneous mixture. It should be, and is,
therefore, the aim of the carburetor designer to produce an instrument
which will atomize the fuel and break it up into small particles so
that every minute particle of the fuel will be surrounded by a correct
proportion of air when it is discharged into the intake manifold of the
motor. To facilitate the vaporization of these minute particles of fuel
it is advisable to preheat the air taken into the carburetor, thereby
furnishing the necessary heat units required to vaporize the fuel by
virtue of its physical property known as its latent heat of evaporation.

There is a range of proportions of air to vapor, for a given fuel,
between which combustion will obtain. This range extends from that
proportion known as the upper limit of combustion to that known as the
lower limit of combustion. The upper limit is reached when the ratio of
air to vapor is a maximum at which combustion will take place; that
is to say, any addition of air in excess of this maximum will render
the mixture non-combustible. The lower limit is reached when the ratio
of air to vapor is a minimum at which combustion will take place, any
decrease of air below this minimum producing a non-combustible mixture.
It should be remembered that the limits of combustion of any fuel with
air are dependent upon the temperature and pressure.

[Illustration:

  Carburetor Flange
  Throttle Valve

  Throttle Stem or Shaft

  Large Venturi
  Idle Discharge Jet

  Idle Adjustment Needle

  High Speed Adjustment Needle

  Small Venturi

  Float Needle

  Air Bleeder

  Mixture Control Valve or Choker

  Float

  Accelerating Well

  Idling Tube

  Strainer

  Float Needle Seat

  High Speead Needle Seat

  Strainer Body

  Gasoline Connection

  Drain Plug

Fig. 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor--Sectional View]

Under given temperature and pressure the rate at which the combustible
mixture will burn depends upon the ratio of air to vapor. This rate
of burning is known as the rate of propagation, and it is apparent
that it is desirable to obtain a mixture whose rate of propagation is
a maximum, because the force of the explosion will depend upon the
rapidity with which the entire mixture is completely ignited.

The limits of combustion of gasoline (.70 sp. gr.) can be taken
approximately as follows: lower limit, 7 parts air (by weight) to 1
part gasoline, upper limit, 20 parts air to 1 part gasoline.

=The Stromberg Plain Tube Model M Carburetor.=--A plain tube carburetor
is one in which both the air and the gasoline openings are fixed in
size, and in which the gasoline is metered automatically, without the
aid of moving parts by the suction of air velocity past the jets.

Fig. 26 shows a longitudinal section of a type M plain tube carburetor,
and shows the location of the gasoline when the motor is at rest.
The various parts are indicated by names and arrows. An elementary
requirement of a carburetor is that as a metering device it shall
properly proportion the gasoline and air throughout the entire
operating range.

[Illustration: Fig. 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Air Bleeder
Action]

In the carburetor under discussion this mixture proportioning is
properly maintained by the use of what is termed the air bleed jet.
Fig. 27 shows the principle of the action of the air bleeder. The
gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes the point of the high speed
adjusting needle, and rises through a vertical channel “B.” Air is
taken in through the air bleeder “C,” and discharged into the gasoline
channel before the latter reaches the jet holes in the small venturi
tube “E.” The result is that the air thus taken in breaks up the flow
of gasoline and produces a finely divided emulsion. Upon reaching the
jet holes of the small venturi tube this emulsion is discharged into
the high velocity air stream in the form of a finely divided mist. If
the reader will recall how thoroughly a soap bubble divides itself when
it bursts, he will readily appreciate how completely the air bleed jet
will atomize the fuel.

Before explaining the operation of the accelerating well it is
advisable to know the reason for its existence. Suppose we had a large
tube such as the intake manifold of a motor through which air and
particles of gasoline were flowing due to a certain suction at one end.
What would be the result if we suddenly increased the suction? It would
be this: Due to the fact that air is so much lighter than gasoline,
the air would respond almost instantly to the increased suction and
its flow would be accelerated very suddenly, whereas the particles of
gasoline, owing to that characteristic known as inertia, would not
respond so rapidly, and due to its heavier weight its flow would not
accelerate as much as the air. This would mean that the air would rush
ahead of the gasoline particles, and the proportion of air to gasoline
would be greater until the inertia forces had been overcome and the
gasoline particles responded completely to the increased suction. This
very thing will take place in a carburetor unless provision is made
for it. That is to say a sudden opening of the throttle will tend
toward producing a very lean mixture at the motor due to the lagging
of the gasoline explained above. A lean mixture at this time, when
acceleration is desired, would obviously be detrimental to the result
wanted. It is at this particular time that additional gasoline is most
desirable in order to compensate for the lagging gasoline and maintain
the proper mixture at the motor. In the Stromberg carburetor this is
accomplished by means of the accelerating well shown in Fig. 28. The
operation is as follows: The action is based upon the principle of
the ordinary U tube. If a U tube contains a liquid, and if pressure
is applied to one arm of the tube, or what is the same, if suction is
applied to the other arm, it is self-evident that the level of the
liquid will rise in the arm on which the suction is applied and will
drop in the other arm. So it is in the construction of the accelerating
well. Referring to the illustration, Fig. 28, the space “F” forms the
one arm of the U tube, and the space “B” the other arm. These spaces
communicate with each other through the holes “G” thus forming a
modified form of U tube.

[Illustration: Fig. 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Accelerating Well]

When the motor is idling or retarding in speed, the accelerating well
or space “F” fills with gasoline. Now when the throttle is opened,
thereby increasing the suction in the venturi tube, the following
takes place: atmospheric pressure at the bleeder “C” exerts itself
on the gasoline in the space “F” forcing the liquid down to join the
regular flow from “H” and passing up the space “B” and out into the
high velocity air stream through the small venturi tube. While the
well acts the flow of gasoline is more than double the normal rate of
flow, thereby compensating for the lagging of the gasoline referred to
previously.

Upon close observation it will be noticed that there is a series of
small holes down the wall of the well. Referring to the analogy of
the U tube, these holes directly connect the two arms of the U tube.
It is obvious that the smaller and fewer these holes, the faster will
the well empty, due to the U tube suction, and the larger and more
these holes, the slower will the well empty. It is therefore apparent
that the rate of discharge of the well can be regulated as required by
different motors, different grades of gasoline, different altitudes,
etc., by inserting wells of different drillings. The action of the well
is also dependent upon the size of the hole in the bleeder “C” because
it is the relative area of this hole in the bleeder as compared to the
area of the holes in the well which determine the rate at which the
well will empty.

The foregoing characteristics of the model M carburetor have dealt more
with the open throttle or high speed operation. We shall now consider
the operation when the motor is idling. Earlier types of carburetors,
when high test and very volatile gasoline was employed, were designed
with a mixing chamber in which the gasoline, after being discharged
from the nozzle, would mix with the air and evaporate very freely.
Present day gasoline, however, is considerably heavier and very much
less volatile, and we therefore cannot depend upon its volatility to
accomplish its vaporization.

[Illustration: Fig. 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Idling Operation]

Fig. 29 shows the arrangement and idling operation of the model M
Stromberg carburetor. Concentric and inside of the passage “B” is
located the idling tube “J.” When the motor is idling, that is, when
the throttle is practically closed, the action which takes place is
as follows: the gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes through
the passage “H” into the idling tube through the hole “I,” thence up
through the idling tube “J” to the idling jet “L.” Air is drawn through
the hole “K” and mixes with the gasoline to form a finely divided
emulsion which passes on to the jet “L.” It will be noted that this jet
directs the gasoline-air emulsion into the manifold just above the lip
of the throttle valve. Inasmuch as this throttle valve is practically
closed the vacuum created at the entrance of the jet “L” is very high
and exceeds 8 pounds per square inch. It is obvious, therefore, with
this condition existing, that the gasoline will be drawn into the
manifold in a highly atomized condition. It is well to call attention
here to the fact that the low speed adjusting screw “F” operates a
needle valve which controls the amount of air which passes through the
hole “K,” and it is the position of this needle valve which determines
the idling mixture.

[Illustration: Fig. 30. Stromberg Carburetor--Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open]

As the throttle is slightly opened from the idling position a suction
is created in the throat of the small venturi tube as well as at the
idling jet. When idling the suction is greater at the idling jet,
and when the throttle is open the suction is greater at the small
venturi tube. At some intermediate position of the throttle there
is a time when the suction at the idling jet is equal to that at the
small venturi, and, therefore, at this particular time the gasoline
will follow both channels to the manifold. This condition which is
illustrated in Fig. 30 lasts but a very short while, because as the
throttle is opened wider the suction at the small venturi tube rapidly
becomes greater than that at the idling jet. The result is that the
idling tube and idling jet are thrown entirely out of action, the level
of the gasoline in the idling tube dropping as illustrated in Fig. 31,
where the throttle is shown to be wide open, in which case all of the
gasoline enters the manifold by way of the holes in the small venturi
tube.

[Illustration: Fig. 31. Stromberg Carburetor--Throttle Wide Open]

It will be remembered that at this position of the throttle the
accelerating well has emptied, and therefore there is a direct passage
for air from the bleeder to the gasoline in the main passage giving the
air bleed jet feature explained before. This is being mentioned again
in order to call attention to the fact that care should be taken not
to use too large a bleeder, because the air which enters through the
bleeder partly determines the mixture, and if the bleeder hole is too
large the mixture is very apt to be too lean at high speeds.

Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph of one of the type M Stromberg
carburetor. Before discussing the installation and adjusting of this
carburetor it will be well to say a few words concerning the use of the
venturi tube and its construction.

The object in using the venturi tube in carburetor design is to produce
a maximum air velocity at the jet and at the same time not cause undue
restriction. This high air velocity creates the suction necessary
to properly atomize the gasoline. The use of the double venturi
tube construction has developed the best possible results. In this
construction the mouth of the smaller venturi tube is located at the
throat of the larger one, and with this arrangement the highest degree
of atomization is attainable, and at the same time the air restriction
is held down to a minimum.

In order that any carburetor may do justice to what is claimed for it,
it is absolutely essential that the motor on which it is installed is
in good condition in other respects because, besides poor carburetion,
there are numerous things about an internal combustion engine which
will cause its poor operation. Therefore, assuming that the following
conditions exist, we can proceed with the installation of the
carburetor and after adjusting it we can expect very good results as to
the operation of the motor.

1. The ignition should be properly timed so that with a retarded spark
the explosion takes place when the piston of the cylinder in which the
explosion occurs is at its upper dead center.

2. The inlet and exhaust valves should be so timed that they open and
close at the proper time during the cycle. In this respect a motor is
usually timed when it comes from the manufacturer.

3. The valves should be ground in so that they form a perfect seal
with the valve seat. Any accumulation of carbon on the upper part of
the exhaust should be removed so as to prevent the valve stem from
sticking in the guide and thereby not permitting the valve to close
upon its seat.

4. Any undue wear of the valve stem guides should be corrected because
the clearance between the stem and the walls of the guide will permit
air to be drawn up into the motor thus ruining the mixture from the
carburetor. Similarly any leaky flange at any joint along the intake
system will produce the same detrimental result.

[Illustration: Fig. 32. Stromberg Model M--Adjustment Points]

5. All piston rings should be tight and leak proof in order to insure
good and even compression in all the cylinders. Without good and even
compression in all the cylinders it is impossible to obtain the maximum
power from the motor, and it is also impossible to obtain good idling
of the motor.

6. It should be seen that the ignition system is delivering a spark to
each spark plug without missing.

7. The spark plugs should be clean, and the accumulation of carbon on
the inside of the plug should not be sufficient to cause fouling or
short-circuiting of the plug. In the case of a short circuited plug it
is impossible to obtain a spark at the end of the high tension cable,
but this does not indicate that the plug is firing. For best results
the gap of the spark plug should never be less than .020″ nor more than
.032″. A good setting is at about .025″.

The foregoing constitute some of the more important troubles to look
for when the motor is not performing satisfactorily.

=Installation and Adjusting.=--We are finally ready to proceed with
instructions for installing and adjusting Model M carburetors.

1. Try the throttle lever and the air horn lever by moving same with
the hand before the carburetor is installed, and be sure that the
butterfly valves are open to the limit when the respective levers come
in contact with their stops. Also be sure that when the throttle valve
is closed, the lower side of the butterfly is adjacent to the hole
through which the idling jet projects.

2. Prepare a paper gasket about .020″ thick to fit the flange of the
carburetor. Shellac same and then attach the carburetor to the flange
of the intake manifold very securely by means of proper cap screws.

The attaching of the gasoline line, hot-air stove, hot air flexible
tubing, and choke control need not be discussed in detail as these
installations are very simple.

After having properly installed the carburetor on the motor, turn
both the high and low speed adjusting screws, A and B, completely
down clockwise so that the needle valves just touch their respective
seats. Then unscrew (anti-clockwise) the high speed adjusting screw
A about three turns off the seat, and turn the low speed adjusting
screw B anti-clockwise about one and one-half turns off the seat.
These settings are not to be considered as final adjustments of the
carburetor. They are merely to be taken as starting points because the
motor will run freely with these settings.

After the motor has been started, permit it to run long enough to
become thoroughly warm then make the high speed adjustment. Advance
the spark to the position for normal running. Advance the gas throttle
until the motor is running at approximately 750 r. p. m. Then turn down
on the high speed screw A gradually notch by notch until a slowing down
of the motor is observed. Then turn up or open the screw anti-clockwise
until the motor runs at the highest rate of speed for that particular
setting of the throttle.

To make the low speed adjustment B proceed as follows: Retard the spark
fully and close the throttle as far as possible without causing the
motor to come to a stop. If upon idling the motor tends to roll or load
it is an indication that the mixture is too rich and therefore the
low speed screw B should be turned away from the seat anti-clockwise,
thereby permitting more air to enter into the idling mixture. It is
safe to say that the best idling results will be obtained when the
screw B is not much more or less than one and one-half turns off the
seat.

After satisfactory adjustments have been made with the motor vehicle
stationary, it is most important and advisable to take the vehicle out
on the road for further observation and finer adjustments. If upon
rather sudden opening of the throttle the motor backfires, it is an
indication that the high speed mixture is too lean, and in this case
the high speed screw A should be opened one notch at a time until the
tendency to backfire ceases. On the other hand if when running along
with throttle open, the motor rolls or loads, it is an indication that
the mixture is too rich, and this condition is overcome by turning the
high speed screw A down (clockwise) until this loading is eliminated.


STROMBERG MODEL L CARBURETOR

There are three adjustments; the high speed, the extremely low speed or
idle, and the “economizer.”

The high speed is controlled by the knurled nut “A” which locates the
position of the needle “E” past whose point is taken all the gasoline
at all speeds. Turning nut “A” to the right (clockwise) raises the
needle “E” and gives more gasoline, to the left, or anticlockwise, less.

[Illustration: Fig. 33. Stromberg Model “L”--Adjustment Points]

If an entirely new adjustment is necessary, use the following practice.
Put economizer “L” in the 5th notch (or farthest from float chamber)
as an indicator, turn nut “A” to the left, anticlockwise, until needle
“E” reaches its seat, as shown by nut “A” not moving when throttle is
opened and closed. When needle “E” is in its seat it can be felt to
stick slightly when nut “A” is lifted with the fingers. Find adjustment
of “A” where it just begins to move with the throttle opening, then
give 24 notches to the right or clockwise (the notches can be felt).
Then move the economizer pointer “L” back to the 0 notch (toward float
chamber). This will give a rich adjustment. After starting and warming
up the motor, thin out the mixture by turning “A” anticlockwise, and
find the point where the motor responds best to quick opening of the
throttle, and shows the best power.

The gasoline for low speed is taken in above the throttle through a
jet at “K” and is regulated by dilution with air as controlled by the
low speed adjusting screw “B.” Screwing “B” in clockwise gives more
gasoline; outward, less. The best adjustment is usually ¹⁄₂ to 3 turns
outward from a seating position. Note that this is only an idling
adjustment and does not effect the mixture above 8 miles per hour.
When motor is idling properly there should be a steady hiss in the
carburetor; if there is a weak cylinder or manifold leak, or if the
idle adjustment is very much too rich, the hiss will be unsteady.

The economizer device operates to lean out the mixture by lowering the
high speed needle “E” and nut “A” a slight but definitely regulated
amount at throttle positions corresponding to speeds from 5 to 40 miles
per hour. The amount of drop and consequent leaning is regulated by the
pointer “L.”

After making the high speed adjustment for best power, with pointer “L”
in 0 notch, as above described, place throttle lever on steering wheel
to a position giving about 20 miles per hour road speed. Then move
pointer “L” clockwise (away from float chamber), one notch at a time,
till motor begins to slow down. Then come back one notch.

The amount of economizer action needed depends upon the grade of
gasoline and upon the temperature.

In the mid-west the best economizer adjustment will usually be the
third or fourth notch. With Pennsylvania gasoline and in the South, the
2nd notch; while on the Pacific coast no economizer is necessary unless
distillate (which should not be below 59 degrees Baume) is used. Also
fewer notches economizer action will be necessary in summer than in
winter.




CHAPTER V

“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR


[Illustration: Fig. 34. Sunderman Carburetor]

Fig. 34 shows a through section of the new “Nitro”-Sunderman
carburetor. This is practically a new model presented to the automobile
industry for 1919 and 1920. It is claimed that it is an exact
fulfillment of the long sought method of accurate compensation. It is
of the single plain tube design with a single gasoline nozzle in the
shape of a mushroom placed in the center of the air passage. Around
this nozzle, however, rests the floating venturi which is a large end
and small center floating air tube seen in Fig. 35 which hurries the
air at low speeds and checks the rush at high velocities. Fig. 35 shows
the commencement of action at idling speeds, and as the gasoline for
idling comes from the same nozzle which furnishes the maximum power,
an air by-pass is provided to reduce the suction on the nozzle at low
speeds. The one single adjustment on this type of carburetor is shown
at (X) in Fig. 36, and is used only to control the passage of air
through the by-pass at idling or low speeds. In Fig. 34 the engine’s
demand has increased to a point where the suction is greater than the
weight of the venturi, which causes it to rise on the air stream, and
open up the air passage around the head of the nozzle. This allows the
compensation for the correct ratios of the air and gasoline mixtures.

[Illustration: Fig. 35. Sunderman Carburetor]

In Fig. 37 the venturi closes the air by-pass and under full suction,
gives the maximum area around the nozzle for leaner mixtures and full
volumetric. The unrestricted air passage in the plain tube type of
carburetor is here worked out to its fullest development.

[Illustration: Fig. 36. Sunderman Carburetor]

=The Venturi.=--This is a stream line air passage tapered to a narrow
throat near the center which increases the velocities without offering
a restriction to the free air passage, and being of a very loose fit
in the carburetor, is allowed to float up and down on the air stream
around the nozzle over which it automatically centers at all times.
The venturi goes into action slowly as it is retarded by the action of
the air by-pass, but rises fast when the latter is cut off. It rides
on the air stream at a perfect balance and offers no resistance to
the air passage because of its stream line taper, and as the venturi
float is sensitive to a fine degree, it is ready for any change in the
motor suction and compensates accordingly. The jet tube running up into
the mushroom head contains a jet which is drilled for the particular
requirements of the motor on which the carburetor is installed. This
jet feeds into the mushroom head which is drilled with four small holes
which spread the gasoline by capillary action in a fine fan film to
all sides of the under surfaces of the slot. Here the ascending air
picks it off at right angles to its path in a very fine vapor. This
vapor is carried up the stream line venturi without cross currents and
is in a finely mixed state of flame-propagation. The heavier fuels are
readily broken up with this nozzle and straight kerosene has been used
with success. This carburetor does not require any other care than a
thorough cleaning out once or twice in a season.

[Illustration: Fig. 37. Sunderman Carburetor]


THE SCHEBLER MODEL “R” CARBURETOR

Fig. 38 shows a section view of operation and adjustment on the model
“R” Schebler carburetor. This carburetor is designed for use on both
four and six cylindered motors. It is of the single jet raised needle
type, automatic in action, the air valve controlling the needle valve
through a leverage arrangement. This leverage attachment automatically
proportions the amount of gasoline and air mixture at all speeds. This
type of carburetor has but two adjustments. The low speed adjustment
which is made by turning the air valve cap and an adjustment on the
air valve spring for changing its tension. (A) shows the air valve
adjusting cap. (B) is the dash control leverage attachment. (C) is the
air valve and jet valve connection. (D) is the boss that raises the jet
valve needle and lowers the spring tension on the air valve giving a
rich mixture in starting. The needle valve seats in E and controls the
nozzle spray. (F) is the air valve spring tension adjusting screw.

[Illustration: Fig. 38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled]

=Model R Adjustment.=--To adjust this carburetor turn the air valve
cap to the right until it stops, then to the left one complete turn,
start the motor with the throttle ¹⁄₄ open; after it is warmed up
turn the air valve cap to the left until the motor hits perfectly.
Advance throttle ³⁄₄ on quadrant. If the engine backfires turn screw
(F) up, increasing the tension on the air spring until acceleration is
satisfactory.




CHAPTER VI

THE STEWART CARBURETOR


Fig. 39 shows the Stewart carburetor used on Dodge Brothers cars,
which is of the float feed type in which a fine spray of gasoline
is drawn from an aspirating tube by a current of air induced by the
engine pistons. The supply of gasoline being regulated by a float
which actuates a needle valve controlling the outlet of the feed pipe.
This tube is also called the spray nozzle. This type of carburetor is
commonly used on automobile engines.

It consists of a float chamber containing a float, functions of which
are described below, a mixing chamber in which the gasoline spray is
reduced to vapor and mixed with air (i. e., “carbureted” in proper
proportion).

The float and valve maintain a constant or even supply of gasoline for
the carburetor.

The gasoline flows from the filter Z into the float chamber C through
the inlet valve G, which is directly actuated by the float F, so that
it closes or opens as the float rises or falls. As the float rises the
valve is closed until the float reaches a certain predetermined level,
at which the valve is entirely closed. If the float falls below this
level because of a diminishing supply of gasoline in the float chamber,
the valve is automatically opened and sufficient fresh gasoline is
admitted to bring the level up to the proper point. From the foregoing
it will be seen that the float chamber in reality serves as a reservoir
of constant supply, in which any pressure to which the gasoline has
been subjected in order to force it from the tank is eliminated. When
the engine is running gasoline is, of course, being constantly drawn
off from the float chamber through the aspirating tube L, as will
be described later, to meet the requirements of the motor, but in
practice the resulting movement of the inlet valve is very slight and
hence the flow of gasoline into the float chamber is nearly constant.

The gasoline inlet valve is also called the “needle valve.”

[Illustration: Fig. 39. Stewart Carburetor]

Between the float chamber C and the engine connection of the carburetor
is an enclosed space called the mixing chamber O. This compartment is
provided with a valve for the ingress of free air.

Extending into the mixing chamber from a point below the surface of the
gasoline in the float chamber is a passage, L for gasoline, ending with
a nozzle, so constructed that gasoline drawn through it will come forth
in a very fine spray. This is called the aspirating tube, atomizer, or
more commonly, the spray nozzle.

The air inlet AA to the mixing chamber on the carburetor used on the
Dodge is in the shape of a large tube extending from the carburetor to
a box on the exhaust manifold. Air supplied from this source is heated
in order that vaporization of gasoline may be more readily accomplished.

A cold air regulator is interposed between this tube and the carburetor
proper so that in hot weather cool air may be admitted. This should
always be closed when the temperature of the atmosphere is below 60 F.

The action of the carburetor is as follows: The suction created by
the downward stroke of the pistons draws air into the mixing chamber
through the air ducts (drilled holes HH). The same suction draws a
fine spray of gasoline through the aspirating tube L (spray nozzle)
into the same compartment, and the air, becoming impregnated with the
gasoline vapor thus produced, becomes a highly explosive gas. In order
that the proportion of air and gasoline vapor may be correct for all
motor speeds, provision is made by means of a valve A for the automatic
admission of larger quantities of both at high motor speeds. The
ducts are open at all times, but the valve is held to its seat by its
weight until the suction, increasing as the motor speed increases, is
sufficient to lift it and admit a greater volume of air. The valve A
is joined to the tube L, hence the latter is raised when the valve is
lifted and the ingress of proportionately larger quantities of gasoline
is made possible. This is accomplished by means of a metering pin P
normally stationary, projecting upward into the tube L. The higher the
tube rises the smaller is the section of the metering pin even with its
opening, and hence the greater is the quantity of gasoline which may be
taken into the tube. The carburetor thus automatically produces the
correct mixture and quantity for all motor speeds.

The metering pin is subject to control from the dash, as will be
explained later, by means of a rack N, and pinion M. To change the
fixed running position of the pin, turn the stop screw to the right
or left. Turning this screw to the right lowers the position of the
metering pin and turning it to the left raises it. As the pin is
lowered more gasoline is admitted to the aspirating tube at a given
motor speed, thus enriching the mixture.

A wider range of adjustment of the position of the metering pin may be
had by releasing the clamp of the pinion shaft lever and changing its
position with relation to the shaft. This should never be attempted by
any save experts in this class of work.

The carburetor used on the Dodge Brothers car is so nearly automatic in
its action that it is not effected by climatic conditions, or changes
in altitude or temperature. It automatically adjusts itself to all
variations of atmosphere. It is, therefore, wise to see if the causes
of any troubles which may develop are not due to derangements elsewhere
than at the carburetor before attempting any changes of its adjustment.

Make all adjustments with dash adjustment all the way in.

The metering pin should not be tampered with unless absolutely
necessary.

If replacement of this pin should become necessary, it may be
accomplished as follows: First, remove the cap nut at the bottom of the
rack and pinion housing. Next, turn pinion shaft slowly from right to
left (facing toward the carburetor) until the bottom of the metering
pin appears at the bottom of the pinion shaft housing. Continue to
turn the shaft slowly in the same direction, releasing the connection
to the dash control if necessary, until the rack to which the pin is
fastened drops out. The palm of the hand should be held to receive this
as the parts are very loosely assembled. The pinion shaft should be
retained at the exact position at which the rack is released. Install a
new metering pin, the way to do this will be obvious, and return the
rack to its proper mesh with the pinion. Replace dash attachment (if
detached), replace cap, adjust per instructions given on previous page.

The loose assembling of the metering pin in the rack is for the purpose
of providing for freedom of movement of the metering pin and in order
that binding in the aspirating tube may be avoided.

The gasoline filter is installed on the carburetor at a point where the
fuel pipe is connected.

The pressure within the gasoline tank forces the fuel through the pipe,
through the filter screen (ZO in the filter) and thence out through the
opening to the carburetor.

The filter cap CC may be removed by turning the flanged nut on the
bottom of carburetor to the left, thus releasing the inlet fitting.

The filter screen or strainer should occasionally be cleaned. This may
be readily accomplished by removing the filter cap to which the screen
is attached.

The filter should be screwed up tight when replaced.




CHAPTER VII

THE CARTER CARBURETOR


[Illustration: Fig. 40--Carter Carburetor]

Fig. 40 shows the Carter carburetor which embodies a radically new
principle. It belongs to the multiple-jet type, but possesses this
striking difference, variations in fuel level are utilized to determine
the number of jets in action at any time. The variations in fuel level
occur in a vertical tube known as the “stand pipe.” They take place in
instant response to the slightest change in the suction exerted by the
engine. As this suction depends directly on the engine’s speed, it can
clearly be seen that this provides a marvelously sensitive means of
automatic control. A large number of exceedingly small jets are bored
spirally around the upper portion of this tube. As a result, the level
at which the fuel stands within it, determines the number of jets from
which delivery is being made at any instant and the gasoline supply
is always directly proportioned to the engine speed, however suddenly
changes in speed take place. Owing to the comparatively large number
of these jets, their exceedingly small size, and their correspondingly
short range of action, the flow of fuel is absolutely uninterrupted.

The instrument is permanently adjusted for low and intermediate speeds
at the time of installation. An auxiliary air valve controlled from
dash or steering post forms the high speed adjustment as well as
affording a means of securing absolute uniformity of mixture under
widely varying conditions of weather, temperature, or altitude,
directly from the driver’s seat. A simple method of enabling each
cylinder to such a rich priming charge direct from the float chamber is
another valuable feature that obviates all need of priming and insures
easy starting in the coldest winter weather.




CHAPTER VIII

THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR MODEL “FORD A”


[Illustration: Fig. 41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A--Sectional View

  D--CHOKER OR SHUTTER IN AIR
  BEND.

  BE--LEVERS CLOSING CHOKER,
  OPERATED FROM STEERING
  COLUMN AND FRONT OF
  RADIATOR.

  H--LOW SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING
  NEEDLE.

  I--HIGH SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING
  NEEDLE.

  K--IDLE AND LOW SPEED BYPASS.

  M--ACCELERATION WELL.

  P--PILOT OPENING.]

The Pilot tube principle is introduced for the first time in the
carburetor and this Pilot tube or improved type of gasoline nozzle is
so designed or built that it automatically furnishes a rich mixture for
acceleration and thins out this mixture after the normal motor speed
has been reached. This furnishes a very economical running mixture at
all motor speeds, together with a smooth and positive acceleration.

The importance of this Pilot tube or nozzle principle cannot be over
emphasized, as it furnishes a flexible, powerful and economical
mixture, without the addition of any complicated parts. The Ford “A”
carburetor has no parts to wear or get out of adjustment.

[Illustration: Fig. 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A--Adjustment
Points]

Two gasoline needle adjustments are furnished. One for low speed and
idling and one for high speed. These adjustments have been found
advisable and necessary to properly handle the present heavy grades
of fuel and the variations in the motor due to wear, etc. Those
adjustments also insure the attaining of the widest range of motor
speed.

A double choker is furnished, and with these controls the Ford can be
easily started under the most severe weather conditions and the mixture
controlled from the driver’s seat.

With the Ford “A” carburetor a low speed of four to five miles an
hour can be secured without any loading or missing. Also, with this
carburetor the maximum speed and power of the motor are obtained.


INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING AND ADJUSTING THE SCHEBLER FORD “A”
CARBURETOR

First, remove the Ford carburetor from the manifold, also the dash
board control, the hot air drum, and tubing, and the radiator choke
wire. Be sure to save the cotter pin used in the throttle control.

Install the Schebler carburetor, using gasket and cap screws which are
furnished with the equipment. The gasoline connection is the same as
regularly furnished on the Ford equipment and no other connections are
necessary. Screw the connections on the Ford gasoline line onto the
connection furnished on the carburetor. Attach the hot air drum and
the tubing to the exhaust manifold and run the choke wire through the
radiator.

Before adjusting carburetor, see that the spark plugs are clean and
set about .035, or nearly the thickness of a new dime. See that the
compression is good and equal on all four cylinders. See that the timer
is clean and in good shape, as an occasional miss is due to the roller
in the timer becoming worn. Also, be sure that there is no leak in the
intake manifold.

The steering post control must be set so that the tubing is fastened
into set screw (A) and the control wire is fastened through the binding
post in lever (B) with steering post control or plunger pushed clear
in and the butterfly shutter (D) in the hot air horn or bend open, so
that when the plunger control is pulled out the wire (C) in the binding
post (B) on lever closes the shutter (D) almost completely. This will
furnish a rich mixture for starting and warming up the motor under
normal weather conditions.

The wire running to the front of the radiator must be attached to lever
(E) so that when the motor is cold, the shutter (D) can be closed
tight, thus insuring positive starting. However, this wire must be
released immediately upon starting the motor or the motor will be
choked by excess of gasoline.

To start the motor, open low speed needle (H) and high speed needle (I)
about four or five complete turns. You will note that the needles have
dials which indicate turning needle to the right cuts down the gasoline
supply.

Pull out steering post control, open throttle about one-quarter way,
retard the spark, pull out radiator choke wire which will close shutter
and crank the motor. After motor is started, immediately release
radiator choke wire and gradually push in the steering post control or
plunger and let the motor run until it is warmed up. Then first adjust
the high speed needle (I) until the motor runs smoothly and evenly with
retarded spark. Close throttle part way and adjust idle needle until
motor runs smoothly at low speed.

In order to get the desired low throttle running, use the throttle stop
screw (L) which will control the throttle opening and give you the
desired low speed running.

A strainer is furnished on the carburetor which prevents dirt or
sediment getting into the bowl of the carburetor and choking up the
gasoline nozzle or causing flooding.




CHAPTER IX

KEROSENE CARBURETORS


Experiments have been carried on for quite some time pertaining to the
development of a more successful carburetor which will burn the heavier
fuels. The chief difficulty encountered is to find a more suitable way
to vaporize these low grade fuels.

Kerosene can be used, only with an application of heat to the manifold
to aid in the evaporation of the heavier parts of this fuel. The
exhaust pipes are available for this source of heat, but as there is no
heat from this source until the engine is running, it is necessary to
start the engine on gasoline and switch over to the heavier fuels after
the warming-up process.

[Illustration: Fig. 43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor]

Fig. 43 shows the Holley kerosene carburetor which is adaptable to
any type of engine by making simple changes in the exhaust manifold
to include the heating coil tube. This carburetor will operate
successfully on any hydro-carbon fuel with a boiling point below
600° F. Two float chambers are provided to take care of the starting
and running fuels. The engine is started on the gasoline part of the
carburetor and after a short warming-up period the feed is switched to
the kerosene part of the device.

[Illustration: Fig. 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment]

The principle upon which this device operates is to provide a primary
mixture by means of a needle valve and a very small aspirating jet
which gives a mixture that is too rich for combustion. This rich
mixture of atomized fuel is carried through a coil tube of very thin
wall thickness, which is exposed to the exhaust gases, directly in the
exhaust manifold.

The temperature in this coil tube reaches as high as 500 degrees F.
The globules of the over rich mixture are broken up here and flow
directly into the mixing chamber, where additional air enters, diluting
the mixture to make it combustible. The opening of the air valve is
controlled by the suction of the engine and by the throttle valve. The
shifter valve for changing the operation from gasoline to kerosene is
conveniently arranged for dash control, when the engine becomes warm. A
primer is arranged in the manifold just above the carburetor and aids
in cold weather starting.

Fig. 44 shows the installation of the Holley kerosene carburetor. In
this case it was necessary to add a compartment on the exhaust manifold
to contain and heat the coil tube. There are some details that must be
taken care of on installation. A small auxiliary tank must be provided
to hold the gasoline for starting, while a larger tank must be provided
to carry the main supply of kerosene.

The adjustments of this type of carburetor is through a needle valve
located in each fuel chamber, and as it is impossible to give any set
adjustment that would apply to the many different types of motors, the
proper adjustment must be worked out. This is done by shifting to the
gasoline and turning the needle valve to the right and left and noting
the point at which the engine runs the smoothest. The needle valve is
then set at this point. The fuel shifter valve is turned to feed the
kerosene, and this adjustment is made in the same manner.




CHAPTER X

HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS


Heat added to the manifold is the probable solution of the present
low-test fuel supplied to the motorist. In the first place you may be
satisfied if your motor runs and does not give any noticeable loss of
power. But the question is, are you getting full power out of your
motor in accordance with the amount of fuel consumed? And are you
getting the proper amount of mileage out of each gallon? The answer to
both questions would probably be in the negative, if both questions
were taken up individually by owners.

[Illustration:

  EXHAUST

  INTAKE

  EXHAUST

  GOVERNOR

  GOVERNOR

  CARBURETOR

Fig. 45. Hot Spot Manifold]

One of the best solutions, if not the best, is the new hot-spot
manifold used on the Liberty engine, which was designed for Army use.
Fig. 45 shows the hot-spot Liberty engine manifold. The intake manifold
is external but short, therefore does not offer much opportunity for
the liquid to condense. From the carburetor it rises up straight to
a point well above the valve ports and the cylinder blocks, and at
the top of the rise it touches the exhaust pipe and divides, the two
branches sweeping downward quite clear of the exhaust manifold to each
block of cylinders. About three inches of the intake passage is exposed
to the exhaust manifold top.

The advantage of this design is that the heating element affects
practically only the liquid fuel and does not have much effect on the
fuel already vaporized. Naturally the liquid fuel is heavier than the
vapor, and as the mixture rushes up the manifold at a high rate of
speed and turns to the right or left, the heavier liquid particles are
thrown straight against the hot-spot, where they are boiled off in
vapor.

Thus, although the total amount of heat supplied to the incoming charge
is small, vaporization is good, since pains have been taken to supply
the heat where it is needed.

[Illustration: Fig. 46. Holley Vapor Manifold--Ford Cars]

Fig. 46 shows the Holley vapor manifold for Ford cars which is
intended to completely vaporize gasoline by applying heat at the
proper point. As will be noted by the arrows, the exhaust gases pass
down, striking a hot-spot at the top of the internal intake passage.
The exhaust gases flow along this passage and finally pass out at the
bottom. The heavier particles of fuel, after leaving the carburetor,
strike against the wall at point (A) and there are broken up by the
exhaust gases. Should any of the globules not be broken up at this
point, they will be vaporized when they strike the hot-spot at (B) as
this is directly in contact with the exhaust gases. It will be noted
that the heavier globules are subjected to a rising temperature.
Starting at (A) and finishing at (B) a control valve regulates the
amount of heat supplied to the intake manifold.




CHAPTER XI

COOLING SYSTEMS

TYPE, OPERATION AND CARE


Cooling systems are provided on all types of gasoline engines. As the
heat generated by the constant explosions in the cylinders would soon
overheat and ruin the engine were it not cooled by some artificial
means.

=Circulation Systems.=--There are two types of water circulating
systems. The Thermo Syphon, and the Force Pump circulating systems.

[Illustration: Fig. 47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System]

Fig. 47 shows how the water circulates in the Thermo-Syphon system. It
acts on the principle that hot water seeks a higher level than cold
water, consequently when the water reaches a certain temperature,
approximately 180° F., circulation commences and the water flows from
the lowest radiator outlet pipe up through the water jackets into the
upper radiator water tank, and down through the thin tubes to the lower
tank to repeat the process.

The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through the thin
metal tubing of the radiator to which are attached scientifically
worked out fins which assist in the rapid radiation of the heat. The
fan just back of the radiator sucks the air through the small tubes
which connect the upper and lower radiator tanks. The air is also
driven through between these tubes by the forward movement of the car.

=The Force Pump Circulation System.=--The Force Pump circulating system
is constructed in the same manner as the Thermo Syphon Cooling System.
The only difference in the two systems is that a small pump is attached
to the lower radiator pipe to force the circulation of the water.

The pump is usually of the centrifugal type and consists of a
fan-shaped wheel operated in a snugly fitted housing. The water enters
at the hub and is thrown out against the housing and is forced on by
the rapid action of the fan blades. Another type of pump is used by
some manufacturers which consist of two meshed gears of the same size,
which operate in a snugly fitted housing. These gears operate in a
direction toward each other, the water is carried forward or upward in
the space between the teeth, and is forced on when the teeth mesh and
fill the space.

=Overheating.=--Overheating may be caused by carbonized cylinders, too
much driving on low speed, not enough or a poor grade of lubricating
oil, spark retarded too far, racing the engine, clogged muffler, poor
carburetor adjustment, a broken or slipping fan belt, jammed radiator
tube, leaky connection, or low water.

=Radiator Cleaning.=--The entire circulation system should be
thoroughly cleaned occasionally. A good cleaning solution is made by
dissolving one-half pound of baking soda in three and one-half to four
gallons of soft water. The radiator is filled with the solution and
left to stand for twenty to thirty minutes. The hose is then removed
from the lower pipe, water is then turned into the radiator through
the filler spout until the system is thoroughly flushed out.

=Freezing.=--Unless an anti-freezing solution is used through the
cold months you are bound to experience trouble. The circulation does
not commence properly until the water becomes heated. It is apt to
freeze at low temperatures before circulation commences. In case any
of the small tubes are plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and
burst open if the driver attempts to get along without a non-freezing
solution.

=Freezing Solution.=--Wood or denatured alcohol can be used to a good
advantage. The following table gives the freezing point of solutions
containing different percentages of alcohol.

  20% solution freezes at 15° above zero.
  30% solution freezes at  8° below zero.
  50% solution freezes at 34° below zero.

A solution composed of 60% of water, 10% of glycerine, and 30% of
alcohol is commonly used, its freezing point being 8° below zero.

=Evaporation.=--On account of evaporation, fresh alcohol must be added
frequently in order to maintain the proper solution.

=Radiator Repairs.=--A small leak may be temporarily repaired by
applying brown soap, or white lead, but the repair should be made
permanent with solder as soon as possible. A jammed radiator tube is
a more serious affair. While the stopping up of one tube does not
seriously interfere with circulation, it is bound to cause trouble
sooner or later, and the tube will freeze in cold weather. Cut the tube
an inch above and below the jam and insert a new piece soldering the
connection. If the entire radiator is badly jammed or broken, it will
probably be advisable to install a new one.

=Air Cooling System.=--Air cooling has been developed to a point
where fairly good results are attained. This system has an advantage
over the circulating systems, in that the weight of the radiator and
water is done away with, and no trouble is experienced with stoppage
of circulation and leaky connection. This system, however, has its
drawbacks, in that it cannot be used successfully on the larger and
more compact engines. In order to allow the necessary large space for
radiation, the cylinders are heavily flanged and set separately. The
fan is placed in a much higher position than usual, in order that
the air current may strike the heads of the cylinders and circulate
downward. Compression is also lowered considerably to prevent heat
generation and pre-ignition. On account of the small size of the
cylinders and low compression, it is necessary to operate an air cooled
engine at a very high rate of speed to produce sufficient power for
automobile locomotion.

The fan must be kept in good working condition, and care should be
exercised in not allowing the engine to run idle for any length of
time.




CHAPTER XII

MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE


The muffler was designed to silence the otherwise loud report of the
exploding charge of gas, which is released from the cylinders by the
sudden opening of the exhaust valves.

While these devices are differently shaped and formed, the functional
purpose and action is practically the same in all designs.

The burnt or inert gases are forced from the cylinders on the exhaust
stroke. It passes into the exhaust manifold which absorbs some of the
heat before it reaches the muffler.

[Illustration:

  Hanger

  Tie Rod

  Split Clamp Nut

  Muffler Shell

  Spacer

  Spacer

  Nozzle

  Center Pipe

Fig. 48. Muffler--Three Compartment]

Fig. 48 shows a three compartment muffler. The burnt gases enter
compartment No. 1 from the exhaust pipe. This compartment is
sufficiently large to spread the volume which lessens the pressure and
force. It then enters the rear compartment No. 3, through the center
pipe; it expands again and passes through the perforated spacer plate,
enters compartment No. 2, and escapes through the nozzle in an even
silent flow.

The muffler at all times produces a certain amount of back-pressure on
the engine which results in a slight loss of power. The back pressure
exerted by the majority of mufflers, however, is very slight and has a
tendency to counter balance or equalize the sudden shock delivered to
the bearings by the explosion over the piston head.

The muffler may also become fouled by the use of too much or too heavy
a grade of lubricating oil, which will cause the expansion space and
the small holes in the spacer plates to become clogged with carbon
and soot. This carbon and soot soon bakes into a hard crust causing
much back pressure which results in a considerable loss of power. This
condition will become noticeable first by a loss of considerable power
caused by an overheated motor. If this condition is not remedied, the
exhaust manifold and pipe leading to the muffler will soon become
red-hot, causing much danger of a serious damage loss to the car from
fire.

[Illustration: Fig. 49. Muffler]

=Muffler.=--To eliminate or remedy this condition, disconnect manifold
pipe from the muffler, remove the muffler from hangers, and disassemble
it by removing the nuts from the tie rods which release the end plates.
This will allow the compartment walls and spacer plates to be drawn
from the sleeve. Each compartment and spacer plate should be removed
sectionally, and its position carefully noted, in order that it may
be replaced correctly in re-assembling. The walls of the sleeve, and
the compartment end plates are scraped and rubbed with a piece of
sandpaper. A small round file may be used in cleaning the center pipe.
The spacer plates are scraped and sandpapered. The small holes in
the spacer plates may be opened by using the tapered end of a small
file. Fig. 49 shows a muffler of another design. The burnt gas enters
a compartment containing three saucer shaped spacers which retard and
break up the volume. It then passes through an open compartment and
enters reversed spacers through small holes near the sleeve wall. It
centers or forms slightly in volume and escapes to the next compartment
through a small hole in the center of the second spacer. This action of
forming and breaking is kept up until the outlet is reached.




CHAPTER XIII

VACUUM SYSTEMS

CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE


The vacuum systems have proved to be one of the important inventions
pertaining to successful motor operation. They are self contained,
simple in construction and automatic in operation. They do away with
the troublesome power and hand pressure pumps and their connections.

[Illustration:

  AIR VENT

  FROM INTAKE MANIFOLD

  FROM GASOLINE SUPPLY TANK

Fig. 50. Vacuum System--Top Arrangement]

Fig. 50 shows the top arrangement and connections. R is the air vent
over the atmospheric valve. The effect of this is the same as if the
whole tank were elevated, and is for the purpose of preventing an
overflow of gasoline, should the position of the car ever be such as
to raise the fuel supply tank higher than the vacuum tank. D shows the
pipe connection from the fuel supply tank. C shows the pipe connection
to the intake manifold. W shows a tap or vent through which gasoline
may be fed into the upper chamber, in case the fuel supply tank is
damaged or put out of commission. R shows the air vent connection from
the lower tank.

Fig. 51 shows a general diagram of vacuum system installation. One of
the chief advantages is that it allows the carburetor to be placed
near the head of the motor and does away with the long manifold
connections required with the gravity feed systems. This also reduces
the frictional resistance, gives a richer mixture and greater volume of
flow.

[Illustration:

  AIRVENT

  A--CONNECTION
  BETWEEN INTAKE
  MANIFOLD AND
  VACUUM TANK

  C--CONNECTION
  FROM VACUUM
  TANK TO CARBURETOR

  B--CONNECTION
  BETWEEN
  MAIN GASOLINE
  SUPPLY TANK AND
  VACUUM TANK

Fig. 51. Vacuum System Installation]

Fig. 52 shows a sectional view of the Stewart Vacuum System and
explains the operative value of each part. A is the suction valve for
opening and closing the connection to the manifold through which a
vacuum is extended from the engine manifold to the gasoline tank. B is
the atmospheric valve, and permits or prevents an atmospheric condition
in the upper chamber. When the suction valve A is open and the suction
is drawing gasoline from the main supply tank, the atmospheric valve B
is closed. When the suction valve A is closed, the atmospheric valve
B must be open, as an atmospheric condition is necessary in the upper
tank in order to allow the gasoline to flow through the flapper valve
H into the lower chamber. C is a pipe connecting the tank to the
intake manifold of the engine. D is a pipe connecting the tank to the
main fuel supply tank. E is the valve control lever and has two coil
tension springs S attached to operate the short valve lever F. G is the
metallic air-containing float, which controls the action of the valves
through the spring and lever arrangement. H is the flapper valve at the
outlet of T, and it closes by suction when the vacuum valve A is open.
When the vacuum valve A closes, the atmospheric valve B opens and
relieves the suction in the upper tank, the flapper valve H opens and
allows the fuel to flow from the upper tank into the lower chamber.

[Illustration:

  AIR VENT

  TO INTAKE
  PASSAGE

  FROM
  GASOLINE
  TANK

  FLOAT VALVE

  UPPER
  CHAMBER

  LOWER
  CHAMBER

  TO CARBURETOR

Fig. 52. Vacuum System Diagram--Stewart Warner]

J is a plug in the bottom of the tank which can be removed to clean or
drain the tank. This plug can be removed and replaced with a pet-cock
for drawing off gasoline for priming or cleaning purposes. K is the
line to the carburetor. It is extended on the inside of the tank to
form a pocket for trapping water and sediment. L is a channel space
between the inner and outer shells and connects with the air vent R,
thus admitting an atmospheric condition to exist in the lower chamber
at all times, and thereby permitting an uninterrupted flow of gasoline
to the carburetor. R is an air vent over the atmospheric valve; the
effect of this valve is the same as if the whole tank was elevated. It
is also for the purpose of preventing an overflow of gasoline should
the position of the car ever be such as would raise the fuel supply
tank higher than the vacuum tank. Through this tube the lower or
reservoir chamber is continually open to atmospheric pressure. T is the
outlet at the bottom of the float chamber in which the flapper valve H
is located. U is the float stem guide. V is a strainer which prevents
foreign matter from passing into the vacuum chamber. W is a tap or vent
through which gasoline may be fed into the upper chamber if the fuel
tank is damaged or put out of commission.

The simple and durable construction of this system makes it unlikely
that the car owner will ever need to make internal repairs. Before
attempting to repair this tank make sure that the trouble is not due to
some other cause.

=Air Vent.=--A small amount of gasoline may escape through the air
vent occasionally. This will do no harm and no adjustment is needed.
However, if the vent tube continues to overflow, one of the following
conditions will be responsible: 1. The air hole in the main supply tank
is stopped up, or the hole is too small. Enlarge the hole or clean it
out. 2. If gasoline leaks from the system except from the vent tube,
it can only do so from one of the following causes: a. A leak may exist
in the outer wall of the tank. If so soldering it up will eliminate the
trouble. b. The carburetor connection on the bottom of the tank may be
loose. c. There may be a leak in the tubing at the head of the tank. d.
The cover of the tank may be loose.

=Failure to Feed Gasoline to the Carburetor.=--This condition may be
due to other causes than the vacuum system. Do not tinker with it until
you are sure that the trouble is not elsewhere. Flood the carburetor.
If gasoline runs out of the float chamber you may be sure that the
vacuum system is performing its work properly.

=To Remove Cover.=--To remove the cover for inspection, take out the
screws and run a knife blade carefully around the top to separate the
gasket without damaging it. Shellac the gasket before you replace it to
make the tank air-tight.

=Faulty Feed.=--If faulty feed is traced to the vacuum tank, one of
the following conditions may be the cause. The float valve G may have
developed a leak. To repair, remove the top of the tank to which it
is attached. Dip the float into a pan of hot water. Bubbles will
show the leak. Punch two small holes, one at the top, and one at the
bottom, and blow the gasoline out. Then solder up the holes and the
leak. Use solder carefully in order not to add too much weight to the
float. A small particle of dirt may be lodged under the flapper valve.
This trouble can usually be remedied by tapping the side of the tank.
In order to determine whether or not the flapper valve is working
properly, plug up the air vent tube and remove the pipe extending from
the bottom of the tank to the carburetor. Start the engine and place a
finger over the opening (from which you removed the tube). If continual
suction is felt, it is evident that the flapper valve is being held
off its seat. If tapping the side of the tank will not remedy this
condition, remove the cover and withdraw the upper chamber. The valve
is attached to the pipe projecting from the bottom.

=Strainer.=--Remove and clean the strainer screen located at V, Fig.
52, every five or six weeks. This screen collects all the dirt and
foreign matter in the gasoline, and often becomes stopped up.

[Illustration:

  CONNECTION TO
  GASOLINE TANK

  SUCTION TUBE
  CONNECTION TO INTAKE
  MANIFOLD

  STRAINER

  VENT TUBE
  CONNECTION

  COVER

  ATMOSPHERIC
  VALVE

  SUCTION VALVE

  VALVE LEVER

  INNER TANK

  SPRINGS

  OUTER TANK

  FLOAT LEVER

  FLOAT

  GUIDE

  FLAPPER VALVE

  DRAIN PLUG

  CONNECTION TO
  CARBURETOR

Fig. 53. Vacuum System--Inside View of Parts--Stewart Warner]

=Filling the Vacuum Tank.=--To fill the tank after it has been cleaned
or repaired, leave the spark off, close the gas throttle, and crank the
engine over a few times with the starter or by hand. It takes less than
ten seconds to create sufficient vacuum to fill the tank.




CHAPTER XIV

ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS


Before taking up the study of automobile ignition systems and
electrical appliances, we will first devote a little time to study,
in order to become familiar with the different electrical parts,
functions, terms and names applied to the various units, and machines.

In the first place electricity is not a juice or fluid that flows
through a wire, but is a generated electro-motive force that may be
held in storage or conducted from one place to another. It will not
flow without a round circuit and seeks ground return at the slightest
opportunity. It is designated in terms which express quality, quantity,
force and action.

=Voltage.=--A volt is an electrical unit, expressing the force or
pressure of the current. The voltage of a system simply means the
difference of pressure exerted on the system measured in volts.

=Ampere.=--An ampere is an electrical unit expressing the quality or
intensity of the current.

=Ohm.=--An ohm is an electrical unit expressing resistance; or the
resistance of conductors to the flow of current.

=Current.=--The current is the generated electro-motive force.

=Circuit.=--Electricity will not flow unless there is a circuit or
ground return to its original source.

=Low Tension Current.=--Low tension current is generated in the primary
winding or coil by placing it in a magnetic field. It will flow from
one point to another but has very little strength and will not jump
the gap at the spark plug. It is used for lighting purposes, or
conducted to an induction coil which transforms it into a high tension
alternating current.

=High Tension Current.=--High tension current is generated in the
secondary coil by interruption of the primary current or by the rapid
magnetization and demagnetization of the core and primary coil.

=Direct Current.=--Direct current is produced by placing a coil or wire
in a magnetic field. It is usually conducted to an induction coil where
it is transformed into a high tension alternating current.

=Alternating Currents.=--Alternating currents are produced by the rapid
breaking down and building up of the primary current. An alternating
current flows forward from zero to its highest point of strength and
back again to zero. The alternating action takes place so rapidly that
a light can be connected in this circuit and it will burn steadily
without any noticeable fluctuation.

[Illustration: Fig. 54. Coil Diagram]

=Induction Coil.=--An induction coil consists of a soft iron core;
a primary and secondary winding, and a set of platinum points. The
primary winding is wound directly over the core and consists of a few
turns of thick wire. The secondary wire is wound over the primary
and consists of a great many turns of thin wire. Fig. 54 shows the
functional action of an induction coil. Both of the coils are wound
on the soft iron core A-B. The primary current which is supplied in
this case by a cell or number of cells, C and D, is broken at frequent
intervals of time. The method of doing this is as follows: One terminal
of the primary coil is connected to the fixed platinum stud D, the
other terminal to a spring which carries a piece of soft iron, E. When
the spring is unbent it touches the stud D, and a current passes in
the primary. The core of soft iron becomes magnetized and attracts the
soft iron disc, E, thus breaking contact at D. The current is stopped
and the core immediately becomes unmagnetized, the spring flies back
and the contact is again made. The process is then repeated. When the
contact in the primary is broken the current flows in one direction in
the secondary coil, when it is made the current flows in the opposite
direction in the secondary. Thus an alternating current is set up in
the secondary current of great frequency.

=Commutator.=--The commutator or timer as it is commonly called is used
only in connection with the induction coil to complete the circuit when
a spark is required at the plug in the cylinder.

=Insulation.=--Insulating is the act of covering a conductor with a
non-conducting substance to prevent the spark from jumping or seeking
ground.

=Choking Coil.=--A choking coil in simple form consists of a coil and
iron core to increase self-induction. It is used to reduce currents of
high pressure and is commonly called a bucking coil.

=Fuse.=--A fuse is used to prevent conductors or coils from being
damaged by heat generated from high pressure currents. It consists of a
metal and glass tube which contains a fine wire. This wire being much
thinner than the wire of the cable, the heat naturally develops faster
at this point, and is soon high enough to melt the wire and break or
open the circuit, and thus any further damage to the insulation is
prevented.

=Condenser.=--A condenser usually consists of a few strips of folded
tin foil insulated from each other with paraffined or oiled paper. It
absorbs, restricts and distributes high pressure currents and also
prevents excessive sparking at the contact points.

[Illustration: Fig. 55. Dynamo--Diagram of Action]

=Dynamo.=--A dynamo is a machine which converts mechanical energy
into electric energy, and must consist of at least two separate parts;
the field magnets to create the magnetic field, and the armature or
conductor in which the current is generated. One or the other of these
must be in motion in order to cut the lines of magnetic force crossing
the field. Fig. 55 shows the operation of the most common or simplest
type of alternating current producing machine, which is similar and
conforms in action to the high tension magneto and generator. Field
pieces magnetize the pole pieces N and S. A wire coil is placed in
the field at right angles to the magnetic lines of force turned to
the right. It takes up the position of the dotted lines and no lines
of force are cut, whereas in its original position, as many lines of
force as possible are cut. Turning the coil on its axles, a-b, causes
the lines of force cut by c-d, and e-f to vary from the highest number
of lines that it is possible to cut to zero and back again, thus
constantly changing the flowing direction of the current. The reversal
of the current takes place at the instant that the coil passes the
point where it cuts the greatest number of lines of force. The ends
of the coil are connected to a commutator on the shaft a, b. Steel
insulated brushes pick the current from the commutator ring and conduct
it to the brush post; an insulated wire conductor is attached to this
post and conducts the current to the place of use or storage.

=Voltaic Cell.=--The source of energy of a voltaic cell is the chemical
action. (_See_ accumulator).

=Accumulator.=--The standard accumulator or storage battery is
composed of three cells or hard rubber jars in which a number of
lead plates are immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid and water
known as electrolyte. The plates are stiff lead grids which hold a
paste made of various oxides of lead. Six plates in each cell are
joined to the positive terminal, and seven plates in each cell are
joined to the negative terminal. Thin wooden separators are inserted
between the plates to prevent them from touching one another. In the
forming process the material on the positive plates becomes converted
into brown peroxide of lead; the negative plates assume the form of
gray metallic lead. The material on both plates is known as active
material. When current is taken from the cells the sulphuric acid in
the electrolyte combines with the active material of the plates to form
sulphate of lead, and when the battery is recharged the lead sulphate
is again converted into the original active material and the acid set
free in the solution.

=Storage Battery.=--For construction and action see Accumulator. For
care see chapter on storage batteries.

=Electrolyte.=--A chemical solution used in voltaic cells consisting
of two parts sulphuric acid added to five to seven parts of water by
volume.

=Hydrometer.=--A hydrometer is used to test the electrolyte solution
in the cells of storage batteries. It consists of a weighted float
and a graduated stem, and as sulphuric acid is heavier than water,
the specific gravity reading will be proportional to the amount of
acid. The hydrometer thus measures the relative amount of acid in the
electrolyte and consequently reveals the condition of the battery.

=Ammeter.=--An ammeter is an electrical instrument which indicates
the amount of current that the generator is supplying to the storage
battery, or the amount of current that the storage battery is supplying
for ignition, lights and horn.

=Circuit Breaker.=--The circuit breaker is a device which prevents
excessive discharging of the storage battery. All the current for
lights is conducted through the circuit breaker (Delco system).
Whenever an excessive current flows through the circuit breaker it
intermittently opens the circuit causing a clicking sound. This will
continue until the ground is removed or the switch is operated to
open the circuit on the grounded wire. When the ground is removed the
circuit is automatically restored, there being nothing to replace as is
the case with fuses.

=Switch.=--A switch opens and closes the various circuits and is for
the purpose of controlling the light, ignition, generator and storage
battery circuits.

=Generator.=--See chapter on electrical starting systems.

=Regulation.=--(Delco). On account of the various speeds at which the
generator must operate it is necessary that the output be regulated so
that sufficient current is obtained at the low engine speeds without
excessive current at the higher speeds. The regulation in this case is
what is known as the third brush excitation in which the current for
magnetizing the frame is conducted through the auxiliary or third brush
on the generator commutator. With this arrangement the natural function
of the generator itself causes less current to flow through the shunt
field winding at the higher engine speeds. This weakens the magnetic
field in which the armature is rotating and decreases the output of the
generator.

=Contact-breaker.=--See chapter on Atwater Kent ignition systems.

=Coil, nonvibrating.=--See chapters on Atwater Kent ignition systems
and Philbrin electrical systems.

=Distributors.=--See chapters on Magnetos and Atwater Kent ignition
systems.




CHAPTER XV

MAGNETO PARTS AND OPERATION


[Illustration: Fig. 56. Magnets--Pole Blocks]

The purpose of the magneto is to furnish electrical current at regular
intervals, to jump the spark plug gaps and to ignite the gas which has
been compressed in the combustion chambers. The discovery was made
years ago that, by placing a coil of wire between two magnetic poles,
current would be present at once. But it is only while the wire coil is
in motion that the current will flow or circulate, and while there are
many theories why this takes place only while the coil is in motion,
none seem to explain the fact satisfactorily. The strength of the
current depends on the size of the magnetic field, and the number of
wraps of wire in the coil. Consequently the larger the coil the more
intense the current. Fig. 56 represents the magnets, of which there are
from three to six. The U-shaped pieces are made of steel which has been
case hardened and charged with electricity which causes them to become
magnetized. Magnets have two poles or axes, one of which is positive
from which the current flows, and one of which is negative to which
the current flows or passes. Fig. 56A shows the pole pieces which are
located on the inside of the lower or open end of the magnets. The pole
pieces are channel ground, leaving a round space or tunnel in which the
armature revolves.

Fig. 57 shows the soft iron core which is shaped like the block letter
H, and wound with fine wire, making up the coil shown in Fig. 57A of
the wound armature.

[Illustration: Fig. 57. Armature Core--Wound Armature]

[Illustration: Fig. 58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current
Direction]

Fig. 58 shows the primary and secondary winding. The primary or heavy
wire is wound on the core lengthwise, each strand being separated from
the other with rubber or tin foil insulation. The current passes from
the top of the left pole piece to the top of the core until it passed
out of range, crossing the upper gap between the two pole pieces. As
the top of the core leaves or breaks the contact flow of current, the
bottom of the core comes in contact range, leaving an open space which
breaks the current and changes the direction of flowage as shown in
Fig. 58A and 58B. This current is of a low tension nature, and will not
jump the gap at the spark plugs when the engine is running slow. The
secondary winding, shown in Fig. 58, is made up of many more windings
of a finer wire. The low tension or primary current is led through the
armature shaft to a contact breaker at the rear of the magneto.

Fig. 59 shows the contact breaker, which consists of a housing in which
two platinum points are arranged, one point stationary, the other
attached to an arm on a pivot. The points are held together by spring
tension.

[Illustration: Fig. 59. Breaker--Slip Ring--Distributor]

A cam on the armature shaft comes into contact with the arm on which
the second point is located, forcing it from the stationary point,
thus breaking the low tension current which returns to the secondary
coil, the magnetizing and demagnetizing caused by the break in the low
tension current, and sets up a rapid alternating current. One end of
the secondary is led to a collector ring on the front of the magneto.
Fig. 59A shows the collector ring. A carbon brush collects the current
from the ring and conducts it to the distributor’s centrally located
arm. Fig. 59B shows the distributor. The centrally located arm is timed
to deliver the current, or comes into contact with one of the segments
or brushes and allows the current to flow from the segment to the gap
at the spark plug, where it jumps the gaps and ignites the gas in the
cylinders at the proper time. Then it returns through the ground (the
engine and the frame) to the magneto, where it passes back into the
secondary coil, passing through an insulated condenser consisting of
small plates of steel insulated from one another. This regulates the
flowage of the returning current, by reducing it through resistance,
and prevents the armature from heating.

A safety spark gap is provided on some magnetos which causes the spark
to jump and lose some of its force through resistance when the plugs
become shorted. This also restricts the current and greatly aids the
condenser in performing its purpose.




CHAPTER XVI

BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO

OPERATION, ADJUSTMENT AND CARE


Like all other types of high tension magnetos, the Bosch Type ZR. Ed.
16 explained in this chapter, generates its own current and is usually
employed as sole ignition on an engine.

The timer and distributor are integral; and the rotation of the
armature, between the poles of strong permanent field magnets, sets up
or induces a current in the armature primary circuit, which is farther
augmented at every one hundred and eighty degrees of revolution of the
armature shaft, by the abrupt interruption of the primary circuit by
means of the magneto interruptor. At the opening of the primary circuit
the resulting discharge of current from this circuit induces a current
of high voltage in the armature secondary circuit. The high tension
current thus created is collected by a slip ring on the armature and
passes to the slip ring brush then to the various magneto distributor
terminals each of which is connected to a spark plug in its respective
cylinder.

The operation of the instrument will be more clearly understood from a
study of the complete circuits, primary and secondary, which follows.

=The Primary or Low Tension Circuit.=--The beginning of the armature
primary circuit is in metallic contact with the armature core, and the
end of the primary circuit is connected by means of the interruptor
fastening screw to the insulated contact block supporting the long
platinum contact on the magneto interruptor. The interruptor lever
carrying a short platinum contact, shown in Fig. 60 at C is mounted
on the interruptor disc, which in turn, is connected to the armature
core. The primary circuit is completed whenever the two platinum
contacts of the interruptor are brought together, and separated
whenever these contacts are separated.

From the latter point the high tension current passes to the
distributor brush (shown at D) which is held in a brush holder on
the distributor gear, and consequently rotates with the distributor
gear. Metal segments are imbedded in the distributor plate and as
the distributor brush rotates it makes successive contacts with the
segments, passing the current onto the spark plug gaps through the high
tension cables which are attached to the segment terminal posts.

[Illustration: Fig. 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor--Housing
Removed]

Fig. 61 shows a circuit diagram of the Type ZR. Ed. 16. Bosch Magneto.
Note that the spark plugs must be connected up in accordance with
the firing order of the engine. The metal segments imbedded in the
distributor plate are connected with the terminal studs on the face of
the plate, and the latter are connected by cable to the spark plugs
in the various cylinders. In the cylinders the high tension current
produces a spark which produces ignition, and then returns through the
ground and the engine to the magneto armature, thus completing the
circuit.

=Timing the Magneto.=--With the average four cycle engine the proper
operating results are obtained by timing the magneto as follows:
The crank shaft is rotated to bring the piston in No. 1 cylinder (in
automobile practice this is the cylinder nearest the radiator) exactly
on top dead center of the compression stroke. The timing control lever
on the housing is then placed in the fully retarded position. With this
done, the magneto distributor plate should be removed by withdrawing
the two holding screws, or by releasing the two holding springs as the
case may be.

[Illustration:

  DISTRIBUTOR

  BRUSH
  HOLDER

  SAFETY
  SPARK GAP

  SLIPRING

  CONDENSER

  ARMATURE

  INTERRUPTER

  GROUND

  GROUND

Fig. 61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4]

The operation of the platinum contact points is controlled by the
action of the interruptor lever as it bears against the two steel
segments secured to the inner surface of the interruptor housing.

In Fig. 60, A shows the distributor with the face plate removed to
show the position of the distributor segments which are connected to
the terminal posts on the back of the plate. B shows the interruptor
housing and cover removed from its position on the magneto. C shows the
complete assembly of the distributor and interruptor. Note that the
face plate of the distributor is fastened on with a set of screws while
the interruptor cover is held in position with a latch.

=The Secondary or High Tension Current.=--The high tension current is
generated in the secondary circuit only when there is an interruption
of the primary circuit, the spark being produced at the instant the
platinum interruptor contact points separate. The armature secondary
circuit is a continuation of the armature primary circuit, the
beginning of the secondary circuit being connected to the primary,
while the end of the secondary is connected to the insulated current
collector ring mounted on the armature just inside the driving shaft
end plate of the magneto. The slip ring brush is held in contact
with the slip ring by a brush holder at the shaft end of the magneto
which receives the high tension current collected by the slip ring by
means of a connecting bar which passes under the arch of the magnets,
and passes the current to the center of the distributor plate, thus
exposing the distributor brush and gear. The cover of the interruptor
housing is also to be removed to permit observation of the interruptor
points.

The armature should then be rotated by means of the exposed distributor
gear in the direction in which it is driven until the platinum contact
points are about to separate, which occurs when the interruptor lever
begins to bear against one of the steel segments of the interruptor
housing. Timing or installation is completed by replacing the
interruptor housing cover and distributor plate, and connecting the
cables between the magneto and the spark plugs.

=Exact Magneto Timing.=--The foregoing will establish the desired
relationship between the magneto armature shaft and the engine crank
shaft. It should be noted, however, that while these instructions cover
the average engine, the exact magneto timing for individual engines is
best determined by trial.

When specific instructions for magneto timing are given by the engine
manufacturer, it is recommended that such instructions be followed in
preference to those herein given.

It must always be borne in mind that while making connections the
distributor brush travels in the opposite direction to the rotation of
the armature shaft.

=The Condenser.=--The condenser consists of a set of metal discs,
insulated from one another with tin foil. It is carried at the
interruptor end of the magneto. It is connected in the primary current
and forms a shunt connection with the interruptor contact points, and
through resistance to the returning ground current prevents excessive
sparking at the interruptor contact points which would soon burn the
points and ruin the coils.

=The Safety Spark Cap.=--A safety spark cap is provided to protect the
armature and other current carrying parts. Under normal conditions the
current will follow its path to the spark plug, but if for any reason
the resistance in the secondary wire is increased to a high point, as
when a cable becomes disconnected, or a spark gap too wide, the high
tension current will discharge across the safety spark gap.

=Caution.=--The current should never be allowed to pass over the safety
spark gap for any length of time, and if the engine is operated on a
second or auxiliary ignition system, the magneto must be grounded in
order to prevent the production of high tension current. The snapping
sound by which the passage of current across the safety spark gap may
be noted should always lead to an immediate search for the cause of the
difficulty.

=The Safety Spark Gap.=--The safety spark gap consists of a pointed
metal electrode projecting from the mounting flange of the slip ring
holder, inside the shaft end hood. The tip of the electrode extends to
within a short distance of the connecting bar, extending from the brush
holder to a magneto distributor plate center post.

=Timing Range.=--The magneto interruptor housing is arranged so that it
may be rotated through an angle of thirty-four to thirty-seven degrees
with respect to the armature shaft. The movement of this housing in one
direction or another causes the interruptor lever to strike the steel
segments earlier or later in the revolution of the armature, the spark
occurring correspondingly earlier or later in the cylinder. The spark
can be advanced by means of moving the interruptor housing which is
connected to the spark lever on the steering gear, in the direction
opposite the rotation of the armature. The armature rotation is usually
indicated by an arrow on the cover at the driving end of the magneto.

=Cutting Out Ignition.=--Since a high tension current is generated only
on the interruption of the primary circuit, it is evident that in order
to cut out the ignition, it is merely necessary to divert the primary
current to a path that is not affected by the action of the magneto
interruptor. This is accomplished as follows: An insulated grounding
terminal is provided on the cover of the magneto interruptor housing
with its inner end consisting of a spring with carbon contact pressing
against the head of an interruptor fastening screw. The outer end of
the grounding screw is connected by low tension cable to one side of
the switch, and the other side of the switch is grounded by connecting
a cable between it and the engine or frame. When the switch is open
the primary current follows its normal path across the interruptor
points, and is interrupted at each separation of these contact points.
However, when the switch is closed, the primary current passes from the
head of the interruptor fastening screw to the carbon contacts of the
grounding terminal, thence through the switch to the engine and back
to the magneto, and as the primary current remains uninterrupted when
following this path, no ignition current is produced.

=Care and Maintenance.=--Aside from keeping the magneto clean
externally, practically the only care required is the oiling of the
bearings. Of these there are two sets supporting the armature, and a
single plain bearing supporting the shaft of the distributor gear. Any
good light oil may be used for this purpose (never cylinder oil), and
each of the bearings should receive not more than two or three drops
about every thousand miles. Apply the oil through the oil ducts at
each end of the armature shaft. The interruptor is intended to operate
without oil, as oil on the interruptor platinum points prevents good
contact, and causes sparking, burning, and misfiring. Care should be
taken to prevent oil entering these parts.




CHAPTER XVII

MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING


One point that cannot be over sufficiently emphasized is the warning
that only those who are thoroughly familiar with the magneto should
attempt to disassemble it. Therefore every part should be studied,
and its functional action fully understood before any repairs or
adjustments are undertaken.

The manufacturers of magnetos have developed their product to a
point of high efficiency and dependability, and if they are properly
lubricated and washed occasionally to prevent gumming up, very little
trouble may be expected from this type of ignition system.

=Magneto Cleaning.=--Magneto parts should be washed with gasoline as
it has the ability to remove grease and dirt and evaporates rapidly
leaving a perfectly dry surface. Care should be exercised to prevent
fire, for the present grade of gasoline does not evaporate as readily
as it did some time ago when refiners furnished a high test grade of
fuel and the surface of the armature and indentures of the magneto may
retain a pool or film which may be ignited by a short circuit, or from
the breaker box, and cause a fire which would ruin the magneto. There
is, however, little danger from fire if the gasoline is used sparingly,
and each part wiped dry before reassembling the magneto.

It is considered a good point when the magneto has been taken apart to
be cleaned to go over every part with a cloth dampened in kerosene,
because gasoline leaves a very dry surface which is liable to rust. The
bearings especially are most easily affected in this way.

The armature may be washed with a brush which has been dipped
into gasoline, but should not be immersed as that would soften the
insulation and cause it to rot.

The way in which the parts come off should be carefully noted in
order to avoid trouble in reassembling, and the gears operating the
distributor should be carefully marked to assure correct timing, which
will result in a saving of time and trouble.

When the magnets are removed, close the ends with a file or piece of
steel to prevent them from becoming demagnetized.

=Magneto Repairing.=--As previously stated, it is not likely that a
magneto will require any further attention than the regular monthly
oiling. Two or three drops of light sewing machine oil should be
dropped into the oil wells which supply the bearings at each end of the
armature shaft.

If any trouble arises that can be traced directly to the magneto,
examine the breaker box mechanism first; the locknut at the point
adjustment may have worked loose, and the points may be closed, or some
abnormal condition may exist that has caused the points to pit and
stick.

Breaker point adjustment varies from the thickness of a sheet of
writing paper to one sixty-fourth of an inch; an adjustment anywhere
between these two points usually results in satisfactory operation.

If the magneto does not function properly after the breaker box and
external wire connections have been examined, the trouble is probably
due to an internal short circuit, and repairs of this nature should
only be undertaken by an expert magneto mechanic.

To remove the magneto, disconnect the high tension wires leading to
the spark plugs from the distributor terminal posts, tag and number
each wire to correspond with the number stamped below the post. If the
engine fires 1-2-4-3, number three wire will be attached to number four
terminal post. Then remove the ground wire and disconnect the universal
joint and remove the metal strap, or the set screws, from the base.

=To Time the Magneto.=--Place the timing control lever in a fully
retarded position; remove the plates from the distributor housing to
expose the distributor brush and gear, then remove the cover from the
interruptor housing to permit observation of the points, and rotate the
armature in the direction which it is driven until the point begins to
open. At this point mesh the distributor gear so that the distributor
lever will just be touching one of the segments which connect to the
distributor terminal posts.

=Timing the Magneto with the Engine.=--Rotate the crank shaft until No.
1 cylinder is up on dead center on the compression stroke; rotate the
armature, with the spark lever in full retard until the distributor arm
begins to make contact with No. 1 segment, and mesh the timing gear at
this point.




CHAPTER XVIII

NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM


The N.-E. Model O Distributor Ignition System is used on Dodge Brothers
cars. This system provides high tension ignition for the engine by
transforming the low voltage of the starter generator or the battery
into a high voltage capable of jumping freely between the spark plug
electrodes. This is accomplished through the agency of an induction
coil, the primary winding of which, in series with an interruptor or
contact breaker, receives current under normal running conditions from
the starter generator. The starting and lighting battery, however,
supplies this current instead of the generator whenever the engine is
starting or running very slowly.

At each interruption of the primary current there is set up in the
secondary winding of the coil a high tension current, and this current
flows from the coil through a high tension cable to the distributor
rotor from which point it is selectively conducted to the proper spark
plug. Upon reaching the spark gap in the plug, it jumps from the inner
electrode to the outer one, which is grounded, and then returns through
the engine frame to the grounded end of the secondary winding on the
ignition coil. The high tension spark thus produced in the cylinder
ignites the gas and so brings about the necessary combustion.

=Wiring= (Fig. 62).--As will be evident upon reference to the
accompanying wiring diagram, the primary circuit of the ignition system
leads from the positive terminal of the battery through the charging
indicator to the ignition switch binding post marked “Bat.,” thence,
when the switch is turned on, through the switch to one of its binding
posts marked “Ign. Coil.” Continuing on from this point through the
ignition coil and the breaker contacts, it returns to the second switch
binding post marked “Ign. Coil,” where it passes through the switch
again. It then finally reaches the grounded negative terminal of the
battery through the grounded terminal of the switch and the car frame.

[Illustration: =Circuit Diagram of the Model O Ignition System on the
Dodge Brothers Motor Car=

Fig. 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System--on Dodge Car]

The ignition switch is so constructed that it produces a reversal of
polarity in the distributor circuit each time the switch is turned off
and then on again. For this reason there is no necessity of making a
distinction between the two wires leading from the distributor to the
two switch binding posts marked “Ign. Coil,” because the operation of
the system cannot be affected by the transposition of these wires. With
this one exception, however, the ignition circuit connections must
always be made exactly as indicated in the diagrams, if satisfactory
operation of the system is to be maintained.

[Illustration:

  CHARGING
  INDICATOR

  IGNITION AND
  LIGHTING SWITCH

  SPARK PLUGS

  GROUNDED
  THROUGH CASE

  CONTACT-STUD LOCK NUT

  STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD

  MANUAL CONTROL LEVER

  BREAKER-ARM

  GROUND
  CONNECTION

  BREAKER-CAM

  STARTING SWITCH AND
  REVERSE CURRENT
  CUT-OUT

  BREAKER-CAM NUT

  CONDENSER

  BREAKER-
  CONTACTS

  IGNITION
  COIL

  BREAKER BOX

  DISTRIBUTOR
  HEAD

  BATTERY

  SECONDARY COIL

  PRIMARY COIL

  SAFETY SPARK GAP

  GROUND CONNECTION

  GROUNDED
  THROUGH CASE

Fig. 63. North-East Distributor--Model O--Ignition]

=Ignition Distributor.= (Fig. 63).--The model O ignition distributor is
mounted on the right-hand side of the Dodge Brothers engine where it is
held rigidly in position by means of four bolts. The horizontal shaft
of the distributor is connected directly to the engine pump shaft
through a flexible coupling, and runs, therefore, at engine speed. The
vertical distributor shaft is driven from the horizontal shaft by means
of spiral gears which reduce its speed to one-half that of the engine.

The complete distributor unit consists essentially of three
self-contained assemblies: The ignition coil, the breaker box and
distributor base assembly which include the automatic spark advancing
mechanism. Each one of these three elements is so constructed as to
be readily detachable from the distributor unit independently of the
others.

=Ignition Coil.=--The ignition coil, which is contained in a separate
housing, forming part of the distributor unit, is constructed for
12 volt service and operates directly on the starting and lighting
circuit. The coil housing is attached to the distributor base by means
of four screws and serves also as a cover for the automatic advance
compartment. The high tension terminal located on the coil housing
is designed to provide a safety spark gap, as well as to act as a
binding post for the high tension cable which connects the coil to the
distributor head.

=Breaker Box and Distributor Head Assembly.= (Fig. 64).--The breaker
box and distributor head assembly is mounted in an upright position
near the center of the distributor base and is secured in place by a
large-headed screw in the vertical portion of the base. This screw
projects into the annular groove in the vertical shaft bearing sleeve,
thereby preventing the breaker box assembly from becoming detached from
the distributor base and yet at the same time permitting it to turn
freely from side to side. The short lug projecting downward from the
manual control lever on the breaker box extends into the round hole
near the middle of the distributor base and acts as a stop to limit the
travel of the breaker box.

In case it should become necessary to remove the breaker box and
distributor head assembly, the distributor head should first be
detached from the breaker box and then, with the breaker box in the
position of full retard, the exact location of the distributor rotor
should be marked accurately on the edge of the box. This mark should
be made with special care, because it has to serve as the sole guide
for the correct position of the vertical shaft when the assembly is
put back in place again on the distributor base. Moreover, while the
breaker box assembly is separated from the base, the horizontal shaft
in the base must not be turned from the position it occupied at the
time when the location of the rotor was marked. If either of these
precautions is neglected, the correct relationship between the several
moving parts of the system will be likely to be disturbed to such
an extent that the complete retiming of the distributor will become
necessary.

[Illustration:

  HIGH TENSION
  DISTRIBUTOR TERMINALS

  DISTRIBUTOR-BRUSH

  DISTRIBUTOR-HEAD

  DISTRIBUTOR-ROTOR

  BREAKER-CAM NUT

  BREAKER-ARM

  LOCK WASHERS

  VERTICAL SHAFT

  BREAKER-CAM

  VERTICAL SHAFT
  BEARING SLEEVE

  STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD
  SUPPORT

  PRIMARY COIL
  TERMINALS

  GREASE CUP

  COUPLING YOKE

  HIGH TENSION
  COIL TERMINAL

  HORIZONTAL SHAFT

  ADVANCE PLATE

  COIL HOUSING

  VERTICAL SPIRAL GEAR

  ADVANCE WEIGHTS

  IGNITION COIL

  HORIZONTAL SPIRAL GEAR

Fig. 64. North-East Breaker-Box]

=Condenser.=--The condenser, shunted across the breaker contacts to
absorb the inductive surges that occur in the primary circuit at
each interruption, serves to intensify the effect produced in the
secondary circuit by these interruptions, and also to protect the
breaker contacts from injurious arcing. It is contained in a sealed
case which protects it against possible external injury, and is located
in the breaker box close to the breaker contacts where its maximum
effectiveness is obtained.

Being very substantially constructed, the condenser ordinarily
requires no attention. If for any reason it should become
inoperative, the best course is always to replace it with a new one,
because condenser repairs are not economically practicable. The
entire condenser unit can be easily removed, whenever desired, by
disconnecting the two condenser leads from the breaker box binding
posts, and then unscrewing the two nuts on the under side of the
breaker box that hold the condenser case in place.

=Breaker Contacts.=--The breaker arm, which carries one of the
two breaker contacts, is mounted on a pivot post from which it is
thoroughly insulated by a fiber bushing. The helical spring, which is
attached to the lug at the pivot end of the arm, holds it normally in
such a position that the breaker contacts are kept closed. But the
fiber block near the middle of the breaker arm lies in the path of the
breaker cam and is consequently struck by each lobe of the cam as the
vertical shaft revolves. Each of these blows from the cam cause the
breaker contacts to be forced apart, and thereby produce the necessary
interruptions in the primary circuit. The second contact is carried by
the stationary contact stud, which is adjustably mounted in an arched
support. With this stud properly adjusted the difference between the
contact points when they are fully separated by the cam, is twenty
thousandths of an inch (.020″).

If it should ever become necessary to renew the breaker contacts, a
complete replacement of the entire breaker arm and the contact stud
assemblies will in general be found to be the most effectual method of
handling the work. The breaker arm can be removed by simply lifting
it off its pivot bearing after its pigtail has been disconnected from
the breaker box binding post. The spring attached to the breaker arm
lug will slip off of its own accord as soon as the arm is raised
sufficiently from its normal position. After the breaker arm has been
taken off, the stationary contact stud can be removed by releasing its
lock nut and unscrewing it from its support. To replace the breaker arm
it is merely necessary to insert the lug in the spring, and then, with
the spring held taut, to push the arm firmly down upon its pivot post
until it snaps into position.

=Breaker Cam.=--The breaker cam, by which the interruptions in the
primary circuit are produced has four projections on its working
surface, so spaced that one of them strikes the breaker arm and causes
the breaker contacts to be abruptly separated each time a spark is
required. The cam is held in place on the upper end of the vertical
shaft by means of a slotted nut and set of special lock washers. It
should never be disturbed if avoidable, because its accurate setting is
absolutely essential to the correct operation of the entire system. If,
at any time, however, its position should become altered accidentally,
it must be carefully reset at once in accordance with the timing
directions given later on.

The breaker cam and the distributor rotor are both mounted on the
vertical shaft and are rotated at exactly one-half engine speed.
Accordingly, since the engine is of the usual four-cycle type requiring
two revolutions of the crank shaft for one complete cycle of operation,
the distributor rotor and breaker can make one revolution during the
completion of each full cycle of the engine.

=Distributor Head.=--The distributor head contains five high tension
terminals. The central terminal receives the current from the secondary
winding of the ignition coil and transmits it to the rotor arm by which
it is distributed to the four outer terminals. These outer terminals
are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively, corresponding to the firing order
of the engine, and are connected to the four spark plugs in accordance
with their markings. The distributor rotor in completing one full
revolution establishes contact successively between the rotor brush
and each one of these four outer distributor terminals, each contact
being made at the same moment that the primary circuit is interrupted
by the action of the breaker cam. Thus when the spark plug leads are
properly connected, the high tension current, as soon as produced in
the secondary circuit, is conducted to the spark plug of the proper
cylinder just at the moment when the gas in that particular cylinder is
ready for firing. If, therefore, the spark plug leads ever have to be
removed from the distributor head, they must always be attached again
carefully in the correct order.

=Automatic Advance Mechanism.= (Fig. 65).--Combustion does not follow
instantaneously upon the occurrence of the spark, however, because a
small time interval is always needed for the gas in the cylinder to
ignite. Consequently, unless some means are provided for offsetting
the lag between spark and combustion, the explosion of the gas could
not always be made to take place at exactly the correct moment under
varying conditions of engine speed.

[Illustration: Fig. 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism--North East]

To compensate for this lag, therefore, there is incorporated in the
distributor a centrifugally actuated mechanism, which is capable of
automatically advancing or retarding the time of the spark in exact
accordance with the rate of speed at which the engine is running.

The operating characteristics of the automatic advance are accurately
proportioned to conform throughout the entire speed range with the
requirements of the engine; and in order to insure the permanence of
this relationship the device is so constructed as to be practically
nonadjustable.

=Manual Spark Control.=--Besides this automatic advance there is
also the usual manual control mechanism for changing the time of the
spark independently of the centrifugal device. This manual control
is for use principally for retarding the spark when starting or
idling the engine or for facilitating carburetor adjustments. During
normal operation of the engine, the spark lever on the steering wheel
quadrant should be advanced as far as permissible without causing the
engine to knock, and the actual regulation of the spark position be
left entirely to the automatic advance mechanism. The arrangement of
the manual control is such, provided the breaker cam is properly set,
that when the spark lever is in the position of full retard, and the
engine is running very slowly, the spark will occur in each cylinder
at 5 engine degrees after the piston has passed the upper dead center
of its compression stroke. With the spark lever advanced to the limit
of its travel on the quadrant, the spark will occur 15 degrees before
the upper dead center position has been reached by the piston on its
compression stroke.

=Timing the Distributor.=--Whenever it becomes necessary to disconnect
the distributor shaft from the engine pump shaft the exact relative
positions of the two halves of the coupling joining these two shafts,
as well as the location of the distributor rotor, should be carefully
noted and marked. This is necessary in order to make possible the
reëstablishment of the correct relations between the distributor
shaft and the pump shaft when original conditions are being restored.
Moreover, care must be taken to avoid turning the engine while the
distributor is disconnected, because the proper timing relations can
only be retained by keeping the position of the pump shaft unchanged
during this time.

Should it ever happen, however, that the distributor has been taken off
without the proper precautions having been observed, or that the timing
arrangement has been disturbed in any other fashion, it will thereupon
become necessary to make a complete readjustment of the timing
relations of the distributor and the engine. This is to be done always
after the distributor has been reconnected to the engine, the first
step being to ascertain definitely the relative position of the engine
pistons and valves. With this done, the positions of the breaker cam
and the distributor rotor are then to be reset as directed below.

Since all the parts of the engine follow a regular sequence of
operation, only the position of the piston and valves in the No. 1
cylinder need be considered in this process, and the three remaining
cylinders may be practically disregarded. There are numerous methods,
varying in their degree of accuracy, for locating the position of the
engine pistons, but the most dependable one is that of removing the
cylinder head so as to expose the pistons and valves to full view. With
the head thus removed, the engine should be cranked slowly by hand
until the No. 1 piston has risen to the top of its compression stroke
and has just started to descend on its combustion stroke. At this
moment the spark, when fully retarded, should normally occur in No. 1
cylinder.

Under circumstances where it is not convenient or desirable to remove
the cylinder head the following approximate method for determining the
location of No. 1 piston may be employed with a fair degree of success.
Open the cocks of the priming cups on all the cylinders, and crank
the engine slowly by hand until the No. 1 piston has just reached the
top of its compression stroke. This can be ascertained by holding the
thumb over the No. 1 priming cup and noting carefully the moment when
the compression ceases to increase. After locating the dead center
position of No. 1 piston in this way, turn the crank shaft a very
slight distance further until the No. 4 exhaust valve is just at the
point of closing. Under these conditions, provided the No. 4 exhaust
valve lifter is in correct adjustment, the No. 1 piston should be
approximately in the desired position of 5 engine degrees beyond dead
center.

With the No. 1 piston thus carefully set in accordance with one of the
above methods, preferably the former, bring the distributor into the
position of full retard. To do this, disconnect the manual control
attachment and turn the break-box as far as it will go in the direction
in which the vertical shaft rotates. Then after making sure that the
ignition switch is turned off, remove the distributor-head and the
distributor rotor and the breaker box, and with a broad bladed screw
driver back off the breaker cam nut until the cam is free to turn on
its shaft. Next, replace the rotor temporarily, and turn the cam slowly
until the breaker contacts just begin to open when the rotor occupies
the position where it normally makes contact with the No. 1 distributor
terminal. This adjustment can be made to the best advantage by turning
the cam forward to separate the contacts then back again slowly until
the contacts just come together, at which point the cam should be
allowed to remain.

After the proper setting has thus been obtained, remove the rotor again
and lock the cam securely in position by tightening the slotted nut
that holds it. Finally, replacing the rotor, rock the vertical shaft
backward and forward as far as the slack in the gears will permit, and
note carefully the action of the break contacts. The setting of the cam
must be so accurate that when the gears are rocked forward to take up
the slack, the contacts will be just held apart and yet when the gears
are rocked backward as far as the slack permits, the contacts will be
actually closed.

A convenient method of verifying this adjustment is to turn on the
ignition current and connect an ordinary 14 or 16 volt 2. c. p.
lamp across the two binding posts of the breaker box. The lamp thus
attached, will serve as a sensitive indicator for representing the
action of the contact-points when the vertical shaft is rocked forward
and backward to take up the slack in the gears. The moment the contacts
begin to be separated, the lamp will light; but as soon as they are
allowed to come together the lamp will at once go out again.

Should the test prove the first setting to be inaccurate, the cam
must be readjusted, and the test repeated several times if necessary
until the correct setting is finally obtained. Too much care cannot
be employed in making this adjustment, because even a very slight
inaccuracy in the setting of the cam will produce a considerably
magnified effect upon the operation of the engine. This is due to the
fact that the engine speed is twice as great as that of the vertical
shaft.

=General Care.=--Under normal operating conditions the ignition system
requires very little care aside from the usual precautions against
moisture and dirt. There are, in fact, but three points of importance
that need attention during service:

  1. Lubrication.

  2. Cleaning and adjustment of the breaker contacts.

  3. Inspection of the wiring and the spark plugs.




CHAPTER XIX

ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS

CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE


Atwater Kent ignition systems have been adopted of late by many
prominent automobile manufacturers as a means of distributing or
conveying electrical spark to the cylinders at the proper firing time.

This type of quick break distributing system has proved very efficient
and dependable, and will usually outlast the life of the motor as there
are very few moving parts, which eliminates troubles caused by worn
parts getting out of adjustment.

This type of ignition system operates in much the same manner as the
high tension magneto, and differs only in that the parts have been
taken from the compact magneto case and distributed in other locations
in separate units. As this type takes its current from the lighting and
starting battery, it does not contain an armature or field magnets to
manufacture the electrical force.

Fig. 66 illustrates the principles of operation of the type CC Atwater
Kent closed circuit system, which consists of the unisparker containing
the contact maker and distributor. The only moving parts are located
in this unit. The coil consists of a soft iron core, with a primary
and secondary winding sealed in an insulated tube or container. A
resistance unit is located in the top and regulates the current
automatically. The system is controlled by a switch located on the
dash. The contact breaker shown in Fig. 67 consists of an exceedingly
light steel contact arm. One end rests on a hardened steel cam which
rotates one-half as fast as the crank shaft. This cam has as many
sides as the engine has cylinders. When the contact points are opened
by the movement of the cam the primary circuit is broken and produces
a discharge of secondary high tension current at one of the spark plug
gaps.

[Illustration:

  CONTACT
  MAKER

  TO PLUG

  TO PLUG

  DISTRIBUTOR

  CONDENSER

  TO PLUG

  CONTACT MAKER
  GROUNDED

  SPARK PLUG

  BATTERY
  GROUND

  PRIMARY

  BATTERY

  GROUND

  SWITCH

  SECONDARY

  GROUND

  REGULATING
  RESISTANCE

Fig. 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram--Type CC]

Fig. 68 shows the simple Atwater Kent contactless distributor. The high
tension distributor of the Atwater-Kent system forms the top of the
contact maker. Each spark plug wire terminates in an electrode, which
passes through the distributor cap. A rotating distributor block takes
the high tension current from the central terminal and distributes it
to the spark plugs in proper firing order. The distributor block or arm
does not make direct contact with the distributor posts. The current
jumps the small gap between the distributor block and the terminal
electrodes and does away with frictional wear resulting from actual
contact.

[Illustration: Fig. 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Type CC]

[Illustration: Fig. 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block]

Fig. 69 shows the method of connecting the high tension wires to the
distributor; the insulation is removed, or the wire bared in a space
1¹⁄₄″ long. The removable terminal cover is pushed up on the wire as
shown at A, the bared end of the wire is then passed through the hole
in the secondary terminal as shown at B. The end of this wire is then
twisted back on itself, for two complete turns as shown at C, so that
the end will not project beyond the diameter of the insulation. The
wire will then be tightly held when the terminal covers are screwed
down as shown in Fig. D. Never use pliers to tighten these covers and
do not solder the wires to the terminal posts.

[Illustration: Fig. 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor]

=Adjustment.=--The only parts of this system that are adjustable are
the contact points. These need to be adjusted only for natural wear. Do
not adjust the points unless you are convinced, by trying everything
else, that it is the points that need attention.

In making adjustments, note the following directions. The normal gap
between the points should not be less than .005″, or more than .008″,
the standard setting is .006″, which is about the thickness of two
ordinary sheets of writing paper.

[Illustration:

  TO UNGROUNDED
  TERMINAL OF BATTERY

  SWITCH

  COIL

  DISTRIBUTOR

  GROUND

  CONTACT
  MAKER

Fig. 70. Atwater Kent Type CC Wiring Diagram]

The contact points are made of tungsten steel, the hardest known
metal. When contact points are working properly small particles of
tungsten steel will be carried from one point to the other, which
sometimes causes a roughness and a dark gray coloring of the surfaces.
This roughness does not in any way effect the proper working of the
points, owing to the fact that the rough surfaces fit into each other
perfectly.

It should not be necessary to file or redress the points unless they
become burned, due to some abnormal condition or accident. The dark
gray appearance is the natural color of the tungsten steel.

=Oilings.=--A very small amount of ordinary vaseline or grease applied
to the cam and a drop or two of oil applied to the cups every few
weeks, is all the lubrication necessary. Do not get oil on the contact
points, and wipe off any free oil or grease on the contact maker.

The springs in this system are set at exactly the right tension. Do not
try to bend or tamper with them.

The wiring of the type CC ignition system is very simple, as shown in
Fig. 70, and is known as the one wire with ground return method. Well
insulated primary wire is used for the primary circuit between the
coil and the ignition switch. The best quality of five-sixteenth inch
secondary wire is used to conduct the high tension current from the
coil to the distributor, and from the distributor to the spark plug.

=Setting or Timing the Type CC System.=--The piston in number one
cylinder should be raised to high dead center, between the compression
and firing strokes, the clamp which holds the unisparker should be
loosened and the unisparker turned backward, or opposite the rotating
direction of the timer shaft until the contact points commence to open.
The spark occurs at the exact instant of the opening of the point.

After completing the electrical connection the current can be turned
on, and the unisparker timed exactly from the spark at the plugs. For
this purpose the plugs should be removed from the engine and laid on
top of the cylinders.




CHAPTER XX

ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM, TYPE K-2


The operating principle of the Atwater Kent ignition system type K-2,
differs from type CC system in that it operates on the open circuit
plan, whereas the type CC system explained in the preceding chapter,
operates on the closed circuit plan.

A-K ignition system type K-2 consists of three parts:

No. 1. The unisparker combining the special contact maker, a condenser,
and a high tension distributor.

No. 2. The coil, consisting of a simple primary and secondary winding,
and a condenser. These parts are all imbedded in a special insulating
compound. The coil has no vibrator or other moving parts.

No. 3. The ignition switch. This switch controls the system by opening
and closing the primary current.

=The Principle of the Atwater Kent System.=--The function of this
system is to produce a single hot spark for each power impulse of the
motor. It differs from other types of battery ignition systems in that
the contact points do not touch except during the brief instant of the
spark. The ignition circuit is, therefore, normally open, whence the
name “open circuit” results. The contact maker consists of a pair of
contact points, normally open, which are connected in series with a
battery, and the primary circuit of the non-vibrating induction coil.
The mechanism for operating the contacts consists of a notched shaft
having one notch for each cylinder, rotating at one-half the engine
speed, a lifter which is pulled forward by the rotation of the shaft,
and a coil spring which pulls the lifter back to its original position
after it has been drawn forward and released by the notched shaft;
hardened steel latch, against which the lifter strikes on its recoil
and which in turn operates the contact points.

[Illustration:

  LATCH

  CONTACT SCREW

  NOTCHED SHAFT

  LIFTER

  CONTACT SPRING

  LIFTER SPRING

Fig. 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of Action--Type K-2
System.]

[Illustration: Fig. 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of
Action--Type K-2 System]

[Illustration: Fig. 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of
Action--Type K-2 System]

[Illustration: Fig. 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of
Action--Type K-2 System]

=Operation of the Contact Maker.=--It will be noted in Fig. 71 that
the lifter is being pulled forward by the notched shaft. When pulled
forward as far as the shaft will carry it (Fig. 72), the lifter is
suddenly pulled back by the lifter spring. In returning, it strikes
against the latch, throwing this against the contact spring and closes
the contact for a brief instant. This movement is far too quick for
the naked eye to follow (Fig. 73).

Fig. 74 shows the lifter ready to be pulled forward by the next notch.

Note that the circuit is closed only during the brief instant of the
spark. No current can flow at any other time, not even if the switch is
left on when the motor is not running. No matter how slow or how fast
the notched shaft is turning, the lifter spring will always pull the
lifter back at exactly the same speed, so that the operation of the
contact, and therefore the spark, will always be the same no matter
how fast or how slow the engine is running. The brief instant that
the contact points touch, results in very little current consumption.
The high tension current from the coil is conveyed to the rotating
distributor block, which seats on the end of the unisparker shaft to
each of the spark plug terminals in the order of firing.

[Illustration: Fig. 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block]

The important advantage which the distributor possesses is the fact
that there are no sliding contacts or carbon brushes. The distributor
blade is so arranged that it passes close to the spark plug terminals
without quite touching (as shown in Fig. 75), thus permitting the spark
to jump the slight gap without any loss of current pressure. This also
eliminates all wear and trouble caused by sliding or rubbing contacts.

Fig. 76 shows the wire connections and direction of current flowage.
The distributor blade is about to make contact with the terminal
leading to the spark plug in No. 2 cylinder. At the instant that
contact is made the breaker points in the contact maker shown in the
lower part of the diagram close, thus allowing a primary or low tension
current to flow between the contact maker, coil, and battery. The
sudden breaking of this current occurs when the points open again,
thereby creating a current of high tension voltage in the secondary
coil which is conducted to the center terminal of the distributor where
it is distributed to the spark plug terminals through the rotation
of the distributor blade. The high tension cables leading from the
distributor are heavily insulated, thus the current in seeking ground
return chooses the easiest path, by jumping the slight gap at the spark
plugs.

[Illustration:

  DISTRIBUTOR

  GROUND

  COIL

  BATTERY

  CONTACT MAKER

Fig. 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2]

=Setting and Timing the Unisparker.=--The type K-2 unisparker is
installed, so as to allow a small amount of angular movement or, in
other words, the socket into which the unisparker fits is provided
with a clamp which will permit it to be turned or locked in any given
position.

=Timing.=--The piston in No. 1 cylinder is raised to high dead center
between the compression and power stroke. Then loosen the clamp which
holds the unisparker and turn the unisparker backward, or contrary to
the direction of rotation until a click is heard. This click happens
at the exact instant of the spark. Clamp the unisparker tight at this
point being careful not to change its position. Note that current for
this system is usually supplied by the starting and lighting battery.
When changing batteries be sure that the voltage of the battery is the
same as that marked on the coil.

[Illustration:

  TO PLUGS

  TO PLUGS

  CONTACT-MAKER

  CONTACT MAKER

  SWITCH

  BAT.

  S & INT.
  INT.
  S.

  COIL

  INT.
  INT.
  SEC

  GROUND TO MOTOR

  GROUND TO MOTOR

  POS
  NEG

  BATTERY

Fig. 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring--Cut 1, Under Hood Coil; Cut 2, Kick
Switch Coil]

The external wiring of the A-K type K-2 is very simple, as shown in the
diagrams, Figs. 77 and 77A. Fig. 77 shows the wire connections, when
the reversing switch and under-hood coil is used. Fig. 77A shows the
connections, when using plate or kick switch coil. A well insulated
braided primary wire is used for the primary or battery circuit. See
that this wire is well protected against rubbing or abrasion wherever
it comes into contact with metal parts of the car. When the starting
and lighting battery is used to furnish the ignition current, two wires
should run directly to the battery terminals.

The two types of Atwater Kent systems described are provided with
automatic spark advance mechanism. Provisions are also made for manual
lever control, by simply connecting the unisparker to the throttle
lever at the base of the steering gear.

[Illustration: Fig. 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance
Mechanism--A K Type K-2]

Fig. 78 shows the automatic spark advance mechanism. It is located on
the underside of the contact maker base plate, and consists of a set
of weights which swing out from the center against spring tension,
and advances the unisparker on the shaft, according to the amount of
centrifugal action or speed of the shaft. When the shaft is not in
motion the springs draw the weights toward center, which automatically
shifts the unisparker on the shaft until the spark is in a fully
retarded position.

=Contact Point Adjustment.=--The only adjustment aside from the initial
timing is in the contact points. They are adjustable only for natural
wear, and one adjustment should last at least six months. The contact
screw is provided with a number of shim washers against which it is
set up tight. When the points eventually become worn, they should be
dressed flat and smooth. A sufficient number of the washers should
be removed so that when the contact screw is set up tightly it will
maintain the proper gap between the points. The distance between the
contact points should be about the distance of a thin visiting card.
They should never touch when at rest.

[Illustration:

  Oil lightly every
  1000 miles

  Oil

Fig. 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Oiling Diagram--A-K Type K-2]

Fig. 79 shows an oiling diagram of the contact maker. The latch,
lifter, and lifter spring are not adjustable or subject to wear. They
should be well cleaned and oiled every five hundred miles. Use a light
oil and avoid getting it on the contact points.

=The Condenser.=--The condenser of this system acts somewhat like a
shock absorber to the contact points. It absorbs the spark or arc and
makes the break in the primary current, clean and abrupt. The condenser
is very accessible, but should never be tampered with, as it does not
require any attention.

=Testing for Ignition Trouble.=--If the engine misses without regard to
speed, test each cylinder separately by short circuiting the plug with
a screw driver, allowing a spark to jump. If all cylinders produce a
good regular spark the trouble is not with the ignition system.

If any cylinder sparks regularly this will indicate that the ignition
system is in working order so far as the unisparker and coil are
concerned. The trouble is probably in the high tension wiring between
the distributor and plug, or in the plugs themselves. Examine the plugs
and wiring carefully. Leaky secondary wiring is frequently the cause
of missing and backfiring.

Frequently, when high tension wires are run from the distributor to the
spark plugs through a metal tube, trouble is experienced with missing
and backfiring, which is due to induction between the various wires in
the tube. This is especially likely to happen if the main secondary
wire from the distributor to the coil runs through this tube with the
spark plug wires.

Whenever possible the distributor wires should be separated by at least
one-half inch of space. They should be supported by bracket insulators,
rather than run through a tube. In no case should the main distributor
wire run through a conduit with other wires.

If irregular sparking is noted at the spark plugs, examine the battery
and connections.

If the trouble commences suddenly, it is probably due to a loose
connection in the wiring, if gradually, the battery may be weakening or
the contact points may require attention.




CHAPTER XXI

PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK IGNITION SYSTEM

OPERATION, ADJUSTMENT AND CARE


The Philbrin ignition system consists of a specially designed contact
maker and interrupter, a distributor mounted on the same shaft, a
nonvibrating heat and moisture proof coil, an armored heat, moisture,
and puncture proof condenser, and a special Duplex switch.

[Illustration: Fig. 80. Philbrin Contact Maker--Point Adjustment]

Fig. 80 shows an illustration of the Philbrin contact maker which
operates in this manner. The cam A strikes against the end of the
plunger B and forces the points together at C, and holds the contact
for approximately three and one-half degrees of the revolution of
the cam. The spark occurs simultaneously with the separation of the
contact points. The contact maker has but one adjustment; that of the
adjustable contact screw, which is in direct line with the contact
plunger. The contact points are brought together gradually by the
surface formation of the cam. When the point of ample saturation of the
coil is reached, the breaking of the contacts is instantaneous. The
duration of the spark is in proportion to the speed of the engine, but
breaking of the points is always instantaneous and entirely independent
of the engine’s speed thereby producing the required spark at all
speeds without any spark lag.

[Illustration: Fig. 81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade]

Fig. 81 shows the distributor blade mounted over the contact maker. The
distributor blade is so arranged that it clears the spark plug lead
terminals in the cover by a slight margin, and does not make actual
contact, thereby eliminating all friction due to such contacts.

=Operation.=--Turning on the switch sets up a low tension current in
the coil and primary wire coil when the contact points close. The
sudden breaking of this current causes demagnetism of the core and the
primary coil to set up a high tension current in the secondary coil.
This current is led to the distributor blade and passes to the spark
plug terminals as the blade comes in contact range.

The Philbrin high frequency system uses the same coil and distributor
as the single spark system. But as the circuits of the two systems are
entirely distinct and separate, they do not conflict with each other.
The high frequency system has its own condenser and interrupter located
in the switch case, and supplies a continuous flow of sparks.

[Illustration: Fig. 82. Switch Case]

Fig. 82 shows the interior of the switch case. This part of the
mechanism controls the interruption of the battery current. The current
is supplied to the interruptor through a polarity reverser, which
reverses the direction of the current each time the switch button is
turned. This equalizes the wear on the contact points.

Attention is again called to the distributor blade shown in Fig.
82, which is used for both systems. Because of the shape of this
blade, there is a continuous flow of sparks after the explosive
spark has been delivered to one cylinder until the forward edge of
the distributor blade is within range of the distributing point of
the next terminal. By this action the first spark delivered to the
cylinder is an efficient one, and the follow up continues at intervals
of approximately one-thousandth of a second. These sparks are all
perfectly synchronous.

The operation of the high frequency system does not differ in function
action from the single spark system explained on the foregoing page.
Either system may be had singly, or in duplex formation. Consequently
either the single or the double system may be encountered. When the
duplex system is used the driver has his choice and can use either
the high frequency or single spark system, by turning the rubber roll
switch on the distributor to the system indicated.

This follow-up feature has been found particularly advantageous
for starting in cold weather, or where a poor grade of gasoline is
encountered, and in case of a poor carburetor adjustment or foul spark
plugs. The high frequency system also has the unique feature of keeping
the spark plugs clean without disintegrating the electroids, as is
often the case with the high tension magneto.

[Illustration: Fig. 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch]

Fig. 83 shows the Duplex switch. Ordinarily a storage battery is used
for one source of current, and a set of dry cells for the other. This
is so arranged that either source of current can be used with either
the single spark system or the high frequency system at will. One
source of current only can be used if so desired, that is, the storage
battery only or the dry cells alone. Where the source of current
is dry cells only, the single spark system is used as it is more
economical in current consumption. All of the switch contacts are of
the pressure plunger type, thereby eliminating the uncertainty of brush
contacts. Each switch is provided with a lock operating through the
hub of the lever. When the switch is locked in the off position it is
impossible to remove the cover without breaking it as the cover of the
switch locks to the back.

Ratchet buttons select which one of the systems is to be used, by a
movement of 45°. This button operates only in a clock-wise direction.

[Illustration:

  C-2 Circuit 2
  C-1 Circuit 1
  Bat.-1 Battery 1
  Bat.-2 Battery 2
  Sec.-Secondary
  C-Circuit
  Sec. Gr. Secondary Ground

  To Spark Plugs

  BAT. (SEC.) C
       ( GR.)

  BAT.-2

  BAT.-1

  Coil

  C.R.

  Distributor

Fig. 84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram]

Fig. 84 shows a wiring diagram of the Philbrin system. The wire
connections come to the contact maker directly from the switch, instead
of from the coil. This provides for control of the current to the
contact maker in such a manner that if a short circuit occurs in either
of the systems, by turning a button it is entirely cut off and the
other system put into operation.

Tungsten contact points are used on the single spark system as they are
not effected by the use of light oil. The contact points for the high
frequency system are platinum-iridium. They are mounted inside of the
switch case and need little or no attention. The contacts, due to the
reversed polarity, have an extremely long life and can be used without
attention until they are worn down to the base metal. The duel type
of system, however, may be purchased in separate units, and an owner
may choose either the high frequency system or the single spark system
separately if so desired.

This type of ignition system is manufactured for four, six, eight, and
twelve cylindered cars.




CHAPTER XXII

ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS

CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE


A great many different types of mechanical, and compressed air starters
were devised and tried out as equipment by the manufacturers of
automobiles a few years ago. These devices were either mechanically
imperfect, or required considerable attention from the owner to keep
them in working order and have all but disappeared from the market,
being supplanted by the electrical starter, which has been perfected to
a high state of efficiency and dependability.

The general principle of all electrical starters is much alike and
they usually operate in much the same manner. The electrical force or
current is produced by a generator driven from the engine. This current
is collected, or held in storage by chemical reproduction plates in a
storage battery. The battery, in turn, is connected to a small electric
motor carried at the side of the engine.

=The Generator.=--The operating principle of current production of the
generator is practically the same as explained in the magneto, which
may also be termed a generator or dynamo.

A generator consists of an iron frame, a set of magnetic field
windings, a wound armature with a commutator on the end, and a brush
which collects the current from the commutator.

The current is induced in the armature by rotating it in a magnetic
field. The amount of voltage induced in the armature-coil depends on
its rotating speed, as the faster the armature turns, the greater
the number of magnetic field lines cut, and the greater the amount of
voltage induced in the armature coil.

=The Regulator.=--The generator is provided with a regulator to control
the output rate of voltage when the engine is running at excess speeds.
This is necessary to prevent the higher charging rate from overcoming
the capacity of the storage battery. The regulating of the voltage
output may be accomplished by mechanical or electrical means. The
mechanical regulator usually consists of a governor which is timed to
release the armature from the drive shaft when the engine reaches a
certain rate of speed. The electrical regulator usually consists of a
reversed series of field winding which acts against the force of the
magnetic field, or of a bucking coil.

=The Automatic Cut-out.=--All types of generators which supply current
to a storage battery are equipped with an automatic cut-out arrangement
which is entirely automatic in action and requires no attention.

The function of the automatic cut-out is to prevent the current from
flowing back to the generator when the current production of the
generator is less than the charged strength of the storage battery. The
cut-out may be located anywhere on the conductor, between the storage
battery and the generator, and consists of a simple electro-magnet,
which is operated by the direction of current flowage.

=One Unit System.=--The generator furnishes the current for ignition
and starting, and is also reversible to act as a starting motor. The
system is referred to as a one unit system.

=Two Unit System.=--When the starting motor and the generator act
singly, and are contained in a separate casting, the system is referred
to as a two unit system.

=Three Unit System.=--When the generator and starting motor are located
as a separate unit, and when the ignition current is supplied by a
magneto, this system is referred to as a three unit system.

=The Starting Motor.=--The starting motor is constructed in the same
manner as the generator, and is simply a reversal of action. When
cranking, the current from the storage battery flows through the
motor winding and magnetizes the armature core. This acting upon the
magnetism of the frame causes the turning effort.

=Lubrication.=--Regularly every two weeks, or every five hundred miles,
two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be dropped into the oil
wells supplying the armature bearings and usually located at each end
of the armature shaft.

[Illustration: Fig. 85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine]

=Care.=--Regularly every two weeks, inspect all connections as a full
volume of current will not flow over a loose or corroded connection.
Never allow any oil or dirt to collect on the motor or generator, as it
interferes with the terminal connection and misdirects the current, and
the instrument soon becomes inoperative.

Fig. 85 shows the location of the two unit Bijur electrical starting
and generating system mounted on an engine. The starting motor is
bolted to the flywheel housing, and is provided with a square armature
shaft which carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally on the
shaft. This pinion meshes directly with teeth cut in the steel flywheel
ring. No intermediate gears or roller clutches are used. The control
lever connects through linkage to the shifting fork which shifts the
pinion on the square shaft of the motor. The same foot pedal linkage
operates the starting switch. Normally a spring holds the motor pinion
out of mesh with the flywheel teeth and also holds the starting switch
in the “off” position.

=The Generator.=--The generator is bolted to an extension on the
crank case at the front side of the gas motor, and is driven by a
silent chain from the crank shaft. After the gas motor attains a speed
equivalent to a car speed of ten miles per hour on high speed, the
generator begins to generate, and will generate a current which is
highest at low speeds, and diminishes somewhat at higher speeds.

The machines are both self-contained as there are no regulators or
automatic switches which require separate mounting.

The automatic switch for opening and closing the circuit between the
generator and storage battery is mounted inside the generator. This
switch is properly adjusted before the generator leaves the factory,
and no further adjustments are necessary.

Two wires lead from the generator. One of these is connected at the
starting motor to one of the heavy cables coming from the storage
battery, while the other generator wire is grounded on the chassis,
the chassis forming a part of the circuit. The generator polarity is
reversible and the connections at the machine may be made haphazard
and without regard to polarity. If connections are reversed at the
generator, no damage will result, as the machine will automatically
assume the correct polarity to charge the battery.

Fig. 86 shows the position of the Bijur starting system, and the
relative neutral positions of starting pedal, motor pinion, and
starting switch, when the starting equipment is not in action.

Fig. 86A shows the normal position of the various parts after the
starting pedal has been depressed and just before the starting motor
begins to operate. The pinion is now in full mesh with the flywheel
ring and further depressing the starter pedal will close the switch.

[Illustration:

  FOOT PEDAL

  POSITION 1--OUT OF ACTION. STARTING
  SWITCH OFF. PINION UP AGAINST MOTOR
  HEAD.

  FLYWHEEL

  SHIFTING FORK

  STARTING SWITCH

  MOTOR SHAFT

  OIL HERE

  MOTOR

  OIL HERE

  COLLAR

  CLEVIS PIN

  SHIFTING ROD

  STOP

  SHIFTER SPRING

  RELEASE SPRING

  OIL DRAIN
  KEEP THIS HOLE CLEAR

  PINION

  OIL HERE

  CRANK CASE

  POSITION 2--ABOUT TO CRANK.
  GEARS HAVE MESHED BUT
  SWITCH HAS NOT YET MADE CONTACT.

Fig. 86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action]

Fig. 87 shows all the parts in their positions for cranking. The small
gap between the collar on the shifting rod and clevis pin permits the
switch rod to move and thus open the starting switch without moving the
motor pinion when the starting pedal is released.

[Illustration:

  POSITION 3--CRANKING, NOTE
  GAP BETWEEN COLLAR ON
  SHIFTING ROD AND CLEVIS PIN.
  SHIFTING FORK IS UP AGAINST
  STOP AND SHIFTER SPRING IS
  SLIGHTLY COMPRESSED.

  POSITION 2A--ABOUT TO CRANK.
  GEARS NOT YET MESHED, TEETH
  ARE BUTTING, BUT SWITCH HAS
  MADE CONTACT. SHIFTER SPRING
  STRONGLY COMPRESSED READY
  TO DRAW PINION INTO MESH.

Fig. 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action]

Fig. 87A shows the condition when on depressing the foot pedal, and
sliding the pinion on the motor shaft towards the flywheel the pinion
does not mesh with the flywheel, and the teeth butt. Depressing the
foot pedal will close the starting switch strongly compressing the
shifter spring. After the switch is closed the motor will begin to
rotate and allow the pinion to slip into mesh with the flywheel. The
motor will then crank in the normal way.

[Illustration:

  HEAD LAMP

  MOTOR

  SWITCH TERMINAL
  GROUNDED

  GENERATOR

  STARTING
  SWITCH

  BATTERY

  IGNITION SWITCH

  INTERRUPTOR
  AND
  DISTRIBUTOR

  SPARK PLUGS

  REAR LAMP

  HORN

  COIL

  INSTRUMENT LAMP

  HEAD LAMP

  HORN BUTTON

  LIGHTING SWITCH

Fig. 88. Wiring Diagram Model N--Hupmobile]

Fig. 88 shows a complete diagram of the Model N Hupmobile wiring
system.




CHAPTER XXIII

ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT


Fig. 89 shows a diagram of the Bijur lighting and starting system on
the Jeffrey “Chesterfield-six.” The generator supplies current for the
lights and charges a storage battery when the gas motor is running at
speeds equivalent to ten or more miles per hour on high gear.

When the gas motor is running at speeds corresponding to less than
ten miles per hour, all currents for lamps are drawn from the storage
battery.

The starting motor is in operation only during the period of starting,
and remains idle at all other times. The appliances shown in the
diagram constituting the equipment are a six volt constant voltage
generator, a six volt starting motor, starting switch, six volt hundred
ampere hour battery, lamp controller, and a high tension magneto. Due
to the reversible characteristics of the generator, no attention need
be paid to the polarity of the wiring when it is removed and again
replaced.

The starting motor pinion meshes with teeth on the flywheel when the
starting switch mounted on the housing covering the motor pinion is
compressed.

=Operation of System Shown in Diagram.=--After the gas motor reaches
a speed equivalent to a car speed of approximately ten miles per hour
on the third speed gear, the generator will generate and maintain a
constant voltage, or electrical pressure at higher speeds and will also
maintain this pressure constant at all loads.

The current output from the generator at any time will depend upon the
condition of the storage battery. If a car has been left standing for
some time with the lights burning, the storage battery will become more
or less discharged and its voltage lowered. Under these conditions the
generator voltage or pressure will be higher than that of the battery,
forcing a comparatively high charging current into the battery. This
current may be from 5 to 20 amperes, and the battery will rapidly
approach the fully charged condition.

[Illustration:

  ³⁄₈ LOOM

  N^o. 14

  N^o. 10

  ³⁄₈ LOOM

  N^o. 14

  N^o. 10

  ¹⁄₄ LOOM

  N^o. 14

  RIGHT HEAD LIGHT

  TERMINAL POSTS

  FUSES 10 AMPERES

  NEGATIVE

  STORAGE
  BATTERY

  GENERATOR

  MAGNETO

  POSITIVE

  SWITCH

  CYLINDERS

  BATT -

  LIGHTING
  SWITCH

  N^o. 14

  N^o. 14

  BATT +

  TONNEAU LIGHT

  GROUND

  N^o. 10

  GROUND FUSE

  MAGNETO SWITCH

  N^o. 18 DUPLEX

  N^o. 14

  N^o. 10

  DASH & EXTENSION
  LIGHT

  AMMETER

  N^o. 0

  HORN BUTTON

  REAR LIGHT

  HEAD LIGHT

  MOTOR

  STARTING SWITCH

  HORN

  2⁵⁄₈ LOOM

Fig. 89. Wiring Diagram--Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six]

As a battery becomes charged its voltage increases reducing the
difference in pressure between the generator and battery and decreasing
the charging current to the battery.


ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING OPERATION

Current from the generator passes through an ammeter and this meter
shows the current being supplied to the battery and the lights, or to
the battery only when no lights are in operation.

=Starting Motor.=--The starting motor is provided with a square shaft
and carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally on this shaft.
This pinion meshes directly with teeth cut on the flywheel.

The starting pedal located at the driver’s seat connects through
linkage to fork which shifts the link on the square shaft of the motor.
The same foot pedal linkage operates the starting switch. Normally a
spring holds the motor pinion out of mesh with the flywheel teeth, and
also holds the starting switch in an “off” position.

=Operation of the Starter.=--Depressing the starter, one pedal operates
the starting switch and makes a preliminary contact which connects the
starting motor to the storage battery through a resistance located
inside of the starting switch. This resistance permits a small amount
of current to pass through the starting motor, causing its armatures
to rotate at relatively slow speed. This slow rotation insures proper
meshing of the pinion and flywheel teeth when they are brought into
engagement. Depressing the foot pedal also shifts the pinion on the
square shaft of the motor so as to bring it into contact with the teeth
on the flywheel.

When the pinion is in full mesh with the teeth on the fly, the moving
contact in the starting switch has traveled to a position where the
resistance is cut out of the circuit, connecting the storage battery
directly to the starting motor. The starting motor will then spin the
gas motor.

=Starting.=--First see that the necessary adjustments have been made,
then depress the starting foot pedal as far as it will go and hold it
firmly in place until the gas motor starts. The instant the gas motor
begins firing the foot pedal should be released. The starting pedal
should be pressed as far as it will go without any pausing on the
downward stroke.

Fig. 90 shows diagram of operation and wiring of the Bijur electrical
system used on Jeffery 4-cylinder car.

If the pinion and flywheel teeth do not mesh properly do not hold the
starting pedal down, release it and after a few seconds pause, depress
the pedal again.

If the gas motor does not start firing promptly after spinning it with
the electric motor, do not continue to spin it, but see that the proper
adjustments for starting have been made and that there is gasoline in
the carburetor, and that the ignition is in working order.

Continued spinning of the gas motor by the electric motor will not
damage the electrical equipment but constitutes a useless drain on the
storage battery and should be avoided.

=Wiring.=--Fig. 90 shows the circuits for all electric appliances on
the Jeffrey-4 car. The various units are wired on the two-wire system.
The “out of focus” filaments in the head lamp bulbs are wired on the
three-wire system, the chassis acting as a neutral wire, one side of
the “out of focus” filament being grounded in the head lamps. The “in
focus” filaments are on the two-wire system.

The dash lamp is on the tail lamp circuit and is so arranged that these
two lamps are always in operation when any combination of head lamp
filaments are in use.

=Fuse Circuits.=--Each head lamp is separately fused, the current for
both filaments in each head lamp bulb passing through one fuse.

[Illustration:

  GROUND TO OIL PIPE

  GROUNDED TO INSTRUMENT
  ASSEMBLY

  RIGHT HEAD LIGHT

  GENERATOR

  DASH LAMP

  SWITCH

  INDICATOR

  CYLINDERS
  1 2 3 4

  CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH
  IN “DIM” POSITION

  FUSE AND
  JUNCTION BLOCK

  HORN

  CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH
  IN “ON” POSITION

  MAGNETO

  HORN BUTTON

  MOTOR

  STARTING SWITCH

  BATTERY

  WIRING FOR 6-CYLINDER MODEL
  661 IS THE SAME AS FOR 4-CYLINDER
  MODEL 462, EXCEPT FOR HIGH TENSION
  LEADS BETWEEN MAGNETO
  AND SPARK PLUGS.

  LEFT HEAD LIGHT

  NOTE:--DOTTED LINES INDICATE PERMANENT
  CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FUSE
  CABINET, DASH LAMP, CURRENT INDICATOR
  AND SWITCH. CONNECTIONS AS SHOWN
  FACING FUSE CABINET.

  SWITCH GROUNDED

  REAR

Fig. 90. Wiring Diagram--Jeffrey-Four]

Separate fuses are provided for the electric horn circuit and for the
rear lamp circuit. The push button for operating the electric horn is
mounted on the center of the steering post.

=Ground Fuse.=--A fuse is located in the ground circuit between the
lamp controller and the magneto top to ground.

[Illustration: Fig. 91. Hydrometer Syringe]

=Lamp Controller.=--A pair of wires from the terminals of the storage
battery connect to the five position lamp controller. All lighting
circuits connected to this controller which may be locked in any of the
five positions.

Oiling should be practiced regularly every two weeks or every five
hundred miles. Two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be put in
each of the two oilers of the motor and in each of the two oilers of
the generator. Do not flood the bearings with oil.

At the same time the starting motor shaft should be oiled. An oil hole
is provided in the top of the starting motor gear case and about ten
drops of cylinder oil should be used.

Fig. 91 shows a hydrometer syringe used for determining the specific
gravity or density of the solutions in the battery cells.

To take specific gravity readings unscrew the filler or vent plug and
insert the tube into the cell and release bulb slowly to draw the acid
solution into the chamber until the hydrometer floats. The enlarged
graduated stem shows a reading of 1.280 at the point where it emerges
from the solution. After testing, the solution must be returned to the
cell from which it was taken. Specific readings above 1200 show the
battery more than half charged.

Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery completely discharged or run down.

Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be given a
long run to restore the battery.




CHAPTER XXIV

NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS


The North East starter system shown in Fig. 91¹⁄₂ comprises the North
East Model G starter-generator and the combined starting switch and
reverse current cut-out. This equipment serves to start the engine and
provide current for the lamps and other electrical accessories as well
as for the ignition system. The battery as the source of current while
the engine is not in operation or is running slowly; but at all engine
speeds above 350 R. P. M. the starter-generator supplies current for
the entire electrical system.

=Wiring.=--In the accompanying wiring diagrams the starting circuit
is represented by the very heavy cables; the charging circuit, where
it does not coincide with the starting circuit, by the cables of
medium weight, and the lighting and the ignition circuits by the light
cables. As will be seen from the diagrams, the starting circuit extends
from the positive terminal of the battery to the starting switch,
and thence, when the switch is closed, through the starter-generator
armature and field coils back to the negative terminal of the battery
by way of the grounded negative starter-generator terminal, the car
frame, and the battery ground connections. The charging circuit is
identical with the starting circuit except at the starting switch,
where instead of passing from one switch terminal to the other
through the switch contactor it extends through a parallel path which
includes the reverse current cut-out and the charging indicator. The
cable leading to the lighting and ignition switch is attached to the
positive terminal of the indicator. From this switch the lighting and
the ignition circuits become distinct, and each, after passing through
its proper course, reaches the car frame and returns through it to the
source of supply.

[Illustration:

  Charging
  Indicator

  Lighting & Ignition
  Switch

  Dash
  Lamp

  Horn

  Head Lamp

  Ground

  Tail
  Lamp

  Ground

  Horn Button

  Starting Switch
  and
  Reverse Current
  Cut-out

  Ground

  Ground
  Connection

  Ground

  Head Lamp

  Battery

  Ground

  Starter-Generator

  Ground Connection

Fig. 91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram]

Without exception all the connections of the starting and lighting
system must be made as indicated in this diagram if entirely
satisfactory results are to be obtained from the equipment.

=Starter-Generator= (Fig. 92).--The starter-generator is mounted on
the left side of the engine by means of an adjustable support and a
clamping strap. It runs at three times engine speed, operating directly
from the crank shaft through a silent chain drive. Being a single unit
machine, it employs but one armature with only one commutator, one set
of field windings and one set of brushes for the performance of all of
its functions both as a starter and as a generator.

While starting the engine it acts as a cumulatively compounded motor;
but while serving as a generator it operates as a differentially
compounded machine with its output positively controlled through
the agency of a Third Brush Regulating system, supplemented by the
differential influence of the series field upon the shunt field.

The machine is designed for 12 volt service and, when driven by the
engine, normally begins to deliver current to the battery as soon as
the car speed is brought up to approximately 10 miles per hour. From
this point on, the charging rate rises rapidly with increasing speed
until the standard maximum rate of 6 amperes is reached at a car speed
of 16 or 17 miles per hour. From this speed to 20 or 21 miles per
hour it remains practically constant, but above 21 miles per hour it
decreases gradually until at the upper speed limit of the engine it may
become as low as 3 amperes.

This charging rate conforms throughout with the standard
recommendations of the battery manufacturers. The early maximum reached
by the starter-generator output provides amply for the demands of
current at ordinary driving speeds; while the tapering characteristic,
which comes into effect at high speeds, serves to protect the battery
from superfluous charging in instances where cars may be subjected to
continuous high speed service.

[Illustration:

  FIELD COIL

  TIE ROD

  ARMATURE

  FIELD RING

  FUSE

  RETAINING PLATE

  CORK PACKING WASHER

  COMMUTATOR

  ARMATURE SHAFT

  BALL BEARING

  SPROCKET

  COMMUTATOR-END
  HOUSING

  3^{RD} BRUSH PLATE
  ADJUSTING-STUD

  SPRING END-PLAY
  WASHER

  BALL BEARING
  LOCKING SLEEVE

  BEARING-CAP

  FELT
  OILING-WASHERS

  BALL BEARING

  OIL SLINGER.

  CLAMP-SCREW

  3^{RD} BRUSH PLATE
  CLAMP

  CRIMPED SPACER

  COVER-BAND

  SPROCKET-END HOUSING

  BRUSH-HOLDER STUD

  BRUSH

  BRUSH HOLDER

Fig. 92. North East Model G Starter-Generator]

=Adjustment of Charging Rate.=--The third brush system is so
constructed as to permit the charging rate to be changed when desired
to a higher or to a lower value than that for which it is normally
adjusted. Such adjustments should not be attempted by the car owner
himself, and should never be made except in cases of actual necessity
where the normal charging rate does not meet the special service
conditions under which the equipment may be required to operate
permanently. In every instance where there is any reason to believe
that a modification of the rate would be beneficial, the car owner
should refer the equipment to the North East Electric Company or its
nearest branch or service station.

=Fuse.=--The fuse is located on the commutator end of the
starter-generator. Its purpose is to protect the electrical system
if possible by rendering the starter-generator inoperative whenever
abnormal operating conditions may occur. Due to its protective function
the fuse is always the first point in the system to be inspected in
case the starter-generator ever failed to produce current. If the
fuse is found to be “blown” or missing, a new one should be applied
and the machine given a preliminary test before further search for
trouble is made. Should the generator fail to deliver current even
after a new fuse has been installed or should the new fuse “blow” when
the machine is in operation, the entire electrical system should then
be inspected thoroughly for possible faults such as open circuits,
improper connections or abnormal grounds. Under such circumstances the
difficulty should always be corrected before any further attempt is
made to operate the equipment.

=Precautions Necessary for the Operation Without Battery in
Circuit.=--The third brush regulating system requires a closed
charging circuit for the successful performance of its duties. The
battery, therefore, forms an indispensable link in the system and its
presence in circuit is always essential to the proper operation of
the starter-generator. Should the machine ever have to be operated
with the battery disconnected or with the charging circuit otherwise
incomplete, the electrical system must be protected by rendering the
machine inoperative. This is to be done by removing the fuse from its
clips.

When the starter-generator thus rendered incapable of producing
current, no ignition current will be available from the usual sources.
Under such circumstances, therefore, the engine cannot be operated
without some provisional source of ignition current. A battery of nine
or ten dry cells will serve satisfactorily as a temporary substitute
provided they are used for ignition only.

=Starting Switch and Reverse Current Cut-out.=--The reverse current
cut-out is located in the same case with the starting switch. This
combined switch and cut-out is mounted near the center of the toe-board
where the switch push-rod button is within convenient reach from the
driver’s seat.




CHAPTER XXV

THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM--BUICK CARS


The motor generator which is located on the right side of the engine
is the principal part of the Delco System. This consists essentially
of a dynamo with two field windings, and two windings on the armature
with two commutators and corresponding sets of brushes, in order that
the machine may work both as a starting motor, and as a generator for
charging the battery and supplying the lights, horn and ignition. The
ignition apparatus is incorporated in the forward end of the motor
generator. This in no way affects the working of the generator, it
being mounted in this manner simply as a convenient and accessible
mounting. The motor generator has three distinct functions to perform
which are as follows:

  1.--Motoring the generator.
  2.--Cranking the engine.
  3.--Generating electrical energy.

Motoring the generator is accomplished when the ignition button on the
switch is pulled out. This allows current to come from the storage
battery through the ammeter on the combination switch, causing it to
show a discharge. The first reading of the meter will be much more
than the reading after the armature is turning freely. The current
discharging through the ammeter during this operation is the current
required to slowly revolve the armature and what is used for the
ignition. The ignition current flows only when the contacts are closed,
it being an intermittent current. The maximum ignition current is
obtained when the circuit is first closed and the resistance unit
on the front end of the coil is cold. The current at this time is
approximately 6 amperes, but soon decreases to approximately 3¹⁄₂
amperes. Then as the engine is running it further decreases until at
1000 revolutions of the engine it is approximately 1 ampere.

[Illustration:

  LEAD TO SWITCH.

  TO SHUNT FIELD.

  IGNITION COIL.

  RESISTANCE UNIT.

  TO THIRD BRUSH.

  TO POS. BATTERY.

  DIS. HEAD LOCATING TONGUE.

  TO NO 1 TERMINAL.

  TO NO 2 TERMINAL.

  BRUSH OPERATING ROD.

  OILER A.

  TO STARTING PEDAL.

  STARTING GEARS.

  A

  FIELD COIL.

  OILER B.

  DISTRIBUTOR
  SHAFT GEAR.

  FLY WHEEL.

  PUMP SHAFT.

  ARMATURE.

  LUBRICATOR C.

  GENERATOR
  CLUTCH.

  ROLLER BEARING.

  BALL BEARING.

  OIL DRAIN.

  ONE WAY CLUTCH BUILT IN
  THIS GEAR.

  MOTOR COMMUTATOR.

  GENERATOR COMMUTATOR.

Fig. 93. Delco Motor Generator--Showing Parts]

This motoring of the generator is necessary in order that the starting
gears may be brought into mesh, and should trouble be experienced
in meshing these gears, do not try to force them, simply allow the
starting pedal to come back giving the gears time to change their
relative positions.

A clicking sound will be heard during the motoring of the generator.
This is caused by the overrunning of the clutch in the forward end of
the generator which is shown in Fig. 93.

The purpose of the generator clutch is to allow the armature to revolve
at a higher speed than the pump shaft during the cranking operation
and permitting the pump shaft to drive the armature when the engine is
running on its own power. A spiral gear is cut on the outer face of
this clutch for driving the distributor. This portion of the clutch
is connected by an Oldham coupling to the pump shaft. Therefore its
relation to the pump shaft is always the same and does not throw the
ignition out of time during the cranking operation.

The cranking operation takes place when the starting pedal is fully
depressed. This causes the top motor brush to come in contact with the
motor commutator. As this brush arm lowers, it comes in contact with
the gear in the generator brush arm raising the generator brush from
its commutator. At the same time the current from the storage battery
flows through the heavy series field winding, motor brushes and motor
winding on the armature. The switching in this circuit is accomplished
by means of the top motor brush which is operated from the starting
pedal. (Shown in Fig. 94).

This cranking operation requires a heavy current from the storage
battery, and if the lights are on during the cranking operation, the
heavy discharge from the battery causes the voltage of the battery
to decrease enough to cause the lights to grow dim. This is noticed
especially when the battery is nearly discharged; it also will be more
apparent with a stiff motor or with a loose or poor connection in the
battery circuit. It is on account of this heavy discharge current that
the cranking should not be continued any longer than is necessary,
although a fully charged battery will crank the engine for several
minutes.

[Illustration:

  _BRUSH OPERATING ROD_

  _MOTOR BRUSH_

  _GENERATOR BRUSH_

  _GENERATOR
  COMMUTATOR_

  _MOTOR COMMUTATOR_

  _THIRD BRUSH_

  _PLATE SLOTTED TO PERMIT
  THIRD BRUSH ADJUSTMENT_

Fig. 94. Delco Motor Generator--Diagram of Operation]

During the cranking operation the ammeter will show a discharge. This
is the current that is used both in the shunt field winding and the
ignition current; the ignition current, being an intermittent current
of comparatively low frequency, will cause the ammeter to vibrate
during the cranking operation. If the lights are on the meter will
show a heavier discharge.

The main cranking current is not conducted through the ammeter, as this
is a very heavy current and it would be impossible to conduct this
heavy current through the ammeter and still have an ammeter that is
sensitive enough to indicate accurately the charging current and the
current for lights and ignition.

As soon as the engine fires the starting pedal should be released
immediately, as the overrunning motor clutch is operating from the time
the engine fires until the starting gears are out of mesh. Since they
operate at a very high speed, if they are held in mesh for any length
of time, there is enough friction in this clutch to cause it to heat
and burn out the lubricant. There is no necessity for holding the gears
in mesh.

The motor clutch operates between the flywheel and the armature pinion
for the purpose of getting a suitable gear reduction between the motor
generator and the flywheel. It also prevents the armature from being
driven at an excessively high speed during the short time the gears are
meshed after the engine is running on its own power.

This clutch is lubricated by the grease cup A, shown in Fig. 93. This
forces grease through the hollow shaft to the inside of the clutch.
This cup should be given a turn or two every week.

When the cranking operation is finished the top brush is raised off
the commutator when the starting pedal is released. This throws the
starting motor out of action (Fig. 94). The top brush comes in contact
with the generator commutator, and the armature is driven by the
extension of the pump shaft.

At speeds above approximately 7 miles per hour the generator voltage
is higher than the voltage of the storage battery which causes
current to flow from the generator winding through the ammeter in the
charge direction to the storage battery. As the speed increases up to
approximately 20 miles per hour this charging current increases, but
at the higher speeds the charging current decreases.

=Lubrication.=--There are five places to lubricate the Delco System:

  1. The grease clutch for lubricating the motor clutch.

  2. Hole at B (Fig. 93) for supplying cup grease for lubricating the
  generator clutch and forward armature bearing.

  3. The oiler C in the rear end cover for lubricating the bearing on
  the armature shaft. This should receive a few drops of oil once a
  week.

  4. The oil hole in the distributor at A (Fig. 93) for lubricating the
  top bearing of the distributor shaft. This should receive oil once a
  week

  5. This is the inside of the distributor head. This should be
  lubricated with a small amount of vaseline, carefully applied two or
  three times during the first 2000 miles running of the car, after
  which it will require no attention. This is to secure a burnished
  track for the rotor brush on the distributor head. This grease should
  be sparingly applied and the head wiped clean from dust and dirt.

The combination switch (Figs. 95 and 96) is for the purpose of
controlling the lights, ignition, and the circuit between the generator
and the storage battery. The button next to the ammeter controls both
the ignition and the circuit between the generator and the storage
battery, the latter circuit being shown in the heavier line as shown
on the circuit diagram (Fig. 98). The button next to this controls the
head lights. The next button controls the auxiliary lamps in the head
lights. The button on the left controls the cowl and tail lights.

The circuit breaker is mounted on the combination switch as shown in
Fig. 96. This is a protective device, which takes the place of a fuse
block and fuses. It prevents the discharging of the battery or damage
to the switch or wiring to the lamps, in the event of any of the wires
leading to these becoming grounded. As long as the lamps are using the
normal amount of current the circuit breaker is not affected. But in
the event of any of the wires becoming grounded an abnormally heavy
current is conducted through the circuit breaker, thus producing a
strong magnetism which attracts the pole piece and opens the contacts.
This cuts off the flow of current which allows the contacts to close
again and the operation is repeated, causing the circuit breaker to
pass an intermittent current and give forth a vibrating sound.

[Illustration: Fig. 95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate]

[Illustration:

  Circuit Breaker

  Numbers of Lower Terminals

Fig. 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker--Mounted]

It requires 25 amperes to start the circuit breaker vibrating, but
once vibrating a current of three to five amperes will cause it to
continue to operate.

In case the circuit breaker vibrates repeatedly, do not attempt to
increase the tension of the spring, as the vibration is an indication
of a ground in the system. Remove the ground and the vibration will
stop.

The ammeter on the right side of the combination switch is to indicate
the current that is going to or coming from the storage battery with
the exception of the cranking current. When the engine is not running
and current is being used for lights, the ammeter shows the amount of
current being used and the ammeter hand points to the discharge side,
as the current is being discharged from the battery.

When the engine is running above generating speeds and no current is
being used for lights or horn, the ammeter will show charge. This
is the amount of current that is being charged into the battery. If
current is being used for lights, ignition and horn, in excess of the
amount that is being generated, the ammeter will show a discharge as
the excess current must be discharged from the battery, but at all
ordinary speeds the ammeter will read charge.

The ignition coil is mounted on top of the motor generator as shown
in Fig. 94 and is what is generally known as the ignition transformer
coil. In addition to being a plain transformer coil it has incorporated
in it a condenser (which is necessary for all high tension ignition
systems) and has included on the front end an ignition resistance unit.

The coil proper consists of a round core of a number of small iron
wires. Wound around this and insulated from it is the primary winding.
The circuit and arrangement of the different parts are shown in Fig.
97. The primary current is supplied through the combination switch
through the primary winding and resistance through the coil, to the
distributor contacts. This is very plainly shown in Fig. 98. It is the
interrupting of this primary current by the timer contacts together
with the action of the condenser which causes a rapid demagnetization
of the iron core of the coil that induces the high tension current
in the secondary winding. This secondary winding consists of several
thousand turns of very fine copper wire, the different layers of which
are well insulated from each other and from the primary winding. One
end of the secondary winding is grounded and the other end terminates
at the high tension terminal about midway on top of the coil. It is
from this terminal that the high tension current is conducted to the
distributor where it is distributed to the proper cylinders by the
rotor shown in Fig. 98.

[Illustration:

  Connects
  To Switch

  High Tension Wire
  To Center Of Distributor

  Connects To
  Distributor

  Primary
  Winding

  Resistance
  Unit

  Secondary
  Winding

  Iron Core

  Condenser

  Coil Bracket Must Be Grounded

Fig. 97. Delco Ignition Coil]

The distributor and timer, together with the ignition coil, spark
plugs, and wiring, constitute the ignition system.

The proper ignition of an internal combustion engine consists of
igniting the mixture in each cylinder at such a time that it will be
completely burned at the time the piston reaches dead center on the
compression stroke. A definite period of time is required from the time
the spark occurs at the spark plug until the mixture is completely
expanded. It is therefore apparent, that, as the speed of the engine
increases, the time the spark occurs must be advanced with respect to
the crank shaft, and it is for this reason that the Delco ignition
systems are fitted with an automatic spark control.

[Illustration:

  CIRCUIT BREAKER

  AMMETER

  COWL LIGHT

  RESISTANCE UNIT

  SWITCH

  BRUSH SWITCHES
  OPERATED BY
  STARTING PEDAL

  CONDENSER

  IGNITION COIL

  TONNEAU
  LIGHT

  HEAD
  LIGHTS

  SERIES FIELD

  ROTOR FOR DISTRIBUTING
  HIGH TENSION CURRENT

  MOTOR

  GENERATOR

  TAIL LIGHT

  STORAGE
  BATTERY

  SHUNT
  FIELD

  TO SPARK PLUGS

  DISTRIBUTOR

  ADVANCE
  TUNGSTEN
  TIMING
  CONTACTS

  AUX
  LIGHT

  HORN BUTTON
  IN WHEEL

Fig. 98. Delco Wiring Diagram--Buick Cars]

The quality of the mixture and the amount of compression are also
factors in the time required for the burning to be complete. Thus a
rich mixture burns quicker than a lean one. For this reason the engine
will stand more advance with a half open throttle than with a wide open
throttle, and in order to secure the proper timing of the ignition due
to these variations and to retard the spark for starting, idling and
carburetor adjusting, the Delco distributor also has a manual control.

[Illustration:

  Rotor Button

  Rotor

  Breaker Cam

  Timing Adjustment

  Automatic Weights

  Advance Lever

Fig. 99. Delco Ignition Distributor]

The automatic feature of this distributor is shown in Figs. 99 and
100. With the spark lever set at the running position on the steering
wheel (which is nearly all the way down on the quadrant), the automatic
feature gives the proper spark for all speeds excepting a wide open
throttle at low speeds, at which time the spark lever should be
slightly retarded. When the ignition is too far advanced it causes loss
of power and a knocking sound within the engine. With too late a spark
there is a loss of power which is usually not noticed except by an
experienced driver or one very familiar with the car and heating of the
engine and excessive consumption of fuel is the result.

The timer contacts shown at D and C (Fig. 100) are two of the most
important points of an automobile. Very little attention will keep
these in perfect condition. These are tungsten metal, which is
extremely hard and requires a very high temperature to melt. Under
normal conditions they wear or burn very slightly and will very seldom
require attention; but in the event of abnormal voltage, such as would
be obtained by running with the battery removed, or with the ignition
resistance unit shorted out, or with a defective condenser, these
contacts burn very rapidly and in a short time will cause serious
ignition trouble. _The car should never be operated with the battery
removed._

[Illustration:

  3 AUTOMATIC
  WEIGHTS

  DISTRIBUTOR
  CONTACT BREAKER
  CAM

Fig. 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer]

It is a very easy matter to check the resistance unit by observing
its heating when the ignition button is out and the contacts in the
distributor are closed. If it is shorted out it will not heat up, and
will cause missing at low speeds.

A defective condenser such as will cause contact trouble will cause
serious missing of the ignition. Therefore, any of these troubles are
comparatively easy to locate and should be immediately remedied.

These contacts should be so adjusted that when the fiber block B is
on top of one of the lobes of the cam, the contacts are opened the
thickness of the gauge on the distributor wrench. Adjust contacts
by turning contact screw C, and lock nut N. The contacts should be
dressed with fine emery cloth so that they meet squarely across the
entire face.

The rotor distributes the high tension current from the center of the
distributor to the proper cylinder. Care must be taken to see that the
distributor head is properly located, otherwise the rotor brush will
not be in contact with the terminal at the time the spark occurs.

The distributor head and rotor should be lubricated as described under
the heading “Lubrication.” The amount of ignition current required
for different speeds is described under the heading “Motoring the
Generator.”




CHAPTER XXVI

STORAGE BATTERY

CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE


The modern storage battery does not produce or generate electrical
force. It was designed to carry an extra supply of current in storage
to operate lighting and starting systems, and in most cases the current
required for ignition is drawn from this supply.

[Illustration:

  Terminal Post

  Cell Retainer Case

  Cell Jar

  Negative Plate

  Separator

  Positive Plate

Fig. 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View]

A storage battery is also called an accumulator, as it accumulates and
retains a charge of electrical current for future use.

Fig. 101 illustrates a storage battery with a section of the cell
retainer case removed to show the location of the cells, their
respective order, terminal posts and connections. A section of the
cell jar, has also been removed to show the core, which consists of a
set of positive and negative plates. The positive plates are inserted
between the negative plates and are held in this position through their
respective connections to the positive and negative terminal posts.
The cell retainer-jars are made of zinc or rubber, and contain an acid
and water solution called electrolyte into which the core is entirely
immersed.

=The Positive and Negative Plates.=--The plates are held from direct
contact with each other by a wood or rubber separator. These plates
are formed with small sectional compartments called grids, into which
a lead compound in paste form is pressed. The positive plates are made
of lead oxide (zinc), and are dark gray in color, while the negative
plates are made of pure lead, and are light gray in color.

=Cells.=--The cells are connected up in series, that is, the positive
terminal post of one cell is connected to the negative terminal post
of the next cell, forming a direct path through the cell arrangement.
Each cell will retain a two-volt pressure until fully discharged. The
voltage of a battery is determined by adding the number of two-volt
cells that it contains.

=Amperage.=--The standard type of storage battery shown in Fig. 102 is
composed of three two-volt cells which form a six-volt unit of sixty
ampere hours, which means that a fully charged battery will deliver
one ampere per hour for sixty hours. This, also, is about the rate of
amperage consumed by the modern battery ignition system.

=Electrolyte Solution.=--The electrolyte solution is composed of a
mixture of one part of sulphuric acid added to four to six parts of
water. This solution is poured into the cell through the filler cap,
until the plates are covered from one-fourth to one-half inch in depth
as shown in Fig. 102.

Care should always be exercised to keep the air vent in the filler
cap free from grease and dirt in order that the gases formed through
evaporation may escape.

=Battery Charging.=--The cells are charged by passing a direct current
through them, which causes a chemical action to take place as the
current flows in, changing the nature of the positive and negative
plates, thereby retaining a current force equal to the difference of
the changed nature of the plates. The battery is entirely discharged
when the plates become alike in nature.

[Illustration:

  Unscrew
  this Cap

  Fill up to
  this Point

  SOLUTION

  Don’t fill
  above
  this Point

  PLATE

Fig. 102. Storage Battery, Sectional View]

=Storage Battery Care and Maintenance.=--Regularly once every week
during the summer, and every two weeks during the winter, add water to
each of the three cells of the battery, until the tops of the plates
are covered. Use water only; never add acid of any kind. Water for
battery purposes should be distilled fresh rain or melted ice, and must
be free from alkali, iron, or other impurities. The battery should be
kept clean and free from dirt. Use only clean non-metallic vessels for
handling and storing water for battery purposes.

The state of charge of a battery is indicated by the specific gravity
or density of the solution. Fig. 103 shows a hydrometer syringe used
for taking specific gravity readings. The filler or vent plug in the
top of the cell is removed and the rubber tube of the hydrometer
syringe inserted into the cell so that the end of the tube is below the
solution. Then squeeze the rubber bulb slowly, drawing the solution
into the acid chamber until the hydrometer floats.

[Illustration: Fig. 103. Hydrometer Syringe]

The reading on the graduator stem at the point where it emerges from
the solution is the specific gravity or density of the solution.

Fig. 103 shows an enlarged section of the hydrometer floating so that
the reading of the graduated scale is 1.280 at the point where it
emerges from the solution. This is the specific gravity or density of
the solution.

After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from which it
was taken.

Never take specific gravity readings immediately after adding water to
the cells.

The specific gravity readings are expressed in “points,” thus the
difference between 1.275 and 1.300 is 25 points.

When all the cells are in good condition the specific gravity will be
approximately the same in all cells and the difference should not be
greater than 25 to 30 points.

With a fully charged battery the specific gravity of the solution will
be from 1.280 to 1.300.

Specific gravity readings above 1.200 indicates that the battery is
more than half charged.

Specific gravity readings below 1.200, but above 1.150 indicates
battery less than half charged.

Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery discharged or run down.

Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be given a
long run with all lights turned off, to restore the battery.

This condition may result from leaving a car standing for prolonged
periods with all lights in use and insufficient running of the gas
motor in between these periods to replace the current taken to supply
the lights.

When the specific gravity shows the battery to be half discharged,
the lights should be used sparingly until the gravity rises to
approximately 1.275.

If the specific gravity in one cell is much lower than that of
the others, and if successive readings show the difference to be
increasing, this indicates that the cell is not in good order.

If one cell regularly requires more water than the others (continually
lowering the specific gravity), a leaky jar is indicated. Leaky jars
should be replaced immediately.

If there is no leak and the specific gravity falls 50 to 75 points
below that of the other cells in the battery, an internal short circuit
is indicated and should be remedied.

=Battery to Remain Idle.=--Where a battery is to remain out of active
service for a long period, it may be kept in good condition by giving
it a freshening charge at least once a month, by running the gas motor
idle.

When a battery has been out of service for some time it should be given
a thorough charge before it is placed in service again.

If the gas motor cannot be run to give a freshening charge, the battery
should be taken from the car and placed at a garage, which makes a
business of charging storage batteries. It can be charged at least once
a month. This charge should be 4 and ³⁄₄ to 5 amperes for twenty-four
hours.

=Battery Freezing.=--In order to avoid freezing, a battery should be
kept in a fully charged condition, as a fully charged battery will not
freeze except at extreme temperatures. As a battery discharges the
specific gravity of the solution decreases, and the specific gravity of
a fully discharged battery will be approximately 1.120. Batteries of
this low gravity will freeze at 20° F. above zero, whereas, the density
of the solution in a battery approximately three-quarters charged will
be 1.260, and a solution of this density will not freeze until 60° F.
below zero.

_See_ Accumulator. Chapter 14, Electrical Dictionary--Function and
Chemical Action.




CHAPTER XXVII

SPARK PLUGS AND CARE


Some definite knowledge of spark plug construction quality, and care,
will be found very useful to the average motorist in purchasing new
plugs, and keeping those in present use, in good condition. A good
plug properly constructed should outlast the life of the motor. When
purchasing new plugs, first examine the old plug and get one of the
same length. This is very important as spark plugs are made in as many
different lengths as required by high and low compression motors. High
compression motors have a small low walled combustion chamber, while
low compression motors usually have a spacious high wall chamber and
require a longer plug, whereas if the long plug is used in the high
compression motor it may be put out of commission by the ascending
piston. Next determine the size of the plug and the gauge of the
thread. The majority of motors use the ³⁄₄ inch plug, with the S. A.
E. thread, while a few still use the A. L. A. M. thread which is much
finer gauged. Another point to be remembered is that it is an unwise
expenditure to purchase cheap plugs because the intense heat and
pressure that they are subjected to and required to stand, demands that
they be made of the highest quality of material and workmanship.

[Illustration: Fig. 104. Spark Plug]

Fig. 104 shows the sectional construction of a spark plug costing
from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents. No. 1, the terminal,
is designed to fit all connections. No. 2 nut which holds electroids
firmly in place. No. 3 represents round edged shoulders which prevent
the plug from short circuiting on the outside. No. 4 is a heavy
electroid which will not break or burn. No. 5 is an extra heavy
insulator which insures a good spark in case the outer porcelain
insulator becomes broken or cracked. No. 6 is a bushing which holds
the insulator firmly in place from the top. No. 7 is a high compression
washer which allows for upward expansion and makes an even seat
for the bushing which holds the insulator in position. No. 8 is a
massive porcelain insulator designed to withstand a high temperature
without cracking. No. 9 is a copper asbestos washer that allows for
the downward expansion of the insulator. No. 10 is the shell casting
which holds and protects the insulator. No. 11 are rounded corners
which will allow the plug to be screwed down flush without coming into
contact with the curved walls of the cup containers. No. 12 is a high
compression washer which prevents all leakage. No. 13 shows elastic
cement which strengthens the lower construction of the insulator and
prevents the compression from escaping through the center of the
insulator. No. 14 is a hardened polished steel tipped electroid. No.
15 is a bent polished steel electroid dipped on each side of the spark
in order to prevent oil from running down from the shell casting and
closing the spark gap. No. 16 represents an extended center electroid
which prevents any oil that may have lodged on it from stopping at the
spark gap.

=Spark Plug Cleaning.=--To insure a smooth running motor and a good
spark, the spark plugs should be cleaned at thirty day intervals. It
is not always necessary to disassemble them at this time as the carbon
usually collects and bakes on the metal casting shell and can be
removed by running a thin knife blade or finger nail file around the
inner surface. However, when the insulator becomes pitted or carbon
burnt the plug should be disassembled and the insulator wiped clean
with a cloth dampened in kerosene. Never immerse the insulator in
kerosene, as this will loosen the cement around the center electroid
and cause the plug to leak compression. The shell may be immersed. It
is then wiped dry and the inside surfaces scraped or rubbed with a
piece of sand or emery paper to dislodge the carbon pits. After all
parts have been thoroughly dried the plug is reassembled, using new
washers.




CHAPTER XXVIII

CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE


The clutch used in automobile construction of the present day becomes a
necessary part of the equipment upon the adoption by manufacturers of
the progressive and selective types of sliding gear transmissions.

When the engine is started the clutch is “in,” that is, in contact
with the flywheel, and all parts of the clutch revolve with it at the
same speed. The shaft on which the clutch is mounted extends into the
transmission gear case, but as the transmission gears are in a neutral
position, the movement of the car is not affected.

When the car is to be started the clutch foot pedal (usually on the
left side of the steering column) is pressed down. This throws the part
attached to the drive shaft out of contact with the part attached to
the flywheel, and in its backward movement it comes into contact with
the clutch brake, as shown in Fig. 105, which stops it from revolving.
The hand gear control lever is shifted into the first speed slot or
position. The pressure on the foot pedal is then gradually released and
the clutch is carried in by spring tension, and the car moves off at
first speed.

=Second Speed.=--The clutch is thrown “out” after a brief lapse of
three to five seconds has been allowed for the brake to slow up
rotation in order that the gears to be meshed will be rotating at the
same speed. The hand control lever is now shifted into the second speed
slot, and the clutch pedals released.

=High Speed or Direct Drive.=--The clutch is thrown out and a few
seconds allowed for it to slow up. The hand control lever is shifted
into the high speed slot, which connects the drive or propeller shaft
directly to the clutch shaft and the car is driven at crank shaft speed
when the clutch is let in.

=Reverse.=--The clutch is employed in the same manner. However, the
motion of the car, the clutch and all gears must be at a stand still
before the gear control lever is shifted to the reverse speed slot, as
the gears in the transmission operate in the opposite direction.

[Illustration: Fig. 105. Cone Clutch and Brake]


OPERATION

A clutch always consists of two parts, one part which is attached to
the flywheel, and another part which operates on or against the part
formed by the flywheel.

While there are five to seven different types of clutches, but two
types are used by the majority of automobile manufacturers. The single
or multiple disc clutch is used almost exclusively in unit power plant
construction, while the cone type is used when the transmission is
carried in a separate unit.

Fig. 105 shows the cone clutch with its three adjusting springs and
clutch brake. The cone is shown in a lighter color than the flywheel.
It has a funnel-shaped surface with a slant or angle of from thirty to
thirty-eight degrees. The slanted surface is faced with leather and
fits into the rim of the flywheel which has been ground to the same
slant. The cone clutch is not attached to the flywheel but forms a
part and revolves with it when the faces are in contact. The cone is
carried on a separate short shaft which extends into the transmission
case. This shaft carries a steel plate or disc at the front end to
which the cone which slides on the shaft is anchored by studs extending
from the plate through the cone. The studs usually number three or
four and carry a two to three inch spring on the outer end back of the
cone. The cone is backed out of contact with the flywheel face, against
the tension of these springs, in a toggle leverage connected to the
foot pedal. The clutch brake shown in Fig. 105 is adjustable and makes
contact with the rim of the cone retarding the rotation when the cone
is drawn out of contact with the flywheel.

=Cone Clutch Care.=--The leather face of the cone should receive 5 to 7
drops of Neat’s foot oil every thirty days. A grease cup will be found
on the cone which provides lubrication for the shaft on which the cone
slides. This should be given a half turn every second day.

=Cone Clutch Adjustment.=--The three studs extending through the
cone, have a lock nut adjustment on the outer end, and the cone may
be adjusted up to make a stronger face contact by loosening the lock
nut and turning the inner nut to the right. This strengthens the
spring tension and causes the contact faces to set more firmly. This
adjustment, however, should take place only when clutch slipping is
noted. Only a little movement of the nuts is necessary, and all three
or four nuts should be taken up a like amount in order to prevent the
cone from running out of line or making uneven contact.

Fig. 106 shows the multiple disc clutch used almost exclusively in
connection with the unit power plant. This type of clutch consists of
a set of plates attached and driven by the flywheel, and another set
of plates or thin discs attached to the drive shaft. The drive shaft
plates operate between the flywheel plates. The contact is frictional
and the plates are held together by spring tension.

[Illustration: Fig. 106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and
Transmission]


BORG AND BECK CLUTCH

The new Borg and Beck Clutch is provided with a thrust bearing at the
inner end of the clutch sleeve, which does away with the friction
between the parts, and eliminates the need of a clutch brake.

The clutch is mounted in the customary way in a housing which contains
both the flywheel and the clutch.

[Illustration: Fig. 107. Borg and Beck Clutch]

Referring to the sectional view, Fig. 107, the action of the clutch
is clear if it is kept in mind that among the rotatable parts only
the driven group, comprising of the disk A and the shaft B, can stand
still when the flywheel is running. All the other rotatable parts are
anchored to the flywheel, and must revolve and drive with the latter.
The clutch brake was formerly mounted at the inner end of the clutch
shaft, and has been replaced by the thrust bearing shown at C.

When the clutch is disengaged there is no friction between the shaft
B, and the throw out sleeve D. The thrust bearing takes the rotating
drag of the clutch shaft, thereby eliminating the necessity for a brake
to check the spinning action. The friction and power action is readily
understood as, when the clutch is thrown in, all the rotating parts are
friction locked into a single combination and revolve as one with the
flywheel.

The power of the release clutch spring E, acting through the
throwout-collar F, and the bell crank pivot G, drives the thrust shoes
outwardly with a lever wedge toggle combination of powers against the
overhanging, inward beveled face to the thrust ring H, since the parts
on which they are mounted are backed against the cover wall or rigid
end of the clutch casing. It therefore follows that the full part
shafting effect of the thrust is communicated to the thrust ring H, and
the latter, in being driven hard toward the flywheel, sets up between
itself and the inner casing wall a friction grip sufficiently powerful
to stop the slippage of the asbestos rings upon the polished faces of
the discs, thus giving the drive to the car.

When the pedal is depressed to release the clutch, the retracing parts
telescope the coil of the spring E, until it occupies nearly a single
plane. The withdrawing parts also release the clutch shoes a sufficient
distance from the face of the thrust ring H to permit the latter,
together with its companion friction ring, to back away from the disc,
thus breaking the friction grip and permitting it to come to a stop,
while the flywheel and the parts of the clutch anchored to it are left
free to revolve idly.

The release disc A is so light that its spinning does not continue
except for a very short time and does not offer any clashing action
on the gears. The full thrust of the spring transmitted through the
powerful lever toggle action to the friction grip parts is always
sufficient to lock the driving flywheel parts, and the driven disc,
into a fixed nonslipping relation for a full driving action; but it
is still always within control of the driver, through the foot lever,
to let the clutch into engagement by degrees, and thus by a gradual
increase of the friction grip, gradually overcome the starting slippage.

=Adjustments.=--Taking up adjustments are provided by means of bolts
acting through adjustment slots in the cover. When the bolts are
loosened and shifted in their cover slots, they control and shift
with them an adjustment ring which brings all the shoes to new seats
against the nonslipping thrust ring and these seats being farther up
the inclines of the tapered ring, the ring is necessarily thrust much
farther toward the other friction parts, thus compensating the wear.

The adjustment for throw-out can be controlled by taking up the
friction grip adjustment, the latter being identical with the take up
adjustment just described, as these too are taken care of by the same
mechanical means to make the adjustment on the clutch.

=Disc Clutch Cleaning; Dry Plate.=--Dry plate clutches do not require
any oil, except that the grease cups (which provide lubrication for the
sleeve shaft and bearings) be filled weekly and given a half turn every
second day. The housing and plates should be cleaned whenever slipping
becomes noticeable. To do this remove the cover from the housing,
and the drain plug from the bottom, hold the clutch out, and squirt
kerosene over the plates with a dope gun. This will remove the grease
from the plates, and also any dirt or grit that may have lodged in the
bottom of the housing.

=Disc Clutch Cleaning; Wet Plate.=--The wet plate clutch is cleaned in
the same manner as the dry plate, except that the plug is first removed
from the bottom of the housing and the oil drained off before using the
kerosene. After the plates and housing have been cleaned, replace the
drain plug and fill the housing up to the clutch shaft with a heavy
cylinder oil.


CONE CLUTCH CLEANING

Cone clutches are always in perfect condition when leaving the factory
and should not require any further attention during the first season or
for eight to ten thousand miles of service.

After that it is usually necessary to replace the leather, or reline
the cone, which makes it as good and as serviceable as when it was new.

=New Clutch Leathers.=--New clutch leathers may be obtained from the
manufacturer, or from the service station, by giving the number and
model of the car. New clutch leathers obtained in this way are cut,
shaped, and have the ends cemented, and are ready to be slipped on
or off, over the cone and riveted into place. However, the leather
must first be soaked in water or Neat’s foot oil to make it soft and
pliable. This allows it to be driven or stretched over the cone. The
rivets must be counter-sunk to prevent the heads from extending above
the top surface of the leather, which would cause the clutch to “grab”
or jerk upon being engaged.

[Illustration: Fig. 108. Cone Clutch Leathers--Pattern--Cutting]

=Measuring and Cutting Clutch Leathers.=--Whenever possible it is
advisable to purchase clutch leathers cut and cemented, ready to
put on. But in case of emergency or when the proper size cannot
be obtained, a new leather may be cut from a piece of leather
three-sixteenth of an inch in thickness using the old leather as a
pattern. But in case the old leather is not available to serve as a
pattern, proceed in the following manner which is illustrated in Fig.
108, which shows how to make an exact pattern out of paper without
going into technicalities. Take a piece of heavy wrapping paper, forty
or fifty inches long and twenty inches wide, lay the cone on the left
hand edge about one inch from the bottom of the sheet, roll the cone
keeping the paper flat on the face until the starting edge meets the
sheet, hold the wrapped cone and draw a line around the inside of the
paper, letting the pencil rest against the edge of the large diameter
of the cone; repeat at the small end of the cone, then draw a line
parallel to the starting edge where it meets the sheet. This will give
you a pattern similar to that shown with the dotted lines in Fig. 108.

Now secure a piece of unstretchable leather (belting is preferable).
This belting or leather should be slightly longer than the pattern
you have just completed and sufficiently wide to embrace the curve;
about twelve to fifteen inches wide for the average clutch will be
sufficient, and about three-sixteenths of an inch thick.

Cut out the paper pattern and lay it on the leather belting as shown in
Fig. 108, and cut out with a sharp knife, leaving one-half inch over
at each end as a safety measure and for mitering the joints. Fit this
leather to the cone and cut the ends the exact size, miter the ends and
cement with a good leather cement. Be sure that you have the rough or
flesh side of the new facing on the outside; rivet it firmly in place
and smooth down the rough spots with a piece of coarse sand paper,
clean off all dirt, grease, and grit, especially the grit from the sand
paper, as this will grind and score the smooth surface of the flywheel
and cause clutch slipping. Paint the leather with Neat’s foot oil and
the clutch is ready to be assembled and adjusted.

=Cone Clutch Cleaning.=--Cone clutches usually do not require any
special care or cleaning unless oil or grease, other than (Neat’s
foot or castor) are applied accidentally or by mistake to the leather
face. If this happens the grease must be thoroughly cleaned off of the
leather face with kerosene or gasoline otherwise the clutch will not
hold. After the clutch leather has been washed allow it to dry for
twenty minutes and apply a thin coat of Neat’s foot oil evenly on the
leather face before reassembling the clutch.




CHAPTER XXIX

TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE


Transmission came into use with the application or adoption of the
internal combustion engine as a factor in motor car propulsion.

As this type of engine develops its power by a rapid succession of
explosions in the combustion chambers, each explosion delivers an
impulse or power stroke to the piston, which in turn sets the crank
shaft and flywheel to revolving. The momentum gathered by the crank
shaft and flywheel may therefore be termed the power for duty, or in
other words, unless there is momentum or carrying motion at this point,
there will be little or no power for duty.

This brings us up to a point where it is easy to see that a rapid
series of explosions are necessary to gain carrying momentum or power
to move a dead weight load. As this motional power could not be applied
to the load without serious damage to the gears and bearings, it
was necessary to invent a device to gradually transmit or apply the
power to the movable load by graduating the leverage. This resulted
in the development of the automobile transmission. The natural way of
doing this at first seemed to be by applying the power to the load by
frictional slippage. Many ingenious devices of this sort were tried out
without much success until the driving and driven disc type made its
appearance.

Fig. 109 shows the driving and driven disc type of friction
transmission. This type of transmission is not being used by any of the
present day manufacturers of automobiles, but may still be found on
some of the three and four-year-old models still in operation.

A, the drive shaft, is squared and slides backward a distance of three
inches through a squared sleeve extending from the hub of the flywheel.
The action of this shaft is controlled by a leverage arrangement to a
foot pedal. B, the steel plate driving disc, is attached to the end of
shaft A, and drives C, when held back against it by pressure on the
foot pedal. Disc C can be slid in any position on the jack or cross
shaft D, and is controlled by a leverage arrangement connected to a
hand lever. The various speeds are obtained by sliding disc C into
different positions and contacts on the left side of disc B. Reverse
speeds are obtained by sliding disc C over center where it forms
contact on the right side of B and is driven in an opposite direction.

[Illustration: Fig. 109. Friction Transmission]

=The Planetary Type of Transmission.=--The planetary type of
transmission made its appearance along about the same time as the
friction type. The power is transmitted to the load through a set of
reduction gears arranged in a drum. A king gear on the engine shaft
operates a set of small gears in the drum. These small gears reduce
the leverage speed and transmit the power to the drive shaft, a band
similar to that used on brakes is fitted to the face of the drum. When
this drum containing the reduction gears is not in use it turns at
crank shaft speed. The speed is used by pressing a foot pedal which
tightens the brake band and holds the drum stationary, thereby forcing
the smaller gears into action.

Planetary transmissions are shown and fully explained in a later
chapter. (See Model T Ford Supplement.)

=The Sliding Gear Transmission.=--This type of transmission has
proved very successful, and is used by 98 per cent of the present day
automobile manufacturers. This type of transmission made its first
appearance with a progressive gear shift, that is, it was necessary
to proceed through one speed or set of gears to engage the next. This
arrangement caused considerable confusion at times, as it was necessary
to reshift the gears back through these speeds to attain neutral, when
the car was brought to a stand still.

[Illustration:

  Neutral

  2nd.

  Rev.

  Rev.

  2nd.

  Neut.

  1st.

  3rd.

  3rd.

  1st.

  Ball-and-Socket
  Shift

  H or Gate Type
  Gear Shift

Fig. 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts]

[Illustration: Fig. 111. Sliding Gear Transmission--Sectional View]

The control lever operated on a straight forward and backward direction
on a quadrant, having a notch for each speed change. This gear shifting
arrangement has also been abandoned by manufacturers in favor of the
selective gear shift which is arranged so that the driver may choose
any speed at will. Fig. 110 shows the control lever which operates in a
frame resembling the block letter H and the ball and socket shift which
operates in the same manner. Fig. 111 shows the complete assembly of
the selective sliding gear transmission. The sliding gears are arranged
on a separate core and are operated by an individual throw fork, which
seats in a groove on the shoulder of the gear. Low and reverse are
always opposite each other on the same core. High and intermediate are
located on another core, and are controlled by another individual
shifting fork. The gear box arrangement (Fig. A) shows the cast gear
box which contains the gears, shafts, and bearings, and a roomy
compartment below the gears in which grease is carried, as the gears in
this type of transmission always operate in an oil bath which prevents
excessive wear and causes them to operate noiselessly. Fig. B, the gear
case cover, contains the slotted sliding shafts, to which the gear
in shifting forks are attached. Fig. C shows the arrangement of the
gears in the case and explains their operation. Gear No. 1 is attached
to the extreme end of the engine shaft, and is continually engaged
with gear No. 4, which causes the counter shaft No. 11, containing
the stationery gears, to revolve whenever the engine shaft No. 9 is
in operation. The drive shaft No. 8 does not run straight through and
connect with No. 9, the engine shaft, but ends and takes its bearing in
the core of gear No. 1. Consequently, when the gears on the drive shaft
are slid into mesh with the gears on the counter shaft, variable speeds
are attained. Low speed is obtained by sliding gear No. 3 into mesh
with gear No. 6; second or intermediate is obtained by meshing gears
No. 2 and gear No. 5.

High, or engine speed, is obtained by sliding gear No. 2 which is cored
and shouldered over the end of gear No. 1, making a direct connection
of the drive shaft No. 8, and the engine shaft No. 9, at this point.
Reverse is obtained by meshing gear No. 3 on the drive shaft with gear
No. 10, which is an extra or idle gear mounted on a stub shaft on the
rear of the gear case. Idle gear No. 10 is always in mesh with gear No.
7, on the counter shaft.

Functional operation engine shafts always turn to the right or
clockwise, which causes the counter shaft to turn to the left or
anti-clockwise. This causes the drive shaft to turn to the right when
low or intermediate speed gears are engaged, driving the car forward.
Reverse, is obtained by the use of an extra gear in this way. Counter
shaft turning to the left turns idle gear to the right, and this gear
turning to the right, turns gear on the drive shaft to the left, and
causes the car to be driven in a backward direction. In the unit power
plant shown in Fig. 112, the operation and gear shifting are identical
with that of the separate gear case. The crank case of the motor is
either extended or another case attached to the motor which has a
compartment arranged to contain the clutch and transmission gears. This
arrangement results in compactness, and does away with the supports
required to carry the transmission separately.

=Transmission Care.=--The transmission should be thoroughly cleaned and
refilled with fresh grease or heavy oil once in every thousand miles
that the car is driven to prevent excessive wear and much noise. To
clean, remove the plug at the bottom of the case, and the cover from
the top. After the old oil has drained out, replace the plug, fill
the case half full of kerosene, replace the cover, and let the motor
run for a few minutes with the gears in neutral. Drain the kerosene
off, and wash the case and gears off with a paint brush which has been
dipped into fresh kerosene. Then examine the gears for blunt burrs
and the bearings for looseness. If the gears are burred or chipped,
file, or grind them down to level. If the bearings are loose they will
have to be replaced, as the bearings used to carry both the counter
and drive shaft are seldom provided with means of adjusting. These
bearings, however, will not show wear for years if properly cared for.
Next, see that the gear case is free from grit and filings, replace the
drain plug, and fill the gear case to within one half inch from the
drive or propeller shaft with a light graphite grease or heavy oil, and
replace the cover using a new gasket.

[Illustration: Fig. 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly--Unit Power
Plant]




CHAPTER XXX

UNIVERSAL JOINTS


[Illustration:

  Oil Plugs

  Slip Joint

  Oil-tight Washer

  Oil Plugs

  Slip Joint

  Oil-tight Washer

Fig. 113. Slip Joint and Universal]

Universal joints were designed to transmit power from one shaft to
another at constantly changing angles. An automobile engine cannot be
hung at the low level required to allow straight line drive, as it
would have to be carried from six to eight inches lower than it is in
present construction, and this would allow very little road clearance
if any. And as the rear axle receives the power transmitted to it at
a constantly changing level due to torque and spring action, it is
necessary to have a flexible coupling on the propeller shaft between
the engine and the rear axle to prevent the gears and bearings from
being damaged from distortion.

Universal joints are made of the best steel or bronze, do not require
any adjusting, and will outlast the life of a car, providing they are
not driven at too great an angle, and are kept well lubricated. A metal
shell or leather boot is fitted to the joint to carry and provide
constant lubrication. This boot or container should be kept well-packed
with a heavy oil, (600-W steam oil, Whitemore’s compound or a light
graphite grease).

[Illustration:

  _No 3001_

  _No 3004_

  _No 3003_

  _No 3002_

  _No 3006_

  _No 3007_

  _No 3008_

  _No 3005_

  _No 3009_

  _No 3010_

  _No 3011_

Fig. 114. Universal-Joint Construction Diagram]

Remove the oil plug every thirty days and pack the housing. Use a dope
or oil gun to force in the lubricant. The housing should be subjected
to regular inspections quite frequently as the lubricant often escapes
from the end boot due to distortion and wear.

Fig. 113 shows the rigid construction of a heavy duty universal joint
and slip joint. The ends of the shafts are yoked and fitted to a swivel
cross block; the leather boot follows the angle of the shaft and makes
the housing oil tight.

Fig. 114 shows a sectional view of the “Standard” universal joint,
manufactured by the Universal Machine Co., of Bowling Green, Ohio. The
left-hand cut shows the forward section and tapered shaft seat. This
joint gives a combined universal action and slip on a two inch square.
All points are concentric and always in balance. The bearings are
provided with grooves and holes for lubrication. A metal and leather
boot is also provided for protection, and as a grease retainer. And
owing to the flange type there are but four bolts to remove in order to
disassemble this joint.

The names of the various parts are given according to corresponding
numbers.

  3001--Flange

  3003--Adapter for same

  3002--Socket

  3006--Bronze caps

  3007--Trunion head

  3008--Metal boot

  3009--Leather boot

  3010-11--Boot clamps

  3004--Oil plug

  3005--Bolts




CHAPTER XXXI

THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR


Differential gears were designed to allow for equalization of the power
strain transmitted to the rear axles.

The rotary movement is transmitted to the axles joining the wheels by a
bevel gear, which if simple would drive both wheels at the same speed.
This is satisfactory on the “straight ahead” drive, but it is clear
that in turning a corner the car is describing a portion of a circle,
and the inner wheel having a smaller circumference to traverse, must
go at less speed than the outer. The differential gear was devised to
allow for this difference in power stresses.

[Illustration: Fig. 115. Differential Action Diagram]

It is perhaps the functional action more than the simple mechanism that
one finds the most confusion about. The diagram given in Fig. 115 shows
how the functional action is mechanically carried out.

In the first place, each wheel, W, is fixed firmly to an independent
axle turned by pinions, D and E. These pinions are connected by
another, C. Now if D turns, E will rotate in the opposite direction due
to the action of C. If D and E are rotating in the same direction at
the same speed, C will merely lock with them and not rotate. If now,
D accelerates slightly, C will turn, slowly retarding E, while if E
accelerates, C will turn slowly in the opposite direction retarding D.
This is precisely what is required in turning a corner. Now fix these
in a box, driven as a whole by the bevel or ring gear B driven by the
driving pinion gear A. When the car is on the straight ahead drive D,
C, E are locked. C does not rotate and the three act as a single axle.
As the car turns, C turns slowly, acted upon by the outer wheel, and
gives the differential action.

=The Worm Gear Drive.=--The worm gear drive differential action is
practically the same as the bevel gear action, the only difference
being that there is a worm gear on the end of the drive shaft which
engages with a helical toothed gear, which takes the place of the bevel
gear B.

[Illustration: Fig. 116. Differential Assembly]

Fig. 116 shows the differential gear assembly which is carried by a set
of bearings. These bearings are held in place by a set of shoulders,
or retainers which are built into the housing on each side of the
differential assembly. These bearings may be of either the radial,
roller, or ball type. However, when the ball or roller bearing is used
for carrying the differential, an end thrust bearing must be used in
conjunction to take the end thrust and for adjusting purposes. The
differential assembly shown is known as the bevel gear and pinion
drive. The pinion gear is keyed to the tapered end of the drive
shaft and usually does not carry an adjustment. The bevel gear mesh
adjustment is made by setting the bearing supporting the differential
assembly backward or forward. This adjustment, however, applies mostly
to the full floating axle, as the axle shaft in this case usually has a
square end which slides into the small bevel gear of the differential.
The shaft used in this type of axle may be drawn out through the wheel
and replaced without disassembling the axle or removing the weight from
the wheels.

[Illustration: Fig 117. Differential Adjusting Points]

When the Hotchkiss drive is employed in combination with the
semi-floating or three-quarters floating axle, three adjusting points
will be found. Fig. 117 shows the three points at which adjustments are
made. The short drive shaft carries the pinion gear at the rear end,
and a universal joint at the front end is supported by a set of radial
bearings inside of the front and rear ends of the housing.

The adjustment on this shaft is made by turning the notched cone A1 to
the right, which pushes the bearings farther upon the bearing cones
and reduces the looseness. After the short shaft has been properly
adjusted, remove the lugs B, which fit into the notches of the
adjustment nuts, A2 and A3, and turn A2 to the left to loosen, now turn
A3 to the right until the bevel gear is meshing properly with pinion
gear, then replace the lugs, B, to hold the adjustment. It is only
necessary to make this adjustment when play occurs from natural wear,
which will happen probably once in every five to seven thousand miles.

[Illustration:

  CASE

  CAM

  CAM FULCRUM PIN

  PAWL

  PAWL BLOCK

  LUG

  RETAINING PLATE

  RATCHET RING

Fig. 118. Allen Gearless Differential]

Fig. 118 shows a cross-section of the Allen gearless differential. The
main gearing is bolted to the casing. The wheel shafts are splined to
ratchet rings. The two lugs of the pawl block are secured in slots in
the casing so that the block turns with it. Eight pawls on the pawl
block drive, the ratchet rings two on each side operate for forward,
and two on each side for reverse. The pawls permit either ratchet
ring to overrun them and move freely in the direction of motion, so
long as it is moving faster than the pawl block. The lugs of the pawl
block have a little motion, about ³⁄₁₆″, in the slots, so that the
casing moves this distance before engaging them for forward or reverse
motion. This operates the rocking cams by their heads inserted in slots
in right angles to the lugs, having the effect of pressing on and
disengaging the forward or reverse pawls according to the direction of
the motion.

When the car is running by its momentum with the clutch out, the action
is reversed and the ratchet rings drive the casing and driving gear
through the pawl block.

The adjustment given above also applies to the setting of the Allen
differential.

=Lubrication.=--_See_ Chapter on Axles.




CHAPTER XXXII

AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE


Two types of rear axles are being used by the manufacturers of
automobiles--the live axle, and the dead axle. The live axle which
carries the weight of the load and transmits the power of rotation to
the wheels, is built in two distinct designs called the semi-floating
axle, and the full-floating axle. The semi-floating design is
used extensively in manufacturing cars of light weight, while the
full-floating design is favored more by the manufacturers of cars of
medium and heavy weight. Both designs give equally satisfactory results.

The dead axle carries the weight of the car and load in much the same
manner as a horse drawn vehicle. The power is conveyed to the loose
wheels on the axle, by means of a chain which operates on a sprocket
attached to the hub of the wheel, or by an internal gear drive arranged
and housed in the brake drums.

=The Semi-floating Axle.=--In the semi-floating design of axle, the
axle shaft carries the weight and transmits the rotation power to the
wheel, which is keyed and locked to the outer end. The axle shaft is
provided with a bearing at each end which operates on the inside of a
closely fitted housing. The inside end of each axle shaft is bolted
directly to the differential. The housing is split or divided into
two halves, and bolts together in the center over the differential.
This design of axle gives excellent service, but has one disadvantage
in that it is somewhat difficult to disassemble, as the rear system
must be disconnected from the car to take the housing apart. Fig. 119
shows a part sectional view of a semi-floating axle used by the Detroit
Taxicab Co. The wide series of S. K. F. ball bearings used on this
axle are self aligning, which prevents any binding action from shaft
deflection.

[Illustration: Fig. 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle]

=The Full-floating Axle.=--The full-floating design of axle serves
the same functional purpose as the semi-floating design, but is
constructed differently and operates on a widely different plan. In
the full-floating design of axle, the axle shaft does not support
any of the weight of the car or load, but serves simply as a member
to transmit the power rotation to the wheels. The wheels are mounted
on separate bearings, which operate on the outside of the outer end
of the housing. The inner ends of the axle shafts are squared, or
splined and slide into slots or seats in the differential gears.
The differential assembly is in a separate unit, and is floated on
bearings held by retainers extending from the forward end of the large
ball-shaped center of the housing. The outer end of the axle shaft
extends through the hub of the wheel, and has an umbrella-shaped plate
on the end which bolts to the outside face of the wheel, as shown in
Fig. 120, thus transmitting the power directly to the outside of the
wheel, without the axle shaft taking any bearing. The axle shaft may
be drawn out through the wheel, by removing the nuts which secure
the umbrella plate, without removing the weight of the car from the
wheels. The differential unit can also be removed without disassembling
the housing, by removing a large cover plate from the center of the
housing. Fig. 121 shows a typical full-floating axle, with a spiral
bevel gear drive. The wheels in this case are mounted on a set of
double series radial and thrust ball-bearings. The Hotchkiss type of
short shaft final drive is carried in the forward extended part of the
housing.

[Illustration: Fig. 120. Full-Floating Axle--Wheel-End Arrangement]

[Illustration: Fig. 121. Full-Floating Axle]

Two types of front axles are used by the manufacturers of automobiles.
The I-beam type, which is a one piece drop forging, and the tubular
or hollow type, which is round and has the yoke fitted into the ends.
Both types operate on the same principle and plan, the only distinction
between the types is that one type has the I-beam cross member and the
other type has a pipe or tubular cross member.

[Illustration: Fig. 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts]

The front axle consists of an I-beam or tubular cross member, which is
yoked at each end as shown at A, in Fig. 122. A steering knuckle B is
held between the ends of the yoke by C, a king pin, which allows the
knuckle to swing in a half circle. D, the spindle or short axle, is
provided with a set of radial thrust bearings. The wheel is adjusted
snugly to the bearings E by a castillated nut F. The adjustment is
held by a cotter pin which extends through the spindle and head of the
nut F. A short arm extends backward from each steering knuckle, shown
at G, in Fig. 122, and are connected together by an adjustable tie or
spread rod shown at H. A half circle ball arm extends from the knuckle
and circles over the axle. A rod or drag link forms the connection
between the ball arm and the steering arm of the steering gear. Fig.
123 shows the location of the parts assembled on a typical drop forged
I-beam front axle. A section of the hub has been removed to show the
location of the double row radial end thrust ball bearings. This type
of bearing is becoming very popular for automobile uses.

=Adjustments of the Semi-floating Type of Axle.=--The short shaft
carried in the forward part of the housing has a center nut adjustment
between the universal joint and the pinion gear; moving this notched
nut to the right facing the rear axle draws the shaft backward and
meshes the teeth of the pinion gear deeper with the teeth of the ring
gear. After this adjustment is made, examine the teeth for even mesh;
it may be necessary to shift the differential unit to secure an even
bearing. (_See_ chapter on differential gears for detailed instructions
in regard to differential adjusting.)

[Illustration: Fig. 123. I-Beam Front Axle]

=Adjustments on the Full-floating Axle.=--The adjustments on the
full-floating axle are usually made by shifting the differential unit,
although a pinion gear adjustment is usually provided as described
above.

=Care.=--The housing of both the semi-floating and the full-floating
axle should receive a fresh supply of medium fiber or graphite grease
every thousand miles. To grease, remove the plug on the large part of
the housing and force in grease with a dope gun until it begins to
bulge out of the hole.

Wash out the housing every five thousand miles, and replace the
lubricant, as small metallic particles are worn off the gear teeth and
this grit, which is destructive to the gears and bearings, mixes with
the grease making it necessary to remove it that often.

A grease cup will be found located at the outer end of each half of the
axle housing, which supplies the lubricant for the outer bearing. This
grease cup should be filled weekly with a medium cup grease and given a
half turn each day.

=Care of Front Axle.=--Pack the space between the bearings in the hub
of the wheel every thousand miles. Use a heavy cup grease. The king
bolts which hold the steering knuckles between the ends of the yokes
are hollow and carry a grease cup on the head, which forces the grease
out through finely perforated holes, and lubricates the bushings on
which the pins take their bearing. This cup should be filled weekly and
given a half turn each day.




CHAPTER XXXIII

BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE


An automobile is always equipped with two sets of brakes, as they are
required by law. The functional action of the brakes is to check the
motion of the car when the driver wishes to stop or reduce the rolling
speed. The service brake usually operates on the external surface, or
on the outside of the drum flange, and is connected to the right foot
pedal through a set of linkage. The emergency brake operates on the
internal surface of the drum, and connects through linkage to a hand
lever operating on a notched quadrant. The service brake is used in
ordinary driving to check the rolling motion and to stop the car. The
emergency brake is used to assist the service brake and to hold the
car, in case the driver wishes to allow it to stand on a grade.

Fig. 124 shows a set of brakes assembled on the axle ready to receive
the horizontal flange of the brake drum. The brake drum is attached to
the wheel; consequently when a wheel has been removed and is about to
be replaced, the first operation consists of starting the drum flange
into the space between the lining of the external and internal bands;
care should always be exercised in making this adjustment, in order
not to burr the outer edge of the lining, as a brake with an uneven
frictional contact surface is of little value in checking the motion of
the car.

In Fig. 124, A shows the position of the band on the inside of the
drum; B shows the contracting tension coil spring which holds the
bearing surfaces of the band in contact with the flat surface of the
cam when the brake is not in use; C shows the cam shaft, and the flat
surfaces of the double action cam, which expands the band and brings it
into even contact with the inner horizontal surface of drum flange,
thereby checking the motion of the wheel by frictionally grasping the
drum.

The service brake shown in Fig. 124 is of the external contracting
type, which operates on, or frictionally grasps the outside horizontal
surface of the drum. D shows the lined band, which is held in a
stationary position from the rear; E shows the leverage arrangement
with its expanding coil spring, which holds the band free from the
drum, when the brake is not in use; F is the lever to which the pull
rod is connected; G is the lever on the internal brake cam shaft to
which the hand lever is connected by the pull rod.

[Illustration: Fig. 124. Brake--Types and Adjustment]

Fig. 125 shows a new type of internal expanding brake, which is being
used on many of the late models. The brake band in this case is
supported at three points and has an adjustment at the rear main point
of support. The cam has been done away with, and the band is expanded
by a leverage toggle arrangement which operates through a much larger
area, and is more dependable as there is no danger of its “sticking” or
turning over, as was often the case with the cam.

Fig. 126 shows another type of service brake which may be encountered
on a few of the former models. This type of brake is usually located
on the propeller shaft at the rear end of the transmission case. This
type of brake operates in the same manner as the service brake at the
end of the axle.

[Illustration: Fig. 125. Brake--Showing Toggle Arrangement]

Fig. 126 shows an equalizer which allows for any difference that may
occur in making adjustments.

[Illustration: Fig. 126. Transmission Brake--Equalizer]

Fig. 127 shows the complete brake assembly, and the points of
adjustment on late Buick cars.

=Brake Adjustment.=--All types of brakes are adjustable. The service
brake usually has two adjusting points, one at the drum, which is made
by turning the nut on the leverage pull pin, and another on the pull
rods. A long neck clevis, or a long butted turn buckle will always be
found on the pull rods, or on the rod leading to the equalizer. The
adjustment is made by turning either to the right to shorten, or take
up, and to the left to lengthen. The clevis is always threaded to the
right, while the turn buckle has a right and left thread which carries
each end of the rod into the butt when it is turned to the right.
The lock nuts must always be turned up tight to the butts after the
adjustment is made in order to hold it.

[Illustration:

  BRAKE SHAFT

  SERVICE BRAKE PEDAL

  PULL RODS

  ADJUSTING TURNBUCKLE

  EMERGENCY BRAKE
  LEVER

  INTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT

  EXTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT

  ADJUSTING THUMB SCREW

  ADJUSTMENT

  INTERNAL BRAKE BAND

  EXTERNAL BRAKE BAND

Fig. 127. Brake--Arrangement and Adjustment--“Buick”]

=Brake Care.=--A great deal depends upon the proper operation of the
brakes. They should be regularly inspected at least once a month for
loose adjustments and uncleanliness. The need of adjustment usually
occurs from natural wear, while an unclean frictional surface is
usually the result of oil or grease seepage through the outer axle
bearing. A felt washer is provided to prevent this from taking place,
but as these washers are subjected to considerable pressure, they often
become caked and hardened and lose their absorbing effectiveness. These
washers can be purchased at any accessory store for a few cents apiece,
and applied with very little trouble.

=Cleaning the Surface of the Brake Bands.=--This is accomplished by
removing the wheel and washing the friction contact surface with
gasoline, after the surfaces have become thoroughly dry. Drop three or
four drops of castor or Neat’s foot oil on the contact surfaces of the
drum, and replace the wheel and spin it a few times before releasing
the jack.

=Caution.=--After you have set the gears for starting, and before you
release the clutch pedal, always reach and make sure that the emergency
brake lever is in the neutral position. New drivers invariably forget
to do this, which results in severe strain on the bearings, and causes
them to get loose; the average brake band will not stand more than
fifteen to twenty minutes of continuous contact before it burns or
wears beyond the point of usefulness.




CHAPTER XXXIV

SPRING CARE TESTS


Information recently gathered from observation and interviews shows
that the average owner who operates and cares for his car, invariably
overlooks the springs and their connections while giving the car the
bi-monthly or monthly tightening-up and greasing, while the balance of
the car usually receives the required attention.

This fact seems to be due mostly to an oversight, for the springs are
usually inspected while the car is motionless and at this time they
do not show defects readily, and have the appearance of being rigid,
inactive, and compact.

=Weekly Spring Care.=--Weekly spring care should consist of filling
the grease cups (with a medium hard oil cup grease) and turning them
down until the grease makes its appearance at the outer edge of the
spring eye. This, under ordinary driving conditions, will be sufficient
lubrication for one week. But in cases where the car receives more than
ordinary use the grease cups should be given one-half turn every second
day. The shackle connections should then be wiped dry to prevent dust
and grit clinging and working into the bearing, which causes much wear
on even a sufficiently lubricated bearing surface.

=Bi-monthly Spring Care.=--Special attention should be given at this
time to the U-shaped clips which connect the spring to the axle. A
loose clip means a broken spring at the first severe jolt, caused by
the rebound taking place between the clips. Therefore, tightly adjusted
clips will prevent action from taking place at the point between the
clips where the leaves are bolted together and will entirely eliminate
spring breakage. Tighten up the nut on the leave guide clip bolt to
prevent rattling. The shackles should be inspected for side play. To
determine whether there is side play, jack up the frame until the
weight is off the spring, then grasp it near the shackle and shake with
an in and out motion. If there is play a rattle thump will be heard.
To take out play, remove cotter pin and turn up castillated nut snugly
on the shackle pin. If the nut cannot be turned up a full notch, place
a thin washer over the end of the pin. The nut, however, should not be
turned up too tight as a certain amount of action is necessary.

=Lubrication of the Spring Leaves.=--Lubrication of the spring leaves
should take place once every month. This point must be kept in mind
and adhered to, as a spring cannot produce the marked degree of action
necessary for smooth and easy riding, when the sliding surface is dry
and rusty. The leaves slide on each other when the spring opens and
closes, and if the sliding surface is not well lubricated the movement
will be greatly checked by the dry friction; these dry surfaces also
gather dampness which soon forms into dry-rust, which, in time entirely
retards action and results in a very hard riding car.

It is not necessary to disassemble the spring at the monthly greasing
period, unless the spring has been neglected and rust has formed on the
sliding surfaces. In this case the sliding surface of each blade must
be cleaned with a piece of sand or emery paper.

When the springs receive regular attention, it is only necessary to
jack up the frame until the wheels and axles are suspended, the weight
of which will usually open the leaves sufficiently to insert a film
of graphite grease with a thin case knife. In some cases where the
leaves are highly curved, it may be found necessary to drive a small
screwdriver in between them. However, great care should be exercised
in doing this, as the blades are highly tempered and spring out of
position very easily.

=Wrapping Springs.=--Car owners in some parts of the country grease
their springs and wrap them with heavy cord or adhesive tape. While
this serves to keep the grease in and the dust and dirt out, it also
binds the leaves and prevents free action. If the car is to be driven
for any length of time on sandy or muddy roads, wrapping may be found
very beneficial. But use only a water-proof material (heavy oil paper
or canvas) to wrap with. Cut the material into one and one-fourth
inch strips, and wrap from the center toward the outer end to prevent
binding.

The following shows the results of a spring care test conducted by the
writer. The cars were chosen at random and only those accepted which
had seen six months or more service.

Eighteen owners were interviewed. Six of this number gave their springs
a thorough greasing and tightening up every two weeks, and not one
of this group made a complaint of any nature regarding breakage,
stiffness, or noise.

Five of the remaining twelve, gave their springs occasional attention.
Their reports were not entirely unsatisfactory, but had a tendency
toward such troubles as rattles, squeaks, and stiffness in action.

The remaining seven did not give their springs any attention whatever,
and all made unsatisfactory reports ranging from broken leaves, to side
play, jingles, squeaks and hard riding.

Therefore the results of careful and regular attention may readily be
seen by the reports of the first six owners. All nuts and connections
were tightened, and the sliding surfaces of the leaves greased on an
average of once every two weeks. The springs gave satisfactory results,
and the cars retained that easy, soft, springy action, so noticeable in
a new car.

The reports of the five who gave their springs occasional attention
would probably have been the same as the first six, had they given the
proper attention more frequently. But they usually waited until the
trouble became annoying, which caused wear on the spring eye, shackle
strap, and pin, on each occurrence making a good adjustment impossible.
The stiffness in action and squeaks were caused by dry fractional
surfaces between the leaves which prevented free action.

=Types.=--There are five standard types of springs, and two or
three types of special design. The riding qualities of all types of
springs depend on their length and resiliency, which is taken into
consideration by the engineer and designer. Consequently there is not
much choice between the different types.

[Illustration: Fig. 128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring]

Fig. 128 shows the semi-elliptical type of spring used principally for
front suspension. The front end of this spring is bolted rigidly to the
downward end slope of the frame while the rear end carries a movable
shackle arrangement.

[Illustration: Fig. 129. Full-Elliptic Spring]

Fig. 129 shows the full elliptical type of spring which may be used
for either front or rear suspension. The ends may be fastened together
solidly with a yoke and eye arrangement, or shackled as shown in the
above cut.

Fig. 130 shows a spring of the three-quarters elliptical type used in
rear suspension only. This type of spring carries a shackle arrangement
at the front and rear end which allows backward and forward motion to
take place very freely, consequently it is very necessary to use a very
substantial set of torque rods to keep the proper alignment.

[Illustration: Fig. 130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring]

Fig. 131 shows the three link or commonly termed platform type of
spring used only in rear suspension on the heavier models.

[Illustration: Fig. 131. Platform Spring]

Fig. 132 shows the front type of cantilever spring. The front end of
this type of spring is bolted to a seat on the front axle, while the
rear end may be fastened directly to the under side of the frame or
attached to a specially arranged casting seat at the side of the
frame. This type of spring is sometimes employed in multiple formation.

[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cantilever Spring, Front]

[Illustration: Fig. 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear]

Fig. 133 shows the rear type of cantilever spring, which may employ
a shackle arrangement on one or both sides, while a hinged seat is
usually employed near the center or slightly over-center toward the
front end.




CHAPTER XXXV

ALIGNMENT


Attention should be given quite frequently to wheel alignment, as the
life and service of tires depends almost entirely upon wheel alignment.

When either of the front wheels become out of line, through a bent
spindle, worn spindle pin, loose or worn bearing the tire on this wheel
is subject to cross traction. That is, when the car moves forward, the
tire on the out of line wheel is forced to move forward by the other
three points of traction, and as it is not in line with the forward
movement the tire must push or drag crosswise at the traction point.
This results in the tread being worn or filed off in a very short time,
exposing the layers of fabric to dampness and wear which results in a
“blow-out” and ruined tire, which would probably have given several
thousand miles of service had proper attention been given to wheel
alignment.

=Alignment Test.=--To test the alignment, first look at the lower
side of the springs where they rest on the axle seats. If one of the
springs has slipped on the seat through a loose clamp, the direction
and distance of the slip may be noted by the rust mark left by the
movement. Drive the axle back, leave the clamp loose, measure the
distance between the centers of the front and rear hub caps on the
unaffected side with a tape or string, move the tape to the affected
side and make the center distances the same, tighten the nuts on all
clamps using new spring or lock washers.

=Lengthwise Wheel Alignment.=--Before lining up the wheels lengthwise,
jack each wheel separately and shake it to detect a loose bearing or
worn spindle pin which is usually the seat of the trouble. After the
defective part has been readjusted or replaced, test the alignment
as follows: Using a string or straight edge, which should be placed
or drawn across the front and rear tire, making four contacts as near
center as possible without interference from the hubs. The string or
straight edge is then moved to the other side of the car and three
contacts are made, one on the rear center of the front tire, and two
across the center of the rear tire. The spread rod should then be
adjusted to allow the front contact point to converge or lean from the
line toward the other front wheel.

[Illustration: Fig. 134. Wheel-Alignment Diagram]

=Mechanical Alignment.=--When a motor vehicle turns the inside wheel
has to describe a curve of smaller radius than the outside wheel. A
line drawn lengthwise through the steering arms, extending from the
spindles or knuckles, should meet at a point in the center of the rear
axle to determine the correct wheel base, otherwise the car will turn
in two angles, which causes the tire on the outside to slide crosswise
at the traction point. Fig. 134 shows the position of the wheels and
the direction they travel in describing two distinct curves in turning
to the left. The correct mechanical alignment and wheel base will be
seen in the diagram, A B. The front wheels have been turned to a 45 per
cent angle, e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at E, a
line drawn through the rear axle. E1 in this diagram shows the effect
on the steering of lengthening the wheel base of the car. In this case
the wheel base has been lengthened 10″ and the lines e and e1 meet at
different angles at a point on E1. The car tries to turn about two
distinct centers, as this is an impossibility, sliding of the tire
occurs.




CHAPTER XXXVI

STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION

OPERATION AND CARE


The steering mechanism used in automobile construction is arranged to
operate independent of the axle, or in other words the wheels turn on a
pivot, or knuckle, held between the yoked ends of the axle. A spindle
or axle extends outward from each steering knuckle to accommodate the
wheels. A set of short arms extend to rear of the steering knuckles; an
adjustable spacer bar, commonly called a tie or spread rod, serves as
the connection between the arms. The arms incline slightly toward each
other; which causes the inside wheel to turn on a shorter angle than
the outside wheel when turning a corner. Another steering arm carrying
a ball at the outer end, describes a half circle over the axle, and
is attached to either the spread rod arm or the steering knuckle. An
adjustable rod, or drag-link, carrying a ball socket at each end serves
as the connection between the steering arm extending from steering gear
and the half circle arm of the knuckle. To adjust wheels see chapter on
“Wheels and Axle Alignment.”

=Steering Gear Types.=--Three types of steering gears are commonly used
by automobile manufacturers. They are namely, the worm and sector, worm
and nut, and rack and pinion types.

Fig. 135 shows the construction and operation of the worm and sector
type. The lower end of the steering shaft carries a worm gear which
meshes with the sector gear supported by a separate shaft. The sector
has a ball arm extending downward, which moves in a forward and
backward direction when the steering shaft is turned.

[Illustration:

  Steering Wheel

  St. Column

  Worm

  Sector

  Spark

  Throttle

  Frame

Fig. 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear]

=Adjusting the Worm and Sector Type of Steering Gear.=--An eccentric
bushing is provided to take up play between the worm and sector. This
adjustment is made by driving the notched cone to the right to take out
play, and to the left to slack up or take out stiffness.

Fig. 136 shows the worm and nut type of steering gear. This type
of steering gear as well as the worm and sector, is called the
irreversible steering gear, which means that no reverse action takes
place, or is present at the steering wheel, should one of the front
wheels encounter a stone in the road, or drop into a deep rut. The
worm and nut type consists of a double armed and pivoted steering arm.
Each arm carries a ball. The drag link socket is attached to the ball
on the lower arm while the ball on the upper and shorter arm fits in a
socket in the nut through which the worm on the steering shaft passes.
This nut is threaded to fit the worm which passes through it and moves
up and down on the worm according to the direction which the steering
wheel is turned. The housing of this type of steering must be well
packed with a light cup or graphic grease to prevent the screw or worm
from binding, which will make steering difficult and tiresome.

[Illustration:

  Steering Column

  Worm Screw

  Nut

  Pivot

  Frame

  Drag Link

  St. Arm

Fig. 136. Worm and Nut Type Steering Gear]

[Illustration:

  Steering Shaft

  Ball

  Gear

  Housing

  Sliding tooth Shaft

Fig. 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear]

Fig. 137 shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear. This type of
steering gear is used on a few of the lighter weight cars and is not
as dependable owing to a reverse action through the steering mechanism
when an obstruction is encountered by one of the front wheels. This
type of steering device consists of a solid shaft with the steering
wheel keyed to the upper end.

A small spur gear is keyed and locked to the lower end, and meshes
with a horizontal toothed shaft which slides inside of a housing. The
connection between the steering gear and the steering knuckles is made
by a short rod or drag link carrying a split ball seat on each end.
One end of the drag link socket is fitted to a ball on the end of the
horizontal toothed shaft, while the socket on the other end is fitted
to a ball on the upper end of the bolt which connects the tie rod and
knuckle.

=Steering Gear Care.=--Steering gears should be closely adjusted. The
housing should be packed with a medium hard oil or graphite grease at
least once in every thousand miles that the car is driven. All bolts
and nuts connecting the different parts of the steering gear should be
regularly inspected and kept in a perfectly tight condition.

[Illustration: Fig. 138. Steering Wheel]

Fig. 138 shows the location of the spark and gas control levers which
usually operate on a quadrant on the upper side of the steering wheel.
The short lever always controls the spark, which may be advanced or
retarded by moving it. The long lever is attached to the carburetor,
and controls the speed of the motor by regulating the volume of gas
vapor supplied to the motor.




CHAPTER XXXVII

BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE


Three types of bearings are being used by the manufacturers of
automobiles and gasoline engines. They are, namely, the plain bearing
or bushing, the solid and flexible roller-bearing, and the double and
single row of self-aligning ball bearings.

Bearings were designed to prevent wear and friction between parts,
which operate on, or against each other.

Fig. 139 shows three types of plain bearings. A, the split type of
plain bearing, is used widely by the manufacturers of engines as
main bearings to support the crank shaft and at the large end of the
connecting rod. B is a cylindrical type of plain end bushing, used to
support light shafts in end walls. C is a center or sleeve type of
plain bushing.

[Illustration: Fig. 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings]

All three types of plain bearings described above will stand unusually
hard use, but must be kept well lubricated or run in an oil bath to
prevent frictional heating and excessive wear. Fig. 140 shows two
types of shims used between the retainer jaw of a split bearing, which
allows the wear to be taken up when the bearing gets loose and begins
to pound. The shims may be either solid or loose leafed, and are of
different thickness. The loose leafed shim has an outer casing, which
contains seven to ten metal sheets of paper-like thinness, which may
be removed to the exact thickness required for an accurately fitted
bearing.

[Illustration: Fig. 140. Shims]

[Illustration: Fig. 141. Bock Roller Bearing]

Fig. 141 shows the Bock type of radial and end thrust roller bearing.
The end of each roller is provided with a section of a perfect sphere
which rolls in unison with the tapered rollers and makes the end
contact practically frictionless. The advantage claimed for this
type of bearing is that it embodies both the ball and roller bearing
strength and reduces the friction on the roller and thrust end to a
minimum. This type of bearing is used in the hub of the wheel, which
must be cleaned and well packed with a medium grease every thousand
miles. The bearing is best cleaned by dropping it into a container of
kerosene and scrubbing it with a stiff paint brush. Do not run the car
with the hub cap off.

[Illustration: Fig. 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing]

Fig. 142 shows the Hyatt flexible type of roller bearing. This type
consists of an inner and outer race and a cage which holds the flexible
rolls. The flexible rolls are spirally wound from a high grade sheet
alloy steel. The rolls are placed in the cage in alternative positions.
This arrangement of rollers has a tendency to work the grease back and
forth on the surfaces of the races. Another advantage claimed for this
type of bearing, is that the weight is more evenly distributed at the
point of contact, due to the fact that the wound rolls allow a certain
amount of resiliency, and accepts road shocks easily, which reduces the
amount of frictional wear to a minimum. This type of bearing requires
the same attention as the Bock, described above.

[Illustration: Fig. 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing]

Fig. 143 shows a type of double row ball bearings. Ball bearings are
being used more extensively each year by the manufacturers of light and
heavy duty motor vehicles. The efficient reliability and ease of action
has proven to be the main factor in the development of this type of
bearing. One of the big features in considering ball bearings is that
a ball rolls equally well in any direction, and the slightest effort
will start it to rolling. It is a proven fact, that a ball is started
more easily than any other type of supportive element. This explains
why ball bearings of all types come nearest to being frictionless. Once
upon a time people believed that the ball in ball bearings carried the
load by point of contact, which is not true, as ball bearings carry the
load on a definite area. And in bearing construction, such as shown in
Fig. 143, where the inner and outer race curves around the balls and
increases the contact area, the contact capacity is greatly increased.
Thus a one-fourth inch S. K. F. ball showed a crushing resistance
of nine thousand and seven hundred pounds, while the one-half inch
ball showed a crushing strength of twenty-five thousand pounds. The
sectional view of a radial bearing, shown in Fig. 142, consists
essentially of four elements, which are the following: (a) The outer
ball race, (b) the two rows of balls, (c) the ball retainer, and (d)
the inner ball race.

The inner surface of the outer race is spherically ground in the form
of a section of a sphere whose center is the center of the axis of
rotation. This provides that both rows of balls shall carry the load
at all times. This reduces the load carried by each ball to the least
amount.

The ball retainer is made of a single piece, which provides for proper
spacing of the balls, and positively circulates the lubricant. The
retainer is open at the sides, which permits free access of lubricant,
and makes inspection easy.

The inner ball race contains two grooves to accommodate the two rows of
balls, and the curvature of the outer race is slightly larger than that
of the balls. The fact that both inner and outer races are curved gives
an ample surface contact between the balls and the races.

Fig. 144 shows a double thrust bearing. This type of bearing was
designed to take end thrust in both directions. It is used to stabilize
the shaft against lateral motion and to accept reversing thrust loads.
It is also automatically self-aligning.

The assembly of balls and races forms a section of a sphere within a
steel casing. The inside of this casing is ground spherically to the
same radius as the spherical seats, thus permitting the assembled
bearing parts to adjust themselves to any shaft deflection.

This type of double thrust bearing is so designed that the central
rotating disc, two rows of balls, and the aligning seats are combined
in a single unit within the casting.

The unit construction of this type of bearing insures ease in
mounting, and eliminates much costly machine work usually encountered
in setting double thrust bearings, and renders the bearing practically
dirt, dust and fool-proof. If it becomes necessary to disassemble the
machine upon which these bearings are mounted, the user has every
assurance that the shafts can be relocated precisely in its original
position, with the minimum of time, labor and expense. This type of
bearing is also entirely free from adjustment, loose parts, costly
machine work, and the possible abuse at the hands of inexperienced
workman are entirely done away with.

[Illustration: Fig. 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing]

[Illustration: Fig. 145. End Thrust Bearing]

Fig. 145 shows a thrust bearing designed to carry the load in one
direction, along the shaft, and consists of two hardened steel discs
provided with grooved ball-races, and a single row of balls held in
position between the races by means of a suitable retainer.

=Cleaning Bearings.=--To clean bearings, use gasoline, kerosene, or a
weak solution of baking soda and soft water. Place the cleaning fluid
in a shallow receptacle, take a piece of wire and bend a hook on the
end, place the hook through the center of the bearing and rinse up and
down in the fluid, spinning it with the hand occasionally. If some of
the grease has dried or baked on the roll or roller guide or retainer
and refuses to be dislodged by this method, lay the bearing flat and
scrub with a brush which has been dipped into the cleaning fluid.




CHAPTER XXXVIII

CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, ADJUSTMENT, CARE


1. Oil cup on shackle bolt or loop pin. Fill every week with medium cup
grease giving one half turn every second day.

2. Right front spring. Loosen the small clips No. 47, clean off all
dirt and grease with a brush dipped in kerosene, and jack up the frame,
which will open the leaves. Force graphite between the leaves, let the
frame down and wipe off all the grease that is forced out, in order to
avoid the gathering of dust and grit (see chapter on Spring Care).

3. Front lamp. Keep brackets and vibration rod well tightened. Wipe
lens with a damp cloth (inside and outside), and polish with tissue
paper. Adjust or focus both lamps so that the center rays will strike
side by side 45 feet ahead of the car. Push the light bulbs well into
the sockets, otherwise a dark spot will appear in the center. Test the
wire connection plugs occasionally for weak springs or sticking contact
pins.

4. Radiator (see chapter on Cooling Systems).

5. Radiator Cap. Grease or oil thread occasionally.

6. Radiator connecting hose (see chapter on Cooling Systems).

7. The fan. It usually operates on a ball and cone bearing, which must
be kept well adjusted and greased to prevent a clattering or rumbling
noise.

8. The fan belt. This should be well tightened to prevent slipping,
which will cause over-heating. Apply belt dressing occasionally to
prevent dry-rot and cracking.

9. Adjust the starter chain from time to time by setting down the idler
gear.

10. Metal tube for carrying the high tension leads to the spark
plugs. Remove the wires from the tube when overhauling and tape worn
insulation.

11. Spark plugs (see chapter on Spark Plug Care).

12. The horn. Keep connection tight, clean gum and old grease off the
armature and adjust the brushes when it fails to work.

13. Priming cups. Cover the threads with graphite or white lead and
screw them into the cylinder head tightly to prevent compression leaks.

14. Horn bracket. Keep well tightened, to prevent vibration.

15. Clutch pedal. It can usually be lengthened or shortened to
accommodate leg stretch, oil and grease bearings, and connecting joint
each week.

16. Primer or choker, which operates the air valve on the carburetor.

17. Steering column.

18. Steering wheel (see chapter on Steering Gears).

19. Horn shorting push button.

20. Spark control lever.

21. Gas throttle control.

22. Transmission (see chapter on Transmission).

23. Brake rods (see chapter on Brakes).

24. Universal joint (see chapter on Universal Joints).

25. The frame.

26. Emergency brake leverage connection.

27. Service brake leverage connection.

28. Threaded clevis for lengthening or shortening brake rods.

29. Crown fender.

30. India rubber bumper.

31. Brake band guide.

32. Gasoline or fuel tank.

33. Filler spout and cap.

34. Spring shackle hinge.

35. Tire carrier.

36. Spare tire and demountable rim.

[Illustration: Fig. 146. Car Arrangement]

37. Radiator fastening stud.

38. Starting crank ratchet.

39. Spread rod with left and right threaded clevis at each end.

40. The crank case.

41. Crank case drainage plug.

42. The flywheel and clutch.

43. Box for carrying storage battery.

44. Transmission drain plug.

45. The muffler (see chapter on Muffler Care).

46. Main drive shaft.

47. Spring blade alignment clamp.

48. Rear universal joint.

49. Service brake lever.

50. Demountable rim clamp bolt.

51. Differential housing on rear axle.




CHAPTER XXXIX

OVERHAULING THE CAR


Before starting to dismantle the car for overhauling, see that all
the necessary tools are at hand and in good condition. Place them out
separately on a bench or board near the car. Then secure a number of
boxes to hold the parts of each unit in order that they may not become
intermixed.

When overhauling is to take place, start at the front of the car and
work back. First, disconnect and remove the radiator and inspect the
tubes for dents or jams. If any of any consequence are found, pry the
fins up and down on the tubes clearing the affected part, which is
removed and replaced with a new piece of tubing and soldered in place.
Then turn a stream of water into the radiator and let it run for fully
an hour, or until it is fully flushed out. Next, inspect the hose
connections, as the rubber lining often becomes cracked and breaks away
from the fabric which retards the circulation, by filling the passage
with hanging shreds of rubber. Then plug up the lower entrance to the
water jackets and fill the jackets with a solution of 2 gal. of water
to ¹⁄₂ lb. of washing soda. Let this solution stand in the jackets for
one-half hour; then flush out with clean water. The carburetor and
manifolds should be removed and cleaned. The float, if cork, should be
allowed to dry. It is then given a coat of shellac and allowed to dry
before reassembling the carburetor.

The engine should then be turned over slowly to test the compression on
each cylinder. If it is found to be strong on each cylinder, the piston
rings and cylinder wall may be passed as being in good condition.
In case you find one cylinder is not as strong as the others, the
trouble may be ascertained by inspection. It may be caused by a scored
cylinder wall, worn piston rings, leaky gasket, or pitted valve
seats. Next remove the head of the motor and remove the carbon with a
scraper and wash with kerosene. If the motor is not of the detachable
head type, remove the valve cup and use a round wire brush to loosen
the carbon. It is best in this case to burn out the carbon with
oxyacetylene flame.

Next remove the valves and test the springs for shrinkage or weakness.
If any are found that do not conform in length, replace them with new
springs. Grind the valves (see previous Chapter on Valve Grinding).

Next examine the water pump and pack the boxing with a wick or hemp
cylinder packing.

=Cleaning the Lubricating System.=--Remove the plug in the bottom of
the crank case and drain out the oil. Replace the plug and pour 1 gal.
of kerosene into the crank case through the breather pipe and spin the
motor. Then remove the drain plug and allow the kerosene to drain out.
After it has quit running, turn the motor over a few times and allow
it to drain one-half hour. Replace the plug and fill the crank case
to the required level with fresh cylinder oil. Next, remove the plate
from the timing gear case and inspect the gears for wear and play. If
they are packed in grease, remove the old grease and wash out the case
with kerosene. If they receive their oil supply from the crank case
it will only be necessary to inspect them for wear. Then replace the
motor head, timing gear case plate and manifolds, using new gaskets and
new lock washers. Next clean the spark plugs and ignition systems (see
chapter on Spark Plugs and Ignition System).

Then we proceed to the different types of clutches. The cone clutch
usually does not require cleaning, but in cases where it has been
exposed to grease or lubricating oil the leather face may be cleaned
with a cloth dampened in kerosene, after which a thin coating of Neat’s
foot oil is applied to the leather facing. The cone is then replaced
and the springs adjusted until it runs true. This is determined by
holding it out and spinning it.

The wet and dry plate clutches are treated in much the same manner.
First drain out all the oil or grease and wash out the housing with
kerosene. Examine all parts for wear and adjust or replace loose parts.
Fill the housing up to the slip shaft with fresh oil or grease, that
is, providing it is a wet plate clutch. The dry plate clutch need only
be washed with kerosene to remove any grease or dirt that has lodged on
the plates.

=Cleaning the Transmission.=--First drain off the oil and wash the
gear with a brush dipped in kerosene. Then inspect the bearings for
looseness. If you find one badly worn, replace the bearing at each end
of the shaft. Next, examine the gears. If they are blunt, burred or
chipped, smooth them off on an emery wheel or with a coarse file. Wash
out the case with kerosene and fill with a thick transmission oil or
grease until the fartherest up meshing point is covered to the depth of
from 1 to 1¹⁄₂ inches. Examine the slots or notches on the horizontal
sliding shafts in the cover of the case which holds the gears in or out
of mesh. If the slots are badly worn it will be necessary to replace
sliding shafts or it may be necessary to replace the springs which hold
the ball or pin to the shaft and slots.

The universal joints are cleaned and freed of all grease and dirt. The
bushings and trunion head are inspected for looseness. If any exists a
new set of bushings will usually remedy the trouble. The housing should
then be packed with a medium or fairly heavy cup grease.

Next we come to the differential which is treated in the same manner as
the transmission, except that the housing is packed with a much heavier
grease, and new felt washers are placed at the outer end of the housing
where the axle extends to the wheels.

The rear system is then jacked up until both wheels clear the ground.
The brakes are then tested and adjusted (see chapter on Brakes), and
the rear wheels tested for looseness. If the axle is of the full
floating type looseness may be taken up by withdrawing the axle and
loosening the lock nut back of the cone and driving the notched cone
ring to the right (facing it) until the play is taken up. When
looseness is found in the semi-floating or three quarters floating axle
it is necessary to replace the outer bearing which is located inside of
the outer end of the housing tube.

Next examine the springs (see chapter on Springs and Spring Tests).

This brings us to the steering gear, which should be inspected,
tightened up, and freed from all play at the various joints and
connections, after which it should be well packed with grease.

The front wheels should be jacked up and tested for loose or worn
bearings and spindle pins. The bearings can usually be adjusted while
the loose spindle pin or bushing should be replaced. After the bearings
have been adjusted or replaced, pack the space in the hubs between the
bearings with a medium hard oil or cup grease, which will sufficiently
lubricate the bearings for 2000 miles of service.

The wheels and axles are then lined up (See chapter on Alignment).

Next, take a piece of sharp wire and remove all the dirt, gum, and
hard grease from oil holes supplying clevis joints and plain bearings.
Take up all play which is liable to produce noise and rattles with new
bolts, pins and washers. Clean and fill all grease cups boring out the
stem heads with a piece of wire.

(See chapter on Washing, Painting, and Top and Body Care.)




CHAPTER XL

REPAIR EQUIPMENT


The necessary repair equipment should be divided into two sets, one to
be carried with the car, which we will call road repair necessities,
such as 25 ft. of ⁵⁄₈″ manilla hemp rope, which will probably come in
very handy and save the original cost many times in one year. Even with
good roads and the general tendency toward improvements, there still
remains a great many miles of bad road that becomes very troublesome
with their customary chuck holes and slippery brims, which often
lead a motorist to bring up in a ditch after a short rain storm. The
advantages of this rope are explained in this way; should you slide
into the ditch or get into a deep rut, the wheels will usually spin and
you are helplessly stuck. A pull from a passing motorist, or farmer,
will help you out of your difficulty. Should any part of your car
break, or give out, any passing motorist or farmer will give you a tow
to the nearest garage and thereby avoid delays.

Therefore, we will head our list of road repairs with: 25 ft. of ⁵⁄₈″
manilla hemp rope, 2 inner tubes, 1 blowout patch, 1 outer shoe, 1
set of chains, 1 jack, 1 pump, 1 tire gauge, 1 tube repair outfit and
patches, an extra spark plug, several cores and terminals, a few feet
of primary and secondary wire, 1 box of assorted bolts, nuts, washers
and cotter pins, 1 qt. can of lubricating oil, 1 complete set of good
tools neatly packed in a small box and secured to the floor of the car
under the rear seat by fastening both ends of a strap to the floor and
placing a buckle in the center which will hold the box securely and
avoid all noise.

Garage repair equipment should consist of the following: 1 set of tire
jacks, 1 small vulcanizing set and supplies, 1 can of medium cup
grease, 1 can or tank of lubricating oil, 1 small vise, 1 box of felt
washers, 1 box of assorted cotter pins, 1 box of assorted nuts, 1 box
of assorted lock washers, 1 box assorted cap screws and bolts, 1 set
of assorted files, 1 hack saw, 1 Stilson wrench, 1 dope gun, 1 air
pressure oil can, 1 valve lifter, several valve and assorted springs, 1
box of auto soap, 1 sponge and a good chamois skin.

This outfit should all be purchased at the same time and each supply
and tool packed or placed in respective places, so that it will not be
necessary to look far and wide when you wish to use some particular
tool. With this equipment, and some knowledge and patience, the average
man should be able to keep his car in excellent condition by doing his
own adjusting and repairing.




CHAPTER XLI

CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE


=Body.=--The body is the carrying part of the car and usually consists
of an oak or ash frame covered with a thin sheet steel. It is bolted to
the frame of the car, and aside from washing and cleaning and keeping
the bolts tight to prevent squeaks, it requires no further care.

=Body Washing.=--When about to wash the body, soak the dirt off with a
gentle open stream of cold water. That is, remove the nozzle from the
hose, and do not rub. Remove mud before it gets dry and hard whenever
possible. Grease can be removed with soap suds and a soft sponge. Use a
neutral auto soap, and rub as little as possible. Rinse thoroughly with
a gentle stream of cold water, and dry and polish with a clean piece of
chamois skin. If the body has a dull appearance after washing, due to
sun exposure or too frequent washing, apply a good body polish lightly
and polish until thoroughly dry with a clean piece of gauze or cheese
cloth.

=Running Gear Washing.=--Scrape the caked grease and dirt off from the
brake drums and axles, and scrub lightly with a soft brush dipped in
soap suds. Rinse thoroughly with a gentle stream of cold water. Dry
with a piece of cloth or a chamois. Old pieces of chamois skin which
are too dirty to use on the body can be used to dry the running gear.
If the running gear takes on a dirty appearance after becoming dry, go
over it with a cloth dampened with body polish. Tighten up all bolts
and make all adjustments while the car is clean.

=Engine Cleaning.=--Clean the engine with a paint brush dipped in
kerosene. Then go over it with a cloth dampened with kerosene.

=Top Cleaning.=--The top should never be folded until it is thoroughly
cleaned and dried. Dust on the outside can be removed by washing it
with clear cold water and castile soap. Be sure to rinse it thoroughly
with clear water. The inside should be dusted out with a whisk broom.
Be careful when folding it and see that the cloth is not pinched
between the sockets and bows, and always put on the slip cover when it
is folded to keep out the dust and dirt.

=Curtain Cleaning.=--Wash the curtains with castile soap. After they
are dry go over them with a cloth dampened in body polish. Always roll
the curtains; never fold them.

=Cleaning Upholstering.=--If the car is upholstered with leather or
imitation leather, it should be washed with warm water and castile
soap, then wiped off thoroughly with a clean cloth dampened in clear
warm water. If the upholstering is with cloth it should be brushed
thoroughly with a stiff whisk broom, then gone over lightly with a
cloth dampened in water to which a few drops of washing ammonia has
been added.

=Rug Cleaning.=--Clean the rugs with a vacuum cleaner, or stiff whisk
broom.

=Windshield Cleaning.=--Add a few drops of ammonia or kerosene to a
pint of warm water; and wash the wind shield with this solution and
polish with a soft cloth or tissue paper.

=Sedan or Closed Body Cleaning.=--Follow directions given for cleaning
upholstering and windshields.

=Tire Rim Cleaning.=--Remove the tires twice each season. Drive the
dents out of the rims, rub off all rust with sand paper, and file off
all sharp edges and paint the rims with a metal filler. Allow the paint
to dry thoroughly before replacing the tire. Rust on the rims causes
rapid tire and tube deterioration.

=Tire Cleaning.=--Rinse the mud and dirt off the tires, and wash them
with soap suds and a coarse sponge. Rinse with clear water.

=Lens Cleaning.=--To clean the light lens follow the instructions given
above for cleaning windshields.

Cover the car at night to prevent garage dust from settling into the
pores of the paint. This type of dust causes the varnish to check and
take on a dull dirty appearance, and is very hard to remove without the
use of soap. Use a neutral soap and rinse thoroughly with clear cold
water.

A good serviceable throw-cover can be made from any kind of cheap light
goods, or by sewing several old sheets together.

=Caution.=--Do not dust the car immediately after driving it in the
sun and never use a feather duster as this only pads the dust into the
varnish, and scratches it.

A good dusting cloth is made by dampening a soft cloth with an oil
polish. The cloth should be left to dry in the sun for several hours
after being dampened with oil.

Rinsing the body off with clear cold water and drying it with a chamois
skin is always preferable as it produces a clean appearance and
freshens the paint.




CHAPTER XLII

TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE


Building a tire is like building a house or laying a cement sidewalk;
the foundation must be right or the job will not stand up.

The foundation of a tire as every motorist knows consists of
alternative layers of rubber, fabric, or cord, covered with a tread
and breaker strip of rubber. The tread and breaker strip, however,
are not worth the space they occupy if they are placed over a poorly
constructed foundation of cheaply made fabric. Therefore, great care
should be exercised in choosing a tire of standard make which has been
tested, inspected, and guaranteed to be in perfect condition, and gives
a mileage guarantee.

The cheaper grades of tires may be very deceiving in looks, but the
point remains, that beneath the tread and breaker strip there must be
something that is cheaper in quality than the material used in building
a standard tire or it could not be sold for less, as tire building
material sells at a market price obtainable to all; and the standard
tire is usually produced in large quantities at a small profit, which
may be seen by comparing the production records and the dividends paid
on capitalization.

This point alone shows the wise economy in purchasing tires of standard
build and avoiding all so-called low priced tires as they usually cost
the motorist considerable more before the average mileage of a good
tire is obtained.

Tires given close attention will usually give from one to two thousand
more miles of service than those that do not receive prompt attention.
Therefore, close inspection should be made frequently for cuts, rents,
stone bruises, or a break in the tread which exposes the underlying
fabric to wear and dampness.

When a break is discovered in either the tread or breaker strip, it
should be slightly enlarged and well cleaned. A coat of raw rubber
cement is applied and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is
applied, and when this coat is fairly dry, fill the indenture with raw
rubber gum and cook for thirty minutes with a small vulcanizer. The
cement, rubber, and vulcanizer may be purchased at any accessory store
for a couple of dollars.

=Tire Care.=--Always keep the garage floor clean and free from oil,
grease and gasoline, in order that the tires may not come in contact
with it or stand in it. All three are deadly enemies to rubber. This
is easily accomplished by spreading a thin layer of sawdust or bran on
the floor and dampening it. This not only makes floor cleaning easy but
also keeps the air moist and causes the dust to settle quickly.

When a tire comes in contact with either grease, oil, or gasoline, it
should immediately be washed with warm water and castile soap.

Mud must not be allowed to dry and bake on the tires as it causes the
rubber to loose its springy elastic qualities, and dry-rot or rubber
scurvy takes place immediately, and the tread begins to crack and
crumble.

=Tire Chains.=--Use tire chains only when they are absolutely necessary
to overcome road conditions, as the use of chains under the most ideal
conditions results in a certain amount of damage to the tires, and
also causes destruction to improved roads. Chains are easily put on by
stretching them out at the rear of the car and rolling the car on them.
The clamps should be placed forward in order that the contact with the
road may serve to keep them closed.

Adjust the chains to the tire loosely in order that the cross chains
may work around and distribute the wear evenly.

=Cross Chains.=--Inspect the cross chains occasionally for wear and
sharp edges.

Do not use springs across the front of the wheel to hold the chains,
as they prevent the cross chains from working around on the tire and
the opposite side chain is often drawn onto the tread, and as these
chains are not continuous, the link connections wear and cut the tread
exposing the underlying layers of fabric to dampness and wear.

=Tube Care.=--When an extra tube is carried with the car shake some
tire talc or soap stone on it and wrap with tissue paper. It can then
be carried in a small box with the tools without being damaged from
vibration.

=Tube Repairing.=--A tube should always be vulcanized to make the
repair permanent; but in case you must make a road repair and have not
a vulcanizer with you, an emergency repair can be made by sticking on a
patch. The surface of the tube and the patch is cleaned and roughened
with a fine file or piece of emery paper. A coat of cement is applied
next and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied and allowed
to dry until it becomes tacky. The patch is then pressed on the tube
and held under pressure fifteen or twenty minutes until the cement
is dry. This repair will serve for a short time but should be made
permanent at the first opportunity.

=Tire Storage.=--When the car is to be stored for the winter, the tires
should be left on the wheels and deflated to thirty pounds pressure
(that is, after they have been relieved of the weight of the car),
except in cases where the garage is cold and very damp and subjected to
weather changes. In this case remove the tires and hang them up in a
cool dry place (store room or cellar).

Always remove the old valve cores from the valve stems and replace
them with new ones before putting the tires back into service, as the
rubber plungers deteriorate very rapidly when inactive. Valve cores
can be purchased at any service station in a small tin container for
thirty-five to fifty cents per dozen.




CHAPTER XLIII

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

TUNING HINTS


The average car owner usually fights shy of the electrical system. This
deserves attention when overhauling the car, as well as any other part
of the car, and a few simple precautions will go a long way toward
eliminating electrical troubles.

The entire electrical system should be gone over. One of the most
important things demanding inspection is the wiring. It often happens
that the insulation becomes chafed or worn, through contact with other
parts of the car. It is, therefore, important to look over the wiring
very carefully. Where there is any doubt as to the insulation being
insufficient, new wires should be used. This eliminates the possibility
of there being an accidental ground, or short circuit, rendering a part
or the entire system inoperative.

All terminals should be gone over to determine whether they are clean
and tight. This is especially true of the terminals on the storage
battery, and at the point where the battery is grounded to the frame of
the car if it is a single wire system.

The connections between the storage battery and the starting motor
should be clean and free from corrosion. If these connections are not
tight and clean, improper performance of the starting motor is the
result.

Apply a small amount of vaseline to the battery terminals for
protection of the metal from the action of the acid fumes and
prevention of corrosion. It is well to have the battery inspected by a
battery specialist and any necessary repairs taken care of.

Distributor and relay points should be examined to see if they are
pitted or burned. If they are, they should be smoothed down with a fine
platinum file and adjusted to the proper gap. It is essential that the
contact points meet squarely. If this is not done burning and pitting
will result.

The generator and starting motor commutator should be examined for
undue wear and high mica. It may be necessary in order to insure good
performance that the commutator be turned down in a lathe and the mica
undercut.

The brushes should be properly seated by careful sanding. This is
especially necessary when the commutator is turned down. It is
desirable to have three-quarters of the brush face bearing on the
commutator. This can be determined by examination of the glazed area on
the brush after running a short time.

Should the starter drive be of the bendix type, the threaded shaft and
pinion should be cleaned, and any grease which has hardened should be
removed.

Lamps should be examined. Dim and burned out lamps should be replaced.

All connections of the lighting and ignition switch should be
inspected. It should be noted whether the terminals are touching,
or nearly touching. If any wires are rubbing thus, entailing the
possibility of a short circuit or ground, they should be fixed.

Electric cables that rub on sharp edges of the battery box will
soon wear through the insulation from vibration of the car and a
short circuit will occur that may be hard to find. Such parts of the
wire should be well protected with adhesive tape and should be also
frequently inspected.

High tension currents are very hard to control, and a short or leakage
often occurs where the wire is cramped. The center wire works or wears
through the rubber insulation causing the current to jump to the
nearest metal part. This kind of trouble is especially hard to locate
as the outer surface of the braided insulation does not show the break.

It is a good plan to examine the wiring for short circuits occasionally
in this manner. When putting the car in at night, close the garage
door and turn out the lights, running the motor at various speeds and
gently moving each wire. If there are any short or grounded circuits a
brilliant spark will jump at the defective point.




CHAPTER XLIV

AUTOMOBILE PAINTING


Painting a car requires a great amount of patience. But a fairly good
job may be done by the average amateur painter, providing the work is
done carefully and exactly. However, this work should be undertaken
only in a warm, dry room where it is possible to keep an even
temperature.

The old paint is first removed with a paint remover, or solution which
is applied to the surface and allowed to penetrate into the pores.
Another coat is then applied. The surface is then scraped with a putty
knife until it is smooth and free from the old paint. In some cases it
may be found necessary to use a blow torch to soften the old paint.

After the old paint has been thoroughly removed, the rough spots should
be smoothed over with a piece of sand or emery paper, and all counter
sunk screw heads, joinings, and scratches filled with putty, to make an
even surface. The metal primer is applied and allowed to dry. A second
coat consisting of equal parts of white lead, turpentine and boiled
oil is next applied and allowed to dry. Three or four coats of color
are applied next and allowed to dry. Colors come in a paste form, and
may be turned into a paste by adding a little turpentine. Two coats
of color and an equal amount of rubbing varnish are next applied in
turn and rubbed with powdered pumice stone and water. The car is then
stripped and allowed to dry, and the job finished by applying a coat of
finishing varnish.

All the foreign matter and grease is removed from the running gear. The
rough places are scraped and rubbed with a piece of emery paper. Two
coats of metal primer are applied and allowed to dry. A coat of color
varnish is applied which completes the job.




CHAPTER XLV

CARBON REMOVING


It is necessary to remove the carbon deposits from the combustion
chambers and piston heads at frequent intervals in order to maintain an
economical and efficient motor.

There are various methods and ways of doing this without removing the
casting or cylinder head; that is, providing regular attention is given
to prevent the deposit from baking and forming in a shale which can be
removed only by burning or scraping.

There are a number of carbon removing compounds on the market which
give excellent satisfaction, although some of these compounds may prove
very harmful unless the directions are followed very carefully.

A great many owners use kerosene once or twice a month. An ounce or two
may be poured into each cylinder while they are quite warm and allowed
to stand for several hours. The motor is then turned over a few times
which allows the kerosene to escape through the valves. The particles
of carbon are blown out through the muffler when the motor is started.
Others prefer to feed it into the motor through the carburetor. This
is done by speeding up the motor and feeding a little at a time into
the float chamber or air valve. Others use chloroform, turpentine, and
alcohol in the same way.

The latest method is to take the car to a garage and have the carbon
burnt out occasionally with a carbon dioxide flame. This vaporizes and
consumes the carbon and blows it out in the form of soot. The flame of
an acetylene welding outfit may be used successfully. Great care must
be taken to prevent fire. The carburetor is removed and the fuel line
drained and tied out of range of the flame.

TROUBLES

  --------------------+------------------------+------------------------
  TROUBLE             |CAUSE                   |REMEDY
  --------------------+------------------------+------------------------
  Motor misses        |Worn piston rings       |New oversize rings
  Motor misses        |Pitted valve seats      |Grind in valve seats
  Motor misses        |Loose locknut, tappets  |Adjust tappets
  Motor misses        |Gas. mixture too heavy  |Adjust carburetor
  Motor misses        |Gas. mixture too thin   |Adjust carburetor
  Motor misses        |Contact points worn     |Adjust points
  Motor misses        |Loose cable connections |Connect to terminal
                      |                        |posts
  Motor misses        |Cracked piston head     |Replace piston
  Motor misses        |Cracked water jacket    |Weld, rebore cylinder
  Motor heats         |Poor circulation        |Flush out radiator
  Motor heats         |Insufficient lubrication|Clean oiling system
  Motor heats         |Excessive carbon deposit|_See_ chapter on Carbon
                      |                        |Removing
  Motor heats         |Cracked piston ring     |Replace rings
  Motor heats         |Scored cylinder wall    |Rebore cylinder
  Motor heats         |Tight main bearings     |Lubricate plentifully
  Motor heats         |Heavy gas mixture       |Adjust carburetor
  Motor heats         |Cylinders missing       |_See_ Motor Misses
  Motor heats         |Worn distributor contact|Replace spring on block
                      |spring                  |
  Motor back-fires    |Lean mixture            |Adjust carburetor
  Motor back-fires    |Valve open              |Reseat valve, adj.
                      |                        |tappet
  Motor back-fires    |Ignition off time       |_See_ ignition systems
  Motor fails to start|Lack of gasoline        |Fill tank
  Motor fails to start|Vacuum in fuel tank     |Open air hole in cap
  Motor fails to start|Lack of current         |Close circuit
  Motor fails to start|Short circuit           |Tape conductor at point
  Motor fails to start|Discharged battery      |Test with hydrometer;
                      |                        |have recharged
  Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel            |Clean carburetor
  Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel            |Clean screen at fuel
                      |                        |entrance to vacuum
                      |                        |system
  Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel            |Clean pipe from vacuum
                      |                        | system to carburetor
  Motor fails to start|Ignition fouled         |Clean corrosion from
                      |                        | terminals
  Motor fails to start|Breaker points stuck    |Redress lightly with
                      |                        |finger nail file
  Motor fails to start|Plugs improperly set    |Close points to
                      |                        |thickness of a dime
  Motor fails to start|Oil on points           |Clean plugs and screw
                      |                        |down tightly
  Motor fails to start|Cracked porcelain       |New plug
  Motor fails to start|Open valves             |Grind or reset valves
  Motor fails to start|Valves stuck            |Polish stems
  Motor fails to start|Weak valve springs      |Replace springs
  Motor fails to start|Open circuit            |Close switch
  Motor misses        |Defective spark plug    |Replace
  Motor misses        |Disconnected wires      |Connect up tightly
  Motor misses        |Dirty plugs             |Clean
  Motor misses        |Poor compression        |Replace gasket
                      |                        |New piston rings
  Motor vibrates      |Loose frame connection  |Draw bolts down
  Motor vibrates      |Pistons sticking        |Increase lubrication
  Motor vibrates      |Pistons weight uneven   |Balance evenly
  Motor vibrates      |Defective spark plug    |Clean, replace plug
  Motor kicks         |Preignition             |Time ignition system
  Motor kicks         |Carbon, combustion      |Scrape out, burn out
                      |chamber                 |
  Motor knock head    |Wrist pin bearing loose |Give pin ¹⁄₄ turn
  Motor knock head    |Loose connecting rod    |Tighten upper bearing
  Motor knock head    |Valve slap              |Adjust tappet
  Motor knock base    |Connecting rod loose    |Adjust remove shim
  Motor knock base    |Main bearing loose      |Adjust remove shim
  Motor rumble        |Flywheel loose          |Adjust reseat
  Motor rumble        |Fan bearing loose       |Adjust grease
  Motor tipping       |Fan blade strikes       |Adjust bend blade
                      |radiator                |
  Motor tapping       |Tappet worn             |Adjust tighten lock nut
  Motor compression   |Thread stretch          |Tighten head bolts
  poor                |                        |
  Motor compression   |Gasket burned or blown  |Replace, new gasket
  poor                |                        |
  Motor compression   |Valve seat pitted       |Grind, reset valve
  poor                |                        |
  Motor compression   |Valve guide worn        |Replace bushing
  poor                |                        |
  Motor compression   |Valve stem warped       |New valve
  poor                |                        |
  Motor compression   |Piston rings lined up   |Distribute openings
  poor                |                        |
  Motor compression   |Cylinder wall scored    |Oversize rings; rebore
  poor                |                        |
  Universal joint     |Loose sleeve connection |Tighten flange bolts
  noise               |                        |
  Universal joint     |Insufficient lubrication|Remove boot and pack
  noise               |                        |with grease
  Universal joint slap|Worn bushings           |Turn bushings end for
                      |                        |end
  Universal joint slap|Worn trunion            |New bushings
  Differential noise  |Dry                     |Fill with graphite
                      |                        |grease or 600 W
  Differential click  |Chipped gear            |Replace
  Differential knock  |Broken out tooth        |Replace
  Differential growl  |Ring gear mesh too deep |Back up trifle on
  (steady)            |                        |adjustment
  Differential growl  |Ring gear mesh too      |Set up adjustment
  (uneven)            |loosely                 |
  Differential growl  |Axle shaft sprung       |Retrue, replace
  (uneven)            |                        |
  Differential growl  |Loose bearing retainer  |Tighten nuts
  (uneven)            |                        |
  Brakes fail to      |Rusted clevis joints    |Lubricate with heavy
  release             |                        |grease
  Brakes fail to      |Broken coil spring      |Replace
  release             |                        |
  Brakes fail to      |Stretched coil spring   |Replace
  release             |                        |
  Brake clatter       |Loose adjustment        |Adjust
  Brake clatter       |Worn lining             |Reline the outer band
  Brake clatter       |Loose release spring    |Adjust
  Brake squeak        |Dry lining              |Four or five drops of
                      |                        |oil
  Brake squeak        |Burned lining           |Replace
  Brakes fail to grip |Lining worn down to     |Replace
                      |rivet heads             |
  Brakes fail to grip |Overly lubricated       |Wash with kerosene
  Brakes fail to grip |Lining worn slick       |Wash with kerosene and
                      |                        |roughen with file
  Brakes fail to grip |Lining burned hard      |Replace
  Brakes fail to grip |Stretched rivets        |Draw down
  Brake rod rattle    |Worn clevis pin         |Replace
  Brake rod rattle    |Spread clevis yoke      |Drive ends together
  Brake rod rattle    |Loose lock-nut behind   |Tighten down
                      |clevis                  |
  Brake rod rattle    |Brake rods strike each  |Tape one rod at contact
                      |other                   |point
  Brake rod rattle    |Dry connections         |Lubricate with small
                      |                        |lump of grease
  Torque rod rattle   |Loose connections       |Adjust
  Torque rod rattle   |Loose coil spring       |Adjust
  Emergency brake     |Loose joint bearing     |Replace bushing
  lever rattle        |                        |
  Emergency brake     |Worn plunger spring     |Replace
  lever rattle        |                        |
  Gear shift lever    |Worn ball socket        |Lubricate with heavy
  rattle              |                        |grease
  Gear shift lever    |Worn ball               |Dent in socket with
  rattle              |                        |punch
  Gear shift lever    |Worn alignment spring   |Replace
  rattle              |blades                  |
  Gear shift lever    |Worn bearing            |Place thin washer at end
  rattle              |                        |of joint
  Steering wheel play |Open mesh               |Set up sector
  Steering wheel play |Loose bearing           |Turn down cone
  Steering wheel play |Worn gear tooth         |Take up on eccentric
                      |                        |bushing
  Steering wheel play |Loose drag link sockets |Turn in end plug
  Steering wheel      |Dry                     |Pack with grease
  stiffness           |                        |
  Radiator heats      |Poor circulation        |Flush radiator
  Radiator heats      |Jammed tubes            |Remove jam and solder in
                      |                        |new piece tube
  Radiator heats      |Sediment in bottom tank |Flush out with soda
                      |                        |solution
  Radiator heats      |Stopped up overflow     |Run wire through
  Radiator freezes    |Too much radiation      |Cover bottom half of
                      |                        |radiator with cardboard
  Radiator freezes    |Jammed tubes            |Cut out section; solder
                      |                        |in new piece
  Radiator freezes    |Sediment in bottom tank |Flush out with soda
                      |                        |solution
  Vacuum tank spouts  |Dirt on vacuum valve    |Clean valve
  gas                 |seat                    |
  Vacuum tank         |Dirt on vacuum valve    |Clean valve
  overflows           |seat                    |
  Vacuum tank fails   |Suction pipe from       |Clean pipe
                      |manifold stopped up     |
  Vacuum tank fails   |Vacuum valve stuck      |Clean valve
                      |                        |
  Vacuum tank fails   |Entrance screen stopped |Remove fuel line and
                      |up                      |clean screen
  Vacuum tank fails   |Loose connection at     |Tighten joint
                      |manifold                |
  Vacuum tank fails   |Plugged fuel line       |Run wire through
                      |                        |
  Carburetor wheeze   |Choke valve out too far |Push in after starting
                      |on dash                 |
  Carburetor wheeze   |Choke valve wire too    |Lengthen and adjust
                      |short                   |
  Carburetor wheeze   |Butterfly loose on air  |Adjust and tighten
                      |valve pivot             |
  Carburetor chokes   |Dirty valve             |Grind needle valves
  Carburetor chokes   |Sediment in bowl        |Clean out bowl
  Carburetor chokes   |Heavy mixture           |Open air valve slightly
  Carburetor chokes   |Water in gas            |Clean out bowl
  Carburetor snaps    |Thin mixture            |Cut down air
  Carburetor snaps    |Water in gas            |Strain gas through
                      |                        |chamois
  Carburetor snaps    |Dirt in fuel line       |Run wire through
  Carburetor snaps    |Dirt under needle valve |Remove; clean seat
  Carburetor overflows|Dirt on needle valve    |Remove; clean seat
                      |seat                    |
  Carburetor overflows|Cork float (water-      |Dry in sun and shellac
                      |logged)                 |
  Carburetor overflows|Metal float punctured   |Punch hole opposite
                      |                        |leak, blow out, solder
                      |                        |both
  Carburetor backfires|Worn intake valve       |Replace bushing
                      |bushing                 |
  Carburetor backfires|Defective spark plug    |Replace
  Carburetor backfires|Pitted valve seat       |Reseat
  Magneto roar        |Armature shaft bearings |Two drops of light oil
                      |dry                     |in bearing well
  Magneto click       |Dry bearing             |Two drops of light oil
                      |                        |in bearing well
  Magneto fires uneven|Breaker points out of   |Adjust points
                      |adjustment              |
  Magneto fires uneven|Open safety spark gap   |Adjust gap to ¹⁄₁₆″
  Magneto fires uneven|Condensor short         |Take to service station
                      |circuited               |
  Magneto fires uneven|Distributor segments    |Take to service station
                      |worn                    |
  Magneto fires uneven|Distributor brush worn  |Take to service station
  Magneto fires uneven|Distributor insulation  |Take to service station
                      |cracked                 |
  Magneto fires uneven|Coil short circuited    |Take to service station
  Distributor arm     |Worn center bushing     |Replace bushing
  wabbles             |                        |
  Distributor fails   |Spring blade broken in  |Replace blade
                      |head                    |
  Distributor fails   |Worn contact point in   |Cut down insulation
                      |head                    |
  Distributor fails   |Oil on contact block    |Clean with kerosene
                      |blade                   |
  Distributor fails   |Contact points welded   |File smooth, adjust
  Distributor fails   |Loose on shaft          |Reset and retime
  Distributor fails   |Coil shorted from       |Dry out thoroughly
                      |dampness                |
  Distributor fails   |Punctured condensor     |Replace
  Distributor fails   |Secondary wire short    |Replace or tape
                      |circuited               |
  Distributor fails   |Secondary wire          |Connect to proper
                      |disconnected in switch  |terminal
  Starting motor fails|Corroded terminals      |Clean and grease
  Starting motor fails|Brush loose             |Tighten and adjust to
                      |                        |even contact
  Starting motor fails|Terminal from battery   |Clean and tape
                      |short circuited to frame|
  Starting motor fails|Starting switch short   |Cut off end of wire,
                      |circuited               |make new connection
  Starting motor fails|Bennidict spring broken |Replace
  Starting motor fails|Battery discharged      |Recharge battery
  Generator fails to  |Disconnected            |Replace heavy wire
  charge              |                        |
  Generator fails to  |Short circuit in cut-out|Make new connection
  charge              |switch                  |
  Generator fails to  |Brush out of contact    |Adjust contact
  charge              |                        |
  Generator noise     |Dry bearings            |Lubricate with light oil
  Battery discharges  |Plate short circuited   |Take to service station
  too quickly         |                        |
  Battery discharges  |Leaky cell              |Take to service station
  too quickly         |                        |
  Battery discharges  |Weak solution           |Take to service station
  too quickly         |                        |
  Battery discharges  |Deteriorated plates     |Take to service station
  too quickly         |                        |
  Battery discharges  |Dry plates              |Cover plates with
  too quickly         |                        |distilled water
  Battery overcharges |Insufficient use of     |Burn lights and use
                      |current                 |starter frequently
  Battery heats       |Overcharging            |Burn lights and use
                      |                        |starter frequently
  Horn fails          |Wire short circuited    |Replace or tape
  Horn fails          |Brush making poor       |Adjust brush evenly
                      |contact                 |
  Horn fails          |Brush making heavy      |Adjust brush lightly
                      |contact                 |
  Horn fails          |Drum too tightly        |Adjust through funnel
                      |adjusted                |
  Squeaks             |Body loose on frame     |Tighten four retainer
                      |                        |bolts
  Squeaks             |Dry springs             |Lubricate with graphite
                      |                        |grease
  Squeaks             |Fuel tank loose         |Tighten bands
  Squeaks             |Radiator loose          |Tighten studs
  Squeaks             |Drip pan loose          |Compress coil springs
  Squeaks             |Fender irons loose      |Tighten bolts
  Squeaks             |Upper steering shaft    |Pack with heavy grease
                      |bearing dry             |
  Rattles             |Loose spring alignment  |Bush and tighten
                      |clamp                   |
  Rattles             |Spread rod clevis open  |Draw up ends and grease
  Rattles             |Demountable rim lugs    |Draw up or replace
                      |loose                   |
  Rattles             |Door hinge screws loose |Draw up
  Rattles             |Door lock worn          |Bush slot
  Lights jar out      |Wires short circuited   |Tape worn insulation
  Lights jar out      |Weak plunger spring in  |Stretch spring
                      |contact plug            |
  Lights fail         |Poor contact            |Remove wire and tape
                      |                        |insulation
  Lights fail         |Poor contact            |Remove plugs and adjust
                      |                        |firmly in sockets
  Lights dim          |Globes carboned         |Replace
  Lights burn with    |Globe out of adjustment |Turn back into socket
  black spot in center|                        |firmly




APPENDIX


I

FORD--MODEL-T

THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE

Given in Questions and Answers--This Supplement also Covers the 1-Ton
Truck


_Q._ What should be done before starting the car?

_A._ Before trying to start the car fill the radiator (by removing
the cap at the top) with clean fresh water. If perfectly clean water
cannot be obtained, it is advisable to strain it through muslin or
other similar material to prevent foreign matter from getting in and
obstructing the small tubes of the radiator. The system will hold
approximately three gallons of water. It is important that the car
should not be run under its own power unless the water circulating
system has been filled. Pour in the water until you are sure that both
radiator and cylinder water jackets are full. The water will run out
of the overflow pipe onto the ground when the entire water system has
been properly filled. During the first few days that a new car is being
driven it is a good plan to examine the radiator frequently and see
that it is kept well filled. The water supply should be replenished as
often as it is found necessary to do so. Soft rain water, when it is to
be had in a clean state, is superior to hard water, which may contain
alkalies and other salts which tend to deposit sediment and clog the
radiator.

_Q._ What about gasoline?

_A._ The ten gallon gasoline tank should be filled nearly full and
the supply should never be allowed to get low. Strain the gas through
chamois skin to prevent water and other foreign matter from getting
into the tank. Dirt or water in the gasoline is sure to cause trouble.
When filling the tank be sure that there are no naked flames within
several feet, as the vapor is extremely volatile and travels rapidly.
Always be careful about lighting matches near where gasoline has been
spilled, as the air within a radius of several feet is permeated with
the highly explosive vapor. The small vent hole in the gasoline tank
cap should not be allowed to get plugged up, as this would prevent
proper flow of gasoline to the carburetor. The gasoline tank may be
drained by opening the pet cock in the sediment bulb at the bottom of
the tank.

_Q._ How about the oiling system?

_A._ Upon receipt of the car see that a supply of medium light
high-grade gas engine oil is poured into the crank case through the
breather pipe at the front of the engine (a metal cap covers it). Down
under the car in the flywheel casing (the reservoir which holds the
oil) you will find two pet cocks. Pour oil in slowly until it runs out
of the upper cock. Leave the cock open until it stops running, then
close it. After the engine has become thoroughly warmed up, the best
results will be obtained by carrying the oil at a level midway between
the two cocks, but under no circumstances should it be allowed to get
below the lower cock. All other parts of the car are properly oiled
when it leaves the factory. However, it will be well to see that all
grease cups are filled and that oil is supplied to the necessary parts.
(See chapter on Lubrication.)

_Q._ How are spark and throttle levers used?

_A._ Under the steering wheel are two small levers. The right hand
(throttle) lever controls the amount of mixture (gasoline and air)
which goes into the engine. When the engine is in operation, the
farther the lever is moved downward toward the driver (referred to as
“opening the throttle”) the faster the engine runs and the greater the
power furnished. The left hand lever controls the spark which ignites
the gas in the cylinders of the engine. The advancing of this lever
“advances the spark,” and it should be moved down notch by notch until
the motor seems to reach its maximum speed. If the lever is advanced
beyond this point a dull knock will be heard in the engine. (See
chapter on Ignition.)

_Q._ Where should these levers be when the engine is ready to crank?

_A._ The spark lever should usually be put in about the third or fourth
notch of the quadrant (the notched half circle on which the levers
operate). The throttle should usually be opened five or six notches.
A little experience will soon teach you where these levers should be
placed for proper starting. Care should be taken not to advance the
spark lever too far as the engine may “back-kick.”

_Q._ What else is necessary before cranking the engine?

_A._ First, see that the hand lever that comes up through the floor of
the car at the left of the driver, is pulled back as far as it will go.
The lever in this position holds the clutch in neutral and engages the
hub brake, thus preventing the car from moving forward when the engine
is started. Second, after inserting the switch key in the switch on
the coil box, throw the switch lever as far to the left as it will go,
to the point marked “magneto.” This switch connects the magneto to the
engine. The engine cannot be started until it is on; and the throwing
off of the switch stops the engine. The next step is to crank the
engine.

_Q._ How is the engine cranked?

_A._ By the lifting of the starting crank at the front of the car.
Take hold of the handle and push it toward the car until you feel the
crank ratchets engage, then lift upward with a quick swing. With a
little experience this operation will become an easy matter. Do not
as a usual thing crank downward against the compression, for then an
early explosion may drive the handle vigorously backward. This does not
mean, however, that it is advisable, when the car is hard to start,
to occasionally “spin” the engine with the starting handle but be
sure that the spark is retarded when spinning or cranking the engine
against compression, otherwise a sudden back-fire may injure the arm
of the operator. When the engine is cool it is advisable to prime the
carburetor by pulling on the small wire at the lower left-hand side of
the radiator while giving the engine two or three quarter turns with
the starting handle.

_Q._ How is the engine best started in cold weather?

_A._ As gasoline does not vaporize readily in cold weather, it is
naturally more difficult to start the motor under such conditions. The
usual method of starting the engine when cold is to turn the carburetor
dash adjustment one-quarter turn to the left in order to allow a richer
mixture of gasoline to be drawn into the cylinders. Then hold out the
priming rod which projects through the radiator while you turn the
crank from six to eight quarter turns in quick succession. Another
method of starting a cold troublesome motor is as follows: Before
you throw on the magneto switch, (1) close throttle lever. (2) Hold
out the priming rod while you crank several quick turns, then let go
of the priming rod, being careful that it goes back all the way. (3)
Place spark lever in about the third notch and advance throttle lever
several notches. (4) Throw on switch being sure to get it on the side
marked “magneto.” (5) Give crank one or two turns and the motor should
start. After starting the motor it is advisable to advance the spark
eight or ten notches on the quadrant and let the motor run until it is
thoroughly warmed up.

If you start out with a cold motor you will not have much power and
are liable to “stall.” The advantage of turning on the switch last, or
after priming, is that when you throw on the switch and give the crank
one-quarter turn you have plenty of gas in the cylinders to keep the
motor running, thereby eliminating the trouble of the motor starting
and stopping. After motor is warmed up turn carburetor adjustment back
one-quarter turn.

_Note._ Many drivers make a practice of stopping their engine by
walking around in front of the car and pulling out on the priming rod
which has the effect of shutting off the air suction and filling the
cylinders full of a very rich gasoline vapor. This should not be done
unless the car is going to stand over night or long enough to cool off.
If the motor is stopped in this way and then started when hot, starting
is apt to be difficult on account of the surplus gasoline in the
carburetor.

_Q._ How do the foot pedals operate?

_A._ The first one toward the left operates the clutch, and by it the
car is started and its operations largely controlled. When pressed
forward the clutch pedal engages the low speed gear. When halfway
forward the gears are in neutral (i. e., disconnected from the driving
mechanism of the rear wheels), and, with the hand lever thrown forward
the releasing of the pedal engages the high-speed clutch. The right
hand pedal operates the transmission brake.

_Q._ What function does the hand lever perform?

_A._ Its chief purpose is to hold the clutch in neutral position. If
it were not for this lever the driver would have to stop the engine
whenever he left the driver’s seat. He would also be unable to crank
the engine without the car starting forward with the first explosion.
When pulled back as far as it will go, the hand lever acts as an
emergency lever on the rear wheels, by expanding the brake shoes in the
rear wheel drums. Therefore the hand lever should be back as far as it
will go when cranking the engine or when the car is at rest. It should
be only in a vertical position, and not far enough backward to act as a
brake on the rear wheels when the car is to be reversed. When the car
is operating in high or low speed the hand lever should be all the way
forward.

_Q._ How is the car started?

_A._ Slightly accelerate the engine by opening the throttle. Place
the foot on the clutch pedal, and thereby hold the gears in a neutral
position while throwing the hand lever forward. Then to start the
car in motion, press the pedal forward into low speed and when under
sufficient headway (20 to 30 feet), allow the pedal to drop back
slowly into high speed, at the same time partially closing the throttle
which will allow the engine to pick up its load easily. With a little
practice the change of speeds will be easily accomplished, and without
any appreciable effect on the smooth running of the machine.

_Q._ How is the car stopped?

_A._ Partially close the throttle. Release the high speed by pressing
the clutch pedal forward into neutral. Apply the foot brake slowly
but firmly until the car comes to a dead stop. Do not remove the foot
from the clutch pedal without first pulling the hand lever back to
neutral position, or the engine will stall. To stop the motor, open
the throttle a trifle to accelerate the motor and then throw off the
switch. The engine will then stop with the cylinders full of gas, which
will naturally facilitate starting.

Endeavor to so familiarize yourself with the operation of the car
that to disengage the clutch and apply the brake becomes practically
automatic, the natural thing to do in case of emergency.

_Q._ How is the car reversed?

_A._ It must be brought to a dead stop. With the engine running,
disengage the clutch with the hand lever and press the reverse pedal
forward with the left foot, the right foot being free to use on the
brake pedal if needed. Do not bring the hand lever back too far or you
will set the brakes on the rear wheels. Experienced drivers ordinarily
reverse the car by simply holding the clutch pedal in neutral with the
left foot, and operating the reverse pedal with the right.

_Q._ How is the spark controlled?

_A._ By the left hand lever under the steering wheel. Good operators
drive with the spark lever advanced just as far as the engine will
permit. But if the spark is advanced too far a dull knock will be
heard in the motor, due to the fact that the explosion occurs before
the piston in the engine has completed its compression stroke. The
best results are obtained when the spark occurs just at the time that
piston reaches its highest point of travel, the gas being then at its
highest point of compression. The spark should only be retarded when
the engine slows down on a heavy road or steep grade, but care should
be exercised not to retard the spark too far, for when the spark is
“late” instead of getting a powerful explosion, a slow burning of gas
with excessive heat will result. Learn to operate the spark as the
occasion demands. The greatest economy in gasoline consumption is
obtained by driving with the spark advanced sufficiently to obtain the
maximum speed.

_Q._ How is speed of car controlled?

_A._ The different speeds required to meet road conditions are obtained
by opening or closing the throttle. Practically all the running speeds
needed for ordinary travel are obtained on high gear, and it is seldom
necessary to use the low gear except to give the car momentum in
starting. The speed of the car may be temporarily slackened in driving
through crowded traffic, turning corners, etc., by “slipping the
clutch,” i. e., pressing the clutch pedal forward into neutral.

_Q._ Is it advisable for owners to make their own adjustments?

_A._ The Ford is the simplest of all cars. Most of the ordinary
adjustments an owner will soon learn to make for himself. But we
must strongly recommend that when it becomes necessary to employ the
services of a mechanic, the car be taken to a Ford mechanic--one of
our own representatives who thoroughly understands the car--and who
will have no motive for running up useless repair bills. The entire
Ford organization is interested in keeping every individual Ford car in
constant operation, at the lowest possible cost. We have known of much
damage done to many cars by unskilled repair men.

_Q._ What attention does the car need?

_A._ Remember that a new machine requires more careful attention during
the first few days it is being driven than after the parts have become
thoroughly “worked in.” The car which is driven slowly and carefully
when new usually gives the most satisfactory service in the end. Never
start out with your car until you are sure that it has plenty of oil
and water. Frequently inspect the running gear. See that no unnecessary
play exists in either front or rear wheels, and that all bolts and nuts
are tight. Make a practice of taking care of every repair or adjustment
as soon as its necessity is discovered. This attention requires but
little time and may avoid delay or possible accident on the road. We
aim to deliver the car in proper mechanical adjustment. Afterwards it
is plainly the duty of the driver to keep it in that condition.


II

THE FORD ENGINE


_Q_. What is the principle of the gasoline driven engine?

_A_. Gasoline when mixed with air and compressed is highly explosive.
An explosion is a violent expansion caused by instantaneous combustion
of confined gases. In the gasoline engine the mixture is drawn into
the cylinder, where it is compressed by an advancing piston and then
exploded by an electric spark, which sends the piston violently
downward, and through the connecting rod imparts a rotary motion to the
crank shaft. (See cut No. 147.)

_Q_. What are functions of the pistons?

_A_. On the downward stroke the suction of the piston draws the fresh
gas from the carburetor, through the inlet pipe and valve, into the
cylinder. The upward movement of the piston compresses the gas into a
very small space, between the top of the piston and the depression in
the cylinder head, known as the “combustion chamber.” (The compressed
gases inert a pressure of approximately 60 pounds to the square inch.)
At this point the electric spark, generated by the magneto, explodes
the gas-driving piston downward, thus producing the power which turns
the crank shaft. On the next stroke upward the piston drives the
exploded gas out through the exhaust valve and pipe to the muffler. The
accompanying cut shows clearly the relative positions of the pistons
and valves during the different strokes.

_Q_. How is the connecting rod removed?

_A_. It is a vanadium steel rod connecting piston and crank shaft.
Should the babbitt bearing become worn, or burned out through lack of
oil, a knocking in the engine will result, in which case the entire
connecting rod should be replaced. To make this replacement, (1) drain
oil from crank case; (2) take off cylinder head; (3) remove detachable
plate on bottom of crank case; (4) disconnect connecting rod from crank
shaft; (5) take piston and rod out through top of cylinder.

[Illustration:

  Exhaust Valve

  Spark Plug

  Exhaust and Intake
  Pipe Clamp

  Cylinder
  Head Bolt

  Top Water Connection

  Intake Valve

  Water Chamber

  Comp. Chamber

  Reverse Pedal

  Piston Ring

  Cylinder
  Head

  Fan

  Crank Handle

  Clutch Pedal

  Piston

  Exhaust
  Manifold

  Grease Cup

  Brake Pedal

  Magneto Contact

  Fan Bracket

  Transmission Cover

  Magneto
  Contact Point

  Intake Pipe

  Fan Bracket Bolt

  Bracket Pipe

  Triple Gear

  Fan Belt

  Adjusting Nut

  Large Time Gear

  Reverse Band

  Commutator

  Slow Speed Band

  Com. Wire Terminal

  Brake Band

  Starting Pin

  Driving Plate

  Drive Pulley

  Starting Crank

  Starting Crank Spring

  Cam Shaft
  Front Bearing

  Starting Crank Sleeve

  Starting Crank Ratchet

  Clutch Spring

  Push Rod

  Small Time Gear

  Clutch Release Fork

  Cam Shaft Rear Bearing

  Crank Case Oil Tube

  Crank Shaft Front Bearing

  Clutch Release Ring

  Magneto

  Crank Shaft Rear Bearing

  Crank Shaft Center Bearing

  Valve Spring

  Clutch Shift

  Magneto Support

  Magneto Coil Support

  Crank Shaft

  Cam Shaft

  Clutch Finger

  Magneto Clamp

  Magneto Coil

  Connecting Rod

  Oil Level

  Flywheel

  Oil Cocks

  Oil Drain Plug

Fig. 147. Ford Motor--Sectional View]

_Q._ What is the valve arrangement?

_A._ One intake and one exhaust valve are located in each cylinder. The
former admits the fresh gas drawn from the carburetor through the inlet
pipe, the latter permits the exploded gas to be driven out through the
exhaust pipe. The valves are alternately opened and closed (see Fig.
148) by the cams on the cam shaft striking against push rods which in
turn lift the valves from their seats.

[Illustration:

  Intake Stroke
  Exhaust Valve Closed
  Intake Valve Open

  Exhaust Valve Closed
  Intake Valve Closed
  Explosion Stroke

  Compression Stroke
  Intake Valve Closed
  Exhaust Valve Closed

  Intake Valve Closed
  Exhaust Valve Open
  Exhaust Stroke

  Push Rod

  Large Time Gear

  Comm. Brush Assb.

  Zero Marks on Time Gear

  Small Time Gear

  Crank Shaft

  Cam Shaft

  Exhaust Cam

  Connecting Rod

  Intake Cam

Fig. 148. Ford Motor--Valve and Cylinder Assembly]

_Q._ What about valve timing?

_A._ In timing the engine the points of opening and closing of the
valves are, of course, what should be considered. As the valves are
properly timed at the factory when the engine is built, the necessity
for retiming would occur only when such parts as the cam shaft, time
gears, or valves were removed in overhauling the engine. In fitting
the large time gear to the cam shaft it is important to see that the
first cam points in a direction opposite to the zero mark (see Fig.
148). The time gears must also mesh so that the tooth marked (0) on
the small time gear will come between the two teeth on the large gear
at the zero point. The time gears now being properly set, the exhaust
valve on No. 1 cylinder is open and the intake valve closed, the other
valves being in the position indicated in cut No. 148. The opening and
closing of the valves are as follows: The exhaust valve opens when the
piston reaches ⁵⁄₁₆″ of bottom center, the distance from the top of the
piston head to the top of the cylinder casting measuring 3³⁄₈″. The
exhaust valve will close on top center, the piston being ⁵⁄₁₆″ above
the cylinder casting. The intake valve opens ¹⁄₁₆″ after the top center
and closes ⁹⁄₁₆″ after bottom center, the distance from the top of the
piston to the top of the cylinder casting measuring 3¹⁄₈″ The clearance
between the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater than
¹⁄₃₂″ nor less than ¹⁄₆₄″. The correct clearance is naturally halfway
between these two measurements. The gap should be measured when the
push rod is on the heel of the cam.

_Q._ What about the care of the valves?

_A._ They seldom get out of order, but they do get dirty as a result
of carbon collecting on the valve seats. These carbon deposits, by
preventing proper closing of the valves, permit the gases under
compression to escape, resulting in loss of power and uneven running
of the motor. If, when turning the engine over slowly, there is lack
of resistance in one or more cylinders, it is probable that the valves
need regrinding. As the “life” of the engine depends largely upon the
proper seating of the valves, it is necessary that they be ground
occasionally.

_Q._ How are valves removed for grinding?

_A._ (1) Draining radiator; (2) remove cylinder head; (3) remove the
two valve covers on the right side of the engine; (4) raise the valve
spring with lifting tool and pull out the little pin under the valve
seat. The valve may then be lifted out by the head, preparatory to
grinding.

_Q._ How are valves ground?

_A._ For this work use a good grinding paste of ground glass and oil
procurable from auto supply houses. A convenient way is to put a small
amount in a suitable dish, adding a spoonful or two of kerosene and a
few drops of lubricating oil to make a thin paste. Place the mixture
sparingly on the bevel face of the valve. Put the valve in position on
the valve seat, and rotate it back and forth (about a quarter turn) a
few times with a Ford grinding tool. Then lift slightly from the seat,
change the position and continue the rotation, and keep on repeating
this operation until the bearing surface is bright and smooth. The
valve should not be turned through a complete rotation, as this is
apt to cause scratches running around the entire circumference of the
valve and seat. When the grinding is completed the valve should be
removed from the cylinder, thoroughly washed with kerosene, and the
valve seat wiped out thoroughly. Extreme care should be taken that no
abrasive substance gets into the cylinders or valve guides. This can be
avoided if the grinding paste is applied sparingly on the bevel face
of the valve. If the valve seat is worn badly or smeared, it is best
to have it reseated with a valve seating tool. This operation requires
considerable skill, and perhaps had better be done by an expert
mechanic. Care should be exercised against making too deep a cut,
necessitating the retiming of the valve.

_Q._ What should be done when the valves and push rods are worn?

_A._ When the valves and push rods become worn so as to leave too much
play between them, thus reducing the lift of the valves and diminishing
the power of the motor, it is best to replace the push rods with new
ones. The clearance between the push rod and the valve stem should
never be greater than ¹⁄₃₂″ nor less than ¹⁄₆₄″. If the clearance is
greater, the valve will open late and close early, resulting in uneven
running of the motor. If the clearance is less than ¹⁄₆₄″ there is
danger of the valve remaining partially open all the time. If replacing
the push rod does not give the proper clearance, the valve should also
be replaced. We do not recommend drawing out the valve stem, as the
operation required, and the price of a new part does not warrant the
time and expense necessary to properly do the work.

_Q._ What about valve springs?

_A._ When the valves fail to seat themselves properly, there is a
possibility that the springs may be weak or broken. A weak inlet spring
would probably not affect the running of the engine, but weakness
in the exhaust valve spring causes a very uneven action, which is
difficult to locate. The symptoms are a lag in the engine due to the
exhaust valve not closing instantaneously, and as a result a certain
per cent. of the charge under compression escapes, greatly diminishing
the force of the explosion. Weakness in a valve spring can usually be
detected by the following method: Remove the plate which encloses them
at the side of the cylinder and insert a screw driver between the coils
of the spring while the engine is running. If the extra tension thus
produced causes the engine to pick up speed, the spring is obviously
weak and should be replaced by a new one.

_Q._ What causes “knocking” in the engine?

_A._ There are several causes which may be enumerated as follows:
(1) carbon knock, which is by far the most common, resulting from
carbonizing of cylinders; (2) knock caused by a too advanced spark;
(3) connecting rod knock; (4) crank shaft main bearing knock; (5)
knock due to loose fitting piston or broken ring; (6) knock caused by
piston striking the cylinder head gasket. When the engine knocks from
any cause whatsoever, the matter should be promptly investigated by an
experienced mechanic and the difficulty corrected.

_Q._ How may the different knocks be distinguished?

_A._ (1) The carbon knock is a clear hollow sound most noticeable in
climbing sharp grades, particularly when the engine is heated. It is
also indicated by a sharp rap immediately on advancing the throttle.
(2) Too advanced spark will be indicated by a dull knock in the motor.
(3) The connecting rod knock sound is like the distant tapping of steel
with a small hammer, and is readily distinguished when the car is
allowed to run idly down grade or upon speeding the car to twenty-five
miles an hour, then suddenly closing the throttle, the tapping will
be very distinct. (4) The crank shaft main bearing knock can be
distinguished as a dull thud when the car is going up hill. (5) The
loose piston knock is heard only upon suddenly opening the throttle,
when the sound produced might be likened to a rattle. The remedies for
these knocks are treated under their proper divisions.

_Q._ How is carbon removed from the combustion chamber?

_A._ First, drain the water off by opening the pet cock at the bottom
of the radiator; then disconnect the wires at the top of the motor and
also the radiator connection attached to the radiator. Remove the 15
cap screws which hold the cylinder head in place. Take off the cylinder
head and, with a putty knife or screw driver, scrape from the cylinder
and piston heads the carbonized matter, being careful to prevent the
specks of carbon from getting into the cylinders or bolt holes. In
replacing the cylinder head gasket turn the motor over so that No. 1
and No. 4 pistons are at top center; place the gasket in position over
the pistons and then put the cylinder head in place. Be sure and draw
the cylinder head bolts down evenly (i. e., give each bolt a few turns
at a time). Do not tighten them on one end before drawing them up at
the other.

_Q._ How are spark plugs cleaned?

_A._ After removing the plug from the engine the points may be
cleaned with an old tooth brush dipped in gasoline. However, to do
the work thoroughly, the plug should be taken apart by securing the
large hexagon steel shell in a vise and loosening the pack nut which
holds the porcelain in place. The carbon deposits can then be easily
removed from the porcelain and shell with a small knife. Care should
be exercised not to scrape off the glazed surface of the porcelain,
otherwise it will be apt to carbonize quickly. The porcelain and other
parts should be finally washed in gasoline and wiped dry with a cloth.

In assembling the plug care should be taken to see that the pack
nut is not tightened too much so as to crack the porcelain, and the
distance between the sparking points should be ¹⁄₃₂″, about the
thickness of a smooth dime. Dirty plugs usually result from an excess
of oil being carried in the crank case, or from using oil of poor
quality.

_Q._ How is the power plant removed from the car?

_A._ (1) Drain the water out of the radiator and disconnect the
radiator hose. (2) Disconnect the radiator stay rod which holds it
to the dash. (3) Take out the two bolts which fasten the radiator to
the frame and take radiator off. (4) Disconnect the dash at the two
supporting brackets which rest on the frame. (5) Loosen the steering
post bracket, fastened to the frame, when the dash and steering
gear may be removed as one assembly, the wires first having been
disconnected. (6) Take out the bolts holding the front radius rods in
the socket underneath the crank case. (7) Remove the four bolts at the
universal joint. (8) Remove pans on either side of cylinder casting and
turn off gasoline; disconnect feed pipe from carburetor. (9) Disconnect
exhaust manifold from exhaust pipe by uncovering large brass pack nut.
(10) Take out the two cap screws which hold the crank case to the front
frame. (11) Remove the bolts which hold the crank case arms to the
frame at the side. Then pass a rope through the opening between the
two middle cylinders and tie in a loose knot. Through the rope pass a
“2 by 4,” or stout iron pipe about ten feet long, and let a man hold
each end; let a third man take hold of the starting crank handle, when
the whole power plant can be lifted from the car to the work bench for
adjustment.

_Q._ How are the connecting rod bearings adjusted?

_A._ Connecting rod bearings may be adjusted, without taking out the
engine, by the following method: (1) Drain off the oil; (2) Remove
plate on bottom of crank case, exposing connecting rods; (3) Take off
the first connecting rod cap, and drawfile the ends a very little
at a time; (4) Replace cap, being careful to see that punch marks
correspond, and tighten bolts until it fits shaft snugly; (5) Test
tightness of bearing by turning engine over with the starting handle.
Experienced mechanics usually determine when the bearing is properly
fitted by lightly tapping each side of the cap with a hammer; (6) then
loosen the bearing and proceed to fit the other bearings in the same
manner; (7) after each bearing has been properly fitted and tested,
then tighten the cap bolts and the work is finished.

Remember that there is a possibility of getting the bearings too tight,
and under such conditions the babbitt is apt to cut out quickly, unless
precaution is taken to run the motor slowly at the start. It is a good
plan after adjusting the bearings to jack up the rear wheels and let
the motor run slowly for about two hours (keeping it well supplied with
water and oil) before taking it out on the road. Whenever possible
these bearings should be fitted by an expert Ford mechanic.

Worn connecting rods may be returned, prepaid, to the nearest agent
or branch house for exchange at a price of 75 cents each to cover
the cost of rebabbitting. It is not advisable for any owner or
repair shop to attempt the rebabbitting of connecting rods or main
bearings, for without a special jig in which to form the bearings,
satisfactory results will not be obtained. The constant tapping of
a loose connecting rod on the crank shaft will eventually produce
crystallization of the steel, resulting in broken crank shaft and
possibly other parts of the engine damaged.

_Q._ How are the crank shaft main bearings adjusted?

_A._ Should the stationary bearings in which the crank shaft revolves
become worn (evidenced by a pounding in the motor) and need replacing
or adjustment, proceed as follows: (1) After the engine has been taken
out of the car, remove crank case, transmission cover, cylinder head,
pistons, connecting rods, transmission and magnetic coils. Take off
the three babbitted caps and clean the bearing surfaces with gasoline.
Apply Persian blue or red lead to the crank shaft bearing surfaces,
which will enable you, in fitting the caps, to determine whether a
perfect bearing surface is obtained.

(2) Place the rear cap in position and tighten it up as much as
possible without stripping the bolt threads. When the bearing has been
properly fitted, the crank will permit moving with one hand. If the
crank shaft cannot be turned with one hand, the contact between the
bearing surface is evidently too close, and the cap requires ohming
up, one or two brass lines usually being sufficient. In case the crank
shaft moves too easily with one hand, the shims should be removed and
the steel surface of the cap filed off, permitting it to set closer.

(3) After removing the cap, observe whether the blue or red “spottings”
indicate a full bearing the length of the cap. If “spottings” do not
show a true bearing, the babbitt should be scraped and the cap refitted
until the proper results are obtained.

(4) Lay the rear cap aside and proceed to adjust the center bearing in
the same manner. Repeat the operation with the front bearing, with the
other two bearings laid aside.

(5) When the proper adjustment of each bearing has been obtained, clean
the babbitt surface carefully and place a little lubricating oil on the
bearings, also on the crank shaft; then draw the caps up as closely
as possible, the necessary shims, of course, being in place. Do not
be afraid of getting the cap bolts too tight, as the shim under the
cap and the oil between the bearing surfaces will prevent the metal
being drawn into the close contact. If oil is not put on the bearing
surfaces, the babbitt is apt to cut out when the motor is started up
before the oil in the crank case can get into the bearing. In replacing
the crank case and transmission cover on the motor, it is advisable to
use a new set of felt gaskets to prevent oil leaks.


III

THE FORD COOLING SYSTEM


_Q._ How is the engine cooled?

_A._ The heat generated by the constant explosions in the engine
would soon overheat and ruin the engine were it not cooled by some
artificial means. The Ford engine is cooled by the circulation of
water in jackets around the cylinders. The heat is extracted from the
water by its passage through the thin metal tubing of the radiator, to
which are attached scientifically worked out fins, which assist in the
rapid radiation of the heat. The fan, just back of the radiator, sucks
the air around the tubing through which the air is also driven by the
forward movement of the car. The belt should be inspected frequently
and tightened by means of the adjusting screw in the fan bracket when
necessary. It should not be too tight, however. Take up the slack till
the fan starts to bind when turned by hand.

_Q._ How does the water circulate?

_A._ The cooling apparatus of the Ford car is known as the
thermo-syphon system. It acts on the principle that hot water seeks
a higher level than cold water. Consequently when the water reaches
a certain heat, approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit, circulation
commences and the water flows from the lower radiator outlet pipe up
through the water jackets, into the upper radiator water tank, and down
through the tubes to the lower tank, to repeat the process.

_Q._ What are the causes of overheating?

_A._ (1) Carbonized cylinders; (2) too much driving on low speed; (3)
spark retarded too far; (4) poor ignition; (5) not enough or poor grade
oil; (6) racing motor; (7) clogged muffler; (8) improper carburetor
adjustment; (9) fan not working properly on account of broken or
slipping belt; (10) improper circulation of water due to clogged or
jammed radiator tubes, leaky connections or low water.

_Q._ What should be done when the radiator overheats?

_A._ Keep the radiator full. Do not get alarmed if it boils
occasionally, especially in driving through mud and deep sand or up
long hills in extremely warm weather. Remember that the engine develops
the greatest efficiency when the water is heated nearly to the boiling
point. But if there is persistent overheating when the motor is working
under ordinary conditions, find the cause of the trouble and remedy
it. The chances are that the difficulty lies in improper driving or
carbonized cylinders. Perhaps twisting the fan blades at a greater
angle to produce more suction may bring desired results. By reference
to the proper division of this book each of the causes which contribute
to an overheated radiator is treated and remedies suggested. No trouble
can result from the filling of an overheated radiator with cold water,
providing the water system is not entirely empty, in which case the
motor should be allowed to cool before the cold water is introduced.

_Q._ How about cleaning the radiator?

_A._ The entire circulation system should be flushed out occasionally.
To do this properly, the radiator inlet and outlet hose should be
disconnected, and the radiator flushed out by allowing the water to
enter the filler neck at ordinary pressure, from whence it will flow
down through the tubes and out at the drain cock and hose. The water
jackets can be flushed out in the same manner. Simply allow the water
to enter into the cylinder head connections and to flow through the
water jackets and out at the side inlet connection.

_Q._ Will the radiator freeze in winter?

_A._ Yes; unless an anti-freezing solution is used in the circulating
system you are bound to experience trouble. As the circulation does
not commence until the water becomes heated, it is apt to freeze at
low temperature before it commences to circulate. In case any of the
radiator tubes happen to be plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze
and burst open if the driver undertakes to get along without using a
non-freezing solution. Wood or denatured alcohol can be used to good
advantage. The following table gives the freezing points of solutions
containing different percentages of alcohol: 20% solution freezes at
15 degrees above zero. 30% solution freezes at 8 degrees below zero.
50% solution freezes at 34 degrees below zero. A solution composed of
60% water, 10% glycerine and 30% alcohol is commonly used, its freezing
point being about 8 degrees below zero. On account of evaporation
fresh alcohol must be added frequently in order to maintain the proper
solution.

_Q._ How are leaks and jams in the radiator repaired?

_A._ A small leak may be temporarily repaired by applying brown soap or
white lead, but the repair should be made permanent with solder as soon
as possible. A jammed radiator tube is a more serious affair. While the
stopping of one tube does not seriously interfere with the circulation,
it is bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the tube will freeze
in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above and below the jam and
insert a new piece, soldering the connections. If the entire radiator
is badly jammed or broken it would probably be advisable to install a
new one.


IV

THE GASOLINE SYSTEM


_Q._ How does the carburetor work?

_A._ The carburetor is of the automatic float feed type, having but
one adjustment, the gasoline needle valve. The cross-section diagram
of carburetor (Fig. 149) shows how the gasoline enters the carburetor,
is vaporized by a current of air and passes through the inlet pipe to
the engine in the form of an explosive mixture. The gasoline, entering
the bowl of the carburetor, gradually raises the float to a point
where the inlet needle is forced upwards into its seat, thus cutting
off the flow of gasoline. As the gasoline in the bowl recedes, the
float lowers, allowing the needle to drop from its seat and the flow
of gasoline is resumed. It is plain to see that a constant level of
gasoline is maintained in the carburetor by the automatic action of
float and needle. The quantity of gasoline entering into the mixture is
governed by the needle valve (_see_ following page). The volume of gas
mixture entering the inlet pipe is controlled by opening and closing
the throttle, according to the speed desired by the driver.

[Illustration:

  Gasoline Tank

  Inlet Pipe

  Needle Valve

  Needle Valve
  Lock Screw

  Air Gate Lever

  Throttle Lever

  Clamp Screw

  Screen
  (Gasoline Strainer)

  Air Current

  Throttle
  Stop Screw

  Air Intake Gate

  Throttle Gate

  Stop Cock

  Cork Float

  Gasoline Inlet Needle

  Sediment Bulb

  Feed Pipe

  Carburetor
  Drain Cock

  Sediment Bulb
  Drain Cock

Fig. 149. Ford Fuel System]

_Q._ Why is carburetor adjustment placed on dash?

_A._ For the convenience of the driver in adjusting the carburetor.
After the new car has become thoroughly worked in, the driver should
observe the angle of the carburetor adjustment rod at which the
engine runs most satisfactorily. In cold weather it will probably be
found necessary to turn the dash adjustment one-quarter turn to the
left, particularly in starting a cold engine. As gasoline vaporizes
readily in warm weather, the driver will find it economical to reduce
the quantity of gasoline in the mixture by turning the carburetor
adjustment to the right as far as possible without reducing the speed.
This is particularly true when taking long drives where conditions
permit a fair rate of speed to be maintained, and accounts for the
excellent gasoline mileage obtained by good drivers.

_Q._ What is meant by a “lean” and a “rich” mixture?

_A._ A lean mixture has too much air and not enough gasoline. A rich
mixture has too much gasoline and not enough air. A rich mixture will
not only quickly cover the cylinders, pistons and valves with soot,
but will tend to overheat the cylinders, and is likewise wasteful of
the fuel. It will often choke the engine and cause misfiring at slow
speeds, although at high speeds the engine will run perfectly. The
mixture should be kept as lean as possible without the sacrifice of
any of the power of the motor. A lean mixture will often result in
backfiring through the carburetor, for the reason that the gas burns
slowly in the cylinder, and is still burning when the inlet valve opens
again, which causes the gas in the intake to ignite. A rich mixture is
shown by heavy, black exhaust smoke with a disagreeable smell. Proper
mixture will cause very little smoke or odor.

_Q._ How is the carburetor adjusted?

_A._ The usual method of regulating the carburetor is to start the
motor, advancing the throttle lever to about the sixth notch, with the
spark retarded to about the fourth notch. The flow of gasoline should
now be cut off by screwing the needle valve down to the right until
the engine begins to misfire. Then gradually increase the gasoline
feed by opening the needle valve until the motor picks up and reaches
its highest speed and no trace of black smoke comes from the exhaust.
Whenever it is necessary to turn the adjusting needle down more than a
quarter turn below its normal position, the lock nut on the top of the
carburetor at the point through which the needle passes should first
be loosened, as otherwise it is impossible to tell when the needle is
turned down in its seat too far. Turning the needle down too tightly
will result in its becoming grooved and the seat enlarged. When those
parts are damaged it is difficult to maintain proper adjustment of the
carburetor. Having determined the point where the motor runs at its
maximum speed, the needle valve lock nut should be tightened to prevent
the adjustment being disturbed. For average running a lean mixture will
give better results than a rich one.

_Q._ Why does water clog the carburetor?

_A._ The presence of water in the carburetor or gasoline tank, even in
small amounts, will prevent easy starting and the motor will misfire
and stop. As water is heavier than gasoline it settles to the bottom of
the tank and into the sediment bulb along with other foreign matters.
As it is difficult nowadays to get gasoline absolutely free from
impurities, especially water, it is advisable to frequently drain the
sediment bulb under the gasoline tank. During cold weather the water
which accumulates in the sediment bulb is likely to freeze and prevent
the flow of gas through the pipe leading to the carburetor. Should
anything of this kind happen it is possible to open the gasoline line
by wrapping a cloth around the sediment bulb and keeping it saturated
with hot water for a short time. Then the water should be drained off.
In event of the water getting down into the carburetor and freezing,
the same treatment may be applied.

_Q._ What makes the carburetor leak?

_A._ The flow of gasoline entering the carburetor through the feed
pipe is automatically regulated by the float needle raising and
lowering in its seat. Should any particle of dirt become lodged in
the seat, which prevents the needle from closing, the gasoline will
overflow in the bowl of the carburetor and leak out upon the ground.

_Q._ What should be done when there is dirt in the carburetor?

_A._ The spraying nozzle of the carburetor having a very small opening,
a minute particle of dirt or other foreign matter will clog up the
orifice. The result is that the motor will begin to misfire and slow
down as soon as it has attained any considerable speed. This is
accounted for by the fact that at high speeds the increased suction
will draw the particles of dust, etc., into the nozzle. By opening the
valve needle half a turn and giving the throttle lever two or three
quick pulls the dirt or sediment will often be drawn through, when
the needle may be turned back to its original place. If this does not
accomplish the purpose, the carburetor should be drained.

_Q._ If the engine runs too fast or chokes with throttle retarded, what
is to be done?

_A._ If the engine runs too fast with throttle fully retarded, unscrew
the carburetor throttle lever adjusting screw until the engine idles
at suitable speed. If the motor chokes or stops when throttle is fully
retarded, the adjusting screw should be screwed until it strikes
the boss, preventing the throttle from closing too far. When proper
adjustment has been made, tighten lock screw so that adjustment will
not be disturbed.

_Q._ What is the purpose of the hot air pipe?

_A._ It takes the hot air from around the exhaust pipe and conducts
it to the carburetor where the heat facilitates the vaporizing of
the gasoline. It is usually advisable to remove this pipe in the hot
season, but it is an absolutely necessary feature during cold weather.

_Q._ What is the purpose of the cork float?

_A._ It automatically controls the flow of gasoline into the
carburetor. If it floats too low, starting will be difficult; if too
high, the carburetor will flood and leak. A cork float which has become
fuel soaked should be removed and replaced by a new one or thoroughly
dried and then given a couple of coats of shellac varnish to make it
waterproof.

_Q._ Should priming rod be used in cranking when motor is warm?

_A._ No. The carburetor does not ordinarily require priming when the
motor is warm, and cranking with the rod pulled out is apt to “flood”
the engine with an over rich mixture of gas, which does not readily
explode. This naturally causes difficulty in starting. If you should
accidentally flood the engine, turn the carburetor adjusting needle
down (to the right) until it seats; then turn the engine over a few
times with the starting crank in order to exhaust the rich gas. As soon
as the motor starts, turn back the needle to the left and readjust the
carburetor.


V

THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM


_Q._ What is the purpose of the ignition system?

_A._ It furnishes the electric spark which explodes the charge in the
combustion chamber, thus producing the power which runs the engine. It
is important that the charge be correctly ignited at the proper time,
in order to obtain satisfactory results in running the car. In the
Ford car the ignition system is as simple as it is possible for human
invention to make it.

_Q._ How does the magneto generate the current?

_A._ In revolving at the same rate of speed as the motor, the
magnets on the flywheel passing the stationary coil spools create an
alternating low tension electric current in coils of wire which are
wound around spools fastened to the stationary part of the magneto, and
is carried from these coils to the magneto connection (wire) leading to
the coil box on the dash.

_Q._ Should the coil vibrator adjustment be disturbed?

_A._ The present style of coil unit is properly adjusted when it leaves
the factory and this adjustment should not be disturbed unless to
install new points or to reduce the gap between the points which may
have increased from wear. When adjustments are necessary they should,
whenever possible, be made by one of the Ford service stations who
have special equipment for testing and adjusting units and will gladly
furnish expert service. If the points are pitted they should be filed
flat with a fine double-faced file and the adjusting thumb nut turned
down so that with the spring held down the gap between the points will
be a trifle less than ¹⁄₃₂ of an inch. Then set the lock nut so that
the adjustment cannot be disturbed. Do not bend or hammer on the
vibrators, as this would affect the operation of the cushion spring of
the vibrator bridge and reduce the efficiency of the unit.

_Q._ How is a weak unit detected?

_A._ With the vibrators properly adjusted, if any particular cylinder
fails or seems to develop only a weak action, change the position of
the unit to determine if the fault is actually in the unit. The first
symptom of a defective unit is the buzzing of the vibrator with no
spark at the plug. Remember that a loose wire connection, faulty spark
plug, or worn commutator may cause irregularity in the running of the
motor. These are points to be considered before laying the blame on the
coil.

_Q._ How may short circuit in commutator wiring be detected?

_A._ Should the insulation of the primary wires (running from coil
to commutator) become worn to such an extent that the copper wire is
exposed, the current will leak out (i. e., short circuit) whenever
contact with the engine pan or other metal parts is made. A steady
buzzing of one of the coil units will indicate a “short” in the wiring.
When driving the car the engine will suddenly lag and pound on account
of the premature explosion. Be careful not to crank the engine downward
against compression when the car is in this condition, as the “short”
is apt to cause a vigorous kick back.

_Q._ Does coil adjustment affect starting?

_A._ Yes. When the vibrators are not properly adjusted more current
is required to make and break the contact between the points, and, as
a result, at cranking speeds you would not get a spark between the
spark plug points. Do not allow the contact points to become “ragged,”
otherwise they are apt to stick and cause unnecessary difficulty in
starting, and when running they are apt to produce an occasional “miss”
in the engine.

_Q._ What is the purpose of the commutator?

_A._ The commutator (or timer) determines the instant at which the
spark plugs must fire. It affects the “make and break” in the primary
circuit. The grounded wire in the magneto allows the current to
flow through the metal parts to the metal roller in the commutator.
Therefore, when the commutator roller in revolving, touches the
four commutator contact points, to each of which is attached a wire
connected with the coil unit, an electrical circuit is passed through
the entire system of primary wires. This circuit is only momentary,
however, as the roller passes over the contact point very rapidly and
sets up the circuit in each unit as the roller touches the contact
point connected with that unit. The commutator should be kept clean and
well oiled at all times.

_Q._ What about the spark plug?

_A._ One is located at the top of each cylinder and can be taken out
easily with the spark plug wrench included with every car, after the
wire connection is removed. The high voltage current flows out of the
secondary coils in the coil box and on reaching the contact points on
each spark plug it is forced to jump ¹⁄₃₂″ gap, thereby forming a spark
which ignites the gasoline charge in the cylinders.

The spark plug should be kept clean (i. e., free from carbon) and
should be replaced if they persist in not working properly. There is
nothing to be gained by experimenting with different makes of plugs.
The make of plug with which Ford engines are equipped when they
leave the factory are best adapted to the requirements of our motor,
notwithstanding the opinion of various garage men to the contrary. All
wire connections to spark plugs, coil box and commutator should, of
course, at all times be kept in perfect contact.

_Q._ What are the indications of ignition trouble?

_A._ The uneven sputter and bang of the exhaust means that one or
more cylinders are exploding irregularly or not at all, and that the
trouble should be promptly located and overcome. Misfiring, if allowed
to continue, will in time injure the engine and the entire mechanism.
If you would be known as a good driver you will be satisfied only with
a soft, steady purr from the exhaust. If anything goes wrong, stop and
fix it if possible. Do not wait until you get home.

_Q._ How can one tell which cylinder is missing?

_A._ This is done by manipulating the vibrators on the spark coils.
Open the throttle until the engine is running at a good speed and
then hold down the two outside vibrators, No. 1 and No. 4, with the
fingers, so they cannot buzz. This cuts out the two corresponding
cylinders, No. 1 and No. 4, leaving only No. 2 and No. 3 running. If
they explode regularly it is obvious the trouble is in either No. 1 or
No. 4. Relieve No. 4 and hold down No. 2 and No. 3 and also No. 1; if
No. 4 cylinder explodes evenly it is evident the misfiring is in No.
1. In this manner all of the cylinders in turn can be tested until the
trouble is located. Examine both the spark plug and the vibrator of the
missing cylinder.

_Q._ If the coil and plug are right, what?

_A._ The trouble is probably due to an improperly seated valve, worn
commutator, or short circuit in the commutator wiring. Weakness in
the valves may be easily determined by lifting the starting crank
slowly the length of the stroke of each cylinder in turn, a strong or
weak compression in any particular valve being easily detected. It
sometimes happens that the cylinder head gasket (packing) becomes leaky
permitting the gas under compression to escape, a condition that can
be detected by running a little lubricating oil around the edge of the
gasket and noticing whether bubbles appear or not.

_Q._ Does a worn commutator ever cause misfiring?

_A._ Yes. If misfiring occurs when running at high speed, inspect the
commutator. The surface of the circle around which the roller travels
should be clean and smooth, so that the roller makes a perfect contact
at all points. If the roller fails to make a good contact on any of
the four points, its corresponding cylinder will not fire. Clean these
surfaces if dirty. In case the fiber, contact points, and roller of the
commutator are badly worn, the most satisfactory remedy is to replace
them with new parts. The trouble is probably caused by short circuited
commutator wires. The spring should be strong enough to make a firm
contact between the roller points if they are worn or dirty.

_Q._ How is the commutator removed?

_A._ Remove cotter pin from spark rod and detach latter from
commutator. Loosen the cap screw which goes through breather pipe on
top of time gear cover. This will release the spring which holds the
commutator case in place and this part can be readily removed. Unscrew
lock nut; withdraw steel brush cap and drive out the retaining pin. The
brush can then be removed from the cam shaft.

In replacing the brush, care must be exercised to see that it is
reinstated so that the exhaust valve on the first cylinder is closed
when the brush points upward. This may be ascertained by removing the
valve door and observing the operation of No. 1 valve.

_Q._ Does cold weather affect the commutator?

_A._ It is a well known fact that in cold weather the best grades of
lubricating oil are apt to congeal to some extent. If this occurs
in the commutator it is very apt to prevent the roller from making
perfect contact with the contact points imbedded in the fiber. This,
of course, makes difficult starting, as the roller arm spring is not
stiff enough to brush away the film of oil which naturally forms over
the contact points. To overcome this, as well as any liability to the
contact points to rust, we recommend a mixture of 25% kerosene with the
commutator lubricating oil, which will thin it sufficiently to prevent
congealing, or freezing, as it is commonly called. You have probably
noticed in starting your car in cold weather that perhaps only one or
two cylinders will fire for the first minute or so, which indicates
that the timer is in the condition described above and as a consequence
a perfect contact is not being made on each of the four terminals.

_Q._ How is the magneto removed?

_A._ It is necessary to take the power plant out of the car in order
to remove the magneto. Then remove crank case and transmission cover.
Take out the four cap screws that hold the flywheel to the crank shaft.
You will then have access to the magnets and entire magneto mechanism.
In taking out these parts, or any parts of the car, the utmost care
should be taken to make sure that the parts are marked in order that
they may be replaced properly.

_Q._ What is to be done when the magneto gets out of order?

_A._ A Ford magneto is made of permanent magnets and there is very
little likelihood of their ever losing their strength unless acted
upon by some outside force. For instance, the attachments of a storage
battery to the magneto terminal will demagnetize the magnets. If
anything like this happens, it is not advisable to try to recharge
them, but rather install a complete set of new magnets. The new magnets
will be sent from the nearest agent or branch house, and will be placed
on a board in identically the same manner as they should be when
installed on the flywheel. Great care should be taken in assembling the
magnets and lining up the magneto so that the faces of the magnets are
separated from the surface of the coil spool just ¹⁄₃₂ of an inch. To
take out the old magnets, simply remove the cap screw and bronze screw
which hold each in place. The magneto is often blamed when the trouble
is a weak current caused by waste or other foreign matter accumulating
under the contact spring cover. Remove the three screws which hold the
binding post in place; remove binding post and spring and replace after
foreign substance has been removed.


VI

THE FORD TRANSMISSION


_Q._ What is the function of the transmission?

_A._ It is that part of the mechanism of an automobile which lies
between the engine shaft and the propeller shaft and by which one is
enabled to move at different speeds from the other. It is the speed
gear of the car. It sends the car forward at low and high speeds and by
it the car is reversed.

_Q._ What is meant by the term “planetary transmission”?

_A._ One in which the groups of gears always remain in mesh and revolve
around a main axis. The different sets of gears are brought into action
by stopping the revolution of the parts which support the gears. By
means of bands (similar to brake bands) the rotation of the different
parts is stopped. The planetary transmission is the simplest and most
direct means of speed control and is a distinct advantage to the Ford
car.

_Q._ What is the purpose of the clutch?

_A._ If the crank shaft of the engine ran without break straight
through to the differential and through it applied its power direct
to the rear wheels, the car would start forward immediately upon the
starting of the engine (were it possible to get it started under such
conditions). To overcome this difficulty the shaft is divided by means
of the clutch. The part of the shaft to which the running engine is
delivering its power is enabled to take hold of the unmoving part
gradually and start the car without jolt or jar. The forward part of
the shaft is referred to as the crank shaft, the rear part as the drive
shaft.

_Q._ How is the clutch controlled?

_A._ By the left pedal at the driver’s feet. If the clutch pedal,
when pushed forward into slow speed, has a tendency to stick and not
to come back readily into high, tighten up the slow speed band. Should
the machine have an inclination to creep forward when cranking, it
indicates that the clutch lever screw which bears on the clutch lever
cam has worn, and requires an extra turn to hold the clutch in neutral
position. When the clutch is released by pulling back the hand lever
the pedal should move forward the distance of 1³⁄₄″ in passing from
high speed to neutral. See that the hub brake shoe and connections are
in proper order so that the brake will act sufficiently to prevent the
car creeping very far ahead. Also be sure that the slow speed band does
not bind on account of being adjusted too tight. Do not use too heavy
a grade of oil in cold weather, as it will have a tendency to congeal
between the clutch discs and prevent proper action of the clutch.

_Q._ How is the clutch adjusted?

_A._ Remove the plate on the transmission cover under the floor boards
at the driver’s seat. Take out the cotter key on the first clutch
finger and give the set screw one-half to one complete turn to the
right with a screw driver. Do the same to the other finger set screw.
But be sure to give each the same number of turns and do not forget to
replace the cotter key. And after a considerable period of service the
wear in the clutch may be taken up by installing another pair of clutch
discs, rather than by turning the adjusting screw in too far.

=Caution.= Let us warn you against placing any small tools or objects
over or in the transmission case without a good wire or cord attached
to them. It is almost impossible to recover them without taking off the
transmission cover.

_Q._ How are the bands adjusted?

_A._ The slow speed bands may be tightened by loosening the lock nut at
the right side of the transmission cover, and turning up the adjusting
screw to the right. To tighten the brake and reverse bands, remove
the transmission case cover door and turn the adjusting nuts on the
shaft to the right. See that the bands do not drag on the drums when
disengaged, as they exert a brake effect, and tend to overheat the
motor. However, the foot brake should be adjusted so that a sudden
pressure will stop the car immediately, or slide the rear wheels in
case of emergency. The bands, when worn to such an extent that they
will not take hold properly, should be relined, so that they will
engage smoothly without causing a jerky movement of the car. The lining
is inexpensive and may be had at any of the eight thousand Ford service
stations at small cost.

[Illustration:

  Slow Speed Drum and Gear

  Triple Gear

  Brake Drum

  Reverse Drum
  and Gear

  Clutch Disks

  Driven Gear

  Disk Drum

  Triple Gear Pin

  Clutch Push Ring

  Trans. Shaft

  Driving Plate

  Flywheel

  Group 1

  Clutch Push Ring

  Clutch Finger

  Driving Plate

  Triple Gear

  Reverse Gear

  Slow Speed Gear

  Driven Gear

  Clutch Shift

  Clutch Spring

  Clutch Spring Support

  Group 5

  Clutch Spring Support Pin

  Group 4

  Group 3

  Group 2

Fig. 150. Ford Transmission Assembly]

_Q._ How are the bands removed?

_A._ Take off the door on top of transmission cover. Turn the reverse
adjustment nut and the brake adjustment nut to the extreme ends of the
pedal shafts, then remove the slow speed adjusting screw. Remove the
bolts holding the transmission cover to the crank case and lift off
the cover assembly. Slip the band nearest the flywheel over the first
of the triple gears, then turn the band around so that the opening is
downward. The band may now be removed by lifting upward. The operation
is more easily accomplished if the three sets of triple gears are so
placed that one set is about ten degrees to the right of center at
top. Each band is removed by the same operation. It is necessary to
shove each band forward on to the triple gears as at this point only is
there sufficient clearance in the crank case to allow the ears of the
transmission bands to be turned downward. By reversing this operation
the bands may be installed. After being placed in their upright
position on the drums pass a cord around the ears of the three bands,
holding them in the center so that when putting the transmission cover
in place no trouble will be experienced in getting the pedal shafts to
rest in the notches in the band ears. The clutch release ring must be
placed in the rear groove of the clutch shaft. With the cover in place
remove the cord which held the bands in place while the cover was being
installed.

_Q._ How is transmission assembled?

_A._ Cut No. 150 shows the transmission parts in their relative
assembling positions and grouped in their different operations of
assembling.

The first operation is the assembling of group No. 2, which is as
follows: Place the brake drum on table with the hub in a vertical
position. Place the slow speed plate over the hub with the gear
uppermost. Then place reverse plate over the slow speed plate so that
the reverse gear surrounds the slow speed gear. Fit the two keys in the
hub just above the slow speed gear. Put the driven gear in position
with the teeth downward so that they will come next to the slow speed
gear. Take the three triple gears and mesh them with the driven gear
according to the punch marks on the teeth, the reverse gear or smallest
of the triple gear assembly being downward. After making sure that the
triple gears are properly meshed tie them in place by passing a cord
around the outside of the three gears. Take the flywheel and place
it on the table with the face downward and the transmission shaft in
vertical position. Then invert the group which you have assembled over
the transmission shaft, setting it in position so that the triple gear
pins on the flywheel will pass through the triple gears. This will
bring the brake drum on top in a position to hold the clutch plates,
etc. The next step is to fit the clutch drum key in the transmission
shaft. Press the clutch disc drum over the shaft and put the set screw
in place to hold the drum. Put the large disc over the clutch drum,
then the small disc, alternating with large and small discs until the
entire set of discs are in position, ending up with a large disc on
top. If a small disc is on top it is liable to fall over the clutch
in changing the speed from high to low and as a result you would be
unable to change the speed back into high. Next put the clutch push
rings over the clutch drum, and on top of the discs, with the three
pins projecting upward (_see_ group No. 4, cut No. 149). You will note
the remaining parts are placed as they will be assembled. Next bolt the
driving plate in position so that the adjusting screws of the clutch
fingers will bear against the clutch push ring pins. Before proceeding
further it would be a good plan to test the transmission by moving the
plates with the hands. If the transmission is properly assembled the
flywheel will revolve freely while holding any of the drums stationary.
The clutch parts may be assembled on the driving plate hub as follows:
Slip the clutch shift over the hub so that the small end rests on the
ends of the clutch fingers. Next put on the clutch spring, placing the
clutch supports inside so that the flange will rest on the upper coil
of the spring and press into place, inserting the pin in the driving
plate hub through the holes in the side of the spring support. Then
turn the clutch spring support until the pin fits into the lugs on the
bottom of the support. The easiest method of compressing the spring
sufficiently to insert the pin is to loosen the tension of the clutch
finger by means of the adjusting screws. When tightening up the clutch
again the spring should be compressed to within a space of two or two
and one-sixteenth inches to insure against the clutch spring slipping.
Care should be exercised to see that the screws in the fingers are
adjusted so the spring is compressed evenly all around.


VII

THE REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY


_Q._ How is the rear axle removed?

_A._ Jack up car and remove rear wheels as instructed below. Take out
the four bolts connecting the universal ball cap to the transmission
case and cover. Disconnect brake rods. Remove nuts holding spring
perches to rear axle housing flanges. Raise frame at the rear end, and
the axle can be easily withdrawn.

_Q._ How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive shaft?

_A._ Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting and turn
shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin and joint can be
pulled or forced away from the shaft and out of the housing.

_Q._ How are the rear axle and differential disassembled?

_A._ With the universal joint disconnected, remove nuts in front end
of radius rods and the nuts on studs holding drive shaft tube to rear
axle housing. Remove bolts which hold the two halves of differential
together. If necessary to disassemble differential a very slight
mechanical knowledge will permit one to immediately discern how to do
it once it is exposed to view. Care must be exercised to get every pin,
bolt and key lock back in its correct position when reassembling.

_Q._ How is the drive shaft pinion removed?

_A._ The end of the drive shaft, to which the pinion is attached, is
tapered to fit the tapered hole in the pinion, which is keyed onto the
shaft, and then secured by a cotter pinned “castle” nut. Remove the
castle nut, and drive the pinion off.

_Q._ How are the differential gears removed?

_A._ The compensating gears are attached to the inner ends of the rear
axle shaft. They work upon the spider gears when turning a corner,
so that the axle shaft revolves independently, but when the car is
moving in a straight line the spider gears and compensating gears and
axle shaft move as an integral part. If you will examine the rear
axle shafts you will notice that the gears are keyed on, and held in
position by a ring which is in two halves and fits in a groove in the
rear axle shaft. To remove the compensating gears, force them down on
the shaft, that is, away from the end to which they are secured, drive
out the two halves of ring in the grooves in shaft with screw driver or
chisel, then force the gears off the end of the shafts.

[Illustration:

  Universal Joint Knuckle (Male)
  Joint Housing
  Joint Coupling Ring
  Universal Joint Knuckle (Female)

  Radius Rod Castle Nut
  Radius Rod Lock Nut
  Drive Shaft Front Bushing
  Rear Radius Rod
  Drive Shaft Tube
  Drive Shaft

  Ball Race
  Ball Thrust Collar
  Drive Shaft Pinion
  Driving Gear
  Drive Gear Screws
  Drive Shaft
  Drive Shaft Tube
  Ball Bearing
  Ball Bearing Housing
  Roller Bearing
  Roller Bearing Sleeve
  Castle Nut
  Differential Pinion
  Differential Spider
  Differential Gear
  Rear Axle Housing (Right)
  Thrust Washers

  Rear Radius Rod
  Rear Axle Brake Drum
  Hub Brake Cam Shaft
  Hub Brake Cam Shaft Lever
  Radius Rod Bolt and Nut
  Lock Wire
  Thrust Washer (Steel)
  Thrust Washer (Babbitt)
  Thrust Washer (Steel)
  Gear Case (Left)

  Mud Cap
  Cotter Pin
  Castle Nut
  Hub Key
  Hub
  Hub Flange
  Roller Bearing Sleeve
  Roller Bearing
  Axle Housing Cap
  Axle Roller Bearing Steel Washer
  Brake Shoe Support Bolt and Nut
  Rear Axle Shaft
  Rear Axle Roller Bearing Sleeve
  Rear Axle Roller Bearing
  Rear Axle Housing (Left)

  Gear Case (Right)
  Differential Case Stud
  Grease Plug

Fig. 151. Ford Rear Axle System]

_Q._ How is the rear axle shaft removed?

_A._ Disconnect rear axle as directed above, then unbolt the
drive shaft assembly where it joins the rear axle housing at the
differential. Disconnect the two radius rods at the outer end of the
housing. Take out the bolts which hold the two halves of the rear axle
housing together at the center. Take the inner differential casing
apart and draw the axle shaft through the housing at the center. After
replacing the axle shaft be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged
on at the outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper position.
When the car has been driven thirty days or so, make it a point to
remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to overcome any play that
might have developed. It is extremely important that the rear wheels
are kept tight, otherwise the constant rocking back and forth against
the key may in time cause serious trouble. If the rear axle or wheel
is sprung by skidding against the curb, or other accident, it is false
economy to drive the car, as tires, gears and all other parts will
suffer. If the axle shaft is bent, it can, with proper facilities, be
straightened, but it is best to replace it.

[Illustration:

  Axle Housing Cap
  Hub Key
  Lock Nut
  Hub Brake Drum

  Coil Spring
  Hub Brake Cam
  Axle Shaft
  Hub Brake Shoe

Fig. 152. Ford Brake]


VIII

THE FORD MUFFLER


_Q._ Why is the muffler necessary?

_A._ The exhaust as it comes from the engine through the exhaust pipe
would create a constant and distracting noise were it not for the
muffler. From the comparatively small pipe, the exhaust is liberated
into the larger chambers of the muffler, where the force of the
exhaust is lessened by expansion and discharged out of the muffler
with practically no noise. The Ford muffler construction is such that
there is very little back pressure of the escaping gases, consequently
there is nothing to be gained by putting a cut-out on the exhaust pipe
between the engine and the muffler.

_Q._ How is the muffler kept in order?

_A._ It should be cleaned occasionally. Remove it and take off nuts on
ends of rods which hold it together, and disassemble.

In reassembling muffler, be careful not to get the holes in the inner
shells on the same side or end.

_Q._ How is the muffler disconnected?

_A._ To disconnect the muffler it is not necessary to disconnect the
exhaust pipe from the motor (although it is a good plan and a simple
matter, necessitating only unscrewing the union). To disconnect muffler
from frame, unscrew union at formed end of pipe, drop it down so it
will clear the frame and slip it back off the tube. If the muffler from
any cause becomes materially damaged it will probably be cheaper to
replace it with a new one than to attempt to repair it.


IX

THE RUNNING GEAR


_Q._ What care should the running gear have?

_A._ In the first place it at all times should have proper lubrication
(_see_ chapter on Lubrication). Once in every thirty days the front and
rear axles should be carefully gone over to see that every moving part,
such as the bushings in spring connections, spring hangers, steering
knuckles and hub bearings, are thoroughly lubricated, and that all
nuts and connections are secured with center pins in place. The spring
clips, which attach the front spring to the frame, should be inspected
frequently to see that every thing is in perfect order.

[Illustration:

  Spindle oiler

  Spindle Bolt

  Spindle Body Bushing

  Spindle Con. Rod Bolt

  Spindle Con. Rod Yoke

  Spindle Arm

  Spoke

  Felt Washer

  Hub Bolt

  Large Ball Race

  Hub Flange

  Hub

  Spindle

  Grease Chamber

  Ball Bearings

  Adjusting Cone

  Lock Nut

  Hub Cap

  Washer

  Ball Retainer

  Small Ball Race

  Clamp Bolt

  Spindle Arm Nut

  Spindle Body Bushing

  Spidle Bolt Nut

  Stationary Cone

  Ball Retainer

  Dust Ring

Fig. 153. Ford Spindle]

_Q._ How is the front axle removed?

_A._ Jack up front of car so wheels can be removed. Disconnect steering
gear arm from the spindle connecting rod, disconnect radius rod at
ball joint, and remove two cotter pin bolts from spring shackle on each
side, so detaching front spring.

To disconnect radius rod entirely, take the two bolts out of the ball
joint and remove lower half of cap.

_Q._ In case of accident, how is the front axle straightened?

_A._ Should the axle or spindle become bent, extreme care must be used
to straighten the parts accurately. Do not heat the forgings, as this
will distemper the steel, but straighten them cold. If convenient
it would be better to return such parts to the factory, where they
may be properly straightened in jigs designed for that purpose. It
is very essential that the wheels line up properly. The eye is not
sufficiently accurate to determine whether the parts have been properly
straightened, and excessive wear of the front tires will occur if
everything is not in perfect alignment.

_Q._ What about the wheels?

_A._ The wheels should be jacked up periodically and tested, not only
for smoothness of running, but for side play as well. If in spinning
a front wheel a sharp click is heard, now and then, and the wheel
is momentarily checked, it is probable that there is a chipped or
split ball in the bearing which should be removed, otherwise it may
necessitate the removal of the entire bearing. A wheel in perfect
adjustment should after spinning, come to rest with the tire valve
directly below the hub. Undue wear of the hub bearings, such as cones,
balls and races, is usually caused by lack of lubrication and excessive
friction, due to the adjusting cone being drawn up too tight. It is a
good plan to clean the bearing frequently and keep the hub well filled
with grease.

_Q._ How are the wheels removed?

_A._ _Front wheels._ Take off hub cap, remove cotter pin and unscrew
castle nut and spindle washer. The adjustable bearing cone can then be
taken out and the wheel removed. Care should be taken to see that the
cones and lock nuts are replaced on the same spindle from which they
were removed, otherwise there is a liability of stripping the threads
which are left on the left spindle and right on the opposite as you
stand facing the car. _Back wheels._ They should not be removed unless
absolutely necessary, in which case proceed as above. Then with a wheel
puller remove the wheel from the tapered shaft to which it is locked
with a key. In replacing rear wheels be sure that nut on axle shaft is
as tight as possible and cotter pin in place. The hub caps of the rear
wheels should be removed occasionally and the lock nuts which hold the
hub in place tightened. If these nuts are allowed to work loose, the
resulting play on the hub key may eventually twist off the axle shaft.

_Q._ How does the setting of the front wheels differ from that of the
rear wheels?

_A._ It will be observed that the front wheels are “dished”; that is,
the spokes are given a slight outward flare to enable them to meet
side stresses with less rigid resistance, while the spokes of the rear
wheels are straight. The front wheels are also placed at an angle, that
is to say, the distance between the tops of the front wheels is about
three inches greater than between the bottoms. This is to give perfect
steering qualities and to save wear on tires when turning corners.
The front wheels should not, however, “toe-in” at the front, at least
not more than a quarter of an inch. Lines drawn along the outside of
the wheels when the latter are straight in a forward position should
be parallel. All wheels should always be kept in proper alignment,
otherwise steering will be difficult and tire wear will be greatly
increased. Adjustment can be made by turning the yoke at the left end
of the spindle connecting rod, to draw the wheels into a parallel
position.

_Q._ What care do the springs need?

_A._ The springs should be lubricated frequently with oil or graphite.
To do this, pry the leaves apart near the ends and insert the lubricant
between them. Whenever a car is given a general overhauling, the
springs should be disassembled and the leaves polished with emery
cloth, afterwards packing them with graphite when reassembling. Rust
can be prevented from accumulating on the springs by painting them
when necessary with a quick drying black paint. You will find that
these suggestions if carried out will not only improve the riding
qualities of the car but prolong the life of the parts as well.

_Q._ Should spring clips be kept tight?

_A._ Yes. If the spring clips are allowed to work loose the entire
strain is put on the tie bolt which extends through the center of the
spring. This may cause the bolt to be sheared off and allow the frame
and body to shift to one side. It is a good plan to frequently inspect
the clips which hold the springs to the frame and see that they are
kept tight.

_Q._ What about the steering apparatus?

_A._ It is exceedingly simple and will need little care except, of
course, proper lubrication. The post gears which are arranged in the
“sun and planet” form are located at the top of the post just below the
hub of the wheel. By loosening the set screw and unscrewing the cap
after having removed the steering wheel they may readily be inspected
and replenished with grease. To remove the steering wheel unscrew the
nut on top of the post and drive the wheel off the shaft with a block
of wood and hammer.

_Q._ How is the steering gear tightened?

_A._ Should the steering gear become loose, that is, so that a slight
movement of the wheel does not produce immediate results, it may be
tightened in the following manner: Disconnect the two halves of the
ball sockets which surround the ball arm at the lower end of the
steering post and file off the surface until they fit snugly around the
ball. If the ball is badly worn it is best to replace it with a new
one. Also tighten the ball caps at the other end of the steering gear
connecting rod in the same manner. If the bolts in the steering spindle
arms appear to be loose, the brass bushings should be replaced with new
ones. Excessive play in the front axle may be detected by grasping one
of the front wheels by the spokes and jerking the front axle back and
forth. After the car has been in service two or three years excessive
play in the steering gear may make necessary the renewal of the little
pinions, as well as the brass internal gear just underneath the
steering wheel spider.

It is also advisable to inspect the front spring hangers occasionally
to determine whether or not new bushings are necessary to overcome any
excessive vibration.


X

THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM


_Q._ How does the Ford lubricating system differ from others?

_A._ It is simplified,--and there are fewer places to oil. Practically
all of the parts of the engine and transmission are oiled by the Ford
splash system, from the one big oil reservoir in the crank case. Fig.
154 shows the principal points of lubrication, and specifies when
replenishment should be made, according to mileage. This chart should
be studied carefully and often. It is a good plan to frequently supply
all oil cups with the same oil used in the engine (any good light grade
lubricating oil will answer) and the dope cups with good grease. Be
sure to see that the commutator is kept freely supplied with oil at all
times.

_Q._ Which is the best way to fill the dope cups?

_A._ When it is advisable to fill the dope cup covers screw them down,
refill with grease and repeat the operation two or three times. Always
open oil cups by turning to the right, as this keeps tightening them
rather than loosening them. Occasionally remove front wheels and supply
dope to wearing surface. A drop of oil now and then in crank handle
bearing is necessary, also on fan belt pulleys and shaft. The axles,
drive shaft, and universal joint are well supplied with lubricant when
the car leaves the factory, but it is well to examine and oil them
frequently.

[Illustration:

  A--Oil Every 200 Miles.

  C--Grease Every 200 Miles.

  B--Oil Every 500 Miles.

  D--Grease Every 500 Miles.

  E--Grease Every 1000 Miles.

  F--Oil Motor Daily. Keep oil level between
  crank case pet cocks.

  G--Grease Every 5000 Miles.

Fig. 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart]

_Q._ What kind of oil should be used?

_A._ We recommend only light high grade gas engine oil for use in
the model T motor. A light grade of oil is preferred as it will
naturally reach the bearings with greater ease and consequently less
heat will develop on account of friction. The oil should, however,
have sufficient body so that the pressure between the two bearing
surfaces will not force the oil out and allow the metal to come in
actual contact. Heavy and inferior oils have a tendency to carbonize
quickly, also “gum up” the piston rings, valve stems and bearing. In
cold weather a light grade of oil having a low cold test is absolutely
essential for the proper lubrication of the car. The nearest Ford
branch will advise you concerning the lubricating oil this company
has found best suited for its cars, both for summer and winter
weather. Graphite should not be used as a lubricant in the engine or
transmission as it will have a tendency to short circuit the magneto.

_Q._ How often should the oil be drained from crank cases?

_A._ It is advisable to clean out the crank case by draining out the
dirty oil when the new car has been driven four or five hundred miles;
thereafter it will only be necessary to repeat this operation about
every thousand miles. Remove plug underneath the flywheel casing and
drain off the oil. Replace the plug and pour in a gallon of kerosene
oil through the breather pipe. Turn the engine over by hand fifteen or
twenty times so that the splash from the kerosene oil will thoroughly
clean the engine. Remove crank case plug and drain off kerosene oil. In
order to get all of the kerosene out of the depressions in the crank
case the car should be run up a little incline, about the height of the
ordinary street curbing. Refill with fresh oil.

_Q._ How often should the commutator be oiled?

_A._ Keeping the commutator well oiled is a matter of far greater
importance than many drivers believe, and is necessary in order to
have a smooth operating engine. Do not be afraid to put a little oil
into the commutator every other day--at least every two hundred miles.
Remember that the commutator roller revolves very rapidly, and without
sufficient oil the parts soon become badly worn. When in this condition
perfect contact between the roller and the four contact points is
impossible, as a result the engine is apt to misfire when running at a
good rate of speed.

_Q._ What about lubricating the differentials?

_A._ Do not make the mistake of putting too much grease in the
differential housing. The housing should not be more than one-third
full. The differential is supplied with the required amount of
lubricant when the car leaves the factory. The oil plug should be
removed about every 1000 miles and more grease added if necessary. If a
fluid is used the level should be approximately one and one-half inches
below the oil hole.


XI

CARE OF TIRES


_Q._ How are Ford tires removed?

_A._ First, jack up the wheel clear of the road. The valve cap should
be unscrewed, the lock nut removed and the valve stem pushed into
the tire until its bead is flush with the rim. This done, loosen up
the head of the shoe in the clinch of the rim by working and pushing
with the hands, then insert one of the tire irons or levers under the
beads. The tire iron should be pushed in just enough to get a good hold
on the under side of the bead, but not so far as to pinch the inner
tube between the rim and the tool. A second iron should be inserted
in the same fashion some seven or eight inches from the first, and a
third tool the same distance from the second. As a cylinder tire must
be pried over the clinch, three or four levers will come in handy in
a case of a “one man job,” and the knee of the driver can be used to
good advantage to hold down one lever while the other two are being
manipulated in working the shoe clear of the rim. After freeing a
length of the bead from the clinch, the entire outer edge of the casing
may be readily detached with the hand, and the damaged inner tube
removed and “patched” or a spare tube inserted. Always use plenty of
soapstone in replacing an inner tube.

_Q._ How are casings repaired?

_A._ Should the casing be cut so there is danger of the inner tube
being blown through it, a temporary repair can be made by cementing a
canvas patch on the inside of the casing. Before applying the patch the
part of the casing affected should be cleaned with gasoline and when
dry, rubber cement applied to both casing and patch. This will answer
as an emergency repair, but the casing should be vulcanized at the
first opportunity.

To prolong the life of the tire casings, any small cuts in the tread
should be filled with patching cement and a specially prepared
“plastic” sold by tire companies.

_Q._ How may tire expense be reduced?

_A._ Tire cost constitutes one of the most important items in the
running expenses of an automobile. To get the most service at the least
expense, the tire should be inspected frequently and all small cuts
or holes properly sealed or repaired,--thus preventing dirt and water
working in between the rubber tread and the fabric, causing blisters or
sand boils.

Tires should never be run partially deflated, as the side walls are
unduly bent and the fabric is subject to stress, which is known as rim
cutting. The chances of getting a puncture will be greatly reduced by
keeping your tires properly inflated, as a hard tire exposes much less
surface to the road than a soft tire, and also deflects sharp objects
that would penetrate a soft tire.

Running a flat tire, even for a short distance, is sure to be costly.
Better run on the rim, very slowly and carefully, rather than on a flat
tire.

Remember that fast driving and skidding shorten the life of the tires.
Avoid locking the wheels with the brakes,--no tire will stand the
strain of being dragged over the pavement in this fashion.

Avoid running in street car tracks, in ruts, or bumping the side of the
tire against the curbing.

The wheel rims should be painted each season and kept free from rust.

When a car is idle for any appreciable length of time, it should be
jacked up to take the load off the tires. If the car is laid up for
many months, it is best to remove the tires, and wrap up the outer
casings and inner tubes separately, and store them in a dark room not
exposed to extreme temperature. Remove oil or grease from the tires
with gasoline. Remember that heat, light and oil are three natural
enemies to rubber.

_Q._ How is a puncture in the inner tube repaired?

_A._ After locating the puncture, carefully clean the rubber around
the leak with benzine or gasoline. Then rough the surface with sand
paper from your tire repair kit to give a hold for the cement. Apply
the cement to both patch and tube, allowing it to dry for about five
minutes, repeating the application twice with like intervals between
for drying. When the cement is dry and sticky press the patch against
the tube firmly and thoroughly to remove all air bubbles beneath it
and insure proper adherence to the surface. Then spread some soapstone
or talc powder over the repair so as to prevent the tube sticking to
the casing. Before the tube is put back into the casing plenty of
talc powder should be sprinkled into the latter. A cement patch is
not usually permanent and the tube should be vulcanized as soon as
possible. In replacing the tire on the rim be very careful not to pinch
the tube.


XII

POINTS ON MAINTENANCE


_Q._ What is the proper way to wash the car?

_A._ Always use cold or lukewarm water,--never hot water. If a hose
is used, do not turn on the water at full force, as this drives the
dirt into the varnish and injures the finish. After the surplus mud
and grime have been washed off, take a sponge and clean the body and
running gear with a tepid solution of water and ivory or linseed oil
soap. Then rinse off with cold water; then rub dry and polish the body
with a chamois skin. A body or furniture polish of good quality may
be used to add luster to the car. Grease on the running gear may be
removed with a gasoline soaked sponge or rag. The nickeled parts may be
polished with any good metal polish.

_Q._ What care does the top need?

_A._ When putting the top down be careful in folding to see that the
fabric is not pinched between the bow spacers, as they will chafe a
hole through the top very quickly. Always slip the hood over the top
when folded to keep out dust and dirt. Applying a good top dressing
will greatly improve the appearance of an old top.

_Q._ What should be done when the car is stored?

_A._ Drain the water from the radiator, and then put in about a quart
of denatured alcohol to prevent freezing of any water that may possibly
remain. Remove cylinder head and clean out any carbon deposits in
combustion chamber. Draw off all the gasoline. Drain the dirty oil from
the crank case and cleanse the engine with kerosene as directed above.
Refill the crank case with fresh oil and revolve the engine enough to
cover the different parts with oil. Remove the tires and store them
away. Wash up the car, and if possible cover the body with a sheet of
muslin to protect the finish.

_Q._ What attention do the electric headlights require?

_A._ Very little. When the cars leave our factory the lamps are
properly focussed and unless the bulb burns out there should be no
occasion for removing the door, as there is nothing to get out of
order. Should the door be removed for any reason care should be
exercised not to touch the silver-plated reflector or the bulb with
anything but a soft, clean rag, preferably flannel. To focus the lamps
turn the adjusting screw in the back of the lamp in either direction
until the desired focus is attained. The bulbs we are furnishing in
electric head lamps are 8 volts, 2 amperes, and best results will
be obtained by securing lamps of this voltage and amperage when
replacement is necessary.


XIII

THE FORD MODEL T ONE TON TRUCK


_Q._ Do the instructions relative to the car apply to the truck?

_A._ The answers pertaining to the car are applicable to the truck.

_Q._ How is the rear axle removed?

_A._ Jack up the truck, place supports under rear axle housings,
and remove the rear wheels. Take out the four bolts connecting the
universal ball cap to the transmission case and cover. Disconnect brake
rods. Remove nuts holding spring perches to rear axle housing flanges.
Raise frame by placing a long iron bar or gas pipe under the frame just
in front of rear spring, one end resting on a substantial support of
the proper height. Two workmen at the other end of the bar can raise
the frame and place the end of the bar on another support. The rear
axle assembly can then be easily removed.

_Q._ How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive shaft?

_A._ Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting and turn
shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin and the joint can be
pulled or forced away from the shaft and out of the housing.

_Q._ How are the rear axle and differential disassembled?

_A._ With the universal joint disconnected, remove the bolt in front
end of radius rods and the cap screws which hold the drive shaft
tube to the rear axle housing. Then remove the rear axle housing
cap; also the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential
housing together. With the differential exposed to view, the manner of
disassembling it will be apparent. Care must be exercised to get every
part back in its correct position when reassembling, being sure to use
new paper liners.

_Q._ How is the worm removed?

_A._ To remove the worm, drive out the pins which hold the coupling to
the worm and drive shaft. Then remove the felt washer, roller bearing
sleeve, and roller bearing by slipping them over the coupling. Drive
the coupling off from the drive shaft and then force the worm from
the coupling. Removing the worm nut will permit the removal of the
retaining washer, thrust bearing and rear worm roller bearing. In
reassembling be sure that the pin which holds the retaining washer
stationary is in place.

_Q._ How is the rear axle shaft removed?

_A._ Remove the rear axle assembly as directed above. Disconnect brake
rods and radius rods at rear axle housing flange; also remove nuts
holding spring perches to flanges. Take out the cap screws holding the
drive shaft tube to the rear axle housing and remove the rear axle
housing cap and the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential
housing together, then pull or force the housing from the shafts and
disassemble differential. After replacing the axle shaft be sure that
the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at the outer end of the axle shaft
and the key in proper position. When the truck has been driven thirty
days or so make it a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock
nut to overcome any play that might have developed. It is extremely
important that the rear wheels are kept tight, otherwise the constant
rocking back and forth against the keyway may in time cause serious
trouble.

_Q._ How is the differential gear removed from the shaft?

_A._ The differential gear is fastened to the inner end of the rear
axle shaft by means of splines, and is held in position by a ring which
is in two halves and fits in a groove in the rear axle shaft. To remove
the gear, force it down on the shaft, that is, away from the end to
which it is fastened, drive out the two halves of the ring in groove in
shaft with screw driver or chisel, and force the gear off the end of
the shaft.

_Q._ What about lubricating the rear axle?

_A._ Extreme care must be used in lubricating the differential. An
A-1 heavy fluid or semi-fluid oil, such as Mobiloil C or Whittemore’s
Worm Gear Protective, should be used and cared at a level with the
upper oil plug. The differential is supplied with the required amount
of lubricant when the car leaves the factory and the supply should be
maintained by replenishments as required. After running the truck about
500 miles, the oil should be drained off by removing the lower oil
plug, and the differential filled with fresh lubricant. This operation
should be repeated at approximately 1000 miles, and after that whenever
necessary. The rear axle outer roller bearings are lubricated by means
of dope cups. These cups should be kept filled with a good grade of
grease and given a full turn every 100 miles. Before putting the truck
back into service after the rear axle has been taken out fill the
differential with oil, jack up the axle and run it for five or ten
minutes to insure proper lubricant of all bearings.


XIV

THE F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM INSTALLED ON SEDANS AND COUPÉS


_Q._ Of what does the starting and lighting system consist?

_A._ The starting and lighting system is of the two unit type and
consists of the starting motor, generator, storage battery, charging
indicator, and lights, together with the necessary wiring and
connections.

_Q._ Where is the starter located?

_A._ The starting motor is mounted on the left hand side of the engine
and bolted to the transmission cover. When in operation the pinion on
the Bendix drive shaft engages with the teeth on the flywheel.

_Q._ What must be done before starting the engine?

_A._ The spark and the throttle levers should be placed in the same
position on the quadrant as when cranking by hand, and the ignition
switch turned on. Current from either battery or magneto may be used
for ignition. When starting, especially when the engine is cold the
ignition switch should be turned to battery. As soon as the engine is
warmed up, turn switch back to magneto. The magneto was designed to
furnish ignition for the Model T engine and better results will be
obtained by operating in this way. Special attention must be paid to
the position of the spark lever as a too advanced spark will cause
serious backfiring which in turn will bend or break the shaft in the
starter. The starting motor is operated by a push button, conveniently
located in the floor of the car at the driver’s feet. With the spark
and throttle levers in the proper position, and the ignition switch
turned on, press on the push button with the foot. This closes the
circuit between the battery and the starting motor, causing the pinion
of the Bendix drive shaft to engage with the teeth on the flywheel,
thus turning over the crank shaft. When the engine is cold it may be
necessary to prime it by pulling out the carburetor priming rod, which
is located on the instrument board. In order to avoid flooding the
engine with an over rich mixture of gas, the priming rod should only be
held out for a few seconds at a time.

_Q._ What if the engine fails to start?

_A._ If the starting motor is turning the crank shaft over and the
engine fails to start, the trouble is not in the starting system. In
this event, release the button at once so as not to unnecessarily
discharge the battery and inspect the carburetor and ignition system to
determine the trouble.

_Q._ What if the starting motor fails to act?

_A._ If the starting motor fails to act, after pushing the button,
first inspect the terminal on the starting motor, the two terminals
on the battery and the two terminals on starting switch, making sure
all the connections are tight; then examine the wiring for a break in
the insulation that would cause a short circuit. If the wiring and
connections are O. K. and the starting motor fails to act, test the
battery with the hydrometer. If the hydrometer reading is less than
1.225 the trouble is no doubt due to a weak or discharged battery.

_Q._ How is the generator operated?

_A._ The generator is mounted on the right hand side of the engine and
bolted to the cylinder front end cover. It is operated by the pinion on
the armature shaft engaging with the large time gear. The charging rate
of the generator is set so as to cut in at engine speeds corresponding
to ten miles per hour in high speed and reaches a maximum charging rate
at twenty miles per hour. At higher speeds the charge will taper off,
which is a settled characteristic of battery charging. This operation
of cutting in and cutting out at suitable speeds is accomplished by the
cut-out, which is mounted on the dash. This cut-out is set properly at
the factory and should not under any circumstances be tampered with.

_Q._ What about oiling?

_A._ The starting motor is lubricated by the Ford splash system, the
same as the engine and the transmission. The generator is lubricated by
a splash of oil from the time gears. In addition an oil cup is located
at the end of the generator housing and a few drops of oil should be
applied occasionally.

_Q._ What should be done when repairing the ignition?

_A._ The introduction of a battery current into the magneto will
discharge the magnets and whenever repairing the ignition system or
tampering with the wiring in any way, do not fail to disconnect the
positive wire from the battery. The end of this wire should be wound
with tape to prevent its coming in contact with the ignition system or
metal parts of the car.

_Q._ How does the charging indicator work?

_A._ The charging indicator is located on the instrument board. This
indicator registers “charge” when the generator is charging the battery
and “discharge” when the lights are burning and the engine not running
above ten miles per hour. At an engine speed of 15 miles per hour or
more the indicator should show a reading of from 10 to 12 even with the
lights burning. If the engine is running above 15 miles per hour and
the indicator does not show “charge,” first inspect the terminal posts
on the indicator, making sure that the connections are tight, then
disconnect the wire from the terminal on generator, and with the engine
running at a moderate speed, take a pair of pliers or a screw driver
and short circuit the terminal stud on the generator to the generator
housing. If the generator is O.K., a good live spark will be noted. (Do
not run the engine any longer than is necessary with the terminal wire
disconnected.) Next inspect the wiring from the generator through the
charging indicator to the battery for a break in the insulation that
would result in a short circuit.

_Q._ How are the lights operated?

_A._ The lighting system consists of two 2-bulb headlights and a tail
light operated by a combination lighting and ignition switch located on
the instrument board. The large bulbs are of 6-8 candle-power type. The
small bulbs of 6-8 volt two candle-power type. The small bulb is also
used in the tail light. All of the lamps are connected in parallel so
that the burning out or removal of any one of them will not effect the
other. Current for the lamps is supplied by the battery. Do not connect
the lights with the magneto as it will result in burning out the bulbs
and might discharge the magnets.

_Q._ What about repairing starter and generator?

_A._ If either the starter or generator fails to give proper service,
the owner should at once consult an authorized Ford dealer. If the
trouble is not found in the wiring, connections, etc., as outlined, the
dealer will remove the starter or generator, or both if necessary, and
return them intact to the nearest branch for repair or replacement.
Dealers or owners should not attempt to repair or tamper in any way
with the mechanism of the starter and generator.

_Q._ How is the starter removed?

_A._ When removing the starter to replace transmission bands, or for
any other reason, first remove the engine pan and the left hand side
of the engine and with a screw driver remove the four small screws
holding the shaft cover to the transmission cover. Upon removing cover
and gasket, turn the Bendix drive shaft around so that the set screw
on the end of the shaft is in the upward position. Immediately under
the set screw is placed a lock washer, designed with lips or extensions
opposite each other on the outside diameter. One of these is turned
against the collar and the other is turned up against the side of the
screw head. Bend back the lip which has been forced against the screw
and remove the set screw. As the lock washer will no doubt be broken or
weakened in removing the starter, a new one must be used in replacing
it. These washers may be obtained from the nearest branch. Next, pull
the Bendix assembly out of the housing, being careful that the small
key is not misplaced or lost. Remove the four screws which hold the
starter housing to the transmission cover and pull out the starter,
taking same down through the chassis,--this is why it was necessary
to remove the engine pan. Extreme care should be used in removing the
Bendix drive and other parts that none are misplaced nor lost and
that they are replaced in their former positions. In replacing the
starter, be sure that the terminal connection is placed at the top.
If the car is to be operated with the starter removed, be sure to put
the transmission cover plates in position. These plates may also be
obtained from the nearest branch.

_Q._ How is the generator removed?

_A._ If it is found necessary to remove the generator, first take out
the three cap screws holding it to the front end cover and by placing
the point of a screw driver between the generator and front end cover;
the generator may be forced off the engine assembly. Always start at
the top of the generator and force it backward and downward at the same
time. Plates may be obtained from the nearest branch to place over the
time gear if the car is to be operated with the generator removed.

_Q._ Can the engine be run with the generator disconnected from the
battery?

_A._ If for any reason it is run with the generator disconnected from
the battery, as on a block test, or when battery has been removed for
repair or recharging, be sure that the generator is grounded to the
engine by running a wire from the terminal on generator to one of the
valve cover stud nuts. A piece of wire ¹⁄₁₆″ or more in diameter may
be used for this purpose. Be sure that the connections at both ends of
the wire are tight. Failure to do this when running the engine with the
generator disconnected from the battery will result in serious injury
to the generator.

_Q._ What about the care of the battery, repairing of recharging?

_A._ The Ford Starting System uses a 6-volt 13-plate “Exide” battery,
type 3-XC-13-1. The care of the battery in service is summed up in the
following rules:

1. Add nothing but pure water to the cells and do it often enough
to keep the plates covered at all times. Distilled water, melted
artificial ice or rain water collected in clean receptacles is
recommended. In cold weather add water only just before running the
engine so that the charging may mix the water and the electrolyte and
freezing of the water be avoided.

2. Take frequent hydrometer readings to make sure that the generator
is keeping the battery charged. To take reading remove filler cap of
cell, insert end of hydrometer syringe in filler opening, squeeze bulb,
and release, drawing up enough liquid to float hydrometer bulb free
in the liquid. The reading of the scale at the surface of the liquid
when hydrometer is floating in the specific gravity (density) of the
electrolyte. A fully charged battery will show a reading of 1.275 to
1.300. A battery half charged will show a reading of 1.225 to 1.250.
A completely discharged battery will show a reading of 1.200 or less.
When taking hydrometer readings remove the filler cap from only one
cell at a time and be sure to return electrolyte to the cell from which
it was taken. Then replace and tighten the filler cap. Hydrometer tests
taken immediately after filling with water and before water has become
thoroughly mixed with the electrolyte will not show the true condition
of the battery.

3. If hydrometer reading shows battery less than half charged it should
be taken to the nearest Exide Battery Service Station for recharging.
Continued operation in a less than half charged condition is injurious
to the battery, just as running in a soft or deflated condition is
injurious to the tires.

4. Keep the filler caps in place and screwed tight,--a half turn
tightens them. Keep battery connections tight and clean. A coating of
heavy oil or vaseline will protect the connectors from corrosion. Keep
battery firmly secured in place. If hold-downs are loose battery will
shift about in compartment and result in loose connections, broken
cells or other trouble.

5. Exide Battery Stations are maintained in principal cities and towns
throughout the country to assist you to obtain good service from your
battery. Do not entrust your battery to the care of a novice.

_Q._ What about battery guarantee?

_A._ The Exide batteries are guaranteed by the manufacturers (The
Electric Storage Battery Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) to be free from
defects in material and workmanship.

At any time within three months from date of delivery to the purchaser
any battery which may prove to be defective or incapable, when fully
charged, of giving its rated capacity, will be repaired or replaced
free of expense upon receipt, transportation charges prepaid, at any
Exide Battery Depot or authorized Exide Battery Service Station. This
guarantee does not cover the free charging of batteries nor the making
good of damage resulting from continued lack of filling the cells from
time to time with pure water. No claims on account of alleged defects
can be allowed unless made within three months of date of delivery of
battery to purchaser, and the right is reserved to refuse to consider
claims in the case of batteries opened by other than authorized Exide
Battery Service Stations.

Purchasers of cars equipped with the “Exide” batteries are earnestly
urged to coöperate with the battery manufacturers to taking their
cars, as promptly as possible after receipt, by the nearest Exide
Battery Service Station in order that the battery may be tested and
its condition and installation checked. No charge is made for this
inspection.




INDEX


                                                                    PAGE

  Accumulator                                                         99

  Alignment                                                          229

  Alternating current                                                 96

  Ammeter                                                             99

  Ampere                                                              95

  Atwater Kent ignition systems                                      126

  Automobile arrangement of parts                                    245
    painting                                                         262
    troubles                                                         264

  Axles                                                              212
    dead, type                                                       212
    front                                                            214
    full-floating                                                    213
    live, type                                                       212
    semi-floating                                                    212


  Battery, storage                                                    99

  Bearings, types of                                                 236

  Bijur starter mechanism                                            151

  Body, care and washing                                             253

  Borg and Beck clutch                                               192

  Bosch Magneto, operation of                                        105
    cutting out ignition                                             110
    safety spark gap                                                 109
    timing of                                                        106

  Brakes, operation of                                               218
    care of                                                          221
    equalizer                                                        220

  Breaker box and distributor head assembly, N.E.                    117


  Cam shaft                                                           18

  Cam shaft drive                                                     19

  Car, arrangement and parts, cleaning                               243
    care, cleaning and washing                                       253

  Carburetion                                                         46

  Carburetor, types, operation 46
    adjustments of                                                    56
    kerosene, principle of operation                                  76
    adjustment                                                        78

  Charging rate, adjustment 165

  Choking coil                                                        97

  Circuit breaker                                                    100

  Clutch, construction of                                            189
    cone type                                                        191
    multiple disc type                                               192
    leathers and patterns                                            196

  Coil, non-vibrating                                                100

  Commutator                                                          97

  Condenser                                                           97

  Contact breaker                                                    100

  Cooling system, necessity, types and care                           82

  Crank shaft, counterbalanced                                        17
    four-throw plain                                                  17

  Current, high tension, low tension                                  95

  Cylinder head                                                       14


  Delco, electrical system                                            96

  Differential gears                                                 207

  Direct current                                                      96

  Disc clutch, cleaning                                              195

  Distributor                                                        100


  Electric starter and light equipment                               147

  Electrical, equipment                                              154
    systems                                                          153
    tuning hints                                                     259

  Electrolyte                                                         99

  Engine, 4-cycle type, operation of                                  29
    assembly of                                                       36
    care and cleaning of                                             253
    construction and parts                                            12

  Evaporation                                                         84

  Exact magneto timing                                               108


  Filling vacuum tank                                                 94

  Flywheel, types, care of                                            20

  Ford car, operation and care of                                    269
    cooling system                                                   287
    engine, operation and care of                                    277
      maintenance                                                    280
      valve arrangement                                              279
      valve grinding                                                 280
      valve timing                                                   279
    gasoline system                                                  290
    ignition system                                                  295
    lubrication system                                               316
    maintenance points                                               323
    muffler                                                          310
    one-ton truck                                                    325
    rear axle assembly                                               307
    running gear                                                     311
    starting and lighting system                                     328

  Ford car, tire care                                                320
    transmission system                                              301

  Fuse, construction, use of                                          97


  Gasoline engine construction                                        12
    parts assembly                                                    36

  Gear, shifts                                                       200
    box arrangement                                                  201

  Generator                                                          147

  Greases                                                             40


  Heated manifolds                                                    79

  High speed                                                         189

  High tension current                                                95

  Hydrometer syringe                                                  99


  Induction coil                                                      96

  Ignition coil, N.E. type                                           117

  Ignition distributor, N.E. type                                    116


  Kick switch arrangement                                            137
    coil                                                             137


  Lamp controllers                                                   159

  Lens, cleaning of                                                  254

  Lubrication, of spring leaves                                      224
    systems                                                           39


  Magneto, parts, operation of                                       101
    timing of                                                        113
    washing, repair                                                  111

  Main bearings                                                       17

  Manifold, action of                                                 80

  Mechanical alignment                                               230

  Mufflers, design, care of                                           86
    cleaning                                                          87

  Multiple cylinders                                                  12


  North East Automatic spark advance                                 121
    breaker cam                                                      120
    breaker contacts                                                 119
    ignition system                                                  114
    starter system                                                   161


  Ohm                                                                 95

  Oils, quality, grade of                                             40

  Oil reservoir                                                       19

  One unit, electrical system                                        148

  Overhauling car                                                    247

  Overheating                                                         83

  Operation of starter                                               156


  Philbrin ignition system                                           141

  Pistons                                                             15

  Piston rings                                                        15
    rod bearings                                                      16
    rods                                                              16
    wrist pins                                                        15

  Plunger pump oiling system, operation of                            42

  Power stroke                                                        31
    lapping                                                           32

  Poppet valve, construction                                          23
    adjustment                                                        23
    operation                                                         23


  Radiator, cleaning                                                  83
    freezing                                                          84
    solutions                                                         84
    repairs                                                           84

  Regulation of generator                                            100

  Repair equipment                                                    25

  Rug cleaning                                                       254

  Running gear, washing of                                           253


  Schebler-carburetor, model R, adjustment of                         63
    Ford “A,” adjustment of                                           74
    Ford “A,” operation of                                            73

  Semi-floating axle, operation of                                   212

  Spark plugs, construction of                                       186
    care of                                                          186

  Splash oiling system                                                40
    care of                                                           41
    cleaning of                                                       41

  Spring, care, tests                                                225
    types, care of                                                   226

  Starter-Generator, operation of                                    163

  Starting motor, operation of                                       149

  Steering gear, types                                               232
    adjustment of                                                    233
    care of                                                          235

  Stewart carburetor, operation, care of and maintenance              65

  Storage battery, operation of                                      180
    charging                                                         182
    freezing                                                         185
    maintenance                                                      182

  Strainer for gasoline                                               93

  Stroke                                                              31

  Stromberg carburetor, model M                                       47
    model L                                                           58

  Sunderman carburetor, action of                                     60

  Switches                                                           100


  Three unit, electrical system                                      148

  Tire, build, quality                                               256
    chains                                                           257
    rim care                                                         254

  Top, care of                                                       254

  Transmissions                                                      198
    gear shifts                                                      200
      box arrangement                                                201
    care of                                                          202

  Tube, care                                                         258
    repairing                                                        258

  Two unit, electrical system                                        148


  Universal joints                                                   204

  Upholstering                                                       254


  Vacuum systems                                                      89
    cleaning strainer                                                 93

  Vacuum systems, operation of                                        90
    troubles                                                          93

  Valve, types, arrangement of                                        21
    grinding                                                          25
    setting                                                           24
    sleeve type                                                       26
      setting of                                                      27
    timing marks                                                      25

  Voltage                                                             95

  Voltaic cells                                                       99


  Water cooling                                                       82

  Water vents                                                         16

  Wheels, lining up                                                  229

  Windshield, cleaning and care                                       99

  Wiring                                                             114

  Wrapping springs                                                   224

  Wrist pins                                                          15
    bushings                                                          15




  Transcriber’s Notes


  The text used for this e-text is that as printed in the source
  document. Unless listed under Changes below, inconsistent spelling
  and hyphenation, the inconsistent use of quote marks surrounding
  reference letters or model and type letters, the inconsistent use of
  per cent with and without full stop, etc. have not been standardised.
  The automobile brand consistently called Jeffrey in the text was
  actually called Jeffery. The (minor) differences in wording and
  structure between the table of contents and the text have not been
  standardised.

  Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their
  settings, not all elements may display as intended.

  Page 8: there are no seventeenth and eighteenth items listed; items
  nineteen and twenty are cardinal rather than ordinal numbers in the
  source document.

  Page 14, Fig. 3: the oddly shaped cylinder head is as printed in the
  source document.

  Page 33, ... Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors ... and ... a case
  where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are set ...: as printed
  in the source document; the commas between Twin and Four and between
  two and four are possibly erroneous.

  Page 35, calculation of piston displacement: the calculation results
  in 192.42 cubic inches.

  Page 54: Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph ...: as printed in the
  source document; Fig. 32 is obviously a drawing.

  Page 128 and 135: Fig. 68 and Fig. 75 and their captions are
  identical in the source document.

  Page 159 and 183: Fig. 91 and Fig. 103 and their captions are
  identical in the source document.

  Page 205 Whitemore and page 327 Whittemore: possibly misspellings of
  Whitmore.


  Changes

  Most tables and illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs.
  In some tables and lists the ditto character has been replaced with
  the dittoed text.

  Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been
  corrected silently.

  Above or underneath some illustrations indented texts provide
  transcriptions of the explanatory and descriptive texts inside the
  accompanying illustration. These transcriptions do not occur as
  such in the source document but have been provided for the sake of
  legibility and searchability.

  Page xii: page number 126 inserted.

  Page 1-2: Daimler was consistently spelled Diamler; this has been
  corrected.

  Page 3: Marquis de Doin changed to Marquis de Dion.

  Page 33: ... a staggard position ... changed to ... a staggered
  position ....

  Page 47: ... through a verticle channel ... changed to ... through a
  vertical channel ....

  Page 47, 48: ... air bled jet ... changed to ... air bleed jet ... (2
  &times;).

  Page 70: ... which embodies a radically new principal ... changed to
  ... which embodies a radically new principle ....

  Page 82: It acts on the principal that ... changed to It acts on the
  principle that ....

  Page 84: ... its freezing point being 8% below zero ... changed to
  ... its freezing point being 8° below zero ....

  Page 87: ... are scrapped and rubbed ... changed to ... are scraped
  and rubbed ....

  Page 98: reference letters A-F in paragraph Dynamo changed to lower
  case as in illustration.

  Page 117: ... the verticle shaft bearing sleeve ... changed to ...
  the vertical shaft bearing sleeve ....

  Page 126: ... which eliminate troubles ... changed to ... which
  eliminates troubles ....

  Page 152: Figs. 87 (Position 2A) and 87A (Position 3) have been
  placed in the right order.

  Page 169: ... in contact with the ear ... changed to ... in contact
  with the gear ....

  Page 178: ... shown at D and C (Fig. 99) ... changed to ... shown at
  D and C (Fig. 100) ....

  Page 231: ... E-EL lines drawn through the spindles will meet at F
  ... changed to ... e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at
  E ...; ... the lines E and E1 meet at different angles ... changed to
  ... the lines e and e1 meet at different angles ....

  Page 260: ... the nearest mettle part. changed to ... the nearest
  metal part.

  Page 333: ... show a reading of 1,200 or less. changed to ... show a
  reading of 1.200 or less.