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[Illustration: _Plate 31. Cassell's Book of Birds_

PAINTED SPUR-FOWL____GALLOPERDIX LUNULOSA

(_one half Nat. size_)]





    CASSELL'S

    BOOK OF BIRDS.

    _FROM THE TEXT OF DR. BREHM._

    BY

    THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.R.S.,

    PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
                  IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.

    WITH UPWARDS OF

    Four Hundred Engravings, and a Series of Coloured Plates.


    _IN FOUR VOLUMES._

    VOL. IV.


    CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN,

    LONDON, PARIS, AND NEW YORK.




CONTENTS.


                                                                    PAGE

    THE STILT-WALKERS (_Grallatores_).

    THE BUSTARDS (_Otides_):--The Great Bustard--The Little
      Bustard--The Houbaras--The Indian Houbara--The African
      Ruffled Bustard--The Florikin                                  1-9

    THE COURSERS (_Tachydromi_):--The Cream-coloured Courser--The
      Trochilus, or Crocodile Watcher--The Pratincoles, or
      Swallow-winged Waders--The Collared Pratincole                9-14

    THE THICK-KNEES (_Œdicnemi_):--The Common Thick-knee,
      or Stone Curlew                                             14, 15

    THE PLOVERS (_Charadrii_):--The Golden Plover--The Ringed
      Plover--The Dotted Plovers--The Dotted Plover, or Dotterel--The
      Shore Plovers--The Little Shore Plover, or Little Ringed
      Plover--The Lapwings, or Peewits--The Peewit, or Lapwing--The
      Spur-winged Lapwing--The Lappeted Peewit--The Turnstone--The
      Pied Oyster-catcher, or Sea Pie                              15-29

    THE SNIPES (_Limicolæ_):--The True Snipes--The Woodcock--The
      Marsh Snipes--The Common Snipe--The Moor Snipes--The Jack
      Snipe                                                        29-35

    THE SANDPIPERS (_Tringæ_):--The Curlew Sandpipers--The Pigmy
      Curlew Sandpiper--The Sanderling--The Mud Sandpiper--The
      Dwarf Sandpiper--The Ruff                                    35-42

    THE PHALAROPES (_Phalaropi_):--The Hyperborean Phalarope--The
      Red Phalarope                                                42-44

    THE LONGSHANKS (_Totani_)                                     44, 45

    THE TRUE SANDPIPERS (_Actitis_):--The Common Sandpiper--The
      Greenshank                                                   45-47

    THE GODWITS (_Limosa_):--The Red or Bar-tailed Godwit--The
      Black-winged Stilt                                           47-50

    THE SCOOPING AVOCETS (_Recurvirostræ_):--The Scooping Avocet  50, 51

    THE CURLEWS (_Numenii_):--The Great Curlew, or Whaap--The
      Hard-billed Waders--The Ibises--The Falcinels--The Glossy
      Ibis--The Scarlet Ibis--The White, Egyptian, or
      Sacred Ibis                                                  51-58

    THE SPOONBILLS (_Plataleæ_):--The Common Spoonbill. The
      BOAT-BILLS (_Cancromata_):--The Whale-headed Stork, or
      Shoe-beak--The Savaku, or Boat-bill--The Hammer-head, or
      Shadow Bird                                                  58-63

    THE STORKS (_Ciconiæ_):--The Tantali--The Ibis-like Tantalus--The
      True Storks--The White or House Stork--The Simbil--The Senegal
      Jabiru--The Jabiru                                           63-74

    THE ADJUTANTS, ARGALAS, OR MARABOUS (_Leptoptilos_) The African
      Marabou--The Indian Adjutant, or Argala                     74, 75

    THE CLAPPER-BILLED STORKS, OR SHELL-EATERS (_Anastomus_):--The
      African Clapper-bill, or Shell-eater                         75,76

    THE HERONS (_Ardeæ_):--The Common Heron--The Giant Heron. The
      WHITE HERONS (_Herodias_):--The Great White Heron--The Lesser
      Egret--The Cattle Heron--The Night Heron                     76-83

    THE BITTERNS (_Ardetta_):--The Little Bittern--The Common
      Bittern--The Sun Bittern, or Peacock Heron                   83-87

    THE MARSH-WADERS (_Paludicolæ_). The CRANES (_Grues_):--The
      Common Crane--The Demoiselle, or Numidian Crane. The AFRICAN
      CROWNED CRANES (_Balearica_):--The Crowned African or Peacock
      Crane. The FIELD STORKS (_Arvicolæ_). The SNAKE CRANES
     (_Dicholophus_):--The Brazilian Cariama, or Crested Screamer  87-94

    THE TRUMPETERS (_Psophia_):--The Agami, or Gold-breasted
      Trumpeter. The SCREAMERS (_Palamedeæ_):--The Aniuma, or
      Horned Screamer--The Chauna, or Tschaja                      94-98

    THE RAILS (_Ralli_). The SNIPE RAILS (_Rhynchæa_):--The Golden
      Rail, or Painted Cape Snipe--The Water Rail--The ARAMIDES
      (_Aramides_):--The Serrakura--The Land Rail, or Corn Crake.
      The JACANAS (_Parræ_):--The Chilian Jacana--The Chinese
      Jacana                                                      98-103

    THE WATER-HENS (_Gallinulæ_). The GALLINULES (_Porphyrio_):--The
      Hyacinthine Porphyrio--The Purple Gallinule. The WATER-HENS
      (_Stagnicola_):--The Common Gallinule, or Moor-hen         103-110

    THE COOTS (_Fulica_):--The Common Coot--The Finfoots--The
      Surinam Finfoot, or Picapare                               110-113


    THE SWIMMERS (_Natatores_).

    THE SIEVE BEAKS (_Lamellirostres_). The FLAMINGOES
      (_Phœnicopteri_). The SWANS (_Cygni_):--The Mute Swan--The
      Whistling Swan--Bewick's Swan--The Black-necked Swan--The
      Black Swan                                                 114-129

    THE GEESE (_Anseres_):--The Spur-winged Goose--The Grey, or
      Wild Goose--The Canada Goose--The Snow Goose. The SEA GEESE
      (_Bernicla_):--The Brent Goose. The FOXY GEESE
      (_Chenalopex_):--The Nile Goose. The DWARF GEESE
      (_Nettapus_):--The White-bodied Goose Teal--The Cereopsis
      Goose                                                      129-143

    THE DUCKS (_Anates_):--The Ruddy Sheldrake, or Brahminy Duck.
      The SHELDRAKES (_Vulpanser_):--The Common Sheldrake. The TREE
      DUCKS (_Dendrocygna_):--The Widow Duck--The Wild Duck--The
      Wood or Summer Duck--The Chinese Teal, or Mandarin Duck--The
      Shoveler Duck--The Musk Duck. The DIVING DUCKS (_Fuligulæ_).
      The EIDER DUCKS (_Somateria_):--The True Eider Duck, or St.
      Cuthbert's Duck--The King Eider. The WESTERN or STELLER'S
      EIDER DUCK (_Somateria_ or _Heniconetta Stellerii_). The
      SCOTERS (_Oidemia_):--The Velvet Scoter. The FEN DUCKS
      (_Aythya_):--The Red-headed Duck, Dunbird, or Pochard. The
      PIN-TAILED DUCKS (_Erismatura_):--The White-headed
      Pin-tailed Duck                                            143-170

    THE MERGANSERS, or GOOSANDERS (_Mergi_):--The White-headed
      Goosander--The Green-headed Goosander                      170-174


    THE SEA-FLIERS (_Longipennes_).

    THE TERNS, or SEA SWALLOWS (_Sternæ_). The RAPACIOUS TERNS
      (_Sylochelidon_):--The Caspian Tern. The RIVER TERNS
      (_Sterna_):--The Common Tern--The Lesser Tern. The WATER
      SWALLOWS (_Hydrochelidon_):--The Black Marsh Tern--The
      White-winged Tern--The White bearded Tern--The White or
      Silky Tern--The Noddy                                      175-185

    THE SCISSOR-BILLS (_Rhynchopes_):--The Indian Scissor-bill  185, 186

    THE GULLS (_Lari_):--The Fishing Gulls--The Great Black-backed
      Gulls--The Lesser Black-backed or Yellow-legged Gull--The
      Herring Gull--The Large or Glaucous White-winged Gull--The
      Lesser White-winged Gull. The ICE GULLS (_Pagophila_):--The
      Ivory Gull                                                 186-194

    THE KITTIWAKES (_Rissa_). The BLACK-HEADED GULLS
      (_Chroicocephalus_):--The Laughing Gull--The Great Black-headed
      Gull--The Lesser Black-headed Gull--The Little Gull        194-198

    THE SKUAS (_Lestres_):--The Common Skua--Buffon's or the
      Parasite Skua--Ross's Rosy Gull                            198-203

    THE PETRELS, or STORM BIRDS (_Procellaridæ_).--The ALBATROSSES
      (_Diomedæ_):--The Wandering Albatross--The Yellow-billed
      Albatross--The Sooty Albatross. The TRUE PETRELS
      (_Procellariæ_):--The Giant Petrel--The Fulmar Petrel--The
      Cape Petrel--The Broad-billed Prion, or Duck Petrel. The
      STORM PETRELS (_Oceanides_):--The Common Storm Petrel--Leach's
      Storm Petrel                                               203-217

    THE PUFFINS (_Puffini_):--The Manx Puffin, or Shearwater    217, 218


    THE OAR-FOOTED SEA-FLIERS (_Steganopodes_).

    THE TROPIC BIRDS (_Phaëton_):--The White-tailed Tropic Bird.
      The Red-tailed Tropic Bird. The GANNETS (_Sula_):--The
      Common Gannet--The Frigate Bird                            219-227

    THE CORMORANTS (_Haliei_). The DARTERS, or SNAKE-NECKS
      (_Plotus_):--The Anhinga--Le Vaillant's Snake Bird--The
      Common Cormorant                                           227-235

    THE PELICANS (_Pelecani_):--The White Pelican--The Great
      Tufted or Dalmatian Pelican                                235-239


    THE DIVERS (_Urinatores_).

    THE GREBES (_Podicipites_):--The Crested Grebe--The Little
      Grebe. The DIVERS (_Colymbi_):--The Great Northern Diver--The
      Black-throated Diver--The Red-throated Diver. The LOONS
     (_Uriæ_): The Greenland Dove, or Black Guillemot. The TRUE
     GUILLEMOTS (_Uria_): The Common or Foolish Guillemot--The
     Little Auk or Guillemot                                     240-255

    THE STARIKIS (_Phaleres_):--The Stariki. The AUKS
      (_Alcæ_):--The Razor-bill--The Great Auk--The Coulterneb,
      or Arctic Puffin                                           255-264

    THE PENGUINS (_Aptenodytes_):--The King Penguin. The TRUE
      PENGUINS (_Spheniscus_):--The Spectacled, or Cape Penguin.
      The LEAPING PENGUINS (_Eudypetes_):--The Golden or Crested
      Penguin                                                    265-268

[Illustration]




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.


COLOURED PLATES.

    PLATE XXXI.--PAINTED SPUR FOWL (_Galloperdix lunulosa_).

    " XXXII.--THE HOUBARA (_Otis Macquenii_).

    " XXXIII.--THE LAPWING (_Vanellus cristatus_).

    " XXXIV.--SQUACCO HERON (_Buphus Comata_).

    " XXXV.--CHINESE JACANA (_Hydrophasianus
    Sinensis_).

    " XXXVI.--RUDDY SHELDRAKE (_Casarca rutila_).

    " XXXVII.--MANDARIN DUCK (_Aix galericulata_).

    " XXXVIII.--TERN (_Sterna Hirundo_).

    " XXXIX.--GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (_Colymbus glacialis_).

    " XL.--PUFFIN (_Fratercula Arctica_).


WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

    FIG.                                                             PAGE

    1. Bustards (_Otis tarda_)                                         4

    2. The Little Bustard (_Otis tetrax, or Tetrax campestris_)        5

    3. The Trochilus, or Crocodile Watcher (_Hyas Ægyptiacus_)         9

    4. The Collared Pratincole (_Glareola pratincola_)                12

    5. The Common Thick-knee, or Stone Curlew (_Œdicnemus crepitans_) 13

    6. The Golden Plover (_Charadrius auratus_), and the Dotterel
       (_Eudromias Morinellus_)                                       17

    7. The Lapwing, or Peewit (_Vanellus cristatus_)                  21

    8. The Spur-winged Lapwing (_Hoplopterus spinosus_)               24

    9. The Turnstone (_Strepsilas interpres_)                         25

    10. The Pied Oyster-catcher, or Sea Pie (_Hæmatopus ostralegus_)  28

    11. The Woodcock (_Scolopax rusticola_)                           32

    12. The Sanderling (_Calidris arenaria_)                          37

    13. The Ruff (_Philomachus pugnax_)                               40

    14. Ruffs Fighting                                                41

    15. The Scooping Avocet (_Recurvirostra avocetta_)                52

    16. The Great Curlew (_Numenius arquatus_)                        53

    17. The White or Sacred Ibis (_Threskiornis religiosa_)           57

    18. The Spoonbill (_Platalea leucorodia_)                         60

    19. The Whale-headed Stork, or Shoe-beak (_Balæniceps rex_)       61

    20. The Savaku, or Boat-bill (_Cancroma cochlearia_)              64

    21. The Hammer-head, or Shadow-bird (_Scopus umbretta_)           65

    22. The Ibis-like Tantalus (_Tantalus ibis_)                      66

    23. Adjutants                                                     68

    24. The Simbil (_Spenorhynchus Abdimii_)                          69

    25. The Senegal Jabiru (_Mycteria Senegalensis_)                  72

    26. The Marabou (_Leptoptilos crumenifer_)                        73

    27. The African Clapper-bill (_Anastomus lamelligerus_)           76

    28. Group of Herons                                               77

    29. The Giant Heron (_Ardea Goliath_)                             79

    30. The Great White Heron (_Herodias alba_)                       80

    31. The Lesser Egret (_Herodias garzetta_)                        81

    32. Day and Night Herons                                          84

    33. The Common Bittern (_Botaurus stellaris_)                     85

    34. The Sun Bittern, or Peacock Heron (_Eurypyga helias_)         88

    35. Crowned, Demoiselle, and Common Cranes                        92

    36. The Cariama, or Crested Screamer (_Dicholophus cristatus_)    93

    37. The Gold-breasted Trumpeter (_Psophia crepitans_)             96

    38. The Aniuma, or Horned Screamer (_Palamedea cornuta_)          97

    39. The Golden Rail, or Painted Cape Snipe (_Rhynchæa Capensis_) 100

    40. The Jacana (_Parra Jacana_)                                  104

    41. The Hyacinthine Porphyrio (_Porphyrio hyacinthinus_)         108

    42. Home of the Moor-hens (_Gallinula chloropus_)                109

    43. The Stilt Bird (_Charadrius himantopus_)                     113

    44. The Flamingo (_Phœnicopterus roseus_)                        116

    45. The Whistling Swan (_Cygnus musicus_)                        124

    46. Black-necked Swans (_Cygnus nigricollis_)                    128

    47. The Black Swan (_Cygnus_ or _Chenopsis atratus_)             129

    48. The Spur-winged Goose (_Plectropterus Gambensis_)            132

    49. The Grey or Wild Goose (_Anser cinereus_)                    133

    50. The Brent Goose (_Bernicla torquata_)                        137

    51. The Nile Goose (_Chenalopex Ægyptiacus_)                     140

    52. Cereopsis Geese                                              141

    53. The Ruddy Sheldrake, or Brahminy Duck (_Casarca rutila_)     144

    54. The Sheldrake (_Vulpanser tadorna_)                          145

    55. The Widow Duck (_Dendrocygna viduata_)                       149

    56. The Wild Duck (_Anas boschas_)                               152

    57. The Wood or Summer Duck (_Aix sponsa_)                       153

    58. The Shoveler Duck (_Spatula clypeata_)                       157

    59. Eider Ducks at Home                                          161

    60. The Eider Ducks (_Somateria mollissima_)                     164

    61. The Green-headed Goosander (_Mergus merganser_)              173

    62. The Caspian Tern (_Sylochelidon Caspia_)                     177

    63. Terns and their Nests                                        180

    64. Black-backed and Herring Gulls                               189

    65. The Laughing Gull (_Chroicocephalus ridibundus_)             196

    66. The Common Skua (_Lestris catarractes_)                      200

    67. The Rosy Gull (_Rhodostethia rosea_)                         204

    68. The Wandering Albatross (_Diomedea exulans_)                 205

    69. The Giant Petrel (_Procellaria_ or _Ossifragus gigantea_)    208

    70. The Fulmar Petrel (_Procellaria glacialis_)                  209

    71. The Cape Petrel (_Procellaria_ or _Daption Capensis_)        212

    72. Storm Petrels                                                213

    73. The Storm Petrel (_Thalassidroma pelagica_)                  216

    74. The White-tailed Tropic Bird (_Phaëton æthereus_)            221

    75. The Frigate Bird (_Tachypetes aquila_)                       225

    76. Le Vaillant's Snake Bird, or Darter (_Plotus Levaillantii_)  229

    77. The Cormorant (_Phalacrocorax carbo_)                        233

    78. The Pelican (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_)                        237

    79. The Crested Grebe (_Podiceps cristatus_)                     244

    80. The Common or Foolish Guillemot (_Uria troile_)              253

    81. An Assemblage of Auks                                        256

    82. The Great Auk, or Giant Penguin (_Alca pinguinus_)           257

    83. Giant Penguins                                               260

    84. The Coulterneb, or Arctic Puffin                             265

    85. The Golden Penguin (_Chrysocome catarractes_)                267

[Illustration]




_CASSELL'S_

BOOK OF BIRDS.

       *       *       *       *       *


THE STILT-WALKERS (_Grallatores_).

THE birds belonging to this order have unusually long legs, formed in
such a manner as to enable many of them to seek their food at a certain
distance in the water; and are further characterised by their long thin
neck, slender high tarsi, bare thighs, three or four toed feet, and
fully-developed wings; but the construction of the bill, wings, and tail,
and the coloration of the plumage is so various, as to render a general
description almost impossible. The _Grallatores_ are met with in every
portion of our globe, and alike occupy open plains, mountain ranges--even
as high as the snow-line--fertile valleys, or arid deserts, contesting
possession of the sea-shore or river banks with the True Swimming Birds,
and that in such extraordinary numbers, as often to render it a matter of
wonder whence a sufficient supply of food can be obtained. During a three
days' passage into the White Nile we have seen an almost uninterrupted
line of birds of this description, numbering some fifty different species,
running, fishing, and bathing, in thousands and tens of thousands, upon
each side of the stream, and literally swarming in every lake, pond,
or ditch in the vicinity. In Southern Asia and some of the islands of
Southern and Central America they are equally numerous, and overspread
the sea-shore for miles. Travellers in Southern India tell us that it is
not uncommon to see them perched so thickly on the trees as to give these
the appearance of being covered with magnificent white blossoms. Insects,
worms, spawn, fishes, and various small animals and reptiles, constitute
the principal food of these voracious birds; some also consume seeds,
leaves, and tender shoots of plants. As regards their powers of locomotion
considerable difference is observable, according to the situations which
the various species have been created to occupy; for while some run with
the utmost swiftness, and fly with an energy scarcely inferior to that
displayed by the _Raptores_, others move but slowly over the surface of
the ground, and make their way through the air with comparative labour
and difficulty. Some few frequent the branches of trees, and only take
to the water in emergencies; but, for the most part, they both dive and
swim with extraordinary facility. The vocal powers of the _Grallatores_
are extremely limited; indeed, some species are capable of producing
nothing more than a hoarse, hissing note, while others endeavour to make
up for their deficiency in this respect by clapping with their mandibles.
No less various is the development of the senses, or the peculiarities
of disposition observable in the members of this extensive section, and
to these we must therefore allude more particularly when describing the
different groups under which they have been classified. All such as
inhabit the temperate zones migrate, whilst those occupying warmer regions
make excursions with great regularity at certain seasons, but probably
do not venture to any great distance from their native haunts. Of the
incubation of these birds it is impossible to speak in general terms.

       *       *       *       *       *

The BUSTARDS (_Otides_) [Coloured Plate XXXII.] are of large size, with
a heavy body, thick neck, moderately large head, and a powerful beak,
almost as long as the head; this beak is of conical form, but compressed
at its base, and slightly arched at the ridge of the upper mandible. The
tarsi are high and strong, the feet furnished with three toes, the wings
wedge-shaped, and formed of well-developed quills, of which the third
is the longest; the tail is composed of twenty broad feathers; and the
plumage is thick, smooth, and compact: in some instances, the feathers on
the head and nape are prolonged or very brilliantly coloured. The male
is recognisable from his mate by his superior size and brighter hues.
The young resemble the mother after the first moulting. These birds are
represented in every division of our globe, with the exception of America,
and are especially numerous in the grassy steppes and barren tracts of
Asia and Africa. In Europe they occupy the open cultivated country, but
are never so numerously met with as in other parts of the Old World. They
entirely avoid large forests, but occasionally take up their abode in
woodland districts. Such as occupy warm latitudes do not migrate, whilst
the natives of temperate zones either go south at the approach of winter,
or at least wander forth and sweep the surrounding country. During the
breeding season they live in small parties, but afterwards associate in
large flocks, often numbering some hundreds. They are remarkably shy and
wary, usually keeping to open ground, and in the summer endeavour to
elude pursuers by their wonderful rapidity of foot, which enables them
to scud along at a most extraordinary pace. At this season, if alarmed,
they run for some distance before rising, but once on the wing, fly with
strength and rapidity, always keeping near the ground. In the autumn, on
the contrary, they rise with facility, and fly to a great distance. Some
species of Bustards are capable of uttering clear resonant notes, while
others are so deficient in this respect as to produce nothing more than an
occasional dull and toneless sound. As regards the development of their
senses, with the exception probably of that of smell, they are highly
endowed, and in their intercourse with their feathered companions, or even
with man himself, exhibit no slight degree of intelligence and courage.


THE GREAT BUSTARD.

The GREAT BUSTARD (_Otis tarda_), as it has been called, is
distinguishable from all other species of the family by the beard-like
tuft of feathers that adorns the chin of the male bird. The head, upper
breast, and upper part of the wing, are light grey; the feathers on the
back reddish yellow, striped with black; those of the nape rust-red,
tipped with white, and decorated with a black stripe, the exterior
being almost entirely white. The primary quills are dark greyish brown,
with blackish brown tip and outer web, and yellowish white shaft; the
secondaries are black with white roots, those at the exterior being nearly
pure white. The beard consists of about thirty long, slender, and ragged
greyish white feathers. The eye is deep brown, the beak blackish, and the
foot grey. This fine and stately bird is from three feet and a quarter
to three feet and a half long, and from seven feet and a half to eight
feet broad; the wing measures two feet and a quarter, and the tail eleven
inches. The female is much smaller than her mate, less striking in colour
and without a beard; her length is at most two feet and three-quarters,
and the expanse of the wings six feet.

These birds occupy the wild open parts of Europe and Asia, only
occasionally visiting North-western Africa during the winter months. In
Great Britain they were formerly abundant, but are now quite extinct;
in France and Germany they are occasionally met with, and are more or
less numerous throughout Southern Europe. Mr. Nicholson, who had an
opportunity of studying the habits of the Bustard in the neighbourhood
of Seville, where it is still common, tells us that the stomachs of
those he killed were literally crammed with stalks and ears of barley,
and with the leaves of a large green weed, and a kind of black beetle.
Such as he observed generally flew, when flushed, two miles or more at
an elevation of at least a hundred yards. The same gentleman states that
they never attempted to escape by running, and that if winged, they showed
a disposition to remain and fight rather than to have recourse to their
legs. An individual, kept by Mr. Bartley, lived principally upon birds,
chiefly Sparrows, which it swallowed whole, feathers and all, with the
greatest avidity; it also ate the flowers of charlock and the leaves of
rape, as well as mice, and, indeed, any animal substance it casually met
with. In disposition these Bustards are so shy and wild that, according
to Schomburghk, they can never be approached except whilst eating. On the
Continent they are often shot with a rifle. The flesh of the young is much
esteemed, and is often exposed for sale in European markets. Like other
members of the family, this species is not stationary in one place, but
when it does not actually migrate, flies, at certain seasons of the year,
to a considerable distance from its native haunts. When about to mount on
the wing, it takes two or three springy steps, and then rises with slowly
flapping pinions until it has reached a certain height, when it darts away
with such rapidity as almost baffles the eye and gun of the sportsman.
Whilst in flight the neck and legs are stretched forwards, and the hinder
part of the body kept low, thus imparting an indescribable peculiarity to
the bird when seen in the air. The voice of the Great Bustard is so low as
to be scarcely audible except at a short distance. According to Naumann,
during the breeding season it utters a deep dull sound, resembling the
syllables "hah, hah, hah." In their habits these birds are strictly
terrestrial; the whole day is passed upon the ground; the early morning
hours being occupied in fighting, screaming, and feeding; at noon they
repose for a time and dust themselves preparatory to going again in search
of food before evening closes in. The pairing season is in April, and
at that time desperate battles take place among the males. During these
engagements the tails of the combatants are raised and spread out in the
manner of a fan, the wings hang down to the ground, and they charge each
other like Turkey-cocks. The strongest collects about him the largest
harem, and pairing takes place in the same amusing way as among the
Turkeys. The female lays two or three olive-grey eggs, marked with red and
liver-brown spots, in a hole which she scratches in the ground. The period
of incubation is said to be twenty-eight days, and as soon as the young
are hatched, they are capable of following their mother in search of food.

The methods adopted for capturing the Bustard are various. From its
extremely shy nature, and from its habit of keeping to the open country,
it is not easy of approach. Of wayfaring people, however, it seems to
have little apprehension; the usual plan, therefore, is for the sportsman
either to clothe himself like a peasant, or to put on female apparel, and
to make up to it with a basket on his back, and holding the gun closely by
his side. Sometimes, also, these birds are chased with greyhounds, which
are conveyed towards them in covered carts, until such time as they evince
symptoms of alarm and begin to move off, when the dogs are slipped from
their couplings.

[Illustration: BUSTARDS (_Otis tarda_).]

In the Catalogue of the Tradescant Museum, preserved at South Lambeth,
bearing date 1656, is mentioned: "The Bustard, as big as a Turkey, usually
taken by greyhounds on Newmarket Heath;" and Mr. Knox states in his
"Systematic Catalogue of the Birds of Sussex," published in 1835, that he
met with some very old people who, in their younger days, had seen flocks
of these noble birds on the downs. Royston Heath is mentioned by Willughby
as frequented by them, and White of Selborne, in his Journal records: "I
spent three hours of this day, November 17, 1782, at a lone farmhouse in
the midst of the downs, between Andover and Winton. The carter told us
that, about twelve years before, he had seen a flock of eighteen Bustards
on that farm, and once since only two." The authors of the "Catalogue
of the Birds of Norfolk and Suffolk," published in 1827, affirm that
Bustards, although much scarcer than formerly, still continue to breed
in the open parts of both counties, and Yarrell gives other instances of
their occurrence within a comparatively recent period. That they were
formerly considered articles of special luxury for the table is evidenced
by the price affixed to them in Dugdale's "Origines Judiciales," in an
account of the various kinds of game consumed at a feast in the Inner
Temple Hall on the 16th of October, 1555, namely: Bustards, 10s.; Swans,
10s.; Cranes, 10s.; while Turkeys are estimated only at 4s.

[Illustration: THE LITTLE BUSTARD (_Otis tetrax_, or _Tetrax campestris_).]


THE LITTLE BUSTARD.

The LITTLE BUSTARD (_Otis tetrax_, or _Tetrax campestris_) differs from
the above species, not only in the inferiority of its size and general
coloration, but in the curious prolongation of the feathers on the nape
and throat. In the male bird the black throat is enlivened by white
streaks, one of which passes from the ear to the gullet, and the other
over the crop; the face is dark grey, the top of the head light yellow
spotted and marked with black; the edges of the wings, feathers of the
tail-covers and entire under side are white, the quills dark brown, and
tail-feathers white, marked with two lines at their extremity. The eye is
light or brownish, the beak horn-grey tipped with black, and the foot
straw-colour. The length of this species is from eighteen to nineteen
inches, its breadth thirty-six inches, the wing measures ten and the tail
five inches. The female is smaller than her mate, and has the side of
her head of a yellowish hue; her throat is whitish; breast light yellow,
striped with black; the spots upon her mantle are more clearly defined
than in the plumage of the male; the feathers of her upper wing-covers are
white spotted with black; her under side is white. The Little Bustard is
met with principally in the southern parts of Europe, extending from the
south of France, over Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain; it is particularly
numerous in Sardinia, and is seen in large flocks upon the steppes of
Southern Russia, particularly during the migratory season. According
to Yarrell, this bird can only be regarded as an accidental or winter
visitor to Great Britain, it having been killed here only between autumn
and the middle of spring. The nest or eggs have never been found in the
British Islands. In the course of its migrations, it occasionally visits
the country round the Altai Mountains, and Syria. During our stay in
Egypt, we saw but a single specimen. Unlike the larger species, the Little
Bustard is not restricted to flat and open districts, but frequently
inhabits mountainous regions; in Spain it principally occupies vineyards,
wherever these may be situated. Although closely resembling the species
last described in many respects, it yet differs from it considerably in
the ease and comparative lightness of its movements. Its gait is more
graceful, and its pace extraordinarily rapid; its flight is swift and
capable of being long-sustained. In disposition it is cautious, but by
no means so shy as the Great Bustard: if disturbed it seeks safety by
squatting close to the ground among the grass or brushwood; and its voice
is seldom heard except during the period of incubation. Insects, worms,
beetles, grasshoppers, larvæ, and occasionally portions of plants or
seeds constitute the food of this species; the young probably are reared
exclusively on insect diet. The breeding season commences about the end
of April, and is inaugurated by violent battles between the male birds;
the eggs, from four to five in number, are about the size of those of the
Domestic Fowl, and have a glossy yellowish brown or yellowish green shell
more or less distinctly spotted with reddish brown; they are deposited in
a slight hollow on the ground. The male seldom goes to any great distance
from his mate whilst she is brooding, and beguiles the time by making
short undulating flights in her immediate vicinity. We are almost without
particulars respecting the rearing of the young.

       *       *       *       *       *

The HOUBARAS (_Hubara_) constitute a distinct group, comprising but two
species, both of which have been found in Europe. The distinguishing
characteristics of these birds are their long beak, short foot, the crest
upon their head, and the beautiful collar that adorns their neck.


THE INDIAN HOUBARA.

The INDIAN HOUBARA (_Hubara Macquenii_) is an inhabitant of Southern Asia,
and from thence has occasionally visited Central Europe and even England.
Upon the brow and sides of the head the plumage is of a reddish grey,
powdered with brown; the long crest is black in front and white behind;
the feathers on the nape are whitish, striped with brown and grey, and
those on the back ochre-yellow delicately pencilled, and in some parts
spotted with black; the throat is white above and brown below; the upper
breast grey, and the belly yellowish white. The collar is composed of long
streaming feathers situated on both sides of the neck; of these the lower
ones are white, those higher up white with black tips and base, whilst
those at the top are entirely black. The quills have white roots and black
tips; the tail is of a reddish shade delicately spotted and decorated with
two stripes; the eye is bright yellow; the beak slate-grey; and the foot
greenish yellow. According to Jerdon, the length of the male varies from
twenty-five to thirty inches, and its breadth from four to five feet; the
wing measures from fourteen to fifteen, and the tail from nine to ten
inches. After the breeding season, the male moults his beautiful crest.
According to Jerdon, the Indian Houbara is found throughout the plains
of the Punjaub and Upper Scinde, occasionally crossing the Sutlej at
Ferozepore; but no record exists of its occurrence eastward of Delhi. It
is probably a permanent resident in the localities where it is found, as
no notice is given of its appearance at any particular season. This bird
inhabits open and sandy plains, or undulating sandy districts besprinkled
with scattered tufts of grass; it also frequents fields of wheat and
other grain, and is generally met with in open ground. Being very wary
it is approached with difficulty, except in the heat of the day, when it
lies down beneath a thick tuft or other shelter, and is easily secured.
The Houbara is much hunted with Hawks both in the Punjaub and Scinde,
the _Falco sacer_ being generally employed for this purpose. The bird,
however, occasionally baffles the Falcon by ejecting a horrible, stinking
fluid, which besmears and spoils the plumage of his enemy; just as in
Africa its congener is said to defend itself from the Sakr Falcon. Adams
states that the Houbara is very destructive to wheat-fields, as it eats
the young shoots; but insects of various kinds doubtless constitute its
principal food. The flesh is exceedingly tender, and is often so loaded
with fat that the skins are with difficulty dried and preserved. Captain
Hutton tells us that this bird is common in the bare and stony plains of
Afghanistan, where it is met with in parties of five or six together.
It flies heavily, and for a short distance only, soon alighting and
running over the ground. The Houbara has been found in Mesopotamia and
other parts of Asia, and occasionally, but very rarely, in Europe. The
stomach of a specimen killed in a stubble-field in Lincolnshire, in 1847,
was filled with caterpillars of the common yellow underwing moth, small
shelled snails, and beetles. The eggs of this species are from three to
five in number, yellowish, spotted, and oval-shaped, and about the same
size as those of the Turkey. Viera informs us that the eggs are deposited
in a slight hollow, amongst the grass or corn; that the brood make their
appearance within five weeks; and that they at once begin to run about
after the manner of young chickens. The following graphic account of
hawking the Houbara is given by Sir John Malcolm, in his "Sketches of
Persia":--"We went," says that writer, "to see a kind of hawking peculiar,
I believe, to the sandy plains of Persia, on which the Houbara, a noble
species of Bustard, is found on almost bare plains, where it has no
shelter but a small shrub called 'geetuck.' When we went in quest of these
birds we were a party of twenty, all well mounted. Two kinds of Hawks are
necessary for this sport: the first, the Cherkh (the same which is flown
at the antelope), attacks them on the ground, but will not follow them
on the wing; for this reason the Bhyree, a Hawk well known in India, is
flown the moment the Houbara rises. As we rode along in an extended line,
the men who carried the Cherkhs every now and then unhooded them and held
them up that they might look over the plain. The first Houbara we found
afforded us a proof of the astonishing quickness of sight of one of these
Hawks; she fluttered to be loose, and the man who held her gave a whoop
as he threw her off his hand, and then set off at full speed. We all did
the same. At first we only saw our Hawk skimming over the plain, but soon
perceived at the distance of more than a mile the beautiful speckled
Houbara, with his head erect and wings outspread, running forward to meet
his adversary. The Hawk made several unsuccessful pounces, which were
either evaded or repelled by the beak and wings of the Houbara, which at
last found an opportunity of rising, when a Bhyree was instantly flown,
and the party were again at full gallop. We had a flight of more than a
mile, and then the Houbara alighted and was killed by another Cherkh,
which attacked him on the ground. This bird weighed ten pounds. We killed
several others, but were not always successful, having seen our Hawks
twice completely beaten during the two days that we followed the sport."
When taken young, the Houbara is susceptible of being tamed, and has been
reared among the fowls in a Farm-yard: when thus treated it is, however,
very shy and timorous, hiding itself in holes and corners, and refuses to
breed.


THE AFRICAN RUFFLED BUSTARD.

The AFRICAN RUFFLED BUSTARD (_Hubara undulata_), though of larger size,
closely resembles the above species in its general appearance, but has the
back and wings of a deeper brown shade, and the crest entirely white.

Although rarely met with in Europe, this Houbara is plentiful in the
sandy deserts of Arabia and North Africa, where its exquisitely-flavoured
flesh is much prized. We are but imperfectly acquainted with its habits,
and have no information respecting its eggs or nidification. Gould is of
opinion that the crest of the female is either very small or entirely
wanting, and that the male bird only wears his plume during the breeding
season.


THE FLORIKIN.

The FLORIKIN (_Sypheotidis Bengalensis_), one of the most valued
game-birds of India, is during the breeding season of a glossy black upon
the head, nape, breast, and entire under side; the back, secondaries,
rump, and feathers of the lower tail-covers are of a brownish hue,
delicately marked with zigzag black lines, and each feather decorated
with a black spot in its centre; the shoulder-feathers and quills are
pure white; of the latter the three first are black upon the outer web,
whilst the rest have black shafts and tips. The tail is black, spotted
with brown, and tipped with white. The eye is brown, the beak black
above, and yellow beneath; the foot is greenish yellow, and the heel
blue. This species is from twenty-four to twenty-seven inches long, and
from forty-four to forty-seven broad; the wing measures fourteen and
the tail seven inches. After the breeding season the male appears in a
different garb, in some degree resembling that of his mate. The head
and entire upper portion of the body are, in the female, of a pale red,
spotted, striped, and marked with black and brown; the feathers on the
upper wing-covers are whitish, and those of the nape lined with black; the
quills are striped dark brown and red. The female is from twenty-eight to
twenty-nine inches long, and fifty inches broad. This fine bird, according
to Jerdon, is found throughout Lower Bengal, north of the Ganges,
extending to the south bank above the junction of the Jumna, and thence
spreading through the valley of the Jumna into Rajpootana, the Cis-Sutlej
States, and parts of the Punjaub; in the east it occurs in Dacca,
Tipperah, Silhet, and Assam, and northwards to the foot of the Himalayas.
It frequents large tracts of moderately high grass, whether interspersed
with bushes or otherwise, grass charrs, or rivers, and occasionally
cultivated ground; but it appears to be very capricious in its choice,
several often congregating in certain spots to the exclusion of others
that seemed equally favourable. From February to April it may be seen
stalking about the thin grass early in the morning, and it is observed to
be often found about newly-burnt patches; or one or more may be noticed
winging their way to some cultivated spot, a pea-field, or mustard-field,
to make their morning repast, after which they fly back to some thicker
patch of grass to rest during the heat of the day. At this time, as well
as during the earlier part of the year, they are usually met with singly,
sometimes in pairs, male and female, not far distant from each other; or,
as stated previously, three or four will be found in some favoured spot.
According to Hodgson, the Florikin is neither monogamous nor polygamous,
but the sexes live apart, at no great distance, and this would appear
to be very probable. The Florikin breeds from June to August. At this
season the cock bird may be seen rising perpendicularly into the air with
a hurried flapping of his wings, occasionally stopping for a second or
two, and then rising still higher, raising his crest at the same time,
puffing out the feathers of his neck and breast, and afterwards dropping
down to the ground; he repeats this manœuvre several times successively,
humming, as Hodgson asserts, in a peculiar tone. Such females as happen to
be near obey this saltatory summons; and, according to Hodgson, when
one approaches, he trails his wings, raises and spreads his tail like
a Turkey-cock, humming all the while. At this time the hen Florikin is
generally to be found in lower ground and thicker grass, and is flushed
with difficulty, as she conceals herself at the first approach of danger.
She lays from two to four eggs in some sequestered spot, well hidden by
the grass; these are of a dull olivaceous tint, more or less blotched, and
covered with dark spots. Two females are said not unfrequently to brood
near each other.

[Illustration: _Plate 32. Cassell's Book of Birds_

THE HOUBARA ____ OTIS MACQUEENII

(_one quarter Nat. size_)]

The Florikin has a steady flapping flight, which is not very rapid, and
is seldom prolonged to any considerable distance. When feeding, it is
shy and wary, and will often rise at some distance, but speedily takes
refuge in a thick patch of grass, and may then be easily approached. It
is usually silent, but if suddenly startled rises with a shrill metallic
"chik, chik," which is occasionally repeated during its flight. The food
of the Florikin consists chiefly of insects, grasshoppers, beetles, and
caterpillars; but it also eats small lizards, snakes, centipedes, and
similar fare. According to Hodgson, it often consumes seeds and sprouts,
but Jerdon is of opinion that these are not taken by choice, but swallowed
with the insect diet. This bird is highly esteemed for the table, and by
some numbered amongst the most delicate of Indian game. In all parts of
India, therefore, the Florikin is eagerly sought for by sportsmen. It is
frequently killed during a tiger-chase, and is occasionally taken by the
help of the Falcon.

[Illustration: THE TROCHILUS, OR CROCODILE WATCHER (_Hyas Ægyptiacus_).]

       *       *       *       *       *

The COURSERS (_Tachydromi_), a group in many respects closely resembling
the smaller species of _Otides_, are slenderly-formed birds, with long
legs, large, pointed wings, short tails, and a moderate-sized delicate
beak of about the same length as the head, in most instances slightly
curved, and covered with a cere at its base. The leg is slender, the foot
furnished with three toes, which are armed with delicately small claws,
and almost entirely unconnected. The tolerably thick plumage is usually
of a nearly uniform reddish brown colour, or sandy yellow, and varies
according to the sex and age. These birds inhabit the arid plains and
sandy deserts of Africa and Southern Asia, one species alone frequenting
such spots as are in the vicinity of water, into which, however, it does
not venture to wade. Their flight is rapid and powerful, and upon the
ground they run with almost incredible ease and speed. Insects and larvæ
constitute their diet; the seeds occasionally found in their stomachs
being only accidentally swallowed in their hasty search for food. Except
during the breeding season they live in small parties, and frequently
associate with birds of similar habits. It is undetermined whether the
_Tachydromi_ should be regarded as stationary birds or not; some species
certainly wander over the country, and occasionally appear at great
distances from their native haunts.


THE CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.

The CREAM-COLOURED COURSER (_Cursorius isabellinus_) possesses a slender
body and large wings, in which the second quill is longer than the rest;
a comparatively short, broadly-rounded tail, composed of from twelve to
fourteen feathers; a long, decidedly-curved bill, slender tarsi, and feet
furnished with three toes. The thick, soft plumage is of a cream-colour,
the upper parts of the body having a reddish and the under side a
yellowish tinge; the nape is blueish grey, divided from the rest of the
body by a white and a black line commencing at the eyes, and merging into
a triangular patch on the nape; the secondaries are sand-yellow, with a
black spot near the white tip, and a pale inner web. All the tail-feathers
are reddish cream-colour, except two in the centre; these are tipped with
white, and striped with black. The eye is brown, the beak blackish, and
the foot straw-colour. This species is from eight inches and a half to
nine inches long, and nineteen broad; the wing measures six inches, and
the tail two inches and a half. The female closely resembles her mate;
the young are at once recognised by the mottled and spotted appearance of
their somewhat lighter plumage; their primary quills have yellow tips, and
the nape is adorned by a whitish stripe bordered by a few black feathers.

The Cream-coloured Courser is a native of Africa, and is met with in
Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia, being most numerous in the last-mentioned
country; it appears in summer along the coast-line from Tangiers to
Tripoli, and is seldom found north of the Mediterranean. This bird is
one of the rarest visitors to our shores, but three or four specimens
have occurred in Great Britain since 1785. Some years ago one was shot
in Kent, whilst running over some light land. So little timidity did it
exhibit that the gentleman who killed it had time to send for a gun, which
did not readily go off, and he in consequence missed his aim. The report
frightened the bird away, but after making a turn or two it again settled
within a hundred yards, and was dispatched. It was observed to run with
incredible swiftness, and at intervals to pick up something from the
ground, and was so bold as to render it difficult to make it rise in order
to shoot it while on the wing. The note was not like that of a Plover,
nor, indeed, to be compared with that of any known bird.

From February to July these Coursers live in pairs, and are usually
met with running together over the arid sands of their desert haunts.
Travellers tell us that they frequently dart along with such extraordinary
rapidity that, like the spokes in a swiftly-turned wheel, their limbs
become invisible, so that at a distance they present the appearance of
legless bodies darting through the air; if pursued by man, it is not
uncommon for them thus to avoid his approach for hours together. If very
sorely pressed, they rise upon the wing to a moderate height, and hover
for a time before recommencing their wild career. They will allow a rider
to come nearer than a man on foot; but even when mounted, it is extremely
difficult to get a shot at them, as their many enemies soon render
them very timid. We learn from Bädeker that the eggs of this species
are from three to four in number, short and broad, with a sand-coloured
glossy shell, marked and dotted with a darker shade. These are deposited
in a slight hollow in the ground amongst short grass or stones. We are
unacquainted with further particulars respecting the nidification of the
Cream-coloured Courser.


THE TROCHILUS, OR CROCODILE WATCHER.

The TROCHILUS, or CROCODILE WATCHER (_Hyas Ægyptiacus_, or _Trochilus_),
differs in many essential particulars from the above group, to which,
however, it is nearly allied. The body of this bird is compact, the neck
short, and the head moderately large. The beak is not more than half as
long as the head, compressed at its sides, and drawn in at the margins;
the upper mandible rises gently from the base, and again curves downwards
towards the tip; the lower mandible is straight; the leg is high, bare,
and but three-toed; the wing, in which the first quill exceeds the rest in
length, is so long, that it extends as far as the tip of the rounded tail.
The secondary quills are also unusually developed. In this very beautiful
bird, the top of the head, the broad cheek-stripes which unite at the
nape, a wide stripe on the breast, and the long slender back-feathers are
all black; the eyebrows, throat, gullet, and entire under side are white,
shading into pale reddish brown on the sides and breast, and into brownish
yellow in the region of the rump; the feathers on the shoulder and upper
covers are pale slate-blue or grey; the quills, with the exception of
the first (which has only a light border at the base of the outer web)
are black in the centre and at the tip, the rest of the feathers being
white, thus forming two broad stripes to the wings, which have a very fine
appearance when fully spread. The tail-feathers are blueish grey tipped
with white, and decorated with a black stripe. The eye is light brown, the
beak black, and the foot light grey. The body is about eight inches and a
half in length; the wing measures five inches, and the tail two inches and
three-quarters. The female is but little smaller than her mate.

Herodotus gives the following quaint account of the supposed strange
friendship between this species and the crocodile:--"All other beasts
and birds," says that old Greek writer, "avoid the crocodile, but he is
at peace with the Trochilus, because he receives benefits from it, for
when the crocodile gets out of the water and then opens his jaws, which
he does most commonly towards the west, the Trochilus enters his mouth
and swallows the leeches which cling to his teeth. The huge beast is so
pleased with this service that he never injures the little bird." This
well-known account is still current in Egypt, with the addition of another
tale traditional among the Nile boatmen concerning this bird, which they
call the Zic-zac, in imitation of its call. The crocodile, they say,
while reposing on a sandbank, often falls asleep, quite forgetful of
his bird friend, who is busy within his large mouth clearing his teeth
from their troublesome leech appendages. The Zic-zac, finding the huge
door closely shut upon him, gives the crocodile a sharp reminder of
his presence by striking his spurs into the mouth of the monster, who
immediately sets the prisoner free. The _Hyas Ægyptiacus_ is met with
throughout all the country watered by the Nile, and on the shores of
all the rivers of Western Africa. It is very doubtful whether any stray
specimens have really visited Europe as has been stated; this species,
according to our own observations, being strictly stationary in its
habits, and only quitting one sandbank for another when compelled to do
so by the rising of the water. In all its movements this brisk and pretty
little bird displays great ease and rapidity. During the course of its
flight, which is never long sustained, it keeps close to the surface of
the river, and frequently repeats its shrill whistling cry. Towards every
living creature the Trochilus manifests the same utter fearlessness which
he exhibits towards his neighbour the crocodile, over and around whose
large body he constantly disports himself on the sandbanks, and gleans
off the insect parasites that torment him. We can distinctly affirm that
we have ourselves repeatedly _seen_ the little creature performing the
tooth-clearing operation the ancients attributed to it, and which many
modern writers have declared to be fabulous. Insects of all kinds, worms,
small fish, mussels, and, according to some authorities, scraps of meat,
and occasionally seeds, form the principal diet of the Crocodile-Watcher.
Only once, in spite of all our endeavours, could we discover the
carefully-concealed eggs. After many fruitless efforts our attention was
attracted whilst looking through a telescope by a pair of birds, one of
which was sitting in the sand, and the other running hither and thither in
the immediate vicinity. Using every precaution we approached, but were no
sooner observed than the brooding parent arose, and after going hurriedly
to a short distance, joined its mate, and both together walked slowly
from the spot with such a wonderful affectation of indifference, that we
were completely taken in, and should not have carried our investigations
any further had not a slight unevenness of the ground caught our eye. On
removing the sand, two beautiful eggs were brought to light, having a
reddish yellow shell, dotted and marked in a variety of ways.

[Illustration: THE COLLARED PRATINCOLE (_Glareola pratincola_).]

       *       *       *       *       *

The PRATINCOLES, or SWALLOW-WINGED WADERS (_Tracheliæ_), are recognisable
at once by the swallow-like formation of their long wings, in which the
first quill exceeds the rest in length; by their long, straight, or forked
tail composed of fourteen feathers, and their slender bare legs. The
toes, four in number, are very slender, the three in front are connected
by a skin, and furnished with narrow, sharp, and almost straight claws.
The plumage, which varies but little either in the sexes or at different
seasons of the year, is very similar in all the species.

The Pratincoles, or Sea Partridges as they are called on the Continent,
inhabit the temperate and warm portions of the eastern hemisphere, and
frequent the borders of lakes and rivers in the vicinity of mountains.
Like the Swallow, they seek their insect prey whilst upon the wing, or
from the surface of the ground, over which they run with great rapidity.
The eggs, three or four in number, are deposited in a slight nest placed
among rushes or thick marshy herbage.

[Illustration: THE COMMON THICK-KNEE, OR STONE CURLEW (_Œdicnemus
crepitans_).]


THE COLLARED PRATINCOLE.

The COLLARED PRATINCOLE (_Glareola pratincola_) is a beautiful bird,
about ten inches long and twenty-two inches and a half broad, with the
wing measuring seven inches, and the tail, at the centre of the fork,
two inches and a half. The upper portions of the body are greyish brown,
the wings, lower breast, and under side white; the reddish yellow
throat is encircled by a brown ring, and the head is brownish grey; the
tail-feathers and quills are tipped with black. The eye is dark brown, the
beak black, with bright red corners, and the foot blackish brown. The male
and female are almost alike in size. This bird inhabits Northern Africa,
and the countries watered by the Don, the Volga, and the Caspian and Black
Seas; and although it periodically visits France, is rarely seen in Great
Britain. Everywhere it occupies the margins of rivers and lakes, equally
frequenting the vicinity of fresh and salt water. The Collared Pratincole
flies with great ease and swiftness, and indulges in a variety of graceful
evolutions whilst on the wing; upon the ground its walk, though rapid, is
seldom prolonged, and every step is accompanied by a constant whipping
with the tail. Its food consists principally of aquatic insects, but it
seizes its prey with equal facility on land, from the surface of the water
or in the air; indeed, it is not uncommon to see one of these active
little birds dart to a height of several feet into the air, in order to
seize a passing fly. It consumes locusts in great numbers, and, according
to Jules Verreaux, is often to be found in the track of the hosts of
these creatures that are met with in Southern Africa. The nest consists
of a slight hollow in the ground, lined with fibres and blades of grass;
the eggs, four in number, have a yellowish brown or greenish grey shell,
spotted with grey, and variously marked with light brown and deep black.
So great is the attachment of these Pratincoles for their mates and young
that we are told, should one of a pair be shot, the other at once runs to
its companion's side in utter disregard of its own safety. If the little
family are intruded on, the parents frequently feign to be wounded, or
by other devices entice the enemy from the nest. The helpless young, if
alarmed, crouch to the ground, and are with difficulty detected, owing to
the earthy colour of their downy feathers; they grow very rapidly, and
soon attain the plumage of the adult birds.

       *       *       *       *       *

The THICK-KNEES (_Œdicnemi_) constitute a sub-family whose members are
at once recognisable by their comparatively large size, moderately long
thin neck, thick head, large eyes, and a straight beak of about the same
length as the head, with the culmen slightly depressed and swollen at the
tip. The knees are very thick, the toes three in number, and the wings,
in which the second quill is the longest, of moderate size; the secondary
quills are of unusual length. The tail is wedge-shaped, and composed of
from twelve to fourteen feathers. These birds are migratory, and are met
with in all parts of the world, with the exception of North America; open
moorlands are the localities they prefer, as affording them the largest
supply of the small quadrupeds, reptiles, worms, and insects upon which
they subsist, and which they seek during the evening or at night. In the
daytime the Thick-knees remain closely squatted beneath a stone or any
similar shelter, and if disturbed fly to a short distance, before running
off rapidly to some place of concealment. The female deposits her two eggs
on the bare ground; the young are able to follow their parents as soon as
they quit the shell.


THE COMMON THICK-KNEE, OR STONE CURLEW.

The COMMON THICK-KNEE, or STONE CURLEW (_Œdicnemus crepitans_), is from
sixteen to seventeen inches long and from twenty-nine to thirty broad; the
wing measures eight inches and half, and the tail about five inches. The
feathers upon the upper parts of the body are reddish grey, striped in the
centre with blackish brown; the brow, a patch over the eyes and a line
above and below the cere are white, the under side and a stripe on the
upper wing are yellowish white, the quills black, and the tail-feathers
bordered with black and white at their sides. The eye is golden yellow,
the beak yellow with black tip, the foot straw-colour, and the eyelids
yellow. The plumage of the young is principally of a rust-red. These birds
are natives of the desert and barren districts of Northern Africa, Western
Asia, and Southern Europe, being especially numerous in Syria, Persia,
Arabia, and India. Such as occupy the most northern portions of their
_habitat_ go south late in the autumn and return to their former haunts
early in spring, whilst such as dwell in the countries watered by the
Mediterranean remain throughout the entire year in the same localities.
In Egypt, notwithstanding their usual preference for barren tracts, the
Stone Curlews not only venture into towns and perch upon houses, but
occasionally make their nests on the roofs, always provided that the
situation be such as to permit them to have a clear space about them, and
an elevated perch from whence they can reconnoitre in order to elude the
approach of danger. A nearly-allied species, residing in South Africa,
frequents the outskirts of forests, selecting spots thickly covered with
brushwood, in which it conceals itself if alarmed. The Common Thick-knee
or Norfolk Plover, as it is called in England, is only a summer visitor
to our country, appearing in April and departing in September or October.
It is most numerous in the south and south-west parts of our island, and
does not go north of Yorkshire. Ireland it rarely visits. According to Mr.
Salmon, of Thetford, "it is numerously distributed all over our warren
and fallow lands during the breeding season, which commences about the
second week in April, the female depositing her pair of eggs upon the
bare ground, without any nest whatever; it is generally supposed that the
males take no part in the labour of incubation; this I suspect is not the
case. Wishing to procure for a friend a few specimens in their breeding
plumage, I employed a boy to take them for me, this he did by ensnaring
them on the nest, and the result was that all he caught during the day
proved upon dissection to be males. They assemble in flocks previous to
their departure, which is usually by the end of October; but should the
weather continue open, a few will remain to a much later period. I started
one as late as the 9th December, in the autumn of 1834. Montague records
an instance of this bird being killed in Devonshire as early as February
in 1807."

The Stone Curlew is singularly shy and cautious in avoiding observers, and
should it be disturbed, at once seeks shelter by crouching to the ground;
if still followed, it endeavours to escape by running, and is rarely
forced to have recourse to its wings. Its flight is gentle and easy, but
seldom long sustained. During the day it usually remains quiet, and in
South Africa conceals itself from the presence of man almost after the
manner of an Owl. No sooner, however, has night set in, than it appears
in quite a new character, darting lightly about on rapid wing in search
of food and water, or running swiftly over the surface of the ground. It
is not uncommon for a pair of these birds to wander for miles in search
of a drinking-place, returning before morning to their usual haunts.
Whilst thus actively employed, their clear resonant call of "cur-lui"
is constantly heard. Frogs, lizards, mice, and occasionally eggs and
small birds form their principal food; field-mice they catch after the
manner of a cat, and crunch the bones previous to swallowing their prey;
insects they also kill before consuming them; grains of sand and pebbles
are employed to assist the process of digestion. At the commencement of
spring, battles between the males frequently occur in order to obtain
a desired female. The eggs, from two to three in number, are deposited
about April in a slight hollow in the sand, these are about the size of
Hens' eggs and of the same shape, with a pale yellowish shell, spotted
and streaked with deep yellow and blackish brown. The female broods
and hatches her family in about sixteen days; during this time she is
carefully guarded by her watchful mate. As soon as the young quit the
nest, they follow their parent and receive instruction in the art of
obtaining food: should danger be at hand, a cry warns them to seek
shelter, and they at once conceal themselves by lying close to the ground.
The Thick-knee exhibits considerable courage when protecting its family,
and has been seen to defend its nest with vigour against the approach
of sheep or dogs. One of these birds, kept by Brehm the elder, became
extraordinarily tame and ran freely about the house, testifying the utmost
attachment to his master, eating from his hand, and allowing himself to be
caressed at pleasure.

       *       *       *       *       *

The PLOVERS (_Charadrii_) constitute a family of short-necked,
large-headed birds, of small size, with moderately long, slender, but
thick-jointed legs, three-toed feet, the hinder toe being either entirely
wanting or but slightly developed and much raised. The wings are pointed
and slender, with the first or second quill longer than the rest, and the
secondaries prolonged. The short tail is composed of twelve feathers,
and slightly rounded at its extremity. The beak, which is rarely more
than half as long as the head, is soft at its base and hard on the raised
portion at its extremity. The thick compact plumage varies in the sexes,
and according to the season of the year. The Plovers are met with in
every quarter of the globe, and while some occupy the interior of the
country, frequenting its plains and open grounds, others prefer the
vicinity of the sea, or the margins of lakes and rivers, obtaining their
food principally from the water; others, again, select desert tracts,
marshes, or mountainous districts. During the breeding season all live in
pairs, but near together; subsequently they collect together into large
parties, which gradually increase in size as the season for migrating
approaches. In their habits the Plovers are usually active; they run and
fly with equal facility, and though they rarely attempt to swim, are not
altogether unsuccessful in that particular. Almost all the species utter
a plaintive whistle, and during the breeding season can produce a few
connected, pleasing notes. The three or four pear-shaped variegated eggs
are deposited in a slight hollow in the ground, in which a few blades
of grass are occasionally placed. Both parents assist in the work of
incubation. Reptiles, worms, small quadrupeds, and insects constitute
the food of these birds. Their flesh is regarded as a delicacy, and they
are therefore objects of great attraction to the sportsman, although
they often render themselves extremely troublesome by uttering their
shrill cry, and thus warning their feathered companions of the approach
of danger. From this habit they have received the name of "tell-tales."
"The _Charadrius carunculata_, an African species," writes Livingstone, "a
most plaguey sort of 'public-spirited individual,' follows you everywhere,
flying overhead, and is most persevering in his attempts to give fair
warning to all the animals within hearing to flee from the approach of
danger."


THE GOLDEN PLOVER.

The GOLDEN PLOVER (_Charadrius auratus_, or _pluvialis_) is at once
recognisable by its slender beak and feet, pointed wings, and golden
plumage. The feathers on the upper portions of the body are black, thickly
covered with small green or golden yellow spots, the entire under side is
black. In the autumn, the throat and breast are spotted with yellowish
grey; the belly is white; the black tail-feathers are streaked with white;
and the black throat is decorated with a white stripe commencing at the
brow and merging into the breast. The eye is dark brown, the beak black,
and the foot blackish grey. This species is ten inches long and twenty-two
broad; the wing measures seven inches, and the tail three inches and a
half.

The Golden Plovers are especially numerous in the cooler portions of
the globe, becoming gradually rarer towards 57° north latitude. In
England they are generally distributed, but such as occupy the southern
parts go northwards to the high hills and swampy ground of Scotland
and the northern counties of England during the breeding season. These
migrations usually take place at night, the birds flying at a considerable
height from the ground. During the day they rest or seek for food, and,
strangely enough, select not their usually favourite marshes, but fields
and cultivated ground. These Plovers are brisk and nimble, running with
great rapidity, and flying, not only swiftly, but gracefully. During the
period of incubation they indulge in a variety of elegant gyrations in
the vicinity of the nest, and their plaintive, clear whistle is heard
to most advantage at that season. Worms, larvæ, beetles, snails, and
slugs constitute their principal nourishment, and in order to assist
digestion small pebbles are also swallowed. Water would appear to be a
real necessary of life to these birds, as they love to wash and cleanse
their feathers in it daily. The eggs, generally four in number, have a
yellowish, stone-coloured shell, marked and spotted with brownish black.
These are deposited in a slight hollow in the ground, lined with a few
fibres or blades of grass. The young leave the nest immediately after
quitting the shell, and follow their parents for about a month, after
which time they are able to fly and seek for food on their own account.
It is uncertain whether the father assists in the incubation of the eggs.
Macgillivray gives the following graphic description of the parental
affection observable in the male birds, as witnessed by himself on some
heath-covered mountain. "Presently a breeze rolls away the mist, and
discloses a number of these watchful sentinels, each on his mound of
faded moss, and all emitting their mellow cries the moment we offer to
advance. They are males, whose mates are brooding over their eggs, or
leading their down-clad and toddling chicks among the (to them) pleasant
peat-bogs that intervene between the high banks, clad with luxuriant
heath not yet recovered from the effects of the winter frosts, and
little meadows of cotton-grass, white as the snow-wreaths that lie on the
hills. How prettily they run over the grey moss and lichens, their little
feet twinkling, and their full, bright, and soft eyes gleaming as they
commence their attempts to entice us away from their chosen retreats."
The attempts to lure intruders from their nest, above alluded to, consist
in a most excellent feigning of being desperately wounded and unable to
fly, or by affecting to have lamed a leg, and thus enticing the enemy to
follow the cunning bird, as it slowly retreats in an opposite direction
to that occupied by its beloved progeny. When the young are able to fly,
the Plovers associate in flocks, which remain on the moors till winter
begins, when they quit them for pasture lands. As the season advances, and
the cold becomes severe, they descend to the coast, and usually remain in
the vicinity of the sea during the winter. Occasionally they are so tame
that, according to the authority above quoted, they will allow a sportsman
to approach within fifteen yards, and even walk around them several times
in order to drive them together before taking aim. "In windy weather,"
continues Macgillivray, "they often rest by lying flat on the ground,
and I have reason to think that at night this is the general practice.
In the Hebrides I have often gone to shoot them by moonlight, when they
seemed as actively engaged as in the day, which was also the case with
the Snipes, but I seldom succeeded in my object, it being extremely
difficult to estimate the distance at night. The numbers that at this
season frequent the sandy pastures and shores of the outer Hebrides is
astonishing."

[Illustration: THE GOLDEN PLOVER (_Charadrius auratus_), AND THE DOTTEREL
(_Eudromias Morinellus_).]

The Golden Plover is in great request for the table, and is in perfection
about September and October.

The specific name of _pluvialis_ has been given to the Golden Plover on
account of the extraordinary restlessness it exhibits before bad weather.
A very remarkable instance of this characteristic is given by the Rev.
R. Lubbock, in his "Fauna of Norfolk." According to that gentleman, he
was much struck by the perpetual wheeling, now high, now low, of a large
flock of these birds one fine bright day at the end of December. They were
not still for a moment, and yet there appeared to be no cause for such
unwonted disturbance. All next day they were in the same state of uproar,
and on the following morning, which was as calm and mild as the preceding,
the Plovers had all departed. About five o'clock in the morning, on the
same day, the wind began to howl, signs of a severe tempest set in, and by
the evening so much snow had fallen that in some places the drifts were
six or seven feet in depth.


THE RINGED PLOVER.

The RINGED PLOVER (_Charadrius hiaticula_) is light brownish ash-colour
on the upper parts of the body; the large wing-covers being tipped with
white; the throat and belly are white, the former having a black patch
upon its front; the cheeks are black, divided between the eyes by a white
line; the quills are dusky, part of the shafts and the web at the base
being white. Of the twelve feathers that compose the tail, the two centre
ones are brown, with dark tips, the three next black towards the end, the
next one only brown on the inner web, and the outer one entirely white.
The claws are black, the eyes hazel, and the feet orange, the beak is
orange, tipped with black. During the winter these colours are less bright
and the black upon the throat comparatively very pale. The female has less
white upon the front and more upon the wings, and her plumage generally
is of a more cineraceous brown. The young are dusky black and without the
white on the front; their bill is dusky, and their foot yellowish brown.
The length of this species is seven inches and half, and the span of the
wing, sixteen inches; the bill measures one inch and half.

The Ringed Plover is abundantly met with in Germany and Holland, and is
also found in France and Italy; during the summer it visits Russia and
Siberia, whilst in Great Britain it remains throughout the greater part of
the year, being especially numerous in all such parts of our coast as are
well covered with sand and shingle. This species has, however, been known
to breed in the sandy warrens of Norfolk and Suffolk, at a considerable
distance from the sea. The food of this Plover consists of insects, worms,
and small crustaceans. The four eggs laid by the female are deposited near
the sea, in a hole in the sand, above high-water mark; occasionally this
cavity is lined with tiny stones, of about the size of a pea, and from
this circumstance has been derived the name of "Stone Hatch," by which the
bird is known in some parts of England. The eggs have a cineraceous brown
shell, spotted with black and greyish blue. If disturbed while brooding,
the parents at once feign lameness, and anxiously endeavour to lead
intruders away from their little family. The note of the Ringed Plover is
a shrill whistle.

       *       *       *       *       *

The DOTTED PLOVERS (_Eudromias_) form a distinct group, having their
high straight beak compressed in the centre of the upper mandible, and
of greater length than their large head. A portion of the wing is much
prolonged, and the tarsus covered with horny plates. The dotted plumage is
very similar in the various species.


THE DOTTED PLOVER, OR DOTTEREL.

The DOTTED PLOVER, or DOTTEREL (_Eudromias Morinellus_), has a garb well
suited to the rocky haunts that it frequents. The feathers on the upper
parts of the body are of a blackish shade, edged with rust-red; the grey
head is separated from the rust-red breast by a narrow white and a black
line; the lower breast is black in its centre, and the belly white; a
broad light stripe passes over the eyes to the nape. The eye is dark
brown, the beak black, and the foot greenish yellow. In autumn the upper
portions of the body are deep grey, the feathers on the crown of the head
black and rust-yellow, and the stripe over the eyes pale rust-yellow; the
upper breast is grey and the rest of the under side white. The female
resembles her mate, but is less beautifully coloured. This species is from
eight inches and three-quarters to nine inches long, and eighteen broad;
the wing measures five inches and three-quarters; and the tail two inches
and three-quarters. The Dotterels inhabit the mountainous tracts of the
northern portions of the globe, and are occasionally seen at an altitude
of ten thousand feet above the level of the sea. During the winter they
wander south; rarely, however, going beyond the countries bordering the
Mediterranean. These migrations take place in August, and are carried
on in flocks, which travel both by day and night. The homeward journey
is not commenced earlier than April. The Dotterel visits Great Britain
during the summer, appearing first in the south-eastern part of England.
It seldom goes far west, but takes a northern course, and always inhabits
high ground. Mr. Heysham, of Carlisle, gives the following account of the
habits of this bird, drawn from his own observation:--

"In the neighbourhood of Carlisle, Dotterels seldom make their appearance
before the middle of May, about which time they are occasionally seen in
different localities in flocks which vary in number from five to fifteen,
and almost invariably resort to heaths, barren pastures, fallow lands,
&c., in open and exposed situations, where they continue, if unmolested,
from ten days to a fortnight, and then retire to the mountains and the
vicinity of lakes to incubate. The most favourite breeding haunts of these
birds are always near to, or on the summits of, the highest mountains,
particularly those that are densely covered with the woolly fringe-moss
(_Tricostomum lanuginosum_), which, indeed, grows more or less profusely
on nearly all the most elevated parts of this alpine district. In these
lonely places they constantly reside the whole of the breeding season, a
considerable part of the time enveloped in clouds, and daily soaked with
rain or the drenching mist so extremely prevalent in these dreary regions.
The Dotterel is by no means a solitary bird at this time, as a few pairs
usually associate together, and live to all appearance in the greatest
harmony. These birds do not make any nest, but deposit their eggs, which
seldom exceed three in number, in a cavity on dry ground covered with
vegetation, and generally near a moderate-sized stone or fragment of
rock. In early seasons old females will occasionally lay their eggs about
the 26th of May, but the greater part seldom commence before the first
or second week in June; they appear, however, to vary greatly in this
respect. The male assists in the incubation of the young.

"A week previous to their departure," continues the same observer, "they
congregate in flocks, and continue together until they finally leave
this country, which is sometimes during the latter part of August, at
others not before the beginning of September. A few birds are, no doubt,
occasionally seen after this period, but they are either late broods, or
birds that are returning from more northern latitudes."

With regard to their manners, Mr. Heysham says:--"On the 3rd of July we
found two or three pairs near the most elevated portion of this mountain;
and on all our visits thither, whether early in the morning or late in the
afternoon, the greater part were always seen near the same place, sitting
on the ground. When first discovered, they permitted us to approach within
a short distance without showing any symptoms of alarm, and frequently
afterwards, when within a few paces watching their movements, some would
move slowly about and pick up an insect, others would remain motionless,
now and then stretching out their wings, and a few would occasionally
tug with each other, at the same time uttering a few notes which had
some resemblance to those of the Common Linnet. In short, they appeared
to be so very indifferent with regard to our presence, that at last my
assistant could not avoid exclaiming, 'What stupid birds these are!'
The female that had young nevertheless evinced considerable anxiety for
their safety, whenever we came near the place where they were concealed,
and as long as we remained in the vicinity, she constantly flew to and
fro above us, uttering her note of alarm. As soon as the young birds
were fully feathered, two were killed for the purpose of examining their
plumage in this state, and we found that after they had been fired at
once or twice they became more wary, and eventually we had some little
difficulty in approaching sufficiently near to effect our purpose. The
stomachs I dissected were all filled with the elytra and remains of small
coleopterous insects, which in all probability constitute their principal
food during the breeding season."

The pear-shaped eggs of the Dotterel are three or four in number, and
have a smooth lustreless shell, of a pale yellowish brown or greenish
hue, irregularly spotted with white. Upon one occasion we accidentally
disturbed a brood, and having taken the young in our hand and shown
them to the mother, she at once boldly ruffled her feathers, shook her
wings, and endeavoured to excite pity by a variety of gesticulations. No
sooner were the prisoners released than she uttered a cry of delight, and
gathered them under her wings, after the manner of a Barn-door Fowl. The
flesh of this Plover is extremely delicate.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SHORE PLOVERS (_Ægialites_) occupy the sandy or gravelly shores of
rivers on the sea-coast, and are characterised by their comparatively
small size, delicate beaks, long pointed wings, and the uniform hue of the
sandy plumage on the upper parts of the body. The under side is white, and
the neck encircled by a band.


THE LITTLE SHORE PLOVER, OR LITTLE RINGED PLOVER.

The LITTLE SHORE PLOVER, or LITTLE RINGED PLOVER (_Ægialites minor_), as
the best known species is called, scarcely exceeds a Lark in size; the
length of the body being about six inches and a half, and the span of the
wing eighteen inches. The wing measures four inches and one-third, and the
tail three inches and one-third. In this bird the cheeks, crown of the
head, and upper portions of the plumage are earthy grey, the under side is
white as far as the throat, round which passes a black band; the quills,
bridles, and a streak on the brow are also black. The latter is bounded
by a white line, which is again edged with black. The eye is dark brown,
with a circle around it of King's yellow; the beak is black, and the foot
reddish grey. All these colours are paler in the female. The young are
without the black collar on the neck. This species is met with throughout
Europe, almost the whole of Asia, and a great portion of the African
continent. It, however, only visits the more southern countries during the
course of its migrations, which extend from August and September to March
or April. Southern Europe is, we believe, the farthest point at which
it is known to breed. In the northern portions of the globe it almost
exclusively frequents the rush-covered banks of marshy water at some
distance from the sea, but occasionally, during the winter journeyings,
which they make in large flocks, these birds are seen upon the coast.

The Little Ringed Plover is rare in Great Britain. Mr. Gould says, "We
are indebted to our friend Mr. Doubleday, of Epping, for the loan of an
example of this elegant little Plover, which he informs us was taken at
Shoreham, in Sussex. From the extreme youth of the specimen transmitted
to us, it is clear that it must have been bred on the spot. The food of
this species consists of various insects, larvæ, mussels, and similar
fare. They drink much, bathe freely once or twice a day, and frequently
obtain their prey from under stones in or near the water." In their habits
they closely resemble such of their brethren as we have already described.

[Illustration: THE LAPWING, OR PEEWIT (_Vanellus cristatus_).]

The four pretty little pale reddish-yellow eggs have a delicate lustreless
shell, marked and dotted with grey and blackish brown, and are deposited
in a slight hollow on a gravelly or pebbly bank, at such a height as to be
in no danger from the rising of the water. During fine days, the parents
leave the brood exposed to the rays of the sun, but in rainy weather and
at night they share the labour of incubation, and sit constantly. The
young are hatched in sixteen or seventeen days, and leave the nest as
soon as their plumage is dry, and in a few days begin to pick food. In a
few days more they are able to support themselves, but remain with their
parents during the first migration.

       *       *       *       *       *

The LAPWINGS, or PEEWITS (_Vanelli_), represent a family of birds
characterised by their size, the strength of their beak, and the height
of the tarsi. The foot is, in many instances, furnished with four toes.
In some species the head is adorned with a crest; some have spurs on the
wings, and others a remarkable development of skin at the corners of
the beak. The sexes are nearly alike, and the young speedily attain the
plumage of the adult bird.

The Peewits occupy every latitude, and are met with in the most diverse
situations, for whilst some species exclusively seek the vicinity of water
or marshy ground, others frequent arid plains or the burning sands of
the desert. In disposition they are lively, and possess such a restless
curiosity concerning every object around them as frequently renders them
most troublesome to the sportsman, whose insidious approach they at once
proclaim to all their feathered companions. All the members of this
family, though social in their habits, live almost constantly in pairs,
which remain together even during the winter migrations; indeed, it is
probable that at this season even the young have each a chosen companion.
Insects, worms, and similar fare afford them the means of subsistence; but
they also occasionally consume seeds, young leaves, and shoots. The nest
is merely a hollow in the ground more or less slightly lined, and contains
four eggs. The flesh of these birds is hard and indigestible.


THE PEEWIT, OR LAPWING.

The PEEWIT, or LAPWING (_Vanellus cristatus_), represents a division of
the above group having four toes upon the foot, blunt wings, and a crest
upon the head. The crown, fore part of the throat, upper breast, and half
the tail, are glossy black; the mantle-feathers deep green, with a blue
or purple gloss; the sides of the neck, lower breast, body, and lower
half of the tail are white, and some of the feathers on the upper and
lower tail-covers dark rusty yellow. The crest is composed of long narrow
feathers. The female has a smaller crest, and the fore parts of the throat
spotted black and white. The young resemble the mother, but are duller
in their tints, and have broad rust-yellow feathers on the upper portion
of the body. In all the eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot dirty
red. This species is thirteen inches long and twenty-seven broad; the wing
measures eight inches and a half, and the tail four inches. (See Coloured
Plate XXXIII.)

The Lapwing occupies a wide range, extending from 61° north latitude, as
far as Northern India and North Africa. In some parts of China it is as
common as in Great Britain. Some writers are of opinion that this Peewit
breeds in Spain, but, according to our own observations, it only appears
in that land at the end of October, and leaves again to go north at the
beginning of March. Radde mentions having seen it on the Amur, being
particularly numerous at Tarai-Noor; strange to say, such as he observed
did not remain in the vicinity of the water during the summer, but
occupied dry and barren steppes throughout the whole season of incubation.
In India, according to Jerdon, this species is only found in the Punjaub,
where it breeds. The Peewit is especially numerous in Holland, and is
generally distributed over the British Isles, except in the extreme north
of Scotland and the Hebrides, everywhere occupying moorlands, downs, and
swampy lands, and depositing its four eggs in a slight hollow, which is
lined with a few straws or blades of grass. The eggs are pyriform, and
have a pale brownish yellow or olive-coloured shell, prettily spotted and
marked with brownish black. The young leave the nest as soon as they are
hatched, and if alarmed, at once take refuge in the moss or grass. Both
parents exhibit great affection and anxiety for their young, and should
a stranger venture to approach the nest, fly around him, and use every
endeavour to lure him from the spot, sometimes running as if lame, or
fluttering as though with a broken wing to tempt pursuit; nevertheless,
in spite of all her arts, the Lapwing's nest is frequently rifled, and
numbers of eggs are sent to the London market. According to Mr. Selby, the
trade of collecting them continues about two months, and great expertness
in the discovery of the nests is shown by those accustomed to it. They
generally judge of their situation pretty accurately by the conduct of the
female birds, who, upon being disturbed, invariably fly from the nest,
and then run near the ground for a short distance without uttering any
alarm cry. The males on the contrary are very clamorous, and fly round
the intruder, endeavouring by various instinctive arts to divert his
attention. So expert, says another observer, have some men become, that
they will not only walk straight to a nest which may be at a considerable
distance, but tell the probable number of eggs it may contain, generally
judging of the situation and number of eggs by the conduct of the female
bird.

When the young are reared, the Lapwings associate in flocks which, at
the end of autumn, exchange the higher moorlands for lower ground, and
frequent the ploughed fields. When going to a distance, they fly with
speed often in an irregular body, but sometimes in lines, alighting in
silence after various evolutions. About the middle of March they return to
higher ground, again to resume their family duties.

The Lapwing feeds on worms, insects, slugs, and larvæ, and on this account
is frequently kept in gardens; but when thus domesticated, it needs a
supply of food, when wintry frosts debar it from its usual diet.

The two English names of this bird have been derived from its most
striking peculiarities, the one, Peewit, from its singular cry, and the
other, Lapwing, from the strange, remarkable flapping of its wings during
flight.


THE SPUR-WINGED LAPWING.

The SPUR-WINGED LAPWING (_Hoplopterus spinosus_) is characterised by a
spur-like appendage on its wings, its long legs, three-toed feet, a blunt
crest upon the head, and its comparatively pointed wing, in which the
second quill exceeds the rest in length. In this species the mantle is
greyish brown, part of the head and the under side are black; the sides
of the head, throat, belly, and the nape and region of the wings are all
white; the primary quills and tail-feathers are principally tipped with
black, some of the largest feathers on the wing-covers and two entire
tail-feathers being white. The sexes are alike in plumage, and do not vary
in their tints at any season of the year.

This bird is very common in Egypt, where it usually occupies the
vicinity of water; nevertheless it entirely avoids the sea-coast, but
occasionally sojourns near lakes of brackish water. In the northern
portion of Central Africa it is constantly seen, but is rare in Nubia,
Eastern Soudan, and Habesch. During the spring and autumn it sometimes
wanders as far as Greece, and, according to Lindermayer, is occasionally
met with there on the sea-coast. Whether it also breeds in Greece, is at
present uncertain. This bird, called "Siksak" by the Arabs, in imitation
of its peculiar cry, is sometimes erroneously supposed to be the bird
alluded to by Herodotus, as clearing the parasites from the teeth of
the crocodile. This mistake has no doubt arisen from the fact that it
frequently occupies the sandbanks on which these monsters repose, and is
often seen running fearlessly over and about their huge bodies. Like the
rest of their brethren, these Lapwings render themselves most obnoxious
to the naturalist or sportsman, by the pertinacity with which they warn
all their companions of the approach of danger, and by thus constantly
annoying him, destroy the impression of pleasure that the grace and ease
of their movements would otherwise excite. Day and night this restlessness
continues, and has given rise to a legend among the Arabs that this
tormenting little bird received the curse of perpetual sleeplessness,
together with the spur upon its shoulder, as a punishment for former
indolent habits. Towards its feathered associates it exhibits the same
irritable demeanour, frequently attacking even such as are larger than
itself with astonishing boldness, and often inflicting serious damage with
its armed wing. Insects, worms, mussels, and sand, are usually found on
dissection in its stomach. Its flesh is very unpalatable. The period of
incubation commences about the middle of March. In Egypt a moist field is
usually selected by a breeding pair, whilst on the Upper Nile sandbanks
are preferred. The eggs are smaller than those of the European Lapwing,
and are coloured with mixed green, yellow and grey, marked with blackish
brown spots, which do not extend over the narrow end. We have found as
many as six eggs in one nest, but possibly they were deposited by more
than one female. Occasionally we have seen earth strewn on the nest, but
whether this was the result of accident or design we could not ascertain.
When first hatched the young are covered with greyish down, but soon
acquire plumage similar to that of the adults, and leave the nest very
shortly after quitting the shell. Like others of their kind, they run with
astonishing rapidity, and conceal themselves with great dexterity at the
approach of danger. As regards their movements and habits, these Lapwings
resemble such species as we have already described.

       *       *       *       *       *

The LAPPETED PEEWITS (_Sarciophorus_) are recognisable by the skin-like
appendages at the base of the beak, and by a horny excrescence at the
joint of the wing; the powerful bill is moderately long and the foot
rather large; the hinder toe is but slightly developed.

[Illustration: THE SPUR-WINGED LAPWING (_Hoplopterus spinosus_).]


THE LAPPETED PEEWIT.

The LAPPETED PEEWIT (_Sarciophorus pileatus_) is reddish grey on the upper
parts of the body and white on the nape and under side; the head, throat,
tips of the quills and tail-feathers are black. The eye is a beautiful
golden yellow, the beak blood-red at its base and black at the tip, and
the foot red. The length of this species is ten inches and two-thirds,
and the breadth twenty-four inches; the wing measures six inches and
three-quarters, and the tail three inches and a half.

These birds occupy barren plains and live in pairs or small families.
During our travels through Bahiuda and Cordofania we saw them daily, and
upon one occasion met with them in the Samchara, seeking for insects among
the droppings of the cattle. In their habits they resemble both the Common
and Spurred Peewit, their flight being similar to that of the latter bird.
In disposition they are shy and wary. We were unable to obtain further
particulars concerning them.


THE TURNSTONE.

[Illustration: _Plate 33. Cassell's Book of Birds_

THE LAPWING ____ VANELLUS CRISTATUS

(_about one half Nat. size_)]

The TURNSTONE (_Strepsilas interpres_) is the representative of
a sub-family, characterised by their powerful body, short neck,
comparatively large and high-browed head, and long pointed wing, in
which the first quill is the longest, some of the feathers being of
unusual length. The tail, composed of twelve feathers, is scarcely of
medium size, and has a gently-rounded tip; the conical beak is shorter
than the head, curves slightly upwards, and is flattened at its culmen;
the short legs are powerful; the foot furnished with four toes; and the
brightly-coloured plumage thick and compact. During summer the adult male
has the brow, cheeks, a broad collar on the nape, the lower part of the
back, the throat, feathers of the lower wing-covers, and a stripe above
the wings of a pure white; a line commencing near the brow and passing
near the eyes to the throat, the fore part and sides of the neck and
breast is black; the mantle-feathers are spotted black and red, and those
on the crown striped black and white; the feathers of the wing-covers
are chestnut-brown, spotted with black, the quills blackish, and the
tail-feathers white at the roots and tip, with a broad black stripe near
the extremity; the rump also shows a broad brown stripe. The eye is brown,
the beak black, and foot orange-yellow. This species is nine inches long
and eighteen across the span of the wing; the wing measures six inches and
the tail six inches and a half. In the young the plumage is a mixture of
blackish brown and rust-yellow, the fore part of the body being greyish
black.

[Illustration: THE TURNSTONE (_Strepsilas interpres_).]

These birds are met with in all parts of the world, everywhere occupying
the sea-coast. In Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland, they appear at
the end of April or beginning of May and leave again about the end of
the last week of August, at which time they occur on the shores of the
Mediterranean. They visit England regularly, remaining during the winter
and going north to breed. They are restless and active birds, and run
rapidly, with wings lowered, but usually only for a short distance,
pausing from time to time, for a few moments, in the course of their swift
career; their flight is easy, and accompanied by a variety of graceful
evolutions. Their cry, which is shrill and penetrating, is uttered with
such various degrees of rapidity, as to produce very different effects.
In disposition they are cautious and usually shy. Audubon states that he
had ocular demonstration of the fact, that, as its name imports, this
species actually turns over stones and other objects to search for food,
and gives the following interesting account of the proceedings of four of
these birds, which he observed on the beach of Gaveston Island, whilst he
was engaged together with a sailor in carrying the carcase of a deer to be
washed:--"They merely," he says, "ran a little distance out of our course,
and on our returning came back immediately to the same place; this they
did four different times, and after we were done remained busily engaged
in searching for food. None of them were more than fifteen or twenty yards
distant, and I was delighted to see the ingenuity with which they turned
over the oyster-shells, clods of mud, and other small bodies left exposed
by the retiring tide. Whenever the object was not too large, the bird
bent its legs to half their length, placed its bill beneath it, and with
a sudden, quick jerk of the head pushed it off, when it quickly picked
up the food which was thus exposed to view, and walked deliberately to
the next shell to perform the same operation. In some instances when the
clusters of oyster-shells or clods of mud were too heavy to be removed in
the ordinary manner, they would not only use the bill and head, but also
the breast, pushing the object with all their strength, and reminding me
of the labour which I have undergone in turning over a large turtle. Among
the seaweeds which had been cast on the shore they used only the bill,
tossing the garbage from side to side with a dexterity extremely pleasant
to behold. In this manner I saw these four Turnstones examine almost every
portion of the shore, along a space of from thirty to forty yards; after
which I drove them away, that our hunters might not kill them on their
return."

Upon the coast of Cape May and Egg Harbour this species is known by the
name of the "Horsefoot Snipe," from the fact that it subsists during a
portion of the summer almost entirely on the spawn and eggs of the great
"king crab," called by the common people the "horsefoot." This spawn may
often be seen by bushels in the hollows and eddies on the coast.

During the breeding season these birds retire to high northern latitudes,
so that their mode of nidification was long a mystery, until Mr. Hewitson,
who made diligent search for the Turnstone's nest on the coast of Norway,
was at last successful. "We had," he writes, "visited numerous islands
with little encouragement, and were about to land upon a flat rock,
bare, except where here and there grew tufts of grass or stunted juniper
clinging to its surface, when our attention was attracted by the singular
cry of a Turnstone, which in its eager watch had seen our approach and
perched itself upon an eminence of the rock, assuring us by its querulous
oft-repeated note and anxious motions that its nest was there. We remained
in the boat a short time, until we had watched it behind a tuft of grass,
near which, after a minute search, we succeeded in finding the nest, in
a situation in which I should never have suspected to meet with a bird
of this sort breeding; it was placed against the ledge of the rock, and
consisted of nothing more than the drooping leaves of the juniper-bush,
under a creeping branch of which, the eggs, four in number, were snugly
concealed and admirably sheltered from the many storms by which these
bleak and exposed rocks are visited, allowing just sufficient room for the
bird to cover them. We afterwards found more nests with little difficulty.
All the nests contained four eggs each. The time of breeding is about the
middle of June. The eggs measure one inch and two lines in breadth, and
are of an olive-green colour, spotted and streaked with ash-blue and two
shades of reddish brown."

The parents are much attached to their offspring. The habits of the latter
resemble those of young Plovers. Audubon mentions an instance in which one
of these birds was reared by a lady, who fed it on boiled rice and bread
soaked in milk.


THE PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, OR SEA PIE.

The PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, or SEA PIE (_Hæmatopus ostralegus_), possesses
a compact body, large head, long straight beak, which is much compressed
and of conical form; moderately high, powerful feet, furnished with short
broad toes connected by a skin; medium-sized and pointed wings, in which
the first quill is the longest; and a short straight tail, composed of
twelve feathers. The plumage on the upper portions of the body is of a
glossy black; the neck, crop, and rump, a patch under the eye and the
belly are white; the primary quills and tail-feathers black, with white
roots. The eyes are bright blood-red, edged with orange. The broad rings
that surrounds the eyes and the beak are vermilion, the latter tipped with
a lighter shade; the feet are dark flesh-red. The length of the male is
sixteen inches; its breadth across the wings thirty-one inches and a half;
the wing measures nine inches and a half, and the tail fully four inches.
The female is smaller than her mate, and has less black upon her breast.
During the winter this species has a crescent-shaped white patch upon the
throat.

The Pied Oyster-catchers are met with along almost the entire coast of the
Old and New Worlds (being especially numerous on the more rocky portions).
They are also found in Greenland and on the islands of the Northern and
Arctic Oceans. During the winter they appear in Southern Europe, but are
by no means common. The migrations of these birds vary considerably with
the climate of their native haunts; such as inhabit shores warmed by the
Gulf Stream remaining in the same localities from one year to another;
whilst in those latitudes where the seas are covered with ice during
the cold season, they are compelled to go south in order to obtain the
requisite supply of food. During the course of these enforced wanderings
the mainland is rarely traversed, the fugitive keeping as near as possible
to the shore, or, when necessary, crossing even large tracts of water
without any inconvenience. Occupants of the shores of the eastern and
northern seas seek their winter quarters principally in France and the
north of Spain, whilst those occupying the coast of China appear regularly
in Southern India. In Great Britain the Pied Oyster-catchers are permanent
residents, and never extend their flight to any great distance, but after
the breeding season assemble in flocks, and in winter betake themselves
to estuaries and promontories. In April these flocks disperse in pairs,
and rove about the sandy beach in small parties. While searching for
food they usually keep apart from other birds, but are occasionally seen
in company with the Curlew, Turnstone, and Redshank. At high-water they
retire to rocky headlands or similar places of safety, where they remain
until the turn of the tide has left their hunting-grounds again exposed.
While reposing, according to Macgillivray, the Sea Pies stand with their
legs quite straight, or on one leg only, the other being drawn up; the
body is held in a horizontal position; the neck retracted; the head either
directed forward or with the bill buried among the feathers of the back.
In this attitude they present a very curious appearance when seen in a
high wind, as each bird directs its breast towards the quarter from which
it blows. On a sandy beach they often follow each other in long lines,
or crouch to the ground. Their flight is strong and steady, performed
by regular beats of the extended wings, with the neck drawn in, and the
feet directed backwards. When going to sleep they rest on one leg only.
Over the surface of the sandy shore they run with great rapidity, and
wade with ease in muddy places, their short, flat-soled feet being well
adapted for that purpose. During the period of incubation the Sea Pies
utter a great variety of pleasing notes, whilst at other times their
cry is not particularly agreeable. Of all the many feathered occupants
of our shores, these birds are by far the most restless and pugnacious,
though apparently without malice. Towards all their larger companions
they exhibit an incessant desire to resent intrusion, and at once dart
upon a bird of prey with loud cries, and drive the unwelcome visitor
away from the spot. Should no foreign foe appear, and thus afford them
an opportunity for venting their exuberant spirits, the males will harry
and annoy each other until their fury rising, the strife that apparently
began in sport terminates in a real battle, during which the antagonists
strike each other most mercilessly with their wings and beak. Towards men
they exhibit extreme shyness, and, except during the breeding season,
scarcely permit his approach. In this particular, however, they show much
intelligence, and readily distinguish the shepherd or fishermen from their
enemy the sportsman. "After the breeding season," says Macgillivray,
"the Sea Pies, especially plentiful in the Scottish Isles, form flocks
that are frequently very numerous, being composed of from twenty to one
hundred individuals or more. At this period they are met with chiefly on
the low rocky shores, or at the mouths of rivers, where at low water they
obtain their food, which consists of limpets, barnacles, small bivalve
shells swallowed entire, young crabs, and other marine animals. Although
frequently seen on extensive low sands, they seem rather to betake
themselves thither for security than for the purpose of looking for food.
On low, pebbly, muddy, or sandy shores they always prefer the edge of the
water, in which they wade, although they search the exposed parts. Limpets
and barnacles form their chief food; but, although they have been said
to eat oysters and large bivalve mollusca, I have not found such animals
in their stomach. The bivalve shells found in their gizzard or œsophagus
are generally, when of small size, either entire or merely crushed, but
when large, are deprived in a greater or less degree of their testaceous
envelopes. Along with their food they swallow particles of gravel,
frequently of considerable size. I have found some a quarter of an inch in
diameter."

[Illustration: THE PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, OR SEA PIE (_Hæmatopus
ostralegus_).]

Bivalve shells, when closed, are usually opened by these birds by striking
them at the hinge, while cockles are obtained by holding the shell with
the foot and wrenching with the bill as with a crowbar. When the shores
are flat and the surface thus remains covered with a shallow stratum of
water, after the tide has ebbed, the Oyster-catchers find their prey
more readily, as the shells are then partially opened, and they can
easily insert their wedge-shaped bill and force them asunder; but where
the sand soon dries and there are no rocks from which the limpet can be
obtained, they follow the line of the advancing and retreating waves.
Such of these birds as are stationary during all seasons commence the
business of incubation as early as the middle of April, while such as
migrate do not lay until somewhat later in the spring; at this season,
after the usual rivalry between the males, the pairs keep apart from
each other, but frequently remain in the immediate vicinity of some of
their weaker feathered associates, with whom they live in the utmost
harmony. The nest of the Sea Pie is a mere hollow in the shore, and is
usually situated amongst the tangled weed thrown above high water mark,
or on grassy spots in the immediate vicinity of the sea. The eggs, two
or three in number, are large and of an oval form with a pale brownish
shell, spotted, streaked, and very variously marked with light violet,
deep greyish brown and greyish black. The female, who alone broods, does
not sit during the noonday hours, and hatches her little family in about
three weeks. The young at first conceal themselves if alarmed, but even at
a very early period can run, swim, and dive with considerable facility.
Whilst in charge of their offspring, the parents exhibit unusual courage
and foresight, and should the mother perish, the father at once undertakes
all her duties. The flesh of the Sea Pie is unpalatable, but by many the
eggs are much esteemed. Gadamer states that a pair of Oyster-catchers
reared by him from the nest became so tame that they knew his voice and
greeted his appearance with loud cries. These birds were allowed to run
freely about the poultry-yard, and rendered excellent service to its more
timid occupants by warning the Fowls of the approach of a Hawk, or any
other feathered marauder.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SNIPES (_Limicolæ_) form a second division of the Stilt-walkers, which
embraces several minor groups, all characterised by having the hinder part
of the body of cylindrical form, a moderately long neck, a medium-sized
and much-arched head, and a long slender beak; the latter is curved or
straight throughout its length, with the sides compressed and grooved to
the tip, which is obtuse and in some instances flexible, of a much softer
texture than in most birds, and frequently covered with a highly sensitive
membrane. The long slender tarsi are usually more or less high; the toes
generally long, the lateral ones sometimes united to the middle toe by a
membrane; the hind toe short, resting on the ground, or entirely wanting;
the long pointed wing is more or less sickle-shaped; and the short tail
composed of from twelve to twenty-six feathers. The plumage varies
considerably in thickness and coloration, both in the various groups and
at different seasons of the year; the sexes are, however, very similar
to each other. The members of this section usually inhabit marshy land,
the borders of swampy lakes, and the sea-coast. In the breeding season
they live in pairs, but congregate in large flocks during the autumn or
winter, and are more or less migratory. Fruits, worms, slugs, and aquatic
mollusca, afford them their principal means of existence; some few also
eat seeds. Both sexes assist in the process of incubation, and generally
construct a slight nest upon the ground. The eggs are pear-shaped and from
two to four in number.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUE SNIPES (_Scolopaces_) are characterised by their powerful but
comparatively short body, moderately long neck, which is compressed at
its sides, a very high-browed head, and large, prominent eyes. The long
slender beak is straight on the side and rather turned down near the tip,
which is obtuse and bent over that of the lower mandible; the extremity of
the bill is thickened, soft, and very tender at its extremity, so that
this part, which is richly supplied with nerves, serves as a delicate
organ of touch, and is used for searching in the soft ground for the
insects and worms that constitute the food of these birds. The more or
less long tarsi are covered in front with narrow transverse scales, the
anterior toes are long, that in the middle being of unusual length, the
hinder toe is short, elevated, and reaches to the ground, the wings are
broad, but comparatively short, and the short broad tail, composed of from
twelve to twenty-six feathers, is rounded at its extremity. The plumage of
this group, which is soft and thick, varies in its coloration according to
the situations occupied by its possessor.

The Snipes must be regarded as natives of the north and temperate portions
of the earth, although they also visit its warmest latitudes. Many species
frequent swampy woods, but for the most part they seek their food in
marshes and morasses, remaining concealed during the day and searching
for their food principally early in the morning or during the evening
hours. Although by no means of social disposition, they are occasionally
seen congregated together in considerable numbers; these assemblages
are, however, owing apparently to the attraction of a suitable locality,
as each bird lives, as it were, for itself and pays but little heed to
its companions. Early in spring, the males exhibit a very pugnacious
disposition, and have many fierce encounters with their rivals before
obtaining a mate. The movements of the Snipes, both on the ground and in
the air and water, are extremely active and easy, and the facility with
which they seize and extract their insect prey from the mud and ooze, must
be regarded as truly astonishing. Their voice is usually monotonous and
harsh, but during the period of incubation the male indulges in a variety
of gesticulations and peculiar notes. When alarmed, these birds generally
lie close to the ground or among the herbage, or suddenly starting on wing
escape by a flight which is short, elevated, rapid, and irregular. The
four moderate-sized and pear-shaped eggs have a dirty yellow or greenish
shell spotted with brown, and are deposited in a slight hole in the
ground. The young, when they are hatched, are clad in a downy chequered
garb of black and brown, and quit the nest on the day they escape from the
shell. The Snipes are migratory in their habits and generally breed in
high northern latitudes, but some are indigenous in this country, in all
parts of which they rear their young, being especially numerous towards
the north of Britain. Their flesh is much esteemed.


THE WOODCOCK.

The WOODCOCK (_Scolopax rusticola_) possesses a comparatively strong beak,
rounded at the tip, and short stout feet with a very small claw upon the
hind toe. The wing is blunt, and the tail composed of twelve feathers.
Upon the forehead the plumage is grey, the sides of the head and nape are
striped brown and reddish yellow; the rest of the upper portions of the
body are spotted with various shades of brown, grey, and black. The large
eye is brown, and the beak and foot horn-grey. This species is twelve
inches long and twenty-two broad; the wing measures three, and the tail
three inches and a half.

The Woodcock is met with throughout the whole of Europe, with the
exception of its most northern islands, and throughout Northern and
Central Asia. It also visits North-western Africa and India, as far south
as Madras, and, according to "Mountaineer," breeds immediately beneath the
snow line of the Himalayas. In Sweden, Great Britain, and the northern
part of Germany, some frequently remain throughout the entire year, while
those occupying colder latitudes invariably wander south at the approach
of autumn. By far the greater number, however, of the birds that appear in
England and Scotland are merely winter residents, arriving about October,
and leaving for more northern regions in March. Mr. Selby, who resided
near the eastern coast of Northumberland, and thus had ample opportunities
for observing the arrival of flocks of Woodcocks, says:--"I have found
that they always come over in the greatest abundance in hazy weather with
little wind, and that blowing from the north-east; and it is probable
that they then find the upper region of the atmosphere in which they fly
freer from the counter currents of air, than in more open weather. After
a night of this description, I have frequently met with great numbers
upon the edges of plantations, in hedges, and even in turnip-fields, and
enjoyed excellent sport for the day; but, on seeking for a renewal of
success, I have not found a single bird, the whole flight having proceeded
on their course during the intervening night. It is during this time that
Woodcocks, like most migratory birds, perform their journeys; and it seems
probable that those which halt upon the eastern coast of Scotland, and
the northern counties of England have completed their task from shore to
shore, between sunset and sunrise, as they appear but little fatigued on
their arrival, provided the weather has been calm. The distance of the
coasts of Norway and Sweden, from whence these visitors are supposed to
come, offers no objection to this supposition, as a continued flight of
eight or ten hours, even at a rate inferior to what I conceive they are
capable of accomplishing, would suffice for the transit. "A respectable
person who lived upon the coast," continues the same observer, "and who,
being a keen pursuer of wild fowl, was in the habit of frequenting the
sea-shore at an early hour in the morning, assured me that he had more
than once noticed the arrival of a flight of Woodcocks coming from the
north-east just at day-dawn. His notice was first attracted by a peculiar
sound in the air above his head; this, upon attending to it, he found
proceeded from birds descending in an almost perpendicular direction
which, upon approaching the shore, separated and flew toward the interior;
these he pursued and shot, and they proved to be, as he had surmised,
Woodcocks." The first flocks of these birds that arrive upon our coast,
according to Yarrell, consist for the most part of females which only
remain for a few days and then journey further south, while the later
flocks, some of which remain to breed, are principally composed of male
birds. So numerously are Woodcocks met with in Greece at some seasons,
that we are told, three Englishmen on a sporting tour in the Peloponnesus
shot no less than 500 brace in the course of three days; during the actual
winter they are far less common in that country, and by February have
generally commenced leaving Southern Europe and North-western Asia for
Morocco, or the regions around the Altai Mountains. Taking one year with
another in Europe, March may be regarded as the month in which these birds
commence their migrations, the exact date for setting forth depending,
according to the testimony of an observer who studied their habits for
seventeen years, not as is usually supposed on the actual state of the
weather, but on signs of approaching cold, to which the keen instinct
of these birds renders them peculiarly susceptible. Like many of their
feathered brethren, they usually travel against the wind, and do not
continue their journey on dark or very windy nights: if thus compelled
to descend, they prefer seeking shelter in some wood or forest, but if
traversing an open country, often take refuge in a well-planted garden or
hedge-row. During the course of their flight, however, they keep as much
as possible over wooded localities, and unless alarmed, do not rise to
any great height in the air, through which they sweep rapidly, ascending,
descending, or making their way through the branches of the forest with
equal ease and dexterity. When endeavouring to attract the attention of
their females, the motions of these birds are entirely different; at
such times the plumage is inflated, and the aspirants for admiration fly
heavily along with slowly flapping wings, in a manner resembling that of
the Owl. Should two rival males encounter each other when thus engaged,
they at once commence hostilities, and after a merciless attack with beak
and wings, often end by falling together into the trees beneath them.
The strangest circumstance connected with these exhibitions of jealousy
is, that they occur amongst the flocks during the migratory season, and
not, as is generally the case, only at the period of incubation. Upon the
ground the Woodcocks are less expert in their movements; they walk slowly,
with a somewhat tripping step, and never venture any distance on foot.
In their native woods they usually remain comparatively quiet during the
day, and only exhibit their full activity and briskness towards evening.
In disposition they are extremely shy, and invariably prefer shady and
retired situations, only penetrated by a kind of twilight. If chance
should lead them across an open space during the day, they generally
crouch flat on the ground, and, owing to the sombre hue of their feathers,
are not easily detected; in this position they will often remain until
almost trodden upon, when they suddenly rise and endeavour to elude the
sportsman by darting through the trees and bushes, always taking care to
keep well on the side opposite to the enemy. In their intercourse with
each other, Woodcocks are by no means social, every individual going
its own way without any reference to its companions. In their demeanour
towards men, and birds of a different species, they usually exhibit the
utmost timidity. Instances, however, are recorded of their having been
reared from the nest, and rendered so tame that they would come at their
owner's call, and greet his approach with every indication of delight. The
call of the male consists of a sort of humming note, while the female only
utters a gentle piping cry. The food of these birds consists of worms,
larvæ, and insects, which are sought for by means of the long bill beneath
dry leaves and cattle droppings, or are obtained by probing the surface of
moist and marshy localities.

[Illustration: THE WOODCOCK (_Scolopax rusticola_).]

"The Woodcock," we are told, in the notes to the "Lays of the Deer
Forest," "breeds to a considerable extent in most parts of the forest,
and also in other woods of Morayshire, the Aird of Inverness, and on the
Dee, the Don, the Spey, and other parts of the Highlands, but within our
knowledge nowhere so numerously as in Tarnaway. Without any search, and
merely on the accidental occasions of roe-hunting, we have found in one
season nineteen nests with eggs. It would, however, be more proper to
say _beds_ than _nests_; for, like those of the Plover, they are merely
slight hollows formed by the nestling of the birds in dry soft spots,
or on the fallen leaves. As the nests are on dry ground, the old ones
will sometimes carry their young in their claws to the nearest spring or
green strip. Several times when the hounds, in beating the ground, have
come upon a brood, we have seen the old bird rise with a young one in her
claws, and carry it fifty or one hundred yards away, and, if followed to
the place where she alighted, she has repeated the transaction until too
much harassed. One morning, while sitting on a grey stone, I saw a dark
eye which was fixed upon mine from the bed of dead leaves before me, when
suddenly the little brown head of a young Woodcock peeped out from the
feathers of the old one's breast, uttering that plaintive cry for which
language has no sign. There were two more young Woodcocks, and to relieve
the anxiety of the _madre_, I left her. Near the place where I found her
there was a soft green strip such as Woodcocks love. I had no doubt that
the family would be there next day, and as I passed I turned aside to
see what they were doing. Upon a dry bank, half down the brae, I almost
stumbled over a bird which rose at my feet, and as it started through the
trees I saw that it had something in its claws, and at the same time I
heard the plaintive cry of little Woodcocks just under my feet. I looked
down, there were two, and I thought a Hawk had carried off the third, and
perhaps killed the mother. This, however, I found, on following the bird,
was the old Woodcock, which, being flushed again suddenly, after a low
flight of only a few yards, dropped what she was carrying--her own young
Woodcock. I gave her a little time to find him, which was not difficult,
as he called to her as loud as his tiny bill could pipe. In a few moments
I ran forward, and she rose with him in her feet, her long legs dangling
and swinging with her little burden like a parachute. I left her to pursue
her flight in peace, and went on my way, but I have no doubt she went back
for the other two, for several times afterwards I saw them all together
in the soft green glade." The three or four eggs laid by the female are
large, broad, and short in shape, with a smooth, lustreless, light reddish
yellow shell, very variously marked with different shades of red and
brown. The mother alone broods and hatches her little family in about
seventeen or eighteen days. If disturbed whilst sitting, she allows the
intruder to approach quite close before quitting her charge, and after
flying to a short distance almost immediately returns; even should she be
deprived of an egg she still continues to brood. Whilst thus engaged the
female receives little or no attention from her mate, but the young are
no sooner hatched than the male at once undertakes his share of parental
duties, and exhibits equally with the mother a most touching anxiety and
devotion in their behalf. Should an enemy intrude upon them, the old
birds employ every effort to attract attention to themselves, while the
young immediately crouch beneath the long grass or moss, in which they
can rarely be discovered without the aid of a dog. When three weeks old
the fledglings begin to use their wings, but are capable of seeking food
before they can fly. Until lately it has been supposed that Woodcocks lay
but once in the year, or at most only produce a second supply of eggs if
the first has been stolen or destroyed. Recent observations, however, tend
to prove this idea to be erroneous. Hoffmann, in particular, after long
and careful investigation, is of opinion that in favourable seasons each
pair of these birds rears two broods.

       *       *       *       *       *

The MARSH SNIPES (_Gallinago_) are characterised by their comparatively
long, flat beak, moderately long, bare foot, and long, thin toes, which
are entirely unconnected; the wing is much incised, and the short tail
composed of from fourteen to twenty-six feathers.


THE COMMON SNIPE.

The COMMON SNIPE, or BECASSINE (_Gallinago scolopacinus_), has the upper
portion of the body brownish black, and is decorated with a broad, rusty
yellow stripe upon the centre of the head, and four long lines of the same
colour on the back and shoulders; the under side is white, the fore part
of the throat grey, while the upper parts of the breast and sides are
spotted with brown. The tail is formed of fourteen feathers. The eye is
dark brown, the beak black, and the foot deep grey. This species is eleven
inches long and seventeen broad, the wing measures five inches, and the
tail two inches and a quarter.

The Common Snipe is met with principally in the north of Europe and
Asia, but also probably breeds in the southern portions of the former
continent and in North Africa; in some parts of Europe it is extremely
common, and in England and Scotland breeds not only in the northern
counties, but along the whole southern coast. Large flocks also come
to the British Isles from Scandinavia during the winter, and leave
again about the month of April. Recent observations have proved that
the species of Marsh Snipes met with in North America are not identical
with the _Gallinago scotopacinus_. During the course of its migrations
the Common Snipe wanders over all lands between forty-five and thirteen
degrees north latitude; they appear in India at the beginning of October
in numerous flocks, and at certain seasons occupy the shores of the Nile
and Ganges with great regularity. This species frequents marshy grounds,
moist rush-covered localities, or wet meadows, and usually avoids the
extremes of heat and cold by keeping to the moors in summer and seeking
the shelter of the valleys during the winter. In severe frosts, or storms
of snow, it takes refuge near springing rills or the immediate vicinity
of flowing streams. Insects, worms, or slugs afford its principal means
of subsistence; and for these it searches by probing the moist ground
with its long bill. Although frequently associated in flocks during their
migrations, these birds always exhibit the same unsocial disposition,
each individual pursuing its own course, or seeking its provender in
entire disregard of its companions. As with the Woodcock, this species
goes in quest of food principally after twilight; but, unlike that bird,
is also active during the day, and at most reposes for a few hours at
noon. Upon the ground the Common Snipe moves leisurely but easily, keeping
the head erect; its flight is rapid, and usually takes a zigzag course
immediately after the bird has risen into the air. Generally when about
to fly it suddenly takes an upward direction; and after rapidly pursuing
an undulating path, returns almost immediately to the spot from whence it
started; and then, drawing in its wings, falls obliquely to the ground.
If alarmed, it frequently springs high, and takes flight beyond reach of
the gun, turning nimbly, in a zigzag direction, for 200 or 300 paces, and
sometimes soaring out of sight. This Snipe swims well, and occasionally
takes to the water when not compelled to do so; if hotly pursued by a
bird of prey or other enemy, it sometimes endeavours to save itself by
diving. At the commencement of the breeding season, the males indulge
in most arduous endeavours to attract the attention of their desired
mates, whose admiration they essay to excite by soaring rapidly into
the air, describing a variety of evolutions, and then darting earthward
with closed wings. All these active exertions, which often continue for
half an hour at a time, are accompanied by a most strange humming sound,
respecting which naturalists are not yet agreed, some considering it to be
produced by the rapid action of the powerful pinions, while others have
supposed it to be occasioned by the long tail-feathers. Whilst engaged
in these animated manœuvres, the male birds not only so far forget their
usual timidity as to perch freely on the projecting branches of trees,
but entirely lay aside their usual indifferent demeanour towards their
companions, and frequently vent their jealous rivalry in fierce and sharp
encounters. The female forms her loosely-constructed nest of withered
leaves, heath-grass, and a few feathers, in some retired spot, generally
beneath the shelter of the stump of an alder-tree or willow. The eggs,
which are comparatively large, and usually four in number, are lustreless,
and of yellowish or greenish white, spotted with grey and various shades
of brown. The young are hatched by the mother in fifteen or sixteen days,
and when they quit the shell are covered with chequered down; this is
moulted in about eight or ten days, and in a few weeks they are able
to fly. The parents tend their little family with great care, and feed
them until their bills are strong enough to enable them to provide for
themselves. Sir Humphry Davy states that if the young are molested, the
old birds at once commence a loud drumming sound over the head of the
intruder, as though to divert his attention from their beloved charge, and
thus allow the latter time to seek concealment; which they at once do,
hiding themselves completely from view with most admirable instinct.

       *       *       *       *       *

The MOOR SNIPES (_Philolimnos_) are recognisable by their short high beak,
with narrow culmen and broad tip; their graduated tail, composed of twelve
feathers, and pointed at its centre; their very muscular stomach; and the
brilliant metallic gloss upon the plumage of the back.


THE JACK SNIPE.

The JACK SNIPE (_Philolimnos gallinula_) is only about nine inches long
and fifteen broad; the wing measures four inches, and the tail about one
inch and two-thirds. In this species, the bridles, a stripe below the
cheeks and the head, are brown, with two lines above and below the eyes of
reddish yellow; the blackish blue mantle-feathers have a beautiful green
and purple sheen, and are decorated with four reddish yellow stripes. The
throat, breast, and sides are grey, lined and spotted with brown; the rest
of the body is white. The quills and tail-feathers are pale black; the
latter edged with reddish yellow. The sexes are almost alike in colour;
during the spring the plumage of the female is of a reddish hue upon the
wings, and that of the young less resplendent and glossy.

Russia and Western Siberia may be regarded as the strongholds of this
small bird, which makes its appearance later and departs earlier than the
Common Snipe. It breeds in the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and is
very generally diffused throughout India. In England it is but rarely
seen in the summer, and appears in one particular spot year after year.
The Jack Snipe prefers thick coverts, and compared with those of its kind
already described is usually but seldom seen, although in some localities
it is occasionally tolerably numerous. At the commencement of March, it
generally quits its winter quarters, and returns under cover of the night
to its native haunts. This Snipe is usually found in pairs, and seeks
its food on marshy ground; but at other times conceals itself among the
neighbouring long grass and rushes. If disturbed, it delays taking wing
until the enemy is almost treading upon it, and has actually been caught
when just rising, by having a hat put over it. When flushed, the Jack
Snipe does not utter any note.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SANDPIPERS (_Tringæ_) are known by their slender body, moderately
long neck, small head, long pointed wings, in which the first quill
exceeds the rest in length, and a moderate tail, either rounded or doubly
incised at its extremity. The beak is either longer than, or as long as,
the head, slender, compressed at the sides, with the culmen near the tip
slightly depressed and enlarged. The slender bare foot is furnished, in
most instances, with four toes; of these the three placed in front are
long and entirely disunited, while the very small and delicate hind toe
is raised too high to reach the ground. The thick compact plumage is
principally a mixture of greyish brown and reddish yellow, but varies
considerably according to the season, and age or sex of the bird; in the
winter it is ashy grey above, white shaded with grey beneath. The colour
of the sexes is nearly alike. Sandpipers are met with in all portions of
the globe, but principally frequent its northern parts. Marine marshes on
the sea-shore, or the borders of lakes and rivers, are the situations they
prefer, visiting the temperate climates during the winter, and returning
to the colder latitudes to spend the summer months. Their migrations take
place in large parties, which fly by night or early in the morning. During
the recess of the tide, they may be seen upon the sea-shore, seeking their
food from the refuse of the ocean, or quietly and intently probing the
sands in search of worms and shell-fish, and sometimes retreating rapidly
before the advancing surge, and profiting by what the wave leaves on
its retreat. In all their movements they display great activity, either
when running rapidly and lightly on the fore part of their toes over the
surface of the moist sand, when swimming in the water, or when winging
their way with a varied, graceful, and rapid flight through the air. The
voice of these birds is clear, piping, and resonant. All the various
species are social and peaceful in their habits, and it is probable that
the encounters in which they indulge at certain seasons of the year are as
much in sport as in rivalry. The food of the Sandpiper consists of worms,
small molluscs, insects, larvæ, and similar fare, but occasionally of
delicate seeds. The four pear-shaped eggs are deposited in a dry hollow on
the ground, which is slightly lined with a few blades of grass. The female
alone broods; the young come forth covered with down, they at once leave
the nest, and grow with great rapidity.

       *       *       *       *       *

The CURLEW SANDPIPERS (_Limicola_) have a compact body, short neck, and
small head; the beak is longer than the head, and only soft and flexible
at its tip, which is broad, and curves slightly downward. The low, stout,
bare foot is furnished with four toes. The wings are pointed, and have the
first and second quills of equal length, and longer than the rest; the
tail is short and pointed towards its centre.


THE PIGMY CURLEW SANDPIPER.

The PIGMY CURLEW SANDPIPER (_Limicola pygmæa_) has the crown blackish
brown, decorated with reddish yellow stripes; the mantle-feathers are
black lined with reddish yellow; the upper wing is ash-grey; the feathers
on the lower throat, crop, and sides of the breast are reddish yellow,
spotted with brown and tipped with white; the under side is white. The eye
is brown, the beak reddish grey at its base and black at its extremity,
and the foot dark greenish grey. During the autumn the upper parts of the
body are dark grey, and the feathers have a somewhat mottled appearance,
as their shafts are of a dark and their edges of a light shade. This bird
is six inches long and thirteen broad, the wing measures four inches and
one-third, and the tail one inch and a half.

The Pigmy Curlew is met with principally in the northern parts of Asia
and America, and also, though more rarely, in Europe. In England it has
been known to breed occasionally. Moist river-banks or marshy localities
are the situations it prefers, and from these it obtains the insects,
larvæ, and worms upon which it principally subsists. Unlike the rest of
the family, it does not associate with other birds. The Pigmy Curlew flies
well and rapidly, walks with short interrupted steps, and, if disturbed,
crouches flat to the ground, and allows the enemy to approach quite close
before taking wing. The voice resembles that of the Common Sandpiper.
Keitel tells us that in its habits this species does not differ from the
rest of the family. The eggs found by that gentleman in Lapland were long
and pear-shaped, with a dull olive-yellow shell, marked with greyish brown.


THE SANDERLING.

The SANDERLING (_Calidris arenaria_) has the hinder toe entirely
undeveloped. This small bird is only seven inches long and fifteen broad.
In spring the upper parts of the body are black, or brownish red, spotted
with yellow and white; the blackish brown upper wing is marked with zigzag
rust-red spots, and striped with white. The under side, as far as the
white breast, is reddish grey, the feathers having dark spots on the
shafts and white edges. The five outer tail-feathers are whitish grey,
with white roots; the eyes are deep brown; the beak and the foot deep
grey. During winter the feathers on the upper portions of the body are
light grey tipped with white, darkly spotted on the shafts, and the under
side is pure white.

[Illustration: THE SANDERLING (_Calidris arenaria_).]

This elegant little bird occupies the coasts of all the northern portions
of the globe. During the course of its migrations it visits Southern
Europe, keeping near the shores even while journeying from one country to
another, and but rarely crossing the mainland. This species is met with on
most of the sandy shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and is occasionally
found near large pieces of fresh water; it is not supposed to breed in
this country, but has been seen in January and February, April, June,
August, and October. Like other Sandpipers, it associates in more or less
numerous flocks while in winter quarters, but lives in pairs throughout
the summer. In disposition it is gentler and more confiding than other
members of its family, but closely resembles them in its general habits.
Upon the ground it runs with grace and agility, and exhibits the utmost
dexterity in its beautiful and rapid movements through the air, during
which it frequently joins company with parties of other shore birds. With
so little timidity does the Sanderling regard man, that it is not uncommon
for it to permit his close approach, and even if shot at it often only
moves a few paces from the spot. Naumann mentions that upon one occasion,
after watching the proceedings of five of these birds that were standing
almost close to him in most evident disregard of his presence, the thought
struck him that he would arrange some snares he had in his pocket and
take the whole party prisoners. This he accordingly did, the intended
victims quietly watching his arrangements, and finally walking amongst,
and entangling themselves in the treacherous strings.

       *       *       *       *       *

The MUD SANDPIPERS (_Pelidna_) are comparatively slender birds, with a
straight or curved beak, of about the length of the head, and slightly
widened at its tip; slender bare feet, furnished with four toes,
moderate-sized wings, and a rounded or doubly incised tail. The plumage is
moulted twice in the year.


THE MUD SANDPIPER.

The MUD SANDPIPER (_Pelidna subarquata_) is about seven inches long and
ten broad. The wing measures five inches, and the tail one inch and
two-thirds. In spring the entire under side is rust-red of various shades;
the feathers on the crown of the head are blackish, with reddish grey
edges; the nape rust-red streaked with white; and the rest of the upper
parts of the body covered with deep black feathers, spotted with light
rust-red, and edged with light grey or rust-yellow. The tail-feathers are
ash-grey, those in the centre being the darkest; all have white shafts and
edges. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot blackish brown. In
autumn the feathers on the head and nape are blackish grey, varied with
white and dark edges; those on the back and upper wings are deep blackish
grey with black shafts; and the feathers on the under side whitish grey,
shaded, spotted, and shafted with a deeper tint; the bridles are brown; a
whitish line passes above the eye. In young birds the feathers of the head
are greyish brown with rusty grey edges; those of the back and shoulders
of a blackish shade with reddish yellow edges; the under side and rump are
white, gullet and crop reddish grey. The sexes are almost alike in colour.

These birds are met with in all the northern portions of our globe, and
during the course of their winter migrations appear with great regularity
in North Africa, where they are very common; they also visit the shores
of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Atlantic, and the Dead Sea, and have been
seen about the Cape of Good Hope. In Europe they especially resort to
the coasts of France and Holland, where they arrive about the middle of
April, and leave again from the end of July to October; their migrations
are always carried on at night. Flat muddy shores are the localities they
principally frequent, and over these they disport themselves with great
activity, moving lightly about in pursuit of food throughout the entire
day, only pausing to indulge in a short sleep at noon. If disturbed they
at once rise rapidly into the air, and after darting to some little
distance, return immediately to the spot whence they were driven. In
disposition they are social and naturally fearless, but frequently
learn to imitate the timidity exhibited by most of their companions on
the sea-shore. According to our own observations, they are often seen
associated with other birds, and apparently under the guidance of one
of the largest members of the party, whose movements and example they
obey in a manner most amusingly resembling a game at follow-my-leader,
running wherever he runs, and flying where he flies, as though actuated
by one spirit; these gambols usually terminate by all the males uttering
a warning cry, and the whole flock swooping in a compact mass for some
few hundred paces over the water, and then returning to the shore, there
to resume their animated sport. It is improbable that this species breeds
in the southern parts of our globe; such nests as we have found in
northern regions were nothing more than a slight hollow in the ground, and
contained four pear-shaped eggs, having a greenish shell shaded with dark
grey, and spotted with deep brown.

       *       *       *       *       *

The DWARF SANDPIPERS (_Actodroma_) are small birds, with short
beaks, either quite straight or curving gently towards the tip; the
moderate-sized feet are slender and bare, with the toes almost entirely
unconnected.


THE DWARF SANDPIPER.

The DWARF SANDPIPER (_Actodroma minuta_), the smallest of all the tribe,
is only five inches and a half long and eleven inches and a half broad;
the wing measures three inches and a half, and the tail one inch and a
half. During spring the feathers on the crown of the head are black, edged
with rust-red, those on the nape grey marked with a darker shade, and
those on the sides of the neck and upper breast light rust-red spotted
with brown; a whitish stripe passes over the eyes, and between the latter
and the beak a dark brown line. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the
foot greenish black. In autumn all the feathers on the upper portions of
the body are deep grey, with brown lines on the shafts; the gullet, sides
of the head, and lower breast are reddish grey, the rest of the under side
is white.

This species principally inhabits the northern portions of the globe,
but during the course of its extensive wanderings is met with at certain
seasons on almost every coast. In England it usually occupies the shores
of the eastern and southern counties. During its migrations, which
are carried on by night and in large flocks, it visits Egypt in vast
numbers, and is frequently to be seen associated with a great variety
of other species. Moist muddy coasts and shores are the situations it
prefers, though it by no means avoids sandy localities. In disposition
the Dwarf Sandpipers are lively and active, graceful and easy in all
their movements. With their own kind they live in the utmost harmony, and
exhibit but little fear towards man; in other respects they resemble the
members of the family already described. It is probable that the Dwarf
Sandpipers breed in the extreme north of Europe, but as yet their nests
have only been found in Greenland and the most northern parts of the
American continent. The four smooth glossy eggs are placed in a slight
depression in the earth, and have a dull, greyish yellow shell, clouded
with grey, and spotted and dotted with brown of various shades at the
broad end.


THE RUFF.

The RUFF (_Philomachus pugnax_) has a straight beak of about the same
length as the head, or a little longer, and slightly depressed at its tip;
the high slender feet are bare, and furnished with four toes: of these the
three placed in front are connected by a skin; the hind toe is short and
much raised. The moderate-sized pointed wing has the first quill longer
than the rest, and the short tail is slightly rounded; the plumage is
soft and thick. The male bird is about a third larger than his mate, and
has during the spring his face covered with warts, and his neck adorned
with a strange and beautiful collar; both these peculiarities, however,
disappear towards autumn. So varied and changeful is the coloration of
the plumage, that a detailed description is almost impossible. The collar
above alluded to is composed of harsh feathers, about three inches long,
and so wonderfully different in their hues that scarcely two males are
exactly like each other; black and brown, and white feathers of various
shades, spotted, striped, and marked in every conceivable way, appear
indifferently on this part of the plumage. The upper wing is deep brownish
grey, and the blackish grey tail is spotted with black; the belly is
white, and the rest of the body very variously coloured and marked. It
has, we believe, been ascertained that each male exhibits the same hues
and markings every succeeding year. The eye is brown, the beak generally
greenish or greenish yellow, and the foot reddish yellow. This species is
from eleven inches to twelve inches and a half long, and from twenty-three
inches and a half to twenty-four inches across; the wing measures from
seven inches to seven inches and a half, and the tail about three inches.
The plumage of the female, which does not vary as does that of her mate,
is principally reddish grey, darkly spotted upon the upper portions of
the body. The face and brow are light grey, the crown is grey, striped
with brownish black; the nape-feathers are grey, those on the back and
shoulders blackish brown, edged with rust-red. The throat and gullet are
grey, and the belly-feathers of a whitish hue. The female is ten inches
long, and twenty-one inches and a half broad.

[Illustration: THE RUFF (_Philomachus pugnax_). MALE IN FULL PLUMAGE.]

[Illustration: RUFFS FIGHTING.]

The Ruffs were originally natives of the northern portion of the Eastern
Hemisphere, but are now occasionally met with in North America. During
their migrations they not only visit every country of Europe and Asia, but
the entire African continent, usually taking up their abode on extensive
bogs or marshy plains, and frequently appearing in the immediate
neighbourhood of the sea, where they often mingle with the busy hosts
that are ever ready to seize upon the rich and varied store of food left
behind by the receding tide. Naumann asserts, however, that this species
never remains near or ventures into the water, but after joining in the
busy scene for a short time, always returns to its usual haunts. Unlike
other Sandpipers, these birds are met with far inland, where they not
only dwell upon the banks of rivers, but wander into the plains and
cultivated districts. In Central Europe they usually arrive in flocks,
about May, and begin to leave about July and August, travelling by night,
and pursuing their course in long lines that sometimes assume a wedge-like
arrangement, the males journeying apart from the females. The extensive
parties seen by us in the Soudan consisted almost exclusively of females,
from which fact we concluded that the males do not often migrate so far
south as Africa. The females are the first to seek and the last to leave
the winter quarters, and yet strange to say, they generally return to
their last summer's abode in company with their former mates. Before and
after the breeding season, male and female are scarcely distinguishable,
either in appearance or demeanour; but during that period the former
exhibit an excitement that is quite without a parallel. Water insects,
beetles, and worms, with seeds of many kinds, afford them the means
of subsistence, and for these they seek principally at early morning
or evening, visiting certain spots with great regularity, and keeping
strictly within a limited hunting ground. Whilst thus engaged they move
leisurely, and with conscious dignity, keeping steadily and quietly at
work, and only betraying their presence by a weak hoarse cry, as they
rise with light and hovering wing into the air. At the approach of night
they become somewhat more lively, and indulge in sportive flights in
company with their feathered brethren. No sooner, however, has the
period of incubation set in than the pacific disposition of these birds
appears to undergo a complete change, and the males commence a series
of fierce encounters, arising not merely from a feeling of rivalry or
jealousy, but respecting such trifles as the possession of a worm or the
choice of a resting-place. Whether in their native haunts or confined in
a cage, and whether females be concerned in the matter or not, the same
restless desire to attack and injure each other takes possession of the
male birds, who, in their wild state, carry on their battles in regular
fighting-grounds, employed year after year for the same purpose. Moist and
rather elevated spots are usually preferred, and to these a certain number
of combatants resort daily, each as a rule having his own peculiar place,
whereon to take his stand till an enemy appears. Naumann states that
until the collar of the males has attained its full beauty they are not
privileged to appear in the lists. No sooner has a willing adversary come
forward, than the excited couple rush upon each other, and struggle on
till one or both are exhausted, when they pause and return to their former
standing-places, to recover strength and breath for a second encounter.
These strange battles are strictly duels, although from the fact of two or
three couples engaging at the same time, and that often in such a limited
space as to compel them to attack across each other, an ordinary spectator
would often imagine that he was witnessing a general mêlée, instead of
the entirely distinct settlement of individual wrongs and grievances. A
more ridiculous sight could scarcely be imagined than the appearance of
the furious combatants, as they stand ruffling and swelling out their
plumage, with collar and breast feathers erect, literally trembling with
rage, and darting backwards and forwards towards their adversary; rapidly
ducking their wart-covered heads, and keeping the hinder part of the
body much raised, as they snap and probe the enemy in a very ecstasy of
blind fury. At the conclusion of the fray, the combatants again stand
trembling before each other, shaking themselves, and tossing up their
heads in defiance; after which demonstration, if not too much fatigued,
they resume their standing-places, and again look out for a willing and
equally excited foe. Owing to the soft construction of the bill, serious
injuries never result from these encounters; the loss of a few feathers,
or the chance of being caught and pulled about by the collar, being the
worst evils to which the apparently bloodthirsty duellists are exposed.
Naumann is of opinion that the knobs and excrescences often seen on the
beaks of the birds are attributable to blows or twists received in these
violent affrays. Occasionally a female appears and takes up her post in
the fighting-ground, but never does more than indulge her curiosity, by
mingling with the combatants, and watching their proceedings for a short
space; after which she retires, sometimes accompanied by one of the males,
who, however, almost immediately returns to the field of action, without
further reference to her proceedings. When the period for depositing the
eggs arrives, the males separate, each in company with two females, or
_vice versâ_, and make their nest of dry grass and stubble on some high
point in a marshy locality. The eggs, four, or occasionally only three,
in number, are of unusual size, with a greenish or brownish shell, more
or less faintly spotted with reddish brown or pale black. The mother, who
alone broods and hatches her young in from seventeen to nineteen days,
is much attached to her charge, and in every respect conducts herself
like a female Snipe; whilst her spouse does not concern himself in the
least about the rising generation, but fights incessantly throughout
the whole breeding season, after which he flies about regardless of his
family, until the time comes for seeking his winter quarters. These birds
are only summer visitors to England, appearing in April and taking leave
in autumn; formerly, however, many Ruffs remained throughout the warm
season, to breed in the fenny districts, and were caught in considerable
numbers in Lincolnshire. Since the draining of the fens they have become
comparatively scarce. Some years ago they were regularly procured and
fattened for the table. Montagu tells us that he visited the room at
Spalding where the captives were kept, and that his entrance drove them
from their stands, compelling some to trespass on the premises of others,
and thus producing many battles. "It is," he says, "a remarkable character
of these birds that they feed most greedily the moment they are taken. No
sooner is a basin of bread and milk put before them than it is instantly
contended for; and so pugnacious is their disposition, that they would
starve in the midst of plenty if several dishes of food were not placed
among them at a distance from one another." The capture of these birds was
formerly effected by means of clap-nets, with stuffed birds as decoys,
placed around the hills where they assembled in the spring previous to
incubation, and placed in such a manner as to be movable by means of a
long string, thus producing a jerk resembling the jump so common among the
Ruffs (who, at the sight of a wanderer flying by, will leap or flit a yard
off the ground), and by that means induce those on the wing to alight.

       *       *       *       *       *

The PHALAROPES (_Phalaropi_) possess a moderate-sized, delicate beak,
which is slightly curved at its tip. In some species the bill is not
broader than it is high, in others it is somewhat flattened in front.
The weak low feet are bare, and furnished with four toes, of which the
three anterior are united at the base, and more or less lobed on the
sides as far as the tips; the hind toe is short, elevated, and margined
slightly by a narrow membrane. The wing is long and pointed, with its
first quill longer than the rest; the short rounded tail is composed of
twelve feathers. In their mode of life these birds differ from all other
members of the feathered creation. Their plumage is thick and closely
set; and the toes being united at the base by a web, besides being
bordered by a continuation of that membrane, make the feet efficient as
paddles, although they are equally adapted for progression on dry land.
The accomplishments of the Phalarope are, therefore, very varied--they fly
rapidly, like the Snipes; run, after the fashion of the Sandpipers; and
swim, not only with all the facility of Ducks, but venture out upon the
surface of the ocean even in the midst of the roughest waves. During the
breeding season they repair to the coast, where they build a neat nest,
composed of grass and weeds, upon the sea-shore, or in some slight hollow
on the ground. The eggs are four in number. The usual habitat of the
Phalaropes is in the Arctic and Northern Seas, from whence they but rarely
wander far, their migrations usually being confined to the surface of the
ocean.


THE HYPERBOREAN PHALAROPE.

The HYPERBOREAN PHALAROPE (_Lobipes hyperboreus_, or _Phalaropus
hyperboreus_) resembles the Sandpipers in some respects, but differs from
them in the comparative shortness of its tail and slenderness of its beak.
Upon the upper portions of the body the feathers are blackish grey, and on
the lower back and shoulders black edged with reddish yellow; the sides
of the nape are rust-red, the throat and under parts grey, shading into
white on the sides and crop. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the
foot lead-grey, with the web and projecting edges yellowish and grey. The
male is from six inches and three-quarters to seven inches long, and from
twelve inches and two-thirds to twelve inches and three-quarters broad;
the wing measures four, and the tail two inches. The female is about a
line longer, and one inch broader than her mate.

These birds inhabit the north-eastern portions of Europe and Northern
Asia, and are numerous upon the extensive lakes and rivers of Siberia and
North America; their range, however, probably does not extend far south,
even during the course of their migrations. With us they frequent the
Orkney Islands, where they arrive about July, and depart again as winter
approaches. In its habits this species is essentially aquatic. It swims
with the utmost buoyancy and ease, though it is not known to dive even
when hard pressed; and, according to Audubon, indulges in the remarkable
habit of alighting whilst at sea, even at a distance of one hundred
miles from shore, on beds of floating seaweed, over which its lobed feet
enable it to run with great lightness and rapidity. Its flight is strong
and swift, but when on the ground its movements are inferior in agility
to those of the _Tringas_. Insects, worms, and minute mollusca form its
principal means of subsistence, these it obtains from among tangled beds
of floating seaweed, or as it moves lightly over the surface of the water.
The call is a sharp clear "tweet, tweet." Audubon mentions having seen
little parties of these birds living in pairs upon the small fresh-water
lakes in Labrador, near which they also breed. The nest, which is usually
made in a hollow in marshes, or on the islands of fresh-water lakes, is
formed principally of grass, and covered with a few bits of hay or moss.
The eggs, from one to four in number, have usually a dark olive-coloured
shell, thickly spotted with black. The young grow rapidly, and are
anxiously tended by their parents, who employ a variety of artifices to
lure strangers from the nest.


THE RED PHALAROPE.

The RED PHALAROPE (_Phalaropus rufus_) represents a group of the above
birds recognisable by their superior length of tail and the construction
of the beak, which is as long as the head, and flat and curved at its
extremity. This species is larger than the _Phalaropus hyperboreus_, being
fully eight inches long, and nearly fourteen broad; the wings measure five
inches, and the tail two inches and three-quarters. Upon the crown, back,
and shoulders, the feathers are black, edged with rust-red; the lower
back, upper wing-covers, and sides of the tail are dark grey; and the
under side is of a beautiful brownish red. The female is jet-black upon
the crown and nape, and exhibits two greyish black stripes which pass
down the sides of the head, the back and shoulder feathers are blueish
grey, darkly shafted, and those on the under parts of the body white,
edged with grey at the sides.

The native haunts of these birds, according to Gould, are the regions
within the Arctic Circle, where they live during summer, migrating as
winter approaches to more temperate climes, and dispersing singly or
in pairs throughout most of the countries of Europe, being especially
numerous in the British Isles. This species is abundant in many parts
of Asia and America. "Although its powers of wing are very great," says
the above writer, "we cannot look for its periodical visits with any
certainty; and the places, moreover, which it selects are sometimes very
extraordinary. For instance, it will continue for weeks, if unmolested,
about a puddle in a farmyard, manifesting a familiar and unsuspecting
disposition, and allowing itself to be approached with freedom. It does
not, however, confine itself to one spot, but after remaining at a certain
place from three to four weeks, suddenly departs; if on the approach of
spring, towards the north, and in autumn towards the south. Every European
country is visited, though at uncertain and often long intervals." The
Red Phalarope swims well, and takes its food in the surface of the water
with the utmost agility and address; indeed it seeks its nourishment
there alone, and whilst thus engaged displays a great variety of graceful
attitudes and manœuvres. Even if closely approached it exhibits no fear,
but quietly continues its search for the aquatic insects and small
thin-skinned crustaceans on which it subsists. Audubon gives the following
account of a large flock of these birds that he met with on the shores of
the Ohio. "They swam beautifully and played lightly about as they picked
up substances floating in the water, dispersed again and again, until at
length coming opposite to a small sand-bar, stretching out from the shore
to the distance of a few yards, they directed their course towards it,
and waded out. When just landing they were so close to each other that I
could not withstand the temptation, and so levelled my gun, pulled both
triggers, and saw that I had made considerable havoc among them. Those
which had not been hit flew in a compact body, while the birds that had
been but slightly wounded made for the water and swam away so fast that
they seemed to be running on the surface." The four eggs laid by this
species have a stone-coloured shell, spotted and speckled with dark brown.

       *       *       *       *       *

The LONGSHANKS (_Totani_) constitute a group possessing light slender
bodies, moderately long necks, and small heads. The wings are long and
pointed, with the first quill exceeding the rest in length; the short
tail is composed of twelve feathers, and is either graduated, wedge-like,
or rounded at its extremity. The beak is either as long as, or longer
than, the head, and furnished with a pointed tip; this difference in the
construction of the bill enables these birds to seize their food among
gravel or stones on the shores of lakes and rivers, or on the coast,
instead of seeking it by probing soft sand and mud. The foot is variously
formed, being in some instances high and thin, and in others short and
powerful; the toes are three or four in number. The short compact plumage,
which is moulted twice in the year, is of sombre hue; male and female are
almost alike, both in their coloration and size.

These birds principally frequent the northern portions of the globe, and
from thence wander forth into warmer latitudes, where they not only live,
but breed. River-banks, marshes, and the shores of fresh-water lakes,
are their usual haunts; whilst some few occupy the sea-coast, and others
frequent moist woods. During the winter they associate with many varieties
of their feathered brethren, whose society they appear to prefer to that
of their own species. They walk well, fly rapidly and easily, and for the
most part dive with facility, remaining under water for a considerable
time, and coming up at a distance from the place where they went down.
While thus progressing they are supposed to move by the agency of their
wings. Under ordinary circumstances, however, they merely stand while
fishing, keeping only their head and neck below the surface as they
explore the ground beneath. In all the various species the voice is high,
flute-like, and resonant. The food of the _Totani_ consists of insects,
worms, small molluscs, and fishes, and is obtained, not by probing the
earth, a process to which their hard sharp bill is not adapted, but from
the surface of the ground, or from amongst stones and gravel. Shortly
after the snow has melted, these birds commence the duties attendant on
incubation, and resort to their favourite fresh-water marshes or moist
woods for the purpose of breeding. The nest, which is usually situated on
the ground among the grass, is a mere depression, made smooth and neat
within, and lined with grass or any similar materials. In some instances,
however, the Totani build upon low trees, stones, or branches, either
making a small abode for themselves with moss and other vegetable matter,
or using a deserted nest as a repository for their young family. The
large pear-shaped eggs are four in number, and have an olive-green shell,
marked with brownish grey. The female alone broods, whilst her mate busies
himself in anxious endeavours to protect her and her charge by flying
around with troubled cries should they be disturbed. The young can leave
the nest as soon as they quit the shell, and, if alarmed, at once conceal
themselves with much adroitness upon the ground or in the grass. When
fledged they usually fly about to very considerable distances over the
country, until the season arrives for commencing their winter migration.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUE SANDPIPERS (_Actitis_) are small, delicately-formed birds,
with straight, flexible, but hard-tipped beaks; the moderate-sized,
crescent-shaped wing is rather pointed at its extremity; and the long
graduated tail composed of twelve feathers. The soft compact plumage is
peculiar both in its coloration and markings, and varies but little at
different seasons. The females are somewhat smaller than their mates.


THE COMMON SANDPIPER.

The COMMON SANDPIPER (_Actitis hypoleucos_) is of a yellow-brown on the
upper portion of the body, shaded with green and purple, and marked with
black. The feathers on the side of the crop are of a brownish hue, with
shafts and oval spots of a deeper shade. Those on the under side are
white; the primaries are brownish black, delicately bordered with whitish
grey towards the tips, and from the third quill decorated with white
spots, which gradually increase in size as they approach the body. The
lower secondaries are pale blackish brown, with white roots and tips;
the centre tail-feathers brownish grey, shafted with black, and spotted
and edged with reddish yellow; the rest white, more or less striped with
black. The eye is brown; the beak greyish black, with lighter base, and
the foot lead-grey. The length of this species is from seven inches and
three-quarters to eight inches, and from twelve inches and a half to
thirteen inches broad. The wing measures four inches, and the tail two
inches and a half.

The Common Sandpipers are abundantly met with on all the streams, lakes,
and sea-coasts of the northern portions of both hemispheres, and both
live and breed in the temperate latitudes, remaining in the latter from
one year to another, while such as occupy the colder regions wander as
far as Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Great Britain and Ireland are
regularly visited during the summer by these birds, but they do not, we
believe, resort to the Orkney or Shetland Isles. A correspondent, quoted
by Yarrell, who writes from the vicinity of Clitheroe, says, "The Common
Sandpiper breeds with us, and this year I started an old one from her nest
at the root of a fir-tree. She screamed out and rolled about in such a
manner, and seemed so completely disabled, that although perfectly aware
that her intention was to allure me from her nest, I could not resist my
inclination to pursue her, and in consequence I had great difficulty in
finding the nest again. It was built of a few dried leaves of a Weymouth
pine, and contained three young ones just hatched, and an egg through the
shell of which the bill of the young chick was just making its way; yet,
young as they were, on my taking out the egg to examine it, the little
things, which could not have been out of their shells more than an hour
or two, set off out of the nest with as much celerity as if they had been
running about for a fortnight."

The Common Sandpipers appear in Central Europe towards the middle of April
or beginning of May, and by July have reared their young, and commenced
flying about the country previous to leaving it, which they do about the
second or third week in September. Their migrations are carried on in
small parties of from six to twenty individuals, and take place at night;
the birds descending, when day breaks, to seek for food upon a river-bank
or similar locality, and usually sleeping for a few hours at noon. Should
the chosen spot prove attractive, it is not uncommon for these parties to
remain for several days before resuming their journey. Sandy localities,
covered with bushes or reeds, are the favourite resorts of these birds;
the latter affording a safe retreat in case of danger or alarm, to which
their timid, cautious disposition renders them peculiarly susceptible.
Naumann mentions that a garden-seat placed about four feet above the
surface of a pond in his garden, and thickly overhung with branches and
surrounded by bushes, was regularly selected as a sleeping-place by all
the Sandpipers that crossed his grounds during their migrations. The
movements of this species are in many respects unlike others of its kind;
it stands erect, walks with an active tripping step, and constantly whips
its tail while in motion. The flight is swift and easy, but, unlike that
of most other Sandpipers, is seldom carried on at any great height in the
air, the bird usually sweeping so close over the surface of the water as
almost to wet its wings; only when finally quitting a spot does it rise
far from the earth, and rapidly seeks another hunting ground. If much
alarmed, it betakes itself to the water, and either swims or dives to a
safe distance from the place of danger. Although remarkably shy, this
species appears readily to distinguish those who are likely to molest
it; and exhibits such adroitness in seeking concealment as frequently to
escape even from the clutches of a Sparrow-hawk. It seldom associates
with other shore birds; and the breeding season once over, the pairs
usually separate, and, like their companions, go their own way, only
joining their fellows if the chosen spot be favourable for food, without
any reference to each other's presence. As the season for incubation
approaches, the male birds exhibit much excitement, and display themselves
to the greatest advantage, darting through the air in zigzag lines, and
trilling forth their call in the hope of attracting the attention of
their desired mates. This call, which commences in a low tone, gradually
swelling and dying away, is exchanged at other times for a high, clear,
resonant, piping note. The nest is formed of twigs, reeds, stubble, or
dry leaves, and is placed at a safe distance from the water, beneath a
sheltering shrub or bush. The pear-shaped eggs vary somewhat in size
and form, and have a delicate, glossy, reddish yellow shell, marked and
spotted with various shades of brown. Both sexes brood, and exhibit great
uneasiness when disturbed; should they be deprived of an egg they at
once desert their post. The young are hatched in about a fortnight, but
remain a little longer under the mother's wing, after which they are led
forth to seek their own food, and in four weeks are fully fledged and
self dependent. The parents display much anxiety for the safety of their
little family, and, if molested, express their alarm by loud cries; whilst
the young at once hurry to a place of concealment, and remain so quiet
as to render their discovery almost impossible without the aid of a dog.
Insects, larvæ, and worms form the usual fare of the Common Sandpipers,
and in search of these they often display most amusing dexterity, gently
approaching such active-winged prey as flies and gnats, with every sign
of extreme caution, and then snapping up the desired morsels by an almost
unerring stroke.


THE GREENSHANK.

The GREENSHANK (_Glottis chloropus_) represents a group distinguished by
their long, slender, hard beak, which curves decidedly upwards, and their
high green feet, which have the toes connected by a skin. The species
we have selected as a type of the rest is the largest of all, being
from twelve to thirteen inches long, and from twenty-one and a half to
twenty-two inches across the wings. The wing measures seven and the tail
three inches. The feathers on the upper portions of the body are black,
edged with white; the lower back, rump, and under side are pure white as
far as the breast, which is striped and spotted with black; the tail is
grey in the centre, and spotted white and black at its sides. During the
autumn the head, nape, and sides of the throat are striped greyish-black
and white, and the mantle-feathers deep grey, spotted and shafted with
black, and edged with white; those on the lower web and crop are striped
and shafted with black. The eye is brown, the beak blackish green, and the
foot greyish green.

The Greenshank principally inhabits the northern portions of the Eastern
Hemisphere, and from thence wanders as far as India, Southern China, and
Africa. In Australia these birds are not seen, and it is still doubtful
whether they visit the American continent. In some parts of Siberia they
are remarkably numerous during the summer months. Such of this species
as appear in Central Europe arrive about the end of July, and wander
about over the face of the country till August or September, when they
commence leaving in order to winter further south. In April and May they
return to the north, travelling by night, and only rarely performing even
a short part of the journey during the day. The Greenshank is a summer
visitor to Great Britain, and is principally seen during its spring and
autumnal migrations. "In the Hebrides," says Macgillivray, "it is met
with in early spring, and generally departs in October, although I have
observed individuals there in November. Previous to the commencement of
the breeding season, and after the young are fledged, it resorts to the
shores of the sea, frequenting pools of brackish water at the head of
the sand-fords, and the shallow margins of bays and creeks. Its habits
are very similar to those of the Redshank, with which it associates in
autumn. It is extremely shy and vigilant, insomuch that we can very seldom
shoot it unless after it has deposited its eggs. Many individuals remain
during the summer, when they are to be found by the lakes in the interior;
indeed, the number of them in Uist, Harris, and Lewis is astonishing. At
that season it is very easily discovered, for when you are perhaps more
than a quarter of a mile distant it rises into the air with clamorous
cries, alarming all the birds in its neighbourhood, flies round the place
of its nest, now wheeling off to a distance, again advancing towards you,
and at intervals alighting by the edge of the lake, when it continues
its cries, vibrating its body all the while. I once found a nest of this
bird in the Island of Harris. It was at a considerable distance from the
water, and consisted of a few fragments of heath and some blades of grass,
placed in a hollow cavity scraped in the turf, in an exposed place. The
nest, in fact, resembled that of the Golden Plover, the Curlew, or the
Lapwing. The eggs, placed with their narrow ends together, were four in
number, pyriform, larger than those of the Lapwing, and smaller than those
of the Golden Plover, equally pointed with the latter, but proportionately
broader, and more rounded at the larger end than either."

The high clear cry of this bird has been compared by Yarrell to the sound
of the syllables "chio, chio." Insects, larvæ, young frogs, and small
fishes are all devoured by the Greenshank; but it is at present undecided
as to what may be regarded as its principal means of subsistence, nor
are we much better informed concerning its habits during the period of
incubation, except that it breeds in the north-eastern portions of the
globe, and forms a slight nest of blades of grass, upon a green knoll,
usually beneath the shelter of a tree. The four large eggs are deposited
in June, and have a pale greenish yellow shell, marked with brownish grey
and reddish brown spots of various sizes. The eggs of the Greenshank are
regarded as among the greatest rarities of oological collections.

       *       *       *       *       *

The GODWITS (_Limosa_) are recognisable by their large powerful body,
moderate-sized neck, and small head. The high slender foot is four-toed,
and the wing long and pointed, with the first quill longer than the rest;
the short, somewhat rounded tail, is composed of twelve feathers. The
smooth thick plumage is of very uniform hue, and varies according to the
season of the year. The birds of this sub-family have some resemblance
to the Snipes, and also to the _Tringæ_; but their legs are longer and
somewhat stouter in proportion to their size. The chief difference,
however, is in the bill, which in birds that as far as regards their
haunts are such close neighbours, is the most important. The beak of the
Godwits is very long, soft, and flexible; its whole length is rather
compressed, and triangular at the base, depressed in the rest of the
length, and dilated and obtuse at the tip. It has been described as,
"not a snapping bill, nor a boring bill, neither is it a scooping bill,
nor a dabbling bill; indeed, it is difficult to find a single epithet
descriptive of the function it performs, or rather of the manner in which
it performs its functions. It is not shovelling or scooping, for these
birds do not remove from its place the sludge and sediment of the water
among which they seek their food; and they do not dabble and wash the mud
as Ducks do, till they find the substance of which they are in quest.
'Poking' is the nearest epithet, but does not express the action exactly,
as they 'try about' and select their food by the sense of touch, and not
by sight." These Godwits are more of a wading habit than the Snipes, yet
their food is not found in the water, but in the ooze; and if the ooze is
soft enough to be penetrated by the bill, the fact of its being with or
without a small stratum of water over it is of little consequence. Their
food consists chiefly of mud-worms, mud-insects, and mud-larvæ, and the
places which they frequent are the localities in which these most abound.
The banks of the eddies of slow-running streams, or the accumulation of
sludge that is left bare in the estuaries and creeks upon the shores of
low rich land, on the ebbing of the tide, and especially the streams of
mud from the richer ground into the pools of fens, are the favourite
resorts of these birds. They breed in the fens, at a considerable distance
inland, if the ground is suitable, but they descend nearer to the sea in
winter. In their inland haunts they hide themselves during the heat of
the day among the long grass where they have their nests; but when near
the sea, their resting-time varies with that at which the tide leaves
their feeding-places in the best condition. Godwits run very fast, and
make their escape to a considerable distance before taking wing, at which
time they utter a very loud, harsh, and somewhat bleating note. These
birds were formerly much more common with us than they are now, and were
regarded by our forefathers as the daintiest dish in England. They were
sometimes valued as high as four nobles the dozen, after they had been
fattened for the market on bread and milk.


THE RED OR BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

The RED or BAR-TAILED GODWIT (_Limosa rufa_) is on the crown and nape of a
light rust-red, striped with brown. The feathers on the back and shoulders
are black, spotted and edged with rust-red; those of the wing-covers grey
with white borders. The rump is white, spotted with brown. The eyebrows,
throat, sides of neck, and lower parts of the body are bright, dark
rust-red; the sides of the breast and lower tail-covers spotted with
black. The quills are black, veined with white; and the tail grey, striped
with white. The eye is brown, the beak reddish, tipped with blackish grey,
and the foot black. In the plumage of the female all these colours are
duller. During the autumn the coat is principally of a greyish shade, the
upper portions of the body being grey, spotted with blackish brown; the
centre of the beak, rump, and lower tail-covers are white. This species is
fifteen inches and a half long and twenty-six broad; the wing measures two
inches, and the tail two inches and three-quarters.

Great numbers of these birds visit England both during their spring and
autumnal migrations, but they have never been known to breed in our
island, though some few remain throughout the winter. In Holland and the
level parts of France they are far more common, and are annually killed
in great numbers for the London market. The Red Godwits are usually met
with in small parties, and generally occupy the muddy banks of river
mouths or the oozy shores of sea inlets, as such spots afford a rich
supply of the worms, small molluscs, and aquatic animals upon which they
subsist. In April the males acquire their full beauty of plumage, and at
once retire as far north as Iceland, Lapland, and Sweden to breed. Upon
the wing their movements are powerful, though not very rapid. If disturbed
they utter a cry somewhat resembling the bleat of a goat. We are almost
entirely without reliable particulars respecting the incubation of this
bird.


THE BLACK-WINGED STILT.

The BLACK-WINGED STILT (_Hypsibates himantopus_, or _Himantopus
melanopterus_) has a small slight body, slender neck, moderate-sized head,
and a long, weak, straight bill, which is broad and soft at its base,
rounded at the culmen, and curved at its slender tip; the high, weak, and
unusually long foot is unfeathered, and furnished with three toes; these
are connected by a short skin, and armed with small, slender, sharp claws.
The long, pointed wings have the first quill very considerably longer than
the rest; the medium-sized tail is composed of twelve feathers. The short
compact plumage, which is of an almost fur-like texture on the under side,
varies much in appearance, according to the season or age of the bird. In
spring, the back of the head, the nape, and a narrow stripe across the
mantle are black, the latter is shaded with green; the tail is ash-grey;
and the rest of the plumage white, delicately tinted with rose-red on the
fore parts of the body. In the female the hues are less clearly defined,
and the white less pure; the tail is lustreless, and the dark stripe on
the nape paler but broader than in the male bird. In winter the head and
nape are of a greyish shade. The young have the under side greyish white,
the nape grey marked with white, and the shoulder-feathers grey. In all
the eye is of a beautiful carmine-red; the beak black, and the foot pale
carmine or rose-red. This species is fourteen inches and a half long, and
twenty-seven broad; the wing measures nine and the tail three inches.

The Black-winged Stilt inhabits Southern and South-eastern Europe, Central
Asia, and Northern Africa; and during the course of its migrations visits
India, the region of the large salt lakes in Central Asia, and the
countries watered by the Upper Nile. In Southern Russia and Egypt it is
remarkably numerous, and remains throughout the entire year; in Hungary
it is also extremely common; whilst in Spain, Greece, and Southern Italy
it only appears when journeying to or from its winter quarters. Such
of these birds as occupy Southern Europe usually frequent the vicinity
of extensive lakes, and lead a most retired life; but in Egypt, on the
contrary, flocks numbering some two hundred or three hundred individuals,
venture boldly into and about the villages, wherever small pieces of water
are to be found, and allow a man to approach them within a few paces
without any demonstration of alarm. These winter guests remain almost
stationary throughout the cold season, and during that time become very
fat. Towards April most of the flock disappear, while some few remain
to breed. In England, according to Yarrell, this bird is an accidental
though not unfrequent visitor. "On the 9th of June, 1822," says the Rev.
R. Lubbock, "I was returning in the evening from fishing upon Hickling
Broad, in Norfolk, when a bird of this species flew past the boat within
thirty yards. The legs were extended behind, even more in proportion than
those of a Heron; the wings were very much arched; the flight vigorous
and regular. The colour and the length of limb made me guess what it must
be. We searched for it early next morning, and found it precisely in the
same place as the evening before, but it was standing in a shallow pool
of water, mid-leg deep, apparently snapping at the insects as they buzzed
around it."

Although the Black-winged Stilts cannot be regarded as sea-birds, they
prefer salt water, and occasionally appear on the actual coast, in company
with several of its regular occupants. Salt lakes and ponds are, however,
their favourite resorts, except during the breeding season, when they seek
the vicinity of fresh or brackish water. These birds are eminently social
in their habits, and usually live in small companies of from six to twelve
individuals, only keeping apart in pairs during the period of incubation,
and again assembling, but in large flocks, throughout the winter months.
Insects of various kinds, principally flies, gnats, beetles, and larvæ,
form their principal means of subsistence, and these they seize with equal
address from the surface of the water, in the air, or from amidst the mud
and slime. In Egypt this species breeds in April, and in May constructs
a careless nest of coarse grass. Wilson tells us that a nearly-allied
bird inhabiting America merely places a bed of dry grass upon the marshy
ground to receive the eggs when first deposited, but afterwards constructs
a regular nest of a variety of dry materials, which are heaped together
till they frequently form a mass weighing two or three pounds. The eggs,
which are generally four in number, resemble those of the Peewit in form
and size, but have a far more delicate shell, of a brownish, olive, or
greenish yellow, marked with grey and reddish brown spots of various
shapes and sizes, which are most thickly strewn over the broad end. In
Hungary the flesh of the Black-winged Stilt is eaten during the winter,
but even at that season is not very palatable.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SCOOPING AVOCETS (_Recurvirostræ_) are recognisable by their powerful
body, moderately long, thin neck, large head, and long slender beak,
grooved on its sides to the middle, and compressed towards its acute
tip, which is curved either upwards or downwards. The margins are sharp
and entire, the bill hard and smooth. The long slender tarsi are covered
with scales; and the very long powerful foot furnished with four toes;
the latter are sometimes united by a web in front, the hind toe being
either extremely short or undeveloped. The long, pointed wings have the
first quill longer than the rest. The short rounded tail is composed of
twelve feathers. The plumage of the back is close and compact, and that
of the under side of downy texture. These birds inhabit most countries of
our globe, and frequent the swampy margins of rivers, or salt marshes,
where they are usually seen in pools of shallow water, fluttering their
wings, and shaking their half-bent legs, an action which causes them to
appear as if they would tumble over, while at the same time they utter a
sharp note like the syllable "click" often repeated. Occasionally they
are seen collected in small groups, on open downs covered with grasses
and other kinds of vegetation, when, if alarmed, they frequently run
off in a straight line, or fly very close to the ground. Their mode of
feeding is by scooping, or as it were beating the soft soil with their
flat upturned bill; and when thus engaged they are generally seen wading
up to their breasts in the pools left by the receding tide. They never
swim voluntarily, although furnished with feet so extensively palmated as
to have induced the early systematists to place them among the swimming
birds; nevertheless, this structure is an admirable provision to enable
them to traverse the soft and yielding mud in which they find their food.
The nest is generally formed of dry grasses, seaweeds, and small twigs,
heaped up to the thickness of several inches, and placed among thick tufts
of grass, in the neighbourhood of shallow water. The eggs are four in
number.


THE SCOOPING AVOCET.

The SCOOPING AVOCET (_Recurvirostra avocetta_) is black upon the top of
the head, nape, shoulders, and a large portion of the wings; the rest of
the latter and the remainder of the entire plumage is white. The eye is
reddish brown, the beak black, and the foot greyish blue. In the female,
these colours are less distinct; in the young the black feathers have a
brownish shade, and those on the wings are edged with reddish grey. The
upcurved bill of this bird is most remarkable, and entirely unsuited
to probe the ground or break the shell of ordinary-sized molluscs. The
slightest frost, therefore, drives the Avocet to the oozy muddy flats
of estuaries, bays, and similar situations, where it can patter about
with its wide-webbed feet, and gather small crustaceans and sea-worms.
Those who have seen a Stork or a Crane with a frog at the tip of its
long mandibles, and watched it, as, with an upward movement of the
head, it dropped the victim into its throat, will have a good idea of
the action of the Avocet when it has captured a small shrimp, a marine
insect, or any other of the objects upon which it lives, and at once
perceive that, with such a peculiarly-formed beak, it could not feed in
any other manner. The Scooping Avocets are numerously met with throughout
the Eastern Hemisphere, even as far south as the Cape of Good Hope; in
Central Europe they appear in April, and commence leaving again about
September. A century ago, before the English fens were drained, they were
common in the marshes of Norfolk and Lincolnshire; but are now rarely
seen. These birds only frequent the immediate vicinity of salt water,
and are almost exclusively met with on shallow muddy sea-coasts, or the
slimy banks of brackish lakes. When occupying the shores, they follow
the advance and recess of the tide in search of food, and are often seen
half a mile out upon the sands when the waves have retired. Among the
many varieties of sea-birds that frequent the sea-shore, the Scooping
Avocets are always conspicuous, as they move slowly along, with body
erect and slender neck gracefully curved, or fly rapidly through the air,
with broadly-flapping wings, and their long legs stretched directly out.
In the water they exhibit great skill, and frequently venture out to a
very considerable depth. The piping note uttered by this species has a
somewhat melancholy but not unpleasing tone, and is replaced during the
period of incubation by a plaintive call, which is constantly and rapidly
repeated. In disposition the Avocets are unsocial, and only rarely keep
company with their feathered companions; whilst towards man they exhibit
much timidity, and considerable intelligence in discerning such persons
as are likely to prove dangerous. At the commencement of the season for
incubation, the pairs seek a suitable spot whereon to breed, and usually
prefer grass-covered flats, or fields, in the immediate vicinity of the
sea. The nest is a mere hollow, slightly lined with dry blades of grass,
or fibres, and contains from two to four pear-shaped eggs, about as large
as those of the Peewit, with a thin, lustreless, greenish yellow shell,
more or less marked with blackish grey or violet spots. Both sexes brood,
and tend the young (which are hatched in about eighteen days) with great
affection, leading them at first about the fields, then near large pools,
and only venturing with them to the open sea when they begin to use their
wings.

       *       *       *       *       *

The CURLEWS (_Numenii_) are very beautifully-formed birds, with a slender
body, long thin neck, small head, and a very long, slightly-curved, and
soft beak, which is broad at its base, and horny at its tip. The upper
mandible is a trifle longer than, and bends somewhat over, the lower
portion of the bill; the slender, high, broad-soled feet are bare, and
furnished with four toes, connected by a decided web; the wings are long
and pointed, with the first quill longer than the rest; the moderate-sized
tail is composed of twelve feathers. The close compact plumage does not
vary in the sexes, or at different seasons of the year. The members of
this group include about a dozen species, and are met with in almost every
portion of the globe.


THE GREAT CURLEW, OR WHAAP.

The GREAT CURLEW, or WHAAP (_Numenius arquatus_), is from twenty-six to
twenty-eight inches long (this measurement includes the beak, which is
from seven to eight inches long), and from forty-five to forty-seven
inches across the span of the wings; the wing measures from twelve to
thirteen inches, and the tail from four inches and a half to five inches
and a half. On the upper portions of the body the feathers are brown,
edged with light reddish yellow, those of the lower back are white,
spotted with brown, and those on the under side reddish yellow, shafted
and spotted with brown. The quills are black, spotted and bordered with
white, and the tail-feathers white, striped with brown. The eye is dark
brown; the beak black, with a yellowish grey base to the lower mandible;
and the foot lead-grey. The young have in proportion to their size a
shorter beak than the adult birds, thicker feet, and paler markings on the
under side.

[Illustration: THE SCOOPING AVOCET (_Recurvirostra avocella_).]

[Illustration: THE GREAT CURLEW (_Numenius arquatus_). ONE-QUARTER NATURAL
SIZE.]

The Curlews inhabit both hemispheres, and breed principally in the
northern portions of the globe, appearing regularly in Central Africa and
India during the course of their migrations. According to Von der Muhle,
they are occasionally seen in Greece and Spain throughout the year, but
these are probably young stragglers that have not commenced breeding. In
Great Britain these birds frequent all parts of the coast, feeding at low
water, on worms, insects, and small crustaceans, left by the retiring
tide, and visiting the adjacent fields when those feeding-places are
covered. At the end of March or beginning of April they leave the shore
and seek the higher moorlands to pair and rear their young. The Common
Curlew, according to Jardine, "is entirely an inhabitant of upland moors
and pastures during the breeding season, and in the soft and dewy mornings
of May and June forms an object in their early solitude which adds to
their wildness. At first dawn, when nothing can be seen but rounded hills
of rich and green pasture rising one beyond another, with perhaps an
extensive meadow looking almost boundless through the shadows and mists of
morn, or a long string of sheep marching off at a sleepy pace on their
well-beaten track to some favourite feeding-ground, the shrill tremulous
call of the Curlew to his mate has something in it wild and melancholy,
yet always pleasing in its associations. In such situations do they pair,
making almost no nest, and during the commencement of their amours run
skulkingly among the long grass and rushes, the male rising and sailing
round, or descending with the wings closed above his back, and uttering
his peculiar quavering whistle. The appearance of an intruder requires
more demonstration of his powers, and he approaches near, buffeting and
'whaaping' with all his might. When the young are hatched they remain
near the spot, and are for a long time difficult to raise; a pointer will
stand and road them, and at this time they are tender and well-flavoured;
by autumn they are nearly all dispersed to the sea-coast, and have lost
their clear whistle." In disposition the Curlews are extremely cautious
and shy, and for this reason constantly associate with a variety of other
shore birds, thus making as it were common cause against danger, and
frequently almost driving the sportsman to despair, by the keenness with
which they detect and proclaim his presence, whilst they constantly permit
the near approach of such persons as they have reason to know will not
molest them. The nest of this species is nothing more than a depression
in the moss or grass, slightly lined with similar materials, and contains
four large pear-shaped eggs, with a lustreless, dirty olive-brown shell,
shaded with brown and green, and variously marked with blackish brown.
The parents exhibit much attachment to their young, and probably relieve
each other when brooding. Insects of all kinds, worms, mussels, small
crustaceans and reptiles, fish, and many varieties of vegetable produce,
especially berries, are all consumed by these birds, whilst the young
are reared exclusively on insects. The Common Curlew is readily tamed,
as the following interesting account of a captive will show:--"This
bird," says Montagu, "had been shot in the wing, and was at first so
extremely shy that he was obliged to be crammed with meat for a day or
two, when he began to eat worms; but as this was precarious food, he was
tempted to eat bread-and-milk, like Ruffs. To induce this substitution,
worms were put into a mess of bread mixed with milk, and it was curious
to observe how cautiously he avoided the mixture, by carrying every worm
to the pond and well washing it previously to swallowing. In the course
of a few days this new diet did not appear unpalatable to him, and, from
being poor and emaciated, he got plump and in high health. In the course
of a month or six weeks this bird became excessively tame, and would
follow a person across the menagerie for a bit of bread or a small fish,
of which he was remarkably fond. But he became almost omnivorous--fish,
water lizards, small frogs, insects of every kind that were not too large
to swallow; and, in default of other food, barley with the ducks was not
rejected. This very great favourite was at last killed by a rat, as it was
suspected, after a short life of two years in confinement, but he had in
that time fully satisfied our inquiries into his natural habits."

       *       *       *       *       *

The HARD-BILLED WADERS (_Herodiæ_) are recognisable by their more or
less powerful and slender body, which is very thin at its sides; their
long neck, small head, and strong, thick, high, and long beak, the upper
surface of which is partially overspread with a horny coat; occasionally
the bill is broad at its extremity. The high long legs are bare and
four-toed. The anterior toes being usually partially webbed, and always
furnished with powerful claws; the long wings are rounded, and the short
tail composed of small feathers. The plumage is close and compact; in some
species the bridles, face, or neck are bare. The members of this group
usually occupy marshy ground, or shallow pieces of water, and subsist
upon crabs, various water grubs, and molluscs. The nests are placed upon
trees or other raised situations. The eggs are white or blueish green, and
occasionally decorated with faint spots.

       *       *       *       *       *

The IBISES (_Ibides_) are comparatively small but powerfully-framed
birds, with a long neck, small head, and a long rounded beak, which
curves downwards in the form of a sickle, has the margins blunt, and
the upper mandible grooved to the tip; the long thin legs are furnished
with moderate-sized toes, of which those placed in front are connected
by a short skin, and furnished with narrow, pointed claws, the centre
one of which is denticulated. In the long, broad, rounded wings, the
second quill exceeds the rest in length; the short broad tail is formed
of twelve feathers, and is either rounded or incised at its extremity.
The plumage is thick and compact. Some of the smaller species resemble
the Curlews in their general formation, but differ from them in colour,
and are entirely without markings on their feathers. Other species are
distinguishable by the bareness of the face and throat, the prolongation
of the nape-feathers, and other peculiarities. The sexes are almost alike,
but vary their plumage somewhat at different seasons; the young do not
resemble the adult birds.

The Ibises occupy the warmer portions of the globe, only a few species
appearing in temperate latitudes at certain seasons; they usually
frequent the banks of rivers, lakes, and swampy localities, in flocks
which wade knee-deep in search of the frogs, water lizards, snails, and
water insects, that afford them the principal means of subsistence. Some
species, on the contrary, resort to plains and open dry tracts in search
of worms and insects of various kinds; while others take their stand upon
the decaying trunks of trees as they float down the streams, in order
to watch for the approach of fish, which they at once pounce upon and
readily seize by means of their long beaks. The calls of hunger appeased,
these birds generally resort to the most elevated and exposed branches of
neighbouring trees, where they stand in an erect posture, resting their
heavy mandibles upon their breast. In such situations they are extremely
cautious and vigilant. Their flight is principally performed in sweeps
high up in the air, but when migrating at change of season, or wandering
as they often do in search of food, they usually arrange themselves in
two lines, diverging from a leader. All the various species are social
in their habits, and live in company with many varieties of shore birds.
Even during the period of incubation the same disposition is manifest, the
flocks keep together, not only in their winter quarters, but throughout
the breeding season; some few species, however, are exceptions to this
rule, and separate in pairs whilst rearing their young. The nests are
usually placed upon trees growing in the water or on marshy ground, and
are formed of twigs, fibres, blades of grass, and similar materials; it is
not uncommon, however, for the breeding pair to avoid all labour by taking
possession of an empty nest. The eggs are from three to six in number, and
have the shell of uniform hue. It is uncertain whether both parents assist
in the task of incubation; they both, however, testify great anxiety for
their offspring, and tend them even long after they have joined the rest
of the flock. The young birds attain their full strength but slowly, and
do not undertake the cares of a family until they are two and in some
instances three years old.

       *       *       *       *       *

The FALCINELS (_Falcinellus_) constitute a group of the above birds,
possessing a slender body, moderately long neck, thin, curved, and long
beak, medium-sized foot, and somewhat broad, rounded wings, in which the
second and third quills are the longest; the tail is short, the plumage
thick, and the face bare.


THE GLOSSY IBIS.

The GLOSSY IBIS (_Falcinellus igneus_), a European representative of the
above group, is of a brownish red on the throat, breast, belly, legs, and
upper portions of the wings. The crown of the head is dark brown, shaded
with red; the back, tail, and quills are brown, with a green or violet
sheen. The eye is brown, the bare circles around it greenish grey; the
beak dull dark green, and the foot greenish grey. During the winter the
head and throat are black, and the feathers lower down of a lighter shade,
with white edges; those on the upper part of the body exhibit a mixture of
copper-colour and green; the under side is brownish. This species is from
nineteen to twenty-three inches long, and from thirty-five to thirty-eight
broad; the wing measures from thirteen to fourteen inches, and the tail
three inches and a half.

The Glossy Ibis frequents the whole of Central Europe, a large portion of
Asia, and Northern Africa, and visits the central and western portions of
the latter continent. During its migration, it is met with in India in
large numbers during cold weather, whilst in Egypt it remains throughout
the year. In Central Europe it arrives about the end of April, and leaves
again from August to September. It is reported to have even visited
Great Britain. "The Ibis," says Montagu, "is adopted as part of the
arms of Liverpool, and formerly, if not at present, stood conspicuous
on the Guildhall in golden array. It was termed the 'Liver,' from which
that flourishing town derived its name, and is now standing on the spot
where the 'Pool' was, on the verge of which the Liver was killed."
Aristotle records that the Glossy Ibis, or Liver, was called "Leheras," or
"Jeheras," by the ancient Egyptians.

River-banks, edges of large tanks, djeels, swamps, and inundated
paddy-fields, are the favourite resorts of these birds, affording them a
plentiful supply of the mussels, fish, small reptiles, and similar fare,
for which they wade deep into the water during the winter months; whilst
in summer, on the contrary, they subsist principally upon larvæ, worms,
and insects of various kinds, seizing their prey with great dexterity,
even when upon the wing. They roost at night in beds of large reeds,
and fly in flocks, which move with remarkable regularity, and generally
assume the form of a wedge. The loud call of the Glossy Ibis is often
uttered in flight and when alarmed. It is now fully ascertained that these
birds breed in Europe, and we have to thank Löbenstein for an account of
their nests, as seen by himself in the Donautiefländer. These nests were
situated in a reed-covered marsh, and placed on willow bushes, usually at
eight or ten feet from the ground. In many instances the nests, which were
somewhat numerous, proved to be those of other birds, repaired and lined
with straw for the reception of the young. The three or four oval-shaped
eggs were about the size of those of the Domestic Hen, and had a thick,
blueish green, or pale green, shell. The flesh of the Glossy Ibis is
excellent.


THE SCARLET IBIS.

The SCARLET IBIS (_Ibis rubra_) resembles the species last described
in most respects, with some slight difference in the construction of
the wings and tail; in the former the third quill is larger than the
rest: the face is bare. In the adult bird the plumage is of a uniform
bright scarlet, only varied by the blackish brown on the outer web and
tips of the quills; the eye is yellow; the beak brown at its extremity,
with a flesh-red base; the bare broad bridles and the throat are of the
latter colour; and the foot of a somewhat lighter shade. The length is
twenty-four inches; the wing measures ten and the tail three inches. In
the young the plumage on the back is pale brown, the under side of a
whitish hue, and the beak yellowish; the bare face and legs are flesh-red.
After the moulting, these colours are paler and greyer; and after the
second moulting are exchanged for a pale rose-red, which, at each
succeeding change becomes deeper, till it attains the magnificent scarlet
of the adult bird. Central America and the northern portions of South
America as far as the Amazon are the native haunts of this fine species,
and from thence it wanders forth occasionally into the most southern of
the United States. Edwards gives the following interesting account of a
flock of these beautiful birds that he met with in a cane-brake near the
forests bordering the river Amazon:--"In this part the Scarlet Ibis had
nested, and the bended tops of the canes were covered with half-grown
birds in their black plumage, interspersed with many in the brilliant
scarlet plumage of the adult. They seemed little troubled at our approach,
merely flying a few steps forward, and crossing the stream. Continuing our
road, the flocks increased in size, the red birds became more frequent,
and the canes bent over with their weight like reeds. Wood Ibises and
Spoonbills were likewise numerous. The nests of all these filled every bit
of ground where a nest could be placed; and the younger Ibises, covered
with down, and standing like so many Storks, their heavy bills resting
upon their breasts, and uttering no cry, were in strong contrast to the
well-feathered Spoonbills, beautiful in their slightly roseate dress,
and noisily loquacious. Their mode of feeding their young is remarkable.
In the throat of the old female Ibis, directly at the base of the lower
mandible, is a dilatation of skin forming a pouch, which is capable of
holding the bulk of a small Hen's egg. She would return from fishing on
the shallows with this pouch distended by tiny fishes, and allowed her
young to pick them out with their bills."

The flight of this Ibis is lofty and strong, and it utters a loud and
peculiar cry as it passes through the air. According to Sagra, this
species breeds in December and January. The eggs, three or four in
number, are laid upon the ground, and have a greenish shell. Schomburghk
states that young and adult birds do not associate with each other, but
unite in distinct bands. The Scarlet Ibis is sometimes domesticated, and
accompanies the poultry, occasionally showing great courage in defending
itself, not only from their attacks, but from those of cats. The flesh is
generally esteemed as good food, and the rich and gaudy plumage is used by
the Brazilians for various kinds of ornamentation.


THE WHITE, EGYPTIAN, OR SACRED IBIS.

[Illustration: THE WHITE OR SACRED IBIS (_Threskiornis religiosa_).
ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE.]

The WHITE, EGYPTIAN, or SACRED IBIS (_Threskiornis religiosa_, or
_Geronticus Æthiopica_), represents a group having the head and neck
bare, and the webs of the shoulder-feathers disunited or open, and
loose at their extremities. The plumage is principally white, with a
yellowish shade on the wings, and blueish black tips to the quills and
shoulder-feathers. The eye is carmine-red, the beak black, and the foot
blackish brown. The bare black skin on the neck is of a velvety texture.
In the young birds the head and throat are covered with dark brown and
blackish feathers edged with white; the rest of the plumage resembles that
of the adult bird. After the first moulting the young attain the streaming
shoulder-feathers, but only exhibit the bare head and neck in their third
year. This species is from twenty-eight to twenty-nine inches long, and
fifty-one broad; the wing measures from thirteen to fourteen, and the tail
six inches. This bird has been the subject of many strange tales from
the most remote times, and is called the Sacred Ibis because it figures
extensively, and evidently in a religious character, on the hieroglyphics
of ancient Egypt. It is not improbable that the estimation in which it
was held arose from the fact that its annual appearance was coincident
with the rising of the Nile, a phenomenon on which depends the prosperity
of the whole country. According to our own observations, this species is
now but rarely seen in Egypt, and was never met with by us below eighteen
degrees north latitude; it, however, occurs regularly in South Nubia and
the Soudan, where it arrives at the beginning of the rainy season, and
after having reared its young, migrates, or wanders over the country to
a considerable distance. In India it is not uncommon during the cold
season. River-banks, marshes, tanks, and water-courses are the situations
it usually frequents in search of aquatic insects, molluscs, and probably
small reptiles, or it flies in small parties over the steppes in search of
grasshoppers, beetles, and similar fare. This Ibis was formerly supposed
to destroy and eat snakes, and the supposition appeared corroborated by
the fact that Cuvier actually discovered the remains of a snake within
the body of a mummied Ibis; recent specimens, however, seldom contain
anything but molluscs and insects. Some seem to feed entirely on fishes
and aquatic insects, of which they destroy far more than they can possibly
consume; and it is not uncommon for them, when tired of killing fish and
fully satiated, to leave the rest to be devoured by birds of prey or some
of the other frequenters of the water. When desirous of procuring food of
this description, they walk with a slow firm step, and in large parties,
through shallow muddy lakes, and when they have discovered a suitable and
well-stored spot, they dance, as it were, all through it, stirring up the
mud at the bottom with their feet. The victims as they rise to the surface
are immediately struck with the long beak and deprived of life. In the
course of a very short time hundreds of fishes, frogs, and reptiles cover
the surface, and are greedily swallowed till the birds become perfectly
gorged. We were fortunate enough to discover a breeding settlement on
a small island in the White Nile, and found that the Ibises had built
principally on the branches of a very thorny and thickly-foliaged species
of mimosa, called by the natives "Harahri." The nests were flat, loosely
constructed of thin twigs and grass, and placed close together on the
densest branches. The three or four white coarse-shelled eggs were of
about the size of those laid by the Domestic Hen.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SPOONBILLS (_Plataleæ_) constitute a small group of very remarkable
birds, possessing a powerful body, moderate-sized, strong neck, and small
head; the long almost straight beak is flat and spoon-shaped towards its
extremity, its interior is grooved, and the upper mandible hooked and
nail-like at its tip. The strong, medium-sized foot has the three anterior
toes much webbed, and furnished with small blunt claws. The wings are
large and broad, and have the second quill longer than the rest; the tail
is short, rounded, and composed of twelve feathers. The remarkably thick
plumage does not vary either in the sexes or at different seasons, but
changes its hue somewhat as the birds become older. The back of the head
is adorned with a crest, and the upper throat is bare; in some instances a
portion of the crown is also unfeathered. The members of this group occupy
almost every portion of the globe, and resemble each other very closely in
their mode of life and habits.


THE COMMON SPOONBILL.

The COMMON SPOONBILL (_Platalea leucorodia_) has a portion of the throat
bare, and the head adorned with a flowing crest. The plumage of this bird
is entirely pure white, except a yellowish stripe around the crop. The
eye is carmine-red, the beak black tipped with yellow, the foot black,
the eye-ring yellowish green, and the throat greenish yellow. The female
is smaller than her mate; the young are without the yellow patch on the
breast, and have no crest. This species is from thirty to thirty-one
inches long, and fifty-two inches broad; the wing measures seventeen, and
the tail five inches.

Such of these remarkable birds as inhabit Central Asia remain throughout
the entire year; whilst those frequenting more northern latitudes
arrive with the Storks about March or April, and leave about August or
September. During the course of these wanderings, the British Islands
are occasionally, but rarely, visited. As with the Ibises, the migrating
flocks assume the form of two diverging lines, and usually travel in the
day, resting from time to time in such localities as afford a good supply
of food. The shores of rivers and lakes, marsh land, or slimy muddy spots
upon the coast are the favourite resorts of the Spoonbill, and around
these it is constantly to be seen stalking slowly, or wading with body
bent and bill waving from side to side as it searches amongst the mud, or
snatches from the water the fish, crabs, mussels, snails, small reptiles,
and aquatic insects on which it mainly subsists. This bird, however, has
a very decided preference for fish diet, and exhibits wonderful dexterity
in disposing of the slippery prey, even if five or six inches in length,
seizing and turning them adroitly in its beak, and swallowing them head
downwards. The entire day is passed in thus searching for food, with the
exception of a short time devoted to repose at noon; and at night it
retires shortly after sunset to sleep upon the branches, only resuming its
active labours at sunrise. Occasionally, but probably very rarely, it is
seen at work till a later hour. The flight of the Spoonbill is beautifully
light, and often performed in circles, or the bird assumes a hovering
motion, and flies with neck stretched directly forward, making rapid
strokes with its wings; the voice is quaking, and only audible at a short
distance. In disposition these birds are usually timid and cautious, but
if not molested soon acquire confidence. With their own kind they live in
the utmost harmony, and are constantly to be seen billing and arranging
each other's feathers, with every demonstration of sympathy and affection.
Even when excited by hunger they never actually quarrel; and appear almost
incapable of existing apart from their companions. During the breeding
season the same social disposition is also manifested, regular settlements
are formed, and as many nests as possible are placed close together on
trees; should the latter not be attainable, reeds are sometimes resorted
to for this purpose. The nest is broad, and carelessly constructed of
dry twigs and reeds, lined with leaves, rushes, or grass, and contains
from two to four large, thick-shelled, and coarsely-grained eggs, of a
lustreless, whitish hue, very variously spotted, and marked with pale
reddish grey and yellow. Both sexes probably brood and tend their young
with great care; the latter remain with their parents until after their
return from the winter migration, and do not commence the cares of a
family till they are three years old. The Spoonbill is readily tamed if
taken young, and soon accustoms itself to all kinds of nourishment; in
some countries it is still hunted on account of its flesh, which is not,
however, particularly well-flavoured.

       *       *       *       *       *

The BOAT-BILLS (_Cancromata_) comprise two strange species, the one
occupying South America, the other a native of Africa, and both
possessing a very remarkable and powerful broad high beak, a muscular
body, moderately long, thick neck; long, broad, rounded wings, in which
the third and fourth quills exceed the rest in length, a moderate-sized,
straight tail, and long toes. The soft thick plumage forms a crest upon
the nape.


THE WHALE-HEADED STORK, OR SHOE-BEAK.

The WHALE-HEADED STORK, or SHOE-BEAK (_Balæniceps rex_), is recognisable
by its great size, heavy body, thick neck, large head, and the peculiar
form of its beak, which, in appearance, much resembles a wooden shoe.
In this bill the grooved upper mandible curves slightly inwards, and
terminates in a decided hook, whilst its lower portion is entirely covered
with a leathery skin. The legs are very long; the feet large, and the long
toes furnished with very powerful claws; the wings, which are broad and
long, have the third and fourth quills longer than the rest; the tail is
of medium size, straight, composed of twelve feathers, and the head is
adorned with a crest. The large-feathered, but soft plumage, of an ashy
grey. All the body-feathers are edged with grey, and those of the tail and
quills with greyish black; the eye is light yellow, the beak horn-grey,
and the foot black.

This remarkable species is extremely numerous on the marshy grounds
and rain-beds near the White Nile and the neighbouring streams, and is
especially common between five and eight degrees north latitude.

[Illustration: THE SPOONBILL (_Platalea leucorodia_). ONE-FIFTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

According to Mr. Petherick, who, in 1860, first brought the Shoe-beaks
to England, they are but rarely seen on the banks of the Nile itself,
as these, shelving off more or less abruptly, furnish few favourable
spots for indulging their propensities. Although occasionally seen in
the Bahr-il-Gagal, they prefer the natural banks of the morasses of the
interior, where the shallowness of the water, distributed over a large
surface, affords them greater facilities for procuring food. They are
usually seen wading about in pairs or parties, and, if disturbed, fly low
over the water, and settle at no great distance; but if really terrified,
or fired at, they rise in flocks, high into the air, and, after hovering
and wheeling around, settle on the highest trees, and as long as their
foes are in sight will not return to the water. Their roosting-places at
night are said to be on the ground. Their food consists principally of
fish and water-snakes, which they have been seen to catch and devour.
They will also feed on the intestines of dead animals, the carcases of
which they easily rip open with the strong hook of the upper bill. Their
breeding-time is in the rainy season, during the months of July and
August; and the spot chosen is among reeds or high grass, immediately
at the water's edge, or on some small elevated and dry spot, entirely
surrounded by water. The bird, before laying, scrapes a hole in the earth,
in which, without any lining of grass or feathers, the female deposits
her eggs. As many as a dozen have been found in the same nest. "Numbers
of these nests," says Mr. Petherick, "have been robbed by my men of
both eggs and young; but the young birds so taken invariably died. After
repeated unsuccessful attempts to rear them, continued for two years,
the eggs were eventually hatched under Hens, which were procured at a
considerable distance, from the Raik negroes. As soon as the Hens began to
lay, and in due time to sit, a part of their eggs were replaced by half
the number of those of the _Balæniceps_, as fresh as possible from the
nest, the locality of which was previously known, and several young birds
were successfully hatched. These young birds ran about the premises of
the camp, and, to the great discomfort of the poor Hens, would persist in
performing all sorts of unchicken-like manœuvres with their large beaks
and extended wings in a small artificial pool, constantly supplied with
water by several negresses retained for their especial benefit. Negro boys
were also employed to supply their little pond with live fish, upon which,
and occasionally the intestines of animals killed for our use, chopped
into small pieces, they were reared."

[Illustration: THE WHALE-HEADED STORK, OR SHOE-BEAK (_Balæniceps rex_).]


THE SAVAKU, OR BOAT-BILL.

The SAVAKU, or BOAT-BILL (_Cancroma cochlearia_), has a compact body, a
comparatively short strong neck, thick flat-crowned head, and an extremely
broad bill, which is longer than the head, much depressed and dilated
towards its middle. The culmen is prominently keeled with a deep lateral
groove, extending to the tip, which is acutely hooked; the nostrils are
placed in the lateral groove on the surface of the bill, their openings
are longitudinal, and partly covered by a membrane. The moderate-sized,
powerful wings have the fourth quill longer than the rest; the short broad
tail is composed of twelve feathers, and the long slender legs are clothed
almost to the knee; the soft streaming feathers upon the nape form a
plume; the cheek-stripes and a portion of the throat are bare; the broad
cheeks and fore part of the neck are white; the lower neck and breast
yellowish white; the back is light grey; the back of the neck and belly
are reddish brown, with black sides; the quills and tail-feathers are
whitish grey; the brown eye is edged with grey, and the brown beak has a
yellow margin to the lower mandible; the foot is of a yellowish shade. The
male of this species is twenty-two inches long and thirty-eight across;
the wing measures eleven inches and a half, and the tail four inches and
a half; the female is somewhat smaller than her mate; the plumage of the
young is at first entirely reddish brown, with the back of a deeper colour
than the under side.

This bird is an inhabitant of Brazil, where it frequents the reed or
bush covered banks of streams, and lives either solitary, or, during the
breeding season, in pairs, keeping principally amongst the thickest trees
or bushes, and hopping nimbly from branch to branch. Water insects of all
kinds probably afford it the principal means of subsistence, although
the stomachs of specimens examined by the Prince von Wied only contained
worms. We are unacquainted with the voice and other habits of this strange
bird, except that it occasionally produces a clapping sound with its bill,
after the manner of a Stork. The eggs of the Savaku are oval in shape,
pure white, and lustreless.


THE HAMMER-HEAD, OR SHADOW-BIRD.

The HAMMER-HEAD, or SHADOW-BIRD (_Scopus umbretta_), is an African
species, and represents a family possessing a compact, almost conical
body, short thick neck, comparatively large head, and broad, much-rounded
wing, in which the third quill is longer than the rest, and a medium-sized
tail, composed of twelve feathers. The high beak is longer than the head,
straight, compressed at its sides, and slightly bent at its tip. The feet
are moderate, with toes but slightly connected. The head is decorated with
a bushy crest, and the thick streaming plumage is of an almost uniform
umber-brown, with the under side of a lighter shade. The quills are glossy
and darker than the back, and the tail-feathers are enlivened by a broad,
purplish brown band at their extremities, and narrow irregular lines of
the same at their roots. The eye is dark brown, the beak black, and the
foot either black or blackish brown. The length is twenty and the breadth
forty inches; the wing measures eleven inches and two-thirds and the tail
six inches. The female differs in no respect from her mate.

This remarkable species inhabits all the central and southern portions
of the African continent, including Madagascar; and is also met with in
Southern Arabia, but is nowhere numerous.

"The Hammer-heads," says Layard "are strange, weird birds, frequenting
ponds, marshes, rivers, and lakes, flitting about with great activity in
the dusk of the evening, and preying upon frogs, small fish, and similar
fare. At times, when two or three are feeding in the same small pool,
they execute a singular dance, skipping round one another, opening and
closing their wings, and performing strange antics. They breed on trees
and rocky ledges, forming a huge structure of sticks, some of them of
considerable thickness. These nests are so solid that they will bear the
weight of a large heavy man on the domed roof without collapsing. The
entrance is a small hole, generally placed on the most inaccessible side.
The pure white eggs are from three to five in number. On my late friend
Jackson's farm, at Nels Poort, there is a singular rocky glen between
two hills. In this spot a beautiful permanent spring, called 'Jackal's
Fountain,' takes its rise. Of course, in consequence, there are a few
wild almond and other trees; indeed, the place is a little oasis amid the
barren mountains, and a favourite resort for hyænas, jackals, leopards,
and other wild animals. On the ledges of the rocks in this secluded spot
a colony of Hammer-heads have built for years. Some of the nests are
quite inaccessible, whilst others can be reached with a little trouble.
I counted six or eight within fifty yards, all exhibiting the same form
and structure, and some of them containing at least a large cartload of
sticks. About some that I visited I found brass and bone buttons, bits of
crockery, bleached bones, &c. Mr. Jackson told me that if a 'tottie' lost
his knife or tinder-box on the farm, or within some miles of the place, he
made a point of examining these nests, and frequently with success; the
occupants, like the Bower Bird of Australia, embellishing their dwellings
with any glittering or bright-coloured thing they can pick up. In the
karroo between Worcester and Robertson I saw a nest placed on the ground
on the side of a trifling rise; it was at least three yards in length,
by one and a half across, with a small entrance-hole at one end." From
Jules Verreaux we learn that these remarkable structures contain three
distinct chambers, the partitions of which are carefully formed, like
the outer walls, of twigs and clay most artistically worked together,
and entered by a hole just large enough to admit the body of the bird.
Of these compartments the hindermost is the largest, and so raised as to
remain dry should heavy rain penetrate the outer parts of the nest; so
excellently, however, is the entrance constructed, that such accidents
but rarely occur, or, if water should break through, are readily and at
once repaired. The large back chamber is covered with a soft bed formed
of various vegetable materials, for the reception of the eggs, which are
hatched by the united attentions of both parents; the centre apartment
serves as a pantry, and usually contains a goodly supply of provender;
while the small outer compartment is employed as a guard-room, from which
a strict watch is kept in case of approaching danger, the vigilant owner,
according to Verreaux, lying flat on the ground as he reconnoitres, and
keeping his head protruded through the entrance-hole. The young when first
hatched are almost naked, with but a very slight development of greyish
brown down. They grow slowly, and are tended with much affection by their
parents, who feed them principally at early morning and evening.

       *       *       *       *       *

The STORKS (_Ciconiæ_) are stoutly-built birds, with thick beaks,
long legs, and short toes. The bill is long, straight, and conical,
occasionally slightly curved upwards, and compressed towards its tip; the
legs are long, powerful, and usually covered with scales; the toes are
short: of these the inner and centre toes are only slightly connected,
while the outermost and middle toes are united by a web as far as the
first joint; the claws are thick and stumpy. In the long broad wing the
third or fourth quill is longer than the rest. The short, rounded tail
is formed of twelve feathers. In some species the head and throat are
covered with long and narrow, and in others with short rounded feathers;
in others, again, these are scanty, and either almost hairy in texture,
or, as the birds increase in age, terminate in horny lancet-shaped points;
the rest of the plumage, which is formed of large compact feathers, is
occasionally glossy and beautifully coloured. All the various species
have the region of the eye and throat bare, in some this bareness extends
over the brow and cheeks. The sexes differ in size, and the young are
recognisable by the comparative paleness of their tints.

[Illustration: THE SAVAKU, OR BOAT-BILL (_Cancroma cochlearia_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

The Storks are met with in almost every portion of the globe, and are
especially numerous in its warmest latitudes. Such as dwell in the north
migrate or wander to a very considerable distance, whilst the occupants
of southern countries are stationary. Everywhere they principally
frequent flat marshy localities, or the vicinity of rivers and streams,
occasionally appearing upon arid plains or cultivated ground in search of
grasshoppers and other insects. Well-wooded districts are for the most
part their favourite resorts, as they constantly select trees both for
breeding purposes and as resting-places for the night; some few species,
however, prove exceptions to this rule, and make their nests on roofs,
chimneys, or other elevated situations in the immediate vicinity of men.
All the various members of this group exhibit much similarity in their
mode of life and demeanour; they walk slowly and with a certain dignity,
keeping the neck gently arched, wade deep into the water, though they
rarely swim, and fly lightly, with neck and limbs stretched directly out,
at a considerable distance from the ground. The almost entire deficiency
of voice observable in these birds is supplied by a peculiar habit of
clapping loudly with the beak when excited. Some species of Storks
greedily devour carrion, and for this reason are regarded with much favour
by man; while all subsist in a great measure upon fish, reptiles, young
birds, small quadrupeds, worms, insects, and similar fare, and seek their
food during daylight. The nests, which are of great size, are formed of
dry branches, sticks, and such-like materials, lined with more elastic
substances. The large eggs, which are of uniform hue and few in number,
are hatched by the female alone; the male, however, is much attached to
his young, and tends his mate with exemplary care.

[Illustration: THE HAMMER-HEAD, OR SHADOW-BIRD (_Scopus umbretta_).
ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE.]

       *       *       *       *       *

The TANTALI (_Tantalus_) have a powerful beak, moderate-sized strong
neck, and rather large head. The beak resembles that of the True Stork,
but is thicker at its base, has its tip slightly hooked, and the margins
turned roundly inwards. The tarsi are high and powerful, and the long toes
broadly webbed; in the long broad wings the second quill exceeds the rest
in length; the tail is short, and the plumage thick, soft, and beautifully
coloured. The sexes differ in size, and the young do not resemble the
adult bird. These birds are usually classed with the Ibises, but in our
opinion their proper place is among the Storks.


THE IBIS-LIKE TANTALUS.

The IBIS-LIKE TANTALUS (_Tantalus ibis_) is a most beautiful bird, with
white plumage marked with deep rose-red on the wing-covers, and shaded
with rose-red on the back; the quills and tail-feathers are of glossy
greenish black. The eye is yellowish white, the beak of a waxy yellow, the
foot pale red, and the bare face cinnabar-red. The young are attired in a
garb of yellowish grey, with throat and mantle of a darker hue. The size
of this striking bird varies from thirty-four to forty inches, and its
breadth from sixty-two to sixty-seven inches; the wing measures eighteen,
and the tail six inches.

[Illustration: THE IBIS-LIKE TANTALUS (_Tantalus ibis_).]

The Ibis-like Tantalus is an inhabitant of Central Africa, from which
it occasionally but rarely wanders as far as Egypt or the coast. In
the region of the Blue and White Nile, on the contrary, it is often
numerously met with, and makes its appearance in company with the Ibis
and Little House Stork, remaining in Soudan during the rainy season, and
again disappearing. In August the plumage of this bird displays its full
beauty, and we may therefore infer that the period of incubation commences
about September. River-banks, or the immediate vicinity of streams, tanks,
and pools, are the localities it frequents, and in and about them it may
be seen at morning and evening wading in search of fish, reptiles, and
worms, or engaged in the capture of birds and small quadrupeds; about noon
it resorts to the trees and sand-islands in large flocks, or takes its
mid-day repose standing upright in shallow water. In all its movements the
Tantalus closely resembles the Stork, but owing to its superior beauty
of plumage, presents a more striking appearance when in the air. We are
without any particulars respecting the nidification of this bird, but
Jerdon informs us that a nearly-allied Indian species breeds in societies,
and forms large nests upon high trees; the three or four eggs have a white
shell, faintly spotted with yellow. Bodinus states that this bird has
the very peculiar habit of fishing for prey with the bill wide open, as
though it expected its victims to enter its jaws without further trouble;
according to the same authority it is by no means a greedy feeder, and
quite undeserving of its German name of the "Insatiable."

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUE STORKS (_Ciconia_) have a powerful broad-breasted body, rather
long muscular neck, moderate-sized head, and a long conical beak, which
has its margins turned decidedly inwards, and its entire surface covered
with a horny coat. The legs are long and bare, and the toes short and
broad; of these the centre and outer toe are connected as far as the
first joint. The very long, broad, and rather blunt wings have the third,
fourth, and fifth quills of equal length, and longer than the rest; the
rounded tail is composed of twelve feathers, and the thick glossy plumage
is of very uniform tint. These birds frequent the marshy districts
of Europe, and seek their food principally on the banks of rivers,
or in moist localities. Fishes, reptiles, and small birds constitute
their ordinary fare; but they occasionally frequent dry open plains or
cultivated grounds, in order to obtain grasshoppers, to which they are
extremely partial, and a variety of other insects. Their huge nest,
composed of sticks and twigs, is placed on buildings and tree-stumps.
Occasionally these enormous structures, which are employed and repaired by
many succeeding generations, are said to attain a height of four or even
six feet. The female alone carries on the work of incubation, although her
mate shares in her proverbial attachment to the little family.

"The Hebrew name for the Stork," says Dr. Tristram, "is derived from a
root signifying 'kindness,' from the devoted maternal and filial affection
of which the Stork has in all ages been held to be the type and emblem.
This maternal instinct implied in the Hebrew name is repeatedly noticed
by Greek and Latin authors, who believed further that the young repaid
the care of their parents, by tending them in old age, and, contrary to
the habits of all other animals, attended them through life. Though we
certainly have no proof of this rather pleasing conceit, the devotion
of the old birds to their offspring is very strongly displayed, and has
been corroborated by modern observation. The Stork has a very ardent
attachment to certain localities, and nothing but unremitting persecution
can drive it from a spot which has once been selected for a nest. Year
after year--indeed, generation after generation--a pair of birds return
every spring to the same place, and either rebuild or thoroughly repair
their old nest. If any accident happen to one of the pair, its place is
speedily supplied, and the succession of tenants maintained. The only
instance of a breeding-place having been deserted which ever fell under my
own observation was under curious circumstances. On the highest point of a
large mass of ruin, at Rabbath Ammon, were the remains of a deserted pile
of sticks, an old Storks' nest. One of the birds had got its leg entangled
and broken in a chink of the ruin, where it had perished miserably, and
its gaunt skeleton, with the pinion-feathers still remaining on the
wing-bones, swayed to and fro suspended in mid-air, and had effectually
scared all its fellows from the spot."

[Illustration: ADJUTANTS.]


THE WHITE OR HOUSE STORK.

The WHITE or HOUSE STORK (_Ciconia alba_) has its plumage of a dirty
white, with the exception of the quills and longest feathers on the
wing-covers, which are black; the eye is brown; the beak bright, and the
foot blood-red. This bird is forty-two inches long, and eighty-six across
the wings; the wing measures twenty-five, and the tail ten inches. The
female is somewhat smaller than her mate.

[Illustration: THE SIMBIL (_Spenorhynchus Abdimii_). ONE-FIFTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

The White Stork, though common in many parts of Central Europe, is now
but rarely seen in Great Britain, and is met with during its annual
migrations as far south as 13° north latitude. The multitudes of these
huge birds which arrive in Palestine at certain seasons, and at once
distribute themselves over the whole land, is truly startling, whilst in
winter not one is to be seen. "On the 25th of March," says Dr. Tristram,
"vast flocks suddenly appeared steadily travelling northwards, and leaving
large detachments on every plain and hill. From that period till about
the 4th of May they kept possession of the whole land, except where the
ground was utterly barren, abounding specially in any marshy plains. They
did not congregate like rooks, but like sheep or cattle scattered over a
wide pasture; they systematically quartered every acre of the country,
probably until they had cleared it of all the snakes, lizards, and frogs
they could find, when either scarcity, or the increasing heat of summer,
reminded them of their northern homes, and they withdrew as suddenly as
they had arrived, leaving behind them only a pair here and there at the
established nesting-places. They were equally abundant on both sides of
Jordan. On Mount Nebo they so covered the range that at first, and until
we examined them through our telescopes, we took them for vast flocks of
Moabite sheep pasturing. In the year 1858 I had observed them arrive on
the 22nd of March, just two days earlier. Their halt in Syria agrees with
the time of their arrival in Russia, which is said to be the beginning of
May." In Holland and Denmark they arrive about the middle of April. In
various parts of Holland the nest of the Stork, built on the chimney-top,
remains undisturbed for many succeeding years, and the owners return with
unerring sagacity to the well-known spot. The joy which they manifest
on again taking possession of their dwelling, and the attachment they
manifest towards their benevolent hosts, are familiar to everybody. In
all countries where the Stork breeds it is protected; boxes are provided
on the tops of the houses, and he considers himself a fortunate man whose
roof is selected for their residence.

On the continent of Europe, indeed, the Stork is a welcome visitor
everywhere, as its taste for offal and carrion renders it extremely
useful; for this reason in many places it is regarded with great favour,
and this kindly feeling is often carried to such a length as not only
to subject a person ill-using it to unpleasant remarks, but to actual
danger; indeed, in some parts it is looked upon as almost a sin to molest
it. In consequence of being thus favoured, the Stork frequently becomes
exceedingly tame, and may be seen stalking about the streets with the
utmost confidence, and scarcely moving out of the way of a passer-by.
These birds, according to popular belief, are not unmindful of the
kindness shown them, and the eggs and young that are frequently found
outside the nests are considered by the peasants to be tokens of their
gratitude.


THE SIMBIL.

The SIMBIL (_Spenorhynchus Abdimii_) is an inhabitant of Southern Africa,
and represents a division of the above birds having the face bare. In
this species the head and neck are greenish black, with a purple gloss,
and the mantle-quills and tail black, shaded with green; the under side
is white; the eye brown, the ring around it blue; the bare portions of
the face and throat are red; the beak is greenish, tipped with red; and
the foot brownish grey, with pale red joints. The length of the body is
twenty-eight and span of the wings sixty inches; the pinion measures
seventeen and the tail seven inches.

This bird is common in some parts of Central Africa, where it frequents
the villages during the breeding season, and makes its nest occasionally
upon the houses, but usually in the mimosa-trees in their immediate
vicinity. The eggs are very various in shape, and smaller than those of
Ciconia alba. This Stork is held in such regard by the natives as rendered
it almost impossible for us to procure its eggs, and at last we only
succeeded by affecting to require them as an ingredient in remedies for
certain cases of illness. To have touched one on any less serious grounds
would have been to rouse the whole village. The flesh of the Simbil is
regarded by the colonists as excellent food. Layard tells us that an
allied species, the _Ciconia nigra_, is extremely difficult to obtain,
and puts all the sportsman's powers of woodcraft to the test in order to
circumvent him; for if the bird be wounded, he proves no mean antagonist,
striking fiercely with his sharp-pointed and powerful bill at the face and
hands of his pursuers. "On one occasion," says that gentleman, "having
only broken the tip of a wing with a long shot, I had to dispatch my
bird with half a charge of dust-shot, so great was his resistance; he,
moreover, as if aware of his greater chance, took to the water, and would
not be driven from it."

       *       *       *       *       *

The GIANT STORKS (_Mycteria_) are comparatively tall birds, with a slender
body, long neck, and rather large head; the very long beak is almost
straight or very slightly curved, and furnished with a saddle-shaped cere
at its base, and skinny knobs or appendages beneath. The tarsi are high,
and the toes short; the long and rounded wing has its third quill longer
than the rest; the tail is straight, and of medium length. The sexes are
almost alike in size. The young are less brightly coloured than the adult
birds. Of the three species of Giant Storks with which we are acquainted,
one occupies Africa, another Australia, and the third South America; these
birds nearly resemble each other in their general appearance and habits.


THE SENEGAL JABIRU.

The SENEGAL JABIRU (_Mycteria Senegalensis_) is a large powerful bird,
with the head, throat, upper wing, shoulders, and tail of a glossy
metallic black; the rest of the plumage is of dazzling whiteness. In the
beak the upper mandible is of very pale tint for about three inches from
its base, and the under one for about one inch and a half; then comes a
bar of black for about three inches, and from that to the end the bill
is reddish, increasing in depth of colour to the bright vermilion tip.
On each side of the upper mandible is a large semi-oval and transparent
space, which at the back part is continued upwards in a curved direction
across the fore part of the eyes and over the nostrils. Beneath the base
of the bill, just at the beginning of the feathery part, are two very
small, pear-shaped, pendent, yellowish wattles adhering by very small
necks. The bare portions of the face are reddish, the eyes and eye-rings
yellow; the broad movable cere is also yellow, surrounded by a narrow
border of black feathers. The tarsi are brownish grey, the knee and
toe-joints dull red. This species is fifty-six inches long, and ninety-two
broad; the wing measures twenty-five, and the tail ten inches. In the
young, all the dark parts of the plumage are brownish grey, and the under
side dirty greyish yellow. Their eye is brown, and beak blackish red; the
appendages beneath the beak are not developed.

This fine bird is a native of Africa, where it principally frequents the
regions watered by the White and Blue Nile, but is also seen in other
parts of the continent. It lives in pairs, and occupies the shores of
rivers, or the vicinity of lakes, tanks, and morasses, only quitting these
for a short period during the rainy season; occasionally, but very rarely,
it is met with near shallow salt water. Upon the ground it moves with a
certain stately grace, and, owing to its length of leg, appears taller
than it really is. Whilst in the air its fine black and white pinions
render it a most striking and beautiful object. Unfortunately for science,
the Senegal Jabiru is so extremely shy as to render any close observation
of its habits almost impossible. In the stomachs of such specimens as we
examined, we found reptiles and beetles; it also eats fish, and, according
to Rüppell, has been seen upon carrion, but whether the bird was eating
the putrid flesh, or merely gleaning off the insects that were feasting
thereon, is at present uncertain. Gurney states that the pairs remain
united for life, and entertain each other by a most strange dancing kind
of performance. Should one of them die, the survivor does not soon mate
again. It is probable that this species breeds on trees, and builds a nest
resembling that of the Stork.


THE JABIRU.

The JABIRU (_Mycteria Australis_) has the head and neck of a deep glossy
green, shading into purple and violet at the back of the head; the large
wing-covers, scapularies, lower part of the back, and tail are glossy
green, tinged with a golden lustre; the rest of the plumage is pure white.
The beak is black, the eye deep hazel, and the leg bright red.

This species has a wide range over Australia, and at the time of its
first colonisation was seen as near to Sydney as Botany Bay; in the
neighbourhood of the Hunter River, it is occasionally met with, and is
comparatively common in the vicinity of Botany Bay. Macgillivray and
Gilbert also found it at Port Essington. The Jabiru frequents the vicinity
of salt-water creeks, and obtains its food principally from the necks of
land running out into the sea, or on sandbanks and morasses. It is very
difficult of approach, and if pursued, hides amongst the dense reeds in
the lagoons; the natives, we are told, steal upon it when reposing, as it
frequently does, upon the tarsi, the bird taking some time to rise from
that position. In 1851, Dr. Bennett purchased a fine living specimen,
which was brought to Sydney from Port Macquarie, and we have to thank that
careful observer for the following interesting particulars respecting this
remarkable and otherwise almost unknown species.

[Illustration: THE SENEGAL JABIRU (_Mycteria Senegalensis_). ONE-SIXTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

"The first evening it was at my house," says the above naturalist, "it
walked into the hall, gazed at the gas-lamp which had just been lighted,
and then proceeded to walk upstairs, seeking for a roosting-place; but not
liking the ascent, quietly came down again, returning into the yard, and
afterwards went to roost in the coach-house between the carriages, where
it now retires regularly every evening soon after dark. It may always
be found in that part of the yard where the sun is shining, and with its
face invariably towards it. When hungry it seeks for the cook, who usually
feeds it; and if she has neglected its food, looks into the kitchen as if
to remind her of the neglect, and waits quietly, but with a searching eye,
during the time the meat is cutting up, until it is fed. It is amusing to
observe this bird catch flies; it remains very quiet, as if asleep, and
on a fly passing, it is snapped up in an instant. There happened to be a
pugnacious fussy little Bantam Cock in the yard, who would not permit the
intrusion of any stranger; and on seeing the Jabiru he strutted up with
expanded and fluttering wings and ruffled feathers, in a violent state of
excitement, cackling and screaming most vehemently, and making efforts as
energetic as so diminutive a bird was capable of to frighten, and drive
him out of the yard. The Jabiru, with his keen bright eyes, regarded the
little fluttering object with cool contempt, and walked about as before;
the Bantam followed. At last the Jabiru turned and strode after the
consequential little creature, as if to tread it under his feet, when the
Bantam seeing matters take this turn made off as fast as possible, like
all little bullies, and did not again venture to attack so formidable an
opponent. In a few days the Jabiru became quite domesticated among the
poultry.

[Illustration: THE MARABOU (_Leptoptilos crumenifer_). ONE-EIGHTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

He was occasionally fed upon fish cut up into small pieces, which he beat
about with the mandibles, and after continuing this process for some
little time, swallowed them. "I have," continues Dr. Bennett, "noticed him
watch the ground very attentively under the trees, and then dart his bill
into the earth and bring up larvæ, which I found were those of locusts
(_Tettigoniæ_). When the bird observed a slight motion of the ground, he
darted his beak down, and devoured the insect as it was emerging from the
soil. He became latterly very familiar. When called to be fed, he ran from
any part of the yard, clapping his long mandibles." Unfortunately, this
rare bird sickened, and refused food for several days, avoided the open
air, and was at last found dead in the stable. His skeleton is in the
Osteological Collection of the British Museum.

       *       *       *       *       *

The ADJUTANTS, ARGALAS, or MARABOUS (_Leptoptilos_), are at once
recognisable by the pouch-like appendage on the lower part of the neck,
their clumsy body, thick bare neck, scabious head, more or less covered
with a few downy feathers, and their huge beak, which is very thick,
four-sided, and almost conical in front. Their legs are long, wings strong
and rounded, with the fourth quill longer than the rest; the tail is of
a medium size, with the feathers of its lower covers extraordinarily and
beautifully developed. These birds inhabit South Asia and Central Africa,
and render most important service to man by clearing off a host of unclean
and putrid substances, that would otherwise pollute the air and constantly
breed disease and death in those hot regions.


THE AFRICAN MARABOU.

The AFRICAN MARABOU (_Leptoptilos crumenifer_) has the flesh-coloured
head sparsely covered with short hairy feathers, and the neck bare. Upon
the mantle the plumage is of a glossy, metallic, dark green, and white
on the under side and nape; the quills and tail-feathers are black and
lustreless; the larger feathers of the covers are edged with white on
the outer web. The eye is brown, beak dull whitish yellow, and the foot
black. This huge bird is generally about five feet long; of this the
bill measures a foot and a half, and the tail one foot. The span of the
wings is ten feet, and the length of the pinion twenty-eight inches. Mr.
Smeathman, who had many opportunities of observing this species, states
that an adult often measures as much as seven feet, and the head being
covered with thin whitish down, it has at a distance much the appearance
of a grey-headed man. "These birds," he says, "are met with in companies
near the mouths of rivers, and as they advance with extended wings, might
readily be mistaken for canoes, or, when on the banks, for persons picking
up shells." A young Marabou about five feet high was brought up tame, and
presented to the chief of the Bananas, where Mr. Smeathman lived. Being
fed in the great hall, it soon became quite familiar, and duly attended at
dinner-time, placing itself behind its master's chair frequently before
the guests entered. The servants were obliged to watch it narrowly, and to
defend the provisions with switches; but in spite of these precautions it
would frequently snatch something from the table--a whole boiled fowl, for
example--which it devoured in an instant.


THE INDIAN ADJUTANT, OR ARGALA.

The INDIAN ADJUTANT, or ARGALA (_Leptoptilos argala_), a nearly-allied
species, is very common in some portions of Northern India, especially
Bengal and the North-eastern Provinces, where it arrives in April or May,
and departs in October, a few unpaired birds only remaining behind in
the south. Jerdon tells us that it soars with the Vultures to an immense
height, ready to descend on any carcase that may be discovered. In
Calcutta and other large towns, the labours of these birds are regarded as
so important that they are protected by law, and become so tame as to be
seen walking familiarly about the town, lurking about the slaughter-houses
and burning-grounds of the Hindoos, or examining the heaps of refuse
accumulated in the streets, ready to be carted away by the scavengers.
They do not, however, rely entirely on this highly-flavoured diet, but
forage in the tanks and ditches for frogs and fish. During the heat of the
day they retire to trees or house-tops, where they may be seen resting on
the whole tarsus. The nests are made about rocky cliffs or occasionally
on lofty trees, away from hills. The white eggs are two in number; when
first hatched the young are covered with white down. The Hindoos have
a popular superstition that if the head of an Adjutant be split whilst
the bird is still alive, the celebrated stone called the _tahir mora_,
or "poison-killer," will be discovered. This stone is supposed to be an
antidote for all kinds of poisons. The soft and beautiful feathers on
the under tail-covers of this and allied species form a well-known and
valuable article of commerce; and to obtain these, in many parts of India
the birds are kept in flocks about the villages. We are told that there
is a popular idea in India, that the souls of the Brahmins possess these
birds. They are thought invulnerable; and when Mr. Ives missed his shots
at several, the standers-by observed with great satisfaction that he would
never succeed in wounding them.

       *       *       *       *       *

The CLAPPER-BILLED STORKS, or SHELL-EATERS (_Anastomus_), inhabit Africa
and Southern Asia. These most remarkable birds have a comparatively
slender body, covered with short thick plumage, the head is small, the
wing large, broad, and pointed, with its second and third quills longer
than the rest; the short tail is composed of twelve feathers. The thick
beak has its margins slightly incised, and the mandibles so formed that
they only close together at the base and tip of the bill. The foot
resembles that of the Stork, and the plumage is close and compact.


THE AFRICAN CLAPPER-BILL, OR SHELL-EATER.

The AFRICAN CLAPPER-BILL, or SHELL-EATER (_Anastomus lamelligerus_), is
about the size of the Common Stork--that is, thirty-three inches long. In
this bird all the feathers on the neck, belly, and legs are tipped with
narrow horny little plates; these plates and the feather-shafts have a
green and purple gloss. The eye is reddish, the bare bridles and throat
yellowish grey, the beak yellowish, and feet black. The young are without
the horny plates at the tips of their feathers, and are principally of
a brownish grey. This Shell-eater is a native of Central and Southern
Africa, and is met with in large flocks on the shores of the Blue River.
We are unacquainted with its habits, except that it consumes fish,
frogs, and molluscs of various kinds. Jerdon, however, tells us that the
_Anastomus osculans_, a nearly-allied species, which is common in all
the marshy districts of India, subsists entirely upon shell-fish. "I was
formerly of opinion," says that writer, "that the open space between
the mandibles was mainly caused by a process of training a Bhyri, and
these, as is usual, had their eyes sewn up, to prevent their struggling
or fluttering. To feed them the falconer had a quantity of the large
_Ampullaria_ brought, which were placed before the captive and blinded
Shell-eaters. The bird secured a shell by its feet, and after sundry
alterations of its position, succeeded in cutting off the operculum as
cleanly as if it had been done by a razor, but so rapidly that I was
unable to see the exact way in which it was accomplished. It then inserted
the tip of its beak into the open mouth of the shell, and after working
it about for a short time, pulled out the entire shell-fish, almost to
its utmost tip." These birds are sometimes caught by means of a bamboo
with a noose attached; this is bent down, and fixed tightly to the ground
by a small peg, to which an _Ampullaria_ is fastened. The Shell-eater,
while hunting about, soon finds the shell, and in moving it to get at its
contents the peg is withdrawn, the bamboo flies up, and the noose catches
the bird, which remains dangling in mid-air. The Indian Shell-eater
breeds upon high trees about June or July, and associates in large flocks
during the whole period of incubation. The eggs are four in number, and
are of a dirty white. The young are defended by their parents with great
courage and fierceness.

[Illustration: THE AFRICAN CLAPPER-BILL (_Anastomus lamelligerus_).
ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE.]

       *       *       *       *       *

The HERONS (_Ardeæ_) are large, ungainly birds, with a weak body, much
compressed at its sides, a long thin neck, and small, narrow, flat
head. The strong straight beak is as long as, or longer, than the head,
compressed at the sides and culmen; the sharp margins are turned inwards,
the tip is incised, and in its entire surface, except in the region of the
nostrils, covered with a hard, smooth, horny coat. The legs and toes are
moderately long, the claw of the centre toe being curiously denticulated
on its lower side. The long, broad, blunt wing has its second, third, and
fourth quills of almost equal length; the short rounded tail is composed
of from ten to twelve feathers. The thick, soft, lax plumage is often much
prolonged on the crown of the head and upper breast; and though strikingly
and very variously coloured in the different species, is never remarkably
gay. The Persians, however, catch these birds, and after depriving them
of the long feathers, which are highly prized, suffer them to depart.
These feathers, together with tufts of diamonds and other precious
stones, set in the form of Heron's plumes, adorn the _dhul bandt_ of the
Persian monarch. The members of this group are met with in most parts of
the globe, migrating according to the change of seasons, or when their
supply of food falls short. Swamps, shallow rivers, and pools are their
favourite haunts, and in these they quietly stand, with their necks drawn
down between their shoulders, watching the approach of a fish, upon which
they suddenly dart, and seizing it in the beak, swallow it in an instant.
They also consume small quadrupeds, frogs, and a variety of insects. Some
species have been seen perched upon the backs of cattle, and feeding
upon the larvæ that infest their hides. The nest of the Herons, which is
usually erected on lofty trees, on elevated buildings, or among the tall
reeds and river-banks, is constructed of sticks, lined with small twigs,
and so loosely put together as to form a large flat expanse.

[Illustration: GROUP OF HERONS.]


THE COMMON HERON.

The COMMON HERON (_Ardea cinerea_) represents a group possessing a
thin body, long neck, long powerful beak, and plumage of more or less
sombre appearance. In the adult birds the crown and brow are white, the
neck greyish white, the back ash-grey, varied by the white of its long
feathers; the sides of the lower parts are black; a stripe from the
eye to the nape, three long crest-feathers, a threefold row of spots
on the front of the neck, and the large quills, are all black; and the
upper secondaries and tail-feathers grey. The eyes are golden yellow,
the bare patches on the face greenish yellow, the beak is straw-colour,
and the foot brownish black. This species is forty-two inches long and
seventy-five broad, the wing nineteen and the tail seven inches. The young
are greyer than the adults, and have no crest.

Owing to the large size of their wings, these Herons are enabled to
support themselves in the air with but little exertion, and can mount
without fatigue to a great height when pursued by their natural enemies
the Falcons. This Heron is a successful fisher, and might be taken as
a very picture of patience as it stands, motionless as a statue, up
to its knees in water, with neck slightly extended and eye steadily
fixed, but fully awake to the slightest movement. Suddenly its head is
darted forward with unerring aim, a small fish is captured and instantly
swallowed, head foremost. An eel of some size is brought to land and
beaten to death on the bank, and a large fish impaled on the bill, if
worth the labour, is carried to a safe retreat and devoured at leisure.
A frog is swallowed whole, and a water-rat is usually killed by having
its skull split open. The Heron devours shrimps, small crabs, newts, and
a variety of water-beetles, in large quantities. Should the fishing at
a selected spot be unsuccessful, the bird rises a few feet into the air
and slowly flaps its way to a little distance, where, standing on one
leg, with its head thrown back, it awaits better fortune. Whilst on the
watch it is silent, but as it flies off utters its harsh grating scream.
A great portion of the day is passed on the branches of lofty trees,
whither these birds often repair with a booty too large to be disposed of
at once. During the winter Herons live solitarily, but in the month of
March begin to congregate and soon after repair to their breeding-places,
called heronries. These are generally situated in stately clumps of trees
or groves, and were formerly so favoured that a fine of twenty shillings
or three months' imprisonment, or the suretyship of two persons, bound in
twenty pounds each, was the penalty for killing one of their feathered
occupants. No Herons were allowed to be taken (out of a man's own
premises) except by hawking or shooting with the long-bow. For taking the
young out of the nest a fine of six shillings was imposed, and for taking
or destroying the eggs from the 31st of March to the 30th of June a man
was subjected to imprisonment for a year, besides having to pay eightpence
for every egg.

Pennant counted more than eighty nests upon one oak at Cressy Hall, near
Spalding, Lincolnshire, an estate then belonging to the Heron family,
one of the most ancient in this county. Sometimes Herons build on steep
rocks near the coast. Although the favour bestowed upon these birds in
former times has ceased, there still exist many heronries in different
parts of England, and also of Scotland. On the eastern coast they may
be met with in great numbers after the breeding season is over; and an
observer in the neighbourhood of Stonehaven, writing to Mr. Macgillivray,
says:--"In autumn, when they appear to be most numerous, I have seen
one hundred or one hundred and twenty or more together, their numbers
being made up probably in a great measure from young birds of the year.
When disturbed they betake themselves round some corner of the rocks to
a neighbouring bay, flying heavily along, generally within gunshot of
the water's surface. During high tide they rest on detached rocks, at a
short distance from the land, and occasionally on the face of some of the
heughs, or high sandbanks." "Once or twice," says the same correspondent,
"I have seen them in the fields. I recollect one forenoon seeing four of
them standing in a ploughed field, in most grotesque attitudes, reminding
one more of a consultation of witches than of anything else."

[Illustration: THE GIANT HERON (_Ardea Goliath_). ONE-SIXTH NATURAL SIZE.]

The nests of the Herons are huge masses of sticks, about a yard across,
lined with a little grass or other soft materials, and are placed close
to each other. Each nest contains four or five eggs, on which the female
sits constantly for three weeks, and is meanwhile fed by her mate. The
young are quite helpless till they are sufficiently fledged to perch on
the branches, where they receive nourishment from their parents. Herons,
according to Layard, are very abundant throughout Southern Africa, in all
suitable localities, feeding upon fish, frogs, and an occasional snake. "I
am told," says this observer, "that they breed on the Cape Flats, placing
their nests in company on tufts of grass and rushes, surrounded with
water." This seems very different from their European practice, but there
is no reason to doubt the word of my informant.


THE GIANT HERON.

The GIANT HERON (_Ardea Goliath_) is a powerful bird, of about fifty-two
inches long and seventy-one inches broad; the wing measures twenty-one and
the tail eight inches. Upon the head, upper neck, centre of breast, and
belly, the plumage is brownish red; the back and upper breast are dark
grey, and the throat and gullet white; the eyes are yellow, the eye-rings
violet, and the bridles green; the upper mandible is black, and lower one
violet tipped with greenish yellow; the foot is black. This species leads
a solitary life upon the shores of the fresh-water lakes and streams of
Central Africa. In disposition it is extremely shy; it flies badly, has
a harsh loud voice, and subsists upon fish, reptiles, birds, and small
quadrupeds. In other respects it closely resembles the _Ardea cinerea_. We
are entirely without particulars respecting its habits.

[Illustration: THE GREAT WHITE HERON (_Herodias alba_). ONE-SIXTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

[Illustration: _Plate 34. Cassell's Book of Birds_

BUPHUS COMATA ____ SQUACCO HERON

(_about ½ Nat. size_)]

       *       *       *       *       *

The WHITE HERONS (_Herodias_) possess a slender body, long neck, and a
comparatively weak bill. Their pure white plumage is adorned with long
streaming feathers on the back during the period of incubation.

[Illustration: THE LESSER EGRET (_Herodias garzetta_). ONE-FOURTH NATURAL
SIZE.]


THE GREAT WHITE HERON.

The GREAT WHITE HERON (_Herodias alba_) has the entire plumage of pure
and dazzling white. The eye is yellow, and the beak dark yellow; the
bare cheeks are greenish yellow, and the feet dark grey. This species is
forty inches long and seventy-two broad; the wing measures twenty-one
inches, and the tail seven inches and a half. The beak changes colour,
not according to the age of the bird, but at different seasons of the
year. The young do not exhibit the streaming feathers on the back. This
Heron inhabits the southern parts of Siberia and South-eastern Europe, and
during its migrations appears in South Asia and North Africa. In India,
and South and Western Africa, it is replaced by a very similar species.
In England it is occasionally but rarely seen. Like its congeners, this
beautiful bird occupies marshy ground in the vicinity of water, preferring
such spots as are least frequented by man, and subsists upon the same
fare as other members of its family. In its general air and movements,
however, it differs from them in many respects; it walks with a more
stately step, flies faster and more gracefully, and constantly assumes a
variety of strange postures; when standing, it frequently buries its head,
neck, and one leg in its plumage, and thus presents the appearance of a
great white ball fastened to the top of a thin stick. The large nest of
this bird is placed amongst reeds, of portions of which it is also built;
so firm and strong are these heaps that, as we are told, they can support
the weight of a man. The eggs are usually three or four in number, and
have a smoother shell and bluer tint than those of the species before
described.


THE LESSER EGRET.

The LESSER EGRET (_Herodias garzetta_) resembles the above bird in its
general appearance and habits, but it is not more than twenty-four
inches long and forty-two broad; the wing measures twelve and the tail
four inches. In this species the eye is bright red, the beak black,
and the foot black, with greenish yellow joints. This beautiful little
Egret occupies the same latitudes as the larger species, and, according
to Layard, has been procured both in winter and nuptial dress in the
vicinity of Cape Town; also at Colesberg, and at the Kneysna. The stomachs
examined by that naturalist contained multitudes of small aquatic shells.
A nearly-allied species (_Ardea egretta_) is common on the Kneysna, but is
so shy as to be almost unapproachable; it breeds on a small rock on the
sea.

The Little Egret is now very rare in Great Britain, but was formerly much
more common, and was regarded by our forefathers as a dainty article of
food. In the celebrated feast on the enthronisation of Archbishop Nevill
no less than 1,000 Egrets are mentioned in the bill of fare.


THE CATTLE HERON.

The CATTLE HERON (_Bubulcus ibis_) represents a group recognisable by
their compact form, short neck, short powerful beak, short legs, and the
hair-like development of some of their feathers. The plumage is pure
white during the breeding season, adorned with long, flowing, rust-red
feathers on the crown, upper breast, and back. The eyes are light yellow,
the bridles and eyelids greenish yellow, the beak is orange, and the foot
of the adult bird reddish yellow; that of the young is of a brownish
shade. The male is nineteen inches long and thirty-four broad; the wing
measures nine inches and a quarter, and the tail three inches and a
quarter; the female is not quite so large. This species is extremely
common in Egypt, where, unlike other Herons, it frequents inhabited
districts, preferring inundated fields, and only occasionally visiting
the banks of lakes or streams. In Egypt it is constantly seen following
the buffaloes and cattle, or inspecting their backs, in search of insects
or grubs; and in Eastern Soudan accompanying droves of elephants for the
same purpose. We have been told, on reliable authority, that as many as
twenty of these birds are sometimes seen upon a single elephant. With the
natives they live on most excellent terms, and carry on their acceptable
work quite regardless of their presence. Such of these birds as inhabit
Egypt commence breeding when the Nile rises, while those dwelling in
Eastern Soudan lay somewhat earlier in the year. The nests are built close
together upon trees, and are constantly seen close to the huts of the
natives. The eggs, from three to five in number, are oval in form, and
have a greenish blue shell.


THE NIGHT HERON.

The NIGHT HERON (_Nycticorax Europæus_) has a compact body, short, thick,
broad beak, curved at its culmen, moderately high legs, broad wings, and
thick plumage, which, unlike that of the members of the family already
described, has but three of its feathers unusually prolonged; these are
slender, and placed on the back of the head. In the adult bird, the crown,
nape, upper part of the back, and shoulders are greenish black, the
rest of the mantle and sides of the throat dark grey; the feathers on
the under side are pale straw-yellow, and the three long crest-feathers
either quite white or white and black. The eye is of a rich purple, the
beak black with yellow base, the bare patch on the head green, and the
foot greenish yellow. In the young, the mantle is brown, spotted with
brownish yellow and yellowish white; the throat yellow, and belly white,
spotted with brown; the eyebrows are brown, and the head without crest.
This species is from twenty-one to twenty-two inches long, and forty-four
broad; the wing measures twelve inches and a half, and the tail four
inches and a quarter.

The Night Heron is extremely common in Holland in the summer, and is also
met with in Germany, Italy, the south of France, and Spain; occasionally,
but very rarely, it has been shot in Great Britain. It visits Africa
during the winter, and is found far in the interior of that continent. In
northern latitudes it appears about the end of April, and leaves again in
September or October. The Night Herons both sleep and breed upon trees,
and therefore principally frequent well-wooded localities, whether these
be in the vicinity of water or not; in moist, well-planted regions,
however, they are especially numerous. Except during the breeding season
they sleep, or at any rate remain quiet, throughout the entire day, and
only descend at twilight from their perches in order to seek for food.
Upon the ground they progress slowly, with short steps, but move in the
air with comparative swiftness, alternating an easy gliding motion with
rapid but noiseless strokes of the wings. In places where these birds
abound, they are often seen flying together in very large flocks, at a
considerable height, on their way to a suitable hunting-ground, over which
they generally hover before alighting. Among the branches they climb with
an agility that is not exceeded by any member of the family. Their voice
is extremely harsh, and somewhat resembles the discordant croak of the
Raven. The Night Herons breed from May to July, and usually form regular
settlements not only of their own species, but with many allied birds. The
large, carelessly-constructed nest is placed high on trees, and contains
four or five oval green eggs of very various shades. The female broods,
whilst her mate mounts guard quietly perched by her side, or quarrels with
and teases other males in his neighbourhood.

The Great Night Heron of America, which is considered by Audubon and
others as a distinct species, is seen as far as the northern and eastern
extremities of the United States, but is unknown farther northwards.
In the winter it goes as far as the tropics. These birds arrive in
Pennsylvania in April, and immediately take possession of their old
nurseries, usually in the depths of a cedar swamp, or of some inundated
and inaccessible grove of oaks; there they pass the day till twilight
comes, and then the parent birds sally forth to the sea-shores and marshes
in search of food for themselves and young, proceeding in marshalled
ranks, and uttering from time to time a guttural "kwah," in a hollow
voice, that resembles the sound of a person vomiting. The eyries of the
"Kwah" birds have been occupied from remote times by eighty or one hundred
pairs, and when the trees are felled, they only remove to another part of
the same swamp.

       *       *       *       *       *

The BITTERNS (_Ardetta_) are recognisable by their comparatively small
size, slender bill, low feathered tarsi, their short wings, in which the
second quill is longer than the rest, and weak short tail. The plumage,
which is by no means striking in its coloration, varies in hue according
to the age and sex of the bird.


THE LITTLE BITTERN.

The LITTLE BITTERN (_Ardetta minuta_) is from fourteen to sixteen inches
long, and from twenty-one to twenty-three broad; the wing measures five
inches and three-quarters, and the tail two inches. This elegant bird is
of a glossy blackish green on the crown, nape, back, and shoulders; the
upper wing and under side are reddish yellow, spotted with black on the
side of the breast; the quills and tail-feathers are black; the eye and
bridles yellow. The pale yellow beak is brown at its culmen; and the
foot greenish yellow. In the female all the dark parts are brownish black,
and the light portions of the plumage pale yellow; the young have the
crown and nape reddish brown, striped with a deeper shade, the under side
spotted brown and reddish yellow, and lower belly and tail-covers white.
The Little Bittern is only a summer visitor to Great Britain. It frequents
marshes, osier holts, and other places in the neighbourhood of water,
feeding on such small animal food as is there easily obtained.

[Illustration: DAY AND NIGHT HERONS.]

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: THE COMMON BITTERN (_Botaurus stellaris_). ONE-FOURTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

The COMMON BITTERN (_Botaurus stellaris_) is the representative of a group
having a compact body, long thin neck, a narrow high beak, large-toed
feet, broad wings, a tail composed of ten feathers, and thick plumage,
which is slightly prolonged on the neck. The sexes only differ in their
size. In both the crown is black, the nape greyish black, mixed with
yellow, and the rest of the plumage spotted and streaked with dark
brown of various shades; the throat exhibits three stripes; the eye is
bright yellow, and the bare portion around it greyish green; the upper
mandible is brownish grey, and the lower one of greenish hue; the foot
is light green, with yellow joints. This bird is twenty-eight inches
long and forty-eight broad. The wing measures fifteen and the tail five
inches. The nest is placed in marshes, among reeds. The eggs are five in
number, of an olive colour. Its food consists principally of fish and
reptiles of various kinds. During the breeding season it utters a loud
bellowing noise, and for this cause it probably received the generic
name of _Botaurus_. "This bellowing noise", says Latham, "is supposed to
arise from a loose membrane, which can be filled with air and exploded
at pleasure. The situation of it is at the divarication of the windpipe.
It is capable of great distension, and is probably the cause of this
singular phenomenon, observed, we believe, in no other bird, at least
in the same degree." At other times the bird makes a sharp harsh cry on
rising, not unlike that of a Wild Goose.


THE SUN BITTERN, OR PEACOCK HERON.

The SUN BITTERN, or PEACOCK HERON (_Eurypyga helias_), represents a group
of South American birds, having a small meagre body, long thin neck, a
head resembling that of a Heron, and a long, straight, hard-pointed, and
powerful beak, compressed at its sides, and slightly arched at its culmen.
The high slender foot has the hinder toe moderately developed; and the
large broad wing has its third quill longer than the rest; the remarkably
long tail is composed of broad feathers. The rich, lax, and variegated
plumage is black upon the head and nape; the eyebrows, a line that passes
from the corner of the mouth to the nape, the chin, and throat are all
white; the feathers on the back and shoulders, and the upper secondaries
are black, striped with brownish red; the feathers on the rump and upper
tail-covers are black and white; those on the neck striped black and
white; and those on the under side yellowish or brownish white; the quills
are light grey, veined with black and white, and striped with brown; the
tail is similarly coloured, but is broadly marked with a black stripe,
edged on one side with brown. Slight variations from the above colours and
markings are often observable. The eye is red, the beak yellow, and the
foot straw-colour. This species is about sixteen inches long.

This beautiful bird is a native of the northern parts of South America,
and is met with on the coast and river-banks from Guiana to Peru, and
from Ecuador to the Province of Goyas, in Brazil. Upon the shores of the
Orinoco and Amazon it is especially numerous. We are told by travellers
that among all the gorgeously-coloured inhabitants of these luxuriant
regions, the Peacock Heron is conspicuous, presenting as it does a most
brilliant combination of yellow, green, black, brown, and grey, when seen
by the full light of the sun, in whose rays it delights to bask, keeping
meanwhile its wings and tail gracefully outspread. In Para, in Northern
Brazil, says Bates, "the banks at the edge of the water are clothed with
mangrove bushes, and beneath them the muddy banks, into which the long
roots that hang down from the fruit before it leaves the branches strike
their fibres, swarm with crabs. On the lower branches the beautiful
_Ardea Eurypyga helias_ is found. This is a small Heron, of exquisitely
graceful shape and mien; its plumage is minutely variegated with bars and
spots of many colours, like the wings of certain kinds of moths. It is
difficult to see the bird in the woods, on account of its sombre colours
and the shadiness of its dwelling-places; but its note, a soft, long-drawn
whistle, often betrays its hiding-place. I was told by the Indians that it
builds on trees, and that the nest, which is made of clay, is beautifully
constructed. It is a favourite pet-bird of the Brazilians, who call it
Pavaõ (pronounced 'Pavaong'), or Peacock. I often had opportunities of
observing its habits. It soon becomes tame, and walks about the floors of
houses, picking up scraps of food, or catching insects, which it secures
by walking gently to the place where they settle, and spearing them
with its long slender beak. It allows itself to be handled by children,
and will answer to its name 'Pavaõ! Pavaõ!' walking up with a dainty,
circumspect gait, and taking a fly or beetle from the hand." According to
Castelnau, in its wild state the Sun Bittern is by no means so amiable,
but if molested, springs upon its enemy as a cat does upon a mouse,
beating the air meanwhile with its wings.

For further particulars respecting the habits of this beautiful species,
we are indebted to observations made on birds that have been successfully
reared in the Zoological Gardens of London and Amsterdam. A pair of
Peacock Herons purchased in 1862 by the London Zoological Society, in 1865
showed symptoms of a desire to breed. According to Mr. Bartlett, whom we
have to thank for the following interesting particulars, early in May they
commenced carrying bits of grass, sticks, and such-like scraps, and were
constantly walking round their pond, evidently in search of materials to
compose a nest, and appeared to try to mix wet dirt with bits of moss.
This proceeding suggested the idea of supplying them with wet clay and
mud, which they at once employed. After a short time, they decided to make
their nest on the top of a pole or tree about ten feet from the ground,
on which was fixed an old straw nest. Both birds carried up mud and clay,
mixed with bits of straw and grass-roots, in order to form the outer wall,
and plastered the inside thickly with a coating of mud. Shortly after the
nest was completed a broken egg was found, and in the early part of June
another was laid; both parents took their turn in the work of incubation,
and hatched the young bird on the 9th of July. It was covered with fine
short down, and closely resembled a young Plover or Snipe in its general
appearance. It remained in the nest, and was fed with small live fishes
and insects, and did not gape or cry, but as soon as the parents appeared
with food, it pecked the morsels from them, and swallowed them. It left
the nest in twenty-one days, its wings being strong enough to bear it to
the ground, where it was fed as before, and never returned to the nest;
it grew very rapidly, and in two months' time was not distinguishable
from the adults. Early in August the old birds began to repair the nest,
adding a fresh lining of mud and clay; and at the end of the month the
female laid another egg. This time the male attended more to the duties
of incubation than his partner, who devoted her principal attention to
feeding her now full-grown offspring. The second young bird was hatched
on the 28th of September, but received such slight attention from its
parents that the keeper feared it might starve from their neglect, and he
therefore determined to go up by a ladder and feed it. The hungry little
fellow took the food readily from his hand, and was thus reared till it
arrived at maturity.

       *       *       *       *       *

The MARSH-WADERS (_Paludicolæ_) comprise so great a variety of species
as to render a general description of their characteristics extremely
difficult. In these birds the body is powerful, the neck of moderate size,
the head small, the beak round and straight, the legs long, and the feet
furnished with four toes; the wings are of medium length, and the tail
short. The thick plumage varies strikingly in its hues in old and young
birds, and but little in the sexes. Most of the members of this group
occupy moist or boggy localities, and pass their lives upon the ground,
while some few frequent the branches of trees. Insects, small animals of
various kinds, combined with vegetable diet, afford them the means of
subsistence. The eggs are deposited in a nest, and have a spotted shell.

       *       *       *       *       *

The CRANES (_Grues_) constitute by far the largest, best formed, and most
intelligent division of the above birds, and are characterised by their
almost conical body, long thin neck, small, beautifully-shaped head, and
sharp, moderately strong beak, which is straight and slightly compressed
at its sides and blunt at the culmen, about as long as the head, soft at
its base, and hard at the tip. The long powerful legs are bare, and the
feet are furnished with four toes; of these the hinder toe is so small as
not to touch the ground; the exterior and centre toes are connected by
skin as far as the first joints; the claws are short, blunt, and flatly
curved, the wings large and broad, with the third quill longer than the
rest and the upper secondaries much prolonged; the short tail is usually
rounded, and the thick plumage composed of small feathers; in some species
the head and neck are bare, in others adorned with beautiful plumes. The
sexes are similar in their coloration, but differ much in size; the young
resemble the adult bird after the first moulting, but only attain the
flowing crest at a later period.

[Illustration: THE SUN BITTERN, OR PEACOCK HERON (_Eurypyga helias_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

Cranes are met with in almost every portion of the globe, but are
especially numerous in its warmer regions; such as inhabit northern
latitudes migrate as far as, but do not breed in the countries near the
equator. Marshy localities or morasses, in the vicinity of cultivated
land, are the situations they prefer, as affording a rich and constant
supply of the frogs, molluscs, worms, and vegetable diet upon which they
subsist. In Palestine the Cranes visit the cultivated districts only in
the time of their spring migrations, when but a few pairs remain in the
marshy plains, while the greater number pass on to the north. In the
Southern Wilderness they resort in immense numbers to certain favourite
roosting-places during the winter. Towards evening at this season, we are
told that clouds of these enormous birds literally darken the air. Their
roosting-place, according to Dr. Tristram, is usually a gently-sloping,
isolated knoll, where no ambush is possible, and where they can keep
a good look-out on all sides. In such situations their whooping and
trumpeting cry is to be heard through the entire night. The following
interesting particulars respecting the migrations of these birds in the
Wilderness of Sinai are from the notes of the Rev. F. W. Holland:--"On
March the 22nd we saw an immense flock of Cranes crossing the Red Sea from
Africa. The line appeared to stretch across the whole breadth of the sea.
Five days afterwards we found a solitary one amongst the mountains, which
did not attempt to fly, but stalked majestically on before our camels,
quite regardless of a few revolver bullets whizzing close past him. At
last an Arab boy gave chase, and running him into a bush soon caught him,
and returned in triumph, holding him up by the tips of his wings. When
released he stalked on as unconcernedly as before; but when on the point
of being caught again, the strange bird suddenly took wing, and after
wheeling round several times flew away over the mountains. On the 13th of
April, three days south of Beersheba, in the desert, another large flock
of more than two thousand Cranes passed over our heads, all going north
as the others. In the beginning of May, several smaller flocks were seen
crossing the same desert from Akabah towards Suez."


THE COMMON CRANE.

The COMMON CRANE (_Grus cinerea_) is recognisable by its partially bare
head, and the long curly feathers on its upper wing-covers. In this bird
the plumage is principally ash-grey, black in the region of the throat and
brow, and whitish on the side of the neck; the quills are black, the eyes
brownish red, and the feet blackish; the beak is reddish at its base, and
blackish green at its tip. This species is four feet and a half long, and
seven and three-quarters broad; the wing measures twenty-five and the tail
eight inches in length.

The Common Crane is a native of the northern portions of the Eastern
Hemisphere, from Central Siberia to Scandinavia, and from thence wanders
south as far as China, India, and Central and Western Africa. The
periodical migrations of these birds are remarkable for such punctuality
that for a long series of years they have been observed to pass through
France in the month of October, invariably returning during the latter
half of the month of March. On these occasions they always fly in large
flocks, which move with great rapidity; and alight during the day to rest
and seek for food. The Common Crane, although now only an occasional
visitor to England, was formerly much more common, and bred in the
marshes, which then afforded it food and shelter. Since these have been
drained, and the land cultivated, they have almost entirely disappeared.
In Charles II.'s time Sir Thomas Browne writes: "Cranes are often seen
here in hard weather, especially about the champaign and fieldy part.
It seems they have been more plentiful, for in a bill when the Mayor
entertained the Duke of Norfolk, I met with Cranes in a dish."

In an account preserved by Leland, in his "Collectanea Antiqua," of the
great feast at the enthronisation of George Nevill, Archbishop of York and
Chancellor of England, in the reign of King Edward IV., 204 Cranes form
a part of the goodly provision detailed; and in the second course of the
dinners, Crane forms the first "rost" dish, followed by "Cony, Heronshaw,
and Curlew."

During their migrations, these birds always fly in two lines, which in
front meet in an acute angle, thus forming a figure somewhat resembling
the Greek letter [Greek: g], which, indeed, is said to have derived its
shape from this very circumstance. One of the company always flies in
advance of the rest, and thus constitutes the vertex of the angle; and
if the movements of the flock are watched, it may readily be observed
that when this individual becomes fatigued by being the first to cleave
the air, it falls to the rear, and leaves the next in succession to take
its post. It has been noticed, moreover, that when the Cranes in their
migratory flights meet with a lofty mountain, they utter shrill cries,
appear anxious and restless, and fly without any kind of order. Gradually,
and each for itself, they now ascend spirally until such time as they have
attained sufficient height to pass over the obstacle, when, assuming their
original formation, they proceed on their course. At times their flight is
so very high that, notwithstanding each individual occupies a considerable
space, the birds themselves, though heard in the air, are not perceptible
to the naked eye. Their shrill, loud, and trumpet-like note is audible far
and near, and if at a short distance is almost deafening. Their voices
are rendered more powerful by the peculiar construction of the windpipe,
which forms several curvatures in the breast-bone, before descending into
and joining the lungs. This tall and stately bird, when it stands upright,
reaches to the breast of a man. It is of a shy and wary disposition, and
when a large flock alights in a field, either for the purpose of feeding
or resting, one or more of the party is always seen standing at some
little distance, with head erect, and evidently on the watch. On the
approach of danger this individual is the first to take wing, on which the
rest follow its example. The nest of the Crane is generally placed among
the thick reeds or in the luxuriant herbage of their favourite marshes,
but occasionally on the top of some deserted edifice. The eggs are two in
number, and have a greenish shell, spotted with brown. Both parents brood,
and feed their offspring at first in the nest; the young do not attain
their full strength of wing until several months old.


THE DEMOISELLE, OR NUMIDIAN CRANE.

The DEMOISELLE, or NUMIDIAN CRANE (_Anthropoides virgo_), is
distinguishable from its congeners by its short beak and entirely
feathered head, which is decorated with two flowing plumes; also by the
length of the plumage on the lower neck, and the prolonged but straight
feathers on the upper wing-covers. The unusually soft plumage is chiefly
light grey; the long feathers on the lower neck are deep black, the crests
pure white, and the quills greyish black; the eye is bright red; the
beak dull green at the base, horn-grey towards the extremity, and pale
red at the tip; the foot is black. This species is from thirty-two to
thirty-three inches long and sixty-four broad; the wing measures seventeen
and the tail six inches. The young are without the flowing feathers on the
head and neck.

This beautiful and attractive bird inhabits South-eastern Europe and
Central Asia, and is especially numerous at the mouth of the Volga, in
the countries bordering on the Caspian Sea, and in Mongolia and Tartary;
from thence it wanders as far as Southern India and Central Africa;
occasionally it has been also met with in South-western Europe. The
Demoiselle Crane arrives and departs about the same time as the other
members of the family, and like them frequents the vicinity of water or
morasses, but, according to Radde, sometimes occupies mountain regions,
even to an altitude of 3,500 feet above the sea. In its habits and modes
of life it closely resembles the Cranes already described, and like them
lays but two eggs. Both sexes brood, and commence their preparations about
April; by the end of July the young are fledged, and shortly after that
time are able to fly in company with the adults. The Demoiselles have
received their name from the dancing movements in which they frequently
indulge, the males entertaining the females and each other by leaping and
turning round, accompanying all their actions with a constant waving of
the head.

       *       *       *       *       *

The AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES (_Balearica_) possess a powerful body,
moderate-sized neck, large head, and a strong, conical, slightly-curved
bill of medium length; the legs and feet are long; the claws strong; the
wings very much rounded, with the fourth quill longer than the rest; the
tail is short and straight; and the plumage thick. The back of the head
is adorned with a conspicuous plume of bristle-like feathers, while those
on the neck and upper breast are prolonged, and those on the wing-covers
disunited at the web; the prominent cheeks and throat are bare. The sexes
differ but little in colour; the young are of duller complexion than the
adults. These fine birds are natives of Africa, and have hitherto been
classed with the Cranes; owing, however, to the many important points in
which they differ from the members of that family, we have preferred to
place them in a different group.


THE CROWNED AFRICAN OR PEACOCK CRANE.

The CROWNED AFRICAN or PEACOCK CRANE (_Balearica pavonina_) has black
plumage, and a golden yellow and black crest; the feathers on the
wing-covers are pure white, and most of the upper secondaries reddish
brown, those at the exterior being golden yellow; the eye is white; the
cheeks are light flesh-pink above, and bright red below; the beak is
black, tipped with white; and the foot blackish grey. During the life of
this bird the plumage is covered with a blueish dust. The length of the
body is thirty-eight inches, the breadth seventy-two; the wing measures
nineteen inches and a half, and the tail eight inches and a half.

This species was formerly supposed to be a native of the Balearic Isles,
whence its scientific name. Central Africa, from 17° north latitude,
is, however, really its principal habitat; whilst in the most southern
portions of that continent it is replaced by a nearly-allied species.
In these regions it occupies the flat bush-covered shores of rivers and
streams, or light woods, and is to be seen during the day principally
upon the small islands and sandbanks, whither it comes in pairs or small
flocks, either to seek for food or to perform a variety of dancing
movements. During the rainy season these small parties often increase
to companies numbering more than one hundred birds, and occasionally
they associate with the Grey or Demoiselle Cranes. Upon the ground the
Crowned Crane usually walks erect and slowly, with its crest upraised;
but if sore pressed it can run with such swiftness as renders it a
matter of difficulty for a man to overtake it. Before rising into the
air it runs for a short distance with wings outspread, and then mounts
with slowly-flapping pinions, extended neck, and crest laid back. It is
at present uncertain whether both sexes indulge in the exercise above
alluded to, during which the performers often spring three or four feet
high, turn, twist, and step with their feet as if dancing. Their loud
call is supposed to resemble the Arabic word "Rharmuk," and may be heard
at the distance of at least a quarter of a mile. Seeds, grains, berries,
portions of plants, insects, and occasionally mussels or small fish,
are the principal food of these birds; and for these they begin to seek
about sunrise, and after feeding for about two hours bathe, dance, and
preen themselves. This one repast is usually sufficient for the entire
day; at night they fly with loud trumpeting cries to seek repose upon the
trees. We have seen as many as thirty or forty Peacock Cranes perching in
the branches, and from this circumstance conclude that they also breed
in similar situations. The capture of these birds is attended with much
difficulty, owing to their extreme shyness; when caught, however, they are
readily tamed, and carry on their dancing movements even in captivity.

       *       *       *       *       *

The FIELD STORKS (_Arvicolæ_) have a short or moderately long bill, with
soft base and horny tip; high feet, furnished with small toes, the hinder
of which is too short to reach the ground; and medium-sized or short
wings. The tail is of various lengths, and the plumage rather thick;
the cheek-stripes and a patch around the eye are bare. These birds are
natives of South America, where they frequent dry, cultivated districts,
and subsist upon seeds and insects; their nests are placed on or near the
ground; the eggs are of uniform hue.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SNAKE CRANES (_Dicholophus_) constitute a group of remarkable birds,
having a slender body, long neck, moderately large head, and short, hard,
powerful wings, in which the fourth and fifth quills are longer than the
rest, and shoulder-feathers prolonged. The long, decidedly-rounded tail
is formed of ten feathers, the slender beak is shorter than the head,
slightly compressed, straight or curved, and hooked at its tip. The long
legs are unfeathered, and the short toes armed with thick, hooked, and
pointed claws, resembling those of a bird of prey. The head-feathers
are soft, long, and pointed; and those on the brow graduated from the
base of the beak, till they form an upright crest. The plumage on the
belly and rump is of downy texture, and that about the base of the bill
bristle-like; the cheek-stripes are bare.


THE BRAZILIAN CARIAMA, OR CRESTED SCREAMER.

[Illustration: CROWNED, DEMOISELLE, AND COMMON CRANES.]

The BRAZILIAN CARIAMA, or CRESTED SCREAMER (_Dicholophus cristatus_), has
grey plumage, each feather delicately marked with zigzag lines of various
shades; upon the breast, the feathers are only marked upon the shaft;
and those on the lower belly are without any lines. The long feathers
on the head and neck are blackish brown, the quills brown, striped with
white; the two centre tail-feathers are greyish brown, the rest blackish
brown in the middle, and white at the base and tip. The eyes are light
sulphur-yellow, the cheek-stripes greyish flesh-pink, the bare eye-rings
blueish, and the feet reddish brown in front, and bright red at their
sides; the beak is coral-red. The female has shorter feathers on her head
and a yellowish shade in her plumage. The young resemble the mother. This
bird is from thirty-one to thirty-two inches long; the wing measures
fourteen and the tail twelve inches.

[Illustration: THE CARIAMA, OR CRESTED SCREAMER (_Dicholophus cristatus_).
ONE-SIXTH NATURAL SIZE.]

The Cariamas inhabit the extensive open meadows of Central Brazil, and
are also met with throughout a great portion of South America. In the
states of La Plata they are replaced by a very similar species. These
birds live in pairs or small families, and if disturbed, at once take
refuge in the long grass that covers their favourite haunts, peeping
forth from time to time, in order to reconnoitre, and forthwith returning
to their place of safety. So cautious are they, indeed, that Burmeister
tells us he has often heard their voices close to him during an entire
day, without ever succeeding in catching a glimpse of them. In the daytime
the Cariamas are occupied in searching for the insects, snakes, and other
reptiles upon which they subsist. Owing to the great services they render
by destroying the latter noxious creatures, the natives are forbidden
by law to kill them. Burmeister tells us that they also eat berries.
Unlike the Cranes, these birds are constantly in motion throughout the
day. According to the Prince von Wied, they occasionally repose upon the
branches, but if alarmed, at once return to the ground, and endeavour to
save themselves by running, a mode of locomotion which they perform with
such extraordinary rapidity as to outstrip a horseman. The harsh loud
voice of this species has been compared to the barking or yelping of a
young dog, or the hoarse cry of a bird of prey. These most unpleasing
sounds are sometimes continued for half an hour at a time, the noisy
performer sitting upright on a branch, and turning its head about in a
sort of accompaniment to its harsh screams, which Burmeister remarks are
enough to drive any person with weak nerves from its vicinity. During the
period of incubation, the males contend fiercely, tearing each other with
their beaks, and presenting a most ludicrous appearance, as, with plumage
inflated and tail fully spread, they bound into the air. The nest is
usually placed in trees, at no great height from the ground, and is formed
of dry twigs, lined with a coating of clay or dung. The two eggs, which
are about as large as those of the Peacock, have a white shell, sparsely
dotted with rust-red. The young, when first hatched, are clad in thick
reddish down, marked with deep greyish brown, and remain for some time
in the nest. The Crested Screamers are readily tamed and reared in the
poultry-yard. Burmeister saw two of these birds that were domesticated in
a farmhouse, standing warming themselves at the fire among a group of men
and children. If driven forcibly to one side, they merely retired quietly
to a short distance, and almost immediately returned to their former
position. Although the flesh of the Cariama is white and well-flavoured,
it is seldom killed, as its swiftness of foot renders its capture a work
of much difficulty, even to a mounted sportsman. The plan usually adopted,
according to the Prince von Wied, is to follow it patiently on horseback,
until at last it is driven into a corner and becomes too weary to make
further attempts to escape or elude pursuit.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUMPETERS (_Psophia_) possess a powerful body, moderately long neck,
medium-sized head, and short, curved beak, compressed at its sides and
hooked at its tip. The feet are high, the tarsi long, the toes short, and
armed with curved sharp claws; the exterior and centre toes are united by
a short skin; the arched wing has its fourth quill longer than the rest;
the tail is short and weak, and the plumage principally composed of large
feathers. Those on the head and neck are of velvety, and those on the
under side of downy texture.

These birds frequent the South American forests, where they render
themselves conspicuous by their most peculiar and noisy cry. This loud
trumpet-like sound is uttered six or seven times in succession, without
opening the beak, and is so deep and sonorous that it appears to proceed
from the bird's entire body. According to Pallas, the strange noise
results from a peculiar construction of the windpipe, which at its upper
portion is as thick as a Swan's quill, but becomes more slender as it
enters the chest, when it gives off two membranous semicircular air-bags,
of which the right is the largest, and divided into three or four cells.
The hollow internal drumming, preceded by a wild cry, is evidently
produced by the vibration of the air forced into these air-bags by the
action of the muscles of the thorax. During the performance the chest
heaves as in birds when singing.


THE AGAMI, OR GOLD-BREASTED TRUMPETER.

The AGAMI, or GOLD-BREASTED TRUMPETER (_Psophia crepitans_), is black upon
the head, neck, upper back, wings, lower breast, belly, and rump; the
shoulder-feathers are purplish black, shaded with blue or green; the upper
breast is steel-blue, with a copper-red sheen. The eye is reddish brown,
the bare ring around it flesh-pink, the beak greenish white, and the foot
yellowish pink. This species is twenty inches long; the wing measures
eleven inches, and the tail one inch.

The Agami occupies such parts of South America as are situated north of
the Amazon, while on the other side of that mighty stream it is replaced
by another but nearly-allied species. Both occupy forests, and are met
with in large flocks, that often number some two hundred birds. These
parties wander about together in search of the fruit, berries, seeds, and
insects upon which they subsist; and usually move with a slow and stately
step, enlivening themselves from time to time by leaping into the air
with a variety of ludicrous movements, and if disturbed, they at once seek
safety by running. Their flight is so weak, according to Schomburghk, that
when crossing a river they are often compelled to drop upon the water and
save themselves by swimming. This statement explains the reason why the
habitat of the two species is so strictly confined to the two sides of
the Amazon. If much pressed, after running some distance, they flutter
into the branches or lie close to the ground, and are then readily shot.
When alarmed, their remarkable cry is heard to most advantage. The Agamis
usually deposit their eggs in a slight hollow on the ground, generally
at the foot of a tree. The eggs have a light green shell, and are ten
in number. The young leave the nest as soon as they are hatched, but do
not lose their downy covering till they are several weeks old. These
interesting birds become remarkably docile when domesticated, as the
following account, drawn from the "Galerie des Oiseaux," will show:--"The
Agami soon learns to obey the voice of its master, follows him wherever
he goes, and appears delighted at receiving his caresses; it welcomes his
return with alacrity, and seems to repine at his absence. In the same
proportion that it appreciates the favours bestowed upon it, it is jealous
of any rival. Should even a dog approach, it immediately assails it with
its beak and drives it to a distance, with every symptom of displeasure.
It presents itself regularly at the dinner-table, from which it chases all
domestic animals, and sometimes even the negroes who wait at table, should
they happen to be strangers, and only asks for a share of the dinner after
it has expelled from the room all who might aspire to favourable notice
from the family. It is remarkably courageous; dogs of moderate size are
obliged to cede to its authority. It walks out alone, without any danger
of losing itself, and it is even asserted that an Agami may be trusted
with the care of a flock of sheep, and that every morning it will drive
ducks and fowls to their feeding-place and bring them home at night, after
carefully collecting any stragglers. As for the bird itself, it is never
shut up, but sleeps just where it pleases, upon the roof of a barn, or
in the farmyard." Its trumpeting is described as resembling the sound
produced by a person endeavouring to pronounce "Tou, tou, tou; tou, tou,
tou," with his mouth shut, or the doleful noise made by the Dutch bakers,
who blow a glass trumpet to inform their customers when their bread is
taken out of the oven.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SCREAMERS (_Palamedeæ_) constitute a group of strange birds,
possessing large heavy bodies, long necks, small heads, long powerful
wings, strong tail, and moderately high, thick foot, with remarkably long
toes. The bill is shorter than the head, compressed at the culmen, hooked
at its tip, and covered with a cere at its base. The legs are partially
bare, and the exterior and middle toes connected by a skin; the hind
toe is so long as to touch the ground; the claws are of moderate size,
slightly hooked, and pointed. In the wing the third quill is longer than
the rest, and the rounded tail is composed of twelve feathers; the plumage
of the body is thick; the neck is covered with small feathers. The members
of this group have two powerful spurs on the joint of the wing, and one
species has a horny protuberance on the head. The sexes are unlike in
colour.

The Screamers frequent the marshy grounds of South America, where they
live in pairs or small parties. In disposition they are extremely timid
and shy, but soon betray their presence by their noisy vociferations.
Seeds and portions of plants constitute their principal fare, but they do
not reject insects, small reptiles, or even fishes. Upon the ground they
move with much dignity, and in their manner of flight nearly resemble
some of the larger birds of prey; when at rest, they generally perch on
the branches of lofty trees. Although usually peaceful, they exhibit much
courage if attacked, and defend themselves boldly with the formidable
spurs upon their wings. The nest is large, situated on the ground in their
favourite marshes, and contains two unspotted eggs. The horn and spurs of
this bird are much esteemed by the Indians as healing remedies, and in
many parts of the interior are articles of trade.


THE ANIUMA, OR HORNED SCREAMER.

The ANIUMA, or HORNED SCREAMER (_Palamedea cornuta_), is characterised by
a horn upon the brow, its thickly-plumaged bridles, and the short feathers
on its head and neck. The horn of this species, which is about five or six
inches long, either straight and upright or slightly curved, is situated
near the beak, and is about a line and a half in diameter at its base.
The upper wing-spur is about two inches long, pointed and triangular, and
curves gently upwards; and the lower one strong, almost straight, and
about four lines long. The velvety feathers on the crown are whitish grey
tipped with black; those of the cheeks, throat, neck, back, breast, wings,
and tail are blackish brown; those on the shoulder and large wing-covers
of a greenish metallic shade; and the small cover-feathers yellowish
at their roots. The feathers on the lower throat and upper breast are
silver-grey, broadly edged with black, and those of the belly and rump
pure white, the horn whitish grey, and the foot slate-colour. This bird is
thirty inches long and seventy-eight broad; the wing measures twenty-one,
and the tail eleven inches.

[Illustration: THE GOLD-BREASTED TRUMPETER (_Psophia crepitans_).]

The Aniuma is a native of Brazil, where it frequents the vast swamps and
savannahs, and preys upon the swarms of small animals with which they
teem. In these localities, an incessant discord of jarring sounds arises
from the voices of the multifarious inhabitants, but high and shrill
above them all is heard the loud startling cry of the Horned Screamer.
Formidable snakes of all kinds infest these haunts; but by the aid of the
powerful, large, hard spurs upon the joint of each wing, it is enabled
to protect itself and its young from their assaults. If not attacked,
however, its habits are shy, and its disposition gentle. When in search of
the leaves and seeds of the aquatic plants on which it partly subsists,
it wades deep into the water, and when on the ground walks with an air of
pride, keeping its head elevated. Its flight, as might be expected from
the length and spread of its wings, is strong and sweeping. These birds
live in pairs that are united for life, and make their nest on the ground.
According to the natives they lay two white eggs.

[Illustration: THE ANIUMA, OR HORNED SCREAMER (_Palamedea cornuta_).
ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE.]


THE CHAUNA, OR TSCHAJA.

The CHAUNA, or TSCHAJA (_Chauna Chavaria_), has a horn upon the brow, but
a shorter beak than the Aniuma; the bridles are bare, the nape decorated
with a crest, and the plumage soft, but not of velvety texture, on the
head and neck. The feathers of the crest and on the crown are grey, those
on the cheeks, throat, and upper neck white, those of the mantle brown,
of the nape and upper breast deep greyish blue. The edges of the wings,
the lower wing-covers, and feathers on the rump and belly are whitish. The
eyes are yellow, and the bridles and bare eye-rings flesh-red; the beak is
black, and the foot light red. This species is thirty-two inches, the wing
measures nineteen, and the tail eight inches.

The Chaunas are peculiar to the northern parts of South and Central
America, where they frequent marshes, or occasionally river-banks, either
in pairs or small parties. Their manners are shy, and when not disturbed
their gait is stately and slow. In the air their movements are easy and
swift, but they are unable to run without the assistance of their wings;
when about to rest, they resort to the branches of high trees. According
to Gray, these birds are kept by the natives with their poultry, going
with them to feed about the neighbourhood during the day, and proving very
useful in defending the fowls, by the aid of their spurs, from the attacks
of the numerous feathered tyrants with which the country is infested.
Marshy or inundated localities are the situations they principally
frequent, as their food consists entirely of the leaves of aquatic plants,
grapes, and seeds. The spacious nest is made of small branches, and is
usually placed in a bush surrounded by water, or among reeds and rushes.
The eggs are two in number, and have a rough white shell. According to
Gray, if the living bird be handled, a peculiar crackling is felt, which
is caused by the quantity of air lodged between the skin and the muscles.

       *       *       *       *       *

The RAILS (_Ralli_) are characterised by their high body, which is much
compressed at its sides, their moderately long neck and small head. The
bill is variously formed, compressed at the sides, and seldom longer than
the head. In the high, long-toed foot, the hind toe is well developed,
the wing is rounded, and does not extend so far as the extremity of the
rounded tail, which is formed of twelve feathers. The plumage is compact
and thick. The members of this family inhabit almost every portion of the
globe, and exhibit many modifications of form, according to the situation
they are created to occupy. Owing to the slender shape of their bodies,
they are able to thread their way through beds of the thickest stems of
reeds, bulrushes, and other aquatic plants, among which they seek shelter;
or, like the Land Rail, penetrate the tall grass of the meadow, and that
so rapidly and noiselessly that they elude pursuit with the greatest
ease, and seldom can be forced to take wing. All the various species
are able to pass over the surface of soft ooze, or the flat leaves of
plants that float thickly on the water of their favourite haunts; many
of them can also swim with much facility. The Rails are social in their
habits, and frequently assemble in small flocks, which remain together
until the migratory season. Insects, larvæ, worms, eggs, and even young
nestlings, frequently fall a prey to them; but seeds of various kinds and
portions of plants form their principal fare. The nest, which is very
carefully constructed, is usually placed among reeds, grass, or rushes;
the light-coloured eggs are darkly spotted, and from three to twelve in
number. Both parents brood, and they rear two families during the summer.
The flesh of these birds is excellent, but it is difficult to shoot them
without the aid of a dog.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SNIPE RAILS (_Rhynchæa_) are recognisable by the peculiar form
of their bill, which is longer than the head, straight at the base,
compressed at its sides, and inclines and curves downwards at the tip
of both mandibles, which are of equal length. The moderate-sized foot
is furnished with short unconnected toes, and has the hind toe placed
higher than the rest; the broad wing is slightly rounded, the third quill
being longer than the rest; and the tail is composed of twelve feathers.
The plumage is very beautifully variegated, the dress of the male being
usually of quieter tints than his mate; and for this reason superficial
observers have often been mistaken as to the sex of the latter.


THE GOLDEN RAIL, OR PAINTED CAPE SNIPE.

The GOLDEN RAIL, or PAINTED CAPE SNIPE (_Rhynchæa Capensis_), is of a
blackish grey on the upper part of the body; the eyebrows, a stripe on
the head, and another on the shoulder, are yellowish; the upper wing is
brown, marked with black; the lower throat and upper breast are deep
blackish grey and white; the rest of the under side is white; the quills
and tail-feathers are adorned with golden eyes and black spots. In the
female the upper parts of the body are dark brown, irregularly striped
with greenish black. The brown head has a green gloss, the eyebrows are
yellowish white, a line over the head is yellowish, the neck reddish
brown, and the upper breast blackish brown; the under side and a line on
the shoulder are white, the quills and tail-feathers green and black,
enlivened by golden eyes, and the feathers of the wing-covers green,
striped with black; the eye is brown, the beak dark green at the base, and
tipped with brownish red; the foot is light green. The male is nine inches
long and sixteen and a quarter broad; the wing measures five inches and
one-sixth, and the tail two inches; while the female is ten inches long
and eighteen broad.

The Painted Snipes are dispersed over a large portion of Africa. They keep
together in small parties, and lead a quiet and retired life, beneath
the sheltering leaves of aquatic plants that overspread the morasses and
river-banks, which are their favourite haunts. We are almost entirely
without particulars respecting these birds, except that they run well and
swiftly, and flutter rather than fly, when compelled to rise into the air.
Near the Cape they are known by the name of "Keuvitts," as that word is
supposed to resemble their cry, which is constantly heard during evening.
We obtained two eggs from the ovary of one of these Snipes, shot in the
month of May; in form and colour these resembled the eggs of the Gallinago.


THE WATER RAIL.

The WATER RAIL (_Rallus aquaticus_) represents a group having the bill
rather longer than the head, straight or slightly curved, and compressed
at its sides; the feet are moderately large, the wings short, blunt,
arched, and formed of soft quills, of which the third and fourth are the
longest; and a very short, narrow tail, composed of twelve weak, curved,
and pointed feathers. The thick compact plumage is of a golden yellow,
spotted with black on the back; the lower part of the body and sides of
the head are blueish grey, striped with black and white on the thighs. The
belly and rump are brownish yellow, the quills pale brownish black, edged
with greenish brown, and tail-feathers black bordered with olive-brown.
The eye is dull red, the beak brownish grey at the culmen, and bright red
at its margins and lower mandible, the foot is brownish green. The female
is smaller than her mate, but resembles him in colour. The young are
reddish grey on the under side, spotted with various shades of black. This
species is eleven inches long and fifteen broad; the wing measures four
inches and a half, and the tail two inches and one-sixth.

The Water Rail is a native of Northern and Central Europe, and Central
Asia, as far east as the river Amoor; and is also met with in Southern
Europe and Northern Africa during the course of its wanderings. In England
it is permanently resident, and is to be found if sought for at all
seasons of the year, but owing to its shy and sedentary habits, and the
peculiar situations it frequents, is not very frequently seen. Marshes,
pools, or water-courses are the favourite haunts of this bird; such as
are covered and edged with reeds, dense grass, or aquatic plants being
preferred, as in these it finds a constant shelter and refuge, the narrow
form of its head and body enabling it to pass through the closest masses
with great facility. To this fact it is indebted for its principal means
of security, as when driven into the air it flies awkwardly and slowly,
with the legs hanging down. Few dogs even succeed in forcing it into
view before it has gained its retreat, which is often a rat-hole, or a
tangled mass of tree-roots. When disturbed, it occasionally runs along
the surface of the water, supported by the floating leaves, for which
purpose its broad, spreading feet are well adapted; it can also dive with
much facility. Worms, slugs, aquatic insects, together with the leaves
and seeds of aquatic plants, are its principal food, and for these it
chiefly seeks during the twilight hours. The nest of the Water Rail is
composed of sedges and coarse grass loosely heaped together, and is made
on the ground, amongst reeds and rushes, beneath bushes, and occasionally
in short herbage. The eggs, from six to ten in number, vary somewhat in
colour, but are usually brownish white, or greenish, spotted with violet,
grey, and brown. The young look like little, round, puffy balls of down
when first hatched, and at once roll into the water, where they swim about
with as much delight and enjoyment as if they had been accustomed to
the exercise for years. When domesticated, the _Rallus aquaticus_ often
exhibits the utmost affection and docility. In an instance that came
under our notice, one of these birds not only ran freely about the house,
following and obeying its master, but slept at night in his bed, beneath
the coverlet.

[Illustration: THE GOLDEN RAIL, OR PAINTED CAPE SNIPE (_Rhynchæa
Capensis_). ONE-THIRD NATURAL SIZE.]

       *       *       *       *       *

The ARAMIDES (_Aramides_) are slenderly-formed birds, with strong
bills, which are longer than the head, compressed at the sides, and
slightly arched at the culmen; the legs are long, the tarsi thin, the
moderate-sized toes quite unconnected, and the claws long, sharp, and
curved. The medium-sized wing has the third and fourth quills longer
than the rest; the tail is moderate, and the plumage of uniform hue. The
members of this group occupy the marshy grounds of Central Brazil, where
they seem to be general favourites among the country people, sometimes
evincing a remarkable susceptibility of domestication.


THE SERRAKURA.

The SERRAKURA (_Aramides gigas_) is about eighteen inches long; the wing
measures ten and the tail three inches. Upon the head, upper neck, and
legs, the plumage is slate-grey, and reddish brown on the nape; the back
and wing-covers are olive-green, and the lower belly and rump black; the
quills, lower breast, and sides of belly are bright rust-red; and the
tail-feathers of blackish hue. The eye is bright red, the bill yellowish
green tipped with grey, and the foot flesh-pink.

These birds frequent the marsh-lands or moist grounds in the interior
of Brazil, in search of the seeds and insects upon which they subsist.
Throughout the morning and evening hours, their peculiar resonant cry is
constantly heard, but owing to their shyness and the dexterity with which
they conceal themselves, they are but rarely seen. The nest is placed
amongst reeds or long grass. The eggs have a pale reddish yellow shell,
slightly spotted with brown. When taken young, these birds are readily
domesticated. Azara tells us that he saw a tame Serrakura running about a
poultry-yard in Paraguay, and not only boldly defending itself from, but
attacking the fowls, with whose most vulnerable parts it was evidently
well acquainted. This bird showed a great fondness for eggs, and no
sooner was one laid, than it was seized upon, carried off, and devoured;
nor did its audacity end here, for if the unlucky hens were longer in
laying the next than suited its impatient temper, it fell upon them and
pecked them so viciously that they were obliged to quit the nest. These
depredations were not confined to its master's premises; every yard in
the neighbourhood was regularly visited and plundered, until at last
complaints became so numerous and urgent, that this troublesome but most
interesting little thief had to be killed.


THE LAND RAIL, OR CORN CRAKE.

The LAND RAIL, or CORN CRAKE (_Crex pratensis_), is recognisable by its
high body, with much compressed sides, its moderately-long neck, and large
head; and its short, strong, compressed beak, with high culmen; the leg
is of medium length, and partially feathered; the wing is wedge-shaped,
its second quill being longer than the rest; and the short weak tail
is almost entirely concealed under the covers. The smooth but not very
thick plumage is of a blackish brown above, spotted with yellowish grey;
the throat and fore parts of the neck are ash-grey, with brownish grey
sides, spotted with brownish red; the wings are brownish red, spotted with
yellowish white. The eye is light brown, the beak brownish grey, and the
foot lead-grey. The female is not so brightly coloured. This species is
eleven inches long and eighteen broad; the wing measures five inches and
a half, and the tail two inches.

The Land Rail is found throughout a great part of Central Asia and the
whole of Northern Europe, and visits not only the southern portions of the
latter continent during the course of its peregrinations, but penetrates
as far as Central Africa. In the British Isles it is a summer resident,
and appears in the southern counties about April, generally departing
about October. Marshy meadows, fields of green corn, and beds of reeds
and rushes are its favourite resorts, and in these its peculiar creaking
note is constantly to be heard. This call, according to Yarrell, may be
exactly imitated by passing the edge of the thumb-nail, or a piece of
wood, briskly along the line of the points of the teeth of a small comb,
and so similar is the sound, that the bird may be decoyed by it within a
very short distance. The male is the caller, and he continues to utter his
discordant cry until a mate be found and incubation commenced, after which
he is less frequently heard. In its general habits this species resembles
the members of its family already described, and exhibits not only a
similar dexterity in avoiding pursuit or observation, but, when alarmed,
is cunning enough, we are told, to simulate death. Mr. Jesse relates
the following interesting anecdote in corroboration of this fact:--"A
gentleman had a Corn Crake brought to him by his dog, to all appearance
lifeless. As it lay on the ground he turned it over with his foot, and
felt convinced that it was dead. Standing by, however, in silence, he
suddenly saw it open an eye; he then took it up, its head fell, its legs
hung loose, and it again appeared quite dead. He then put it in his
pocket, but before long he felt it all alive, and struggling to escape. He
then took it out, it was as lifeless as before. Having laid it again on
the ground and retired to some distance, the bird in about five minutes
warily raised its head, looked around, and decamped at full speed." The
pairing season commences almost as soon as the Corn Crakes arrive, and
during this period the males guard their mates with jealous care from the
approach of a rival, and drive off any intruder with loud harsh cries.
The nest is built when the herbage has attained a sufficient height, and
is formed of fibres, moss, dry blades of grass, and similar materials.
The eggs, which are usually seven or nine, but occasionally as many as
twelve in number, are large and beautifully formed, with a smooth, glossy,
yellowish, or greenish white shell, strewn with spots of various shades.
The female broods for three weeks, and sits with so much devotion that
she will remain to be taken in the hand rather than desert her offspring.
The young are covered with black down, and at first seek shelter beneath
their parents' wing; if alarmed they run like mice over the ground, and
are almost instantly in a place of safety. The flesh of this species is
good for the table.

       *       *       *       *       *

The JACANAS (_Parræ_) form a group of remarkable birds, occupying the
warmer parts of both hemispheres, and characterised by their slender
body, long thin beak, narrow pointed wings, short tail, composed of
slender feathers (in one species the latter are much prolonged towards
the centre), and the extraordinary length of their thin toes and claws.
The heavy, beautifully-coloured plumage is alike in both sexes, but the
young differ considerably in appearance from the parents. Most members of
this group have a bare patch or excrescence on the brow, and a thorn-like
appendage on the first wing-joint. These beautiful birds frequent marshy
ground, on the borders of rivers and ponds, and obtain the seeds and
aquatic insects--that form their principal means of subsistence--from
amongst the aquatic plants, over the surface of which their long feet
enable them to run with astonishing rapidity. The nest is made among
reeds, and contains usually either three or four eggs.

The cry of the Jacanas somewhat resembles a laugh, and is generally
uttered just after they have alighted, or when they are about to take
wing. If suddenly surprised they instantly give warning to their
companions, and immediately fly away, the whole party following, with neck
outstretched, and screaming loudly.


THE CHILIAN JACANA.

The CHILIAN JACANA (_Parra Jacana_) represents a division of the above
group, having the slender wing armed with a spur, and composed of pointed
feathers. The third quill is longer than the rest. The delicate bill
is bare at its corners, and has a skinny appendage at its base; the
feet are long and thin, and have the claws and toes of nearly equal
length. The short tail, formed of ten soft, slightly-pointed feathers,
is rounded at its extremity. In the adult of this species the head,
neck, breast, and belly are black, and the back, wings, and sides of the
belly reddish brown. The quills are yellowish green, tipped with black,
and the tail dark reddish brown; the eye is pale yellow, the beak red,
tipped with yellow; the bare patches on the brow and corners of the bill
are blood-red, the feet grey, and the wing-spurs yellow. The young are
yellowish white on the under side; the crown of the head and nape are
black, and the back olive-brown. This species is from nine to ten inches
long, the wing measures five inches and one-sixth, and the tail two
inches. "A bird so well armed as the Chilian Jacana," says Molina, "cannot
want for means of defence in case of necessity, and it of course fights
with great courage and vigour everything that attempts to molest it. It
is never seen in elevated places, and never perches upon trees, but lives
wholly in the plains, and feeds upon insects and worms. It builds its
nest in the grass, where it lays four coloured eggs, spotted with black, a
little larger than those of a Partridge. It keeps in pairs, and the male
and female are almost always together, but it is rarely seen in flocks.
When these birds perceive anyone searching for their eggs, they at first
conceal themselves in the grass, without discovering any apprehension;
but as soon as they see the person approaching the spot where the nest is
placed, they rush out with fury to defend it. It is observed that this
bird never makes the least noise during the day, and that it cries at
night only when it hears some one passing. For this reason the Araucanians
when at war are accustomed to watch the cry of this bird, which serves
them as a sentinel to inform them of the approach of an enemy. They were
formerly accustomed in Chili to hunt these birds with the Falcon, but this
mode has been long out of use." The Jacana is good game, in no respect
inferior to the Woodcock.


THE CHINESE JACANA.

The CHINESE JACANA, or WATER PHEASANT (_Hydrophasianus Sinensis_), differs
from other Jacanas, inasmuch as it is without the naked forehead and
appendages at the corner of the mouth, for which they are so remarkable;
the tail, moreover, has the four central feathers of extraordinary
length; the first and second primary quills of the wings are longer than
the rest; the beak is very slender, the foot somewhat powerful, and the
toes proportionately shorter than those of the spur-winged birds. In the
Chinese Water Pheasant the fore part of the head, face, chin, neck, and
upper breast are white; the hinder neck is yellowish white, marked with
a black stripe, that separates it from the upper neck. The upper parts
of the body are dark brown, gleaming in certain lights with purple. The
upper wing-covers are white. A patch on the head is black; the breast deep
brownish black; the lower wing-covers nut-brown; the first wing-quill
black, and the second of a very dark shade; the third quill is black on
the outer web and at the tip; its other parts are white; the secondary
quills are singularly marked; the tail is black, the eye dark brown, the
beak blue at its base and greenish towards its point. The length of the
male is eighteen inches, and the breadth twenty-four inches. The wing
measures eight and the tail ten inches. The female is larger than her
mate. One measured by Jerdon was twenty inches long and thirty broad.
During the winter the plumage of these birds is of a pale greyish brown
on the upper part of the body, and the small wing-covers are transversely
banded; the crown and nape are brown, the regions of the eyebrows white,
and forehead spotted with white.

This beautiful bird is not confined to China, but is to be found
throughout India and Ceylon wherever suitable localities invite its
presence. In disposition it is by no means shy, and indeed appears to
court admiration, for if driven from the floating lotus-leaves on which
it walks, it gives itself but little trouble to escape from observation.
At certain seasons it is said to utter sounds resembling the mewing of a
cat or the whining of a puppy. Its food consists of aquatic insects, small
mollusca, and vegetable substances. Its nest is constructed of aquatic
plants, and floats upon the surface of the water. In July or August the
female lays from four to seven beautiful eggs, of a bronze-brown or
greenish shade. In winter these birds associate in small parties, but are
not easily procurable, as if one is wounded it immediately dives, and when
it again comes to the surface allows nothing but its bill to appear above
water. The flesh of this species is excellent. Jerdon tells us that in
Purneah the natives say that before the incubation, _i.e._, the breeding,
this Jacana says "dub, dub" (go under water), and afterwards in the cold
weather "powai, powai," which in Purneah dialect means "next year."
Amongst the Cingalese, according to Latham, it is known as the Cat Teal,
from the peculiarity of its cry.

       *       *       *       *       *

The WATER HENS (_Gallinulæ_) constitute a numerous and varied family,
closely related to the last-mentioned species, and largely distributed
throughout the warm and temperate parts of the earth. These birds are
characterised by their powerful, compactly-built body, moderately long
neck, large head, and short, strong, deep, thick beak, the culmen of
which is strongly arched; and in most instances are further distinguished
by a naked projection from the beak, which spreads over the forehead.
Their legs are strong and of moderate length, and their toes either very
long, or provided with broad lateral fringes or lobes. Their wings are
short, the third or fourth quill being usually the longest; the tail is
very short, and they are more or less without variety of tint. In their
anatomical structure they are very closely related to the _Rallidæ_.

[Illustration: THE JACANA (_Parra Jacana_). ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.]

All the _Gallinulæ_ are inhabitants of marshy districts, and some of
them might even be called water-fowl. They usually prefer sedgy lakes,
large swampy morasses and brooks, or ponds and rivers well stocked with
vegetation, but are without exception restricted to fresh water. They are
generally seen swimming about in open spaces. They run with less agility
than the Rails, but far surpass them in their powers of swimming and
diving. Although these birds are by no means social in disposition, they
show a remarkable attachment to any locality of which they have taken
possession, keeping others, even of their own species, at a distance,
and sometimes exhibit resolute courage in driving away intruders much
larger and stronger than themselves. They also attack small birds with
murderous rancour, and are very destructive to young fledglings. On the
other hand, they are tenderly attached to their own progeny, both parents
exerting themselves for their defence and support, and evincing the
greatest affection for each other. The nest is always built either among
or in the immediate vicinity of the water-plants that abound in their
favourite resorts. The female lays from four to twelve smooth-shelled and
spotted eggs; the nestlings when first hatched are clad in dark-coloured
down. As soon as the young are capable of exertion, they and the parent
quit the place of their birth and wing their way, in some instances
farther south, or merely to a more favourable situation, where they remain
till after the moulting season.

[Illustration: _Plate 35. Cassell's Book of Birds_

HYDROPHASIANUS SINENSIS ____ CHINESE JACANA

(_about ½ Nat. size_)]

       *       *       *       *       *

The GALLINULES (_Porphyrio_), the most beautiful of the European
_Gallinulæ_, and known in some countries as the Sultan's Chickens, were
regarded by the ancient Greeks and Romans almost as objects of religious
worship, and were kept in the neighbourhood of their temples, as though
under the special protection of the gods. Even at the present day they
are less persecuted than many of their congeners, probably on account of
the beauty of their plumage. The members of this group are moderate-sized
but powerfully built birds, distinguished by their strong, hard, thick,
and very deep beak, which is of about the same length as the head, and
at its base expands into a broad callosity, that spreads over the region
of the forehead. The tarsi are long, and the feet strong, with large,
widely-separated toes. Their wings are of moderate length, the plumage
smooth, and remarkable for its rich colouring. These birds are generally
to be met with in swampy localities, in the vicinity of fields of corn, or
in rice-fields, which as they are almost constantly under water, seem to
suit them as well as their favourite marshes. As regards their food, the
Sultan's Chickens differ in no respect from the rest of the family. During
the breeding season, they are constantly prowling about the ponds in
search of the nests of other birds, which they plunder in the most daring
manner. Their thefts are by no means restricted to attacks on smaller
species; they rifle the larger ones with utter recklessness, so that in
any marsh frequented by the Gallinules the broken egg-shells testify to
their destructive habits; they likewise often lay in wait for Sparrows
after the manner of a cat before a mouse-hole; a single blow with their
powerful beak at once destroys their victim, which is speedily torn to
pieces and eaten. Tristram mentions having seen an imprisoned bird thus
devour young Ducks.


THE HYACINTHINE PORPHYRIO.

The HYACINTHINE PORPHYRIO (_Porphyrio hyacinthinus_) has the face and fore
part of the neck of a beautiful bright blue; the hinder part of the head,
neck, and belly and thighs are dark indigo-blue, as are the breast, back,
wing-covers, and quills, but these last are more vivid in their tints;
the region of the vent is white; the eye is pale red, surrounded by a
narrow circle of yellow; the beak and its prolongation over the forehead
are brilliant red, and the feet yellowish red. The length of this bird is
about eighteen inches and breadth thirty-two inches. In young birds the
plumage of the back is greyish blue, and the under parts speckled with
white. The Hyacinthine Porphyrio occupies the marshy districts of Spain
and Italy, and is probably also to be found in North-western Africa. In
North-eastern Africa it is represented by a nearly-allied species, called
by the Arabs the "Dickme," to which we have given the name of _Porphyrio
chloronotus_.

This species is to be seen in numbers, which vary with the season of the
year, in Sardinia, Sicily, the lake district of the eastern coast of
Spain, in the neighbourhood of Albufera de Valencia, upon the coast of
Valencia, and near Algiers. Although usually migratory in their habits,
many of these birds remain throughout the winter in the vicinity of their
breeding-places. In their deportment they remind us of our own Water-hens,
but they have a prouder gait, and step with greater freedom. Their toes
spread out so widely that they cover a considerable surface, and each
stride is accompanied with a jerking movement of the tail; they are able,
moreover, half fluttering and half running, to make their way over a
floating surface of aquatic plants. They likewise swim with considerable
facility, lying lightly upon the water, and as they row themselves along,
constantly bow with their head, as though keeping time with the strokes
of their feet. When upon the wing, the beauty of their plumage is fully
displayed; their flight, however, is inelegant, they rise unwillingly
into the air, and fluttering onwards, fall quickly to the ground, always,
if possible, among high reeds, sedge, or rice, amongst which they at
once hide themselves. During flight, their long legs hang down behind,
and render them easily recognisable at a distance. Their voice somewhat
resembles the cackling or clucking of a Hen, reminding us at the same
time of that of the Water-hen, but it is of stronger and deeper tone.
Like the rest of the family, which it closely resembles in its general
habits, this species eats the tender shoots of young corn, grass, and
various kinds of grain. When the breeding season approaches, the mated
pairs generally resort to rice-fields, and settle down in some place of
concealment among the reeds and rushes. Their nest, which floats upon the
top of the water, is but a rude agglomeration of dry grass, rice-straw,
reeds, and other similar materials. In this roughly-constructed cradle,
the female about the end of May lays from three to five eggs, of somewhat
elongated shape, with a smooth polished shell, the ground colour of which
is dark silvery grey or reddish brown. When first hatched the young are
dressed in a suit of dark grey down, their beak, forehead, and legs being
of a blueish tinge. They soon learn to swim about and to dive, but their
parents continue to watch over them for a considerable period with great
tenderness. According to Jerdon, this species is said to destroy large
numbers of Wild Ducks' eggs, by sucking them; and one of these birds has
been seen to seize a duckling in its huge foot, crush its head, and eat
out the brains, leaving the rest untouched.


THE PURPLE GALLINULE.

The PURPLE GALLINULE (_Porphyrio chloronotus_) is indigo-blue upon the
nape and fore-part of the wing, and bright blue on the front of the neck.
The breast is indigo-blue, gradually shaded to a slaty-black on the belly.
The mantle is dark green. The eye is yellowish brown, the beak blood-red,
and the foot brick-red. This species is seventeen inches long and thirty
broad. The Purple Gallinule is principally found in the lake districts of
Lower Egypt, its presence extending thence east over Syria and the region
watered by the Euphrates. As far as our observations enable us to judge,
it is a bird of passage, and makes its appearance in Egypt about the end
of April, leaving that country in September. It does not, as far as we
could learn, ascend the Nile, nor did we ever see it in the countries
through which the Upper Nile passes. Its general habits closely resemble
those of the species above described.

       *       *       *       *       *

The WATER-HENS (_Stagnicola_) are recognisable by the structure of their
beak, which is of conical form and compressed at its sides, its base being
prolonged over the forehead, and its cutting edges finely denticulated.
The feet are large, with long toes, furnished at the sides with broad,
web-like folds of skin; the wings are broad and obtuse, the third quill
being the longest; the tail is short, and formed of twelve feathers. The
plumage is thick and luxuriant.

These birds are more aquatic in their habits than the Rails; they
swim with great facility, disporting themselves upon the surface in a
singular manner, and continually striking the water with their tails.
When approached or alarmed, they have recourse to diving, employing their
wings to assist their progress under water, or take flight, skimming along
close to the surface till they reach a place of shelter. On the land
they move with ease, whisking with the tail at intervals as they walk,
and are enabled by the compressed shape of their bodies to run rapidly
through coverts or thick herbage. From the length of their toes, they
can also walk over considerable spaces of still waters, supported on the
floating foliage of aquatic plants. The borders of rivers and lakes are
their favourite resorts, especially when the current is slow and deep, and
the stream bordered with rocks and herbage, as the latter affords a safe
shelter during the day. The food of these birds consists of slugs, worms,
and insects, together with various kinds of grain and vegetable matter.
The nest is a thick mass of interlaced grasses, rushes, and flags, and is
generally placed in a retired spot among the reeds by the water-side.


THE COMMON GALLINULE, OR MOOR-HEN.

The COMMON GALLINULE, or MOOR-HEN (_Stagnicola_, or _Gallinula
chloropus_), is, notwithstanding the plainness of its attire, a very
beautiful bird. The plumage of the back is dark olive-brown, elsewhere
dark slate-grey; the thighs are spotted with white, the region of the vent
is pure white. The colour of the eye is peculiar; immediately round the
pupil is a circle of yellow, to which succeeds a second of green, while a
third exterior ring is red. The beak towards its base is vermilion-red,
towards its apex yellow; the foot greenish yellow. The length of this bird
is twelve inches, its breadth twenty-three inches; the length of the wing
seven inches and a half, and the length of the tail three inches and a
half.

The habitat of the Moor-hen extends all over Europe and a considerable
portion of Asia, but it is seldom seen in Africa. In Europe, with the
exception of the high northern latitudes, it is everywhere common. In
England it is met with at all seasons, whilst in Germany it is a bird of
passage, arriving about the end of March, and departing in October; some
few, however, remain all through the winter. These birds generally travel
by night, and probably on foot, at least some of them have been captured
under circumstances that lead to such a supposition. In early spring they
usually arrive in pairs, in the vicinity of their breeding-places, but
occasionally they come singly. Naumann, who watched a pair of Moor-hens
from his garden for several consecutive years, sometimes observed that
the males and sometimes the females appeared first; on one occasion the
female came alone, and seemed to use her best endeavours to get a partner
to join her, but in vain, until at length, after a fortnight's sojourn,
she disappeared. On another occasion the male arrived by himself, and
seemed by no means to consider his solitary condition as one of single
blessedness; day and night he reiterated his call-note, almost without
intermission, and sometimes in such a pitiable tone that it was almost
distressing to hear him, until at length, on the fifth evening, his
anxiously looked-for mate arrived, and put an end to his love-lorn
suspense. When a pair has once taken possession of a suitable pond they
are silent, but if a female is first upon the spot, she seems to invite
any passing male to join her. The individual so invited frequently flies
around her in wide circles, as though bethinking himself what he should
do; generally, however, he is content to pursue his journey alone, as is
made manifest by the renewed solicitations of the female.

Slow waters, the margins of which are thickly covered with sedge and
coarse grasses, or at least with reeds and brushwood, and partially
overgrown with floating herbage, afford the requisite conditions for their
residence. Each family of Moor-hens seems to prefer having a whole pond
to itself, and it is only on extensive pieces of water that several pairs
are to be met with, and even in this case each pair strives jealously to
keep possession of its own territory. There is something particularly
pleasing in the appearance of these graceful and well-proportioned birds
when undisturbed in their quiet pools. As they move, the points of their
wings cross each other, and their tail, held perpendicularly upwards, is
constantly kept moving in little jerks, their neck being bent into the
shape of the letter S, and their body laying horizontally on the water.
Occasionally they come on dry land to obtain a little repose, either on
a tuft of weeds, or on the bough of a tree, or sometimes on a piece of
floating wood. Here they employ themselves in preening and oiling their
feathers, preparatory to taking another swim, or to ensconcing themselves
among the rushes and thick grass. Their narrow and apparently compressed
bodies enable them to make their way with facility over weeds and leaves
floating upon the top of the water. Upon firm ground they move lightly
and gracefully, with long and measured steps, and should they be suddenly
surprised, they will rise and fly to their pond, with a flight somewhat
resembling that of a Barn-door Fowl. When on the water their power of
diving is extraordinary; at the slightest appearance of danger they vanish
like lightning, and having plunged beneath the surface, use both wings and
feet to row themselves along. Should they under these circumstances be
forced to come up again to breathe, only the beak is protruded, and that
under the protecting shelter of a tuft of herbage.

[Illustration: THE HYACINTHINE PORPHYRIO (_Porphyrio hyacinthinus_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

[Illustration: HOME OF THE MOOR-HENS (_Gallinula chloropus_).]

The nest is usually placed among reeds on the ground, sometimes on the
bank at the edge of the pool, occasionally among roots of trees, or long
grass, or on branches overhanging the river, when there is danger of the
water rising and overwhelming the nest. This instinctive forethought is,
however, equalled, if not surpassed by the ready ingenuity of these birds
when such a danger unexpectedly arises, as the following account by Mr.
Selby will show: "During the early part of the summer of 1835, a pair of
Moor-hens built their nest by the margin of the ornamental pond by Bell's
Hill, a piece of water of considerable extent, and ordinarily fed by a
spring from the height above, but into which the contents of another large
pond can be occasionally admitted. This was done while the female was
sitting; and as the nest had been built when the water-level stood low,
the sudden influx of this large body of water from the second pond caused
a rise of several inches, so as to threaten the speedy destruction of the
eggs. This the birds seem to have been aware of, and immediately took
precaution against so imminent a danger; for when the gardener, seeing the
sudden rise of the water, went to look after the nest, expecting to find
it covered, and the eggs destroyed, or at least forsaken by the hen, he
observed, while at a distance, both birds busily engaged about the brink,
where the nest was placed, and when near enough he clearly perceived that
they were adding, with all possible dispatch fresh materials to raise the
fabric beyond the level of the increased contents of the pond, and that
the eggs had by some means been removed from the nest by the birds, and
were then deposited upon the grass, about a foot or more from the margin
of the water. He watched them for some time, and saw the nest rapidly
increase in height, but I regret to add that he did not remain long
enough, fearing he might create alarm, to witness the interesting act of
replacing the eggs, which must have taken place shortly afterwards, for
upon his return in less than an hour, he found the hen quietly sitting
upon them in the newly-raised nest. In a few days afterwards the young
were hatched, and, as usual, soon quitted the nest and took to the water
with their parents. The nest," continues Mr. Selby, "was shown to me soon
afterwards, and I could then plainly discern the difference between the
new and the older part of the fabric."

The construction of the Moor-hen's nest is a serious operation, in which
both parents assist. The materials made use of are leaves of various
kinds, both dry and fresh; these are piled upon each other, sometimes
apparently in a very slovenly manner, but at others with more care, so
that when completed the structure looks like a coarsely-made basket of
leaves, in the centre of which is a basin-shaped depression, wherein the
eggs, from seven to eleven in number, are deposited in the course of about
a fortnight. The eggs are of moderate size, the shells hard, fine-grained,
and smooth, but dull-looking. Their colour is pale rusty yellow, spotted
with violet-grey and ash-grey, and besprinkled with cinnamon and reddish
brown specks. Both sexes take a share in the incubation of the eggs, which
are hatched after the lapse of twenty or twenty-one days. The young remain
in the nest about twenty-four hours after their escape from the egg, at
the end of which time they are introduced by their mother to their new
element, the water, to which they are heartily welcomed by their male
parent. The family now begins to be a very interesting spectacle; the
young brood swims about, closely following the movements of the old birds,
all of them eagerly watching for worms or insects that their affectionate
caterers pick up for them; and as soon as they see one caught, all
simultaneously rush forward to obtain the coveted morsel. After a few
days, however, they learn how to obtain their own food, although they
are still carefully watched and protected from danger. At the slightest
warning they vanish; indeed, it is wonderful to see the celerity of their
movements. In about a fortnight they are able to shift for themselves,
and their elders begin to make preparations for rearing a second brood,
which, after the lapse of a few weeks, make their appearance upon the
water, and the scene we have just described is enacted over again, but
with additional circumstances that make it still more interesting. By the
time the second family show themselves, those of the first brood are half
grown up, and might be supposed to trouble themselves very little about
the additional members of their family; such, however, is by no means the
case; small and great, old and young, seem to meet each other in the most
affectionate manner. The half-grown birds at once begin to share with
their parents the labour of providing for their new brothers and sisters,
to whom they bring food in their beaks, and watch over them with the
greatest assiduity, just as their parents had done to them a few weeks
previously. As the number of the second brood is usually smaller than that
of the first, and the parent birds are not a bit less assiduous in helping
their younger than they were in providing for their elder children, the
latter grow rapidly; they generally swim in the middle of the little
flock, and are fed and cared for by all.

       *       *       *       *       *

The COOTS (_Fulica_) are distinguished from the above birds by the
structure of their feet, the Water-hens having the toes bordered by simple
folds of the integument, whilst in the Coots these membranous folds are
scalloped, and more elaborately constructed. In conformity with such
enlargement of their feet, which make excellent oars, the members of this
group spend more of their time in water than on land. During the course
of the day, however, they frequently come on shore in order to repose
and preen their feathers. Upon level ground they run with considerable
facility, and in their powers of diving might compete with many of the
really web-footed birds. If alarmed, they at once plunge to a very
considerable depth, and when under water, row themselves along by means of
their feet and wings for a considerable distance before again rising to
the surface. It is probable that during these immersions they obtain the
greater part of the larvæ, worms, mollusca, and vegetable matter on which
they principally subsist. Although the flight of the Coots is somewhat
superior to that of the Common Gallinules, they but seldom take wing, and
when about to do so are compelled to run before rising into the air, in
order to obtain sufficient impetus. Should they endeavour to take flight
from the water, they are obliged to flutter along for some distance,
striking the surface with the soles of their feet, and splashing along in
such a noisy manner that they may be heard at a considerable distance. No
sooner have a pair of Coots selected a pond for their residence than they
immediately set about the important work of building their nest. On large
sheets of water, on which several couples may have taken up their abode,
this business is by no means an easy task, as many battles must be fought
before the question of appropriated territory is satisfactorily settled;
indeed, in localities where many of these birds have congregated, their
shrieking, splashing, and flying about seems interminable; no sooner does
one pair encroach upon the domain of another, than the invaded male at
once hastens to the combat, and furious encounters take place, until the
enemy is fairly driven away. Sometimes these engagements afford a very
interesting spectacle. The battle-field is generally some quiet creek,
in which the birds swim around each other, using the arms with which
Nature has provided them with all their might, hacking with their bills,
striking with their wings, and kicking with their feet, until one or other
is compelled to yield. These affairs settled, the labour of building is
at once commenced. The nests are placed near the water, either amidst or
upon aquatic plants that there abound; sometimes they are raised upon a
bed of reeds or similar matter, or float upon the surface of the pool. The
foundation of the nest is generally laid with dry reeds and stubble, while
the upper part is formed of finer material and more carefully arranged,
the interior is snugly lined with soft hay, rushes, and leaves. The eggs,
from seven to fifteen in number, are smooth-shelled, but lustreless. The
female does not begin to sit until the last egg is laid; the young make
their appearance in about twenty-one days; when first hatched they are
beautiful little creatures, clad in dark-coloured down, with flaming
red heads. They at once betake themselves to the water, where they are
carefully fed, tended, and valorously defended by both the parent birds.
At first they seem to prefer to keep themselves hidden among the reeds,
but at night they retire to the nest. As they get stronger they become
more independent, and even before they are fully fledged are well able
to provide for themselves. Although the flesh of the Coots is scarcely
eatable, they are nevertheless frequently killed for the sake of the
sport. In Italy great numbers are caught by means of nets, and they are
commonly sold in the markets at a very low price.


THE COMMON COOT.

The COMMON COOT (_Fulica atra_) very closely resembles the Water-hens,
except in the peculiar construction of its feet. Its body is powerfully
framed and slightly compressed at the sides; the neck is of moderate
length, and the head rather large; the beak is conical, compressed at
the sides, and has its sharp cutting margins slightly denticulated. The
callosity upon the forehead is large; the foot moderately high, strong,
compressed at the sides, and furnished with long toes, each of which is
fringed laterally with a broad expansion of the skin divided into lobes.
The wings are of moderate length, with their second and third quills
longer than the rest; the tail consists of fourteen or sixteen quills, and
is very short, being almost entirely hidden by its covers. The plumage,
which is of extraordinary thickness, is almost entirely of a uniform
slaty-black; the head and neck, however, are darker, and the breast and
belly lighter than the rest of the body. The eyes are light red, the beak
and callosity on the brow pure white, and the feet lead-grey, merging
towards the heel into a reddish green. In young birds the plumage on the
under side of the body is light grey mixed with black, and the mantle
tinged with an olive shade. This species is eighteen inches long, and
thirty broad; the wing measures nine, and the tail three inches.

The Common Coot is a native of Europe, and is met with in all parts
of that continent; it has also been seen during the winter in Central
Asia, and the interior of Africa. In Germany it is found on every piece
of water adapted for its residence, and is abundant in England on all
fresh-water lakes. In the choice of a locality it seems to avoid streams
and rivers, as also salt water, but readily takes up its abode near still
deep water, the margins of which are fringed with sedges and tall reeds.
For their winter quarters, these birds resort to the extensive marshes
of Southern Europe, and to the northern and central parts of Africa,
returning to their usual haunts as soon as the snow begins to melt, and
there remaining till the autumn; unlike allied species, they assemble in
large flocks previous to commencing their migrations. The food of the
Common Coot consists of shelled molluscs, worms, larvæ, and a variety of
vegetable substances; in southern climates we are told they sometimes
visit the corn-fields in order to devour the grain. We are not inclined
to question this statement, as we have not only seen them eat corn with
avidity when in a state of captivity, but appear to prefer that diet even
when fishes were offered them. The nests of this species are large, and,
though clumsily formed, are strong and compact. So remarkable, indeed, is
the strength of these apparently careless structures, that Mr. Hewitson
tells us, upon one occasion when standing up to his knees in water, a nest
made of flags and broken reeds afforded him a firm seat. The eggs are of a
pale yellowish brown, delicately spotted with dark ashy green, and marked
with brown. The Coot when properly prepared before roasting is tolerable
eating, otherwise, it becomes imbued with a fishy flavour owing to an oil
which exudes from the skin when cooking. During the winter great numbers
are killed upon the coast while roosting on the sandbanks.

       *       *       *       *       *

The FINFOOTS (_Podoæ_), a group of birds inhabiting South America and
Senegal, present many difficulties in their classification, although,
judging from their structure generally, and more especially from the
formation of their skeleton, they show the closest relationship with
the Coots. Their toes are not exactly webbed, but furnished with broad
lateral membranes admirably adapted for swimming; their bodies are small
and slender, but strongly built; their long neck curves gracefully; their
wings are weak and their tail strong and broad. The beak, which is about
the same length as the head, is thin and feeble, slightly arched along the
line of the culmen, but without any callous prolongation on the brow. The
legs are very stout and feathered to the tarsus; the front toes exceed
the tarsus in length, and are furnished, as we have said, with lateral
folds which perform the office of a web; the hind toe is small and without
any appendage; in the wing the second and third quills are longer than
the rest; the tail is composed of eighteen feathers, which are slightly
rounded at their extremities.


THE SURINAM FINFOOT, OR PICAPARE.

The SURINAM FINFOOT, or PICAPARE (_Heliornis Surinamensis_), has the head
and upper neck black; the back, wings, and tail are brown; a stripe over
the eye, the throat and front of neck are white; the breast and belly
yellowish white. The eye is brown, beak pale greyish yellow with brown
base and black point; in old birds the bill has a red shade. The feet are
yellowish red, the inner and hinder parts of the tarsus black, and the
toes marked with a black band over every joint. The length of this bird
is twelve inches, breadth sixteen inches, length of wing five and a half
inches, and tail three and one-sixth inches. According to observations
made by the Prince von Wied, the Picapare is to be met with in Brazil and
Paraguay, its habitat extending to 25° south latitude, so that it may be
said to occur throughout a considerable part of South America. It is by no
means scarce upon the rivers of East Brazil, but is often overlooked, as
it hides itself amongst the luxuriant vegetation that covers the shore;
wherever darkness and silence favour its presence, it is always to be
found. Very frequently it may be seen sitting on a thin branch, partially
immersed in the water, and occupied in bowing its head in a most peculiar
manner. Its food consists of aquatic insects and seeds, in search of which
it occasionally plunges its head under water. Its voice, which is emitted
from the throat, somewhat resembles the barking of a little dog. We learn
from the same authority that the young of these birds are only two in
number, and are reared during the hot season. At first they are nearly
naked, and hide themselves under the wings of their parents, holding
themselves on by means of their beaks; when they have grown a little
stronger, they may be seen sitting upon their mother's back, and even
accompanying her in her dives under water. If alarmed when with its young,
the Picapare at once takes wing, and betakes itself to the shelter of the
thick bushes that cover the shore; if still further pressed it hides among
rushes and reeds until the danger is passed. It seems only to dive when
seriously alarmed, as for example, when shot at; on such occasions it will
remain under water for a considerable space of time; its powers of diving,
however, are far inferior to those of many water birds.

[Illustration: THE STILT BIRD (_Charadrius himantopus_).]




THE SWIMMERS (_Natatores_).


BUT little difference of opinion exists among naturalists as to the limits
of our last order; indeed, a swimming bird is at once recognisable by
characters so sharply defined that there is scarcely room for doubt or
hesitation. The grand character whereby they are all distinguishable is
to be found in the structure of their feet, the toes of which are more
or less completely united to each other by a broad web by which they are
converted into paddles, admirably adapted to propel them through their
appropriate element. Hence they swim with facility, and frequent rivers,
lakes, and seas. Generally speaking, the _Natatores_ move awkwardly
on land, as, in order to render the strokes of their paddle-like feet
more effective, their legs are placed more or less behind the centre of
gravity, so that when on the ground they have, in a great measure, to
retain their balance by muscular exertion, as may be seen in the Goose or
Swan as they waddle clumsily over the grass. In some cases these birds
are compelled to assume an upright attitude, as do the Auks and Penguins.
In the structure of the feet important differences are observable,
generally only the three front toes are connected together by the web, but
occasionally the hind toe is likewise included in the expansion of the
skin, or is provided with lateral appendages that materially enlarge its
surface. The form of the body in the swimming birds is boat-like; in those
that dive, the ribs are strong and carried back, so as to almost entirely
surround the enclosed viscera, and thus defend them from undue pressure.
Their plumage is dense, close, and waterproof, consisting of a thick under
garment of down overlaid with broad flat feathers, which throw off the
water as if their surface were oiled. In many groups the neck is very
long and the tail very short, while in others the tail composed of rigid
quills is employed as a rudder when the birds are diving. Some are utterly
incapable of flight, and use their wings in the water as though they
were fins. The members of this order live almost exclusively upon animal
food, only a few preferring a vegetable diet. All, without exception,
are sociable in their habits; most of them exceedingly prolific, some
species, however, lay but one egg. Frequently they crowd their favourite
breeding-places in great numbers, and are devotedly attached to their
offspring; some will even incubate eggs, and rear young that are not their
own.


THE SIEVE BEAKS.

The SIEVE BEAKS (_Lamellirostres_), according to our usual plan, are
placed at the head of the Natatorial order, as in these TOOTH-BILLED
and SOFT-BILLED SWIMMERS, as they have been called by various writers,
the peculiar attributes of Swimming Birds are most equally developed,
and their locomotive capabilities most varied. Whoever examines a
Duck with attention, will appreciate the leading features whereby the
_Lamellirostres_ are distinguished. Their bill is generally depressed,
broad, and always laminated at the sides; the lamination being more
prominent in some species than in others, but always so arranged as to
form a sieve-like apparatus, by means of which these birds obtain their
food, in a manner peculiar to themselves. This remarkably constructed
beak, which is seldom longer than the head, is usually straight, broad,
and flatly arched above, terminating in front in a broad nail-like
appendage, while at the sides it presents a series of horny laminæ, which
interlock with similar developments from the under jaw. With the exception
of the margins, which are tolerably hard, the entire beak is covered with
a soft skin, and is largely supplied with branches of the fifth pair of
nerves, so as evidently to be endowed with great sensibility, as is
likewise the tongue, which is large and fleshy except at its sides, which
are fringed and toothed with horny ridges. When we observe the use that
the Duck makes of this organ, we perceive that, unlike other birds, it
discriminates its food, not by sight or smell, but by the sense of touch
resident in its tongue. It plunges its beak into the mud, and brings up
whatever it may happen to meet with, and from this mouthful of stuff it
selects, by the aid of that member alone, whatever is good for food; while
what is useless escapes through the straining apparatus at the sides
of the bill. In comparison with this remarkable structure of the beak,
the other characters whereby these birds are distinguishable become of
secondary importance, nevertheless they also are somewhat striking. The
slightly elongated body is strongly built, the neck either of moderate
length, or very long and slender, the high and narrow head of medium size.
The tarsus is small or moderate (or, exceptionally, very high), four-toed,
and webbed in front. The moderate-sized wings are somewhat pointed; they
consist occasionally of but twelve feathers, and are either truncate or
rounded, sometimes wedge-shaped or pointed at the extremity. The plumage
is always close, smooth, and well packed with down. The distribution
of the various races of these birds is more limited than that of many
Natatorial families, and some of them at certain seasons migrate regularly
from colder to warmer climates, and _vice versâ_.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: THE FLAMINGO (_Phœnicopterus roseus_).]

The FLAMINGOES (_Phœnicopteri_), notwithstanding their extraordinary
length of leg and neck, which have induced some authors to class them
with the Wading Birds, are, both in their general structure and mode of
life, most undoubtedly to be regarded as members of the present order,
and are, as their internal anatomy teaches, very nearly related to the
Swans. Their body is slenderly built, neck very long, head large, and
the wings, in which the second quill is the longest, of moderate length;
the tail, which consists of twelve feathers, is remarkably short. The
peculiarly constructed beak is somewhat longer than the head, higher
than broad, but thick and bent down towards the middle, at an obtuse
angle. The upper mandible, which is much smaller and feebler than
the lower, is remarkably flat; both mandibles are provided at their
circumference with the lamellated sieve-like structure characteristic of
the _Lamellirostres_. The whole apparatus very much resembles a box, of
which the lower jaw forms the body, while the upper mandible constitutes
the lid. This extraordinary bill is covered with soft skin, but is hard at
its apex, and towards its base presents a soft cere. The legs, which are
most disproportionately long and slender, are denuded of feathers for a
considerable distance above the heel; the three front toes are of moderate
length, and connected by a broad, slightly-excavated web. The hind toe,
which is considerably elevated, is short and feeble. The thick, compact,
soft plumage is beautifully coloured, and is exactly comparable to that
of other Swimming Birds. The internal structure of the Flamingo has been
carefully studied by Wagner, and found to correspond in every particular
with that of the Ducks (_Anatidæ_). Naturalists are at present acquainted
with about half a dozen species belonging to this group, and although the
history of some of them is far from complete, enough is known to induce
us to believe that in their mode of life they differ in no respect from
the species with which we are best acquainted. These remarkable birds
are widely distributed over the warmer portions of the globe, and are
met with principally in Asia, Africa, and South Europe. According to the
accounts of both ancient and modern writers, they make their appearance
every year in great numbers in the vicinity of the lakes of Sardinia
and Sicily, as also in Albufera de Valencia, and other parts of Spain.
Along the coasts of Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, they
are abundant, as also in Smyrna, and near the banks of the Volga, but
are very rarely met with in Greece. Occasionally a few stragglers have
been seen as far north as the banks of the Rhine; generally speaking,
however, the south coast of Europe must be regarded as their northern
limit, and North Africa and Central Asia as their usual habitat. Those
species that inhabit the Western Hemisphere are likewise confined within
corresponding limits. Lakes of salt or brackish water in the vicinity of
sea-coasts are the favourite resorts of the Flamingoes. To lakes of fresh
water they are only casual visitants, and never resort to them for any
length of time. On the other hand, they are always very abundant on the
sea-coast, more especially where the shores are flat and swampy. All are
birds of passage, and the migrations of some occur with such regularity
that the period of their return may be predicted with tolerable accuracy.
According to Cetti, Flamingoes appear in Sardinia about the middle of
August, and depart thence in March or the beginning of April. In South
Italy they are stationary, remaining in the same locality all the year
round. Only those who have had the good fortune to see these birds
assembled in flocks, consisting of many thousands, can form an adequate
idea of the beauty of their appearance. "Looking from Cagliari to the
sea," says Cetti, "it seemed to be banked in with a wall of red bricks,
or to be covered with countless numbers of roses. On nearer approach
these proved to be Flamingoes ranged in regular ranks. Aurora herself
was never adorned with more roseate tints than the wings of these birds,
they seemed literally to glow with pink and carmine. The name of the
Flamingo, both in Greek and Latin, was derived from the magnificent hues
of their glorious wings, and the French in the epithet _flammant_ only
repeat the same idea. The first impression produced by such a spectacle
is not easily to be forgotten; the birds stood in ranks, not merely of
thousands, but literally of hundreds of thousands, ranged in interminable
array. As the sunlight played upon the dazzling white and glowing red, the
effect was indescribable; at length, taking alarm at something, the whole
body of them rose into the air, displaying their wings to still greater
advantage, as they formed themselves into an immense wedge-shaped phalanx,
and winged their way far up into the blue sky." When standing quietly
upon the shore, the appearance of these birds very much resembles that
of an army drawn up in order of battle; the Cingalese call them "English
soldier birds," the South Americans simply "soldiers," and indeed not
without cause, for, as Humboldt informs us, the inhabitants of Angostura,
soon after the establishment of that colony, were one day thrown into a
state of great alarm by the sudden appearance of what they took to be a
numerous army, and it was only when the supposed enemy took flight to the
shores of the Orinoco, that they discovered their mistake. A solitary
Flamingo is very rarely seen, never perhaps before the commencement of the
pairing season, and even then it must be some young bird that has strayed
by accident from its fellows. Usually they keep together in flocks, and
carefully avoid any locality where danger might be apprehended. Open
waters are usually selected as their fishing-place, and should a boat
approach they at once take flight whilst it is still far off, so that it
is by no means easy to observe their proceedings, except with the aid of
a telescope. In general they may be seen with their legs immersed in the
water, or more rarely on the dry shore or on sandbanks with their necks
curved in a very peculiar manner (see page 116) in front of the breast,
the head being laid as it were upon the back, or buried beneath the
shoulder-feathers of the wing; generally the whole weight of the body is
supported by one leg, the other being held obliquely backwards or drawn
up close to the body; in this strange position the Flamingo sleeps. The
manner in which these birds obtain their food is equally remarkable. Like
all other sieve-beaked birds, the materials upon which they subsist are
procured by raking in the mud. The Flamingo when in search of food, wades
into the water to a convenient depth, and then bends down its long neck
until its head is upon the same level as its feet; it then plunges its
beak, with the upper mandible downwards, into the mud. In this position
the bird rakes about at the bottom of the water, moving backwards and
forwards with short steps, and opening and shutting its bill whilst its
tongue is busily at work. In this manner, by the delicate sense of touch
resident in that member, the Flamingo examines the contents of its mouth,
retaining what is useful as food, and straining out through the sieve-like
apparatus the mud or non-nutritive materials with which it is accompanied.
Meanwhile, by the movements of its webbed feet, it is continually stirring
up the bottom, and thus putting in motion all the little aquatic animals
of which it is in search. The gait of the Flamingo very much resembles
that of the Long-legged Waders, but is not exactly similar, although the
difference is not easily described. Its steps are longer, more regular,
and more vacillating, as might be expected from the extraordinary length
of its legs, but at the same time its movements are easy, and differ
widely from the accounts given of them by some writers, who tell us that
when walking it is compelled to help itself along by its beak. Its beak,
however, is occasionally employed to assist it in its movements, as for
example, when having bent its legs under its body it lies down upon the
ground to rest, and is suddenly obliged to rise from this position, the
bill is employed to assist in getting up, but this once accomplished
it runs away with tolerable speed in the manner above described. When
taking flight from the sea or lake in which it has been feeding, it not
unfrequently goes to a considerable distance, half running and half
flying over the surface of the water, much after the manner of a Duck or
Water-hen. In deep water it also swims apparently without the slightest
effort, and although its progress may be somewhat slower than that of the
Short-legged Swimmers, it is evidently more enduring. Its flight, when
once it has raised itself out of the water in the manner above described,
is light and tolerably rapid, the quick strokes of its wings producing
a noise not unlike that which accompanies the flight of Ducks and Wild
Geese, indeed, the sound made by the rising of a whole flock has been
compared to distant thunder. When fairly on the wing a flying Flamingo
could not be mistaken for any other bird, even by the most unpractised
novice. Unlike the generality of long-necked birds, it stretches not only
its long legs, but its neck straight out, thus presenting an appearance
of extraordinary length and slenderness; so that, with its narrow wings
exactly in the centre, it assumes pretty much the shape of a cross. When
flying together in considerable numbers, the flock, as we have already
said, arrange themselves in regular phalanx, either in one long line, or
in a wedge-shape like that of the letter V. When descending from a great
height, their flight assumes a spiral direction, but just before alighting
they sweep forward for a little distance over the water until they find
a suitable spot whereon to settle. The loud harsh voice of these birds
somewhat resembles that of a Goose. The food of the Flamingo consists
principally of water-snails, worms, crustaceans and small fishes, but it
by no means despises vegetable substances, and in a state of captivity
will eat boiled rice, corn, or soaked bread. Our information concerning
the breeding of these birds is not very satisfactory. Labat many years ago
gave a very strange description of their mode of incubation, which was
subsequently contradicted by Dampier; and later writers have contented
themselves with copying these accounts without ascertaining their
accuracy. Dampier informs us that "the Flamingoes build their nests where
plenty of dirt is procurable. This dirt they rake together by means of
their feet, so as to form a hillock, which stands like a little island, a
foot and a half above the water, each hillock being of a conical shape,
and having a depression at the top, on which the nest is placed." Labat
states that the hillocks are solid, as high as the surface of the water,
but that above this point they are hollowed like a basin, and that when
the birds lay or incubate their eggs, they place themselves upright, not
upon the hillock, but close to it, with their feet upon the ground, in
such a manner, that leaning against the hillock they cover the nest with
their tail. Naumann in the strongest terms refuses to believe either of
the above accounts, and from our own observations on the living birds we
ourselves quite acquiesce in the doubts he expresses. It is true we have
never seen a Flamingo actually engaged in incubating; but at Mensala,
in Egypt, where we obtained a full-grown egg from the oviduct of a dead
female, we procured the following information concerning the mode of
incubation. The Flamingo makes her nest in shallow places in the water,
or, as the Arabs assert, upon flat insular spots, overgrown with low
vegetation. In the first case the nest is a conical heap of mud scraped
together by the feet of the bird, and raised so high that its top is a
foot and a half above the water. In the second case it consists of a mere
hollow trough, scooped out in the soil and lined with sedge, rushes,
grass, and similar materials. The number of eggs laid is generally two,
occasionally three. Their shape is elongated, and their shell smooth and
of chalky whiteness. The bird when brooding most undoubtedly sits upon her
eggs in the usual manner, bending her legs beneath her, and lying flat
upon the nest. The duration of incubation is stated to be from thirty to
thirty-two days. The young when hatched immediately betake themselves to
the water, and swim from the day of their birth. They soon learn to run,
but are not capable of flight till a lapse of several weeks. The chase
after Flamingoes requires considerable caution. In the daytime they are so
timid that it is almost impossible to get within gunshot of one of their
numerous assemblages, seeing that while feeding they invariably station
some of the older members of the flock to warn them of the approach of
danger. The Arabs informed us, however, that they may be procured in
considerable numbers by a very simple contrivance. The plan adopted in
Egypt is to suspend ordinary fishing-nets between two boats, and in this
manner to sail directly towards the sleeping-place of the birds; thus
suddenly awakened, the Flamingoes fly against the nets, in which they are
easily captured, and in this manner fifty or sixty are sometimes taken
at once. The fishermen on the Lake of Mensala adopt a still stranger
plan: after having, by carefully watching a flock, discovered where the
sentinels are placed (the latter always remain bolt upright, whilst the
rest of the flock sleep with their heads under their wings), a naked
fisherman, having his head covered with a bundle of grass or reeds, swims
or creeps towards the unsuspecting birds, and suddenly seizing the sentry,
plunges his head under water, and breaks his neck before an alarm can
be given. The sleepers then become easy victims. This latter account we
should certainly not have credited without corroborative evidence. In
North Egypt, however, dozens of these beautiful birds may be seen exposed
for sale in the markets, where they are eagerly bought for the table;
their flesh is excellent, and quite devoid of the oily flavour which we
fully expected would have rendered it unpalatable.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SWANS (_Cygni_), from their proud looks and majestic demeanour, must
ever hold a conspicuous position in the order to which they belong.
Their imposing size and elegant appearance at once rivet attention, and
closer examination shows that amongst Lamellirostral birds they form a
sharply-defined group, easily distinguishable from the Ducks and the
Geese, with which they have been sometimes associated. Their body is
elongated, their neck very long, and their head moderate. Their beak
is straight, of equal breadth throughout, rounded in front, and at its
base naked and protuberant. The upper mandible is flatly vaulted above,
and terminates anteriorly in a roundish nail. The length of the beak
is pretty nearly the same as that of the head; the legs are short, and
placed very far back; the middle toe is longer than the tarsus, and
the hinder toe, which is small and feeble, is so much elevated that in
walking it does not reach the ground; while the web connecting the three
front toes is remarkably broad and complete. In the construction of the
wing, the relative proportions between the bony framework and the quills
is deserving of notice, the former being very long, the latter somewhat
short, while the primary quills, of which the second is the longest, are
scarcely longer than the secondaries and the tertiaries. The tail consists
of eighteen or twenty graduated feathers. On the under surface the plumage
is thick and fur-like; on the upper side, on the contrary, the feathers
are broad; but everywhere, both above and below, the body is richly
covered with down.

With the exception of the equatorial regions of our globe, Swans are to
be met with in every climate, but they principally abound in temperate
and cold latitudes. In Asia and Europe three species are met with, which
occasionally extend their winter visits as far as North Africa. Two of
these species are likewise met with in America, together with several
others that are peculiar to that continent; while at least one other very
conspicuous species is an inhabitant of Australia. The extent over which
these several kinds are spread is very considerable, and their migrations
extend over a great distance. All the species are migratory, but by no
means all the individuals belonging to each, seeing that there are many
of them whose residence is within the limits of the temperate zone, that
remain all the year round in the same locality, or at all events, content
themselves with wandering to some place not very far remote from their
usual residence.

The following interesting account of the migrations of these birds is
given by Franklin: "About the first of September the Swans leave the
Polar Sea, and resort to the lakes and rivers in and about the latitude
of Hudson's Bay; there they remain till October, preparing for their
departure for the winter, when they collect in flocks of from twenty to
thirty, and seizing a favourable opportunity, with the wind not opposed
to the direction of their flight, they mount high in the air, form a
prolonged wedge, and with loud screams depart for more genial climes.
While making either their semi-annual transmigration, or on shorter
expeditions, an occasional scream, equal to, 'How do you all come on
behind?' issues from the leader, which is always replied to by some
posterior Swan with an 'All's well!' vociferation. When the leader of the
party becomes fatigued with his extra duty of cutting the air, he falls
into the rear, and his neighbour takes his place. When mounted, as they
sometimes are, several thousand feet above the earth, with their delicate
outline scarcely perceptible against the clear blue of heaven, this harsh
sound, softened and modulated by distance, and issuing from the immense
void above, assumes a supernatural kind of tone."

The permanent habitat of the Swans is always upon large lakes of fresh
water, or in marshy situations where fresh water is abundant. During
their migrations, however, they take up a temporary residence on water
of any kind. Their nests are generally placed on rivers or fresh-water
lakes, but probably this is only on account of the shallowness of such
situations, as after the breeding season some betake themselves to the
sea, or wherever food is most abundantly procurable. The Swans are only
active in the day, and even their migrations are never carried on by
night. In their locomotive capabilities they surpass most other Swimming
Birds. Their domain is the water, and it is only unwillingly that they
ever venture on dry land; nor do they readily take wing, unless compelled
to do so by unavoidable necessity. The very backward position of their
legs renders walking on land difficult, so that when on dry ground
their gait is heavy and vacillating. Their flight apparently requires
considerable effort, more especially when they attempt to rise from the
surface of the water; when, however, they have gained a certain altitude,
it is extremely rapid. It would appear almost impossible for these
birds to rise from the ground, and they never venture to alight on dry
land. When beginning their flight from the water, they always stretch
out their necks horizontally to their full length, striking the surface
with their wings, and splashing with their broad-soled feet; and thus,
half flying and half walking, they proceed for a distance of from forty
to eighty feet, before they can acquire impetus to enable them to mount
into the air. When, however, this is once accomplished, their movements
are perfectly easy and free. When alighting from their flight they glide
obliquely downwards to the water, and when they have nearly reached it,
spread out their webbed feet to stay their headlong career, and moderate
the shock of their descent. As relates to their vocal powers, different
species of Swans vary considerably; some appear to be mute, but generally
speaking their cry may be said to have somewhat the sound of a trumpet,
and much resembles the voice of the Cranes. Some commonly, however, only
utter a loud hissing or a low muttering noise; in other species, on the
contrary, the voice is loud and powerful, and somewhat varied, so that
when heard from a distance its effect is by no means disagreeable. The cry
of the male is always louder and of a deeper tone than that of the female.
The young "pipe," like young Geese. The manners of Swans are gentle, and
rather shy, nevertheless they exhibit a certain degree of vanity and
consciousness of power, often manifested in their domineering behaviour
towards other Water-fowl. Only those of the same species associate in
large numbers, and they seem particularly jealous of intruders. The
matrimonial engagements of these birds are kept with exemplary fidelity,
and last throughout their lives. No sooner have they paired, than the
happy couple begin to show the tenderest affection towards each other,
manifested by innumerable graceful caresses; they swim together with
indefatigable constancy, and should danger approach defend each other with
the utmost courage and self-devotion. Their care for their young progeny
is equally remarkable. Although the male does not himself actually take a
share in the duties of incubation, all his energies seem to be devoted to
the protection of his mate during her patient retirement, and he may at
such times always be seen, either swimming proudly and defiantly around
her, or reposing in the immediate vicinity of the nest, as though to cheer
her confinement by his presence. Although the labour of nidification seems
to devolve principally upon the female, she is eagerly assisted by her
mate, whose employment seems chiefly to be the procuration of materials,
which he supplies abundantly, dragging them with his beak, sometimes from
a considerable distance, or pushing them before him in heaps towards
the selected locality. The nest, when completed, is a very large but
inartistically constructed pile, composed of all sorts of water plants,
confusedly heaped together, but surmounted with a finer covering of sedge
grass and other softer materials. The place chosen for the situation of
the nest is generally some small island, and its size such that it would
float even with the weight of its occupants upon it. In this capacious
cradle the female Swan lays from six to eight thick-shelled eggs, of a
dirty white, or dirty pale green colour, from which, after the lapse of
five or six weeks, the young brood make their escape. When first hatched
the Cygnets are pretty little creatures, warmly clad in a thick covering
of down; after having remained in the nest for a day or so, they venture
out and trust themselves upon the water. Sometimes the mother carries them
upon her back, sometimes takes them beneath the shelter of her wings,
and always watches over them with the greatest tenderness and anxiety,
until they are able to take care of themselves. No sooner, however, are
they completely fledged, than they finally separate themselves from their
parents, never to see them again; for should they next year make their
appearance in the same locality, they would at once be driven away, and
treated as any other intruders. The food of the Swans is very diversified,
consisting of such vegetables of various kinds as grow in ponds and
marshes, roots, leaves, and seeds, beetles and their larvæ, worms, snails,
tadpoles, and fishes; anything, in short, that affords nourishment. They
are not so strictly vegetable feeders as the Geese, neither are they so
carnivorous as the Ducks, but in this respect they seem to occupy a middle
position between the two. Their food is principally obtained at the bottom
of the pond, which, owing to the length of their necks, they are able to
reach, even in water of considerable depth; and here they gather aquatic
plants, or, straining the mud through their sieve-like jaws, extract such
nutriment as it affords.

As the Wild Swans, owing to their great size and strength, are well able
to defend themselves against ordinary assailants, they have few enemies to
fear, with the exception of the larger Eagles and of the arch-destroyer,
man himself, who wages constant war against them, partly on account of
their flesh, which affords excellent food, and partly for their feathers
and down, the latter of which in particular is extremely valuable.
The chase after these birds, however, requires considerable skill and
perseverance, owing to their extreme watchfulness and the rapidity of
their flight. In the north they are generally pursued in a boat whilst
they are swimming in the water; the sportsman taking advantage of a high
wind, and then steering with all sail directly towards them, in this
manner he is sometimes able to approach them so closely as to get them
within range of his gun, more especially as they always prefer to fly
right against the wind. In Algeria, as Buvry informs us, they are taken in
the same manner as the Flamingoes, by wading towards them under cover of
floating herbage, or they are often captured on the shores of sheltered
bays by means of hooks, and lines of camel's hair, baited with bread,
flesh, or fish. When the bird has swallowed the bait, says Buvry, it
must perforce remain quiet until the hunter comes to rescue it from its
unpleasant position.


THE MUTE SWAN.

The MUTE SWAN (_Cygnus olor_), the species so frequently seen in this
country living upon our ornamental water in a state of semi-domestication,
and sometimes described by writers as the "Tame Swan" (_Cygnus mansuetus_)
is, in its wild state, an inhabitant of Northern Europe and Northern
Asia, more especially of Eastern Siberia, and is easily recognisable by
the callous protuberance at the base of its bill. Its body is elongate,
its neck extremely long and slender, and its bill, which is nearly of the
same length as the head, of a red colour, surmounted at its base with the
black knob-like protuberance above alluded to. The plumage of the adult is
white, that of the young grey, or occasionally white. The eye is brown,
the beak red, while the bridles and protuberance at the base of the beak
are black; the feet brownish or pure black. This bird is seventy inches
long, and one hundred inches broad; the length of the wing is twenty-seven
inches, and of the tail ten to eleven inches; the female is not quite so
large. Brehm is of opinion that the Polish Swan (_Cygnus immutabilis_)
of Yarrell, is merely a variety of the above species, but the following
extract from a paper, read by Yarrell before the Zoological Society, will
give our readers that naturalist's reasons for maintaining that these
birds are not identical, although in their appearance, habits, and mode of
life, they closely resemble each other. "The London dealers in birds," he
says, "have long been in the habit of receiving from the Baltic a large
Swan which they distinguish by the name of the Polish Swan. During the
severe weather of January, 1838, several flocks of these Polish Swans
were seen pursuing a southern course along the line of our north-east
coast, from Scotland to the mouth of the Thames, and several specimens
were obtained. The circumstance of these flocks being seen without any
observable difference in the specimens obtained, all of which were
distinct from our Mute Swan; the fact also that the Cygnets, as far as we
observed, were of a pure white colour like the parent birds, and did not
assume at any age the grey colour borne for the greater part of the first
two years by the young of the other species of Swans; and an anatomical
distinction in the form of the cranium, which was described by Mr. Pelerin
in the _Magazine of Natural History_, induce me to consider this Swan as
a distinct species, and in reference to the unchangeable colour of the
plumage, I proposed for it the name of _Cygnus immutabilis_."

As additional peculiarities of this species, Yarrell notes that "the
parent birds were remarkable in having the legs, toes, and their
intervening membranes, of a pale ash-grey colour. The black tubercle at
the base of the beak was of small size, and there was a slight difference
in the nostrils, the elongated openings of which did not reach the black
colour at the base of the beak." The Mute Swan, as it has erroneously been
called from the fact of its possessing a soft voice very unlike the harsh
tones of its wild brethren, utters a somewhat monotonous and plaintive
call during the spring, or occasionally later in the season when moving
about with its young. Col. Hawker, in his "Sporting Notes," describes this
"Swan's melody" as consisting of two notes, C and the minor third E flat,
adding that the musician he heard kept working with his head, as though
delighted with the sounds he was producing. In England, where these birds
live in a state of semi-domestication, they are met with at all seasons.
During the period of incubation they live in pairs, and jealously drive
away all intruders from the domain they have appropriated for the purpose
of building. The nest, which is formed of a mass of reeds and rushes, is
placed near the edge of the river or pond, or on an island, and by a most
wonderful instinct is frequently raised to a height sufficient to escape
a rising of the water even before man himself has observed any indication
of such a danger. The eggs are six or seven in number, and have a dull
greenish white shell; their length is about four inches by two inches nine
lines broad. During the whole period of incubation, which lasts about six
weeks, the male is in constant attendance to guard his spouse, boldly
chasing off all intruders, and occasionally taking his place upon the
nest. When first hatched, the young follow the mother about in the water,
and are frequently carried on her back as she sails along the stream.
Speaking of these birds in their wild state, Lloyd says, "In flying they
make a strange appearance; their long necks protrude, and resemble at a
distance long lines with black points; their heavy bodies and triangular
wings seeming mere appendages to the prolonged neck. When thus in motion,
their wings pass through so few degrees of a circle that, unless seen
horizontally, they appear almost quiescent, their movements being widely
different from the semicircular sweeps of the Goose. The Swan, when
migrating, with a moderate wind in its favour, and mounted high in the
air, travels at the rate of one hundred miles or more an hour. I have
often timed the flight of the Goose, and found one mile a minute a common
rapidity, and when the two birds, in a change of feeding ground, have been
flying near each other, the Swan invariably passed with nearly double
the velocity." The Mute Swan was first brought to England from the island
of Cyprus by Richard I., and is still regarded as a royal bird which no
subject can claim when kept in a public river, except by permission of
the crown. Formerly, when this permission was accorded, a Swan mark was
granted in order to identify the property of the persons so endowed. In
the days of Queen Elizabeth it was ordered that all Swans in the Thames
and its tributaries should be "upped," _i.e._, taken up and marked on
the skin of the bill on an appointed day in the presence of the king's
Swanherd. This ceremony, known to us as "Swan hopping," was performed
annually, until quite recently, upon the first Monday in August. The flesh
of this Swan was formerly highly esteemed, and was served as one of the
principal dishes on state occasions. The value of one of these birds in
the reign of Edward III. may be estimated by the fact, that while the
best Capon sold for sixpence, the best Hen for fourpence, and twelve eggs
for one penny, the price of a Swan was fixed at four shillings, and the
poulterers were forbidden by proclamation to exact a larger sum. The late
Bishop of Norwich gave Mr. Yarrell the following account of the manner in
which young Swans were formerly fed at Norwich for the table: "The town
clerk," he says, "sent a note to the public Swanherd, and to the members
of the Corporation there who had Swans and Swan rights. On the second
Monday in August the Swans were collected in a small stew or pond (the
number varying from fifty to seventy). They began to feed immediately,
being provided with as much barley as they could eat, and were usually
ready for killing in November; these were all Cygnets. If kept beyond
November they begin to fall off, losing both flesh and fat, the flesh also
becomes darker in colour and stronger in flavour." A printed copy of the
following lines was usually sent with each bird:--


"TO ROAST A SWAN.

    "Take three pounds of beef, beat fine in a mortar,
    Put it into the Swan, that is when you've caught her;
    Some pepper, salt, mace, some nutmeg, an onion,
    Will heighten the flavour in Gourmand's opinion.
    Then tie it up tight with a small piece of tape,
    That the gravy and other things may not escape;
    A meal paste, rather stiff, should be laid on the breast,
    And some whited brown paper should cover the rest.
    Fifteen minutes at least, ere the Swan you take down,
    Pull the paste off the bird that the breast may get brown.


"THE GRAVY.

    "To a gravy of beef, strong and good, I opine
    You'll be right if you add half a pint of port wine;
    Pour this through the Swan, yes, quite through the belly,
    Then serve the whole up with some hot currant jelly.
              N.B.--The Swan must not be skinned."


THE WHISTLING SWAN.

The WHISTLING SWAN (_Cygnus musicus_) has a more compact body and shorter
and thicker neck than the _Cygnus olor_. The beak, which is without the
cere, is raised at its yellow base, and tipped with black. This species is
sixty inches long, and from ninety to ninety-six broad, the wing measures
twenty-four, and the tail eight inches.

The Whistling Swan is a native of the colder latitudes of both
hemispheres, but has been known to breed as far south as Greece. In
England, where it is only a winter visitor, it is sometimes seen in large
flocks, should the season be severe, but very rarely occurs in mild
winters. In the eastern countries of Europe it is numerously met with.

The winter peregrinations of this bird take it at certain seasons into
Egypt and Northern Africa, as also to the north-western portions of the
African continent, as for example the lakes of Morocco, Algeria, and
Tunis. It also sometimes visits Spain. In an easterly direction it is to
be met with in great numbers throughout the lake districts of Central
Russia, and also near the mouths of large rivers, both in Southern Russia
and Central Siberia. Of the Whistling Swans that breed in Iceland, few
ever wander far from their native place, and this for a very simple
reason, namely, that owing to the Gulf stream which sweeps through its
numerous bays and creeks, and the many hot springs derived from volcanic
sources, the inland lakes are kept free from ice, while in Russia the
swans are all obliged to take their departure before the setting in of
winter freezes the lakes and rivers.

[Illustration: THE WHISTLING SWAN (_Cygnus musicus_). ONE-SIXTEENTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

In its general appearance the Whistling Swan bears some resemblance to
the Mute or Tame Swan, but is by no means so elegant in its shape. Its
neck has not the same flexibility or the same graceful bend; nevertheless,
though surpassed in grace by _Cygnus olor_, it is a very beautiful bird.
The main feature in which it differs from other Swans is its loud-toned
and agreeable voice. Pallas informs us that "its voice has a sound as
sweet as that of a silver bell," and adds, "it sings as it flies, and
may be heard at a great distance, indeed all that has been said of the
notes of the dying Swan is no fable, for with its last breath the wounded
'Singing Swan' utters its song."

"The epithet _musicus_," says Faber, "is well bestowed on these birds, for
when a little flock of them approaches, flying in the air, their tuneful
melancholy voices sound like trumpets heard at a distance. Olaf tells
us, "when a company of these birds passes through the air, their song
during the long winter nights is truly delightful, equal to the notes of
a violin." "It is certain," says Arman, "that the voice of a Singing Swan
has a more silvery tone than that of any other creature. When wounded,
its breath produces this silver sound, so that its song is celebrated in
many a Russian ballad." Oesel says, "Their song consists of two notes,
which when uttered by the whole flock are very loud, and may be heard at
the distance of three English miles." "At last," says Homeyer, "I have
heard the voice of the Singing Swan. Eight or ten of these birds were
swimming about a hundred yards from the shore, and uttering their loud
full-sounding notes. I cannot say that any melody was distinguishable;
there was first a single, long-drawn, well-sounding note, followed by
another in a lower key, so that altogether they formed a sound that was
not inharmonious. Notwithstanding the distance at which I was, the notes
were brought distinctly to my ear over the water."

Schilling expresses himself still more plainly: "When, owing to the
intensity of the frost the water of the sea is frozen, and the streams
everywhere converted into ice, and the Swans are thus shut out from all
the shallows where they usually obtain their food, these stately birds
assemble by hundreds in any patch of water that may be still accessible,
and there, with melancholy cries, bewail their destitute condition. At
such times during the long winter evenings, and throughout the night, I
have often listened to their many-voiced lamentations, which have been
heard distinctly at a distance of three or four miles. Sometimes the notes
thus heard would resemble the sound of a bell, sometimes that of some wind
instrument. Still it was not exactly like either of them, just as a living
voice cannot be imitated by dead metal. This peculiar concert realised in
my mind the truth of what I had heard concerning the song of the Swan,
which I had before regarded as a poetical fiction. Indeed, in one sense it
might truly be called the death-song of these beautiful creatures, for,
seeing that they are quite unable to obtain their food in deep water, they
must soon die of hunger, as they no longer have strength enough to fly to
a warmer climate, and are thus often found starved to death and frozen
upon the ice; still to the last we hear their clear melancholy voice."

From these extracts we hope the reader will be able to arrive at a more
correct idea of the real character of the song of the dying Swan. The
poetical notions which have been entertained upon the subject have, it
appears, really some foundation, but the facts have been so distorted as
to become no longer recognisable. The dying Swan, we find, has nothing
peculiar in its notes, but its last cries may be as loud and musical as
any others to which it has previously given utterance.

In Russia, we are told, the Whistling Swan is preferred as an ornamental
bird to our Tame Swan, principally on account of the loudness of its voice.

Montagu gives the following interesting account of one of these birds
which was shot at Bridgewater, and was given to him after it recovered
from its wounds:--

"This beautiful and docile creature is now in high health, living with
many sorts of Ducks, in the greatest harmony. Towards the spring she
becomes more clamorous and impatient of confinement, but at all times will
approach those persons who are in the habit of feeding her, and will take
food from the hand, at the same time uttering those plaintive harmonious
notes for which the species has been remarkable, and which are always
attended with a singular jerk of the head. She usually carries her neck
straight and erect, either upon the water or when stationary upon land;
but in walking the head is lowered, and the neck reclining on the back.
In the season of love she flaps along the surface of the water, and would
undoubtedly fly if the precaution of annually cutting the feathers of one
wing were omitted. Her nature is gentle, timid, and sociable, and she will
follow those with whom she is acquainted from one side of the menagerie
to the other, especially the ladies of the family dressed in white; is
often turned out of her course by a pugnacious male Shieldrake, and acts
only offensively when food is the object, and then only when resentment is
not expected. She eats but little grass on land, but will devour aquatic
plants occasionally. Barley, however, is her principal food, and she never
attempts to touch bread, which is sometimes thrown to other birds; nor
will she devour small fish, which some of the Diving Ducks greedily eat."

The nesting-place of the Whistling Swan is in the wide swamps of Finland
and North Russia; considerable numbers likewise breed in Iceland and North
America. In Iceland, Faber tells us, they may be seen in February upon
ponds of fresh water, and there they remain until the end of April, when
most of them resort to more elevated situations; some of them, however,
remain in the valleys. A small pond or lake is always selected as a
breeding-place, and if a pair should not be able to appropriate a whole
pond, they take possession of part as their own peculiar property, and
resolutely drive away all intruders. The nest, which is sometimes raised
upon an island, but often floats upon the water, is generally a huge
structure, built of reeds, rushes, sedge, and water-plants, and its cavity
carefully lined with down. About the end of April or the beginning of May
(probably much earlier in more southern latitudes) the female lays from
five to seven yellowish white, greenish, or brownish yellow eggs, from
which the young come forth during the first days of July. The faithful
husband during the whole period of incubation keeps his partner company,
lying upon the nest, but taking no part in the brooding. Towards the
middle of October the whole family may be seen swimming about together,
the young ones being by that time nearly fully fledged. Throughout the
north these Swans are eagerly sought for, and many are mercilessly
destroyed during the moulting season. When moulting their wing-quills they
are attacked in their breeding-ponds by means of small boats, and numbers
of them killed with sticks. Both old and young are at this season very
fat, and are in much request for the table.


BEWICK'S SWAN.

BEWICK'S SWAN (_Cygnus Bewickii_) is considerably smaller than the species
above described. In this bird the neck is very slender, the bill much
raised at its base, and the tail composed of eighteen feathers; in other
respects it resembles the _Cygnus musicus_. The plumage is at first grey,
afterwards white, tinged with rust-red on the crown of the head and under
surface of the body, and ultimately becomes of a pale white. Bewick's
Swan is an annual visitor to Great Britain, and is most numerously seen
during severe and long-continued snowstorms, when it resorts to the open
sea-coast of estuaries. Mr. Blackwall, describing a flock of these birds
seen in Lancashire, says, "They were observed flying at an elevation not
exceeding fifty yards above the surface of the earth. They flew in a line,
taking a northerly direction, and their loud calls, for they were very
clamorous when on the wing, might be heard to a considerable distance. One
individual of this flock having been wounded, was placed on a reservoir,
near the place where it fell. When on the water it had somewhat the
appearance of a Goose, being almost wholly devoid of that grace and
majesty by which the Mute Swan is so distinguished. It appeared to be
a shy and timid bird, and could only be approached by stratagem, when
it intimated its apprehension by uttering its call. This bird carefully
avoided the company of a Mute Swan that occupied the same piece of water."
According to Yarrell, some other specimens taken near Belfast were very
gentle and timid, and never attempted to molest the Wild Fowl contained in
the same pond, though all were their inferiors both in size and strength.

This Swan appears by preference to spend the greater portion of its time
on land. Its voice, which is chiefly heard during the migratory season,
is a low deep whistle, once repeated. Temminck states that this species
breeds in Iceland in May, and has been seen in Picardy during the winter.


THE BLACK-NECKED SWAN.

The BLACK-NECKED SWAN (_Cygnus nigricollis_) is a beautiful bird,
inhabiting South America, and recognisable from its northern brethren by
the shortness of its wings, which do not extend beyond the base of the
tail, which is composed of eighteen feathers, and by the black in its
plumage. In this bird the entire body is white with black head and neck,
the former enlivened by a white line upon the brow. The eye is brown,
and the beak lead-grey; the cere and bare cheek-stripes are blood-red,
and the feet pale red. This species is forty-eight inches long, the wing
measures fourteen, and the tail from six to seven inches. The habitat of
the Black-necked Swan is limited to the most southern portion of America,
extending from South Peru to the Falkland Islands, and from that point
along the east coast as far as Santos in Brazil. The residence of these
birds varies with the season of the year; during the spring and autumn
they are met with in small parties about Buenos Ayres on their way to
their more northern haunts, where they remain throughout the winter, when
they return south to breed. During the period of incubation they occupy
the lagoons and lakes of the interior, and after that season unite with
their own and allied species into large flocks. The flight of this Swan is
light and beautiful, but in other respects it is without the grace that
characterises most members of this family. While swimming the neck is held
erect, after the manner of a Goose. We are without particulars concerning
the incubation of these birds, beyond that when first hatched the young
are covered with white down, and that they grow with such rapidity that by
the autumn they are scarcely distinguishable from their parents. The late
Earl of Derby was presented with the first Black-necked Swan ever brought
to Europe; to this were afterwards added seven more. After the death of
the Earl two were presented to her Majesty, and the rest consigned to
the Zoological Gardens, in the Regent's Park, where they lived for many
years without breeding. In 1856, however, a pair commenced a nest, but did
not lay until the following year, since which time they have incubated
annually.


THE BLACK SWAN.

The BLACK SWAN (_Cygnus-Chenopsis-atratus_) has a slender body, very
long neck, and small well-formed head; the beak nearly equals the head
in length, and is without a cere. In this species almost the entire
plumage is of a brownish black, lightest on the under side, and shading
into blackish grey at the edges of the feathers. This sombre garb is
relieved by the brilliant white of the primary and of a considerable
portion of the secondary quills. The eyes are scarlet, the bridles red,
and the feet black: the beak is carmine-red, tipped with white, a stripe
near the extremity of the upper mandible is also white. This bird is
not quite so large as the _Cygnus olor_. The Black Swan is not merely
strictly confined to Australia, but inhabits only its southern and western
districts, occupying the rivers, estuaries, lagoons, and large pieces
of water frequently in large flocks. On arms of the sea, which expand
into sheets of shallow water, these birds are especially numerous, as
in such localities they are beyond the reach of severe winds or pursuit
from the natives. "In the white man, however," says Mr. Gould, "the Black
Swan finds an enemy so deadly, that it has been almost, if not entirely,
extirpated. One most destructive mode in which this is effected, is that
of chasing the birds with a boat at the time they shed their primary
quill-feathers, when, being unable to fly, they are soon rowed down and
captured."

The breeding season is from the beginning of October to the middle of
January. Mr. Gould procured newly-hatched young, clad in greyish white, at
Southport River, on the 31st of December, and took five newly-laid eggs on
Flinders' Island on Bass' Straits, on the 13th January. The nest is large,
composed of flags and other herbage, and generally placed on an isolated
island. The eggs are from five to eight, pale green stained all over with
buffy brown, and are four and a half inches long by two and three-quarters
broad. The Black Swan is graceful in demeanour, and gentle and harmless
unless molested.

[Illustration: BLACK-NECKED SWANS (_Cygnus nigricollis_).]

These birds are to be found in most aviaries in Europe, but as an instance
of their most successful rearing, Mr. Gould gives us the following account
of some of them kept on the Wandle, at Carshalton, Surrey, by Mr. S.
Gurney:--"They were purchased from Baker, Leadenhall Market, in 1851, but
did not breed till 1854, when they laid their first egg on January 1. It
was a most severe winter, snow on the ground, and intense frost nearly the
whole time they were sitting. They hatched their young during the greatest
cold of that winter, from which they did not suffer, though they had no
shelter of any kind, and their nest was fully exposed to the east wind.
Out of the ninety-three young ones hatched by them up to the present
year, 1862 (inclusive), about half that number have been reared. Some of
them have died from disease, but most of them have been killed by the old
ones dragging them about in the fields, when they have fallen into small
holes on their backs, and have not been able to recover themselves. They
have bred sixteen times in seven years, having laid 111 eggs."

[Illustration: THE BLACK SWAN (_Cygnus_ or _Chenopsis atratus_). ONE-SIXTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

       *       *       *       *       *

The GEESE (_Anseres_) constitute a very numerous family, whose members are
met with in all parts of the world. In these birds the body is compact,
the neck short, and the head large; the legs are situated near the middle
of the body. The beak, which nearly equals the head in length, and slopes
gradually to its tip, is vaulted above and flat beneath, compressed at
its sides, and terminated by a large broad nail; its margins are more
or less denticulated, and its surface covered with a soft skin. The
moderate-sized foot has its three anterior toes united by a large web,
and armed with stout, strong, flatly-curved claws. In the large, broad,
pointed wing the second quill is longer than the rest, and the upper
secondaries are less developed than in the Swan; the wrist-joint exhibits
a hard knob, which in some species assumes the form of a powerful spur.
The short tail is composed of from fourteen to twenty feathers, and is
either broadly rounded or straight at its extremity. The plumage is very
similarly coloured in both sexes, but varies considerably in different
groups; the young when one year old resemble their parents. Every division
of the world has its own appropriate species of Geese. In Europe, and in
Asia, many different kinds are to be met with in almost equal abundance,
and in high northern latitudes many are common to the eastern and western
hemispheres. Towards the south, however, the habitat of the different
races is more sharply defined. The Geese are less exclusively aquatic than
any other _Lamellirostres_; indeed, some of them pass the greater part
of their lives on dry land, and a few might almost be called arboreal in
their habits, seeing that they not only resort to and roost upon trees,
but build their nests among the branches. Most of them prefer plains to
mountainous districts; nevertheless, certain species are to be met with
at considerable altitudes, both in the Himalayas and the Andes. They walk
extremely well, and though in swimming they are neither so graceful as the
Swans nor as active as the Ducks, they row themselves along with ease and
facility; on an emergency many of them will dive to a considerable depth,
and the power and endurance of their flight is remarkable. When flying in
companies, they always arrange themselves in a regular V-shaped phalanx,
the form of which appears to be of importance; neither is it difficult to
understand why they so persistently adopt the same arrangement, as it is
evident that such a disposition is the only one that would enable every
individual of the numerous party to have a free and unobstructed range of
vision, and, moreover, it possibly facilitates their passage through the
air, at all events it affords free scope for the use of their wings, which
otherwise, from their crowding together, would be seriously interfered
with. Very generally a flight of Wild Geese will be seen to press
onward with unbroken ranks until they are quite lost in the distance;
occasionally, however, they will, as it were, with one consent relax their
speed, break up their phalanx, and for a short space become confusedly
mixed together. Soon, however, a leader again places himself at their
head; his followers resume their ranks, and the whole body moves forward
in precisely the same order as before. Their flight is accompanied by a
loud rushing noise, caused by the powerful strokes of their wings, and the
rising or setting down of a flock presents a very bustling scene. When
walking on level ground, the Geese keep the fore part of the body slightly
elevated, with their neck straight or somewhat bent. Their steps are short
and quick, and upon occasions many species can run with considerable
speed. While swimming, the breast is deeply immersed, while the tail, on
the contrary, is raised above the surface of the water. Their voice varies
with the species; most of them express their anger by loud and prolonged
hissing, some cackle, while others, like the Singing Swans, produce loud
resonant notes that can be heard at a great distance.

These birds differ very much, both as to the localities they select for
their nesting-places, and the season at which they breed. Many species, as
spring approaches, begin to assemble in remote morasses and unfrequented
swamps, and here upon small islands or hillocks they make a rude kind
of nest, composed of water-plants, and lined with down. Some, on the
contrary, select the forked branches and hollow trunks of trees, or
occasionally convert to their own use the eyries of other birds. Their
brood consists of from six to twelve well-shaped, thick-shelled eggs,
always of a dull and uniform tint. The usual duration of incubation is
about a month. The newly-hatched Goslings are covered with a soft warm
coat of greyish down, and soon begin, under the guidance of their parents,
to provide for themselves. They run and swim actively on the very day of
their birth, and their growth is so rapid, that in the course of a couple
of months they are completely fledged. They, however, remain together as a
family for a very long period. All Geese live principally upon vegetable
diet; by means of the hard margins of their beak they are able to crop
grass, and also to collect grain, and a variety of vegetables. They
likewise procure various small animals and aquatic plants from the bottom
of the water.


THE SPUR-WINGED GOOSE.

The SPUR-WINGED GOOSE (_Plectropterus Gambensis_) is characterised by
its large size, slender body, long neck, strong beak, furnished with
an excrescence at its base, its unfeathered face, and long bare legs.
The feet are provided with long toes, connected by large webs; in the
long, pointed wings the upper secondaries are much developed, and the
wrist-joint armed with a powerful spur; the tail is of moderate length and
wedge-shaped, and the plumage, composed of large feathers, is smooth and
compact. In this bird the cheeks, chin, throat, centre of breast, under
side, and the short feathers on the upper wing-covers are all white; the
rest of the plumage is blackish green. The eyes are reddish brown, the
beak and the excrescence at its base blueish red; the feet dull light
red. This species is three feet long and five feet and a half broad; the
tail measures seven inches. The female is considerably smaller than her
mate, but resembles him in the coloration of her feathers; the young are
brown on the upper parts of the body, with black wings, a greyish brown
neck, and white throat; the rest of their plumage is light grey. The
habitat of the Spur-winged Goose extends over the whole of Central and
South Africa, where it occupies the borders of streams or rain tanks, in
small parties, and seldom wanders to any distance from its usual haunts.
During the months of March and July it retires to secluded and marshy
localities in order to moult, as at those periods it is unable to fly. At
the commencement of the rainy season the flocks separate in pairs, and
seek their breeding-places. The large nest, which is formed of rushes,
reeds, and grass, is occasionally placed in the water, and contains from
three to six eggs. The downy young appear about September or October, and
remain with their parents until they are full-grown. Within the first
year they acquire the same plumage as the adults, but do not exhibit the
excrescence on the bill till they are somewhat older. When in the water
the movements of this species resemble those of its brethren, but upon the
ground its gait is very similar to that of the Stork. When about to fly it
runs for some distance, and then rises with powerful and rapid strokes of
its wings to a considerable height; occasionally whilst in the air it may
be seen indulging in a very peculiar hovering motion. We have never heard
the Spur-winged Goose do more than utter a hoarse hissing sound. According
to our own observations it is timid and cautious in its intercourse with
man, but appears to take little heed of any of its feathered companions.
Yarrell mentions that two specimens of this bird have been shot in
England, the one in Cornwall, the other in Yorkshire, and for many years
several have been kept in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park.


THE GREY OR WILD GOOSE.

The GREY or WILD GOOSE (_Anser cinereus_), the species from which our
Domestic Goose is descended, has the feathers on the upper portions of the
body of a brownish grey, edged with a whitish shade; whilst those on the
under side are yellowish grey bordered with deep grey. The wing is dark
grey, and the region of the rump pure white; the quills and tail-feathers
are blackish grey with white shafts, the latter are also tipped with
white; the eye is light brown, the beak yellow, and the foot pale red.
This species is fully three feet long, and five feet and a half broad;
the wing measures eighteen, and the tail six inches. The Grey Wild Goose
was formerly very common in the fenny districts of England, but is now
comparatively rare both in this country and in Ireland. It is a winter
visitor to Orkney and Shetland, but does not remain to breed, passing
northwards in the spring.


THE CANADA GOOSE.

[Illustration: THE SPUR-WINGED GOOSE (_Plectropterus Gambensis_).
ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE.]

The CANADA GOOSE (_Cygnopsis Canadensis_) nearly resembles the Domestic
Goose in many particulars, but is recognisable therefrom by its
comparatively slender body, long neck, and variegated plumage. In this
bird the head and nape are black, and the cheeks, throat, and gullet white
or greyish white; the feathers on the upper part of the body are brownish
grey with light edges; those on the breast and upper neck dark grey, and
those on the rest of the under side pure white; the primary quills are
blackish brown; the secondaries and tail (the latter composed of sixteen
or eighteen feathers) are black. The eye is greyish brown, the beak black,
and the foot blackish grey. The length of the male is from thirty-five to
thirty-six inches, and his breadth from sixty-three to sixty-five inches;
the wing measures eighteen inches, and the tail seven and a half. The
female is not quite so large. The Canada Goose has frequently been shot
in this country, and it is therefore included by Yarrell amongst British
birds. Large flocks have been seen in Cambridgeshire, and specimens have
been killed in Hampshire, Cornwall, and the Scilly Isles. A writer in
the _Magazine of Natural History_ also gives an account of a small flock
of these birds that frequented and made their nest near Derby. This
species, the Common Wild Goose of America, is well known throughout the
United States, both as a resident and migratory bird. It advances north
about April and May, when the disappearance of the snow and ice allows
it to find berries and other vegetable matter; and after feeding for
about three weeks, separates from the flock, and with its mate seeks such
retired spots for breeding as afford a supply of suitable food. The nest
is usually made upon the ground, but occasionally in trees, or in the
deserted eyrie of a Raven or Fishing Hawk. During the breeding season
the Gander displays his courage to the greatest advantage. Audubon gives
the following account of his personal experience in this particular. "I
knew a male," says that writer, "that appeared larger than usual, and of
which all the lower parts were of a rich cream-colour. It returned three
years in succession to a large pond a few miles from the mouth of the
Green River, in Kentucky, and whenever I visited the nest it seemed to
look upon me with utter contempt. It would stand in a stately attitude
until I reached within a few yards of the nest, when suddenly lowering
its head and shaking it, as if it were dislocated from the neck, it would
open its wings and launch into the air, flying directly at me. So daring
was this fine fellow that in two instances he struck me a blow with one
of his wings on the right arm, which for an instant I thought was broken.
I observed that immediately after such an effort to defend his nest and
mate, he would run swiftly towards them, pass his head and neck several
times over and around the female, and again assume his attitude of
defiance. Should danger be imminent, the brave Gander urges his mate to
fly off, and resolutely remains near the nest until he is assured of her
safety, when he betakes himself to flight, mocking, as it were, by his
notes his disappointed enemy. Suppose all to be peace and quiet around
the fond pair, and the female to be sitting in security upon her eggs.
The nest is placed near the bank of a noble stream or lake, the clear sky
is spread over the scene, the bright beams glitter on the waters, and a
thousand odorous flowers give beauty to the swamp which was of late so
dismal. The Gander passes to and fro over the liquid element, moving as if
lord of the waters; now he inclines his head with a graceful curve, now
sips to quench his thirst, and as noontide has arrived he paddles his way
towards the shore to relieve for awhile his patient consort. Carefully
tended and taught, the young grow apace, and by the beginning of September
are able to fly from one shore to another; then, as the increasing frosts
give warning of approaching winter, the separate families unite, and on
perceiving the coming of a snow-storm, at the general warning cry of the
Ganders, the united flock rises high into the air, and the young are
instructed how to move.

[Illustration: THE GREY OR WILD GOOSE (_Anser cinereus_). ONE-SIXTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

"But now the host has been marshalled, and off it starts, showing as it
proceeds at one time an extended front, at another a single lengthened
file, and now arraying itself in an angular form. The old males advance
in front, the females follow; the young come in succession according to
their strength, the weakest forming the rear. Should one feel fatigued,
his position is changed in the ranks, and he assumes a place in the wake
of another, who cleaves the air before him. Two, three, or more days
elapse before they find a secure resting-place. The fat with which they
were loaded at their departure has rapidly wasted; they are fatigued, and
experience the keen gnawings of hunger; but now they spy a wide estuary,
towards which they direct their course. Alighting on the water, they swim
to the beach, stand and gaze around them; the young full of joy, the old
full of fear, for they are well aware that many foes have been waiting
their arrival. All night the flock remains silent, but not inactive;
they betake themselves with care to the grassy shores, where they allay
the cravings of appetite, and recruit their wasted strength. Soon as the
early dawn lightens the surface of the deep, they rise into the air and
proceed southward, until arriving in some place where they think they may
be enabled to rest in security, they remain during the winter. At length,
after many annoyances, they joyfully perceive the return of spring, and
prepare to fly away from their greatest enemy, man."

The Canada Goose arrives in the western districts of that country about
the beginning of September, and frequents the lakes, rivers, and wet
savannahs of the interior as well as the sea-shore. These birds usually
feed by plunging their head and the fore parts of their body beneath
the surface, but never by diving. In the fields they pluck the grass
sideways, like the Domestic Goose, and pat the earth with their feet
to drive the earthworms from their retreats. They frequently alight in
corn-fields to feed on the tender blades, and everywhere are extremely
vigilant. While the flock reposes, sentinels are placed on the watch to
rouse their sleeping companions if danger should approach. If pursued into
the water, the Ganders utter loud cries, and in a few moments they rise
simultaneously, and fly off in a compact body.

"So acute," says Audubon, "is their sense of hearing, that they are
able to distinguish the different sounds or footsteps of their foes
with astonishing accuracy. Thus the breaking of a stick by a deer is
distinguished from the same accident occasioned by a man. If a dozen large
turtles drop into the water, making a great noise in their fall, or if
the same effect has been produced by an alligator, the Wild Goose pays
no regard to it, but however faint and distant may be the sound of an
Indian's paddle that may by accident have struck the side of his canoe,
it is at once marked, every individual raises its head and looks intently
towards the place from which the noise has proceeded, and in silence all
watch the movements of their enemy. I was much surprised one day, while on
the coast of Labrador, to see how cunningly one of these birds, which in
consequence of the moult was quite unable to fly, managed for awhile to
elude our pursuit. It was first perceived at some distance from the shore,
when the boat was rowed towards it, and it swam before us with great
speed, making directly towards the land; but when we came within a few
yards of it, it dived, and nothing could be seen of it for a long time.
Every one of the party stood on tip-toe, to mark the spot where it should
rise, but all in vain, when the man at the rudder accidentally looked down
over the stern, and then saw the Goose, its body immersed, the point of
its bill alone above water, and its feet busily engaged in propelling it
so as to keep pace with the movements of the boat. The sailor attempted
to catch it while within a foot or two of him, but with the swiftness
of thought it shifted from side to side, fore and aft, until, delighted
at having witnessed so much sagacity in a Goose, I begged the party to
suffer the poor bird to escape." The residents in Hudson's Bay eagerly
welcome the arrival of these birds, on which they depend for their winter
supply of provisions. Huts are built over the marshes where they feed, and
decoys set up to lure them to destruction. In some years as many as three
thousand or four thousand have been killed in Hudson's Bay, and salted for
winter use. The eggs are also much esteemed, and the feathers form an
important article of commerce. The call of the Canada Goose resembles the
syllables, "Hawk, hawk, hawk, awhawk, awhawk."


THE SNOW GOOSE.

The SNOW GOOSE (_Anser_ [_Chen_] _hyperboreus_) has the entire plumage
of a pure white, with the exception of the first ten quills, which are
black, with white roots, and white shafts tipped with black. In young
birds the feathers on the upper back, shoulders, a portion of the neck,
the breast, and sides are blackish grey; the head and nape are shaded with
grey; the lower back and feathers on the upper tail-covers are dark grey;
the primary and secondary quills greyish black, the latter bordered with
greyish white; the tail-feathers are also dark grey, and similarly edged.
The eye is dark brown, the beak dull pale red, edged with black, and the
foot pale bright red. This species is from twenty-six to twenty-seven
inches long, and from fifty-two to fifty-three broad; the wing measures
sixteen and the tail six inches.

"The young of this species," says Audubon, "begin to acquire their
whiteness about the head and neck after the first year, but the upper
parts remain of a dark blueish colour until the bird suddenly becomes
white all over, at least this is the case with such as are kept in
captivity. My friend Dr. Bachman, of Charleston, South Carolina, kept a
male Snow Goose several years along with his tame Geese. He had received
it from a friend while it was in its grey plumage, and the following
spring it became white. It had been procured in the autumn, and proved
to be a male. In a few days it became very gentle, and for several
years it mated with a Common Goose, but the eggs produced by the latter
never hatched. The Snow Goose was in the habit of daily frequenting a
mill-pond in the vicinity, and returning regularly at night along with
the rest; but in the beginning of each spring it occasioned much trouble.
It then continually raised its head and wings, and attempted to fly
off; but finding this impossible, it was anxious to perform its journey
on foot, and it was several times overtaken and brought back, after it
had proceeded more than a mile, having crossed fences and plantations
in a direct course northward. This propensity cost it its life; it had
proceeded as far as the banks of the Cooper River, when it was shot by a
person who supposed it to be a wild bird." A Snow Goose kept by Audubon
himself exhibited the same desire to go northward on the return of spring.

When migrating northward, although they start at the same time, the young
and old keep in separate flocks, the young continuing to remain apart
from the old even when approaching the higher latitudes. During the whole
winter, indeed, they remain divided, although in the same localities; and
Audubon informs us that, although the young and old are often seen to
repose on the same sand-bar, the flocks keep at as great a distance as
possible from each other.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SEA GEESE (_Bernicla_) are comparatively small, compactly-built
birds, with short necks and moderately large heads; the short delicate
beak is strong, broad and high at its base, slender towards its tip, and
slightly denticulated at its margins; the foot is low, but powerful; and
the wing so long as to extend as far as the tip of the short tail, which
is rounded at its extremity. The thick plumage is principally of a deep
grey, marked with black, white, and reddish brown. These Geese are met
with in the extreme north of Europe, Asia, and America; the American,
formerly considered as distinct from the European, being evidently only
a variety. The home of these birds is to be found upon the coasts and
islands situated between 60° and 80° of north latitude. Only a few breed
in Iceland; but in Spitzbergen they are very numerous, and further east
they abound throughout the summer along all the shores of the Icy Ocean;
they are likewise numerous in Hudson's Bay and the neighbouring waters.
From the above inhospitable regions they make annual pilgrimages to
warmer climates, appearing in Great Britain towards the end of October
or the beginning of November. At this time they crowd the vicinity of
the coast in thousands and tens of thousands; far as the eye can reach
they may sometimes be seen wading around the banks of sand and amid the
shallows left by the receding tide; their cries are to be heard above the
roar of the surf; and the masses, when they take flight and rise into the
air, resemble at a distance a thick and wide-spread smoke, their numbers
being absolutely incalculable. A few individuals may also be sometimes
seen in the interior of the country upon lakes and other large sheets of
water; these, however, can only be regarded as stragglers: all Sea Geese
well deserve the name, as under ordinary circumstances they never leave
the coast. As relates to their ordinary food, these birds differ from
Common Geese in so far that, besides grass and marine plants, they eat
a considerable proportion of animal food. In northern regions they feed
upon whatever is there to be met with. With us they prefer meadow grass
and tender herbage. In captivity they readily feed upon grain, to which,
however, should be added a considerable proportion of green vegetables.


THE BRENT GOOSE.

The BRENT GOOSE (_Bernicla torquata_) is black upon the head, neck,
quills, and tail; the feathers on the breast, back, and upper belly are
dark grey, with light tips; the sides of the belly, rump, and upper
tail-covers are white; the sides of the throat are decorated with a white
crescent-shaped patch. The young are without the white feathers on the
throat, and are darker than the adult birds.

The Brent Geese are constant summer visitors to the British shores,
arriving in October and departing about the end of April. These birds
are distinguishable beyond all others of the family by the elegance of
their movements and their peaceful demeanour; they walk well both upon
firm ground and over a muddy surface; they swim rapidly and buoyantly,
and dive with facility; their power of flight surpasses that of any other
Geese; they do not, however, when flying adopt the wedge-like arrangement
so commonly seen among their congeners, but make their way through the
air in large noisy flocks, in which the birds are promiscuously crowded
together. The noise made by one of these vast assemblages, as they rise
from the ground, resembles the roll of distant thunder, and even when
flying at a considerable elevation the movement of their wings produces a
whizzing sound which is distinctly audible. Their voice is very harsh; the
call-note somewhat resembles the syllables "Kn-āng," often repeated; when
feeding they utter a rough hoarse "Krōch," while their expression of anger
is a low hiss. Like others of their race they always live associated in
flocks, and should an unfortunate straggler become accidentally separated
from his companions, he may be seen flying anxiously about in search
of others of his species, never resting until once more safe in their
society. The behaviour of these birds in the presence of man proclaims
them at once to be unsophisticated children of the north, who have never
experienced the tender mercies of their arch-enemy. They seem at first
to witness his approach without any suspicion of danger, and it is only
after suffering severely for their temerity that they become wild and
distrustful. On their first arrival, indeed, whole families of them may
sometimes be killed with stones and clubs, and they are taken in snares
more easily than most other Geese.

"In calm weather," says Colonel Hawker, "these Geese have in general the
cunning to leave the mud as soon as the tide flows high enough to bear an
enemy, and then they go off to sea and feed on the drifting weeds. To kill
Brent Geese by day, go out in a small punt at low water, and keep as near
as possible to the edge of the sea. You will then hear them like a pack
of hounds in full cry, and they will repeatedly pass within fair shot,
provided you are well concealed, and the weather is windy to make them fly
low. Before you fire at them, spring suddenly up, and these awkward birds
will be in such a fright as to hover together and present a mark like a
barn door. The Brent Geese when fat are excellent eating." In confinement
they are at first exceedingly timid, but soon become reconciled to their
new condition, and even show marked attachment to those who feed them,
coming at their call, and, if kindly treated, following their footsteps
like dogs. In a farmyard, or upon a large pond, they are extremely
ornamental, and deserve much more attention than they have as yet
received. The Brent Geese have been long known to breed in considerable
numbers on the shores of Spitzbergen, but it is only recently that we
have had any definite accounts of their proceedings. Malmgren tells us
that their breeding-places are chiefly to be met with in the western
and northern coasts of the island, and on the rocks in the vicinity,
more especially in places resorted to by Eider Ducks. Their nests are
very rudely constructed with the stems and leaves of water-plants, and
are often placed so close to those of the Eider Duck that those birds
frequently steal their eggs in great numbers. The brood of the Brent
Goose consists of from six to eight comparatively small, thin-shelled,
lustreless eggs, of a dirty, greenish white colour. Middendorf found a
young bird newly hatched about the middle of July. Further than this we
have no information.

[Illustration: THE BRENT GOOSE (_Bernicla torquata_). ONE-FIFTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

Upon the southern coasts of the Baltic and in Holland, during the spring
and autumn, thousands of these birds are shot, and a still greater number
captured by means of decoys. Their flesh is much esteemed, but has
occasionally a disagreeable rancid taste, probably owing to the shell-fish
upon which they feed. To remedy this, it is usual in Holland to keep them
for some time before they are killed, feeding them with grain and other
vegetable diet.

       *       *       *       *       *

The FOXY GEESE (_Chenalopex_) are at once recognisable from the above
species by their slender neck, large head, short beak, high foot, broad
wing, and beautiful plumage. The somewhat feeble bill, which is raised
at the base and depressed towards the tips, terminates in a broad, round
nail; the partially bare foot is slender, and furnished with small toes;
the wings exhibit a slight spur at the wrist-joint, and have the upper
secondary quills well developed; the short tail is composed of fourteen
feathers. The members of this group are natives of Africa and Syria.


THE NILE GOOSE.

The NILE GOOSE (_Chenalopex Ægyptiacus_) has unusually variegated plumage.
In this species the sides of head and front of the neck are yellowish
white, finely dotted; the patch around the eye, the nape, and a broad band
about the throat, are reddish brown; the feathers on the upper portions of
the body are grey and black, and those of the under side reddish yellow,
marked with black and white; the centre of the breast and belly are of
lighter shade, and the former is decorated with a large, round, reddish
brown patch; the white wing-covers are striped with black and enlivened
by a fine metallic lustre; the tips of the quills and the tail-feathers
are glossy black; the eye is orange or yellow; the beak blueish red with
blueish grey base, and light tip to the upper mandible; the foot is
reddish, or light yellow. This bird is two feet three inches long and four
feet and a half broad; the wing measures sixteen inches and the tail five
inches and a quarter. The female is smaller than her mate, but nearly
resembles him in her general appearance; her plumage, however, is not so
finely marked, and the patch upon her breast of inferior size.

The head-quarters of the Nile Goose extend from Egypt to the Cape of
Good Hope, and from the east coast far into the interior of Africa;
along the west coast of that continent it probably does not occur. From
Africa its range extends throughout Palestine and Syria, reaching as far
as Greece, Italy, and the south of Spain. During our travels in Africa
we had abundant opportunities of observing these beautiful birds, whose
portrait is not unfrequently to be seen sculptured upon the monuments of
ancient Egypt. In Lower Egypt they are abundant all along the Nile, except
in such places as are particularly unsuited to their habits; as, for
example, where the river washes walls of bare rock, or where no islands
are to be met with. In Southern Nubia they are to be seen in large flocks;
in Soudan they are regular occupants of the banks of the rivers, and are
even met with upon pools of rain-water, as well as large ponds, at a
considerable distance from their banks. During the breeding season these
birds generally occur in pairs, afterwards in company with their young
families; but at a later period they associate together in large flocks,
and in the moulting season, during which they are not incapable of flight,
innumerable hosts of them may be seen crowding the shores of the river for
hours together. On one occasion during our journeyings along the White
Nile, for three successive days we found the banks crowded with countless
birds, of which the Nile Geese formed a very conspicuous portion; they
are, however, never to be seen at any great distance from water, except,
indeed, when winging their way high in the air. They seem, moreover,
to prefer certain parts of the river, from whence they fly into the
neighbouring fields in search of food, returning to them again when their
hunger is satisfied. Each pair takes possession of a certain space of
ground, from which they jealously expel all intruders; nevertheless, the
males readily associate with each other, and may often be seen together
apparently enjoying a quiet chat, or occasionally a bit of fighting. The
personal endowments of the Nile Geese are quite on a par with the elegance
of their plumage. In running they emulate the long-legged Spurred Geese;
they swim gracefully and without effort, keeping the fore part of their
bodies deeply immersed; they are able, moreover, to dive to a considerable
depth, rowing themselves along when under water both with their feet and
wings. Their flight is noisy, but light and rapid. When flying in pairs,
one follows close behind the other; when in large flocks, they frequently
observe no regular order, except they are bound upon a long journey,
on which occasions they adopt the V-like phalanx. Their voice has some
distant resemblance to that of our Domestic Goose; it is, however, hoarse,
and reminds the listener of the notes of a cracked trumpet. In all its
proceedings this Goose seems to be particularly cautious and circumspect;
always watchful for its own safety, it mistrusts the slightest approach
of a stranger, and in this respect is more afraid of a foreigner than
of the negroes, with whose appearance it is most familiar. Its temper
and disposition are by no means in accordance with the beauty of its
appearance; indeed, it must be classed with the most domineering and
vicious of its race, for although living in society it can hardly be said
ever to be at peace with its companions. During the pairing season the
battles between the males are literally to the death (at least so we have
found it in some that we kept in confinement); they follow one another
with loud cries and unappeasable fury, bite savagely, and beat each
other with their wings until one or both fall exhausted to the ground.
The Ganders seem to delight in tyrannising over all the other inmates of
the pond, and not content with persecuting Ducks and Geese considerably
larger than themselves, such is their boldness and audacity that they
will sometimes attack even man himself. Should one of them encounter
another male of his own species, either alone or accompanied by a female,
it will fall upon him as though it were a bird of prey, and should it
be unable to kill him by blows inflicted with the beak and wings, will
try to drown him. No sooner is the vanquished bird so exhausted as to
be unable to resist, than, mounting upon its body, the victor seizes it
by the neck and holds its head under water until life is quite extinct.
With such dangerous propensities it is not to be wondered at that this
species, notwithstanding the vivacity of its manners and the beauty of its
appearance, is scarcely admissible among other birds.

The food of the Nile Goose is of a very promiscuous character; like our
own Wild Geese it may be seen grazing in the fields upon all sorts of
vegetables; after the manner of Ducks it obtains nutriment from the mud
of shallow pools, and will even dive to the bottom of rivers in search
of what is there procurable. At certain seasons the young birds are
passionately fond of locusts, and neither old nor young have the slightest
objection to animal food; they do not, however, appear to eat fishes. It
may occasionally happen in places where no trees are to be met with that
these birds construct their nests upon the ground, but wherever there
are woods coming to the water's edge, or even single trees of suitable
dimensions, their nests must be looked for among the branches. In Africa
they generally select for this purpose the thorny mimosa, known among
the Arabs as the _Harahsi_. Their nest is very generally constructed of
branches derived from the tree itself, inter-mixed with smaller twigs, and
warmly lined with grasses.

The number of eggs, according to our own experience, varies from four
to six; our black hunters nevertheless asserted that they had taken
ten or twelve from a single nest. The eggs are of very round shape,
thick-shelled, smooth, and of a yellowish or greyish white colour. The
breeding-time of these birds varies according to the season. In Egypt
breeding commences about the beginning of September. From individuals kept
in confinement we have ascertained that the period of incubation extends
over twenty-seven or twenty-eight days, and that only the female sits
upon the eggs. During this period the Gander keeps careful watch, sitting
constantly close to his mate and giving timely warning of the approach of
any intruder. Once a day, and that always in the afternoon, the breeding
female leaves her nest, having previously covered her eggs warmly with
down. The young are able to run about immediately after leaving the egg,
and on the slightest alarm hurry at once into the water, where they
immediately dive; their education very much resembles that of the goslings
of the Grey Goose.

In Egypt the Nile Goose is much sought after both by Turks and Europeans.
Its flesh differs little as an article of food from that of the Wild
Geese; that of the young birds is excellent, but the old are hard and
tough, nevertheless they make capital soup.

       *       *       *       *       *

The DWARF GEESE (_Nettapus_) form a distinct group, whose members occupy
South Asia, Africa, and Australia. These birds are characterised by their
small beak, which is high at the base, slopes gradually to the tip,
and is furnished with very short, broad denticulations; their wings are
abruptly rounded, and their tail composed of twelve feathers.

[Illustration: THE NILE GOOSE (_Chenalopex Ægyptiacus_). ONE-FOURTH
NATURAL SIZE.]


THE WHITE-BODIED GOOSE TEAL.

The WHITE-BODIED GOOSE TEAL (_Nettapus Coromandelianus_) is black on
the crown of the head, and of a magnificent green shaded with purple
over the entire mantle; the face, back of the head, neck, and under side
are pure white; the throat is partially encircled by a black band; the
feathers on the belly and the lower tail-covers are spotted with black
and white, those of the upper covers are greyish brown with light spots,
the tail-feathers blackish brown; the extremities of the primary quills
are spotted with white, the lower secondaries exhibit similar but smaller
spots, whilst the upper secondaries are marked with black; the eye is
red; the beak black; and the foot greenish brown; during the period of
incubation the latter is spotted with black. This small Goose is not more
than thirteen or fourteen inches long, the wing measures six inches and
a half, and the tail three and a quarter. In the plumage of the female
the brown is less conspicuous, and the mantle comparatively lustreless;
her quills are also without any white spots; the sides of the wings and
tail-covers are pale brown; the feathers on the nape are marked with dark
lines, those of the under side with dirty white, and the thighs with pale
grey. This most beautiful little Goose, according to Jerdon, "is met with
in India, as also in Ceylon, and on the Malay Peninsula. In some parts of
India it is very numerous, but is rare in the North-west Provinces. Its
favourite resorts are ponds covered with reeds and rich in grass, and upon
these it may sometimes be seen in numerous flocks." Its flight is rapid,
and when upon the wing it utters a loud peculiar cry. According to Blyth
it walks badly, and after making a few steps regularly squats down; hence
it is possible, or rather probable, that in a wild state it seldom comes
upon dry land. So long as it has not suffered persecution it is extremely
tame and trustful. It makes its nest in the cavity of some old hollow
tree, or occasionally in ruins or old walls, sometimes at a distance from
the water. The small eggs, which are eight, ten, or more in number, have
a white shell. The young are at first clad in a coat of thick grey down,
and almost immediately after their birth they are literally cast out of
the nest by their parents, who at once conduct them to the nearest pond.
We are told by one observer that only the female broods, while the Gander
amuses himself in the society of others of his own sex. Jerdon, however,
doubts this statement, or at least that such is always the case, basing
his scruples upon the fact that in more than one instance he has seen
both male and female fly together from the tree in which their nest was
situated. The flesh of these Geese is not much esteemed; nevertheless it
is said that at certain seasons it is tolerably good.

[Illustration: CEREOPSIS GEESE.]


THE CEREOPSIS GOOSE.

The CEREOPSIS GOOSE (_Cereopsis Novæ-Hollandiæ_) is recognisable by its
powerful body, thick short neck, small head, and short strong beak, which
is high at the base, and covered with a cere almost to the blunt and
hooked extremity. The webbed feet have long tarsi, short toes, and large
powerful claws. In the broad wings the shoulder-quills are well developed.
The tail is short and rounded; the thick plumage is of a beautiful dark
grey, shaded with brown. The crown of the head is somewhat lighter, and
the back decorated with round, blackish brown spots, situated at the tips
of some of the feathers. The lower halves of the secondary quills and
tail-feathers are also brownish black. The eye is scarlet, the beak black,
the cere greenish yellow, and the foot blackish. The female resembles
her mate in the coloration of her plumage, but is recognisable by her
inferior size. The Cereopsis Goose, the only member of the family to which
it belongs, is one of those extraordinary birds that at once arrest the
attention of the traveller. Not many years ago the localities where it was
the most numerous appear to have been the islands in Bass's Straits.

Labillardière relates that the first specimens he obtained were captured
by the sailors with their hands; and Flinders tells us that one of his
boat's crew killed a great number with short sticks, and took several
alive. Bailly not only confirmed these accounts, but states that those
he saw could be easily run in upon and captured without trouble. All the
above navigators speak of the flesh as being excellent, much better,
indeed, than that of European Geese, and seem to have prosecuted the chase
with considerable ardour. As a necessary consequence, later visitors
found not only that the bird was no longer plentiful, but that from many
of these islands it had been completely extirpated. Gould, who shot a
pair on Isabella Island, nevertheless thinks that several of them may yet
exist upon unvisited parts of the southern coast of Australia. "An old
Bushman," however, remarks that on the Australian continent he only saw
them twice--in one case there was a small flock, and in the other only
two birds, which were in company with some other Geese. The Cereopsis,
or "Hen" Goose, as it is called, lives, as might be expected from such
an appellation, much more on dry land than on the water. It walks well,
and swims badly; indeed, judging from individuals kept in our Zoological
Gardens, it seldom enters the water of its own free will. Its flight,
likewise, is performed with difficulty, and is remarkably heavy. Its
voice is a dull buzzing sound, very unlike the cry of a Goose. We have
but scanty information respecting the habits of these birds in their wild
state; but from their behaviour in captivity it is easy to form an idea of
their usual mode of life. In its aversion to water the Cereopsis differs
from all other Geese. Except when driven into a pond, it spends its
whole time on land, devoting the morning and evening to the procuration
of food, but reposing during the heat of the day and throughout the
night. It is seldom seen in company with other species; indeed, its
disposition is even more quarrelsome and imperious than that of the Nile
Goose. A pair of these birds, when placed among other water-fowl, begin
in a very short time to assume unlimited authority, and their behaviour
becomes (especially during the breeding season) absolutely insupportable.
Nevertheless, they soon learn to recognise their keepers, to whom they
exhibit considerable attachment. In New Holland they would long ago have
been numbered among the inhabitants of every farmyard had it not been for
this unbearable conduct. Such as have been brought to Europe have again
and again hatched and reared a numerous progeny, so that with us they
might readily be acclimatised. One principal obstacle to their breeding
in the north is the contrariety of the seasons. In Australia they breed
in the spring, which, of course, corresponds with our autumn; so that
in the northern hemisphere, the young brood, becoming at once exposed
to the rigours of winter, not unfrequently perish. We have, however,
already learnt that those birds that have lost their eggs breed again
in February, hence in the succeeding months there is every reason to
suppose the young may be reared without difficulty. During pairing time
the affection of the sexes towards each other is unmistakable. The Gander
walks around his mate with graceful salutations, keeps vigilant watch
over her safety, and resolutely drives away all other intruders, great
and small, that may happen to approach the domain which he has selected.
The care of constructing the nest appears to devolve upon the female,
who always selects the best materials within her reach; and, although
the result of her labours is not an artistically-constructed cradle, it
is considerably more so than the nests of the generality of Geese, its
interior being smoothly rounded and comfortably lined with feathers. The
eggs are comparatively small, somewhat round in shape, smooth-shelled, and
of a yellowish white colour. From observations made in Paris we found the
duration of incubation to extend over thirty days; in a colder climate it
is somewhat longer. In the park of our friend, M. Cornèly, in Belgium,
thirty-eight days elapsed before the young escaped from their shell.
On the very day of their escape they ran after their mother, picking
up food from among the grass. They refused to eat hard-boiled eggs,
chopped earthworms, and other kinds of animal food, and would not even
touch white bread, confining themselves exclusively, as it appeared, to
green vegetables. No sooner are the young hatched than the pugnacity of
the Gander displays itself in full force; he seems to fear nothing, and
attacks a man with as much animosity as he exhibits towards every other
animal that intrudes upon his privacy. "I considered my Gander bad enough
before," writes M. Cornèly, "but now I think he must be mad. He attacks
every living thing indiscriminately. One of my large Cranes happened to
come in his way; he flew at him, and although the keeper was not a hundred
yards off, and ran as fast as he could to part them, the poor Crane was
killed before he could interfere. One night the Gander got into the stable
where another of these birds was kept, and in the morning the body of the
Crane was found almost hacked to pieces." However ornamental these Geese
may be, it is evident that it is only where they have plenty of room to
themselves and are not likely to interfere with other animals, that they
are eligible subjects for domestication.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: THE RUDDY SHELDRAKE, OR BRAHMINY DUCK (_Casarca rutila_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

The DUCKS (_Anates_) constitute the most numerous and varied family of
the entire order, and are at once distinguishable from the Geese by the
flatness of their feet, and from the Swans by the shortness of their
necks. In these birds the body is short and broad, the neck short or
moderately long, and the head thick; the beak, which is about the same
length as the head, is either of uniform breadth, or is highest towards
the tip; the base of the bill is more or less high, and in some instances
furnished with an excrescence; the upper mandible is arched, and projects
so far over the sides of the lower one as partially to enclose it; the
margins of both mandibles are sharply denticulated; the weak flat foot,
which is placed very far back, has the centre toe as long as the tarsus;
the hind toe is well developed, and in some species furnished with a
membranous lobe; the claws are weak; in the moderate-sized, narrow, and
pointed wing the second quill is the longest; the short broad tail is
composed of from fourteen to twenty feathers, and is either rounded or
pointed at its extremity. The plumage, which is rich, smooth, and thickly
interspersed with down, varies in colour according to the sex or age of
the bird; that of the male is more or less brilliant, and that of the
female of comparatively sombre hue. The members of this family, regarded
generally, are to be met with in every climate; the number of species is,
however, greater in warm than in cold latitudes, while on the contrary in
northern regions individuals of the same species swarm in immense numbers.
Ducks frequent both fresh and salt water, being sometimes met with on
mountain lakes to a considerable elevation; at the approach of winter
they migrate to southern latitudes, often in incalculable hosts. In the
extent of their migrations some species emulate the Swallow itself, while
others wander no further than is absolutely necessary in order to obtain
food. These migrations are generally commenced at sunset; towards midnight
the birds alight upon some expanse of water, and after resting for a few
hours recommence their journey in the early morning. Their flight is
conducted either in one long string or in a wedge-like phalanx. The power
of locomotion displayed by these birds is very various; some species can
walk upon dry ground almost as well as the Geese, while others waddle
along with considerable difficulty. All are excellent swimmers, but they
only dive exceptionally, and with considerable effort. Their flight is
accomplished by rapid movements of their wings, and they are able to rise
as easily from the surface of the water as from the ground. Ducks subsist
upon both animal and vegetable food; some, however, prefer the former,
while others confine themselves to the latter diet. They are for the most
part monogamous, and generally associate during the breeding season in
great numbers; a circumstance in which they differ remarkably from the
Swans and Geese. Some build their nests in holes in the ground or in the
clefts of rocks; others in hollow trees, or even among the branches,
some making use of the deserted nests of land birds; while others build
upon the ground a rude structure composed of stalks and leaves, warmly
lined with down. The number of eggs varies in different species from
six to sixteen; the period of incubation extends from twenty-one to
twenty-four days.

[Illustration: _Plate 36. Cassell's Book of Birds_

CASARCA RUTILA ____ RUDDY SHIELDRAKE

(_about 1/3 Nat. size_)]

[Illustration: THE SHELDRAKE (_Vulpanser ladorna_). ONE-FOURTH NATURAL
SIZE.]


THE RUDDY SHELDRAKE, OR BRAHMINY DUCK.

The RUDDY SHELDRAKE, or BRAHMINY DUCK (_Casarca rutila_), represents
a group possessing slender bodies, moderate-sized wings, and somewhat
remarkably coloured plumage, which differs but little in the sexes. In
this species the body is almost entirely of a bright rust-red; the cheek
is yellowish white; the neck reddish yellow; the wing is decorated with
a glossy green patch, and has its covers of a pure white; the margins of
the wings, upper tail-covers, quills, and tail, are glossy greenish black.
During the breeding season the male has a clearly-defined band of greenish
black on the lower throat; the female rarely exhibits this collar, and is
smaller than her mate; her entire plumage is also less brightly coloured,
and her face of a whitish shade; the eye is light brown; the beak black;
and the foot lead-grey. This species is from twenty-four inches to
twenty-five inches long and forty-four inches broad; the wing measures
sixteen inches, and the tail seven inches. The Ruddy Sheldrakes inhabit
Central Asia, and from thence spread in an easterly direction to the Upper
Amoor, and westwards as far as Morocco. In the course of their wanderings
they are pretty regular visitants to Greece and South Italy. As winter
guests they are well known throughout the Indian Peninsula, and are by no
means uncommon upon the lakes of Egypt. In Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco
they are abundant, but do not apparently extend their range into the
interior of Africa. The gait of this beautiful bird is light and elegant;
it does not waddle as most Ducks do, but steps out like a Goose; it is an
excellent swimmer, and upon an emergency dives with facility. Its flight
is strong and enduring, and its voice loud, but by no means unpleasing.
Its food consists principally of vegetable materials; Jerdon, indeed,
says he has been told that it will sometimes eat carrion, but adds that
he has never seen it so employed, though he has often observed it feeding
in fields of corn. Until the approach of the breeding season the Brahminy
Ducks live very peaceably in company with other swimming birds, but about
that time they become very pugnacious and quarrelsome. Towards the end
of April or the beginning of May the different pairs retire to their
appropriate nesting-places, which are generally in holes in the ground.
In North-west Africa, Calvin found one of their nests in the cleft of a
perpendicular rock, which had likewise been the nesting-place of Robins,
Kites, and Vultures. In Siberia they not unfrequently build in the holes
of Siberian marmots, and occasionally in hollow trees. The nest, which
is composed of dry grass and lined with down, usually contains from four
to six roundish thin-shelled eggs, of a glossy white or yellowish white.
As soon as the young brood are sufficiently dry after their escape from
the shell they leap from the nest and make their way to the nearest pond,
where, under the careful superintendence of their parents, they pass the
earlier part of their lives. At first they are clad in a suit of down,
which is brownish grey upon the upper part of the body with the exception
of a whitish spot upon the breast; the lower surface is of a dirty white.
Pallas states that in Mongolia these birds are regarded as sacred.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SHELDRAKES (_Vulpanser_) differ from the above birds in the formation
of their beak, the comparative shortness of their wings and legs, and
in the coloration of their plumage. In this group the upper mandible is
broadest towards its extremity, and in the male exhibits an excrescence
at its base, which swells considerably during the breeding season, and
afterwards almost entirely disappears.


THE COMMON SHELDRAKE.

The COMMON SHELDRAKE (_Vulpanser tadorna_) is a beautiful bird, with head
and neck of dark glossy green. The shoulders exhibit two large black
spots; a patch on the breast, the centre of the back, the wing-covers,
side of the body and upper portion of the tail are pure white. The centre
of the breast and belly are greyish black; a broad band on the neck,
and some of the upper secondaries are of a bright reddish brown. The
lower tail-covers are yellowish; the quills blackish grey, and the wings
decorated with a metallic green patch. The eye is dark rust-red, the beak
carmine-red, and foot flesh-brown. This species is two feet long, and
three feet and a half broad; the wing measures fourteen inches, and the
tail four inches and a half. The female is similarly but less beautifully
coloured. In young birds the nape is grey, the upper part of the back
and under side are yellowish grey; there is also no band upon their
breasts. The range of the Sheldrake extends north to about the middle of
Sweden, and south as far as North Africa, where they are to be met with
on every lake during the winter, and make their appearance in countless
multitudes. They are likewise numerous upon the coasts of China and Japan,
as well as upon the great lakes of Siberia and Central Asia; nevertheless,
they decidedly prefer salt water to fresh, and are always most abundant
upon the sea itself, or upon salt-water lakes. In Great Britain these
birds are indigenous, and breed upon every part of the coast. Even in
extensive collections of water-fowl, where various species of Ducks are
seen in close proximity to each other, the Sheldrakes are conspicuously
beautiful; but when seen swimming on the sea or crowding the surface of
some large lake, the eye is enchanted with the variety and elegance of
their movements. In Africa they add an unspeakable charm to the lake
scenery, the brilliancy and liveliness of their colours rendering them
prominent objects at a very considerable distance. Even upon the islands
near Schleswig, Jutland, and Denmark, where they are almost household
birds, they invariably call forth the admiration of the beholder. In
their general habits they bear some resemblance to the Brahminy Ducks
before described; their gait, however, is somewhat heavier, and they swim
with greater facility. In their voices there is no resemblance whatever
between the two species. The call-note of the female is a loud "Quack,"
and that of the male a deep "Koer," while during the pairing season they
give utterance to a peculiar whistle. Their food is preferably vegetable,
consisting of the tender parts of seaweeds and other plants which abound
in salt water; they will likewise eat grass, and when in confinement
occasionally devour small fishes, molluscs, and small crustaceans; neither
do they altogether refuse flesh. These birds seek their food less by
swimming than by wading. As the tide recedes they may be seen running like
shore-birds just at the margin of the water, and carefully examining the
contents of every little pool. During the morning they visit the fields,
in order to hunt for insects and grubs, as well as for vegetable matter;
they sometimes for a like purpose resort to marshes and swampy places. The
Common Sheldrakes construct their nests only in holes or burrows excavated
in the earth. "Whoever has been much in the vicinity of the sea-coast,"
says Bodinus, "will probably have observed with surprise that a pair or
two of these birds, seen at the distance of half a mile or so, in some
open spot, suddenly disappear in a most unaccountable manner, and on
visiting the place will find that they have taken refuge underground, in
some hole formed by a fox, badger, or rabbit; nay, more, that they have
positively taken up their abode in this strange locality even while its
formidable four-footed occupant is actually in possession of the premises.
It is now an undeniable fact, established by the concurrent testimony of
numerous observers, that the Sheldrake and the fox not unfrequently dwell
in the same hole, and that the latter, who spares no other bird, does
not molest or injure its adventurous lodger." We have certainly not been
able to verify this statement by personal observations, and have moreover
found on one occasion the wings and feathers of a Sheldrake lying close
to a hole inhabited by a fox; but there was nothing to show that the fox
had been the murderer, even under circumstances so suspicious, seeing
that the spot was in the vicinity of a wood much frequented by Hawks and
other birds of prey. Were we asked why the bloodthirsty quadruped should
thus spare the poor Duck, we should confidently reply that it was on
account of the extraordinary courage of the bird. We have ourselves seen
a young Sheldrake, not many days old, defend itself valorously against
animals of large size, such as fowls, small dogs, and rabbits. Instead
of running away, it showed a bold front, holding its neck outstretched,
angrily repelling every attack, and never seeming to think of retreating
until its assailant had retired. The old birds, more especially during the
breeding season, are equally courageous; the male stands bravely forward,
and confronts his opponent with loud hisses, until, daunted by his angry,
threatening demeanour, the enemy sneaks away. Having put his adversary to
flight, he returns to his mate, who stands up nobly to assist her spouse,
and both give utterance to their mutual congratulations over the victory
in loud screams and frequent caresses.

The following particulars concerning the breeding of these birds, by the
forester Grömelbein, will be read with interest. Towards the end of May,
Grömelbein, while busily employed in a wood at some distance from the
coast, observed a pair of Sheldrakes that flew around his party several
times in succession, and as often flew towards and alighted on a hill of
sand at some little distance, where the male always stationed himself as
if to keep watch, while the female leisurely entered a hole, in which she
remained about a quarter of an hour. When she again came to the surface
she approached her mate, and after apparently holding a consultation
they both took a circular flight into some neighbouring fields, where
they alighted on spots quite remote from each other, evidently for the
purpose of misleading anyone who might be watching their movements. On
observing this manœuvre, Grömelbein hastened to the hill, and there found
the hole of a fox, at the entrance of which were numerous footmarks of
the fox and of the Ducks, together with recent excreta from both. After
watching the birds, however, for some days, it was discovered that, with
the view of deceiving the men, they had only made a pretence of having
their nest in the hole above mentioned, and that their real residence was
another much larger excavation, in the joint occupation of a bitch-fox
and a badger. This second hole being carefully watched, it was seen that
the badger was in the habit of walking in and out of his abode, which was
subsequently found to be ten feet deep, without troubling himself at all
about his feathered visitors, whose footmarks were traceable to a depth
of seven feet. There were, however, other holes belonging to the same
den, through which the fox was also in the habit of passing. The ground
before these entrances was trampled smooth by the feet of the Ducks, and
as clearly impressed with the footmarks of the fox. On perceiving this,
Grömelbein concealed himself behind a wall in such a manner as to be able
to watch all their proceedings, nor had he long to wait before he saw the
sly Sheldrakes paying their accustomed visit to the labourers and the
sand-hill above mentioned; after which, flying close to the ground, they
came to the real nesting-place, when, after carefully looking around them,
they walked into the fox-hole as quietly and unconsciously as Ducks in a
farmyard would go to their roosting-place. There they remained about half
an hour, when they again made their appearance, climbed hastily to the
top of the hill beneath which the den was situated, and finding, as they
thought, the coast clear, flew off to the meadows.

In the Island of Sylt and others off the coast of Schleswig, the
inhabitants construct artificial burrows, covered with movable lids, near
which at the proper season they place quantities of broom and moss, so
that the coming birds may find everything ready. These consequently take
up their abode in the prepared burrows without the slightest scruple, and
that sometimes quite close to the houses of their owners; nay, they at
length become so familiarised with their keepers that they may be said
to be in a state of semi-domestication. In these burrows the females,
if not disturbed, will lay from seven to twelve large, smooth, white,
thin-shelled eggs; but if the eggs are gradually taken from the nest, as
they are at Sylt, the females will go on laying till they have laid twenty
or thirty. When the mother bird begins to sit, she carefully surrounds her
eggs with down, and when she leaves her nest covers them with the same
warm material. After the lapse of about twenty-six days, the young make
their appearance, and soon follow their mother to the neighbouring moors,
generally stopping, however, to have a swim in a pond of fresh water
that is found on the road thither. To the inhabitants of Sylt and other
islands in the North Sea, it appears, therefore, that the Sheldrakes are
objects of considerable attention. The eggs serve as important additions
to their table; and the down from their nests, scarcely inferior to that
of the Eider, is extremely valuable. The flesh of these birds is not much
esteemed, having a rancid or oily taste and a disagreeable smell; they
are therefore never killed, but, on the contrary, are protected by the
inhabitants of the islands they frequent.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TREE DUCKS (_Dendrocygna_) form a group having a high slender body,
moderately long neck, delicately-shaped head, and weak bill; the legs are
long, the wings blunt, with the third and fourth quills longer than the
rest; the tail is rounded at its extremity, and the plumage variegated.


THE WIDOW DUCK.

[Illustration: THE WIDOW DUCK (_Dendrocygna viduata_). ONE-FOURTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

The WIDOW DUCK (_Dendrocygna viduata_) has the face and throat white,
shaded with reddish brown on the brow and cheeks; the back of head,
nape, and sides of the neck are bright reddish brown; the sides of the
breast and the back reddish olive, darkly spotted and marked; the long
lower shoulder-feathers are olive-brown edged with yellowish white; the
lower back, centre of tail, and entire under side below the breast are
black; the sides of the body are greyish white, striped with blackish
brown; the upper wing-covers are bright reddish brown; secondary quills
olive-brown, with green edges, and the quills and tail-feathers greenish
black; the eye is reddish brown, beak black, with a dark grey stripe
near its nail-like tip; the foot is lead-grey. This species is eighteen
inches long and thirty-two inches broad; the wing measures eight inches
and three-quarters, the tail two inches and two-thirds. The female
closely resembles her mate. All travellers who have visited South America
describe this bird as occurring in amazing multitudes, more especially
in the marshy grounds of the prairies; and travellers in Africa assert
that it is equally abundant in the southern and western regions of that
continent. Upon the Upper Blue Nile we have ourselves several times met
with it in extraordinarily large flocks, which, in closely-packed ranks,
covered the banks of the river to a great distance, and when they rose
into the air had the appearance of a dense cloud. Heuglin states that the
males and females of these birds remain constantly separate from each
other; such a statement, however, we can positively contradict, seeing
that we have killed individuals of both sexes at a single shot. We are
by no means well informed as to the history of these birds, and about
their mode of breeding we know little or nothing certainly. The Widow
Duck is distinguishable among its congeners by a gait which sometimes
resembles that of a Goose, as also by the heaviness of its flight, but
more particularly by its predilection for sandbanks and sandy places upon
the riverside, to which, when driven away, it invariably returns. The
Prince von Wied tells us that at Sertong, in the province of Bahia, it is
very abundant in swampy, overflooded meadows, also in marshes, as well as
in lakes and other open sheets of water; it is, likewise, often to be seen
upon the sea-coast. As regards the latter statement, however, Schomburghk
expressly says that he has never met with it on the sea-coast, but that
in the swamps of Savannah it is particularly numerous, and with this our
experience in Africa quite coincides. Of their behaviour Schomburghk
gives a very pleasing sketch:--"The pretty little Bisisi Ducks," says
that writer, "seem to be under a ban in this neighbourhood; no sooner
did we see a flock of them than men jumped at once into the water almost
up to their necks, and began to shoot with their well-directed arrows as
rapidly as possible into the thickest part of the flock. If the birds flew
high, so that they could see the arrows, the flock immediately parted,
just like a swarm of Passenger Pigeons when a Hawk swoops upon them. In
the confusion of their flight they broke each other's wings, and many
of them fell to the ground stunned and wounded. When two flocks of them
met, the hubbub was still greater. I have on such occasions seen as many
as five or even eight of them fall to the ground together, although only
one of them had been hit by an arrow; and when a flock of them, under
such circumstances, came within range of my gun, I have not unfrequently
brought down ten or a dozen of them at one shot." We learn further from
Schomburghk that these Ducks are very easily tamed, and the Indians
generally keep them domesticated in the neighbourhood of their dwellings.


THE WILD DUCK.

The WILD DUCK (_Anas boschas_) represents a group characterised by their
powerful body, short neck, broad slightly-raised bill, which terminates
in a decidedly-curved and nail-like tip; their moderately high feet,
placed in the centre of the body, and furnished with long toes; and their
rounded tail--the feathers on the upper covers of which curl upwards. The
coloration of the plumage varies considerably in the sexes. In the male
bird the head and upper neck are green; the fore part of the breast is
brown, shaded with a variety of tints; the shoulder-feathers are greyish
white; the back is a mixture of black and brown; the upper wings are
decorated with a patch of fine blue, bordered with white; the lower back
and rump are blackish green, and the rest of the under side greyish white,
delicately lined with black; a narrow white band divides the green throat
from the reddish brown breast; the upper wing-covers are blackish green,
the lower covers deep black, and the quills dark grey. The eye is light
brown, beak greenish yellow, and foot pale red. During the autumn the
male assumes a dress similar to that of the female. The latter is reddish
grey, darkly spotted on the head and neck; her crown is blackish brown,
and back brown, its feathers marked and edged with various shades of grey,
yellow, and black. The lower throat and crop are light chestnut-brown,
decorated with black crescent-shaped patches; the rest of the under side
is spotted with brown. This fine bird is twenty-four inches long and forty
inches broad; the wing measures eleven inches and the tail three and a
half. The Wild Duck well deserves the epithet _Communis_, applied to it
by some writers, seeing that its range extends not only over the northern
hemisphere in the vicinity of the Pole, but during the winter extends
southwards to the very verge of the torrid zone. In the extreme north it
must be regarded as a bird of passage, seeing that on the approach of
winter it migrates regularly towards the south, returning again northwards
when the intensity of the cold has abated. In more southern countries it
is merely a wanderer. In October and November the Wild Ducks assemble
in large flocks, and commence their migrations towards more hospitable
climates; most of them make their way as far as Italy, Greece, and Spain;
some even visit Northern Africa, or corresponding latitudes on the
Asiatic continent. In the vicinity of the lakes of Southern Europe they
may about this time be seen arriving in flocks of thousands and hundreds
of thousands, when they alight upon the water, covering a space of half
a square league in extent; and when they rise all at once into the air,
producing a rushing sound, audible at a great distance, and resembling the
roar of the surf on a storm-beaten shore. In February, or at the latest
in March, they commence their return journey, hence they are sometimes
called on the Continent "March Ducks." It is only occasionally that they
are to be seen upon the sea-coast. These must be considered as strictly
belonging to the race of fresh-water Ducks, and it is to lakes and ponds
thickly covered with sedges and water-plants that they most generally
resort. Waters which are here and there free from herbage, more especially
if overhung at the sides with bushes and marsh-plants, afford them their
favourite resort, and it is in such places that they generally pass
the winter and rear their progeny; in similar localities they likewise
procure the greater part of their food, and from thence make little
excursions to the ponds and lakes, ditches and fields, that may happen
to be in the vicinity. They are very seldom seen upon open waters, but
generally seek the shelter of little islands and shallow places overgrown
with water-plants, where, half running and half wading, they can search
with their beaks for whatever nutriment is to be found. Wild Ducks may
be classed with the most gluttonous birds with which we are acquainted.
They devour the leaves and tender tops of water-plants, the buds, young
shoots, and ripe seeds, being in turn equally acceptable; and are likewise
exceedingly fond of the different kinds of corn and of bulbous roots.
They, moreover, eagerly hunt after all sorts of small animals, from worms
and snails to tadpoles, frogs, and fishes; they seem, indeed, to be
always suffering from the pangs of hunger, and so long as they are awake
are constantly endeavouring to alleviate them. In their general habits
the Wild Ducks closely resemble our tame species, which are in reality
their lineal descendants; the tame Ducks are, however, far behind their
progenitors in watchfulness, energy, and vigour. They swim, dive, and
fly much in the same manner, but decidedly better than tame Ducks; their
voice, likewise, is precisely similar. The loud, short "Quack" of the
female, and the duller "Quack" of the male; the conversational "Weck,
weck," and the call-note, "Wack, wack;" the alarm-cry, "Katsch," or "Rab,
rab;" in short, all the sounds with which we are familiar in the tame
Ducks are exactly repeated by their wild relatives. Soon after their
arrival, the Wild Ducks begin to choose their mates, the selection of
course involving many a battle between the rival males; but their partners
do not need to be won by a prolonged courtship. Their habit of associating
in large flocks is at once laid aside, and they attach themselves to their
spouses with ardent devotion. The place selected for the nest is generally
some quiet, retired, dry spot under a bush or concealed by herbage, and
very generally near the water, but sometimes at a considerable distance
from it. Occasionally and, indeed, not unfrequently, they will take
possession of some nest placed in a tree--such, for example, as that
of a Crow. Their proper nest is constructed of the stems and leaves of
various plants, loosely put together, so as to present internally a
rounded cavity, which at a subsequent period is warmly lined with down
and feathers. The brood consists of from eight to sixteen eggs, of a
somewhat elongated shape, hard, smooth-shelled, and of a greyish white
colour; in fact, exactly similar to those of the domesticated Duck. The
period of incubation, during which the female, who alone broods, sits
with the greatest patience and self-devotion, extends over from twenty
to twenty-eight days. The newly-hatched young ones remain perhaps for a
single day in the nest, and are then taken to the water. Those that are
born in a nest placed at a considerable elevation simply spring out and
fall upon the ground, without receiving the slightest injury. It is quite
a mistake to say, as some writers have done, that they are carried down by
their mother in her beak.

During the first few days of their lives they endeavour to conceal
themselves as much as possible among the reeds and water-plants; and it
is only when their wings have to be tried that they venture to show
themselves in open water. Meanwhile the mother takes the greatest pains
to conceal them from observation. In case of danger she makes every
endeavour to draw it upon herself, or if the assailants are such as to
make it at all practicable, she flies at them with the utmost fury, and
uses every effort to drive them away. The young brood follow her with
every demonstration of affection; they watch her slightest warning, listen
to every sound she utters, and when bidden, at once hide themselves among
weeds or sink down between the inequalities of the ground. Their growth is
exceedingly rapid, so that in about six weeks they are able to fly.

[Illustration: THE WILD DUCK (_Anas boschas_).]

Whilst the mother is thus busily employed in defending and instructing
her offspring, the male Duck gives himself very little trouble about his
family; sometimes he takes another mate, but if this is not the case, he
joins his male companions in their recreations on the water. Even before
the eggs are hatched, the old birds begin to moult their feathers, and
soon exchange their beautiful nuptial dress for the duller plumage in
which they appear during the four months of summer, after which, partly by
moulting, and partly by change of colour in their feathers, they resume
their splendid autumnal garb. At this latter period the young birds
likewise undergo their first moult, after which the family becomes again
united. Both parents and their progeny remain together during the autumn,
and ultimately fly in company with each other to their winter quarters.

[Illustration: _Plate 37. Cassell's Book of Birds_

AIX GALERICULATA ____ MANDARIN DUCK

(_about 5/8 Nat. size_)]

[Illustration: THE WOOD OR SUMMER DUCK (_Aix sponsa_). ONE-FOURTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

The flesh of these birds is so surpassingly excellent, that the chase
after them is everywhere carried on with unrelenting perseverance. It
would lead us too far from our subject were we here even to glance at the
multiplied contrivances whereby they are killed or captured, sometimes
in immense numbers. The markets of Italy, Greece, Spain, and Egypt,
are, during the winter season, filled to overflowing with Ducks of all
descriptions, among which the Wild Duck is by far the most plentiful; they
are then everywhere to be purchased for a few pence. In Greece, however,
the mode of catching them is somewhat peculiar. On many of the lakes in
that country, which are for the most part covered with vegetation, there
are generally long patches of open water, indicating those parts which
are too deep to allow of the growth of plants from the bottom. As winter
sets in these open spaces are closed by nets prepared for the purpose, and
during the passage of the Ducks the evenings are devoted to their capture.
When it begins to grow dark, two boats, efficiently manned, and each of
them furnished with a lantern and a bell, put off in opposite directions
towards the enclosed space, and as they row slowly along, display their
lanterns, ring their bells, and thus drive before them the Ducks which,
instead of taking flight, crowd outwards towards the nets, with which they
are ultimately enclosed. From Von der Mühle and Lindermayer we learn that
they are sometimes also taken by means of a casting-net. To accomplish
this, the sportsmen, having ascertained the position of the Ducks, row
slowly towards them with muffled oars, at the same time occupying their
attention by displaying a lighted lantern suspended at the end of a long
pole, carried at the bow of the boat. The curiosity of the Ducks being
thus excited, they approach the light in great numbers without seeing
their enemies below, who thus succeed in throwing a net over them, and
capturing a score or so at a single haul.


THE WOOD OR SUMMER DUCK.

The WOOD or SUMMER DUCK (_Aix sponsa_) represents a group possessing a
slender body, moderately long, thin neck, a large crested head, and a
short slender bill, which terminates in a hooked and nail-like tip. In
these birds the short powerful foot is placed far backward; the narrow,
pointed wing has its first and second quill longer than the rest; and the
very broad strong tail is composed of sixteen feathers, and rounded at
its extremity. The plumage of this species is magnificently coloured, and
forms a crest at the back of the head; a small space between the eyes and
the base of upper mandible is bare. This beautiful bird has the feathers
on the crown of head and the cheeks of glossy dark green; the sides of
head and a patch on sides of the neck are purplish green shaded with blue;
the crest is golden green, decorated with two narrow white stripes that
commence on the brow; the sides of the upper neck and breast are bright
reddish brown dotted with white; some of the shoulder-feathers, hinder
parts of back, and upper tail-covers, are blackish green; the rest of
the shoulder-feathers, the primary quills, and tail, greenish purple,
shaded with blue and glossy black; some of the exterior tail-feathers are
prolonged, and of an orange hue; the lower tail-covers are brown; the
chin, throat, a band on the upper neck, the centre of the breast, and the
belly, are white; the sides of the body yellowish grey, marked with black;
some of the long feathers on these parts are black edged with white; the
eye is bright red; eyelid orange; beak whitish, with reddish base and
black tip; the foot is reddish yellow. This species is seventeen inches
and a half long and twenty-seven and a half broad; the wing measures
eight and a half, and tail four inches. The female is somewhat smaller
than her mate, and without an actual crest upon her head; her plumage is
deep brownish green on the back, shaded with purple and spotted; the head
is greyish green, neck brownish grey, gullet white, breast white spotted
with brown, and belly pure white; the eyes are surrounded by a broad
white line, which passes from thence as far as the region of the ear. The
Summer Duck is a native of America, where it occupies the United States,
and thence wanders regularly to the central portions of that continent
and to the West Indies; it has also been killed in Great Britain, France,
and Germany, but most probably these specimens were not stragglers
but birds that had been reared in aviaries. According to Audubon, the
flight of the Wood Duck is remarkable for its speed, and the ease and
elegance with which it is performed. "It passes," he says, "through the
wood, and even among the branches of trees, with as much facility as
the Passenger Pigeon, and when removing from some secluded haunt to its
breeding-grounds, at the approach of night it shoots over the trees like a
meteor, scarcely emitting any sound from its wings." Wilson asserts that
these birds seldom fly in parties of more than three or four individuals
together; but Audubon expresses his surprise at such a statement from
the admired author of "American Ornithology," and assures his readers
that he has "seen hundreds in a single flock, and has known fifteen to be
killed by a single shot." In disposition the Wood Duck is naturally bold
and fearless; but, if molested, soon becomes shy and cautious. When in
captivity it is very readily tamed, and exhibits much attachment to those
who feed it. In their natural state these birds subsist upon grain, reeds,
delicate shoots of plants, worms, snails, and insects, the latter being
gleaned from the trees, or snapped at as they float through the air; they
will also readily devour small reptiles, and a variety of similar fare.
When tame, they can be reared on corn or fish, and in fact will eat almost
anything that may be offered them. The period of incubation commences
about March, and at this season the parties separate in pairs and
commence their search for a convenient breeding-place. For this purpose a
squirrel's or Woodpecker's hole is usually selected as affording all that
they require, and into this the female at once creeps in order to make the
preparations necessary for the reception of her eggs, while her faithful
spouse keeps watch outside. About May, or in some localities a month
later, the eggs, from seven to twelve in number, are deposited; they are
small, oval, and have a smooth white or yellowish shell. As soon as all
the eggs are laid, the female covers them with down, spreading it thickly
over them whenever she quits her charge. No sooner is the mother burdened
with family cares than, as is the case with some other species, she is
deserted by her hitherto devoted mate, who joins his male companions and
roams with them over neighbouring pieces of water until the close of the
moulting season. The period of incubation lasts about twenty-five days.
"If," says Audubon, "the nest of the Wood Duck is placed immediately over
the water, the young, the moment they are hatched, scramble to the mouth
of the hole, launch into the air with their little wings and feet spread
out, and drop into their favourite element; but whenever their birthplace
is at some distance from it, the mother carries them to it one by one in
her bill, holding them so as not to injure their tender frames. On several
occasions, however, when the hole was thirty, forty, or more yards from a
pool or other piece of water, I observed the mother suffered the young to
fall on the grasses and dried leaves beneath the trees, and afterwards led
them to the nearest edge of the next pool or creek. At this early age the
young answer to their parent's call with a mellow 'Pee, pee, pee,' often
and rapidly repeated. The call of the mother at such time is soft, low,
and prolonged, resembling the syllables 'Pe-ēē, pe-ēē.' The watch-note
of the male, which resembles 'Hoe-ēēk,' is never uttered by the female;
indeed, the male himself seldom uses it unless alarmed by some uncommon
sound or the sight of a distant enemy, or when intent on calling passing
birds of his own species."

Wilson mentions having heard from an eye-witness that a female of this
species was seen carrying down thirteen young from her nest to the ground
in the space of ten minutes. This she accomplished by seizing them one by
one in her bill by the wing or back of the neck, and thus bearing them to
the foot of the tree, whence she afterwards led them to the water.


THE CHINESE TEAL, OR MANDARIN DUCK.

The CHINESE TEAL, or MANDARIN DUCK (_Aix galericulata_), represents the
group _Cosmonessa_, comprising birds closely resembling the Summer Ducks
above described. This well-known species is not merely adorned with
a crest, but has a flowing collar, and two remarkable fans or plumes
situated on the shoulders. In the gorgeously apparelled male the green
crest is purplish blue in front, with brown and green at the sides and
back; a broad, brownish yellow line shading into yellowish white passes
from the eyes to the nape; the long-pointed collar-feathers are bright
red, the front of the neck and sides of the breast brownish red. The
back-feathers are light brown; the fan-like shoulder-plumes steel-blue
on the outer and brownish yellow on the inner web, which is edged with
black and white. The sides of the breast exhibit two white and two black
stripes; the sides of body are yellowish grey darkly marked; the under
parts white, and the quills brownish grey bordered with white on the outer
web. The eye is yellowish red, the beak red, with a white tip, and the
foot reddish yellow. The female closely resembles the female _Aix sponsa_
in appearance. The brilliant plumage of the male is thrown off from May
to August, when the bird also loses its crest and wing-fans, and assumes
a sober-tinted dress similar to that of his mate. The Mandarin Ducks
are natives of Japan and China, and are highly esteemed in the latter
country as exhibiting, it is supposed, a most striking example of conjugal
attachment and fidelity. A pair of these birds are frequently placed in
a gaily-decorated cage, and carried in their marriage processions, and
are afterwards presented to the bride and bridegroom as worthy objects of
their emulation. So highly, indeed, are they valued, that Dr. Bennett,
we are told, was informed by a friend whom he commissioned to buy him a
pair, that he could send him two live mandarins to Australia with far
more ease than a pair of Mandarin Ducks. To the above naturalist we
are indebted for the following interesting particulars concerning the
attachment to their mates that characterises these beautiful birds:--"One
day Mr. Beales' aviary at Macao was broken open, and the male bird stolen;
his poor mate remained in a retired part of the aviary and refused to be
comforted. She would scarcely take any food, and allowed her plumage to
become dirty; in vain did another Drake endeavour to console her for her
loss, she rejected all his advances, and remained disconsolate. After some
time the lost bird was discovered in the hut of a Chinese of the lower
class, and was brought back again. As soon as he recognised his old abode,
he expressed his joy by flapping his wings and quacking vehemently, and
no sooner did his mate recognise his voice than she almost quacked to
screaming with ecstacy, and flew to meet him, and both expressed their
joy by crossing necks and quacking together. Next morning the returned
spouse fell upon the unfortunate Drake who had made advances to his mate
in his absence, pecked his eyes out, and otherwise so disfigured him as to
occasion his death in the course of a few days." According to Schrenck,
this species appears in the countries watered by the Amoor about May, and
departs again at the end of August; at this season it is always met with
in small or large flocks, which are so extremely shy that they rarely come
within gunshot. Whilst on the wing these parties crowd closely together
in front, whilst the birds in the rear occupy a comparatively free space;
the same authority states he has repeatedly seen Mandarin Ducks perching
upon trees. These beautiful birds have been successfully reared in the
London Zoological Gardens, some being hatched under the parent, and others
under a Domestic Hen; the latter hatching the eggs two days sooner than
the mother. The eggs are of a creamy brown colour.


THE SHOVELER DUCK.

The SHOVELER DUCK (_Spatula clypeata_) represents a group distinguished by
their very remarkable and large bill, slender at its base, very broad and
vaulted towards its extremity, and finely denticulated at its margins. The
plumage of the male of this species is much variegated. The head and upper
neck are dark green; the nape, upper back, and short shoulder-feathers
edged with light grey; the lower neck, crop, and the upper wing-covers are
white; the rest of the wing is light blue, decorated with a broad white
stripe and a patch of metallic green. The lower parts of the back and
rump are blackish green; the breast and belly chestnut-brown. The lower
tail-covers are black, the quills brown, the centre tail-feathers brown
bordered with white, and those at the sides more or less white. The eye is
golden yellow, the bill black, and the foot reddish yellow. This bird is
nineteen inches long and thirty inches broad; the wing measures ten inches
and a half, and tail two and a half. The plumage of the female is greyish
yellow, darkly spotted; the upper wing is grey, with a small greyish green
patch, and her bill greenish yellow, edged with pale red. The summer
costume of the male resembles that of his mate. The Shoveler Duck inhabits
the temperate regions of the earth, and only occasionally wanders into
northern latitudes. In Europe it is met with in all parts as far north
as Norway. In Great Britain it is usually only a winter visitor, but
occasionally remains to breed. From these temperate latitudes it wanders
forth during the winter to Mexico, North and Central Africa, the South of
China, and India. Audubon, who met with this bird in the United States,
where he tells us it is rare, says:--"The Shoveler walks prettily, and I
have often admired its movements in the puddles formed by heavy dashes of
rain in our Southern corn-fields, where I have found it in company with
the Wood Duck, Mallard, and Pin-tail. Its flight resembles that of the
Blue-winged Teal, and in tenderness as well as in flavour its flesh rivals
that of that beautiful bird as an article of food. No sportsman who is a
judge will ever pass a Shoveler to shoot a Canvas-back. It is rarely ever
found on salt water, and then only when compelled to resort thither." The
Shoveler Ducks pass a good deal of the day on dry land; they, however,
principally frequent lakes, marshes, rivers, and muddy shores, in search
of insects, molluscs, worms, and crustaceans, that form their principal
means of subsistence; they also consume grass and other vegetable matter.

[Illustration: THE SHOVELER DUCK (_Spatula clypeata_). ONE-FOURTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

The remarkable beak possessed by these birds is admirably suited for the
use to which it is destined, its laminated sides being furnished with
numerous nerves, which endow it with a delicate sense of touch, enabling
it at once to select such matters as are fitted for sustenance. The nest,
which is placed on a tuft of herbage, is composed of fine grass, the eggs
being carefully covered with down from the mother's breast. The eggs are
of a buffy white, tinged with green; their size is about two inches two
lines by one inch six lines.


THE MUSK DUCK.

The MUSK DUCK (_Cairina moschata_) is recognisable by its slender rounded
body, tolerably slender neck, and large head, and by its comparatively
long powerful beak, which is elevated at its base. The bare bridles are
covered with large fleshy warts, and the claws are short and broad. The
proportionately short wings have the third quill longer than the rest. The
tail is strong and rounded, and composed of eighteen feathers. The plumage
of the male is principally brownish black; the top of the head brownish
green; the rump, wings, and rest of the upper part of the body are shaded
with metallic green and purple-violet. The quills are green, shimmering
with dark steel-blue; the wing-covers mostly white, the under parts dull
blackish brown; the under tail-covers shining green; the eye yellow; the
naked places on the face brownish black; the warty excrescences dark red,
partially spotted with black. The bill is black, with a cross stripe of
blueish white just in front of the nostrils; towards the point it is of a
pale flesh-colour. Length of male, thirty-two inches; breadth, forty-seven
inches; length of wing, fourteen inches and a half; length of tail, seven
inches and three-quarters. The female is considerably smaller than her
mate, but in other respects they very much resemble each other.

All travellers who have had an opportunity of studying these Ducks in a
wild state tell us that they are beautiful, lively, and well-flavoured
birds, equally attractive to the naturalist and the sportsman. This
species is extensively distributed throughout the South American
continent, from Paraguay to Guiana, and is to be met with almost in equal
numbers near the mouths of rivers flowing into the sea, and amid the
swamps and marshes of wild uncultivated parts of the country. The Prince
von Wied found it swimming upon rivers in the depths of the primitive
forests, and also in still, secluded bays, and upon islands near the
sea-coast. Schomburghk observed it at an altitude of 1,500 feet above the
level of the sea. During the mid-day heat, and in the afternoon, these
birds generally seek out shady places upon the shores and on sandbanks;
in the morning and evening they employ themselves in searching for
their food, which consists of fishes and snails, also algæ and other
water-plants. They invariably pass the night upon trees, and if disturbed
in the daytime always seek shelter among their branches; even those which
spend their days in marshes and morasses exchange these localities as the
sun descends for extensive woods, and perch upon the loftiest trees they
can find. Their flight is remarkably rapid, and is always, at their first
rising, accompanied by a loud noise, somewhat resembling that produced by
a covey of Partridges when first flushed. Their pairing-time seems to be
signalised by incessant quarrelling amongst the jealous males; and if the
violence of these combats is to be judged of by the number of feathers
left upon their battle-fields, they are more than usually pugnacious.
Their nest is sometimes built in the hollow of a tree near the sea-shore,
sometimes amid the branches. The female parent shows herself most vigilant
in protecting her young ones, and should they be attacked, rushes at once
to their rescue; when she has succeeded in driving back their enemies she
calls them together with a peculiar cry. These birds seem to have two
broods during the season--one in May, the other in September.

In Brazil, tame Musk Ducks are everywhere to be met with; indeed, at
the period of the visit of the Prince von Wied there seemed to be no
others kept in a state of domestication. In Germany, also, breeders have
endeavoured to rear them for the table, and speak favourably of the
result of their efforts. In their good opinion of these birds we cannot
participate. To say nothing of their being unable to endure the cold of
our winter so well as other more common species, we consider them to be
positively dangerous; they not only attack and do serious damage to other
Ducks, but they have been known to set upon children and injure them very
seriously. Should any of their companions fall under their displeasure,
they follow them unremittingly by land or water, pluck their feathers off
and bite them savagely; indeed, they not unfrequently kill them outright
by swimming after them and holding them so long under water that they are
drowned.

       *       *       *       *       *

The DIVING DUCKS (_Fuligulæ_) were formerly considered as belonging to the
same race as the preceding, from which they are now properly separated,
seeing that they have no more in common with them than Geese or Swans. The
Diving Ducks are at once recognisable by their short, broad, plump body,
by their short thick neck, their large head, and moderate-sized beak;
the latter is broad, furnished with very short teeth, and occasionally
somewhat enlarged at the base. The tarsi are short, feathered quite to
the heel, and compressed laterally. The anterior toes are large, long,
and strongly webbed. The wings are short and vaulted, the two first
quills being the longest. The tail is short, but broad, consisting of
from fourteen to eighteen close-set feathers; the general plumage is
thick and close, differing in colour according to sex and age, and on
the head is generally prolonged into a tuft or crest, which is rendered
more conspicuous by the brightness of its colours. These Ducks, in
correspondence with their power of diving, always prefer open deep water
to such as is either shallow or overgrown with plants. The greater number
of them live upon the sea, and only visit fresh water during the breeding
season. There are, however, some that must be considered as fresh-water
birds, seeing that they spend the greater portion of their lives upon
ponds, lakes, or rivers. In consequence of the backward position of their
legs, they are obliged, when they stand or walk, to keep themselves very
upright; indeed, their gait can scarcely be called a waddle, inasmuch as
it is with difficulty that they stagger along. Their flight is, perhaps,
better than that of most other Ducks, and when once on the wing they move
pretty rapidly through the air. In the water they are quite in their
proper element; their broad powerful body is so deeply immersed that only
a small portion of the top of the back is visible, and their tail touches
the surface of the water. As they row themselves nimbly along, striking
well out their broadly-webbed feet, they tilt their body tail upwards,
and disappear with a single stroke. These birds are not, like the Divers,
able to catch their prey by pursuing it under water; when they dive they
seem to plunge more or less perpendicularly down to the bottom, and,
after about a minute's absence, again make their appearance nearly upon
the same spot from whence they vanished. As it is from the bottom of the
water that they obtain their food, even those inhabiting fresh water have
necessarily to dive to a considerable depth; whilst those that live in the
sea must occasionally plunge still deeper, even to the depth of fifty or
sixty fathoms--a fact of which it is easy to convince oneself by examining
the contents of their stomachs. A few of them seem to prefer a vegetable
diet, but the greater number live upon small bivalve shell-fish and
other mollusca; they likewise eat worms, crustaceans, and fishes, while
those that inhabit fresh water also feed upon aquatic insects. The booty
thus procured from the bottom is also swallowed under water. The Diving
Ducks, when employed in fishing for their food, only come to the surface
to breathe. Their voice is totally different from that of the Swimming
Ducks; instead of quacking they only screech. The manner of their breeding
agrees pretty closely with that of ordinary Ducks; still, however, there
are points of difference. They breed more in company with each other, and
sometimes form regular settlements. Two females even of different species
will occasionally lay their eggs in the same nest, sharing the duties of
incubation and the charge of the young brood. Some individuals exhibit
a sort of mania for brooding; they will slip into the nests of other
birds, roll away the eggs, and take possession of them, or even tempt the
nestlings away from their proper parents in order to take them under their
own care. The eggs are rounder, the shells more closely-grained than those
of the Common Ducks, but in other respects resemble them. Some Diving
Ducks are valuable on account of the down with which they line their
nests, others on account of the excellence of their flesh, but, generally
speaking, the latter is rank and ill-flavoured.

       *       *       *       *       *

The EIDER DUCKS (_Somateria_) first claim our attention, inasmuch as they
are not only the largest and most beautiful of the Diving Ducks, but
also the most useful members of the family, ornamenting the seas that
they frequent, and conferring inestimable benefit upon the inhabitants
of the inhospitable coasts where they are common. Apart from their very
considerable size, the Eider Ducks are distinguishable by their long
slender beak, the base of which extends up the forehead, and is divided
by a triangular projection of the feathers; the upper mandible, which is
brightly coloured, terminates in a large nail-like appendage, covering
the entire anterior margin of the bill; the tarsi are short, the feet
broad-soled, and the toes long; the wings are of moderate length, the
second primary quill being the longest; the tertiary quills, which
are sickle-shaped, are deflected, and prolonged so as to overlap the
primaries; the tail, which is slightly rounded at its extremity, consists
of fourteen or sixteen tapering feathers. The general plumage is soft,
thick, and fleecy. In the adult male the prevailing colours are simply
black and white; the head, however, is ornamented with sea-green, and
the breast suffused with roseate pink or brownish yellow; in one species
smalt-blue is likewise observable. The colour of the female is brownish
grey or reddish brown. All the various species inhabit the colder regions
of the Northern Hemisphere. Although the name of these Ducks is supposed
to be derived from the river Eider, dividing the duchy of Holstein from
Lower Schleswig, they are in reality seldom found south of the sixty-third
degree of north latitude, from which point to the North Cape they are met
with in vast numbers all along the coast and in the fiords that indent it
in every direction, stretching sometimes 200 miles inland. The northern
shores of Russia, Siberia, and the same latitudes of North America, are
also inhabited by these valuable fowls.

The Eider Ducks are strictly sea-birds; upon dry land they walk with
extreme difficulty, and as they clumsily waddle along often stumble and
fall down flat on the ground. Their flight seems difficult and fatiguing,
requiring the sustained rapid action of their proportionately short wings.
They rarely rise to any height in the air, but wing their way straight
down into the water beneath, and it is only when they reach this, their
proper element, that they begin to show what are their real capabilities.
They swim with the body less deeply immersed than the generality of
Diving Ducks, but their movements are quicker than those of any of their
congeners.

The breeding-time of the Eider Ducks is rather late in the season,
generally towards the end of May, sometimes in June or July; about this
period they assemble upon certain small islands, apparently selected
because they are easily accessible; the birds then separate into pairs,
each pair proceeding at once to chose a place for establishing its
nest, the principal conditions required being seclusion and safety.
In localities where the birds are tended as though they were private
property, the owners of the islands to which they resort take care to
furnish a supply of old boxes, platforms built with stones, boards covered
with brushwood, and other similar conveniences for breeding.

Though shy enough before, the birds now become wonderfully tame and
fearless; they not only unhesitatingly take possession of the platforms,
boxes, ledges, and other contrivances prepared for them, but allow
themselves to be driven to the most suitable places, without being at
all alarmed or disturbed at the presence of their conductors. They come
into the immediate neighbourhood of the solitary huts of their keepers,
and will enter them in search of a snug corner in which to build;
indeed, it not unfrequently happens that adventurous females will take
possession of bedrooms, stables, and other similar localities, to the
great inconvenience and discomfort of the keeper's wife. At first the male
bird always accompanies his mate in these pedestrian excursions in search
of lodgings, which generally occupy them during the morning; about noon
they fly away towards the fiords or swim about upon the open sea; but
towards evening they come on shore to pass the night. While the female is
employed in laying her eggs, the male watches over the nest with great
perseverance and devotion; but no sooner is the number of eggs complete,
and the female begins in earnest the work of incubation, than the male
flies off, leaving both nest and wife, and hastens to join the society
of other males who may be disporting themselves far out at sea. Upon the
rocks and "scaars" upon the coast of Norway these forlorn widowers may be
seen playing together by hundreds. The nest of the Eider Duck is a very
simple affair, consisting merely of a few twigs, stalks of seaweed, blades
of grass, straw, and similar materials, such as can be picked up in the
immediate neighbourhood, heaped together in the most slovenly manner; the
rougher the framework, however, so much thicker and more valuable is the
rich lining of down--the costly toll which the breeding birds have to
pay to the masters of the soil for their temporary residence. After the
lapse of a few days, the female sits most assiduously; in places where
she is accustomed to the sight of men she will not stir even should they
approach her nest; she simply bows her head to the ground, and slightly
spreads her wings so as to make herself as inconspicuous as possible. The
colour of her plumage generally coincides so exactly with that of the
surrounding rocks, that to an unpractised eye the bird is with difficulty
distinguishable from the ground on which it sits. We have more than once
had convincing proof of the efficacy of this mode of concealment, in the
shape of a sharp bite on the leg, inflicted by the beak of a brooding
female, of whose presence we were quite unaware before--at the last
moment--she flew away. Those females who happen to have taken up their
abode in the vicinity of men will allow themselves to be taken up from the
nest while their eggs are examined, after which they immediately settle
down again to brood, without showing the slightest desire to escape.
Frequently we have sat close to their nests for hours together, have
stroked their feathers, put our hands between their bodies and their eggs
to note the temperature, and yet few of them have stirred from the spot.
Some of them would occasionally bite our fingers as if in play, but the
majority testified neither timidity nor annoyance. Some we purposely took
to a little distance from their nesting-place and placed upon the ground,
but they would immediately waddle back to their domicile, arrange the down
around the eggs, and quietly resume their position, as if nothing had
happened. When left quite to themselves the brooding females quit their
nests regularly every morning, taking care, however, to cover their eggs
warmly with down, so that they may not be chilled during their absence;
having done this, away they fly out to sea, and dive assiduously for half
an hour in search of food, and in this short period manage to fill their
crops almost to bursting with various kinds of shell-fish, after which
they return at once to their charge. The males are much more timid than
the females, even when with them at the breeding season or whilst keeping
watch over their nests. Should any one approach, they immediately get
into a terrible flurry, toss their heads, call loudly to their wives, and
after blustering for a little time, fly off to sea, whence they anxiously
watch the proceedings of the disturber of their quietude. After the lapse
of twenty-five or twenty-six days, the young ones break their shells and
make their appearance; they are beautiful little creatures, clad in rich
parti-coloured down. From the first moment of their birth they are well
able both to swim and to dive; they also walk with considerable facility,
even better than their mother, who takes them, before their downy coat
has had time to dry, down to the sea. Should the breeding-place be far
from the sea, and the departure of the little flock be unusually delayed,
the keepers frequently come to their assistance, and, putting the entire
brood into a basket, walk with them to the shore, followed by the waddling
parents, who seem quite satisfied with the arrangement.

[Illustration: EIDER DUCKS AT HOME.]

The sea, indeed, is the safest place for these helpless nestlings, as
there they can most readily escape from their natural enemies the Falcons,
Ravens, and Skuas. Very frequently several mothers, accompanied by their
little families, consort together, and then they present to the observer
a very attractive spectacle. Should the parent birds perceive that they
are followed by a boat, they at once begin to paddle away with all their
strength, hoping to escape from their pursuers, and it is not till the
boat has come close upon them that they decide upon taking wing; by
so doing they are of course compelled to desert the young birds, who,
however, seem very well to understand how to provide for their own safety,
as they immediately make for the land, and scrambling on to the shore, may
be seen running nimbly in search of some convenient hiding-place, dropping
down between stones, or concealing themselves behind slight inequalities
of the ground, from which they are scarcely distinguishable. Should the
threatened danger pass away, they will be found after a little time
hastening back to the sea, into which they immediately plunge, and paddle
away directly from the shore, until they are joined either by their own
mother or by some other elderly female belonging to their flock. Should
their mother be killed, the young, if unable to do without assistance,
at once join some other family, into which they are received without
the slightest reluctance, and tended and cared for by the old birds
precisely as if they were their own offspring. The instinct for brooding
in the Eider Ducks is indeed very remarkable; they will even steal each
other's eggs in order to brood upon them. The nestlings grow rapidly, and
often within a week from their birth are well able to procure their own
food; they remain, nevertheless, in company with their parents till the
early part of the following year. In their earliest infancy they are fed
with small crustaceans and other soft-bodied animals; at a later period
they live for the most part upon bivalve shell-fish, but likewise feed
willingly on fishes, or indeed on any small marine animals that they may
meet with. Although the Eider Ducks constitute a considerable portion of
the wealth of the countries they inhabit, they are by no means cared for
and protected as they might be. Intelligent landholders, whose property
the breeding-places are, take the opportunity while the birds are laying
to remove some of their eggs, and thus succeed in making them lay a
greater number than they otherwise would do. Moreover, they are content to
wait patiently until the breeding-time is over before they gather the down
from their nests. More generally, however, neither birds nor eggs are
taken the least care of. Notwithstanding that their flesh is not by any
means palatable, these Ducks are continually persecuted and slaughtered,
and the consequence is, that in Spitzbergen and other localities where the
sale of the Eider-down used to be reckoned by the hundredweight, it is
now reckoned only by pounds. Malmgren assures us that it is a rare thing
to see young birds in the autumn; and the bird-catchers are loud in their
complaints of a scarcity, for which they have only their own improvidence
to blame. In Greenland the diminution, although not quite so conspicuous,
is still very great, not more than a thousand pounds being now collected
there annually. "Formerly," says Holboell, "the gross quantity of down
procured in South Greenland in the course of a year was 5,007 lbs., and
North Greenland produced about half that quantity." According to the usual
reckoning a dozen nests yield a pound weight of the raw material, so that
every year 104,520 birds were not only despoiled of their down but also
robbed of their eggs.


THE TRUE EIDER DUCK, OR ST. CUTHBERT'S DUCK.

The TRUE EIDER DUCK, or ST. CUTHBERT'S DUCK (_Somateria mollissima_),
has the cheeks, chin, back, and breast white, the latter with a reddish
tinge. Front and sides of the head black; nape, to the throat, pea-green;
quills and tail brown, marked on the wings with velvet-black. The eye is
reddish brown, the beak greenish yellow, the foot olive-green. The length
of this bird is twenty-four inches, the breadth forty; the length of wing
eleven inches, and length of tail three inches and a half. The female is
smaller than the male, and her plumage rust-red, marked on the head and
neck with longitudinal brown streaks, elsewhere with crescent-shaped black
spots; her under side with deep brown, slightly lined with black. After
the breeding season the plumage of the male loses much of its beautiful
glistening appearance, both head and neck become blackish grey, more
darkly clouded, the shoulders greyish black, and the region of the crop
yellowish white, marked with black and rust-brown upon the borders of the
individual feathers. It seems probable that this change of plumage is
not produced by moulting, but by a gradual change in the colour of the
feathers.

This valuable Duck is met with throughout the northern regions of the
globe, its range extending from Jutland to Spitzbergen, and from the west
coast of Europe along its northern shores to Greenland and Iceland. It is
a constant resident in some of the northern parts of England and Scotland,
and has the name of St. Cuthbert's Duck from the numbers that nest in that
island. Its most southern breeding-places are upon the Island of Sylt and
other small Danish islands in the same latitude, and from thence north it
is met with in continually increasing numbers. In Iceland, Greenland, and
Norway, it is very abundant, and is preserved with the utmost strictness.
Their nests along the coast of Norway, we are told, produce, from the down
they yield, on an average, a profit of five pounds a-piece in the year;
so that a small barren rock, frequented by these birds, becomes a very
valuable property, and has often been the subject of litigation between
Norwegian landholders. Some years ago the Eider Fowl were killed in such
numbers that their extinction in that country seemed imminent, but in 1847
the Norwegian Parliament passed a law for their relief, and since that
time their pursuers have been obliged to confine themselves to robbing
the nests; the consequence is that these Ducks are now very plentiful,
and from the perfect security in which they live have attained a degree
of impudent assurance unsurpassed by the London Sparrows, or their own
distant connections on the ornamental waters in our parks. In the town
of Tromsöe they come to the house doors to be fed, and walk about as if
strongly impressed with the consciousness of their own importance. In
the northern parts of Great Britain these birds are seen assembling in
groups along the shores of the mainland about April, from whence they
cross to the adjacent islands early in May. The nest of this species,
which contains from four to ten (generally six or eight) well-shaped,
smooth-shelled eggs, usually of a dusky greyish green, is formed of fine
seaweed, and is lined, after the eggs are deposited, with down from the
mother's breast, placed so thickly that the eggs are completely hidden
from view. The down from a single nest, when cleansed, although sufficient
in bulk to fill a man's hat, seldom weighs more than one ounce. In
northern countries the business of robbing the nests of this valuable
material begins soon after the eggs are laid, the female replacing it by a
fresh supply from her breast, until it is quite bare, when the male bird
in turn strips himself to provide a warm covering for his young. "In a
month's time," says Mr. Selby, "the little family are led or carried in
their parent's bill to the water, where they swim and dive with facility;
the mother meanwhile carefully watching over them to defend them from
their biped foes, and feigning lameness to lure their pursuers from the
spot."

[Illustration: THE EIDER DUCK (_Somateria mollissima_).]

"The care which the mother takes of her young," says Audubon, "cannot
be exceeded. She leads them gently in a close flock in shallow waters,
where, by diving, they procure food, and at times, when the young are
fatigued and at some distance from the shore, she sinks her body in the
water and receives them on her back, where they remain several minutes.
At the approach of their merciless enemy, the Black-backed Gull, the
mother beats the water with her wings, as if intending to raise the spray
around her, and, on her uttering a peculiar sound, the young dive in all
directions, while she endeavours to entice the marauder to follow her, by
feigning lameness, or she leaps out of the water and attacks her enemy,
often so vigorously that, exhausted and disappointed, he is glad to fly
off, on which she alights near the rocks, among which she expects to find
her brood, and calls them to her side. Now and then I saw two females
which had formed an attachment for each other, as if for the purpose of
more effectually contributing to the safety of their young, and it was
very seldom that I saw these prudent mothers assailed by the Gulls."

We must not omit to mention that the eagerness of these birds for brooding
is so great, that, when robbed of their eggs, they have frequently been
known to steal the eggs or even the young of others of their species.
In its natural state the Eider Duck subsists upon small fish, molluscs,
crustaceans, and fish spawn, but when kept confined will eat grain. The
flight of this species, which is steady and rapid, is usually carried on
near the surface of the water; it dives with facility, and is capable of
remaining submerged for a considerable time.


THE KING EIDER.

The KING EIDER (_Somateria spectabilis_) has the bill, the sides of
which are elevated, arched and ridged, surrounded by a fine black band;
a similar band runs from the base of the under mandible down each side
of the neck. The upper head is grey, the cheeks are sea-green, the neck,
back, and sides of the rump white, the front of the breast is light
flesh-red; the scapulars, lower part of back, wings, tail, and belly, are
white, and the rest of the feathers black; tertials, as in the preceding
species, deflected. The eye is brown, beak red, and foot reddish. The
female is distinguishable from that of the True Eider by her light reddish
brown plumage, and by the structure of the base of the bill.

General Sabine states (in the Appendix to Sir E. Parry's first Voyage)
that these birds were abundant in the North Georgian Islands, their nests
being placed on the ground in the neighbourhood of fresh-water ponds, and
their food consisting of the aquatic vegetation. Sir J. C. Ross says,
"Vast numbers of this beautiful Duck resort annually to the shores and
islands of the Arctic Regions in the breeding season, and have on many
occasions afforded a valuable and salutary supply of fresh provision to
the crews of the vessels employed on those seas. On our late voyages
comparatively few were obtained, although seen in very great numbers.
They do not retire far to the south in the winter, but assemble in large
flocks, the males by themselves, and the females with their young brood
are often met with in the Atlantic Ocean, far distant from any land, where
the numerous crustaceans and other marine animals afford them abundance of
food."

This species, which very rarely occurs in Great Britain, was found, on one
occasion, according to Dr. Latham, about June, at Papa Westra, one of the
Orkney Islands. The eggs, six in number, rather smaller than those of the
True Eider Duck, were embedded in down, and placed on a rock overhanging
the sea. Nuttall states that the eggs of this bird are whitish, while
Yarrell describes them as pale green, and Audubon as of a uniform dull
greenish hue. Latham tells us that in Greenland, where the King Ducks are
common, the natives assemble in canoes, and by their shouts terrify the
birds, which dive to avoid them; but as the place where they are about to
emerge is betrayed by the bubbling of the water, their pursuers follow
them, and the same game being several times repeated, the birds are at
length tired out and easily secured.

       *       *       *       *       *

The WESTERN or STELLER'S EIDER DUCK (_Somateria_ or _Heniconetta
Stelleri_) is a smaller species, still more beautifully coloured and
marked. In the male the head, nape, and sides of neck are white, a spot on
the forehead, and a transverse band at the back of the head are green, a
circle round the eye, the fore and hinder neck, the rump, tail, and points
of the quills are black. The upper wing-covers and shoulders are white,
striped with dark blue. The under side, as far as the blackish brown
centre of the belly, is yellowish brown. In the plumage of the female
reddish brown predominates. The eye is brown, the beak grey, and the foot
greenish grey. The Western Eider Duck was first described by Steller, from
specimens which he obtained in Kamschatka, where it builds on inaccessible
rocks. But few specimens of this rare Duck have been shot in England. This
species is exclusively a sea bird, is never seen entering the estuaries of
rivers, and breeds among rocks and precipices. It flies in large flocks.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SCOTERS (_Oidemia_) are birds of considerable size, with remarkably
dark plumage. Their beak is moderately long, broad, irregularly swollen
at its junction with the forehead, and bright coloured. The tarsi are
short, the toes long and large, and the wings of medium length; the tail,
which is wedge-shaped, consists of fourteen feathers; the soft and velvety
plumage only exhibits colour on the head and wings. All the species
belonging to this group are inhabitants of high latitudes, and breed
within the Arctic Circle.


THE VELVET SCOTER.

The VELVET SCOTER (_Oidemia fusca_), one of the species most common
in Great Britain, is coal-black, with the exception of a spot beneath
the eye, and another on the wing, which are white; the beak is bright
yellowish red, marked with black at the edges and at its base; the
feet are pale flesh-red, varied with black at the joints; the eye is
pearl-white. The female is dark brown, with the exception of a white
spot in the region of the ear, a white patch upon the wing, a yellowish
bridle-streak, and a grey place upon the centre of the breast. Her eye
is brown, her beak black, and her foot greenish yellow. The length of
this species is twenty-four inches; the breadth forty inches; the length
of the wing twelve inches, and that of the tail three inches and a
half. The range of the Velvet Scoter extends from the northern parts of
Scandinavia eastward as far as America. In the north of Russia and Siberia
it is common. During its excursions it not only visits our shores, but
goes still further southwards, and has occasionally been seen even upon
the coasts of Spain and in Greece, but rarely shows itself inland. It
makes its appearance in our latitudes late in the year, generally about
the middle of November or the beginning of December, and returns to its
northern home early in the spring. In the neighbourhood of the Gulf
Stream, where the sea remains open, it may be met with throughout the
winter, frequenting the fjords and bays, sometimes in numerous flocks, at
others only in small parties, and seldom visits the shores.

The Velvet Scoter walks and flies badly, but swims well and dives
admirably. Naumann states that it is less shy than the generality of its
race, a statement which we cannot subscribe to; in Norway, at least, we
have always observed it to be one of the most timid and circumspect of
diving birds. The food of these Ducks consists principally of bivalve
shell-fish; in their breeding-places they may likewise procure insects,
worms, and probably small fishes; but it is upon the bivalve molluscs
that they chiefly feed, and to obtain these they will even leave their
brooding-ground and fly out to sea. They have also been observed to feed
upon vegetable substances.

Upon the mountain lakes of Southern Norway the Velvet Scoters breed
with tolerable regularity; and further to the north there is hardly a
sheet of water of this description, if not too remote from the sea, upon
which their young are not to be found. About the middle of June their
rudely-constructed nests may be met with hidden in bushes or high grass,
or amid tufts of rushes. The nest itself is constructed of coarse sticks,
stalks, and leaves, loosely heaped together, and lined with down plucked
from the body of the female. The eight or ten eggs constituting a brood
are elongated, smooth, and shining, and of a reddish yellow colour. The
young remain in their native lakes until fully able to fly, and do not
betake themselves to the sea till the end of October.

       *       *       *       *       *

The FEN DUCKS (_Aythya_) are handsome, strongly-built birds, with
moderately long beaks, which are not dilated at the base; short,
broad-soled feet; moderately long, pointed wings, and smooth plumage.

The range of the members of this group extends from the Arctic Circle
to the tropics. They do not inhabit very high latitudes, and only visit
the south during their migrations. They may, therefore, be considered as
properly belonging to the temperate zone. During the winter months they
are to be met with in Southern Russia and the low countries bordering on
the Danube, also in Greece, South Italy, Spain, and throughout the north
of Africa. These birds make their migrations by night, great numbers of
them flying together in large flocks, generally without any regular order,
but sometimes arranged in converging oblique lines. In the spring they are
usually seen in pairs or in small parties. During the summer they visit
lakes of fresh water, large ponds, morasses, or fens having a considerable
surface of water of sufficient depth, sometimes resorting to smaller ponds
which may happen to be in the neighbourhood. As regards their locomotive
powers, these Ducks are decidedly the best endowed of their family--they
can walk tolerably well, but, being very unwieldy, they do not willingly
come upon dry land, and then only to repose upon some sandbank, or beat
up any masses of reeds that may be lying on the margin of the pond. When
swimming their body is not so deeply immersed as is that of some of their
congeners; they cut through the waves, however, with the same rapidity,
and dive as quickly as any of their neighbours. Their flight is hasty and
performed by frequent strokes of their wings, that make a perceptible
rushing sound, but do not propel them very quickly through the air;
nevertheless, they do not seem to become fatigued so quickly as might be
expected.

During the summer time the Fen Ducks live almost entirely on vegetable
substances; bulbous roots, buds, and tender shoots of trees, succulent
leaves, blossoms and seeds of water-plants, constitute the staple of their
diet; they will, however, likewise catch aquatic insects, fishes, and pond
mollusca; in fact, they seem to like variety. During their migrations they
appear more partial to animal food, and when they indulge in this to any
extent, their flesh, at other times excellent food, acquires a somewhat
disagreeable flavour.

Their breeding-time begins late in the season, generally about the middle
of May, when they usually construct their nests among the sedges and
reeds that grow upon the margins of the marsh or pond which they may
have selected for their residence. Whether this be fresh water or salt
seems to be to them a matter of no consequence. Sometimes they will build
in situations frequented by man, sometimes by the side of very small
ponds, but in the latter case they soon remove their young ones to a more
roomy locality. After their first arrival they spend a long time in the
society of other species of Ducks, apparently without ever thinking of
the great object of their visit. Towards the end of April they become
restless and lively, and the males begin to utter their amorous call,
the flock separates into pairs, which at once set to work in earnest to
construct their nests. There does not seem to be any fighting amongst
the males; the females quietly select their mates, and the espoused
couple immediately resort to their building ground. The nest is usually
a mere pile of sedges, stalks of reeds, hay, straw, and leaves, slightly
hollowed at the top, and warmly lined with feathers. The eggs, eight or
ten in number, sometimes in exceptional cases more, sometimes fewer, are
moderately large, roundish, and of a dull grey or olive-green. So long
as the female continues to lay, her mate remains true to his duty, and
carefully watches over her safety. When, however, she begins to sit upon
her eggs, the male deserts his charge, leaves her while he amuses himself
in the society of other roving males, and finally troubles himself no more
about either mother or eggs. After the lapse of twenty-two or twenty-three
days, the young ones make their appearance, and on the very day of their
birth are to be seen paddling about upon the surface of the water, but at
first they do not venture beyond the shelter of the floating herbage at
the side of the pond. Soon, however, their parent, by the pressure of her
body, crushes down the reeds and water-plants, so as to make a sort of
bed, to be used as a sleeping or resting place, and here she may be found
sitting, closely surrounded by her little flock, as they sun themselves
and preen their feathers. If disturbed in their snug retreat, they
endeavour to save themselves by repeatedly diving, and if the threatened
danger continues, the mother hastens to lead them to a more secluded spot,
always, if possible, making their way thither by water, never, except in
cases of urgent necessity, trusting to the dry land. The size of the young
Ducks rapidly increases, and they do not learn to fly until they have
attained their full growth. Owing to the excellence of their flesh, the
chase after these birds is eagerly followed up, and the sportsman is able
sometimes to bring down several of them at once, seeing that, if pursued,
the young birds always crowd closely together. Occasionally they are taken
in considerable numbers by means of decoys.


THE RED-HEADED DUCK, DUNBIRD, OR POCHARD.

The RED-HEADED DUCK, DUNBIRD, or POCHARD (_Aythya ferina_), one of the
best-known representatives of the above group, is of a beautiful brownish
red upon the head and fore part of the neck, the front of the breast is
black, the back and sides are pure ash-grey, delicately marked with cross
lines of black. The under side is greyish white, the region of the vent
black; the wing-covers are ash-grey, the wing-spots light grey, and the
quills and tail grey. The eye is yellow, the beak black at its base,
and the margins elsewhere blueish grey; the foot is greenish grey. In
the female the head and neck are reddish greyish brown, marked with an
indistinct crescent of dark brown. Her body is whitish grey, and wings
ash-grey. The young males in their summer dress resemble the females, but
are somewhat brighter in hue, and have the back-feathers of a purer grey.
The length of this bird is nineteen inches, its breadth thirty inches, the
wing measures nine inches and a half, and the tail two inches and a half.

The Red-headed Ducks are winter visitors to Great Britain, appearing in
October, and, as a rule, departing in spring. Occasionally a few have
been said to remain and breed in Norfolk. These birds do not confine
themselves to the sea-coast, but visit inland lakes and rivers. Their note
is usually a low whistle, but, when alarmed, they utter a hoarse croak.
The nest, which is placed among rushes or coarse herbage, contains from
ten to twelve buffish-white eggs; they are about two inches long, and one
inch and five-eighths broad. "Although," says Audubon (in speaking of this
species, which is numerously met with during winter about New Orleans,
East Florida, and Chesapeake Bay), "these Ducks dive much and to a great
depth, while in our bays and estuaries, yet when in the shallow ponds of
the interior, they are seen dabbling in the mud along the shores, much
in the manner of the Mallard; and, on occasionally shooting them there,
I have found their stomach crammed with young tadpoles and small water
lizards, as well as with blades of grass; nay, on several occasions I
have found pretty large acorns and beech-nuts in their throats, as well
as snails, entire or broken, and fragments of the shells of several small
unios, together with much gravel."

Pochards are sold in large numbers in the London markets, and Gould tells
us, on reliable authority, that no less than 14,400, the sale of which
produced £1,200, have been captured in one decoy.

The method by which Pochards were formerly taken is thus described by
Montagu:--"Poles were erected at the avenues leading to the decoys, and
after a great number of birds had collected for some time on the pond,
a net was, at a given time, erected by pulleys to these poles, beneath
which a deep pit had been previously dug; and as these Ducks, like the
Woodcocks, go to feed just as it is dark, and are said always to rise
against the wind, a whole flock was sometimes taken together in this
manner; for if once they strike against the net, they never attempt to
return, but flutter down the net till they are received into the pit, from
which they cannot rise."

       *       *       *       *       *

The PIN-TAILED DUCKS (_Erismatura_) are recognisable by the structure
of their tail; their body is elongated; neck short and thick; and head
tolerably large. Their beak, which is flat in front, and considerably
enlarged towards its base, is furnished at its tip with a small nail;
the tarsi are short; toes long; and the wings remarkably small and much
vaulted. The long, wedge-shaped tail is formed of eighteen feathers, which
are of hard strong texture, and very tapering towards their extremities.
The close harsh plumage of this group is readily distinguishable by the
peculiarity of its colouring from that of all other Ducks.


THE WHITE-HEADED PIN-TAILED DUCK.

The WHITE-HEADED PIN-TAILED DUCK (_Erismatura leucocephala_) has the head
white, with the exception of a large black patch upon the centre; a band
around the neck and throat is black. The lower neck and region of the
crop are chestnut-brown, finely marked with black; the mantle is greyish
yellow, streaked with black; the under side reddish yellow, with greyish
white centre and black markings; the primary quills are grey, and the tail
black. The eye is reddish yellow; beak blueish grey; and foot reddish
grey. This species is nineteen inches long and twenty-five inches broad;
length of wing six inches and a half, and of tail four inches and a half.
The female is smaller than her mate, and more variegated, but is not so
handsome, owing to the absence of the white feathers and black spot that
adorn the head of the male; the upper part of her head and a spot upon
the cheeks are brown, the latter encircled by a line of yellowish white;
the rest of her plumage is principally reddish brown, marked with watered
black and grey lines. The White-headed Pin-tail is met with throughout
the south and south-east parts of Europe, the south parts of Southern
Asia, and North-west Africa; it is, however, scarcer than the generality
of Ducks, even in localities where it is most frequently observed. It
is principally abundant on the lakes of Asia, whilst in countries more
to the west it seems less common. In Greece it is a regular visitant,
but has not yet been found in Spain. Buvry and Tristram encountered it
upon the lakes of Algeria, and the first-mentioned naturalist succeeded
in obtaining its eggs. "The White-headed Ducks," says Buvry, "are most
elegant birds, and are always met with in pairs. Their beautiful light
blue beak forms a lively contrast to their white head and brown body.
Their attitude when swimming is very striking; they lift up their tail
almost perpendicularly, and glide lightly and quickly over the water
like so many little boats. If pursued they seldom have recourse to their
wings; nevertheless, such is the rapidity of their movements in the
water that they are rarely captured." They lie so deep when swimming
that, with the exception of their head, neck, and tail, very little of
them is seen; and if they choose to exert themselves when paddling with
their powerful and broadly-webbed feet, they swim and dive with all the
facility of a Cormorant. In their flight they rather resemble Divers
than ordinary Ducks, and the rapid motion of their wings produces a very
audible whirring sound. Their voice, which is a somewhat jarring quack,
reminds us of that of the Duck. The food of these birds consists of
molluscs and fishes. In Central Asia their breeding-time occurs later
than that of any of their kindred, their eggs being never met with before
July. The nest is difficult to find, as it is carefully hidden in the
thickest entanglements of the reeds, rushes, and bushes, that abound in
their favourite resorts; occasionally it is still further concealed by
a covering of similar materials. The nests found by Tristram in Algeria
contained--the one three and the other eight eggs. "These," he says, "are
very large in proportion to the size of the bird, of a regular elliptical
shape, very rough shelled, and, unlike those of other Ducks, of a dingy
white." We have no information respecting the rearing of the young.

       *       *       *       *       *

The MERGANSERS, or GOOSANDERS (_Mergi_), are distinguishable by their
very elongate body, moderately long, thin neck, and large head, which is
generally ornamented by a tuft or hood; their bill is long, straight, or
slightly arched, slender, and almost cylindrical; its callous margins are
sharp and strongly denticulated, and its tip terminated by a strong hook;
the legs are short, and placed very far backwards, the feet large, and
toes long; the hind toe is furnished with a supplementary web, resembling
that of some of the Divers. The wings are of moderate length, and very
acutely pointed, the first and second quills being the longest; the
tail, which consists of sixteen or eighteen feathers, is short, broad,
and rounded; the plumage is short, thick, and prettily coloured, but
the colours vary at different ages, and also in the sexes as well as at
different seasons of the year. These remarkable birds walk badly, with
a vacillating waddling gait, keeping their bodies erect, but they are
excellent swimmers, and dive with wonderful facility. Their flight is
rapid, light, and somewhat resembles that of the Duck. When Mergansers
fly in company, as they frequently do, they range themselves in a certain
regular order; they rise readily, but with a loud noise, splashing with
their feet upon the water, and when they alight again in that element,
fly obliquely downwards, and either at once dive or stop themselves by
means of their outstretched tail. All the members of this family belong
to the northern regions of our globe, but are met with pretty equally
both in the eastern and western hemispheres. When driven south by the
intensity of the cold, their migrations sometimes extend to the south of
Europe, and to corresponding latitudes in Central Asia and America. The
Goosanders subsist chiefly upon fishes, crustaceans, worms, and insects;
the fishes they obtain by diving, and chasing them through the water,
exactly after the manner of the true Divers. These birds are strictly
monogamous, and construct their nests sometimes upon the ground, in clumps
of herbage, among reeds, in hollow trunks, or amongst the branches of
trees, and occasionally in the deserted homes of other birds. The nest is
inartistically formed of dried stalks, leaves, moss, and rushes, warmly
lined with down. The brood consists of from seven to fourteen unspotted
grey or greenish white eggs. The female alone broods, sitting for a period
of from twenty-two to twenty-four days, the male always taking up a
position in the neighbourhood of his mate. At first he seems to take some
interest in his young brood, but soon forsakes them, and joining company
with others of his own sex, retires from his family cares in order to
undergo his autumnal moult. The flesh of the Goosanders is disagreeable,
and of an oily taste, but they are often killed for the sake of their down
and feathers. The eggs are in much request.


THE WHITE-HEADED GOOSANDER.

The WHITE-HEADED GOOSANDER (_Mergellus albellus_) has been made the
representative of a distinct sub-family, probably on account of the
shortness and breadth of its bill, and the peculiarities in its mode of
life. This bird bears a great resemblance to some of the Divers, and
therefore must be placed near them.

The summer dress of the male is pure white, a spot between the eyes,
the beak, and a band across the nape are blackish green; the back and a
portion of the wings, two small stripes upon the shoulder, and a long
stripe above the wing are black; the sides are blueish grey, cross-waved
with black; the primary quills blackish brown, and the tail-feathers grey;
the eye is blueish grey, the beak and foot greyish blue. The length is
nineteen inches, the breadth thirty inches; the length of wing eight
inches and a half, and the length of tail three inches. In the female,
which is smaller than her mate, the head and hinder neck are brown, the
bridles black, the throat and under part of the body white, the feathers
of the mantle grey, the upper breast and sides whitish, transversely
waved with black. After the summer moult the dress of the male very much
resembles that of the female. The real habitat of the White-headed or
Dwarf Goosander, as it is sometimes called, seems to be in Northern Asia,
from whence it extends westward into Northern Europe, and eastwardly into
the northern parts of America. During the winter months, however, it
wanders far southward. It is then to be met with in considerable numbers
throughout the whole of China, being more especially abundant in the
northern provinces of the Celestial Empire. It is, moreover, a regular
visitant to Northern India, and is not unfrequently seen in Central and
in Southern Europe. It seems to be more scarce in the Southern Provinces
of the United States of North America, for Audubon informs us that in the
western division, at least, it was a bird of unusual occurrence. In very
hard winters it makes its appearance in Germany, as early as the month of
November, but more usually not until the middle of December, returning
again to the north in February or March. It is likewise a winter visitor
to the shores of Great Britain, large numbers being sometimes seen on
the eastern or southern coasts of England. It is rarely found north of
the Humber, and is comparatively rare in Scotland and Ireland. In some
parts of Switzerland it may be met with even so late as the beginning of
May. This species is generally only to be found in the neighbourhood of
fresh-water lakes, sometimes, but only casually, it may be seen in quiet
bays upon the sea-coast, more especially in such as are at the mouths of
rivers. Unlike the Divers, it seems to prefer flowing streams to stagnant
water, and often wanders along the course of rivers, from which it only
makes excursions to such lakes and ponds as may be free from ice. When
walking, the Dwarf Goosander holds its body in a horizontal position, with
its head retracted; it walks with a waddling gait, but better than the
generality of its near allies. When swimming it keeps itself about half
submerged, and when it dives it stretches itself out to its full length,
and disappears in an instant. Its flight, which very much resembles that
of the smaller Ducks, is rapid, straight, accompanied by a slight whirring
of the wings, and is generally but little elevated above the surface of
the ground or of the water. It is remarkably lively in its disposition,
and even during the bitterest cold weather is sprightly and active.

These birds may generally be recognised by the manner of their diving;
the True Divers, after their plunge, generally reappear close to the spot
where they went down, but the Goosanders swim while under water to a
considerable distance, shooting along like a pike or a trout, and as they
can keep submerged for a minute at a time, it is not easy to calculate
where they will come up again. They live principally upon small fishes,
crustaceans, and aquatic insects, and in confinement, at least, do not
refuse vegetables; they will also eat bread greedily. In catching fishes
they are quite as skilful as the larger Divers, and it is very interesting
to watch a flock of them thus employed. Now you see them swimming
altogether; in a moment they all vanish at once, and the water becomes
disturbed by their movements underneath; at length they come up again
one after another, but widely separated, and often from thirty to fifty
yards from the place where they went down. Again they congregate, and
anon they dive again; some of them coming up perhaps close to the shore.
Sometimes they are obliged to procure their food through small holes in
the ice, often not a foot square, and to pursue their game beneath the
frozen surface, only presenting themselves every now and then at the
aperture for a supply of air. Their power of seeing under the water must
therefore be very good, or they would never be able to find the broken
place at which to emerge. Where the supply of food is scanty they will
rake up the bottoms of ponds, in search of frogs or insects. The habit of
diving all at once is peculiar to the Goosanders, and the explanation of
this manœuvre seems to be that by so doing they come among the astonished
fishes in all directions, thus enabling one bird to catch those that
are trying to escape from another; but we have never seen them, as some
writers assert, arrange themselves in the form of a crescent, so as to
drive the fishes, as it were, into a narrow space. About the breeding
of these birds we are very imperfectly informed; we know, however, that
in the north of Russia they assemble in great numbers, and build their
nests upon the shore, or upon small islands, sometimes in hollow trees.
We know, likewise, that their nest is composed of dry broom (_Genista_)
and grasses, lined with feathers, and that their eggs, eight to twelve
in number, are of a dirty white, or greenish brown colour, but we are
ignorant either of the duration of their incubation, or of the manner in
which they educate their progeny.


THE GREEN-HEADED GOOSANDER.

The GREEN-HEADED GOOSANDER (_Mergus merganser_) differs from the preceding
species not only in its greater size, but in the structure of its bill,
which is elongated and compressed at its sides. In his summer dress the
male is blackish green upon the head and upper neck; the upper back,
shoulders, and margins of the wings are black; the whole under surface
and the upper wing-covers are of a beautiful yellowish red; the wing-spot
is white. The wing-quills are black, the lower tail-covers grey, finely
marked with black, and the tail-feathers grey. The eye is reddish yellow,
beak coral-red, and foot pale red. The female has the upper head and nape
brown, the back-feathers blueish grey, the under surface of her body and
the wing-spot white; the fore parts of her breast and sides are grey,
marked with a darker and a lighter shade. After the summer moult the
plumage of the male is very similar to that of the female, but somewhat
more beautiful. The length of this species is from thirty to thirty-two
inches; breadth, forty to forty-two inches; length of wing, twelve inches;
length of tail, three inches.

The Green-headed Goosander inhabits the northern parts of Europe, Asia,
and America, being pretty equally distributed in all these continents:
its migrations, which occur with much greater regularity than those of
the _Mergellus albellus_, extend, on the one hand, to all the southern
countries of Europe, the south of China, and north of India; and on the
other, to the extreme south provinces of the United States. A few pairs
are occasionally known to breed in the Orkneys and Hebrides, but with us
by far the greater number only arrive from the north about the end of
November, and return thither in February. The Green-headed Goosander may
justly be regarded as one of the most beautiful of aquatic birds. With
the exception of a few hours at noon, he is invariably to be seen in
the water. Upon dry land his gait is waddling, and his flight, although
rapid, laboured and heavy; but upon the sea he is quite at home. When
swimming quietly upon the surface he rows himself along with powerful
but slowly-repeated strokes of his broad feet, passing through the water
with tolerable velocity. Should he, however, cast an envious eye upon
some other bird that has caught and is about to swallow a fish he would
fain appropriate, he rushes in pursuit with truly wonderful rapidity. In
diving he is equally adroit, plunging suddenly down without the least
sound or commotion, and in clear water, where his career, as he steers
his course half way between the surface and the bottom can be observed,
his rapid progress seems rather to resemble the movements of a trout than
those of a bird. On occasions he can remain under water for two minutes
at a time; generally, however, he comes up in about a minute, and in this
short period, notwithstanding all the ins and outs of his zigzag course,
will have dived, as shown by the place of his reappearance, upwards of
100 yards. As long as these birds can obtain a sufficient supply, they
subsist exclusively upon fishes, preferring such as are about five or six
inches long, although they are well able to vanquish and swallow those of
much larger size. The breeding-place of these Goosanders is generally in
latitudes very far north, their usual resort being to the Danish islands,
and even still farther north. Their period of incubation commences about
the beginning of June. The nest is constructed in various situations,
often in some excavation in the ground, hidden between stones or bushes,
on the tops of pollard willows, on the lofty eyries of birds of prey, in
the deserted nests of Crows, or within the cavities of hollow trees. At
Jana-Elf we saw large chests, resembling dove-cots, upon all the tallest
trees; these we were told were intended specially to induce the Goosanders
to build their nests, and lay their eggs in them. These breeding-boxes are
likewise in common use among the Lapps and Finns, and, as we learned, were
regularly visited by the breeding birds.

[Illustration: THE GREEN-HEADED GOOSANDER (_Mergus merganser_).]

The nest itself is more or less artistically constructed of twigs, stalks,
straw-grass, leaves, and similar materials, always well and warmly lined
with down. The brood consists of from eight to fourteen eggs, but by
regularly abstracting them as they are laid, the female will sometimes
produce double those numbers. The eggs are well-shaped, rather elongate,
slightly shining, and of a delicate greenish brown, grey, or dirty
olive-green colour. Only the female sits, and upon her the guardianship
of the young brood almost entirely devolves. Such as are born in nests
placed at a considerable height, must necessarily be brought by her to
the surface of the ground, but we are not aware that any naturalist has
witnessed such a proceeding. It is just possible that, like some Ducks
and Geese, they may leap from the nest trusting to their fluttering wings
and thick downy covering to come off scatheless. Were we to judge by the
observations we have had opportunities of making relative to the breeding
of the Red-breasted Merganser (_Mergus serrator_), we should say that the
young brood at first comport themselves exactly like young Ducks; soon,
however, their natural peculiarities and special endowments begin to show
themselves, and after the lapse of about eight days, they adopt the habits
of their race. When first hatched they live upon small crustaceans and
larvæ, caught upon the surface of the water, but on the third day are
able to dive, and from the eighth day are quite capable of fishing for
themselves. They grow very rapidly, and soon become independent. According
to Naumann the instinct for brooding is so strong in these birds, that if
robbed of their eggs, they will take possession of the nest of a Duck, and
after forcibly driving away its owner, will sit upon her eggs till they
are hatched.

[Illustration]




THE SEA-FLIERS (_Longipennes_).


IN the broad-billed water birds, we have had an opportunity of admiring
the manner in which their power of swimming becomes more and more
complete. In the Sea-fliers we shall recognise the tyrants of the ocean,
seeing that in their presence the swimming birds, whether inhabitants of
the coast or children of the wave are subservient. The great character
whereby the _Longipennes_ are distinguished is the enormous development of
their wings, while that of their feet remains comparatively in abeyance.
Some of them, it is true, are well able both to swim and to walk, but
their special adaptation is for flight. Their power of flying is supreme,
and in this they are surpassed by no other birds. As to their general
structure, there is a great similarity between the different races. Their
body is powerful, their neck short, and their head of moderate size.
Their beak, which is of medium length, is compressed at the sides and
sharp-pointed or hooked at the end; in conformity with this structure, the
upper mandible is more or less arched, while the under jaw at a little
distance from its apex, is strengthened by an angular enlargement. Their
feet are feeble in proportion to the size of their bodies, and only webbed
upon the three anterior toes; moreover, even upon these the webs are often
very imperfectly developed. The wings are always long, and sharp-pointed,
more or less narrow and proportionately very large; their tail is of
moderate dimensions, either truncate, greatly rounded, pointed, or forked
at the extremity, and usually composed of twelve feathers. The general
plumage is very thick and rich, but not particularly well-furnished with
down; its colour is much varied, and changes with the age of the bird and
at different seasons. In all the above characters and in many others that
might be adduced from an examination of their internal structure, these
birds differ from the Swimmers in so many particulars that they cannot be
considered as in any way belonging to the same order.

The domain of the Sea-fliers is the ocean, their territory the wide world.
Some families seem more especially to frequent coasts, others prefer fresh
water to the salt sea, but these are mere exceptions. Sweeping continually
over the waves, or skimming in the proximity of coasts, they wander over
the sea and circle round the globe. By one tie only are they bound to the
dry land, and that is, their affection for their offspring. They lay their
eggs upon the land, and there watch over their young brood until their
wings attain sufficient strength to enable them to join their brethren in
the air; the rest of their time is for the most part devoted to the sea,
upon which they sometimes repose, or, in exceptional cases, sleep upon
the shore. Their flight is longer sustained than that of the Swallows or
Swifts, or even of the Humming-birds, for they fly not only during the
whole day but often likewise throughout the night. It is to this untiring
energy and constant restlessness that we must attribute the boundless
range over which particular species spread themselves. Some of them indeed
have literally a world-wide distribution, and visit every climate between
the equator and the polar seas. Others again, restrict their wanderings,
or migrations, or flights, or whatever the reader may choose to call them,
either within more or less definite regions, or within certain degrees of
latitude; it must, however, be kept in mind that these boundaries are not
coasts or countries, but whole continents and oceans.

All Sea-fliers are divers, but, owing to the thickness of their plumage,
some are less capable than others of plunging far beneath the surface.
They generally fly over the waves at a certain altitude, disporting
themselves in the sunshine should the weather be fine, or battling with
the elements during a storm. While flying, their attention is anxiously
bent upon the sea beneath, on the look-out for food, upon which, when
discovered, they instantly dart down, some of them with the straightness
and rapidity of an arrow, others more leisurely, while some, before they
seize their prey, settle down and swim. All are equally rapacious, whether
they catch food for themselves or rob other birds of their hard-earned
booty, whether they devour living victims or content themselves with
feeding, like the Vultures, upon carrion. Whatever the sea presents for
their acceptance they greedily swallow. In their mode of breeding these
birds very much resemble each other. Their nests are generally placed
upon the ground, sometimes in wild mosses and swamps, sometimes on ledges
or projections of rocks, and in the holes and excavations of the soil.
Occasionally they select precipitous cliffs and mountains, more rarely
trees; some lay but one egg, others two, three, or four. All show much
attention to their mates and offspring. The young are at once introduced
to their future element, where they soon learn to catch their own food.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TERNS, or SEA SWALLOWS (_Sternæ_), are a race of middle-sized or small
slenderly-built birds. Their beak is of about the same length as the head,
hard, straight, or gently arched towards the tip, both in the upper and
lower mandible. The feet are feeble, and provided with toes united by a
short or deeply-excavated web, and furnished with slightly-curved sharp
claws. The wings are long, narrow, and sharp-pointed, the first quill
being the longest; the tail, which is of medium length, consists of twelve
feathers, and is more or less forked. The thick, soft, close plumage is
coloured light blue, black, and white, and varies but little either with
the sexes, age, or season of the year. The Terns are very extensively
distributed, inhabiting every zone; still they appear to prefer warm
and temperate climates to the colder regions, only visiting the latter,
indeed, for a short time during the year. The members of this group live
both upon the sea and fresh water, and during their wanderings follow the
windings of coasts and the courses of rivers; some species prefer flat,
bare shores, others resort to localities rich in vegetation, while others,
again, delight in the neighbourhood of woods. All are exceedingly active,
and from sunset to sunrise are constantly on the wing; their nights are
passed on dry land, but they apparently require less repose than any of
their kindred. They walk badly, and when on the ground hold their body in
a horizontal position, slightly depressed in front, so that the tips of
their long sabre-like wings are higher than their head, which is kept in a
retracted position. In the water they swim like corks, their little feet
being almost incapable of assisting them in that element; on the other
hand, their powers of flight are wonderful, and will bear comparison in
every respect with those of the Swallow. When not in haste they move their
wings with slow wide-spreading strokes, and thus glide onwards through the
air in a gently undulating line; but if urged to speed they beat the wind
with powerful rapid jerks, and skim along with indescribable velocity. In
fine weather they disport themselves almost after the manner of Swallows,
sweeping round and round in broad circles, and performing a variety of
elegant curves and graceful evolutions; but in a storm their energies
seem roused to the utmost, and they may then be seen battling untiringly
against the gale. Generally they fly very low over the surface of the
water, rising and sinking as the waves heave and fall, till suddenly,
with close-shut wings, they dart obliquely into the sea, sinking so deep
that they almost disappear, but, immediately rising again, they shake
their wings and recommence their devious course over the billows. In this
manner they fly over a vast extent of water during the day, but however
widely they may wander, return again and again to the same track, and
never remove far from the locality whence they started. The disagreeable
shrieking cry uttered by these birds varies but little in different
species. Although the Terns are very sociable in their intercourse with
their own kind, they appear to take but little heed of the rest of their
feathered companions, even when, as is often the case, they associate with
them in search of food. The diet of the Sea Swallows consists principally
of fishes and a variety of creatures met with in the sea, their prey
being always taken when on the wing. These birds are strictly monogamous:
a few weeks before the commencement of the breeding season they begin to
assemble in the vicinity of their meeting-place, returning year after year
to the same locality. Such species as inhabit the sea-shore generally
select coral-banks, islands, or long spits of bare sand for this purpose,
while such as settle inland seek out similar, but less barren spots, in
the vicinity of swamps and marshes, the various species usually breeding
apart from each other. Such as resort to morasses lay their eggs in a
mere depression of the ground. Their unpretending apologies for a nest
are sometimes isolated, sometimes so crowded together as literally to
cover the ground so thickly, that the brooding birds have all to sit with
their heads in one direction, and a man cannot pass between them without
crushing the eggs of contiguous nests. Even such species as resort to
trees construct nothing in the shape of a nest, but deposit their eggs
in chinks of the bark or inequalities of the branches. Most of the Terns
lay three eggs, others two, whilst those that breed on trees deposit but
one. The male and female brood alternately; during the heat of the day,
however, they leave their eggs to be kept warm by the sun. The young are
hatched in about a fortnight or three weeks, and make their appearance
clad in down; they leave the hollow that has served as a nest on the day
of their birth, and run at once down to the water's edge, quite as fast as
their parents, by whom they are anxiously and carefully tended.

[Illustration: _Plate 38, Cassell's Book of Birds_

STERNA HIRUNDO ____ COMMON TERN

(_about 1/3 Nat. size_)]

[Illustration: THE CASPIAN TERN (_Sylochelidon Caspia_).]

       *       *       *       *       *

The RAPACIOUS TERNS (_Sylochelidon_) are the largest of the Sea Swallows,
and distinguishable from other species by their proportionately strong,
compressed body, as also by their large strong beak, which is longer than
the head. The foot is small, and the web but little excised; their wing is
long and sabre-like; the tail but slightly forked; and the general plumage
close and thick.


THE CASPIAN TERN.

The CASPIAN TERN (_Sylochelidon Caspia_) is twenty inches long, and fifty
across the spread of its wings; the wing measures sixteen, and tail six
inches; the feathers upon the top of the head are black, those on the
sides of neck, upper back, and under surface of body, pure white; the
mantle is light greyish blue; the tips of the wing-quills are darker and
those of the tail-feathers lighter than the general colour of the upper
parts of the plumage. The eye is brown, the beak coral-red, and the foot
black. In winter the top of the head is black and white; in young birds
the feathers of the back are transversely spotted with brown. The Caspian
Tern inhabits Central Asia and Southern Europe; it breeds, however,
exceptionally in the Island of Sylt, as well as upon some parts of the
Dutch and French coasts. During the winter it appears upon the southern
shores of the Mediterranean and the lower lakes of Egypt, as also in
the northern parts of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; it occurs on the
west coast of Africa, but does not seem to have crossed the Atlantic. In
England several specimens have been shot in Norfolk and other parts of
the east coast. On the Island of Sylt it arrives towards the latter part
of April, and after rearing its young, departs in August. This bird may
generally be seen flying at a height of forty or fifty feet, its head,
with its shining red beak, being directed downwards, and its great wings
slowly waving, until from time to time it plunges headlong into the water
after its prey. When in search of a resting-place it betakes itself with
its companions to some rocky locality near the shore, where they all
perch in a close rank, with their heads turned towards the sea, in which
position they are readily mistaken for Sea Gulls. The term _rapacious_
has been well applied to the members of this group. Fishes form their
ordinary food, but they likewise devour coast and water birds, swallowing
them with great ease and relish. In India they hunt eagerly after crabs,
and everywhere voraciously feed upon the eggs of other birds whenever
they can obtain them. Schilling tells us he has seen them fly to the
breeding-places of Sea-fowl, and although at once attacked by the brooding
parents, make their way to the nests quite regardless of the clamour, and
help themselves without stint. Naumann and he visited a celebrated colony
of this species at the northern extremity of the Island of Sylt, where
they found their eggs laid upon the bare sand in little hollows, at a
short distance from the water, the different broods not being more than
two feet apart from each other. The eggs in shape and size much resembled
those of tame Ducks. Their shells are smooth, but not shining, and their
ground colour a dirty brownish white, marked with ash-grey and black;
considerable difference, however, was observable even in those in the same
nest. These birds begin to lay about the beginning of May; in Sylt the
inhabitants regularly take the eggs, only allowing them to begin to brood
eight or ten days before Midsummer. Should a man approach their nests,
both male and female endeavour to defend it, and raise a terrible outcry.
The young are clothed in down, of a greyish black above and white on the
under surface; they soon run about, and for some days are assiduously fed
with small fishes, which are brought to them by both parents.

       *       *       *       *       *

The RIVER TERNS (_Sterna_) are distinguished from the preceding birds by
their somewhat arched, moderately short beak, small short-toed feet, and
deeply-forked tail; and by their frequent occurrence at the mouths or
along the banks of rivers, or of inland streams or lakes. In size they are
considerably smaller than the Caspian Terns, and their flight is much more
graceful and Swallow-like, always exciting the admiration of the beholder.


THE COMMON TERN.

The COMMON TERN (_Sterna hirundo_, Coloured Plate XXXVIII.), when in its
adult plumage, closely resembles the Caspian Sea Swallow, but may be
recognised by its inferior size, the grey colour of the under parts of
the body, and by its red feet. In young birds the plumage of the back,
like that of the preceding species, is transversely spotted with brown,
but the feet are of a yellowish shade. The length of this species is from
sixteen to seventeen inches; of these six and a half belong to the tail,
the fork being four inches deep; the span of the wings is twenty-three
inches. It is at present uncertain whether all River Terns are to be
regarded as belonging to this species or not. Should they be found to do
so, their habitat must extend throughout the whole north temperate zone,
seeing that they are pretty equally distributed in the eastern and western
hemispheres. They are met with more frequently than other Terns in the
vicinity of rivers and lakes of fresh water. As these birds make regular
migrations, they are only seen at their breeding-places in the summer,
appearing during the last days of April or the beginning of May, and in
July or August preparing for their departure. They spend the winter in
the south of Europe, or in the north of Africa, where at that season they
are very common. When on their journeyings they fly leisurely, and at a
considerable elevation, from one sheet of water to another, generally
following the course of streams and rivers, to which, if pressed by
hunger, they repair, in order to obtain food and rest. Arrived at their
destination, they settle themselves either in the vicinity of the sea,
or near fresh water, without seeming to have any decided preference for
either.

The Common Terns arrive in the south of Europe early in May, and
progressing northwards, colonising as they go, visit Ireland, Scotland,
and some of the adjacent islands. On inland waters the Terns do not
congregate in great numbers. On the sea-shore, on the contrary, as the
breeding season approaches, hundreds of them collect together and form
large settlements. One of these settlements, on the coast of one of the
Canary Islands, was visited by Bolle, who gives the following account
of what he saw:--"The farther we advanced the more numerous became the
flights of such pairs as we had disturbed, until at length we were obliged
to proceed carefully to avoid treading on their eggs, so numerously did
they lay around us on every side. Scarcely had we begun to collect some
of the eggs in our hats and baskets, than up rose the whole multitude of
breeding birds into the air, thousands in number, and overshadowed us
like a great white cloud. Their shrieks were positively deafening, and
the uproar was still further increased by the appearance of some other
men at a little distance, who were likewise collecting eggs. From out of
the living screen above us, many of these birds seemed to rush right down
upon our heads, and these were probably those whose nests lay nearest to
the place where we stood, and were consequently in the greatest danger
of being plundered. After a little while, we retired to a distance,
whence we could plainly see the different pairs, as they returned to
their eggs, upon which the females immediately planted themselves, while
their faithful spouses took their stations beside them. We did not leave
them, however, till we had completely filled all our baskets with eggs,
and this we accomplished in less than an hour. The men above alluded to,
informed us that for a few weeks in the year, the place was constantly
resorted to by the inhabitants, who eagerly collected the eggs, and that,
nevertheless, the number of birds did not seem to diminish; the truth of
this last assertion was indeed sufficiently evident." It not unfrequently
happens that by some sudden flood in the rivers, or heavy storm at sea,
the breeding-places of these Terns are completely inundated, and their
eggs consequently destroyed. Should such an event occur early in the
season, the parent birds will produce a second brood, but if it happens
at a later period, their hope of progeny is at an end. Upon one occasion
Naumann had an opportunity of witnessing a fair chase between the Common
Tern and the agile Tree Falcon. The Tern did not put into execution any
of the usual manœuvres of water-birds, when trying to escape from pursuit,
such as diving below the surface, but took boldly to her wings, and it
was truly wonderful to see the adroitness with which all the efforts of
the Falcon were foiled; whenever this terrible bird of prey stooped upon
his intended victim, she slipped nimbly aside, and thus eluded the fatal
clutch; or sometimes she would fall perpendicularly downwards, then mount
above her foe towards the skies, rising higher and higher as he followed
in pursuit, until at length the strength of the Falcon failed him, and he
was forced to give up the chase. This Falcon is, however, very destructive
to the young Terns, before their wings are strong enough to cope with
those of their fleet foe. The eggs of this Tern are either yellowish
grey, pale greenish brown or greenish blue, spotted with ash-grey or dark
brown. Respecting the movements and noisy vociferations of the Common
Terns, Macgillivray says, "When walking along the sandy shore you may see
them coming up from a distance, increasing their speed as they approach,
and then wheeling and plunging over you, until at last they fly off.
Proceeding at a moderate height, they stop now and then, hover a moment,
dip into the water, and secure a sand-eel or young coal-fish. Many attend
on the fishermen, or others who are catching sand-eels for bait or food,
to pick up those which fall from them disabled. On such occasions they are
very vociferous, as they also are when they have fallen in with a shoal of
fry. They never dive, but I have seen them alight on the water and swim a
little, and sometimes a whole flock may be observed reposing on the placid
bosom of the waters."

[Illustration: TERNS AND THEIR NESTS.]


THE LESSER TERN.

The LESSER TERN (_Sternula minuta_) has been considered by some
ornithologists as the representative of a distinct sub-family, although
it only differs from the preceding species in its inferior size,
proportionately strong short beak, the deeply-incised web of its foot, and
the shallow furcation of its tail. In this bird the forehead and under
side are white, the upper head and nape black, the mantle and wings dark
green. The eye is brown, the beak yellow, with black point, and the foot
clay-yellow. The length of this bird is eight inches and a half; breadth
nineteen to twenty inches; length of wing seven, and tail three inches.
The young are spotted like the preceding species. The range of the Lesser
Tern extends over Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, from 24° to 58° north
latitude. In Brazil it is replaced by a somewhat larger species. The
Lesser Tern makes its appearance in Great Britain about May, and after
having reared its young, resumes its wandering habits about the end of
July or August. It is, however, a slow traveller, and only reaches the
lakes and streams of North Africa in the autumn; its migrations from North
Asia and North America are conducted in a similar manner. This species
prefers fresh to salt water, and chiefly frequents large rivers without,
however, altogether withdrawing from the sea-shore. The first requisite
for its accommodation would seem to be a little island or bed in a stream,
covered with gravel or sand, for where these are wanting it is never to
be found. Although the two or three eggs of the Lesser Tern (which have
a stone-coloured shell marked with grey, or reddish brown) are usually
merely deposited in a slight depression of the ground above high-water
mark, Audubon states that some pairs that he found breeding on the coasts
of Labrador had formed very snug nests composed of short fragments of
moss, well matted together, while those on the island near the Bay of
Gaveston had laid their eggs on dry drifted weeds, which appeared to have
been gathered by them for this purpose. The same author tells us that the
common note of this bird resembles that of the Barn Swallow when disturbed
about its nest, and is at times as smartly and rapidly repeated. The
following very pretty description of the light and beautiful movements of
this Tern whilst on the wing is from the pen of Mr. Macgillivray:--"In
the elegance of its buoyant flight as it skims over the waters or shoots
on its way to and from its breeding-place, the tiny creature must be
an object of admiration to every lover of nature. You may see a pair
coming up from a distance flying at the height of a few yards over the
waves, their long wings winnowing the air and impelling them in starts,
as it were, as they wend their way in undulating and wavering movements.
Suddenly their flight is arrested over a large pool left on the sands by
the retiring tide; with quick beats of their wings, they hover stationary,
or but slightly shifting place, and with downward-pointed bill seem intent
on something which they perceive in the water. One drops, but not like a
stone, dips, but with upraised wings, and rises with a small fish in its
bill. The other is similarly successful. Onward they proceed, now and then
emitting a shrill cry and with gentle beats of their wings. Far ahead is
a flock engaged in picking up their prey, and onward they speed to join
their kindred." Although these birds usually swallow their prey whilst in
the air they are occasionally seen to alight upon the ground with their
booty, and there devour it piecemeal.

       *       *       *       *       *

The WATER SWALLOWS (_Hydrochelidon_) constitute a well-defined group
belonging to the Tern family. These birds are powerfully built and of
elegant appearance; their beak is feeble, tarsus high, toes long and
united by a deeply-incised web. The wing is very long, tail short and but
little forked. The general plumage, which is soft and thick, is during the
breeding season principally black; this latter character, however, varies
much according to the age of the bird and season of the year.


THE BLACK MARSH TERN.

The BLACK MARSH TERN (_Hydrochelidon nigra_) is of a deep rich black on
the head, nape, breast, and centre of belly; the mantle is blueish grey,
and the region of vent white. The wing-quills are dark grey bordered with
a lighter shade, and the tail-feathers dark grey. The eye is brown, beak
greyish black with red base, and foot brownish red. In the winter dress,
only the back of the head and nape are black, the forehead and under part
being white. In young birds the mantle-feathers and wing-covers are edged
with reddish yellow. The length of this species is nine inches, span of
wings twenty-six inches. The Black Tern inhabits the north temperate zone,
and during the winter wanders so far south, that, like _Sternula minuta_,
it is to be met with in four continents--Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America. It makes its appearance in Great Britain at the same time as the
other Terns, but is much less abundant than formerly, being seldom seen in
the North of England and very rarely in Scotland, although it still visits
many parts of Ireland. It arrives in this country about the end of April
or beginning of May, and is principally found in Lincolnshire, Norfolk,
and Cambridgeshire. In Montagu's time it was common in Romney Marsh, in
Kent; specimens have also been procured in other southern counties. During
their winter peregrinations these birds generally travel in companies
varying from twenty to about a thousand individuals, following the course
of the streams, and taking up a temporary residence wherever these spread
out into extensive swamps or overflow the neighbouring land. In their
deportment, food, and mode of breeding, they also differ materially from
the Common Terns. They walk seldom, and as badly as their brethren, and
rarely swim, as their powers in that respect are very limited. Their
flight is not so rapid and devious as that of their congeners, but more
even, gentle, and light. During the night season they betake themselves
to repose, but in the daytime are constantly on the wing, hunting after
food. The Black Terns live almost exclusively upon insects, although they
will also occasionally seize a little fish or other small inhabitant of
the water. They somewhat resemble the Swallows in their mode of life,
and like them may be seen skimming over pools of water, apparently more
for the sake of amusement than from any real necessity for such active
exertion. When they discover anything in the shape of food, they hover
over it for an instant and pounce upon their prey, not coming down upon it
precipitately and perpendicularly as some of the Divers do, but sweeping
obliquely towards it, so as to seize it with the beak without immersing
their bodies. According to Montagu, "The flight of this species is not
unlike that of the Goatsucker; its evolutions are rapid and it turns short
if attacked, by which means it escapes the talons of predaceous birds,
as we once had an opportunity of witnessing. In a very hard gale of wind
many Terns were sporting over the water, when a Peregrine Falcon passed
like a shot, singled out his bird and presently coming up with the chase,
made a pounce, but the great dexterity of the Tern avoided the deadly
stroke and took a new direction. The Falcon, by his superior velocity,
soon regained sufficient elevation to successively repeat his pounces, but
at last relinquished the pursuit." The Black Terns, unlike the generality
of their congeners, are fearless and unsuspicious, and seem rather to
welcome than to avoid the presence of mankind; if molested, however, they
soon become more wary. Towards each other they manifest considerable
affection, and should one of their party be shot, the others instantly
collect around their wounded companion, not from any sinister motives,
as has been asserted by some writers, but out of commiseration for his
condition. For their breeding-places these birds invariably choose some
wide swamp or morass, placing their nests upon little heaps of mud that
project above the surface of the water, upon tufts of grass or sedge, upon
floating masses of reeds, rushes, or similar materials, or sometimes on
the floating leaves of aquatic plants. The nest itself is constructed of
substances that vary with the locality selected, such as leaves, roots and
rushes heaped carelessly together. In this cradle, about the beginning
of June, each pair lays two, three, or four eggs; these are of a pale
olive or yellowish colour, spotted with grey, reddish brown, and brownish
black. Both sexes incubate by turns, keeping the eggs constantly covered.
If disturbed during the breeding season, these Terns are as noisy as any
of their congeners, but unlike them remain close over the nest and only
go in search of food at regular intervals. After the lapse of fourteen
or sixteen days the young make their appearance, and about a fortnight
later quit the nest. Even after they are fully fledged they accompany
their parents, who tend them with great devotion, and feed them while on
the wing, after the manner of Swallows. This species subsists chiefly on
shell-fish, beetles, and dragon-flies. The flesh of the Black Terns is
tolerably good.


THE WHITE-WINGED TERN.

The WHITE-WINGED TERN (_Hydrochelidon leucoptera_) has the body-feathers
of a rich deep black; the upper part of the wing is blueish grey; the
shoulders and points of the secondary quills are whitish grey, and the
rump and tail-feathers white. This species, which closely resembles the
Black Tern in size, manners, and habits, is very rare upon the coasts
of Great Britain. Temminck states that it frequents the shores of the
Mediterranean, and the lakes, rivers, and marshes beyond the Alps, being
common about Gibraltar, and Lakes Como, Lugano, and Lucerne, but that
it never visits Holland, or North Europe. Nilsson, on the contrary,
includes it amongst the birds of Germany and Scandinavia. The food of
the White-winged Tern consists of winged and aquatic insects, worms, and
sometimes small fishes.


THE WHITE-BEARDED TERN.

The WHITE-BEARDED TERN (_Hydrochelidon leucopareja_) has the black upon
the head and nape divided from the dark grey lower neck by a broad white
stripe; the breast is dark grey, mantle light grey, and belly greyish
white. This rare bird was first discovered by M. Natterer, in the marshes
of South Hungary, and is but very seldom seen in Great Britain. We are
little acquainted with its habits beyond that it subsists upon worms,
snails, and winged insects. Yarrell describes the egg as being one inch
and a half long, by one and one-eighth broad, with an asparagus-green
shell, spotted with brownish black and blueish grey.


THE WHITE OR SILKY TERN.

The WHITE or SILKY TERN (_Gygis Candida_) is a beautiful bird, with
slender body, long thin beak, which curves perceptibly upwards, long
wings, and deeply excised tail. The feet are small, and the toes furnished
with a narrow web; the plumage is of silky softness and pure white; the
eye is black, the beak dark blue towards its base and black at the point;
the foot is saffron-yellow.

The White Tern inhabits the Pacific Ocean, and is to be met with from
Moreton Bay to Cape York. Gould was informed by Mr. Cumming, that on
visiting Elizabeth Island, in the South Seas, which is entirely destitute
of inhabitants and fresh water, he found this, or an allied species,
breeding on a kind of _Pandanus_, its single egg being deposited on
the horizontal branches in a depression, which, although slight, was
sufficient to retain it in position, despite the high winds and consequent
oscillation to which it was subjected. Mr. Cumming added that the old
birds were flying about in thousands, like swarms of bees, and that he
noticed several breeding on the same tree. Some of the young birds were
hatched and covered with down, and being within reach, he took a few of
them in his hand, and after examining, replaced them on their dangerous
resting-place, from which it appeared they occasionally fell down and were
destroyed, as he observed several lying dead on the ground. Gould also
refers to a bird of this genus, and perhaps the same species noticed by
Darwin in the _Journal of Researches in Geology and Natural History_, who,
speaking of Keeling Island, says:--"There is one charming bird, a small
and snow-white Tern, which smoothly hovers at the distance of an arm's
length from your head, its large black eye scanning with quiet curiosity
your expression. Little imagination is required to fancy that so light and
delicate a body must be tenanted by some wandering fairy spirit."


THE NODDY.

The NODDY (_Anous stolidus_) represents a group recognisable by its
somewhat clumsy appearance; its beak is longer than the head, strong,
almost straight, and compressed at the sides, with the fore part of the
under mandible bent at an angle; the legs are powerful, and the feet
furnished with long narrow toes, fully webbed; the wings are long, narrow,
and pointed, but their apices are somewhat rounded off, the tail is
long and wedge-shaped, but not forked. The colour of its plumage, with
the exception of the upper part of the head, which is greyish white,
is sooty brown, a patch in front of and another behind the eye black,
the quills and tail-feathers blackish brown; the eye is brown, the beak
black, and the foot dusky brownish red. The length of the Noddy is
sixteen inches, its breadth thirty-two, length of wing eleven inches,
of tail five inches. These birds appear to be more widely distributed
than any of their congeners; they are met with both in the Atlantic and
the Pacific Oceans, being perhaps most abundant in the latter portion
of the globe. Some ornithologists, however, are undecided whether the
Atlantic and Pacific birds must be regarded merely as varieties or as
distinct species. Mr. Coues, who is of the latter opinion, has proposed
to call the Pacific species _Anous frater_. Mr. Gould, however, prefers
to describe the Australian bird under the old name of _stolidus_, rather
than unnecessarily multiply the number of specific appellations, but he
observes that though the Noddies of the northern and southern hemispheres
are very much alike, considerable variation is found to exist in their
modes of nidification, and the season at which it is performed; there is
also a difference in the colouring and number of their eggs, those in the
northern hemisphere being said to lay three, those in the southern only
one egg. The Noddy, and an allied species, _Anous melanops_, says Gilbert,
are extremely numerous on the Houtmann's Abrolhos, where they breed in
prodigious numbers. The present species lays its eggs in November and
December, on a nest constructed of seaweed, about six inches in diameter,
and varying in height from four to eight inches, but without anything like
regularity of form; the top is nearly flat, there being but a very slight
hollow to prevent their single egg from rolling off. The nests are so
completely plastered with the excrement of the bird, that at first sight
they appear to be entirely formed of that material; they are either placed
on the ground in a clear open space, or on the tops of the thick scrub,
over those of the _Onochoprios fuliginosus_, the two species incubating
together with the most perfect harmony, and the bushes presenting a
mottled appearance, from the great numbers of both species perched on
their tops. By the middle of January the eggs were nearly ready to hatch,
and there would be an overwhelming increase of this species yearly, but
for the check which Nature has provided against it, in the presence of a
small lizard, which is very abundant in their breeding-places, and which
finds an easy prey in the young.

"About the beginning of May," says Audubon, "the Noddies collect from
all parts of the Gulf of Mexico and coasts of Florida, for the purpose
of returning to their breeding-places on one of the Tortugas, called the
Noddy Key, where they form regular nests of twigs and dry grass, which
they place on bushes or low trees, but never on the ground. On visiting
their island on the 11th of May, 1832, I was surprised to see that many
of them were repairing and augmenting nests which had remained throughout
the winter, while others were employed in commencing new ones, and some
were already sitting on their eggs. In a great many instances the repaired
nests formed masses nearly two feet in height, and yet all of them had
only a slight hollow for the eggs, broken shells of which were found
among the entire ones, as if they had been purposely placed there. The
birds did not discontinue their labours, although there were nine or ten
of us walking among the bushes, and when we had gone a few yards into the
thicket, thousands of them flew quite low over us, some at times coming so
close as to enable us to catch a few of them with the hand. On one side
might be seen a Noddy carrying a stick in its bill, or a bird picking up
something from the ground to add to its nest, on the other several were
sitting on their eggs, unconscious of danger, while their mates brought
them food. The greater part rose on wing as we advanced, but re-alighted
as soon as we had passed. The bushes were rarely taller than ourselves,
so that we could easily see the eggs in the nests." It is stated that the
_Anous stolidus_ occasionally visits St. George's Channel, and in 1840 two
specimens were shot off the coast of Wexford.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SCISSOR-BILLS (_Rhynchopes_) constitute a group of night birds,
bearing the same relationship to the Sea Swallows as the Owls to the
Falcons. Their body is elongate, neck long, head small, wings very long,
and the forked tail of moderate size. Their beak is so peculiar in its
structure that it can be compared to nothing so happily as to a pair of
scissors. The lower mandible is very considerably longer than the upper
portion of the bill; the legs are feeble, tolerably long but slender, and
the anterior toes connected by a deeply-incised web. The general plumage,
which is close and smooth, presents a peculiar, greasy appearance.


THE INDIAN SCISSOR-BILL.

The INDIAN SCISSOR-BILL (_Rhynchops orientalis_) is white upon the
forehead, face, tail, under side of the body, and upon the points of the
larger wing-covers; the top of the head, back of neck, and mantle are
blackish brown; the eyes are dark brown, the beak and feet coral-red.
The length of this species is seventeen inches, its breadth forty-two
inches, length of wing thirteen inches, and of tail two inches and a half.
The Scissor-bill has frequently come under our notice, while travelling
along the banks of the Middle and Upper Nile. This bird may occasionally
be seen flying by day if it has been disturbed; but it usually remains
motionless upon sandbanks from morning to evening, generally lying flat
upon its belly, more rarely standing up on its little feeble feet; while
thus reposing, it is but seldom that it makes any noise or exhibits the
slightest activity. As the sun sets, however, it begins to be more lively,
moves about, stretches itself, raises its wings, hops backwards and
forwards, and utters its peculiar cry; but it is only as night approaches
that it flies away in search of food. Its movements are then in exact
accordance with the peculiar structure of its beak. With long strokes
of its wings, it glides noiselessly along close to the water, from time
to time dipping its lower mandible beneath the surface and keeping it
there for a minute or two at a time, ploughing, as it were, the top of
the river, with its strangely-shaped under jaw, and skimming the water.
In this manner it manages to collect great numbers of the insects, which
upon the banks of the Nile, at least, constitute its principal food.
Whether it also eats small molluscs, more particularly bivalves, and is
skilful in opening them with its beak, we cannot say, but that this is
the case with some of its congeners seems to be pretty well established.
Lesson states that he saw an American Scissor-bill seat itself quietly
down near some bivalve shell-fish left by the tide and wait patiently till
they opened their valves, when it inserted its beak between the separated
shells, till the occupant again closed its valves and thus laid hold upon
the beak; he then flew away with it to a neighbouring stone and beat the
shell to pieces. Tschüdi relates the same circumstance, but whether from
his own observation or from Lesson's narrative we do not know. At present
we entertain some doubts of the accuracy of the observations alluded
to. The flight of the Scissor-bill is light and beautiful, but somewhat
peculiar, inasmuch as the bird is obliged to raise its wings very high in
order to prevent the tips from striking the water; its proportionately
long neck enables it to do this, allowing it to keep its body at the
distance of about an inch from the surface, while a considerable portion
of its beak is held under water. Its hunting ground seems to extend for
about the space of a mile up and down the stream. In Central Africa it
will sometimes leave the river to hunt over some neighbouring pond. On
the south and western parts of that continent it may possibly, like its
American congeners, occasionally pay a visit to the coast. The cry of the
Scissor-bills, which may sometimes be heard when they are passing about in
company with each other is very peculiar, and entirely different from the
cry of any other bird with which we are acquainted.

In the neighbourhood of Dongola we were fortunate enough to light upon one
of their breeding-places. In the month of May we happened to see a number
of these birds at their ease lying flat upon a large sandbank, which we
were thus tempted to visit, and here to our great delight we found some
of their nests. These latter consisted simply of excavations made in the
sand; there was, however, this peculiarity about them, that each seemed to
be the centre of a series of radiating lines that looked as if drawn with
the back of a knife, and which obviously had been made by the birds, with
their lower mandible. The eggs we found bore an extraordinary resemblance
to those of the Sea Swallows. They were of an oval shape and in colour of
a greenish grey, bordering on yellow, irregularly speckled with light and
dark patches and streaks of grey and dark brown. In every nest we found
five eggs. Whether both sexes brood or not we were unable to ascertain,
neither could we obtain information as to the rearing of the nestlings.

Speaking of the young of the Indian species, Mr. Brooks writes to
Jerdon:--"It was amusing to see an army of some hundreds of these little
fellows (tortoiseshell-looking things) running steadily a couple of
hundred yards before us. They run well, and when we reached the end of the
sandbank, they attempted to swim off, while many squatted down; they did
not make much way swimming, and sank very deep in the water."

       *       *       *       *       *

The GULLS (_Lari_) form a well-defined and distinct family, recognisable
by the following characters. Although these birds vary in size, from
that of a Jackdaw to that of an Eagle, all are powerfully framed, with
a short neck and large head. Their beak, which is of medium length, is
strongly compressed at the sides, straight from the brow to the centre
of culmen, and from that point to its apex bent gradually downwards, so
as to form a strong terminal hook; both the upper and lower mandibles
are provided with sharp cutting edges, and the gape extends backwards as
far as the eyes; the tarsus is moderately high, but slender; the foot,
with few exceptions, four-toed, the interior toes being webbed; the
wings are long and broad, but acutely-pointed, the first quill being the
longest; the tail, consisting of twelve feathers, of moderate length, is
broad and straight, less frequently slightly incised; in a few species
the centre feathers are somewhat prolonged. The general plumage, which
is thick and soft, and fur-like on the under surface of the body, is
very similarly coloured throughout the entire family. Upon the mantle
and wings the prevalent hue is a beautiful blueish grey, varied with
white and slate-black; the feathers of the under side (in many species
the head and neck) are pure white; the back and feet of old birds are
brighter and often of a different tint to those of the young. Gulls are
to be met with in every quarter of the globe, but are most abundant in
northern regions. A few species wander to a considerable distance from
land, always, however, returning to the vicinity of the shore. All may
therefore properly be called coast birds, and to the mariner they are
always welcome, as sure harbingers of land. Their flights inland are even
more frequent than their excursions into the open sea, and many of them
may often be seen following the course of large rivers, or winging their
way from lake to lake, into the interior of the country. Some species will
frequently settle in the vicinity of inland lakes, and most of them prefer
a similar situation as their breeding-place. Many members of this family
are more or less migratory; some appear upon our northern shores in the
spring, and after rearing their young, take their departure in the autumn;
others again only wander to considerable distances; there are, indeed, but
few species that can be properly regarded as stationary. These wandering
propensities are intimately connected with their supply of food. All of
them live more or less upon fishes, but some also greedily devour insects,
and these latter migrate with the greatest regularity. Besides the above
articles of nourishment, Gulls eagerly pick up whatever small animals
or animal substances they may happen to meet with. Carrion they devour
as greedily as do the Vultures, even if it be in a putrid condition. In
short, they appear to share the appetites of many other birds, and to be
quite as omnivorous as the Crows. All Sea Gulls walk well and quickly;
they swim buoyantly, lying in the water like so many air-bubbles, and
dive with facility, but to no great depth, plunging probably for not more
than one or two feet below the surface. Their voice consists of a harsh,
disagreeable scream. As their breeding time approaches, these birds begin
to assemble in flocks, which are frequently joined by other parties,
until at last they form a numerous host. Even upon our own shores their
nesting-places are often occupied by many hundred pairs, whilst further
north they congregate in countless multitudes. The larger species crowd
less closely together at these times than the smaller ones, the latter
often literally covering the rocks on which their nests are so closely
placed, that the brooding parents press upon each other. The structure of
the nests varies in different localities; where grass and seaweeds are
procurable they are carefully heaped together, but where these fail the
nests are of still scantier proportions. The brood consists of from two
to four comparatively large oval eggs, with strong coarse, brownish green
or greenish brown shells, spotted with grey and brown; upon these both
male and female sit by turns, for a period of three or four weeks. The
young are clothed in a thick covering of speckled down, and shortly after
emerging from the shell may be seen trotting about upon the sand, hiding
themselves if alarmed behind little hillocks, or boldly plunging into
the water. Such, however, as are born upon the ledges of perpendicular
rocks, must necessarily remain there until their wings are strong enough
to enable them to come down from their lofty perch, for they appear
not to take the desperate leaps into the sea attempted by so many sea
birds, to their destruction. During the first few days, the young are fed
with half-digested food from their parents' crops, and afterwards with
freshly-caught fishes, or other small animals. For some little time after
they are able to fly they remain together, but soon quit their birthplace,
and spread themselves along the coast. In the northern regions the Gulls
are not only the most beautiful, but the most useful of the many feathered
visitants; they are regarded as property, and as jealously preserved as
any other game. In Norway the eggs form a very considerable part of the
land proprietors' revenue. Among the poorer inhabitants the feathers are
used instead of eider-down for bedding. The flesh of the old birds finds
favour only amongst the Esquimaux, while that of the young is eaten by
the inhabitants of Greenland and Iceland. If properly cooked, the latter,
in truth, form by no means a despicable dish. Still, however, the eggs
and feathers are looked upon as far more valuable than this somewhat
fishy-flavoured game. In some localities, at certain seasons of the year,
great _battues_ are held, apparently much more from a love of slaughter
than from any desire to turn the birds to account. The chase after Sea
Gulls presents but few difficulties, a white pocket handkerchief thrown
into the air is quite sufficient to attract their attention, and when they
approach, if one is killed many others will at once crowd around it. They
are also caught by a great variety of contrivances; snares are laid for
them upon the sandbanks, some are caught in nets, and others by means of
hooks, baited with fish.

       *       *       *       *       *

The FISHING GULLS (_Larus_) comprise the larger members of the family, and
constitute a well-marked section, principally distinguished by the colour
of their plumage. All the members of this group that we have selected for
description are to be met with in northern climates between 60° and 70°
latitude, where they breed upon the various cliffs and islands. Sometimes,
indeed, they may be seen wandering inland, but, notwithstanding, all are
sea-birds in the strictest sense. As regards their movements, they walk
well, wade readily in the shallow water near the shore, swim lightly and
buoyantly upon a rough sea, and often sleep upon the water. Their flight
is slow, but by no means heavy, and can be sustained for a considerable
time. With long strokes of their wings they sweep onwards through the
air, sometimes flying in circles, sometimes mounting upwards against the
wind, and again descend to the surface of the sea. In these flights they
appear to be quite at their ease even during the wildest storms, and
may frequently be seen plunging into the sea from a considerable height
upon any prey that they may happen to espy. In sagacity and courage the
Gulls are superior to their kindred, but they likewise surpass them
in thieving and gluttony. They care little for the society of their
brethren; nevertheless, it is a rare thing to see one of them alone.
These Gulls subsist principally upon fishes of various size, and regard
carrion, whether fish or flesh, as very delectable food; they also kill
and devour small quadrupeds, and young or disabled birds. They rob the
feebler sea-fowl of their eggs, and search upon the beach for worms and
other animals. Should the shell of a crab or mussel be too hard for their
beak, they at once fly with it into the air, and then, dropping it from a
sufficient elevation upon the rocks beneath, shatter it to pieces.


THE GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL.

The GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL (_Larus marinus_), one of the best-known
members of the above group, has the head, neck, under surface of the
body, rump, and tail pure white; the upper back and wings are black;
the wing-quills tipped with white. In young birds the head, neck, and
under side are white, streaked and spotted with yellow and brown; the
rump and wing-covers are brownish grey, with light edges; the quills
and tail-feathers are black, the latter marked with white. The eye is
silver-grey and the ring around it bright red. The beak is yellow, the
under mandible being red towards its apex; the foot is light greyish
yellow. The length of this species is twenty-eight inches, and breadth
sixty-five inches; the wing measures nineteen, and the tail seven inches
and a half. The Black-backed Gull frequents the shores of Europe, and,
according to Audubon, is met with in North America. In Ireland it is a
resident species, and is found dispersed in abundance along the English
and Scotch coasts. It breeds in Caermarthenshire on sandy flats, in the
British Channel on sandy islands or steep holms, and in the marshes near
the mouth of the Thames. Dr. Edmondson says, "This species breeds on the
flat grassy tops of a few inaccessible holms, or small islands--as the
far-famed Cradleholm, of Ness--in considerable numbers, never in cliffs,
and excludes every other bird from such localities. A pair or two--we may
suppose the melancholy remnant of a more numerous race--may now and then
be met with on lower and more accessible, but still flat situations." It
usually produces three young, which, independently of their size, may be
easily distinguished from other species by the more distinct speckling
with black of their grey plumage. Like all the larger Gulls, it is fond of
carrion. In winter these birds feed much on starfish, a meagre and frugal
diet, it must be admitted; but the abundance of herrings, in summer,
amply compensates for the abstinence of winter. When flocks of Shags are
enjoying their gluttonous siesta on the rocks, a Black-backed Gull is very
often perched near them, and on such occasions he acts as their sentinel
by giving the alarm with his hoarse voice, or taking flight when an enemy
endeavours to approach within shot. His deportment is dull and solitary.

[Illustration: BLACK-BACKED AND HERRING GULLS.]

During our travels in Norway and Lapland, we found the Black-backed Gull
common enough, but it was only at Portsangfjord, towards the northern
parts of the country, that we first met with their breeding-places.
Upon an island in that vicinity we observed several hundred pairs, in
company with the Herring Gulls. The nests of both species were placed
promiscuously upon the ground, seldom more than fifty paces apart. Some of
the nests were round, and carefully lined with grass, while others were
more negligently constructed. A terrible uproar was raised as soon as we
set foot on the island, such birds as had begun to brood remained sitting,
and even allowed us to approach within a few steps of their nest, as if
they thought that the fact of their presence would frighten us away. At
length, however, they got up, and with loud cries flew around us at a
little distance, every now and then plunging down as if to strike us, and
then rising again, and taking a circuit previous to renewing the attack.
Several times they flew so close over our heads that they touched us with
their wings, but they did not venture to attack us with their sharp beaks.
In several nests the young ones had not only managed to scramble out at
our approach, but hid themselves very effectually among the long grass.

The eggs of these birds are usually three, sometimes four, in number,
rough, of a yellowish grey or yellowish brown colour, tinged and spotted
with dark brown and slate-grey; they are about three inches long, and
rather more than two inches broad. Mr. Hewitson, who saw these Gulls
breeding in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, says: "Their eggs are rich and
excellent to eat; and they are in consequence a most valuable acquisition
to the owners of the islands upon which they are deposited. The custom is
to take the whole of the first eggs as soon as laid, and the second in
like manner, allowing the birds to sit the third time. One gentleman, Mr.
Scott, upon whose property they breed, and by whom we were most hospitably
received, told us that he had secured sixty dozen of their eggs for winter
use, though the extent of the island was scarcely half an acre."

An egg of this species was hatched in a most curious manner by a boat's
crew, who kept it in a blanket by day, and near the fireplace at night.
For many years this bird lived quite tame at Dartmouth, swimming in the
river, and watching for the return of the fishermen, who always threw it
a supply of small fishes.


THE LESSER BLACK-BACKED OR YELLOW-LEGGED GULL.

The LESSER BLACK-BACKED or YELLOW-LEGGED GULL (_Larus fuscus_). In the
summer plumage of the adult bird, the head and whole of neck, all round,
are pure white; the back, wing-covers, and all the wing-feathers dark
slate-grey, the tips only of some of the longer scapulars and tertials
being white, the shorter of the primaries have white tips; the upper
tail-covers and tail-feathers are white, the breast, belly, and all the
under surface of the body pure white, legs and feet yellow, bill yellow,
inferior angle of lower mandible red; and the irides straw-yellow. The
whole length is twenty-three inches, from the anterior joint of the wing
to the tip of the longest quill-feather sixteen inches. In winter the head
and neck are streaked with dusky brown.


THE HERRING GULL.

The HERRING GULL (_Larus argentatus_). In summer the adults have the
head and neck pure white, the back and all the wing-covers uniform
delicate French grey; tertials tipped with white; primaries mostly black,
but grey on basal portion of inner web, and the first primary with a
triangular patch of white at the end, the second and third with smaller
portions of white; upper tail-covers and tail-feathers pure white; chin,
throat, breast, belly, and whole of under surface of body and tail pure
white; legs and feet flesh-colour; bill yellow, angle of under mandible
red; edges of eyelids orange, irides straw-yellow. The length is from
twenty-two inches to twenty-four inches and a half, depending on the age
and sex; wing from sixteen inches and a half to seventeen and a quarter
long. In winter the adult birds have the head streaked with dusky grey.
This species is common along the whole of the south coast of England,
and is particularly numerous in the Isle of Wight, from Freshwater Bay
to the Needles. During winter the Herring Gulls spread themselves along
the coast, especially frequenting the estuaries where young herrings are
congregated. "When engaged with a shoal of fry," says Macgillivray, "the
Herring Gulls hover over the water, now ascending to a height perhaps
of twenty feet, then skimming close over the surface, and on observing
an object, stretching upward and vibrating their wings and letting down
their feet so as to touch and sometimes pat the water, they pick it up
without alighting. Sometimes they plunge partly into the water, and
occasionally seize their prey while swimming. All this while they emit
now and then a loud and rather shrill cry. They feed on shell-fish, and
occasionally large dead fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, echini, &c. During
the winter and spring they travel inland, seeking for insects, worms, and
similar fare, they rest on beaches and headlands, usually lying down, but
sometimes standing on one leg."

Audubon observed these birds in great numbers in the Bay of Fundy. "The
rocky shores of the islands on which I saw them breeding," says this
writer, "are covered with multitudes of sea-urchins, having short greenish
spines, which give them the semblance of a ball of moss. At low water,
the Herring Gulls frequently devour these animals, thrusting their bill
through the shell and sucking its contents. They also take up shells
into the air and drop them upon the rocks to break them. We saw one that
had met with a very hard mussel, take it up and drop it three times in
succession before it succeeded in breaking it, and I was much pleased
to see the bird let it fall each succeeding time from a greater height
than before." While on Whitehead Island, in the Bay of Fundy, Audubon
saw numbers of the nests of these birds on fir-trees, some being placed
near the top, others on the middle or lower parts of the trees. He was
informed by the proprietor of the district that in his memory these Gulls
had built their nests on moss, on open ground, but their nests having
been robbed and the birds otherwise annoyed, they had betaken themselves
to the thickest parts of the woods, hoping that by placing their nests on
the trees they would be out of the reach of their arch-enemy, man. The
nest of the Herring Gull, which is frequently placed on ledges of rocks,
is usually formed of grass, or any other vegetable matter that may be
at hand. The eggs are laid about May: these vary much both in size and
colour. The young remain in the nest until they are partially fledged, but
at once quit it if alarmed, and frequently take to the water if pursued.


THE LARGE OR GLAUCOUS WHITE-WINGED GULL.

The LARGE or GLAUCOUS WHITE-WINGED GULL (_Larus glaucus_) is almost
entirely white, with a faint blue tinge upon the back and wing-covers;
the primaries are also white, and extend but little beyond the end of the
tail. The bill is yellowish white, except upon the inferior angle of the
lower mandible, which is reddish orange; the eyes are pale yellow, and
legs and feet flesh-red. In winter the head and neck are slightly streaked
with dark grey. The length of this species is about thirty inches; the
wing measures nine and a half, and the tail eight inches and a half;
according to Yarrell, some have been taken that measured thirty-two and
thirty-three inches. The White-winged Gull is an inhabitant of the high
latitudes, and was found in great numbers by our Arctic voyagers in the
Polar Seas, Davis' Straits, and Baffin's Bay, breeding on precipitous
rocks and ledges of cliffs. The Glaucous Gull is also common in Russia,
on the shores of the Baltic, and has been found in France, Germany,
Holland, and various parts of our own and the Irish coast. It visits
Shetland about the middle of autumn, and departs about the end of spring.
It frequents open bays, and attends fishing-boats a few miles from land,
in order to feed upon any refuse that may be thrown overboard. Sometimes,
if allured by carrion, it will even venture inland. This Gull is very
rapacious, and when deprived of other food will fall upon small birds and
eat them. Sir J. Richardson tells us it feeds upon carrion, and during
Captain Ross's expedition one specimen when struck disgorged an Auk,
and after death another was found in its stomach. In disposition it is
shy and inactive, and exhibits little of the clamorousness observable
in most other members of the genus. The Dutch have bestowed the name of
"Burgomaster" upon this bird; and, according to Scoresby, it may with
propriety be called the chief magistrate of the feathered tribe in the
Spitzbergen regions, as none of its class dare dispute its authority,
when with unhesitating superiority it descends on its prey, though in the
possession of another. The "Burgomaster" is not a numerous species, and
yet it is a general attendant on the whale-fishers, whenever any spoils
are to be obtained. It then hovers over the scene of action, and having
marked out its morsel, descends upon it, and carries it off on the wing.
On its descent, the most dainty food must be relinquished, though in the
grasp of the Fulmar Petrel, the Ivory Gull, or the Kittiwake. It seldom
alights in the water; when it rests on the ice it selects a hummock, and
fixes itself on the highest pinnacle. Sometimes it condescends to take
a more humble situation, that offers any advantages for procuring food.
Upon these occasions the peculiarity of its appearance is very striking.
Its usual deportment is grave and imposing, exhibiting little of the
vivacity or inquisitiveness of many of its tribe; it is roused to exertion
chiefly by a sense of danger, or the cravings of hunger. When it flies,
it extends its wings more than any other species of Gull, and its flight
is remarkably buoyant; when not in quest of food it is of a reserved
disposition, seldom coming within range of a fowling-piece, but keeping at
a respectful distance, it utters at intervals a hoarse scream, of a sound
peculiar to itself. Scoresby found the eggs (which are of a yellowish
grey, spotted and blotched with brown and grey), deposited on the beach
above high-water mark, in such a manner as to receive the benefit of the
full rays of the sun. According to Dr. Edmondson, a single bird of this
species may occasionally be met with accompanying a large flock of other
Gulls, and feeding with them.


THE LESSER WHITE-WINGED GULL.

The LESSER WHITE-WINGED GULL (_Larus leucopterus_) has the head and neck
entirely pure white; the back and wings are pale grey; the primary quills,
chin, throat, breast, entire under surface, and tail of a beautiful pure
white. In the male the bill is yellow, with red angle to lower mandible;
the eyes are straw-colour, and the legs flesh-red. This species is
twenty-two inches long; the pointed wings when closed extend two inches
beyond the tail. According to Faber this Gull has grey spots on its
winter plumage. The Lesser White-winged Gull (formerly confounded with
_L. glaucus_) occupies the northern portions of the globe, and has been
seen by Arctic voyagers in Davis' Straits, Baffin's Bay, and Melville
Island. It is also found in Greenland, and, according to Audubon, is seen
in North America from Nova Scotia to New York during the winter months.
This species is less shy than the Herring Gull, it also proceeds farther
up the rivers and salt-water creeks, and alights more frequently in the
water or on salt meadows than that bird. A few examples have been shot
in Northumberland, Yorkshire, and Ireland, as well as in the Orkney and
Shetland Isles. According to Faber this is the only Gull that winters in
Iceland without breeding there. "I have," he says, "travelled over most of
the coast of the island, but have never found its breeding-place. A few
days after the middle of September a few specimens, both old and young,
make their appearance on the coast of Iceland, confining themselves to
the northern parts, among the small inlets of which great numbers pass
the winter. When I lived on the innermost of the small fjords on the
northern coast, these birds were our daily guests. Towards the end of
April their numbers decreased, and by the end of May they had nearly all
disappeared from Iceland. These tame birds came on land by my winter
dwelling on the northern coast, to snap up the entrails thrown away by
the inhabitants, and fought for them fiercely with the Raven. I had made
one so tame that it came every morning at a certain time to my door to
obtain food, and then flew away again. It gave me notice of its arrival
by its cry. These Gulls indicated to the seal-shooters in the fjord where
they should look for seals, continually following their track in the sea,
and hovering over them in flocks, with incessant cries, and while the
seals hunted the sprat and the capelin towards the surface of the water,
these Gulls precipitated themselves down upon the fishes, and snapped
them up. In like manner they follow the track of the cod-fish in the sea,
to feed upon the booty hunted up by this fish of prey. In the winter of
1821, which I passed on the southern coast, there was not a single _Larus
leucopterus_ to be seen. On the 1st of March, the shore was almost free
from Sea Gulls; but as I stepped out of my room early on the 2nd of March,
the air was almost filled with a species of _Larus_ which had appeared
suddenly. As I approached and looked up at them, I soon recognised my
_Larus leucopterus_, which had arrived in great numbers during the night.
The Icelanders concluded, from the sudden appearance of these Gulls,
that shoals of cod-fish must have arrived on the coast. They got ready
their fishing-boats and nets, and the fish had in truth arrived in such
numbers that the fishing for that season commenced immediately. There,
where hitherto an ornithological quiet had reigned, everything now became
enlivened through the arrival of these birds, which without intermission
and with incessant cries hovered over the nets. In this year, 1821, they
remained on the southern coast till the middle of May, when they entirely
left it, to proceed northward to their breeding-places. This Gull was
my weather-guide in winter. If it swam near the shore, and there, as if
anxious, moved along with its feathers puffed out, then I knew that on the
following day storms and snows were to be expected. In fine weather it
soared high in the air. These birds often sit by hundreds on a piece of
ice, and in that way are drifted many miles."

Mr. Yarrell describes a specimen egg in the collection of Lady Cust as
being two inches and a half long by one inch and three-quarters broad, of
a pale greenish white colour, with numerous spots and specks of two shades
of brown, with others of a blueish-grey, over the surface generally.

       *       *       *       *       *

The ICE GULLS (_Pagophila_) are recognisable by their slender build,
proportionately longer wings and tail, smaller feet, and shorter web
between the toes.


THE IVORY GULL.

The IVORY GULL (_Pagophila eburnea_) is pure white, at times suffused
with a blush of pink. The eye is yellow, and the eye-ring carmine-red;
the bill over half its length from the base is blueish, towards its apex
reddish yellow, and there is a ring of greenish yellow just in front of
the nostrils; the feet are black. In young birds the head and neck are
greyish; the feathers of the mantle, the quills of the wings, and the
ends of the tail-feathers speckled with black. The length of this bird is
twenty inches; breadth, forty-two inches; length of wing, thirteen inches
and a half; length of tail, five inches and a half.

The Ivory Gull is an inhabitant of the Arctic Regions, and is only
a rare visitor in lower latitudes. It may be regularly met with at
Spitzbergen, as also in the Asiatic part of the Arctic Ocean, and in the
northern parts of Greenland, but even Iceland seems too far south for
its residence. In Greenland it can hardly be called scarce, seeing that
during and after the autumnal storms it sometimes makes its appearance
in great numbers. Audubon tells us that it visits the southern parts
of Labrador and Newfoundland every winter. A few individuals have been
seen on different parts of the British coasts. "Although so delicate in
appearance," says Scoresby, "this Gull is almost as rare as the Fulmar
Petrel, and as little nice in its food; it is, however, more cautious. It
is a constant attendant on the flensing operations of the whale-fishers,
when it generally seizes its portion while on the wing." Like all other
birds inhabiting extreme northern latitudes, it is easily captured indeed,
Holboell states that it may be tempted to come within reach of the hand
with a bit of bacon tied to a string. Wherever a walrus has been killed
these birds are sure to make their appearance, and so devoid of shyness
are they, that by throwing them bits of blubber a man may catch as many of
them as he chooses.

Numbers of these Gulls are constantly to be seen upon the carcases left
by the seal-hunters, or the Polar bears, and they are always present
around the holes or rifts in the ice, to which seals generally resort. As
relates to the breeding of these birds, the same author tells us that on
the 7th of July, at the northern extremity of Murchison's Bay, he saw a
great number of them upon the ledges of a perpendicular cliff of limestone
in company with a variety of other birds. It was easy to perceive that
the females were sitting upon their eggs; these were at the time quite
unapproachable, but on the 30th of June he was ably assisted by a party
of men, furnished with long ropes, to get at some of the nests, which
consisted of a small quantity of grass, spread upon the bare rock, and
rudely lined with grass, seaweed, moss, and feathers.

       *       *       *       *       *

The KITTIWAKES (_Rissa_) may be selected as the representatives of the
Three-toed Gulls, their distinguishing character being that the hinder
toe is wanting or reduced to a mere rudiment. Should other points of
difference be sought for, they may be found in the feebleness of the
beak and in the proportionately short tarsi. The toes, however, are
long, and the feet provided with well-developed webs. In the adults, the
plumage upon the head, neck, rump, tail, and under parts of the body is
snow-white, and on the mantle blueish grey, the wings are whitish grey,
black at the points. The eye is brown, the eye-ring coral-red; the beak
citron-yellow, red at the corner of the mouth; the foot black, yellowish
in the sole. After their autumnal moult, the hinder neck becomes blueish
grey, and a round spot behind the ear black. In young birds, the mantle
is dark grey, each feather being margined with black. The length of this
Gull is from sixteen to seventeen inches, the breadth thirty-seven to
thirty-nine inches; the length of the wing twelve inches, and of the tail
five inches.

This bird is an inhabitant of high northern latitudes; during the winter,
however, it leaves the frozen ocean, and not only appears in considerable
numbers upon the shores of Great Britain, but extends its flight to places
much farther south. These Gulls are seen inland more frequently than the
generality of their kindred, as they often follow the course of rivers
to a considerable distance into the interior of the country, sometimes
appearing there in large flocks. In Iceland and Greenland their arrival
is always hailed as the harbinger of spring. They make their appearance
there between the 8th and 20th of March, and although the weather is
still piercingly cold, proceed at once to take possession of the rocks
where they intend to breed, as though each pair were anxious to lose no
time in securing a resting-place. Should the ledges of the rock happen
to be covered with snow, the Kittiwakes are more than usually restless,
and their unremitting shrieks are almost deafening. They remain in their
summer residence till near November, about which time they leave the
fjords and fly away into the open sea.

In their habits the Kittiwakes are perhaps more sociable and noisier than
the rest of their family, but in other respects they present nothing
particularly noticeable. They walk badly, and therefore seldom come on dry
land, but they swim well, even in the roughest weather. Their flight is
light, easy, and much diversified, sometimes sweeping around in beautiful
gyrations, sometimes urged rapidly forward by long strokes of their wings.
Occasionally they will plunge from a considerable altitude into the water,
to catch a fish, or seize upon any food that happens to present itself.
They never seem to quarrel, and it is really wonderful to observe in what
harmony thousands, or we might say millions, of them live together.

For their breeding-places these Gulls invariably select rocks well
furnished with ledges, projections, or cavities, ranged one above another,
and it is on these shelves or within the hollows, that they place their
nests. From the foot of the rock to its very summit, each "coign of
vantage" is appropriated, each platform covered, and if not exactly
cooing like so many Doves, at least they make as musical shriekings and
screechings as a Sea Gull is capable of producing. During all this
love-making, great numbers are continually flying hither and thither
in search of materials with which to build, so that the whole hill is
surrounded with them, and when seen at a distance they present very much
the appearance of a swarm of bees. Previous to our visiting Lapland we had
read descriptions of these breeding-places, but from them had formed a
very imperfect conception of the reality. Never shall we forget the day on
which we made an excursion to Svärrholt, not very far from the North Cape.
The vast perpendicular front of the rock to which the Gulls resorted,
looked as we approached it like a gigantic slate covered all over with
millions of little white dots. On our firing a gun, all these millions
of shining points seemed to detach themselves from the dark background,
afterwards to become alive, next to become Sea Gulls, and then to pour
themselves in a continuous stream into the sea. Looking upwards it seemed
exactly as if a great snow-storm had begun to shower gigantic flakes from
the skies--for minutes together it snowed birds, the whole sea, as far as
we could discern, was thickly covered with them, and yet the surface of
the rock seemed as densely peopled with birds as at first. We had before
thought the narratives we had read were exaggerations, we now found them
to be far below the truth. In every nest these birds lay three or four
eggs of a dirty rusty yellow, sparsely besprinkled with dots and streaks
of a darker tint. It is only reasonable to suppose that each pair devote
themselves exclusively to the incubation of their own eggs and the rearing
of their own young. But how a pair, among all those hundreds of thousands
of nests can ever find their own abode, or even each other, when they have
once left their place even for a minute is beyond our comprehension. The
young birds remain in the nest till the middle of August, at which time
they are sufficiently fledged to enable them to fly out to sea and add
their voice to the deafening screeching of their fellows.

       *       *       *       *       *

The BLACK-HEADED GULLS (_Chroicocephalus_) constitute a group whose
most conspicuous character is that, when in their nuptial dress, their
head is covered, as it were, with a black cap. We can hardly, from this
circumstance, regard them as a distinct sub-family; nevertheless, they
present certain peculiarities not common to the race. All these birds
inhabit temperate climates, and seldom or never appear in the northern
regions visited by so many other species. The food of the Black-headed
Gulls consists principally of insects and small fishes; however, they by
no means despise small quadrupeds or carrion. Insects they generally catch
in the water and pick from the surface of the ground, but occasionally
they take them while on the wing. The young are fed almost exclusively on
insects.


THE LAUGHING GULL.

The LAUGHING GULL (_Chroicocephalus ridibundus_). The adult in summer
has the head, occiput, and upper part of the neck of a dark brown, the
colour being most intense when first assumed, and becoming lighter by
time and wear; the sides and back of the neck are pure white; the back,
wing-covers, secondaries, and tertials, uniform French grey; the first
three quill primaries white on the shafts and webs, but margined with
black; the fourth white on the outer web, grey on the inner web, and edged
with black; the fifth and sixth grey on both webs, the edge of the inner
or broader web and the point black; tail-covers and tail-feathers white;
front of the neck, breast, and all the under surface of the body and tail
pure white; legs and feet, like the beak, are vermilion-red; irides hazel;
eyelids orange.

The adult bird in winter has the head only slightly marked with a dusky
patch at the ear-covers. The young are brownish on the upper parts of the
body. This species is sixteen inches long, and thirty-six inches broad;
the wing measures twelve and tail five inches.

With regard to the change in colour of the head according to the season of
the year, Mr. Yarrell observes: "A Gull in the collection at the Gardens
of the Zoological Society began to change colour on the head, from white
to dark brown, on the 11th of March; it was a change of colour, and not an
act of moulting; no feather was shed, and the change was completed in five
days."

The Laughing Gull is plentiful from 30° to 60° north latitude, and within
this zone it rears its young. It is met with pretty nearly in equal
numbers upon suitable inland waters in Europe, Asia, and America. In the
South of Europe it is seen throughout the year; in Central Europe and
Great Britain it is only a visitor, leaving us in October and November to
take up its quarters upon the shores of the Mediterranean. It is, however,
said to be a constant resident in Ireland.

[Illustration: THE LAUGHING GULL (_Chroicocephalus ridibundus_).]

When the snow begins to melt, these Gulls return, and in fine seasons
arrive at their more northern terminus towards the end of March, or at the
beginning of April. Before commencing their journey, the old birds have
already selected their mates; they accompany their partners at once to the
breeding-places, but the younger ones seem to defer their courtship till
they arrive at their destination. They only live in the sea during the
winter, and it is seldom that they breed even on islands near the coast.
Fresh waters, surrounded by fields, are their favourite places of resort
in the summer season, and here they find everything that they require.
These birds are abundant at the mouth of the Thames, where they lay their
eggs on the low flat islands and marshes of Essex. In Norfolk an extensive
piece of water, called Scoulton Mere, has from time immemorial been one of
their favourite breeding-places. The eggs, which are most abundant there
about May, are assiduously collected, and are sometimes so plentiful that
we are told a man and three boys have obtained 1,600 in a single day.

When swimming, these Gulls may be regarded as ornamental birds, more
especially when they are in their full plumage. Their movements are
extremely elegant and graceful, they walk quickly, and are not readily
tired, and for hours together may be seen following the ploughman,
or roaming about fields and meadows in search of insects. They swim
beautifully, but not very rapidly. They rise readily into the air, either
from the surface of the ground or from the water, and apparently without
effort perform a variety of pleasing evolutions during their flight. In
some of the Swiss cantons, and in all parts of Southern Europe lying near
the sea, they are treated by the inhabitants as if half domesticated.
They may be seen everywhere, running about with the greatest confidence,
as if they knew very well that no one would attempt to do them an injury.
Their voice is harsh and disagreeable, earning for them doubtless the
name of Sea Crows, whereby they are generally designated. Towards the end
of April the breeding season commences, and after much quarrelling the
place selected where each pair is to build its nest. These birds never
breed separately, seldom in small parties, but most generally in large
flocks, of hundreds or rather thousands of birds, which generally crowd
themselves together into a very limited space. Their nests are usually
placed upon insulated patches of ground surrounded by water, or situated
in the centre of a marsh, and overgrown with sedges, reeds, and rushes;
under some circumstances they will build in the marsh itself, sheltering
their nests among tufts of grass, but always in some unfrequented
situation, to which access is nearly impracticable. The foundation of
the nest is laid by flattening down the herbage and lining the cavity so
formed with leaves, straw, and similar materials. The eggs, which are
deposited about the beginning of May, to the number of four or five in
each nest, are tolerably large, of a pale olive-green colour, speckled,
spotted, and streaked with ashy-grey and dark brownish grey, but the eggs
vary considerably both in size, colour, and markings. The two sexes brood
alternately, one or other of them remaining constantly upon the nest
during the night, but in the daytime they seem to think the heat of the
sun an efficient substitute for their presence. After the lapse of about
eighteen days the young make their appearance, and in about three or four
weeks afterwards are completely fledged. In situations where the nests
are surrounded by water the young ones do not leave them during the first
few days, but if they are situated upon dry ground the little nestlings
scramble out and run about very actively. When a fortnight old they are
able to flutter from place to place, and at the end of the third week are
almost able to take care of themselves. The courage with which the parents
defend their young is most exemplary. No sooner does an enemy in the shape
of a Hawk, a Crow, or a Heron make its appearance, than a tremendous
outcry is raised by the whole colony, even the brooding birds leave their
nests, and all rush forward to oppose the invader. A dog or fox they
attack with equal fury. Should a man intrude upon them they fly around him
in circles, screaming with all their might, and if, deafened by the noise,
he retires, he is followed to some distance, with every indication of joy
at his departure.

In the north of Germany it is common on a certain day to have a general
_battue_, and slaughter the poor Gulls by wholesale. This useless
destruction, which, under the name of "the Gull-shooting," serves as
an excuse for a general holiday, savours much of the barbarism of the
Dark Ages; as, far from being pernicious, these beautiful birds render
important services to the farmers by clearing the land of a vast quantity
of hurtful insects.


THE GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL.

The GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL (_Chroicocephalus ichthyaëtus_) in its summer
plumage has the entire head and upper neck black, the feathered orbits
white, back and wing blue-grey, upper tail-covers and tail pure white,
with a black band, primaries with a black band, increasing in width to the
outermost one, which has the whole of the web black, the rest of the first
five primaries white, the others grey, tipped with white; the other parts
of the plumage are pure white; bill red, yellow at tip; irides brown; feet
dull red; length about twenty-six inches; wing nineteen to twenty inches;
tail seven inches; bill at front two inches and a quarter; tarsus three
inches; the closed wing extends about one inch and a half beyond the tail.
This bird inhabits Northern and Central Asia, and is rare in India. Jerdon
observed it on the sea-coast at Madras, and occasionally ascending the
Hooghly and other large rivers. It frequents the borders of the Caspian
Sea. The eggs, which are oblong, and marked with deep brown and paler
spots, are laid on the bare sand, near large rivers. When flying, the
hoarse voice of this bird resembles that of the Rover.


THE LESSER BLACK-HEADED GULL.

The LESSER BLACK-HEADED GULL (_Chroicocephalus melanocephalus_) is
about fifteen inches and a quarter in length. In this species the whole
head, except a small patch of white above and beneath the eye, is of an
extremely deep black; the back of neck, chest, tail, and all the under
parts are pure white; the whole of the upper part, delicate pearl-grey;
primaries, white at their tips, the outer web of the first primary black
for three parts of its length; beak, legs, and eyelids vermilion, irides
brown. This bird inhabits Southern Europe, particularly the shores of the
Adriatic. It abounds in Dalmatia, breeding in the marshes.


THE LITTLE GULL.

The LITTLE GULL (_Chroicocephalus minuta_). In winter the entire upper
surface of the adult's plumage is of a blueish ash; quills and secondaries
tipped with white; throat and under surface pure white, with a slight
tinge of rose-colour; bill brownish red; tarsi bright red; irides brown.
In summer the whole of the head and upper part become of a brownish black.
It is found, though not in great abundance, in the western part of Europe.
This species inhabits the eastern parts of Russia, Livonia, and Hungary,
and the shores of the Black and Caspian Seas.

It is rare in Great Britain, and was first described as a British bird by
Montagu, in his "Ornithological Dictionary." According to Temminck, it
feeds on worms and insects. Little, however, is known of its habits.

       *       *       *       *       *

The SKUAS (_Lestres_), although resembling the Gulls in shape and plumage,
differ from them in so many particulars that they must be regarded as
forming a separate family. The principal points of difference between
these birds and the true Sea Gulls are found in the structure of the beak
and feet, as also in the peculiarity of their colours, and in their mode
of life.

In the Skuas the body is strongly built, the neck short, the head small,
the beak moderately short but strong, thick, and towards the apex
compressed. The upper mandible is vaulted above, strongly hooked, and
provided at its base with a cere. The tarsus is moderately high, the
toes short, but with a very complete web, and furnished with crooked,
sharp-pointed, and sharp-edged claws. The wings are long, narrow, and
pointed, the first quill being the longest. The tail consists of twelve
feathers, of moderate length, and has the central tail-feathers prolonged.
The plumage is rich and thick, upon the under surface fur-like; its
prevailing colour is a dusky brown.

The Skuas, or Parasite Gulls, are most abundant in the Arctic Regions.
They live principally in the open sea, but at their breeding-time seek
the neighbourhood of coasts and islands. Occasionally they wing their way
into more southern latitudes, and sometimes are to be seen far inland. In
strength of wing they are superior to the Gulls, and they swim well, but
prefer flying to swimming. In a certain sense, they might be said to hold
a middle position between Sea Gulls and birds of prey. They attack all
animals that they are able to subdue, and persecute their weaker brethren
until they oblige them to yield up whatsoever prey they may have caught.
Indeed, it was recently generally believed that they were unable to catch
prey for themselves, but were obliged to live the life of freebooters,
and depend upon thieving for their support; modern observations have,
however, shown that this is not altogether correct. It is, however, quite
true that their power of diving is not such as to enable them to catch
fishes at any great depth; they can only procure such as may be swimming
close to the surface. They are, however, by no means confined to a fish
diet; they devour birds and their eggs, kill small quadrupeds, and prey
upon shell-fish of every kind. They will even attack young lambs, hack out
their eyes and brains, and, in short, prey upon everything that offers
itself, whether living or dead. Generally, however, they live by the
labour of other diving birds. They watch the Gulls, Terns, Guillemots, and
other predatory species, and whenever they perceive that they have caught
a fish, hasten after them with all speed, and so torment and worry them as
to compel them to disgorge their already swallowed prey, and let it drop
from their mouths. No sooner do their pursuers see it fall than, swooping
after it with the speed of a Falcon, they catch it before it reaches the
water, and appropriate it to their own use. Such barefaced robbery as
this naturally causes the Skuas to be detested by all seafaring birds;
nevertheless, they seem to care very little for the general hatred, and
recklessly pursue their system of plunder whenever opportunity offers.
No sea-bird will brood in their vicinity, or remain upon any inland lake
of which they have possession. Every individual who has once made their
acquaintance endeavours, as the sailors say, to give them a wide berth.
The more valorous species often attack them furiously; the timid flee at
their approach, or if they are in a position which enables them to do
so, dive out of their sight. When their breeding-time arrives, the Skuas
assemble in small parties, and build their nests in company with each
other. The places selected for this purpose are generally large islands,
some species preferring the level of the shore, others the summits of
the highest rocks. In these localities they scratch or construct for
themselves a round excavation in the sand, and, if practicable, concealed
among plants, and in the ample nest lay two or three eggs, upon which the
male and female sit alternately. The young are fed at first with food
partially digested in the stomachs of their parents, subsequently upon
coarser diet. They remain in the nest for several days, and when they
leave it run about on the beach like young birds, hiding themselves, in
case of danger, between the stones, or among the inequalities of the
ground. After they have become capable of flight, they continue for
some time in the neighbourhood of the coast, profit by their parents'
instructions, and in their company they at last fly away to the open sea.
In the second summer of their lives they begin to breed. The eggs of the
Skuas are eaten by the inhabitants of northern countries, but the birds
themselves are considered worthless; nevertheless, they are killed in
great numbers. The chase after them is easy enough, inasmuch as they will
greedily swallow any kind of bait, and fear man no more than they do the
birds that they plunder.


THE COMMON SKUA.

The COMMON SKUA (_Lestris catarractes_), the most conspicuous member of
the above family, is twenty-two inches long, fifty-two inches broad; the
length of its wing sixteen inches and a half, of the tail, six inches and
a half. The colour of its plumage is greyish brown, the somewhat lighter
under surface is striped longitudinally with pale or red grey; a space at
the base of the dark-coloured wing is white; the eye is red-brown; the
beak leaden grey at the root, and black at the apex; the foot blackish
grey. The young birds resemble the adults.

Although the proper climate of the Skua is between 60° and 70° north
latitude, it has also been met with in the temperate zone of the southern
hemisphere. In Europe its head-quarters are in the vicinity of the Faroe
and Shetland Islands; also on the coasts of Iceland, and the Orkneys and
Hebrides, ranging from thence, in the winter season, to the northern
shores of France, England, and Germany. The greater number of them,
however, remain constantly in the north, seeking for their food wherever
the sea may happen to be free from ice.

[Illustration: THE COMMON SKUA (_Lestris catarractes_).]

The Skua is recognisable from the larger Gulls by the varied character,
facility, and rapidity of its movements. It runs quickly when upon dry
land, swims beautifully, floating with its breast deeply immersed, and
rises easily into the air, whether from the sea or from level ground.
The flight of this bird resembles that of the larger Sea Gulls, but
is not so equable. Sometimes the celerity of its movements will bear
comparison with those of the Hawks and Eagles. Sometimes it skims over
the surface of the sea without the slightest perceptible motion of its
wings, or rushes from a great height obliquely downwards towards the
surface of the sea, tearing through the air with surprising rapidity. In
daring, thieving, and unsociableness it not only far exceeds the Gulls,
but surpasses every other sea-bird. Of all the tyrants of the sea it
is the most universally dreaded; it has no participation or friendship
with any other species; and although only the strongest of its enemies
ever venture to attack so redoubtable a foe, it is held in universal
abhorrence. The opinion entertained by other birds as to its cunning and
ferocity is best exemplified by the fact that even such as are far larger
and stronger than their oppressors submit to be robbed and bullied in the
manner we have described, without making the slightest resistance. The
appetite of the Skuas is exactly proportioned to their restlessness and
activity. So long as they are on the wing they are constantly employed
in satisfying the cravings of their ravenous maw. Should no other bird
appear in sight upon which to exercise their avocation as highwaymen, they
are under the necessity of fishing for themselves, and if not successful
in their endeavours to obtain a meal, have recourse to the shore, upon
which they diligently search for anything in the shape of food that may
have been left by the receding tide. Should this resource likewise fail
them, they fly off into the fields and inland marshes, where they pick up
worms, insects, and small mollusca; or should they meet with a sea-bird
similarly occupied, they at once give chase, exhibiting as much strength
and skilfulness in the use of their wings as they do courage and audacity
in planning their attack, never leaving their victim until they have made
him disgorge the contents of his stomach, and appropriated it to their
own use. Not unfrequently, indeed, they will kill and devour the bird
itself. Graba tells us that he saw one of them at a single blow shatter
the skull of a Coulterneb, and various witnesses testify that they eat Sea
Gulls and Guillemots, striking them dead with their beaks, and afterwards
tearing them to pieces. Wounded or disabled birds they remorselessly
devour. In the breeding-places they plunder the nests, breaking the eggs
and swallowing the young. "A general shriek," says Nordmann, "rises from
a thousand throats as soon as one of these marauders is seen winging his
way towards the rock, and yet none of the brooding birds will venture to
offer anything like a serious resistance to the invader. He seizes hold
of the young birds, wrenching them from the very beaks of their parents,
who only follow the robber to a little distance from the nest, without any
effectual result. So soon as the thief finds himself no longer pursued,
he flies down to the sea, kills and devours his prey, and then flies off
with it to his own nest, where he disgorges it for the benefit of his
young family. When making these raids, the Skua has never been observed to
use any other weapon than his beak, although it would seem probable, from
the sharpness of his powerful, strongly-hooked claws, that they likewise
may be resorted to as formidable instruments of attack. After a plentiful
meal, the Skua betakes himself to some rock, where he sits for a time with
puffed-out feathers, apparently enjoying a luxurious nap, and in that
position he remains till the calls of hunger again prompt him to active
exertion."

About the beginning of May, the Skuas may be seen congregating in pairs
in the vicinity of their breeding-places, where, upon some rocky platform
or moss-grown overhanging ledge, they construct their nests. These are
generally mere cavities, hollowed out by the pressure of their bodies,
and here, during the first days of June, they lay two eggs of a dirty
olive-green colour, spotted with brown. One of their breeding-places
visited by Graba was occupied by about fifty couples. According to Mr.
Dunn, this species has three breeding-places in the Shetland Isles--Foula,
Rona's Hill, and the Isle of Unst. In the latter place it is by no means
numerous, and is strictly preserved by the landlords on whose property it
may have settled, from a supposition that it will defend their flocks from
the attack of the Eagle. That it will attack the Eagle if he approaches
its nest is a fact that I have witnessed. I once saw a pair beat off a
large Eagle from their breeding-place on Rona's Hill.

Should a man approach the nest, the old birds at once fly into the air
screaming furiously, and sometimes boldly attack the rash intruder on
their privacy by dealing violent blows about his head and face. Sometimes,
according to Graba, bird-catchers hold knives above their caps, upon
which the birds occasionally impale themselves as they swoop violently
down and endeavour to wound the enemy's head. Both parents assist in the
work of incubation, and hatch the eggs in about four weeks. The young are
nimble, gallant little fellows, and leave the nest almost immediately
after quitting the shell. A writer in the Records of the Wernerian Society
informs us that on alarm of danger they secrete themselves with great art
behind stones, or in holes, and if captured make a most amusing show of
defence. When first hatched, the fledglings are warmly clad in greyish
brown down, and are reared upon small mollusca, worms, eggs, and similar
delicacies, disgorged from the parents' crop; at a later period they
are supplied with half-digested fish or flesh, or sometimes with young
birds. When able to provide for themselves, they are said to eat berries
of different kinds. By the end of August they have attained their full
growth, and in September are able to fly out to sea. The Common Skua is
easily tamed, and in some places, says Mr. Dunn, is a great favourite with
the fishermen, frequently accompanying their boats to the fishing-ground;
this the fishermen consider a lucky omen, and in return for its attendance
they give it the refuse of the fish which are caught, or supply it with
any useless garbage from their nets.


BUFFON'S OR THE PARASITE SKUA.

BUFFON'S or the PARASITE SKUA (_Lestris [Stercorarius] parasitica_)
is considerably smaller, and more slenderly built, than the species
last described, from which it is also distinguishable by the central
tail-feathers. These are considerably elongated and sharp-pointed. The
colour of this bird is either sooty brown, with a white throat, and a
whitish or yellowish patch upon the forehead, or the upper side is sooty
brown, the throat yellowish, the under side greyish white, and the region
of the crop grey. This variation in the colours of different specimens
seems quite independent either of age or sex. The eye is brown, beak
black, cere dark leaden grey, and the foot blue-black. The length is
eighteen to nineteen inches; breadth, thirty-nine to forty-two inches;
length of wing, twelve inches; length of tail, seven inches. The Parasite
Skua is met with in the Arctic Regions of both hemispheres. It is found
in Spitzbergen and Greenland, extending thence to the middle of the coast
of Norway; it occurs in Iceland; in the islands to the north of Scotland;
in the Faroe Islands; off the coast of Labrador; in Newfoundland; also in
Behring's Straits; and in the Sea of Ochotsk it is abundant. In England
and Ireland it is but rarely seen. During the winter it is a regular
visitant to the more southern coasts of the countries bordering on the
North Sea, and sometimes wanders inland. Except during the breeding
season, it passes its whole life on the sea. Its presence is by no means
confined to coasts and rocky reefs; it remains for weeks together far out
of sight of land.

The unpractised observer will find but little difficulty in distinguishing
the Parasite Gull, even from its nearest allies, as soon as he has
witnessed the manner of its flight. Its gait when walking is hurried, but
is not otherwise remarkable, and when swimming, with the exception of
its dark colour, it very much resembles some of the smaller Gulls. Its
flight, however, is more versatile than that of any member of the family;
frequently it skims along like a Falcon, at one time giving a few rapid
strokes with its wings, then sweeping onwards to a considerable distance,
somewhat after the manner of a Kite; suddenly, however, it seems to
shiver, or rapidly shake its wings, and precipitates itself downwards,
describing a sort of arch, mounts up again, and immediately adopts a
course made up of an alternation of larger and smaller arches joined
beneath each other. It now shoots with great rapidity downwards, then
slowly mounts again, and remains for a moment quiet, as it were exhausted;
but the next instant, as though possessed by an evil spirit, it turns, and
winds, and struggles, and flutters in an indescribable manner.

The cry of these birds somewhat resembles that of a Peacock. In their
disposition they very closely resemble the Common Skua; they are bold,
importunate, and valorous, but covetous, gluttonous, and thievish. In one
respect, however, they differ from the Skua in a striking manner--they
are remarkably social, and are at all times to be met with in little
companies. During the breeding season they assemble in still greater
numbers, but arranged in pairs, each of which builds its nest a little
removed from the others, within a small territory of its own. These birds
are as much feared by the smaller Gulls, as the Great Skuas are by the
larger ones, and yet, strange to say, Plovers, Snipes, and Oyster-catchers
may be seen building in their immediate vicinity without the slightest
indication of mistrust.

Upon several occasions we have watched the Parasite Gulls for weeks at a
time, and by so doing have ascertained that during the middle of summer
they are quite as active in the night-time as during the day. They have
often appeared to us to be busied for hours together catching insects, but
we have never found anything but the remains of fishes in their stomachs.
The birds that they principally follow for the sake of making them
disgorge any prey that they have swallowed are Gulls, Petrels, Terns, and
Guillemots. The booty, however, that they obtain in this summary manner
can scarcely form the staple of their food. They may be seen wandering
along the beach, picking up worms and remnants cast up by the waves quite
as often as they are employed in pursuing other birds. About the middle of
May the Parasite Gulls make their appearance on dry land for the purpose
of rearing their progeny. The places selected for the nests are generally
low-lying moors and high rocks; according to our own experience, they
always avoid extensive moors. Fifty or a hundred of their nests may be
sometimes counted in these settlements; each pair, however, seems to claim
the vicinity of their nest as their own ground, from which they drive
away intruders even of their own species. The nests are situated upon
the top of small hillocks of earth, and consist of simple but carefully
formed excavations. Their eggs, which are seldom laid before the middle
of June, are smooth and somewhat polished; their colour is a dingy olive,
or brownish green, speckled, streaked, and dotted with dark grey, dark
olive, or reddish brown. Naumann is of opinion that the Parasite Gulls
only lay two eggs; we, however, have repeatedly found three in the same
nest. The two sexes brood by turns, and tenderly watch over their young.
Should a man approach the nest, they at once hasten to meet the intruder;
they fly round in circles, throw themselves on the ground before him to
distract his notice, always, of course, managing to get out of the way
should he try to catch them. They show themselves on these occasions quite
experts in dissimulation, hop and flutter on the grass as if they were
wounded--in short, do everything in their power to tempt their enemy from
the locality. The early life of the young birds differs in no important
particular from that of their congeners already described.


ROSS'S ROSY GULL.

Ross's ROSY GULL (_Rhodostethia rosea_ or _Rossii_), the most beautiful
Gull with which we are acquainted, is a resident in America, where it
inhabits the far north. Upon some occasions, however, it has been known to
visit Europe, and consequently deserves notice, although we are ignorant
of any important particulars in which it differs from others of its race.
This species is distinguishable by its wedge-shaped tail, the two middle
feathers of which project nearly an inch beyond the rest; from this
circumstance it is regarded as the representative of a distinct section of
the family. Its beak is feeble, and the angular enlargement of the front
of the under jaw, so characteristic of the Gulls, scarcely perceptible.
The tarsus is moderately strong, and the four-toed foot of a medium
length. The coloration of the feathers is more delicate and beautiful than
that of any other of the race; the mantle is pearly or silvery grey; the
under neck, breast, and belly are pale rose-red; the middle of the neck
is adorned with a narrow black band, somewhat resembling a necklace of
jet. The exterior web of the first quill is black, that of all the others
white. The eyelids and throat are reddish yellow, the beak black, the foot
scarlet. The length of this bird is fourteen inches; the length of the
wing ten inches and a half; and of the tail five inches and a half. The
Rosy Gull is included among British birds, a specimen having been killed
upon a ploughed field in Yorkshire in 1847. Yarrell tells us that its
flight resembles that of its congeners, and that it did not appear at all
shy.

       *       *       *       *       *

The PETRELS, or STORM-BIRDS (_Procellaridæ_), are distinguishable among
all other sea-birds, and, indeed, among all birds whatever, by the
circumstance that their nostrils are represented by horny tubes, situated
upon the upper beak.

       *       *       *       *       *

The ALBATROSSES (_Diomedeæ_), although by no means the noblest among
this extensive group, seem to claim the precedence on account of their
prodigious size and imposing aspect. These birds are recognisable by their
great stature, powerful build, short thick neck, large head, and long
beak, the latter being strong, compressed at the sides, and terminating
in a formidably hooked tip. For some distance from its commencement the
culmen is slightly bowed inwards, and the cutting edges are exceedingly
sharp. The nostrils terminate in short horny tubes, that lie side by
side upon the upper aspect of the beak, and from these deep channels
are prolonged quite to its extremity. The tarsus is short, but strong,
the foot three-toed, and very broadly-webbed. The wings are very long,
but remarkably narrow, the primary quills long and strong, the first
quill being the longest; the secondary quills, on the contrary, are
remarkably short, scarcely projecting beyond the wing-covers. The tail,
which consists of twelve feathers, is short, either straight, or slightly
rounded or pointed at its extremity. The general plumage is uncommonly
rich, thick, and downy, but not striking in its coloration, which seems to
vary in the two sexes and at different ages, as well as according to the
seasons of the year.

[Illustration: THE ROSY GULL (_Rhodostethia rosea_).]

The Albatrosses claim the vast ocean of the southern hemisphere as their
habitat; both the _D. exulans_ and the _D. chlororhynchus_, it is true,
have been occasionally seen even off the coasts of Europe, but such a
circumstance can only be regarded as an accidental occurrence. They seldom
or never pass beyond the tropic of Capricorn, at least in the Atlantic,
and even then only as occasional wanderers. They appear more frequently,
however, in the northern regions of the Pacific Ocean; they are also said
to make regular visits to Behring's Straits and the Sea of Ochotsk, and
not only casually to show themselves upon those unfrequented shores, but
to reside in their vicinity during several months, only retiring beyond
the equator as the season for breeding approaches. In like manner they
are frequently met with in high antarctic latitudes, _i.e._, as we are
informed by sailors and fishermen, up to 50° or 60° south latitude; but
whether these visits are regular migrations, or merely casual excursions,
we are not as yet informed. We know, however, that they visit all seas
lying between 23° north, and 66° south latitude; that when they come into
more northern climes, as into Kamschatka and Ochotsk, they are hungry,
lank, and half-starved, but that in a few weeks, owing to the abundance
of food they there meet with, they return to their breeding-places plump
and in good condition. It is said by some observers that in the literal
meaning of the words their flight extends quite around the globe, being
generally, however, more or less restricted within the limits of a certain
zone, from which they never wander far during the whole course of the
year, and within which they likewise breed.


THE WANDERING ALBATROSS.

The WANDERING ALBATROSS (_Diomedea exulans_), called by some the Cape
Sheep, is, with the exception of its black wings, entirely pure white.
In young birds the plumage is banded and marked with various shades of
brown. The eye is dark brown, the naked eyelid pale green; the bill is
reddish white, with yellow tip; and the foot yellowish white. According
to measurements made by Bennett, this species is three feet ten inches
long, and the spread of the wings eleven feet eight inches; this latter
measurement is, however, subject to variation, some being not more that
ten feet, and others as much as fourteen feet across the wings.

[Illustration: THE WANDERING ALBATROSS (_Diomedea exulans_). ONE-FIFTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

The habitat of the Wandering Albatross is confined within no particular
limits, it is, however, most abundant between 30° and 60° south latitude,
and is equally numerous in all parts of the Southern Ocean. The wide ocean
is its natural range, and this it never leaves except for the purpose of
breeding, when it usually resorts to inaccessible rocky islands.

"The powers of flight of the Wandering Albatross," says Gould, "are much
greater than those of any other bird that has come under my observation.
Although during calm or moderate weather it sometimes rests on the surface
of the water, it is almost constantly on the wing, and is equally at
ease while passing over the glassy surface during the stillest calm, or
flying with meteor-like swiftness before the most furious gale." Although
a vessel running before the wind frequently sails more than 200 miles in
twenty-four hours, and that for days together, still the Albatross has not
the slightest difficulty in keeping up with the ship, but also performs
circles of many miles in extent, returning from these excursions to the
wake of the vessel in order to obtain any substances thrown overboard.

"It is pleasing," writes Bennett, "to observe this superb bird sailing
in the air in graceful and elegant movements, seemingly excited by some
invisible power, for there is rarely any movement of the wings seen after
the first and frequent impulses given when the creature elevates itself
in the air; rising and falling without any muscular exertion of its own,
and then descending, sweeps the air close to the stern of the ship with
an independence of manner as if he were monarch of all he surveyed. It
is from the very little muscular exertion used by these birds that they
are capable of sustaining such long flights without repose. When seizing
an object floating on the water, they gradually descend with expanded or
upraised wings, or sometimes alight and float like a Duck on the water
while devouring their food; then elevating themselves, they skim the
ocean with expanded wings, giving frequent impulses, as the great length
of their wings prevents their rising with facility from a level surface,
as they run along for some distance until they again soar in mid-air,
and recommence their erratic flights." Like other species of the genus,
this Albatross is nocturnal as well as diurnal in its habits; no bird
takes so little repose; indeed, it appears to be constantly on the wing,
scanning the surface of the ocean for the molluscs, medusæ, and other
marine animals that constitute its food. The Wandering Albatross breeds
in the rocky islands of the Southern Ocean during the months of November
and December. The grass-covered declivities of the hills, above thickets
of wood, are the spots usually selected for its nest, which consists of
a mound of earth intermingled with grass and leaves. The nest is about
eighteen inches high and six feet in circumference at its base, whilst the
opening at the top is about twenty-seven inches in diameter. The eggs are
white, and from fourteen and a half to nineteen ounces in weight.

"The Albatross," says Dr. McCormick, "frequently sleeps with its head
under its wing during the period of incubation, its beautiful white head
and neck above the grass betraying its situation from a considerable
distance. If approached, it resolutely defends its egg, and if forced off
the nest, slowly moves away to a short distance, but does not take wing. A
fierce species of _Lestris_ watches keenly for any opportunity of seizing
the eggs, and so well aware is the Albatross of its hostile intentions,
that he snaps his beak violently whenever he observes the _Lestris_
overhead." The female usually lays but one egg; the young bird is entirely
white, and covered with a beautiful woolly down.


THE YELLOW-BILLED ALBATROSS.

The YELLOW-BILLED ALBATROSS (_Diomedea chlororhynchus_) is smaller than
the above species. In the adult birds the plumage is principally white
with brownish black rump and wings of the same colour; the tail-feathers
are brownish grey shafted with white; the bill is black with orange-red
culmen.

This species is abundant off the Cape of Good Hope, and also in the seas
between the African shores and Tasmania. Gould observed it off Capes Howe
and Northumberland on the southern coast of Australia, and Gilbert tells
us that he saw it flying on the western coast about Rottnest Island, in
short, its presence may be expected throughout the temperate zones of the
southern hemisphere.


THE SOOTY OR BLACK ALBATROSS.

The SOOTY or BLACK ALBATROSS (_Diomedea_ or _Phœbetria fuliginosa_) is
principally of a dark sooty grey; the head and wings are brown. In this
species the tail is wedge-shaped.

The Sooty or Black Albatross, one of the commonest species, is universally
spread over all temperate latitudes south of the equator. According to
Latham, these birds breed on the Island of Tristan d'Acunha, and are
gregarious, many of them building their nests close to each other; in the
area of half an acre were reckoned upwards of a hundred. The nest is of
mud, raised five or six inches, and slightly depressed at the top; when
the young are more than half-grown they are covered with a whitish down;
they stand on their respective hillocks like statues, until approached
close, when they make a strange clattering with their beaks, and if
touched squirt a deluge of fetid oily fluid from the nostrils. "The Black
Albatross is common," says Layard, "along the south coast of Africa, at a
little distance from the land. It is fond of hovering over a ship's deck,
and I have obtained specimens by sending a small rifle bullet through
them, thus killing them instantly; if struck with shot, their feathers are
so dense that they seldom receive a death wound, but drift seaward and
perish miserably. I have never observed any of the other Albatrosses hover
over the deck as this bird constantly does; I have seen it almost touch a
man on the royal yard. On these occasions it seems actuated by curiosity,
and keeps turning its head from side to side, scanning everything with
its brilliant dark eye." The eggs of this species resemble those of _D.
exulans_, but are somewhat smaller, being about four inches two lines long
by two inches six lines broad.

All the birds belonging to this family are oceanic, nevertheless each
species seems to confine its occupancy within certain zones or climates.
They are less numerously met with in the torrid zone than in the more
temperate and colder regions, and are more abundant in the southern than
in the northern hemisphere. During the breeding season they resort to the
coasts, but the greater part of their life is spent upon the open sea.
They can scarcely be said to walk, but they swim with ease and buoyancy,
still they seldom alight upon the water, passing by far the greater
part of their lives upon the wing. From the deck of a ship they may be
seen pertinaciously accompanying it for whole days together, sweeping
constantly along with an unbroken equable pace, mounting gently over the
crests of the highest waves, plunging headlong into the valleys between
them, only staying their course now and then for a moment, to enable them
to pick up any stray morsel thrown from the ship, or seen floating upon
the water. They are less capable of diving than most other sea-birds,
probably from the difficulty they must encounter in submerging their soft
thick plumage. They are even more saucily obtrusive than the Albatrosses,
and will fearlessly seize upon any proffered bait, even when they have
seen their fellow caught with a hook and line. Their food, besides fishes,
consists of any animal substances that may be found floating on the waves.
Their voracity is almost insatiable; with the prospect of a feast before
them, they think nothing of danger, and will even allow themselves to be
knocked down with sticks, or caught with the hand. The Petrels breed in
the vicinity of the sea, generally upon solitary and almost inaccessible
rocks. They can hardly be said to make a nest, but lay their eggs on the
bare ground, and immediately commence the work of incubation. Their eggs
are broad in proportion to their length, coarse-shelled, and of a pure
white, without any markings. The young when hatched are covered with grey
down; they grow very slowly, but are carefully tended by their parents,
who defend them by ejecting fetid oil from their crops in the face of
the assailant. After the young are able to fly, the families distribute
themselves over the surface of the sea. They are sociable birds, and may
sometimes be seen keeping together in considerable flocks.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUE PETRELS (_Procellariæ_) in their general appearance present a
certain resemblance to the Sea Gulls, from which, however, they are
easily distinguished by their rounder head, high forehead, and smaller
wings. The Petrels are powerfully built, short-necked, and large-headed;
their beak is shorter than the head, strong, hard, and so deeply furrowed
upon the sides that its point seems a mere appendage fastened to it,
forming at the extremity of the upper jaw a strongly-bent hook, and upon
the under jaw a peculiarly-formed angular termination. The cutting edges
of the mandibles overlap each other and are very sharp; the gape opens
backwards as far as the eye; the apertures of the nostrils are situated
in a horny pipe consisting of two tubes consolidated into one in such a
manner that the longitudinal division between them is perceptible; the
foot is moderately strong, the tarsus short and compressed laterally, the
three front toes are connected together by a well-developed swimming web,
but the hinder toe is only represented by a little rudimentary appendage.
The wings are very similar to those of Sea Gulls, but are shorter and more
pointed, the first quill being invariably longer than the rest. The tail,
which consists of twelve or fourteen feathers, is more or less rounded at
the extremity. The general plumage is rich, and thicker above than below,
indeed, on the under part it is very soft and fur-like. The two sexes
are alike in colour, and even the young differ but slightly from the old
birds, neither do their colours alter perceptibly with the seasons.

[Illustration: THE GIANT PETREL (_Procellaria_ [_Ossifragus_] _gigantea_).
ONE-SIXTH NATURAL SIZE.]


THE GIANT PETREL.

The GIANT PETREL (_Procellaria [Ossifragus] gigantea_) may be regarded
as holding a position intermediate between the Albatross and the Storm
Petrels. In this bird the plumage is deep chocolate-brown. The eye is
blackish brown; beak horn-grey, with red tip. The young bird is more
lightly coloured, and has a silvery white eye. The length of this species
is about two feet eight inches, and the spread of the wings from four feet
and a half to five feet.

The habitat of the Giant Petrel extends over the temperate and antarctic
zones of the southern hemisphere.

Captain Hutton tells us that "this bird breeds in the cliffs of Prince
Edward's Island and Kerguelen's Land, but the nests can be got at
occasionally. The young are at first covered with a beautiful, long,
light grey down; when fledged they are dark brown, mottled with white.
When a person approaches the nest, the old birds keep a short distance
away, while the young ones squirt a horribly-smelling oil out of their
mouths to the distance of six or eight feet. It is very voracious,
hovering over the sealers when engaged cutting up a seal, and devouring
the carcase the moment it is left, which the Albatross never does. It
sometimes chases the smaller species, but whether or not it can catch
birds possessed apparently of powers of flight superior to its own is
doubtful; but supposing one is killed, that it feeds only upon its heart
and liver, I can never believe, yet it is said to do so in the works of
many ornithologists."

[Illustration: THE FULMAR PETREL (_Procellaria glacialis_).]


THE FULMAR PETREL.

The FULMAR PETREL (_Procellaria glacialis_) is principally white, light
silvery grey upon the under side, and blueish grey upon the mantle. The
primary quills are black, the eye is brown, the beak along the culmen
pale horn-yellow, at its base greyish green. The foot is yellow, with a
shade of blue. In young birds the plumage on the under side of the body
is slightly blueish. The length of this species is eighteen or nineteen
inches, its breadth forty-one to forty-three inches, the length of its
wings twelve to thirteen inches, length of tail four inches and two-thirds.

The Fulmar Petrel lives in the Arctic Ocean, from which it rarely strays,
unless driven away by violent storms. In more southern seas it is
represented by a kindred species resembling it so closely that the two
were often mistaken for each other. The Island of St. Kilda, and Grünso
near Iceland, are looked upon as its most southern breeding-places. Like
all its kindred, it is an inhabitant of the wide sea, and, except during
its breeding season, only comes to dry land when lost and bewildered
by a fog, or wearied out by the long continuance of a storm. In North
Greenland it is said to be seen oftener than elsewhere upon the coasts,
and in the bays and harbours. Their specific name _glacialis_ has not been
very happily given to these birds, as they seem to avoid rather than seek
large accumulations of ice; indeed, all pilots hold their presence to be
a sure sign of open water. The flight of this Petrel very much resembles
that of the Ivory Gull. The sailor gazes with admiration as he sees it
with outspread, almost motionless wings, glide like a meteor over the
waves or battling with the storm for days together, apparently without
allowing itself the slightest repose. It seems to have not the slightest
fear of man; it approaches ships with the utmost confidence, and is rather
importunate in its visits to the whale-fishers, more especially should
they be engaged in cutting up a whale.

"The Fulmar," says Captain Scoresby, "is the constant companion of the
whale-fisher. It joins his ship immediately on passing the Shetland
Islands, and accompanies it through the trackless ocean to the highest
accessible latitudes. It keeps an eager watch for every thing thrown
overboard; the smallest particle of fatty substance can scarcely escape
it. Though few should be seen when a whale is about being captured, yet,
as soon as the flensing process commences, they rush in from all quarters
and frequently accumulate to many thousands in number. They then occupy
the greasy track of the ships; and, being audaciously greedy, fearlessly
advance within a few yards of the men employed in cutting up the whale.
It is highly amusing to see the voracity with which they seize the pieces
of fat that fall in their way; the size and quantity of the pieces they
take at a meal; the curious chuckling noise, which in their anxiety for
dispatch, they always make; and the jealousy with which they view, the
boldness with which they attack, any of their species that are engaged in
devouring the finest morsels. When carrion is scarce, the Fulmars follow
the living whale, and sometimes by their peculiar motions when hovering
at the surface of the water, point out to the fisher the position of
the animal of which he is in pursuit. They cannot, however, make much
impression on the dead whale until some more powerful animal tears away
the skin, for this is too tough for them to make their way through."

In high latitudes the Fulmars build their nests in every available
island, as far south as St. Kilda. Upon the Westmanoer, near Iceland, its
nests are more numerous than those of any other birds that breed in that
vicinity; some estimate of the numerous flocks in which it visits those
parts may be formed from the numbers killed, amounting annually, as Faber
informs us, to at least 20,000. Their numbers seem to be steadily on the
increase, in spite of the persecution to which they are subject. Their
nests are very generally placed beyond the reach of the bird-catchers,
notwithstanding that they are let down by ropes when in search of them,
and pursue them upon every ledge and in every crevice to which they can
possibly find access. The Fulmar Petrel begins to congregate around its
breeding-places in March, about the beginning of May, or sometimes towards
the middle of April; each pair lays a single egg, which is round, of a
pure white colour, either upon the bare surface of the rock, or in some
slight depression made or discovered in the scanty soil.

The Fulmar Petrel is only a rare visitor to England, but it frequents in
great numbers the islands of St. Kilda and Borrera; it is said also to
breed in some of the islands of the Hebrides.

Mr. John Macgillivray, who visited St. Kilda, its principal
breeding-place, in June, 1840, gives the following account:--

"This bird exists here in almost incredible numbers, and to the natives
is by far the most important of the productions of the island. It forms
one of the principal means of support to the inhabitants, who daily risk
their lives in its pursuit. The Fulmar breeds on the face of the highest
precipices, and only on such as are furnished with small grassy shelves,
every spot on which, above a few inches in extent, is occupied with
one or more of its nests. The nest is formed of herbage, seldom bulky,
generally a mere excavation in the turf, lined with dried grass, and the
withered tufts or the sea-pink, in which the bird deposits a single egg
of a pure white colour, when clean, which is seldom the case, and varying
in size from two inches seven lines to three inches one line in length,
by two inches in breadth. On the 30th of June, having partially descended
a nearly perpendicular precipice, six hundred feet in height, the whole
face of which was covered with the nests of the Fulmar, I enjoyed an
opportunity of watching the habits of this bird, and describing them
from personal observation. The nests had all been robbed about a month
before by the natives, who esteem the eggs of this species above all
others. Many of the nests contained each a young bird, a day or two old
at farthest, thickly covered with long white down. The birds were very
clamorous on being handled, and vomited a quantity of clear oil, with
which I sometimes observed the parent birds feeding them by disgorging
it. The old birds on being seized instantly vomit a quantity of clear
amber-coloured oil, which imparts to the whole bird, its nest, and young,
and even to the rock it frequents, a peculiar and very disagreeable odour.
Fulmar oil is the most valuable production of St. Kilda. The best is
obtained from the old bird, by surprising it at night upon the rock, and
tightly closing the bill until the fowler has secured the bird between
his knees, head downwards. By opening the bill the Fulmar is allowed to
disgorge about a tablespoonful of oil, or rather more, into the dried
gullet and stomach of a Solar Goose, used as a reservoir for that purpose.
These receptacles when filled are secured with a string and hung on cords
across the interior of the huts until required for use. Besides supplying
their lamps, this oil is used by the inhabitants of the island as a
medicine. In the beginning of August the natives descend the rocks for
young Fulmars, which are then nearly fledged, and, by boiling in water,
are made to furnish a large quantity of fat, which is skimmed off and
preserved in a solid form. The old Fulmar is much esteemed by the St.
Kildians, on account of its subcutaneous covering of fat, of which they
are immoderately fond."


THE CAPE PETREL.

The CAPE PETREL (_Procellaria_ or _Daption Capensis_) is another species
well known to mariners, as it has been recently killed in Europe. The
length of this bird is fourteen and its breadth thirty-two inches. Its
plumage may be described as white, variegated with black upon the mantle
in such a manner that without much stretch of fancy it might be compared
to the black and white squares of a chessboard; the greater part of the
upper surface is soot-black, or black speckled with white; the under
surface is white; the quills and tail-feathers tipped with black at their
extremities. The geographical distribution of these birds is remarkable.
In the Atlantic Ocean they are only to be met with beyond the tropic of
Capricorn, and it is a very rare occurrence to see one of them within the
limits of the torrid zone, or in any part of the northern hemisphere.
In the southern hemisphere, on the contrary, they are very common, more
especially upon the west coast of South America, as far north as the
equator. If captured in fine weather, when the sea is smooth, and they are
able to obtain their usual food, their stomach is found to contain little
except the remains of the marine animals upon which they feed, small
crustaceans, molluscs, and fishes; but during stormy weather, when they
are unable to obtain their ordinary nourishment, they become so voracious
that they will swallow almost anything. In the stomachs of individuals
captured by Tschudi during a continuance of bad weather, he found a most
miscellaneous collection both of eatable and uneatable substances--beans,
peas, and lentils, mutton bones, oakum, leather, slices of cabbage, leaves
and ship-biscuits, pieces of wood, and, in short, everything that had
accidentally fallen from the ship, or been intentionally thrown overboard.
In fine weather the Cape Petrels appear to be shy and distrustful; but
during a storm, driven apparently by hunger, they become positively
reckless, and are very easily captured. The way in which, under these
circumstances, they are caught by sailors is simple enough; a bent pin is
tied to the end of a strong string, to serve as a hook and line, a piece
of bread or bacon is used for bait, and no sooner is this thrown overboard
than it is seized upon by a bird, which, by a well-timed jerk of the
string, becomes hooked through the upper jaw, and is at once pulled on
board. In very stormy weather it naturally happens that so light a bait
never reaches the water, but is suspended fluttering in the wind; yet even
under these circumstances they will fly at it with the utmost avidity, and
if not caught by the hook, generally become so entangled by the string
that they are unable to escape. When drawn into the ship they defend
themselves valiantly with their beak, and moreover have an ugly trick of
squirting from their mouth right into the face of their enemy a loathsome,
stinking, oily fluid, which certainly to some extent avenges them for the
treatment they experience. When killed, they are skinned by the sailors,
and their skins made into weathercocks, the only use to which they seem to
be applicable.

[Illustration: THE CAPE PETREL (_Procellaria_ or _Daption Capensis_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

"This Martin among the Petrels," says Gould, "swims lightly; but it rarely
exercises natatorial power except to procure food, in pursuit of which
it occasionally dives for a moment or two. Nothing can be more graceful
than its motions when on the wing, with the neck shortened and the legs
entirely hidden among the feathers of the under tail-covers. Like the
other Petrels it ejects when irritated an oily fluid from the mouth. Its
feeble note of 'Cac, cac, cac, cac,' is frequently uttered; the third,
according to Captain Hutton, being pronounced the quickest." We learn from
Tschudi and Gould that this species breeds on rocky islands at no great
distance from the shore; but with this exception we are without reliable
particulars respecting its nidification.

[Illustration: STORM PETRELS.]


THE BROAD-BILLED PRION, OR DUCK PETREL.

The BROAD-BILLED PRION, or DUCK PETREL (_Prion vittatus_), together with
another species, which like itself is peculiar to the southern hemisphere,
constitute a little family apart, to which the name of Duck Petrels would
not be inapplicable. The most distinctive character met with in this
bird is that the margin of the upper jaw is furnished with small, thin,
tooth-like processes, arranged in the same manner as in some species of
Ducks, and answering a similar purpose. The wings are long and strong, the
first quill being somewhat shorter than the second. The tail, composed of
twelve feathers, is broad and bluntly rounded, the two central feathers
being perceptibly longer than the rest. The colour of the plumage is light
greyish blue upon the back, and pearl-white on the under surface; the back
and shoulder-feathers are darker than the rest of the body. The border of
the wing and the points of the tail-feathers are black. The eye is brown,
the beak dark grey, and the foot dark greyish blue. The length is ten
inches and a quarter, breadth twenty-two inches, length of wing six inches
and one-third, length of tail three inches and a half.

These birds are met with upon the coast of Brazil; their range extends
from the tropic of Capricorn to the equator; the region that they frequent
abounding in rugged rocks and small islands, upon which they probably find
their breeding-places. They seem to be much more numerous in the Pacific
Ocean than in the Atlantic. According to Tschudi's observations they are
seldom seen swimming on the ocean, their flight being of a more sustained
character than that of the Petrels generally. According to Gould, this
species closely resembles the _P. Banksii_ in its powers of flight and
mode of life. Of this latter he says: "Sometimes it appeared in countless
multitudes, but more often thinly dispersed over the surface of the ocean.
During calms it flits over the glassy waters with a noiseless but easy
flight, often performing small circles and fluttering butterfly-like
over any oily substance thrown overboard, which it sips off the surface
without settling; occasionally, however, it rests its buoyant and fairy
little body on the waters, where it reposes at perfect ease, until hunger
again impels it to take wing in search of food. A more vigorous and active
action of the wing being necessary to sustain it during the raging of
the gale, it then moves with zigzag turns of great swiftness, ascending
the billows, topping their surgy summits, and descending into the gulf
between, where a momentary shelter enables it to gain fresh vigour and
seize from the slanting surface any molluscs that may present themselves,
and which from the disturbed state of the sea are apparently then more
abundant than at other times."

       *       *       *       *       *

The STORM PETRELS (_Oceanides_) constitute a well-defined group,
distinguishable by the smallness of their dimensions, their slender body,
short neck, and moderately large head, as also by the long Swallow-like
formation of their wings, in which the second and third quills are longer
than the rest; their tail is of moderate length, composed of twelve
feathers, and either nearly straight or forked at its extremity; the
beak is small, weak, and straight, except at the extremity, where both
mandibles curve downwards, the end of the upper one being decidedly
hooked; the tarsus is long, slender, and feeble, and the foot furnished
with three strong toes, which are united by a broad and very complete web,
while the hind toe is nothing more than a wart-like rudiment. The plumage
is thick and fur-like, and the colour generally a dusky blackish brown,
more or less enlivened with white.

The Storm Petrels are met with in all parts of the world, with the
exception of very high southern or northern latitudes. Where one species
becomes scarce, another supplies its place, and occasionally two or more
species will be found inhabiting the same regions of the ocean. Thus four
or five at least occupy the vicinity of the coasts of Europe, and at least
double that number are to be met with near the shores of the American
continent, whilst in the Pacific Ocean they seem to be particularly
numerous. In their usual habitat, that is, in the wide sea, the Storm
Petrels live in a constant state of activity, and may be seen flying
about during the entire day, and heard throughout the night. Occasionally
they may be seen disporting themselves singly, but more generally they
make their appearance in small or more numerous companies, during fine
as well as in stormy weather. All day long they are occupied in flying
over the waves, the risings and fallings of which they exactly follow, or
in mounting high in the air like Swallows, whence they descend again, as
though about to plunge into the water, but rise again without touching it.
Sometimes again they settle down upon the water, and remain motionless,
as if unable to move from the same spot, though all around them is in
constant agitation and turmoil. When flying they make but few strokes with
their wings, but these are obviously very effective, and their action
much diversified. Sometimes they may be seen with their wings widely
expanded, and in this manner they sail along for minutes together, without
the slightest effort, then, suddenly bestirring themselves, a few quick
powerful strokes given after the manner of a Swift, raise them above the
waves, where they astonish the observer by the masterly precision of their
evolutions, as they shoot down obliquely over the billows, or mount up
again high into the air. Should they espy anything in the shape of food,
they at once hasten towards it, running upon the water, and, having seized
it with their beak, immediately resume their aerial pastime. As to their
powers of swimming, they seem so seldom to adopt that mode of locomotion,
that many careful observers declare that they never swim at all, but
that they only sit down, as it were, and float on the sea, without ever
using their legs as instruments of propulsion. Their strength of wing is
wonderful; they literally fly about all day long without resting at all.
It is only after the long continuance of a storm that they seem to be
wearied, and yet even this fatigue is not produced by their exertions in
battling with the wind, but because, during the violence of the tempest,
they are unable to obtain their usual supply of food, and consequently
are exhausted for want of nourishment. Their voice is seldom heard in the
daytime, which in truth appears to be to them the season of repose; it is
in the evening, shortly after the sun has gone down, that they seem most
active and alert; at that time, should the wind permit, their call-note
may be frequently heard. In disposition they are particularly harmless,
living in perfect good-fellowship with each other, and appearing to care
little about other birds. Their food consists of all sorts of soft-bodied
animals, picked up from the surface of the ocean; but we are unable to
say more upon this subject. The stomachs of such as have been examined
invariably contained nothing but a fluid resembling train-oil, but never
the slightest trace of animal remains.


THE COMMON STORM PETREL.

The COMMON STORM PETREL (_Thalassidroma pelagica_) has the end of the
tail very slightly rounded. The general colour of this species is a sooty
brown; the upper part of the head is of a glossy black, becoming browner
towards the forehead, and the mantle blackish brown. The wing-covers have
white points, and the rump is likewise white. The eye is brown, beak
black, and foot reddish brown. This species is five inches and a quarter
long, and twelve inches and a half broad; the length of the wing is four
inches and a half, and tail two inches. The Storm Petrel, though not
generally distributed over the coast of Great Britain, is indigenous,
breeding in Shetland, the Orkneys, and the islets on the Irish coast.
During severe gales individuals have been shot as far inland as Berks,
Warwickshire, and Derbyshire.

Mr. Hewitson gives the following account of the breeding of the Petrels
in Shetland:--"On the 31st May these birds had not arrived on the
breeding-ground; to use the the phrase of the fishermen, 'Had not yet come
up from the sea.' Some eggs were deposited as late as the 30th June. In
Foula they breed in the holes in the cliff at a great height above the
sea; but here (in Oxna) under stones which form the beach, at a depth of
three or four feet or more, according to that of the stones, as they go
down to the earth beneath them, on which to lay their eggs. In walking
over the surface I could hear them very distinctly singing in a sort of
a warbling chitter, a good deal like Swallows, when fluttering above our
chimneys, but harsher; and in this way, by listening attentively, was
guided to their retreat; and, after throwing out stones as large as I
could lift on all sides of me, seldom failed in capturing two or three
seated on their nests, either under the lowest stone, or between two
of them. The nests, though of much the same materials as the ground on
which they were placed, seemed to have been made with ease. They were of
small bits of stalks of plants and pieces of hard dry earth." Like the
rest of the genus, the Storm Petrel lays invariably one egg only. During
the daytime they remain within their holes, and though the fishermen are
constantly passing over their heads, the beach under which they breed
being appropriated for the drying of fish, they are then seldom heard,
but towards night become extremely querulous, and when most other birds
are gone to rest issue forth in great numbers, spreading themselves far
over the surface of the sea. The fishermen then meet them numerously, and,
though they have not previously seen one, upon throwing pieces of fish
overboard are sure to be surrounded by them; the sharpness of their vision
enabling them to see food from afar, which, from the activity of their
movements, they are not long in appropriating.

[Illustration: THE COMMON STORM PETREL (_Thalassidroma pelagica_).
ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.]


LEACH'S STORM PETREL.

LEACH'S STORM PETREL (_Oceanodromus Leachii_) differs from the previous
species in having its tail deeply forked; it is, moreover, of much larger
size, its length being eight inches, and breadth nineteen inches; the wing
measures six inches and three-quarters, and tail three inches and a half.
The plumage is of a blackish brown on the head; the rump is white; and
the ends of the wing-covers fawn-colour. This species also occupies the
Atlantic Ocean, and precisely resembles the Common Petrel in its habits,
manners, nidification, and food.

       *       *       *       *       *

The PUFFINS (_Puffini_) are recognisable by their slender bodies,
proportionately short wings, and more or less rounded tail, composed
of twelve feathers. The beak is short, or of moderate length, and the
nostrils divided. The legs are large, broad-footed, and placed very far
backwards. The plumage is smooth and oily. The Puffins are eminently
aquatic birds, only visiting the land for the purpose of hatching and
rearing their young; nevertheless they often approach the shore or visit
harbours on the coast. They are generally met with in little flocks
consisting of from eight to twenty individuals, and employed in fishing
for food. During the breeding season, however, they assemble in such
vast numbers as almost to cover the rocks on which they build. Their
food consists principally of fishes and molluscous animals, which are
invariably caught by diving. The Puffins are distinguishable from all
their allies by the impetuosity of their flight. Sometimes they may be
seen swimming quietly upon the water and diving into the advancing waves;
generally, however, they are observed flying, and not only shooting over
but dashing through them. With outstretched wings they plunge into the
billows, urging their career with rapid strokes, twisting and turning in
the water, not only sideways but completely round, so that sometimes the
dark-coloured back, sometimes the shining white under surface becomes
visible; now they seem to follow the outline of the wave, climbing upon
one side of it and plunging down the other as they suddenly emerge from
the water, and, after rising ten or twelve feet into the air, once more
plunge obliquely into the sea, where they again dive, rowing themselves
along with feet and wings till, after making their way to a considerable
distance, they come up into the air, apparently simply to take breath, and
forthwith disappear in the same manner. The interest attaching to this
spectacle is considerably increased from the circumstance of so many of
the birds joining in these active evolutions, just as one plunges beneath
the surface another emerges, and as they are all busily employed, it is
difficult for the eye to follow their rapid evolutions.

Although the Puffins do not congregate around their breeding-places in
such vast multitudes as other water-fowl, they regularly visit St. Kilda
and other places among the Hebrides and Faroe Islands in very considerable
numbers, generally arriving in the night, during which they appear to be
even more active than in the daytime.

Like many other Divers, they dig, by means of their beak and claws,
holes in the greensward with which their breeding-place is generally
covered to the depth of two feet or even more; their excavations having
more the appearance of rabbit-holes than of nesting-places for a bird;
at the bottom they are slightly wider than elsewhere, and here they lay
their eggs, without making any nest. Occasionally, however, they collect
a few stalks of grass together, upon which their eggs are deposited.
Not unfrequently they merely take possession of the holes prepared in
preceding years. Their nesting-place being completed, each female lays
a solitary egg, which is of large size. Upon this egg the male and
female sit by turns for a very long period; how long has not yet been
ascertained, but it extends over several weeks; if disturbed during their
confinement, the parents become much excited, and defend their nests
vigorously, uttering cries which have been compared to the growling and
yelping of young dogs, at the same time spreading out their tails and
biting their opponent with their sharp bills. The young one when hatched
is clothed in down, but although abundantly provided with food by both
parents, its growth is anything but rapid; indeed, it is not until after
the lapse of several months that it is able to leave its home and make its
appearance on the surface of the sea. By this time it has been so well
fed that its breast is covered with a layer of fat fully an inch thick;
it is at this period that these birds are sought for and killed in great
numbers, affording a most acceptable addition to the scanty fare of the
inhabitants of the islands favoured by their presence.


THE MANX PUFFIN, OR SHEARWATER.

The MANX PUFFIN, or SHEARWATER (_Puffinus Anglorum_), is provided with
a beak of moderate length, but narrow and weak, the upper mandible of
which terminates in a sharp hook, which is received in a corresponding
depression of the lower jaw which bends down at its extremity. The plumage
of the adult bird is brownish black upon the upper parts of the body, and
pure white upon the under side; the sides of the neck are marked with
grey. The eye is brown, the beak grey, the foot greenish yellow. This
species is fourteen inches long, and from thirty to thirty-two inches
broad, the wing measures ten inches and the tail two inches and a half.
At present it is uncertain how far the range of the Manx Puffin extends,
for such is the similarity of colour in the different species, that they
are doubtless frequently mistaken for each other by incompetent observers;
we are, however, sure that it is met with as far south as the coasts of
France and Spain, and has occasionally been seen on the shores of the
Mediterranean. In Germany it is very common, and also makes its appearance
in Heligoland every year with considerable regularity. It is also certain
that this bird breeds in Iceland, the Hebrides, Shetland, Scilly, and
Faroe Islands. A small island near the Calf of Man, although now deserted,
was formerly inhabited by this bird in great numbers; it is also abundant
on the coast of South Wales, in spring; occasionally it visits Iceland
and the east coast of England. The Manx Puffin arrives in Great Britain
about March, and departs in August, only resorting to the land during the
breeding season, and selecting for the purpose of incubation small islands
or rocky shores away from any haunts of man. At the commencement of this
century the capture of the eggs and young afforded an important means of
support to the poor and hardy inhabitants of the islands they principally
frequent; and Mr. Low gives us the following account of the manner in
which they were obtained:--"A man sitting on the brink of the rock with a
coil of rope made of hair on his arm, will let his neighbour many fathoms
over the steepest rocks, such as would make other people shudder to look
at, and yet these men think no more of it than an airing; and though
few years pass without some or other of them perishing, yet this never
deters the survivors. It is really dreadful to see people let over a rock
several hundred fathoms high, with the deep below them, supported only
by the single arm of their comrades, who have nothing to rest themselves
against. Sometimes, indeed, both slip together. In August the young are
fit for taking, and are very much sought after as delicacies by those who
love good cheer. They are indeed very fat, but are nauseously rank and
fishy-tasted; however, they sell pretty high, and are lucrative to the
captors. The country people salt them down for winter provision, and boil
them with cabbage. They likewise take the old ones in March, but these are
poor and not nearly so good as the young."




THE OAR-FOOTED SEA-FLIERS (_Steganopodes_).


THE members of this order present but a very distant resemblance to
the swimming birds described in the preceding pages, from which they
differ not only in the construction of their feet, but in their general
appearance and peculiar habits.

The birds belonging to this division are characterised by having their
body considerably elongated, their neck of moderate length, the head
small, and the wings long and rounded or very long and pointed. The tail
is variously constructed, but always peculiar and very pointed; and
invariably there is between the branches of the under jaw a naked, more
or less pouch-like, fold of skin. The tarsus is short and the toes long
in correspondence with the great size of the web which connects _all_
the toes with one another, a character whereby they are particularly
distinguishable. The general plumage is thick; in some instances compact
and stiff, but in others of silky softness. Its colour occasionally
differs in the two sexes, and varies much at different ages.

The oar-footed races may all be called inhabitants of the sea, although
but a single family is so decidedly oceanic that it never absents itself
from the water. All the others willingly prolong their flight far inland,
where many of them establish settlements; indeed, there are certain races
that only exceptionally visit the sea at all; nevertheless, when they
do find themselves in that element they are quite at home, and not only
care little for the land, but are able to dispense with fresh water.
Some of them at certain intervals come on shore to rest themselves or
to sleep on rocky islands and coasts; others prefer a shelving shore;
and others, whenever they get an opportunity, roost upon trees: certain
species, indeed, might almost be considered true forest birds. In northern
climates, as their breeding-time approaches, many of them migrate with
great regularity; but in low latitudes they only remove hither and
thither, northwards or southwards, following the windings of the sea-coast.

Their nests are generally built either upon trees or in fissures of
rocks, sometimes upon ledges of cliffs or on the tops of mountains; less
frequently on the little islands met with in marshes and swamps. Wherever
their breeding-place may be, they are generally indebted to other birds
for relieving them of a considerable share of the labour of nest-building,
often contenting themselves with adding materials to their deserted
domiciles. Some of them lay but a single egg, others two, others four;
the eggs are small, of elongated shape, and generally covered with a
calcareous deposit which obscures the markings on the shell. Both parents
assist in the work of incubation, and some species would seem frequently
to produce two broods in the course of the breeding season. Most of these
birds feed exclusively upon fishes; some will occasionally devour small
quadrupeds, molluscs, and worms, but fishes invariably constitute their
ordinary diet. Some of them catch their food by sailing over the water at
a little distance above the surface, whence they suddenly plunge into the
water beneath; some swim upon the sea like Ducks, and seize their prey in
shallow water by means of their long necks; whilst others again, after
the manner of the real divers, pursue their prey to a considerable depth.
They are terribly destructive to fishes, and are, consequently, everywhere
regarded and treated as enemies by all fishermen.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TROPIC BIRDS (_Phaëton_), "Children of the Sun," as they were called
by Linnæus, always warn the mariner by their presence that he has entered
the precincts of the torrid zone, beyond which they seldom stray. The
characteristic features of these beautiful creatures are the small size
and compact build of their bodies. Their beak is about the same length
as the head, and compressed laterally--its upper surface slightly curved,
its apex acutely pointed, and its cutting edges finely denticulated. The
legs are small in proportion to the size of the body, and the hind toe
connected with the inner one by but a very narrow web. The wings are
long, and the tail composed of twelve or fourteen quills; the central
tail-feathers are remarkably prolonged, and present a structure that is
quite peculiar, owing to the laxity and sparseness of their barbs. Their
general plumage is thick and delicately tinted. "No one who sees the
Tropic Birds for the first time," says Pöpping, "would regard them as
inhabitants of the sea, but would rather imagine them to be land birds
that had strayed by accident far into the illimitable desert of the ocean.
In strength of wing they are unrivalled. Without moving their pinions in
the slightest degree, or turning the body, they mount quickly to a great
altitude, and there seem to repose upon the air, as if it were a solid
support. Only when engaged in fishing, or when they perceive a ship, do
they exchange this state of luxurious repose for active exertion. On such
occasions down they come from the skies with astonishing speed, and never
seem tired of circling round the vessel, as though narrowly watching
all that may be passing on board. Frequently they soar so high as to be
completely invisible except to a practised eye, but they are very rarely
seen to swim."


THE WHITE-TAILED TROPIC BIRD.

The WHITE-TAILED TROPIC BIRD (_Phaëton æthereus_) is strikingly beautiful.
Its head, neck, and under parts of the body are pure white, delicately
tinged with red; the face is marked about the eyes with a broad stripe of
black; the back and mantle are white, marked with a crooked dark line; the
wings are black, bordered with white. The eye is brown, beak coral-red,
foot dusky yellow. The length of this bird is two feet five inches, of
this one foot five inches belongs to the centre tail-feathers; the breadth
is three feet four inches. The White-tailed Tropic Birds are commonly
met with upon the Atlantic Ocean, and, according to Latham, are found
in abundance in the South Sea Islands, but are especially numerous in
Palmerston Island, where the trees are frequently loaded with them. Ellis
tells us that in the latter island they are so tame as to allow themselves
to be taken from the branches with the hand. "These," says Bennett, "are
amongst the most beautiful of all the oceanic birds, and excite admiration
as the rays of a bright sun shine upon their chaste and delicate satin
plumage; they are as gentle in manner as graceful in flight, and it is
pleasing to watch their evolutions, for when soaring to a great elevation
the action of their wings is slow, accompanied by a jerking motion, rising
and falling in the air, at the same time uttering their peculiar, shrill
notes. Sometimes they are resting on the surface of the water, and in calm
weather occasionally seat themselves on the backs of turtles as they float
along in lazy enjoyment."

Sailors formerly believed that the appearance of Tropic Birds indicated
the contiguity of land; this idea, however, is erroneous, as they are
frequently seen at a great distance from shore. According to Bennett this
species has been seen 1,000 miles from the coast. The long tail-feathers
of this beautiful bird are in great request.


THE RED-TAILED TROPIC BIRD.

The RED-TAILED TROPIC BIRD (_Phaëton phœnicurus_) has, like the preceding
species, white plumage tinged with rose-colour; a broad, black, transverse
band, which commences in front of the eyes, is prolonged towards the back
of the head into a point; the centre of the secondary quills, and the
feathers on the sides are deep black; the shafts of the primary quills are
black nearly to the tips. The middle tail-feathers are white towards their
base, but elsewhere bright red with black shafts. The eye is blackish
brown, beak scarlet, with a pale blue stripe at its base, and the tarsus
faint blue; the feet are black. The length of this species is two feet
four inches, breadth three feet; the longest tail-feathers are fifteen
inches, and the rest five inches. The Red-tailed Tropic Bird is met with
throughout the warm and temperate parts of the South Seas and Indian
Ocean; during August and September it retires to breed upon the islands.
The following description of the eggs and young was given to Mr. Gould by
Macgillivray:--

"The eggs of the _P. Phœnicurus_ are blotched and speckled with brownish
red on a pale reddish grey ground, and are two inches and three-eighths
long, by one inch four-eighths and a half broad. The contents of the
stomach consisted of the remnants of cuttle-fishes."

[Illustration: THE WHITE-TAILED TROPIC BIRD (_Phaëton æthereus_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

Latham states that these birds are found in great numbers in the Island
of Mauritius, where they make their nests on the ground under trees.
According to Bennett, "The nestlings have a singular appearance,
resembling powder-puffs, being round as a ball and of a delicate
snow-white colour; the plumage of the first year is white speckled with
black, and they are deficient in the red shafts projecting from the tail,
which do not make their appearance till the second year, when on the young
bird moulting, the splendid and delicate roseate plumage is displayed."

       *       *       *       *       *

The GANNETS (_Sula_) are larger but more slenderly built than the Tropic
Birds. Their bill is longer than the head, and the upper mandible looks as
though it were divided posteriorly into an upper and an under portion, so
that the beak has the appearance of consisting of three parts. The tarsi
are diminutive but strong; the wings unusually long, with the first quill
the longest; the tail consists of twelve feathers, and terminates in a
wedge-like point. The face and throat are naked.

The Gannets inhabit the northern hemisphere, and are met with in all seas
from 70° north latitude to the tropics; further southward their absence
is supplied by other species. They are abundant in Iceland, and the Faroe
Islands, the Orkneys, and the Hebrides; upon the coast of Norway they are
less frequent, but plentiful on the American shores, both of the Pacific
and Atlantic. In Great Britain Gannets breed in great numbers on the Bass
Rock, Souliskerry, St. Kilda, Ailsa, and Skellig Islands. They betake
themselves to the open sea during the winter, pursuing the herrings,
pilchards, and other fishes, upon which they dart nearly vertically.
It would seem as if these birds entertained a sort of affection for
certain islands, or particular localities upon the coast. When they have
an opportunity of doing so, they like to pass the night on dry land,
generally preferring high precipitous cliffs that rise abruptly from the
sea, and from which they can see the waves breaking perpetually before
them. Their choice in this particular is somewhat fanciful, at all events
they are always to be seen on certain rocks, and seem as constantly to
avoid others apparently just as well suited to their purpose.

The power of flight possessed by these birds is very great; they appear
to swim only while they give themselves a little rest upon the water,
and are never seen upon dry land except during the breeding season,
or when, as has been said, they come on shore to sleep. When trying
to stand upon their feet they are very helpless, and their walk is
hardly more than a waddle. Neither is their power of swimming of much
avail; they allow themselves to be blown along by the wind without any
exertion of their own, and, indeed, never use their legs except when
compelled to do so. When they employ their wings, however, they make up
for these deficiencies; their flight is, perhaps, inferior to that of
the Petrels, but it is exceedingly swift and strong. After a few rapid
strokes of the wings, apparently to give it the necessary impulse, the
Gannet glides through the air like an arrow, wheeling round and turning
with the greatest ease, at one time sailing close to the surface of the
sea, at another rising high into the air, and guiding its course by the
simple sloping of its wings. Its voice consists of a succession of harsh
croakings, while that of the young birds is a disagreeable screech.
Whoever has visited the localities where these birds breed, will have
little difficulty in understanding the beds of guano which of late
years have been so profitably turned to account. They congregate upon
the islands selected as their nesting-places by hundreds of thousands,
and by millions, insomuch that, using the words in their literal sense,
the air all around is filled with them; "their multitudes shut out the
light of the sun, and their voices deafen any visitor." Towards the end
of April they first make their appearance upon these islands, and leave
them again about October. Their nests are placed so close together, that
it is difficult for a man to walk between them. Those first built are of
tolerably large dimensions, those made at a later period considerably
smaller, while those constructed by the last comers must necessarily
be placed on any little unoccupied spaces that can be sought out. The
nest itself consists of a mere heap of land or sea plants, on which the
female deposits her single egg. The eggs are of moderate size, with
chalky-looking shells that are at first white, but soon become of a dirty
yellowish brown. The young birds are not hatched till the beginning of
June, and by the end of July are about half grown, but still clad in a
yellowish white dress of short down.

"In the year 1821," says Faber, "I visited one of the little islands upon
which these birds had built their nests. As soon as I had landed, both
young and old greeted my arrival with a burst of most discordant music,
consisting of one harsh shrieking sound. Not one of them, however, stirred
from the spot where they sat, so that I might have readily helped myself
to as many of them as I chose. The nests lay crowded close together, but
the ground was so slippery with all sorts of filth, that in walking
amongst them I should have run the risk of falling from the craggy cliffs
into the sea. It was a wonderful sight to see the multitudes below fishing
for food, which, as soon as they had collected enough, they brought with
flagging wings to the top of the rock and laid it before their young ones.
Towards the end of August, the nestlings are fully fledged, and at that
time if they are not larger they are at least fatter than their parents.
In this condition the country people catch as many of them as they can,
and salt them for food."

In St. Kilda every year there is a regular massacre of young Gannets,
which, as they are killed, are thrown down from the rocks into the
sea, and there collected into boats; great quantities are then sent to
Edinburgh and other places and brought to market.


THE COMMON GANNET.

The COMMON GANNET (_Sula alba_) is altogether white, except the primary
quills, which are brownish black; the upper part of the head and hinder
part of the neck are tinged with yellow. The plumage of the young is
blackish brown upon the upper parts of the body, speckled with white;
the under surface is light brown spotted with a darker shade. The eye is
yellow, the beak blueish, the foot green, and the bare skin of the throat
black. This species is from thirty to thirty-three inches long, and from
seventy-two to seventy-four broad; the wing measures twenty-one, and the
tail ten inches. The female is somewhat smaller than her mate.

These birds are constant residents on the shores of Great Britain,
changing their locality, however, according to the varying seasons of the
year. The principal breeding-places are, Lundy Island, the Skellig Isles
on the coast of Kerry; and in Scotland, the Isle of Ailsa, St. Kilda,
Souliskerry (Orkney), and the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth. This latter
rock, where Macgillivray made some observations which we will detail, is
about a mile in circumference, and of an oblong form, with precipitous
cliffs, in some places perpendicular, and in others overhanging, except
in one narrow part, where a less abrupt projection forms the only
landing-place.

"The Gannets arrive about the middle of February or the beginning of
March, and depart in October; some years, a few individuals remain during
winter. The nests are composed of grass and seaweed, generally placed on
the bare rock or earth elevated in the form of a truncated cone, of which
the base is about twenty inches in diameter, with a shallow terminal
cavity. On the summit of the island are numerous holes in the turf, formed
by the Gannets in pulling away grass and turf for their nests; these are
placed in all parts of the rock where a convenient spot occurs, but are
much more numerous towards the summit. Some of them, which have been
occupied for years on the face of the cliff, or in a shallow fissure, are
piled up to the height of from three to five feet; but in this case they
always lean against the rock. The egg, which is solitary and presents
nothing remarkable in its position, is of an elongated oval form, white,
dull, with a chalky surface, usually sullied or patched with yellowish
brown dirt. It is subjected to rough usage, for the bird when alighting,
flying off, or disturbed by the intrusion of human visitors, tosses it
about, and often stands upon it. All the movements of the Gannets on land
are very awkward; it hobbles or waddles when it tries to walk, stares at
you with its white goggle eyes, opens its ugly black throat, and emits a
torrent of crackling sounds.

"When sitting, the Gannets allow a person to approach within three feet,
sometimes much nearer, so that one may even touch them. When approached,
they merely open their bill and utter their usual cry, or rise to their
feet and express some degree of resentment, but little apprehension of
danger. They take advantage of the absence of their neighbours to pilfer
the materials of their nests; frequently two join in the same act, and
occasionally two may be seen at the same bunch, endeavouring to wrest it
from each other. They are constantly repairing their nests, which, being
composed in a great measure of seaweeds, shrink up in dry weather and
decompose in wet; and when seated close together have frequent quarrels.
I saw one seize its neighbour by the back of the neck, and hold fast
until the assaulted bird, I may say, roared out; but in general they
are satisfied with menacing each other with their open bills and loud
clamour." Owing to their so often interfering with each other, a constant
noise is kept up amongst them. Their cry is hoarse and harsh, and may be
expressed by the syllables, "Carra, carra," or "Kirra, kirra;" sometimes
it is "Crac, crac," or "Cra, cra," or "Cree, cree." The cry varies
considerably in different individuals, some having a sharper voice than
others, and when unusually irritated they repeat it with great rapidity.

When first hatched they have a smooth, bare, black skin; this soon becomes
covered with white down, which thickens until the nestlings present the
appearance of a powder-puff; through this down the true feathers, which
are black, appear, and are followed by the adult white plumage.

"The old bird," says Macgillivray, "at first feeds its young with a
kind of fish-soup, prepared in its own gullet and stomach, and which
it introduces, drop by drop as it were, into its throat; but when its
nursling is pretty well grown, it places its bill within its mouth and
disgorges the fish, either whole or in fragments. It never carries fish to
the rock in its bill. Upon the Cornish coast these birds are most abundant
in autumn and winter."

"The fishermen," says Mr. Couch, "learn by their actions when shoals of
pilchards are present, and what course they are pursuing. The Gannet takes
its prey in a different manner from any other of our aquatic birds; for,
traversing the air in all directions, as soon as it discovers the fish, it
rises to such a height as experience shows best calculated to carry it by
a downward motion to the required depth, and then, partially closing its
wings, it falls perpendicularly on the prey, and rarely without success,
the time between the plunge and immersion being about fifteen seconds."


THE FRIGATE BIRD.

The FRIGATE BIRD (_Tachypetes aquila_) has deservedly been called the
"Eagle of the Sea." The most conspicuous feature whereby it may be
distinguished among all allied species, is the enormous development of
its wings. Its body is slim, the neck powerful, and the head of moderate
size; the beak is half as long again as the head, somewhat depressed at
its base, vaulted above, and strongly hooked at the tip; the apex of the
under mandible is bent downwards in a corresponding manner; the space
beneath the lower mandible is large, broad, and denuded of feathers; the
gape extends backwards to beneath the eyes; the tarsus is very short,
powerful, and covered with feathers as far as the feet; the web between
the toes is extremely narrow, looking as if a portion of it had been cut
away; the toes are furnished with strong, sharp, curved claws, that on the
inner side being toothed; the wing is of inordinate length, and sharply
pointed at the tip, the first quill being the longest; the tail consists
of twelve feathers, and is very long and deeply forked; the general
plumage is compact, smooth, and glossy; upon the head, neck, and breast
the feathers are elongated, upon the mantle round, and upon the breast
fur-like; the throat and a space around the eyes are naked. The colour of
the plumage of the adult male is brownish black, shimmering with metallic
green and purple on the head, nape, back, and sides; upon the wings it is
shaded with grey; and upon the secondary quills and tail with brown; the
eye is deep or greyish brown, the naked space around the eye purple-blue,
the beak light blue at the root, white in the middle, and dark horn-colour
at the point; the sac beneath the throat is orange-yellow. The length of
the Frigate Bird is forty-one inches, the spread of the wings twenty-five
inches, length of tail eighteen inches. The weight of the entire bird is
only a little more than three pounds. The female is distinguishable by
her lighter tint and duller colours, and by her breast being more or less
covered with white feathers.

The Frigate Bird is to be found in the same latitude as the "Sons of
the Sun," braving with them the fervour of inter-tropical heat, but it
seldom wanders so far from land as they. It has indeed been reported to
have been seen at a distance of from six hundred to seven hundred miles
from the nearest coast, but generally speaking, it seldom flies to more
than from twenty to fifty miles from the shore, to which it usually
resorts in stormy weather. At the earliest dawn of morning it leaves its
sleeping-place, and may soon afterwards be observed making broad circles
in the air, or flying rapidly against the wind towards the sea in search
of food. After catching fishes until satisfied, it returns to the dry
land, which it reaches, should the weather be stormy, about noon, but
if fine, not until later in the day. Mr. Gosse, wishing to know at what
time this species retired to their resting-places, visited one of these,
arriving there just at sunset, but found to his mortification that he was
too late; already the Frigate Birds, Gannets, and Pelicans that resorted
to the spot, had retired to roost. At his approach, however, the whole
assembly rose as it were in a mass from the trees where they had been
reposing, the Frigate Birds instantly flying far out to sea, or sailing in
beautiful circles high in the air, neither did they return until darkness
had completely set in. A few days later, the same observer visited the
place at an earlier hour, arriving about three or four o'clock in the
afternoon, but even then he found that the greater number of them had got
home, and were quietly digesting the result of their day's employment.

[Illustration: THE FRIGATE BIRD (_Tachypetes aquila_). ONE-FIFTH NATURAL
SIZE.]

This bird, according to Bennett, being incapable of swimming and diving,
may generally be seen on the alert for flying-fish, when these are started
into the air by Albicores and Bonitas, and when unsuccessful it is
compelled to resort to a system of plundering other sea-birds. The quiet
and industrious tribes, the Gannets and Sea Swallows (_Sterna hirundo_,
Linn.), are generally selected as objects of attack, and on returning to
their haunts to feed their young brood, after having been out fishing all
day, are stopped in mid-air by the marauding Frigate Bird, and compelled
to deliver up some of their prey, which, being disgorged by them, is most
dexterously caught by the plunderer before it reaches the water. A Frigate
Bird has been observed to soar over the mast-head of a ship, and tear away
the pieces of coloured cloth appended to the vane.

"About the middle of May," says Audubon, "a period which to me appeared
very late for birds found in so warm a climate as the Florida Keys, the
Frigate Pelicans assemble in flocks of from fifty to five hundred pairs
or more. They are seen flying at a great height over the islands on
which they have bred many previous seasons, courting for hours together,
after which they return towards the mangroves, alight on them, and at
once begin to repair the old nests or construct new ones. They pillage
each other's nests of their materials, and make excursions for more to
the nearest Keys. They break the dry twigs of a tree with ease, passing
swiftly on wing and snapping them off by a single grasp of their powerful
bill. It is indeed a beautiful sight to see them when thus occupied,
especially when several are so engaged, passing and repassing with the
swiftness of thought over the trees whose tops are blasted; their purpose
appears accomplished as if by magic. It sometimes happens that this bird
accidentally drops a stick while travelling towards its nest, when, if
this should happen over the water, it plunges after it, and seizes it with
its bill before it has reached the waves. The nests are usually placed on
the south side of the Keys, and on such trees as hang over the water, some
low, others high; several in a single tree, or only one, according to the
size of the mangrove, but in some cases lining the whole island. They are
composed of sticks crossing each other, to the height of about two inches,
and are flattish, but not very large. When the birds are incubating, their
long wings and tails are seen extending beyond the nest for more than a
foot. The eggs are two or three--more frequently the latter--in number,
measure two inches and seven-eighths in length, two in breadth, being thus
of a rather elongated form, and have a thick smooth shell of a greenish
white colour, frequently soiled with the filth of the nests. The young are
covered with yellowish white down, and look at first as if they had no
feet. They are fed by regurgitation, but grow tardily, and do not leave
the nest until they are able to follow their parents on the wing."

"The Frigate Pelican," continues the same authority, "is possessed of a
power of flight which I imagine superior perhaps to that of any other
bird. However swiftly the Cayenne Tern, the smaller Gulls, or the Jager
move on wing, it seems a matter of mere sport to it to overtake any of
them. The Goshawk, the Peregrine, and the Gyr Falcon, which I conceive to
be the swiftest of our Hawks, are obliged to pursue their victim, should
it be a Green-winged Teal, or Passenger Pigeon, at times for half a mile
at the highest pitch of their speed before they can secure it. The bird
of which I speak comes from on high with the velocity of a meteor, and on
nearing the object of its pursuit, which its keen eye has spied out while
fishing at a distance, darts on either side to cut off all retreat, and
with open bill forces it to drop or disgorge the fish which it has just
caught. Upon one occasion I observed a Frigate Bird that had forced a
Cayenne Tern, yet in sight, to drop a fish, which the broad-winged warrior
had seized as it fell; this fish was rather large for the Tern, and might
probably be about eight inches in length; the Frigate Bird mounted with
it across his bill about a hundred yards, and then, tossing it up, caught
it as it fell, but not in the proper manner; he therefore dropped it,
but before it had fallen many yards caught it again. Still it was not
in a good position, the weight of the head, it seemed, having prevented
the bird from seizing it by that part. A second time the fish was thrown
upward, and now at last was received in a convenient manner, that is, with
its head downwards, and swallowed. These birds are gregarious, and utter
a rough croaking cry."

The Society Islanders ornament the head-dresses of the chiefs with the
feathers of these birds, climbing the cliffs, where they are congregated
during the breeding season, in order to procure them. The eggs are laid
on the sand, beneath a sheltering ledge in the lofty cliffs of Ascension
Island and other coasts, and in the low islands of the South Pacific.
According to Dr. Bennett, they roost and build in lofty trees. Mr. Burton
states that the female deposits one egg, and the male bird sits, a fact
clearly established, as one was absolutely taken by the hand while sitting.

       *       *       *       *       *

The CORMORANTS (_Haliei_) are peculiarly-constructed birds, easily
recognisable by the following characters:--Their body is very much
elongated, almost cylindrical in shape, and powerfully built. Their neck
is very long, slender, or thin; their head small. The beak is of moderate
length, and either straight and sharp-pointed, or strongly bent down and
hooked at the end. The tarsus is short and compressed at the sides; the
toes large. The wings are long, but blunt at their extremity, owing to
the shortness of the primaries, of which the third is the longest. The
tail, which consists of twelve or fourteen feathers, is of medium size, or
moderately long, and scarcely at all arched; so that it looks very oddly
put on. The quills of the wings and tail are very hard, with the barbs
broad and strongly connected, the shafts being strong but flexible; the
feathers of the under side are loose and silky, those of the upper side
closely imbricated.

The members of this numerous family are to be met with in all parts of
the world, living equally well in the sea or in fresh water. Some species
are resident in the northern seas, but the greater number frequent the
temperate and torrid zones. Their habitat is very diversified; some
species seldom remove far from the sea, where they take their station on
some rocky island, others dwell in reedy marshes or in lakes formed by
rivers, only casually visiting the sea-coast; or follow the course of
rivers very far into the interior, where they remain during the breeding
season. The northern species are regular birds of passage, but those in
southern climates only wander from place to place.

The Cormorants are peculiarly adapted to an aquatic life; they are the
most gifted divers belonging to their order, and are almost equally
qualified for any other kind of locomotion. They walk tolerably on
level ground, and although their gait is somewhat vacillating, they are
strikingly at home amongst the branches of trees. Their flight is much
better than their appearance would seem to indicate, although when flying
they always look as if they were fatigued. As far as is possible, they
spend their time in the water, where they swim and dive with such skill
and perseverance as astonishes anyone who watches their exertions.

The name of these birds is indicative of their voracity, which it seems
impossible to satisfy; they will eat as much and as long as they can, and
immediately attack any other food that may happen to come within their
reach. They seem to rest simply for the purpose of again enabling them
to eat, and, with the exception of the very short period they employ in
pluming their feathers, their whole time is usually employed in eating
and sleeping. The expansiveness of their gullet enables them to swallow
fishes of considerable size, but these are rapidly digested, and their
craving appetite must again be satisfied. In lands occupied by man, their
presence is not tolerated, seeing that they do unspeakable damage to
fisheries, but in the ocean, where they can gorge _ad libitum_, without
interfering with mankind, they are at least of some service; they devour
fishes and convert them into guano. All the birds belonging to this family
build their nests in company with others of their race, and sometimes the
numbers thus congregated together amount to several thousand pairs. Their
nests are placed either on rocky islands, where they build in the clefts
and fissures, or upon the ledges of the rocks, or else in inland places
upon trees, forty or fifty of them together. When obliged to build their
own nests, they construct a rude framework of thick twigs, upon which
they pile sedges and other kinds of grass, which are heaped together in a
very slovenly manner, and moreover kept so wet that the contents literally
lie in a sort of puddle. Their eggs, generally from two to four in number,
are proportionately very small, and much elongated, they have a strong
white shell generally covered with soft chalky matter. Both sexes brood
alternately, with much self-devotion, and both assist in the nurture of
their young ones, which when first hatched are nearly naked, but at a
later period become clothed with a thick coat of dusky-coloured down. They
cannot be said to be fledged till they are nearly half grown, at which
period they begin to follow their parents into the water, by whom they are
instructed for a few days, and then left to their own devices.

       *       *       *       *       *

The DARTERS, or SNAKE-NECKS (_Plotus_), we consider as indubitably
belonging to the family of the Cormorants, from which they are principally
distinguishable by the conformation of their neck and bill; in other
particulars of structure, more especially in their internal anatomy, they
resemble them so closely that to separate the two races, as many English
ornithologists have done, is out of the question. Cormorants they are in
their shape and the coloration of their plumage, and they are Cormorants
likewise in their habits and mode of life.

The Darters are characterised by the extraordinary elongation of their
bodies; the thinness of their snake-like necks; their small head and
straight, slender, acutely-pointed beak, the cutting edges of which
towards the apex are finely toothed. The legs are short, thick, strong,
and placed very far backwards; the feet are provided with long toes. The
wings are long, but rounded at their apices, their third quill being the
longest. The tail is long, and consists of twelve quill-feathers, each of
which becomes considerably increased in breadth towards its extremity. The
general plumage is handsome, and brightly coloured, the feathers upon the
upper surface being much elongated, while those on the under side of the
body are so lax as to resemble fur. In their internal structure, as we
learn from Audubon's dissections, these birds present all the anatomical
peculiarities of the Cormorants, the most considerable differences
being the smallness and slenderness of the skull and the structure of
the cervical vertebræ, which, from their great elongation, remind us of
those of the Herons. At the present time we are acquainted with four
distinct species of Snake-necks, which belong respectively to America,
Africa, Southern Asia, and New Holland; these differ considerably amongst
themselves, not only in shape and colour, but also in their mode of life.


THE ANHINGA.

The ANHINGA (_Plotus Anhinga_) has the head, neck, and all the under side
of the body velvet-black, shaded with green, the top of the head and
forehead being slightly speckled with greyish brown. The upper back and
upper surface of the wing are marked with patches of a lighter colour. The
shoulder and hinder wing-covers are longitudinally streaked with white,
the quills and tail-feathers are black, the latter shading into greyish
brown towards their apices. The eye is bright orange-red, or in some cases
dirty orange-yellow; the inner side of the leg is dingy yellowish brown,
its external surface dirty greyish brown. The length of this species is
thirty-five inches, breadth forty-five inches; length of wing thirteen
inches, length of tail, ten inches. In the female the head, hinder neck,
and back are of a grey-brown, the under surface is tawny, and the belly
brownish black.

Both the present species, and those inhabiting South Asia and Australia
live, if not exclusively, at least preferably, in fresh water. Tschudi,
indeed, asserts that the Anhinga has at times been met with on the open
sea fishing in company with twenty or thirty others, but we are very
doubtful as to the correctness of this statement.

In remote districts, seldom visited by man, these birds evince so little
shyness, that it is not difficult to procure specimens; all that is
requisite is to find out the trees upon which they sleep and towards
evening to take up a position in the vicinity and patiently await their
coming. When one of them is shot, all the survivors tumble, as if dead,
into the water below, where they immediately dive, and when they come up
again, only show their necks above the surface; moreover they generally
ensconce themselves among the floating weeds, where they are hidden
from observation. The Prince von Wied, when travelling in Brazil, tried
to shoot Anhingas from a boat, laying himself down at the bottom, and
allowing it to float with the stream until he came close to some of them,
at which he instantly fired; he found, however, that it was easier to
waste his shot than to kill the birds, as their bodies were completely
hidden in the water, and to hit their slender necks before they could be
withdrawn was a very different matter. Dr. Bachmann gives the following
interesting account of two Snake Birds which he brought home and kept with
a view to taming them:--

[Illustration: LE VAILLANT'S SNAKE BIRD, OR DARTER (_Plotus
Levaillantii_).]

"While these two birds," he says, "were yet in the same cage, it was
curious indeed to see the smaller one, when hungry, incessantly trying
to force its bill into the mouth and throat of the other, which, after
being thus teased for a short time, would open its mouth, to suffer the
little one to thrust its whole head down the throat of its brother,
from which it would receive the fish which the latter had swallowed. In
this singular manner did the larger bird--which after awhile proved to
be a male--continue to act as the foster-parent of his weaker sister,
which indeed seemed to be thrown on his protection. The one still in my
possession is fed on fish, which it picks up, tosses a few times in the
air, and swallows at the first convenient opportunity--that is, when
the fish falls towards its mouth head-foremost. At the outset, when the
fish was large, I had it cut into pieces, thinking that the apparent
slenderness of the bird's neck could not expand enough to swallow it
whole; but I soon ascertained that this was not necessary. Fish three
times the size of the neck were tossed up, seized by the expanded jaws and
gobbled at once, and immediately after, the bird would come to my feet,
clicking its bill in such an unequivocal manner that I never failed to
give it more. My pet was tame from the beginning of its captivity, and
followed me about the house and garden until it became quite troublesome
from its attachment to me. It was not until the bird was fully fledged
that I found it willing or anxious to go into the water; and then whenever
it saw me go towards the pond, it accompanied me as far as the gate of
the garden, seeming to say, 'Pray let me go.' On my opening the gate, it
at once followed me, waddling like a Duck; and no sooner was it in sight
of its favourite element than it immediately let itself in, not with a
plunge, but by dropping from a plank into the stream, where for awhile
it would swim like a Duck, then dipping its long neck, it would dive for
the purpose of procuring fish. The water was clear enough to enable me to
see all its movements; and after many devious windings, it would emerge
at the distance of forty or fifty yards. This bird sleeps in the open
air during warm nights, perched on the highest bar of the fence, with
its head under its wings, and in rainy weather it often sits in the same
position for nearly the whole day. It appears to be very susceptible of
cold, retreating to the kitchen and near the fire, battling with the cook
or the dogs for the most comfortable place on the hearth. Whenever the sun
shines, it spreads its wings and tail, rustles its feathers, and seems
delighted with our warmest sunny days. When walking, and occasionally
hopping, it does not support itself by the tail as Cormorants sometimes
do. When fishes are presented to it, it seizes and swallows them greedily;
but when these cannot be procured, we are forced to feed it on meat, when
it opens its mouth and receives the food placed in it. Occasionally it has
spent several days without any food; but in those cases the bird became
very troublesome, harassing all around by its incessant croakings, and
giving blows to the servants, as if to remind them of their neglect."


LE VAILLANT'S SNAKE BIRD.

LE VAILLANT'S SNAKE BIRD (_Plotus Levaillantii_), like the preceding
species, is black upon the under side of the body, the neck is rust-red,
a stripe beginning at the eye, and extending down the sides of the neck
is blackish brown, and another below this white. The plumage on the back
is nut-brown, the long feathers are silvery white; the wings and tail are
black, the latter becoming somewhat lighter towards its extremity. The eye
is copper-colour, and the bare skin on the head yellowish green; the beak
is grey, and foot greenish blue. The length of this bird is thirty-three
inches, and its breadth forty-one inches and a half; the wing measures
thirteen inches and tail nine inches and a half. The female resembles her
mate, but is not so brightly coloured. Le Vaillant's Snake Bird inhabits
Africa, where it is to be met with on suitable sheets of water from 15°
north latitude to the Cape of Good Hope.

       *       *       *       *       *

The CORMORANTS PROPER (_Phalacrocorax_) differ from the Snake Birds
principally in their more bulky shape and in the construction of their
bill. Their beak, which is of moderate length, is compressed at the
sides, rounded above, furrowed at the sides of the upper mandible, bent
downwards and strongly hooked at its tip. The legs are strong, and wings
short, with the third quill longer than the rest. The tail consists of
twelve feathers, and is shorter than that of the Darters. The Cormorants
are met with from the middle of Norway to the south of Europe, and during
the winter resort in countless multitudes to Africa. They are also very
abundant in Central Asia and North America, whence they wander as far as
the West Indies. The habitat of these birds is either the sea or fresh
water, according to circumstances. They frequently resort to large rivers
or lakes thickly skirted with trees, and sometimes make their appearance
in inhabited districts, from which it is difficult to drive them away.
An instance is even recorded in which they took up their quarters in the
centre of a town, selecting the church tower for their citadel. They visit
the sea in great numbers, and there seem to prefer certain localities,
generally selecting a situation where the coast is but little accessible
or where there are long reefs and ridges of rock. They are very abundant
on the coast of Scandinavia, as also in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the
Hebrides, Orkneys, and other similar localities where they are little
disturbed by mankind. During the winter season they are met with in equal
abundance in more southern districts. In Greece they may be seen in great
numbers from one year's end to another, both upon the large lakes and in
the sea. In Egypt, they cover the lakes near the shore, as far as the
eye can reach, whence they every morning fly out to sea in countless
multitudes, returning in the evening. In Southern China and in India they
are equally numerous. Indeed, it may be said that they are met with in
every locality where water and fishes are to be had. In their habits and
mode of life the Cormorants present many peculiarities. They are very
sociable, and generally keep together in flights that are more or less
numerous. It is a rare occurrence to see one of them alone. During the
morning they are always indefatigably employed in fishing; about noon
they betake themselves to repose, and digest their food; towards evening
they are again busy fishing, and afterwards they resort to the places
where they sleep. These are generally lofty trees, growing at some little
distance inland upon islands in rivers or lakes, the same upon which they
subsequently build their nests; they are generally such as afford them
an extensive prospect in every direction, and allow them to fly away and
return with facility. The islands thus frequented are easily recognisable
at a distance by the thick covering of nascent guano by which the ground
is everywhere hidden; indeed, they would soon literally become beds of
that material had it a Peruvian sun to dry, or as Scheffel says, "purify"
it. Similar deposits are likewise to be seen on islands in the sea, which
seldom fail to arrest the attention of the passing mariner. Their history,
however, is quite intelligible, and their appearance remarkable when they
are densely covered with Cormorants, sitting in close ranks like regiments
of soldiers, tier above tier, all turned in the same direction with their
faces towards the sea; thus presenting a strangely picturesque scene,
for although they are stationary, they are by no means motionless; each
of them is constantly moving its head, spreading its tail, or stretching
out its wings, so as to give an appearance of animation to the whole
assemblage. For a single individual among them to remove from the place
where it stands without flying away altogether is an impossibility, so
densely are they crowded together. It is asserted by some that these
birds can only walk while propping themselves up with their tails; this,
however, is not correct; their walk, it is true, is but a clumsy waddle,
still it enables them to get over the ground with tolerable quickness.
Upon the branches of trees the Cormorants are much more at home than on
level ground; nevertheless, like the Snake-necks it is only when swimming
or diving in the water that they show their real capabilities. Should
a boat approach the rock upon which hundreds of them have taken their
station, they first begin to show symptoms of uneasiness by stretching out
their necks and moving their heads; they then begin a sort of restless
shuffling backwards and forwards, and ultimately they take flight; a
few of the assembled multitude rise into the air, flying at first with
fluttering wings, but they soon sweep away, gliding straight forward to
a considerable distance, or rise upwards in circles high into the air;
the majority of them, however, spring at once into the sea, like so many
frogs. Here they instantly dive, and when they come up again may be seen
a considerable distance off, peering at the boat with their little green
eyes and ready to dive again, in an instant, should they think such a
course conducive to their safety. The Darters unquestionably swim and dive
more dexterously, but it is questionable whether any other birds can excel
the Cormorants in this respect. They progress so rapidly under the water,
that a boat manned with strong rowers is unable to overtake them; they
dive likewise not only to a great distance, but to a considerable depth,
and when they come up, they simply take breath and at once dive again.
When chasing their prey beneath the surface they stretch their bodies
quite straight, and by powerful strokes of their feet, dart through the
water with arrow-like swiftness.

That these birds possess a good deal of intelligence is proved by the
fact that in China great numbers of tame Cormorants are taught to catch
fish for the benefit of their owners. Fortune was informed by one of
these Chinese fishermen that the birds so employed are kept in a state of
captivity from the moment of their birth, and that the eggs from which
they are obtained are incubated by barn-door fowls. When old enough they
are taken to the water-side, and there carefully taught to obey their
master's commands, and to bring to him the fishes that they procure. Upon
inland waters the presence of Cormorants is a very serious matter, seeing
that they destroy the fish in incredible quantities. Their voracity is
almost beyond belief; a single Cormorant, when it can get them, will
eat as many fishes as a Pelican. Although Cormorants generally prefer
to build their nests upon trees, when these are not to be found they
content themselves with cavities and projections among rocks or places
of a similar description. In inland situations, or where the woods come
down almost to the sea, they often make their appearance in rookeries and
heronries, and after expelling the Rooks with little trouble, and the
Herons after long-contested battles, proceed to take possession of their
nests, to which they add a few materials of their own selection, and at
once begin to lay their eggs. Should they remain in undisturbed possession
of the invaded locality for a year or two, they are only to be got rid
of with the greatest difficulty. In the year 1812, says Naumann, four
pairs of Cormorants made their appearance in Lutzenburg, not far from the
sea-coast, and built their nests in a wood upon a very high beech-tree,
which had been for several years the resort of Rooks and Herons. After
driving away the Herons, whose nests they took possession of, they each
proceeded to rear two broods, one in May, the other in July, and when
they left the place about the end of autumn, they numbered about thirty
individuals. In the spring of the following year, these repeated their
visit, and continued to return every year in still increasing numbers,
until it was estimated that there were at least 7,000 brooding pairs
assembled in the neighbourhood. Boje counted fifty of their nests in a
single tree, the multitudes of them constantly flying to the sea and
returning again seemed to fill the air, and the noise they made was
positively deafening; the trees upon which they assembled were white with
filth, and the whole place stank in consequence of the quantities of
putrid fishes fallen from their nests. It was only after several years of
unabated exertion that they were at length destroyed or driven away.

The Cormorants generally make their appearance in their breeding-places in
April, and set about preparing their nests with great zeal. Towards the
end of the month, they lay three or four narrow eggs, of a blueish green
colour, but generally incrusted with calcareous deposit. The two sexes sit
by turns for about four weeks, and when the young are hatched feed them
with indefatigable perseverance. Being thus abundantly provided for, the
nestlings grow rapidly; the old birds behave very affectionately towards
their progeny, but when danger threatens will not stay to defend them,
at least from their human enemies. Whenever the old birds visit their
nests, they are literally full to the throat with the food that they
have procured; each of them disgorges on the borders of the nest several
dozens of small fishes, which are immediately appropriated by the hungry
occupants. Many, however, fall upon the ground, and as no Cormorant thinks
it worth while to pick them up, they are left to taint the atmosphere.
Towards the end of June the young birds fly away, and the old ones begin
to rear a second brood. The chase after Cormorants is a very favourite
amusement with the zealous sportsman, although the birds when killed are
of no use whatever. Their watchfulness and cunning when they are at large
are calculated to test his utmost perseverance and caution. Near the trees
where they build their nests, however, they are very much more easily
destroyed, and still more readily in their eyries; their destruction,
indeed, is so simple that it becomes almost a matter of necessity. But
here the sport loses its charms, and the battues that are organised
against them assume very much the appearance of a massacre; every one who
can procure a gun hastens to the scene of action, and multitudes of the
birds are annually slaughtered. In this country the flesh of the Cormorant
is regarded as uneatable; the Laplanders, however, and also the Arabs, are
of a very different opinion, and consider it, on account of its fatness,
to be an especially dainty kind of food.

[Illustration: THE CORMORANT (_Phalacrocorax carbo_). ONE-FIFTH NATURAL
SIZE.]


THE COMMON CORMORANT.

The COMMON CORMORANT (_Phalacrocorax carbo_) is from thirty-five to
thirty-seven inches long, and from sixty to sixty-four broad. The length
of wing is fourteen to fifteen inches, and of tail six and a half to
seven inches. The plumage on the top of head, neck, breast, belly, and
rump is of a glossy blackish green, with a slight metallic lustre. The
fore part of the back and upper surface of the wings brown with a bronze
shade. Owing to the dark margins of the feathers, these parts have
the appearance of being imbricated: quills and tail-feathers black; a
white patch commencing behind the eye surrounds the throat. The eye is
sea-green; beak black, with yellowish base; the bare skin on neck and face
is yellow; and foot black. During the breeding season the Cormorants, more
especially the males, have delicate white feathers on the head; these,
however, soon disappear. The young are more or less grey; the upper parts
of the body being dark, with the imbricated appearance above alluded
to; the under side is yellowish or light grey. This species is commonly
found on all the rocky parts of the British coast. The nests are placed
on high cliffs, many birds congregating together and living harmoniously.
The nest is large, and composed of sticks and a mass of coarse grass and
seaweed, sometimes a foot high. The rough oblong eggs are from four to
six in number, of a chalky white and pale blue colour. In the course of a
few days after hatching, the young are able to take to the water. "These
birds," says Yarrell, "are frequently seen sitting on posts, rails, or
leafless trees by the water-side, when, if a fish should move on the
surface within their sight, it is pounced upon and caught to a certainty.
An eel is a favourite morsel with him, and a Cormorant has been seen to
pick up an eel from the mud, return to the rail he was previously sitting
upon, strike the eel three or four hard blows against the rail, toss it up
into the air, and, catching it by the head in its fall, swallow it in an
instant."

"In China the bridges across the Min, at Fuhchau, may often be seen
crowded with men viewing the feats of the tame fishing Cormorants. These
birds look at a distance about the size of a Goose, and are of a dark
dirty colour. The fisherman who has charge of them stands upon a raft,
about two feet and a half wide and fifteen or twenty feet long, made out
of five large bamboos of similar size and shape, firmly fastened together.
It is very light, and is propelled by a paddle. A basket is placed on it
to contain the fish when caught. Each raft has three or four Cormorants
connected with it. When not fishing they crouch down stupidly on the raft.

"The fisherman, when he wishes to make a Cormorant fish, pushes or throws
it off the raft into the water. If it is not disposed at once to dive and
seek for fish, he beats the water with his paddle, or sometimes strikes
the bird, so that it is glad to dive and get out of his reach. When it
has caught a fish it rises to the surface, holding it in its mouth, and
apparently striving to swallow it. A string tied loosely around its neck
or a metallic ring effectually prevents swallowing, except perhaps in
the case of very small fish. It usually swims directly for the raft. The
fisherman on seeing the prize paddles towards it with all speed, lest it
should escape from the bird. Sometimes the fish is a large one, and there
is evidently a struggle between it and the Cormorant. The fisherman, when
near enough, dexterously passes a net-like bag, fastened to the end of a
pole, over the two, and draws them both on the raft. He then forces the
fish from the grasp of the bird, and, as if to reward the latter for its
cleverness and success, gives it a mouthful of food, which it is enabled
to swallow on his raising the ring from the lower part of its neck. The
bird, if apparently tired out, is allowed to rest awhile on the raft,
and then it is pushed off again into the water and made to dive and hunt
for fish as before. Sometimes the Cormorant, from imperfect training,
swims away from the raft with the fish it has caught. In such a case the
fisherman pursues and speedily overtakes the truant. Sometimes, it is
reported, two or three Cormorants assist in securing a large and powerful
fish, and occasionally two quarrel together for the fish one has taken,
or one pursues the other for the fish in its mouth. At such times the
interest of the spectators on the bridge increases to noisy shouting.
The bird is provided with a sort of pouch or large throat, in which the
small fish are entirely concealed, while the head or tail of the larger
fish protrudes from its mouth. It is only at or near full tide that these
birds are successful in catching fish under and near the bridges, as then
the water is deep and comparatively still, and the fish seem to abound in
the vicinity more than at low-tide. At such times there are frequently
several rafts with Cormorants fishing near the bridges. The skill of the
fisherman in propelling his craft, and the success of the bird in catching
the fish are attested by the delighted curiosity and animated interest of
the spectators."

       *       *       *       *       *

The PELICANS (_Pelecani_), the largest and most striking members of
this order, are at once recognisable by their enormous beak, furnished
underneath with a capacious bag, and strongly hooked at its extremity.
The upper mandible, which is remarkably depressed from its origin to its
apex, is moderately broad, and rounded at the point; the culmen forms a
conspicuous keel, running along the entire length of the upper jaw, and
at its termination bends down to form the strong claw-like hook at the
extremity. The lower mandible is exceedingly weak and slender, consisting
of two long lateral branches, only joined to each other towards the apex,
and enclosing between them a very capacious bag, formed by a dilatable
expansion of the throat. In comparison with the above most characteristic
features, the rest of the structure of the bird is to the ornithologist of
secondary importance; it is, however, very peculiar. The body is large and
cylindrical, the neck long and slender; the feet are small, toes long, and
connected by a broad web. In the large broad wing, the third quill exceeds
the rest in length; the tail, which is short, broad, and rounded, consists
of twenty or twenty-four feathers. The plumage is thick, but remarkably
hard and stiff; besides the almost naked sac beneath the throat, there is
a considerable space around the eye completely denuded of feathers. The
two sexes resemble each other very closely, but considerable differences
serve to distinguish the old birds from the young.

Pelicans inhabit the torrid regions of the earth, but are also found to a
considerable distance within the limits of the temperate zone. In their
habits and mode of life, the different groups nearly resemble each other,
and we shall therefore confine ourselves to a description of two species
met with in Europe.

None but those who have travelled in Egypt and North Africa can form any
idea of the vast numbers of fish-eating birds that there crowd the shores
of every lake and river. Upon all the Egyptian lakes along the course
of the Nile, during the period of its inundation, and still further to
the south, along the banks of the Blue and White Nile, as well as on the
shores of the Red Sea, Pelicans occur in such immense flocks that the eye
is unable even to estimate their extent. Over a considerable surface of
country they literally cover the quarter, or the half, of every square
mile. When they are swimming out upon the lakes, they look like immense
beds of water-lilies. When they come out of the water to sit upon the
shore, more especially if it be upon one of the islands, and sit in the
sunshine preening their feathers, they look at a distance like a vast
white wall, and when they retire to sleep, all the trees upon the island
are so thickly covered with them that they have the appearance of blossoms
without a single green leaf. To meet a small flock of about ten or a
dozen is an unusual occurrence, but to see hundreds or thousands together
is a very ordinary spectacle. As the spring approaches, these enormous
hosts are in some measure broken up. Many which during the winter season
congregated together make their way to Southern Europe, where they breed,
but numbers of them are left behind. In selecting the place of their
sojourn, these birds seem to make no difference between salt water and
fresh; they frequent both in almost equal numbers, but the depth of the
water is to them a matter of considerable importance.

Only a single American species obtains its food by diving, the others are
altogether too lightly built to render such a mode of fishing practicable.
They lie upon the surface of the water as if they were made of cork, and
it is only in shallow water, to the bottom of which they can reach with
their long neck and hooked bill, that they usually fish for food. For this
purpose they assemble together in some place where water is of the proper
depth, arranging themselves with considerable regularity, so as to enclose
a large space, which as they advance forward is gradually diminished. In
large lakes and shallows by the sea-shore they arrange themselves in a
semicircle, and row themselves gradually towards the beach, or else they
form a complete circle, the diameter of which diminishes as they advance
towards each other. In narrow rivers or canals they divide into two
parties, and arrange themselves in close ranks facing each other, thus
enclosing a space in which their prey is to be procured, as the two lines
swim in opposite directions until they meet. In general these birds feed
only on fishes, but not unfrequently they catch other vertebrate animals.
Young birds, for example, that happen to approach them too closely are
seized and swallowed, and even half-grown Ducks occasionally disappear
down their capacious throats in an equally unceremonious manner. When
on dry land the gait of these birds is slow and waddling, nevertheless
they can scarcely be said to walk badly, and notwithstanding their webbed
feet, they readily perch upon trees; they swim well, and their powers of
flight are excellent. The daily life of the Pelicans is conducted in a
very regular manner; the early hours of morning are employed in catching
food, and they may then be seen hastening from all quarters to their
fishing-ground, in small or large parties, the former flying in single
file, the latter in the well-known V-shape adopted by many birds of
passage. Some parties may soon be seen returning from the water, satisfied
with their meal, while others are making their way towards the shallow bay
from which their breakfast has to be procured. Towards ten o'clock a.m.
they begin to congregate upon their favourite sandbank, or an inland group
of trees, and here they repose after their toil, some lazily digesting
their food, and others more actively employed in oiling and preening their
feathers, a proceeding in which they are occupied for a considerable
length of time, their long unmanageable bill being but little adapted to
the work. When this is accomplished, they take a kind of siesta, some
perched on trees, others on the ground, the former generally sitting bolt
upright upon the branches, with their necks thrown back, and their beak
resting on their breasts, while the latter generally lie flat on their
bellies, and doze away the noontide hours. Between three and four o'clock
the whole assembly begins to wake up and prepare for another fishing
excursion, in which they are engaged till sunset, after which they at once
set off to their sleeping-places, situated on a lonely sandbank, or some
island covered with trees, upon the branches of which they pass the night.
As to the breeding of these birds, we have been able to collect little
from personal observation; it appears, however, by no means unlikely that
in the interior of Africa some of them may build their nests in the trees,
to which they so frequently resort. In Southern Europe, as Von der Muhle
informs us, they select morasses and lakes for their breeding-places. In
some of these lakes, says our informant, floating islands are to be met
with, which are only approachable with great difficulty, and upon these
they build their rudely-constructed nests, as close to each as other
they can well be placed. The nests themselves are constructed of reeds
and sedges, trodden together into a mass, and are generally damp or even
wet. The whole neighbourhood is covered with their filth, the stench of
which, added to that of the putrid fishes, which are everywhere strewn
about, is at this hot season of the year, absolutely unbearable. Strangely
enough they do not all breed at the same time, for brooding females are
often sitting in the immediate vicinity of fledged young birds; indeed,
Freyberg, who has often visited these breeding-places, informs us that in
the same nest he has seen a nearly-fledged young one, and another as yet
only covered with down, a circumstance only to be explained by supposing
that two females had laid their eggs in the same nest. The usual number of
eggs, as we are told by Bädecker, is from three to five. Those that have
been observed in a state of captivity have only laid two. In proportion
to the bird the eggs are of small size, being not so large as those of
a Swan; their shape is more or less elongated, with both ends of equal
size, their colour is blueish white, but their external surface remains
for some time soft and pasty, and a layer of dirt, which sticks to them
after they have been sat upon, renders it impossible to clean the shell.
The young present nothing particular in their appearance, save that they
are disgustingly filthy, nevertheless, their parents seem affectionately
attached to them, and will suffer themselves to be captured rather than
desert their charge.

[Illustration: THE PELICAN (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_). ONE-SEVENTH NATURAL
SIZE.]


THE WHITE PELICAN.

The WHITE PELICAN (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_), the commonest and most widely
distributed species, is one of the largest members of the natatorial
order. In this bird the general colour of the body is white slightly
tinged with rose-red; the primary quills being dark brown; the front
of breast is yellow, upon the top of the head the feathers are much
elongated, so as to form a long streaming crest. In young birds the mantle
is brown mingled with grey, the under side dark grey. The eye is bright
red, and the bare space around it yellow; the beak is grey speckled with
red and yellow; the bag beneath the bill veined with yellowish blue; the
feet are bright flesh-red. This species is from fifty-five to sixty-two
inches long, and ninety to one hundred broad; the wing measures about
twenty inches; and the tail about six inches and a half. The White Pelican
principally inhabits the tropical climates of Africa and India, but is
also found in the Mediterranean, on the extensive lakes of Hungary and
Russia, and on the eastern rivers of Europe. In Southern Europe it appears
about the end of April or beginning of May, returning to its winter
quarters after the breeding season. Occasionally these birds miss their
way and make their appearance in Germany, greatly to the astonishment
of the inhabitants of the districts so visited. In Hungary they usually
arrive in flocks of some four or six hundred individuals; these
immediately disperse throughout the country for the purpose of breeding;
after the period of incubation they again assemble in flocks previous
to taking their departure. This species subsists on all kinds of fish,
which it catches with facility, and with such sharp-eyed vigilance, that
not even the smallest escapes its observation. It is unable to dive, and
therefore only searches for food in small and shallow inlets of rivers. It
occasionally ascends to some height in the air, and descrying a fish from
on high, darts upon it with unerring aim.

The nest is placed on the ground, and is composed of coarse grass, lined
with a softer kind. The two eggs are white. It carefully tends its young,
conveying food to them in the singular pouch which, says Shaw, is one
of the most remarkable appendages that is found in the structure of any
animal. Though it contracts nearly into the hollow of the jaws, and
the sides are not (in a quiescent state) above an inch asunder, it may
be extended to an amazing capacity, and when the bird has fished with
success, its size is almost incredible; it will contain a man's head
with the greatest ease. In fishing, the Pelican fills this bag, and does
not immediately swallow his prey, but when this is full, he returns to
the shore to devour at leisure the fruits of his industry. Audubon gives
the following graphic account of the movements of an American species,
_P. Americanus_, which is not only very similar in appearance, but until
recently bore the same specific name as the bird above described, thereby
creating considerable confusion between it and the White Pelican of the
eastern hemisphere. "Ranged along the margins of the sand bar in broken
array, stand a hundred heavy-bodied Pelicans, pluming themselves, and
awaiting the return of hunger. Should one chance to gape, all open their
large and broad mandibles, yawning lazily and luxuriously. But when the
red beams of the setting sun tinge the tall tops of the forest trees, the
birds rise clumsily on their short legs, and hastily waddle to the water
and plunge into the stream. Lightly they float as they marshal themselves
and extend their lines; and now their broad, paddle-like feet propel them
onwards. In yonder nook the small fry are dancing on the quiet water.
Thousands are there, and the very manner of their mirth making the water
to sparkle, invites their foes to advance. And now the Pelicans at once
spread out their broad wings, press closely forward with powerful strokes
of their feet, drive the little fishes towards the shallow shore, and
then, with their enormous pouches spread like so many bag-nets, scoop them
out and devour them." These birds are altogether diurnal; when gorged,
they retire to the shores of small islands in bays and rivers, or sit on
logs floating in shallow water at a good distance from the beach, in all
which situations they lie or stand close together. The White Pelicans
appear to be almost inactive during the greater part of the day, fishing
only after sunrise, and again an hour before sunset, though at times the
whole flock will mount high in the air, and perform extended gyrations. In
the south of Europe the chase after Pelicans is a favourite sport, and by
the Arabs their flesh is considered not unpalatable.


THE GREAT TUFTED OR DALMATIAN PELICAN.

The GREAT TUFTED or DALMATIAN PELICAN (_Pelecanus crispus_) is white,
slightly tinged with greyish red, except upon the quills, which are black.
In this species, the head-feathers are long and curly, forming a sort of
helmet. The eye is silvery white, beak greyish yellow, bag beneath the
throat blood-red veined with blue, and the foot black. The plumage of the
young is greyish. The length of this bird is sixty-six inches, breadth
one hundred and fourteen inches, the length of wing thirty inches, and
tail eight inches. The habitat of the Great Tufted Pelican extends from
the Black Sea over all the well-watered districts of Central and Southern
Asia; a few penetrate annually into South China and North Africa, but in
both these regions they are comparatively of rare occurrence.

The first example known of this bird was shot in 1828 in Dalmatia by Baron
Fildegg, and it has been since found by Rüppell and Kittlitz in Abyssinia.

"It arrives," says the baron, "in spring and autumn, giving preference to
the neighbourhood of Fort Opus, on the river Naronta, which is bordered
with morasses. It comes through Bosnia, seldom alone, but generally in
flocks. I have seen as many as twelve together hunting for fish. It is
very cunning, and is extremely difficult to shoot."

No particulars are known respecting its habits, nidification, &c., which
are supposed to resemble others of its family.

[Illustration]




THE DIVERS (_Urinatores_).


THE birds belonging to this extensive order are all aquatic, and almost
exclusively subsist on fishes, which they capture by diving. In conformity
with this mode of life, they all present a general type of structure which
is unmistakable. Their bodies are powerfully built, almost cylindrical in
shape, and their legs placed far backwards. Their wings are short, feeble,
and pointed, but little adapted to flight, and in many cases almost
resembling fins, while their dense smooth plumage, which is impenetrable
to water, admirably fits them for a residence in that element. Their beak
is strong, hard, acutely pointed, and generally compressed at the sides;
it is seldom much longer than the head, and its margins are usually sharp
and well adapted for cutting. The foot is furnished either with three
or four toes, of which the three in front are either strongly-webbed or
furnished with lateral expansions of the skin, which render them efficient
instruments of propulsion. The tail is often altogether wanting, or if
present is always short, rounded, and generally formed of more than twelve
feathers. There is much similarity in the coloration of their plumage,
in which black and pure white predominate; in some species, however,
variety of colour is not wanting. Generally speaking, these birds are all
inhabitants of the sea; nevertheless, a few are to be met with only in
inland lakes: some species have a very wide range in a great variety of
climates; but the majority prefer the polar regions of the world, both
north and south, from which, however, some of them migrate at stated
intervals. The greater part of their lives is passed upon the surface of
the water; indeed, it is only during the breeding season that they come
upon dry land. Although many species fly with tolerable facility, in most
instances the wings are too feeble to support the weight of their bodies,
and are principally used almost like fins, to enable them to progress more
rapidly when diving beneath the surface of the water, where they obtain
the fishes and small crustaceans that constitute their usual food. A few
diving birds build their nests solitarily; but by far the greater number
congregate in innumerable hosts, and breed in company with each other upon
rocks and islands that rise abruptly from the sea. The eggs are two in
number.

       *       *       *       *       *

The GREBES (_Podicipites_) are only to be met with in fresh water, and
accordingly are classed by some naturalists in the immediate vicinity of
the Coots, to which, as far as relates to the structure of their feet,
they certainly bear a considerable resemblance. Their true position,
however, we consider to be undoubtedly among the Divers. Their body is
remarkably broad and squat; their neck long and moderately slender; their
head small and elongated; their beak long, conical, and compressed at
the sides, with incurved, sharp cutting edges, the lower mandible being
slightly overlapped by the upper one. The legs are placed so far backward,
that they seem to be attached quite to the posterior extremity of the
body, and moreover are of very peculiar conformation. The tarsi are of
moderate height, and so much compressed at the sides that the front of
the instep presents a sharp smooth edge. The structure of the foot is
likewise remarkable; of the three front toes, the exterior is as long or
longer than the middle toe, while the inner toe is by far the shortest of
the three; the hinder toe, which is slightly elevated, is a mere rudiment.
The three front toes are connected by a web as far as the first joint,
but beyond this point they are separated, although each is furnished
on both sides with a broad fold of skin, which is not scalloped, but
smoothly rounded off in front, where it is further strengthened by the
broad flattened claws. The wings are small, short, and narrow, the second
and third quills being longer than the rest. The tail is altogether
wanting, its place being occupied by a small bunch of fur-like feathers.
The general plumage is everywhere very thick, and upon the lower part of
the body so smooth and bright as almost to resemble satin, while on the
head, neck, and hinder part of the body it has somewhat the appearance of
hair. When in their nuptial plumage, the head of the adults is adorned
with a remarkable collar or frill, developed from the sides of the face
and neck, or provided with bunches of feathers, generally decorated with
bright colours. Members of this family are to be found in the temperate
zones of both hemispheres, beyond which they do not extend very far either
to the north or south. Their usual habitat is on ponds or large sheets of
stagnant water, and exceptionally on deep, slow-moving streams; but always
where sedges and rushes are abundant. Occasionally, though rarely, they
have been seen upon the sea. "Probably there are no birds," says Naumann,
"better entitled to the name of water-fowl than the Grebes"--at least we
know of no others that do not on some occasions make their appearance on
dry land. It is only, however, under the most urgent circumstances--as,
for example, when wounded--that these approach the shore, and even then
they keep so close to the brink that on the slightest alarm they can at
once plunge into their proper element. It would seem that whatever they do
must be done in the water; they cannot even rise upon the wing without a
preliminary rush over the surface of the lake: from dry land they cannot
commence their flight. Their whole life is divided between swimming and
diving; and even when other water-birds go on shore to sleep, the Grebes
repose floating on their liquid bed. When thus sleeping upon the tranquil
water, they float as buoyantly as if they were made of cork, their legs
raised to the edges of their wings, and their head comfortably buried
among the feathers between their back and shoulder. Should, however, a
storm disturb their rest, and the boisterous elements drive them towards
the shore, they at once turn round to face the blast, and are generally
able, by the active movement of their paddle-like feet, to maintain
themselves in the same place.

The conformation of their bodies, their tapering shape, small heads, sharp
beak, and the very backward position of their feet, enable them to dive
with wonderful facility; in fact, when under water they make their way
more swiftly than even when swimming at the top. A man upon the shore
would find it very difficult to keep pace with a diving Grebe, as, aided
by wings and feet, it shoots onwards with the velocity of a rocket. When
flying, their long neck is stretched out straight forwards and their feet
backwards, while their small wings, by the rapidity of their movements,
carry them very quickly through the air. In the absence of any tail,
they steer their course by means of their feet, and are able not only to
direct but to change the course of their flight with surprising facility;
at the end of their journey they come down obliquely upon the surface of
the water, into which they fall with a very audible splash. When alarmed
they always instantly dive, and nothing but the utmost extremity of
danger will compel them to take wing. The food of these birds consists of
small fishes, insects, frogs, and tadpoles, in search of which they dive
to the very bottom of the pond, but always bring them to the top before
swallowing them. In their manner of breeding, the Grebes are in many
respects peculiar. They live together in pairs, the male and the female
exhibiting the greatest affection towards each other, keeping each other
company even during their migrations, and always returning together to the
same pond. When the time arrives, they construct a floating nest, which,
instead of being built of dry materials, as in the case of other birds, is
merely a mass of wet weeds, in which the eggs are kept not only constantly
damp, but absolutely in the water. The weeds used in building the nest are
procured by diving, from the bottom of the pond; these are put together
in the most slovenly manner, so as to resemble a floating heap of rubbish
rather than a nest, and are then fastened to some old upright reeds. The
number of the eggs varies from three to six; they are of elongated shape,
and at first of a greenish white colour, but they soon become dirty, and
are then of a yellowish red or olive-brown tint, sometimes marbled.

The male and female sit upon the eggs alternately, but the female has
the greater share in the business of incubation, the male often swimming
around the place apparently for the purpose of keeping her company.
Should, however, both be obliged to leave the nest at the same time,
they carefully cover the eggs with a mass of half-rotten water-plants,
brought up from the bottom for the purpose. In about three weeks the young
are hatched, even from eggs which during a great part of the time have
been lying in the water. From the first moment they are able to swim,
and in the course of a few days to dive; they are, however, constantly
accompanied by their parents, who often give them shelter under their
wings. Having once quitted the nest, the young ones seldom return to it, a
comfortable resting and sleeping place being afforded to them on the backs
of their parents.


THE CRESTED GREBE.

The CRESTED GREBE (_Podiceps cristatus_), the stateliest member of the
family, is a bird of considerable size, measuring from twenty-five to
twenty-six inches in length, and from thirty-six to thirty-seven in
breadth. The length of the wing is seven inches. During the time of its
courtship this bird is furnished with a very remarkable head-dress,
consisting of a large bunch of long feathers, divided above into two
horn-like appendages, and also with a prominent collar or frill of
hair-like plumes, on each side of the upper extremity of the neck
and sides of the head. The upper parts of its body are of a shining
blackish brown, a bright patch on each wing; the region of the cheeks
and the throat are white; the collar around the neck rust-red, with a
blackish brown margin. The under part of the body is of a glossy satiny
white, speckled upon the sides with rusty red and dark grey. The eye is
carmine-red, the bridles red, the beak pale red; the outer aspect of the
tarsus is dark horn-colour, and the inner side yellowish grey. In its
winter garb, the tufts upon the head and the collar are not developed, the
brown upon the upper part of the body is mingled with deep grey, and the
rust-red of the collar as well as the rust-brown of the sides is duller.
The female is distinguishable from the male by her smaller size, but not
by any difference in her colour. The young birds are less beautiful than
are the adults in their winter dress, and are striped about the head and
neck. The nestlings are at first clothed in greyish brown, streaked with
black.

The Crested Grebe is to be met with wherever suitable pieces of water
exist over all parts of Europe south of 60° north latitude. It is by no
means scarce in Germany, and is still more abundant in lakes further
to the south. In England it is principally met with in Shropshire and
Lincolnshire, and is reckoned as a stationary bird even in Zetland. In the
northern countries it makes its appearance early in the spring, generally
in April, or shortly after the melting of the snow, and remains until
October or November, when it retreats to Southern Europe and Northern
Africa. In Greece and Spain it remains all through the winter; indeed,
the numbers to be met with in those countries are considerably augmented
by arrivals from localities further north. In North-western Africa it
likewise makes its appearance at regular intervals, but in Egypt only a
few solitary birds are to be met with. In Central and Northern Asia it is
quite as common as it is in Europe, and there its range seems to extend
from Siberia to Southern China and Japan. It is likewise abundant in
North America, extending from the north of that continent to the southern
provinces of the United States. In early spring these birds always make
their appearance in pairs, but towards the autumn large parties of them
may be seen together, consisting of fifty or sixty individuals, who keep
company with each other during their migration southwards. In their
migrations it is generally understood that these birds only travel by
night, and that wherever large lakes or rivers are to be found, as also
along the sea-coast, they make their way principally by swimming. During
the summer season the Crested Grebe takes up its abode on extensive lakes,
where reeds and other water-plants are abundant. Their powers of swimming
and diving are quite wonderful. According to Naumann's observations,
this Grebe will dive in the course of half a minute to a distance of two
hundred feet. Its flight, too, when it thinks proper to take wing, is
tolerably swift; it always proceeds in a straight line, and the whirring
noise made by the rapid motion of its wings is audible at some distance.
In its behaviour it seems to be the most circumspect and the shyest
member of the family, and is not easily approached, more especially as
it generally keeps in open water, where it can see to a distance. If
surprised when in the vicinity of a bed of reeds, it immediately takes
refuge among them, but only so long as to enable it again to plunge into
deep water; if pursued it immediately dives, and when it comes up again to
breathe, allows only its beak to appear above the surface, and as soon as
it has taken breath dives again, until it has placed itself quite beyond
the reach of danger.

The male and female are deservedly attached to each other. Should one
of them accidentally stray to a distance, the other never ceases to
call the wanderer back with anxious care; they generally swim about in
close companionship, and often make their voice heard as they playfully
caress each other. At the commencement of the breeding season each male
zealously resists the intrusion of another pair within the area he has
selected, so that where several pairs have taken possession of a piece
of water, desperate battles are frequently fought, at the end of which
the vanquished combatant has generally to have recourse to his wings in
order to escape from the fury of the victor. It is only when the reeds
and sedges have attained a certain height that a pair sets seriously
to work upon the construction of their nest, which is always placed in
the vicinity of a group of tall reeds or rushes, and frequently at a
considerable distance from the shore. The nest, when constructed, is about
a foot in diameter and six inches high, its cavity is extremely shallow,
and it becomes gradually pressed flatter and flatter by the weight of
the laying birds; even when completed, the fabric has very little the
appearance of a nest, but rather resembles a heap of rotten weeds casually
blown together by the winds, and left to float on the top of the water.
It is wonderful that such a wet lump should bear the weight of the bird
that sits upon it, and still more astonishing that it is not upset, as its
occupant steps on and off a structure that possesses so little buoyancy.
The normal number of eggs usually laid in this strange nest may be stated
at four, sometimes there are five, sometimes only three. Out of seven
nests examined by Holtz, four of them contained four eggs, one five, one
three, and one two. The colour of the eggs is at first pure white, which
soon, however, changes into a dirty yellow. The male and female sit upon
the eggs alternately, with an unwearying assiduity, that in their case is
indispensable, seeing that the eggs are actually half immersed in water;
and on examining a nest from which the sitting bird has been recently
driven, it will be found that not only the eggs, but the entire nest is
warm throughout. Both manifest extreme attachment to their young brood;
should a stranger approach, they hastily cover it up with weeds, and only
retire to a little distance, returning to their charge so soon as danger
has passed. It is asserted that if before incubation has commenced the
eggs are abstracted one at a time, the female will lay twenty eggs or
more in succession. As soon as the young are hatched, they are introduced
by their parents to their proper element, and carefully defended, more
especially by the male bird, who seems to take upon himself the duty of
a sentinel. The nestlings are fed with insects and such small diet, at
first put into their beaks, but afterwards only placed before them on
the surface of the water. They soon, however, learn to dive in search of
small fishes, and do not long require the supervision of their elders. The
young, more especially at an early period, are elegant little creatures.
"It is a treat," says Jäckel, "to watch the little family as now one,
now another of the young brood, tired with the exertion of swimming or
of struggling against the rippling water, mount as to a resting-place on
their mother's back; to see how gently, when they have recovered their
strength, she returns them to the water; to hear the anxious plaintive
notes of the little wanderers when they have ventured too far from the
nest; to see their food laid before them by the old birds; or to witness
the tenderness with which they are taught to dive. It is only when they
are eight days old that they are strong enough to enter upon this last
important part of their education, which is commenced in the following
manner:--The mother bird at first swims towards her little flock two or
three times, holding in her beak the proffered food; but as they advance
to receive it she gradually retires before them, and at last dives with
it again and again, thus tempting the timid little creatures to follow
her, and always at the end of the performance allowing the best swimmer
to obtain the tempting prize as a reward for its exertions." The flesh of
these birds is quite uneatable, but great quantities of them are destroyed
annually on account of their skins.

[Illustration: THE CRESTED GREBE (_Podiceps cristatus_). ONE-FOURTH
NATURAL SIZE.]


THE LITTLE GREBE.

The LITTLE GREBE (_Podiceps minor_) is much more plentiful than the
species last described. It is a beautiful bird, measuring nine or ten
inches in length and seventeen or eighteen in breadth, the length of
its wing being four inches. When in its nuptial dress, the plumage of
the upper part of the body is brilliant black shimmering with brown, the
under parts being greyish white, clouded with a darker shade; the throat
and a place in the front of the eye are black; the head, sides of the
neck, and throat, chestnut-brown; the eye is reddish brown; the bridles
yellowish green; the beak yellow at its base and black towards its apex;
the external aspect of the foot is blackish, internally it is of a clear
horn-colour. In its autumnal plumage the upper parts of the body are more
of a brownish grey, the under surface satiny white; the head and neck
bright grey.

The range of this bird is pretty nearly the same as that of the species
last described; it is not, however, so numerously met with during the
winter season. It makes its appearance in Germany about the end of March,
and remains in that country so long as the waters are free from ice; but
during the winter it takes up its abode in the south of Europe. In Great
Britain it is met with as far north as the Hebrides, and in the southern
counties of England may be seen throughout the year.

It usually selects for its residence some large pond well provided with
reeds and rushes, and it is also occasionally to be found in morasses and
other swampy localities. It seems to avoid clear water; its food, which
consists principally of insects and their larvæ, being more abundantly
met with in ditches and muddy places. In its habits and mode of life it
closely resembles other members of its family; it seems, however, to be
more active than the larger species, and uses its feet with more facility
in running.

In swimming and diving it may be said to excel even its congeners, but
its powers of flying are very limited, owing to the shortness of its
wings. Its flight, indeed, is said by Naumann to resemble that of a
grasshopper. In summer time it is very shy, and can only be approached
with difficulty, but in the winter its shyness diminishes, so that it will
even come near villages, and at this season it frequently falls a victim
to its own carelessness. When alarmed it immediately dives, and if further
threatened with danger, secretes itself in the water under the shelter of
the herbage, leaving nothing but its beak visible above the surface, and
thus it will remain until all cause for apprehension is removed. Its voice
is a short piping note that sounds like "bib" or "bibi," and this during
the pairing season is repeated so rapidly that it sounds something like a
"shake" upon some musical instrument.

The nest of the Little Grebe is always placed among water-plants,
but is never hidden from view; more commonly, indeed, it is rather a
conspicuous object; it is, however, invariably removed from the sides of
the pond. In its appearance, it is just as rudely constructed, as wet
and uncomfortable-looking as that of the species last described. In this
floating cradle the female, towards the end of April or the beginning of
May, lays from three to six elongated eggs, the colour of which seems
to depend upon that of the plants of which the nest is composed. Upon
these eggs, both the male and the female sit alternately for twenty or
twenty-one days. As soon as the young are hatched they betake themselves
to the water, where they are taught and tended by their parents in the
same manner as those of the Crested Grebes described above.

       *       *       *       *       *

The DIVERS (_Colymbi_) may be regarded as the marine representatives
of the Grebes, from which, however, they are at once distinguishable
by their larger bodies, shorter neck, more bulky head, and stronger
beak. These birds are fully webbed; their wings are short, and their
quills, the second of which is the longest, hard and stiff; the tail is
composed of from sixteen to twenty close-set feathers. The coloration of
the thick warm plumage varies considerably at different seasons of the
year. The number of species belonging to this group is very limited; of
these only three are recognised as belonging to Great Britain; namely,
_C. glacialis_, _C. arcticus_, and _C. septentrionalis_. The members of
this group are essentially sea-birds, only visiting rivers or lakes of
fresh water during the breeding season or in the course of their winter
migrations. Like the Grebes, they transact all their business in the
water. They swim with the utmost ease to very considerable distances, and
rest themselves by lying as it were flat upon the surface of the sea;
sometimes, however, they sink their bodies to such a depth that only a
small portion of the back is visible. Now they are seen gliding leisurely
along over the tranquil waves, and now with the rapidity of lightning they
disappear apparently without the slightest effort, and without causing any
perceptible disturbance in the water. No sooner are they submerged, than
they stretch themselves out to their full length, their feathers become
flat and smooth, their wings are pressed close to their sides, and thus
presenting a shape beautifully adapted to their work, they shoot through
the water with arrow-like speed, now in one direction, now in another;
sometimes swimming along close beneath the surface, sometimes plunging to
a depth of several fathoms in pursuit of the fishes upon which they feed.

"To see them from some promontory," says Mudie, "against which the air and
the sea are setting full wind and tide, and driving before them myriads
of herrings and other fishes, is a glorious sight. They dash along the
surface, they dart under it, they bounce up again, they bore through the
advancing waves, and when the billow breaks in foam and thunders over
them, and the spectator naturally concludes they are buried for ever in
the deep, up they spring to the surface of the unbroken water farther from
the land, as though exulting in the fury of the elements." This facility
for swimming and diving they enjoy from their earliest infancy, and to
it they trust as a means of escape from danger. It is seldom that they
set foot upon dry land; indeed, even when they visit the shore they can
scarcely be said to do so, they might rather be said to slide out of the
water on to the beach; as to walking, in the ordinary acceptation or the
term, that is quite out of their power--indeed, they are unable to support
themselves in an upright position; by the efforts of their feet and wings,
aided by their neck and beak, they creep, or rather tumble over the
ground until they regain their proper element. Their powers of flight are
very limited, nevertheless it is a pretty sight to see them plunge from
some high cliff into the waters beneath, the efforts of their wings only
serving to give an oblique direction to their downward career, as they
shoot headlong into the deep, and immediately disappear beneath the waves.

The Divers appear to avoid the company of other birds, and indeed seldom
associate with those of their own kind, except during the breeding
season--at which time they may be seen in pairs. Their food consists
exclusively of fishes overtaken in the water or brought up from the bottom
of the sea; of these they seem to prefer the mid-sea swimmers, but flat
fishes, such as small plaice and soles, form likewise a considerable part
of their diet. Graba informs us, that from his window he has often seen
them bring up flounders of considerable size, in disposing of which they
showed considerable dexterity. If too large to be swallowed whole, they
were dropped into the water and devoured piecemeal. Even a herring seemed
to be a somewhat unmanageable morsel; but the smaller fry were at once
made away with. When the breeding season approaches, all the different
species of Divers betake themselves to lakes of fresh water, at some
little distance from the coast, and sometimes at a considerable altitude
above the level of the sea. Their harsh-sounding cry is now uttered more
frequently than usual, especially towards evening, at which time they come
down to the shore and throw themselves from the rocks into the ocean, in
order to procure a supply of food. Their nest is generally built upon some
small island in the middle of the lake or pond, or should such a situation
not offer itself, upon the margin, but always close to the water; it is
rudely constructed of sedge-grass and reeds, negligently heaped together
and frequently without the slightest attempt at concealment, insomuch as
the sitting bird is rather a conspicuous object, and may be seen from a
considerable distance. Upon this rude nest the female lays two eggs of an
elongated shape, having a strong, coarse-grained, but somewhat polished
shell. The two sexes take their turn in the incubation of the eggs, and
both labour with equal zeal in the feeding and rearing of the young. The
eggs are laid towards the end of May, and towards the end of June young
birds may be found in the nests; but the exact period of incubation is not
as yet accurately determined. Should the lake on which the nest is placed
be well stocked with fish, both the parents remain constantly with their
progeny; but if there is a scarcity of such a supply, and the old birds
have to resort to the sea for food, they do so by turns, each of them most
probably bringing to the nest a share of what they capture wherewith to
feed their nestlings. These last, however, as soon as they are hatched
begin to show considerable aptitude for the chase, and are able to procure
food for themselves betimes. When they are fully fledged they betake
themselves to the sea.


THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER.

The GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (_Colymbus glacialis_) is a very striking bird,
measuring about three feet in length and five feet across the wings. The
length of each wing is sixteen inches and tail two inches and a quarter.
In its summer plumage it is principally black, enlivened with white spots;
on the head and neck the feathers are greenish black, the latter being
traversed by a broad longitudinal band of black and white; a similar
stripe is situated on the fore part of the neck. The sides of the upper
breast are black striped with white; the rest of the under surface is a
rich satiny white. The eye is light brown, and beak black; the exterior of
the tarsus is grey, the under surface of a reddish flesh-colour. In its
winter dress the upper part and sides are blackish, and without the white
spots, and the under surface white; the breast black, streaked with white.
The young are clad in a similar garb, but are without the white streaks
upon the breast.

The Northern Diver is common on all the coasts of the North Sea, as
well as on the inland lakes of high latitudes. It appears on the coast
of Great Britain in the autumn, and remains during the winter, going at
the breeding season; except at that time, it lives at sea, following
the shoals of herrings and sprats; it also resorts to arms of the sea
and sandy bays, floating lightly, with its body deep in the water; when
alarmed, it swims with astonishing swiftness, and endeavours to escape by
diving.

These birds breed on the Faroe Islands. Respecting their manner of
nidification Mr. Porter, who observed them closely during the nesting
season in Iceland, says:--"The Northern Diver breeds on the lochs of
fresh water. In the nests I examined, a single egg was deposited. On the
bare ground, but just out of water-mark, rather under a rugged bank on
some broken ground, I was successful in finding two nests. I allowed the
single egg to remain in one of them in the expectation that another egg
would be laid to it, but was disappointed. The old bird was very shy, and
always left the egg on our approach, when at a great distance off, taking
to the water and keeping so far from the side as not to be within shot."
In the breeding season they frequent islands, making their nests of dead
herbage near the water's edge. The eggs, usually two in number, are dark
olive-brown, with a few umber-brown spots, and are three inches six lines
long by two inches three lines broad. The mother lies flat on the eggs,
and, if disturbed, pushes herself along the ground with her feet, diving
as soon as she reaches the water. The young are able in a day or two after
birth to follow their mother to the water, and are able to swim and dive
well. They are fed during the first fortnight with food from the crop of
their parent. The voice of this bird is loud, plaintive, and much varied
in tone.

Montagu tells us that, "A Northern Diver taken alive was kept in a pond
for some months. In a few days it became extremely docile, would come
at a call from one side of the pond to the other, and would take food
from the hand. The bird had received an injury in the head which had
deprived one eye of its sight, and the other was a little impaired; but,
notwithstanding, it could, by incessantly diving, discover all the fish
that was thrown into the pond. In default of fish it would eat flesh. It
is observable that the legs of this bird are so constructed and situated
as to render it incapable of walking upon them. When the bird quitted the
water, it shoved its body along upon the ground like a seal, by jerks,
rubbing the breast against the earth; and returned to the land in a
similar manner. In swimming and diving, the legs only are used and not the
wings, as in the Guillemot and Auk tribes; and by their situation so far
behind and their little deviation from the line of the body, it is enabled
to propel itself in the water with great velocity in a straight line, as
well as turn with astonishing quickness." The plumage of the Northern
Diver is close, and its skin tough, on which account it is much used by
the inhabitants of northern countries in the manufacture of comfortable
articles of clothing. The flesh is hard and of a rank fishy flavour.


THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER.

The BLACK-THROATED DIVER (_Colymbus arcticus_) is smaller than the
preceding species, but very much like it both in the colour and markings
of its plumage. In its nuptial costume the upper part of the head and
hind neck are deep ashy grey, the back and wings black, a space upon the
back and another upon the hinder part of the wing are spotted with white,
while upon the fore part of the wing is another space speckled with blue
spots. The side of the neck presents a longitudinal black streak, the
fore neck has a transverse white band, and the sides are longitudinally
marked with black. The under side is white. During the winter, the head
and nape are grey, the rest of the feathers on the upper surface black
with white borders; the lower parts of the body are white, and the sides
of the crop striped black and white. In young birds the latter markings
are wanting. The eye is light brown, and the beak black. The foot is grey
at its exterior, and flesh-red on the inner side. This species is from
twenty-eight to thirty inches long and from fifty to fifty-two broad;
the wing measures from fourteen to fifteen inches, and the tail from two
inches and a quarter to two inches and a half. The Black-throated Diver
is rare on our southern coasts; on the northern shores of our island it
begins to appear about September. The majority of these depart about
April, although a few remain to nest in the northern parts and islands
of Scotland. We are indebted to Mr. Selby for the following account of
its breeding, as observed by himself during the course of an excursion in
Scotland.

[Illustration: _Plate 39, Cassell's Book of Birds_

COLYMBUS GLACIALIS ____ NORTHERN DIVER.

(_about ¼ Nat. size_).]

"This beautiful species, whose breeding station has never before been
detected, we found upon most of the interior Sutherland lochs. The first
we noticed was at the foot of Loch Shin, where we were so fortunate as
to find the nest, or rather the two eggs upon the bare ground of a small
islet, removed about ten or twelve feet from the water's edge. The female
was seen in the act of incubation, sitting horizontally, and not in an
upright position, on the eggs. In plumage she resembled the male, and
when fired at immediately swam or rather dived off to a short distance.
Our pursuit after them was, however, ineffectual, though persevered in
for a long time, as it was impossible to calculate where they were likely
to rise after diving. Submersion frequently continued for nearly two
minutes at a time, and they generally reappeared at about a quarter of a
mile's distance from the spot where they had gone down. In no instance
have I ever seen them attempt to escape by taking wing. I may observe
that a visible track from the water to the eggs was left by the female,
whose progress upon land is effected by shuffling along upon her belly,
propelled by her legs behind. On the day following (May 31st) Mr. J.
Wilson was fortunate enough to find two newly-hatched young ones in a
small creek of Loch Craigie, about two miles and a half from Lairg. After
handling and examining them, during which the old birds approached very
near to him, he left them in the same spot. Accordingly, on the Monday
morning we had the boat conveyed to the loch, and on our arrival soon
descried the two old birds, attended by their young and apparently moving
to a different part of the loch. Contrary to their usual habit at other
times, they did not attempt to dive on our approach, but kept swimming
around their young, which, from their very tender age, were unable to make
much way in the water. The female could only be distinguished from the
male by a slight inferiority of size, and both were in full adult plumage.
We afterwards saw several pairs upon various lochs, and upon Loch Kay,
a pair attended by two young ones nearly half grown. When swimming they
are in the constant habit of dipping their bill into the water, with a
graceful motion of the head and beak."

Mr. Dunn, who observed these birds in Norway, tells us that, "The eggs
have a very rank fishy taste, but are much sought after by the Lapps.
After the young are hatched, both male and female are very assiduous in
bringing them food, and may be seen flying at a vast height, with fish
in their beaks, from one lake to another; on arriving over the lake
where they intend to alight, they descend very suddenly in an oblique
direction." The cries of this Diver are very peculiar during the breeding
season, and may be heard at a great distance. The voice is said to be very
melancholy, and to resemble the cry of a human being in distress.


THE RED-THROATED DIVER.

The RED-THROATED DIVER (_Colymbus septentrionalis_), as the smallest of
these three species is called, is only from twenty-five to twenty-six
inches long, and from forty to forty-three broad; the wing measures from
ten inches and a half to twelve and a half; and the tail two and a half
to three and a half inches. The colour of this bird is ash-grey upon the
head and on the sides of the neck; the back of the neck is striped with
white; the front of the throat bright chestnut-brownish red; the back is
brownish black; the under side white; the front and sides of the breast
are black, with longitudinal rows of spots. In their winter dress the
feathers of the back are tipped with white, and the region of the throat
is white. In young birds the colours of the plumage are indistinct.
The eye is light brownish red; the beak black; the foot is dark brown,
mingled with blueish grey, the latter colour being deepest on the web
between the toes. This bird inhabits the high northern latitudes of the
eastern hemisphere, and is more especially met with upon the coasts of
Greenland, Spitzbergen, and of European and Asiatic Russia. It is likewise
common in the Faroe Islands, as well as in the Orkneys and the Hebrides.
In winter time it extends its range further south, and may be found on
the coasts of Denmark, Germany, and Holland, as well as upon the shores
of Great Britain. Its habitat may be said to stretch from 60° to 70°
north latitude. The Red-throated Diver is common on the shores of Great
Britain and Ireland in the winter season, and about the mouth of the
Thames is known by the name of the Sprat Loon, on account of its following
the shoals of sprats. It remains during winter to breed in Scotland,
frequenting the inland Highland lakes, as well as the Orkney, Hebrides,
and Shetland Islands. The neatly-made nest is placed near the margin of
the water, sometimes on the bare beach, and sometimes among herbage, and
is formed of such plants and leaves as are easily procurable. The eggs,
usually two in number, are of an elongated oval shape, brown in colour,
and dotted with dark amber-brown. The male remains near the nest, and is
said occasionally to assist in brooding. When an intruder approaches, the
female continues to sit till her foe is close at hand, when she starts
off, plunges into the water, and usually flies off or sometimes swims
anxiously about in company with her mate; if deprived of their eggs the
loud lamentations of the parents may be heard for several evenings; the
notes are harsh, and, according to Macgillivray, resemble those of the
Gannet. The young take to the water as soon as they leave the egg, and
continue with their parents until able to use their wings, when all fly
off to the sea. Mr. Low, in his "Natural History of Orkney," says, "This
bird continues with us the whole season, builds on the very edge of a lake
in the hills of Hay, and lays two eggs; its nest is placed so that it can
slip from it into the water, as it can neither stand nor move on land, but
can make very quick way at sea; flies well, and commonly very high; makes
a vast howling and sometimes croaking noise, which our country folks say
prognosticates rain, whence its name with us of the 'Rain Goose.'" Mr.
Dunn, who saw this bird in Norway, thus writes to Mr. Yarrell: "This Diver
is far more common here than the Black-throated. On the west coast of
Norway it is very abundant from the Naze to the North Cape; in the Lapland
Alps, in the Dofre Field, and in the interior of Sweden it is equally
numerous. In August, 1838, I saw, on the great Tornea Lake, thirty in a
flock, and all old birds. Although so common, it is rarely one sees the
young before they are able to fly; their habits and feeding are similar
to those of the Black-throated Diver. Their cries are very mournful and
melancholy. During the breeding season, while on the wing, they utter
frequently a sound like the word 'kakera-kakera,' by which name they are
called in many parts of Scandinavia."

       *       *       *       *       *

The AUKS (_Alcidæ_) are distinguishable by their strongly-built body,
short neck, large head, short, almost rudimentary wings, short tail,
strong, compact, three-toed, broadly-webbed feet, and rich, thick, and
downy plumage, which is similarly coloured in the two sexes, but varies
considerably at different seasons.

       *       *       *       *       *

The LOONS (_Uriæ_), while they present the general characters
above-mentioned, have wings of moderate length, in which the first quill
is the longest, and a short tail composed of twelve feathers. Their beak,
which is of moderate length, is vaulted above, somewhat angular beneath,
and much compressed and furrowed upon the sides.

The various members of these groups are all inhabitants of northern
seas and of the creeks and bays with which they are contiguous; indeed,
except in the winter time, they seldom pass much beyond the precincts
of the frigid zone. They are all strictly sea-birds; indeed, it is only
during the breeding season that they take up their abode on terra firma;
at all other times they live exclusively upon the water. They swim and
dive with remarkable facility; their powers of flight are moderately
good, and although they do not willingly walk, they are able to do so
tolerably well, treading upon the soles of their feet, and not shuffling
along upon their tarsi. Their food consists exclusively of crustaceans
and fishes, which they are able to bring up from a considerable depth.
They live and feed together, exhibiting considerable sociability, and
during the breeding season they assemble in flocks, amounting in some
species to the number of several hundred thousand pairs, and thus become
to the inhabitants of the extreme north of inestimable importance. In many
settlements on the coast of Greenland they, next to the seals, constitute
the most important article of food, and famine would be the inevitable
result of their ceasing to visit their usual breeding-places in their
wonted numbers.


THE GREENLAND DOVE, OR BLACK GUILLEMOT.

The GREENLAND DOVE, or BLACK GUILLEMOT (_Cephus grylle_), one of the
best-known members of its family, may be regarded as the representative
of a distinct group, and is easily recognisable by its small size, and
comparatively long, slender, straight beak, which curves downwards at
the extremity of the upper mandible. The legs are placed very far back;
the wings are small and pointed, but furnished with strong quills; the
short, rounded tail is composed of from twelve to fourteen feathers.
The plumage is thick, and of velvety texture; its coloration varies
considerably at different ages and at different seasons of the year. When
in full dress at the commencement of the breeding season, the plumage is
glossy black, shaded with green, and enlivened by a white patch upon the
wings. The eye is brown, beak black, and foot coral-red. In its winter
garb the under side is spotted black and white; in young birds the upper
parts are blackish, the wings being white striped with black, the belly
white, and the rest of the body spotted with blackish grey. The length
of this species is thirteen inches, breadth twenty-two inches, length
of wing six and a half inches, and of tail two inches. The range of the
Black Guillemot extends from about 80° to 53° north latitude: within
this zone it is met with on every sea-coast. These birds are seldom seen
assembled in large numbers; they generally arrive in small parties, or
in pairs. It is only when the sea is frozen over, that they congregate
together around any openings that may be met with in the ice, and as soon
as opportunity offers, they again disperse, and distribute themselves
among their usual haunts. As the severity of winter increases, they
migrate further towards the south, and it is only at such seasons that
they occur upon our own shores. There is always something cheerful in
the aspect of these birds, whether they are seen sitting upright on the
rocks, or swimming and diving in their proper element; they float upon
the water light and buoyant, and as they row themselves gracefully along,
their bright red feet often become visible above the surface. When they
dive, their movements are equally graceful; a single backward stroke of
their feet raises their tails into the air, and instantly they disappear,
without any visible disturbance of the water around them. As soon as they
are fairly submerged, they partially open their wings, and by the aid of
these, as well as of their feet, they shoot along with great rapidity,
remaining under water about two minutes before they again show themselves.
When the sea is tranquil and the water clear, their course may be easily
traced for a considerable distance, but we think that some observers have
over-estimated the depth to which they are able to plunge. Their flight
is tolerably good, although, owing to the shortness of their wings, they
are compelled to make such rapid strokes as to produce a whirling sound.
When about to fly, they rise from the sea with some little difficulty,
and have to make considerable efforts in order to get the necessary
impetus; but so soon as they have attained a certain elevation, they
can mount rapidly to the top of the cliffs, upon which they frequently
take their station. Their voice differs considerably from that of the
generality of their congeners; instead of the usual scream it is rather
a whistling note. About the beginning of March, they begin to assemble
at their breeding-places in small flocks, seldom consisting of more than
thirty or forty together, although millions of other birds may resort to
the same locality; and here each pair selects a suitable rent or fissure
in the rock, at a short distance from the entrance of which, towards the
end of April or beginning of May, the female lays her two eggs upon the
bare stone. The eggs are tolerably large, with coarse lustreless shells
of a dingy whitish or blueish green colour, spotted with ashy green, and
streaked with brown or blackish brown patches. Should the eggs first laid
be removed, as they very frequently are when the breeding-places are
accessible, the breeding pair will lay a second time, but usually only
a single egg. The parents take their turns in the task of incubation,
towards the close of which they sit so assiduously that they will suffer
themselves to be captured rather than desert their charge. After the
lapse of twenty-four days, the young make their appearance, clad in a
thick covering of greyish down; at first they are diligently fed upon
sand-worms, small molluscs, sand-eels, and similar fare, but they are soon
able to fish for themselves; they swim well from their earliest infancy,
but are not able to dive until they are fully fledged. In Greenland
and Iceland, great numbers of these birds are killed and eaten, the
Norwegians, however, are content to take their eggs. Their flesh has a
strong flavour of train-oil, still it may be rendered eatable if properly
cooked; in Lapland, the young birds are often brought to table; the
feathers, also, are used to fill beds, but they are chiefly profitable on
account of their eggs, which, although they have a very peculiar taste,
are eagerly sought after. In the British Isles, according to Macgillivray,
the Black Guillemot has no breeding-places south of the Tweed and Solway;
the most southern point being the Bass Rock at the mouth of the Firth of
Forth, and the Isle of Man.

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUE GUILLEMOTS (_Uria_) are larger than the above birds, but very
similar in structure; their beak is elongated, of moderate length,
straight and sharply-pointed, slightly vaulted above, and decidedly
angular beneath; its sides are compressed, and edges somewhat drawn in the
foot resembles that of _Cephus grylle_, but the toes are proportionately
longer; the wings are also smaller and more pointed, and the tail,
composed of twelve feathers, shorter; the general plumage is thick and
compact; the under surface is usually white and almost fur-like, whilst
the upper parts of the body are more or less dark brown. The Guillemots
principally inhabit northern latitudes, at certain seasons appearing in
more temperate climates; except during the period of incubation they
seldom visit the land, but pass their whole time upon the ocean. They are
excellent swimmers, and dive well, using both feet and wings for their
propulsion, so that their movements beneath the water are performed with
admirable rapidity and precision; their flight is rapid but hurried, and,
owing to the shortness of their wings, whirring and noisy. So numerous
are these birds in the neighbourhood of their breeding-places, that
(more especially if it be a rock of a pyramidal form) they resemble at a
distance a great swarm of bees. When descending into the water to fish for
food, their wings are kept quite straight and motionless. Except during
the breeding season these flights are not often attempted, at other times
they seldom leave the water, or if induced to take a short excursion,
by way of exercising their wings, they soon drop down again into the
friendly shelter of the waves. They are almost unable to progress upon
dry land; occasionally, however, they may be seen upon the beach, half
walking and half flying, with a very peculiar gait, somewhat resembling
dancing. Anyone who has visited the breeding-places of these birds will no
longer wonder that they have in all languages received names expressive
of foolishness and stupidity. When in the water they will often let a
boat come close to them without showing the slightest distrust of its
dangerous occupants, and on dry land, such is their unconsciousness of
harm, that they will allow a man to come within a few steps of them
without stirring from the spot. This so-called stupidity or indolence
is, however, easily explicable. Of man, who seldom visits their wild
resorts, they have no experience, and consequently have not learned to
fear him; but should a Falcon or an Eagle make its appearance, even in
the remote distance, thousands of them at once take wing, and hastily
retreat to some place of safety. The cliffs on which they build present
a remarkable spectacle; rocks abounding in rifts, cracks, shelves, and
ledges, stretching along the shore or rising abruptly from the sea, afford
them the situations they prefer; if isolated, solitary, and accessible
to none but winged creatures, so much the more eligible. There, about
the end of March or beginning of April, they may be seen to congregate,
their numbers gradually increasing until countless multitudes throng every
available situation. Thousands and hundreds of thousands swarm upon the
ledges, shelves, and projections, wherever these are to be found, and
range themselves in rows like a regiment of soldiers, all with their white
breasts turned towards the sea, hundreds of thousands more may be seen
flying off from the ledges of the cliffs down to the water below, while
multitudes, equally innumerable, are as constantly flying upwards from
the sea to the cliff, and whole fleets are swimming and diving in the
waves beneath. Strange to say, although every place affording foothold is
crowded to excess, the utmost order and decorum everywhere prevail; each
seems desirous of assisting and accommodating the other, so that disputes
or battles seldom occur. The countless pairs of which this vast assembly
consists exhibit the utmost constancy and attachment, and may be seen
before the eggs are laid, keeping constantly together, caressing each
other with their beaks, and evincing the greatest affection. They fly off
together to the sea, fish together for a supply of food, and then return
to their nesting-place, where they subsequently share the duties connected
with the incubation of the eggs, and the procuration of food for their
progeny. The female lays but a single very large egg, which is shaped like
a pegtop, and thus, by a simple but beautiful contrivance, is prevented
from rolling off the narrow ledge on which, without any other protection,
it safely rests. The egg is provided with a coarse shell, spotted and
streaked with dark markings upon a light ground, but so variable are the
colours, that out of a hundred scarcely two will be found exactly alike.
The period of incubation extends over from thirty to thirty-five days.
When the young makes its appearance it rather resembles a ball of greyish
black wool than a bird; its coat of down soon disappears; its growth is
rapid; and in about a month it is completely fledged.


THE COMMON OR FOOLISH GUILLEMOT.

[Illustration: THE COMMON OR FOOLISH GUILLEMOT (_Uria troile_). ONE-FOURTH
NATURAL SIZE.]

The COMMON or FOOLISH GUILLEMOT (_Uria troile_), in its nuptial garb, is
bright brown upon the back and on the fore parts of the neck; the points
of the feathers upon the upper arm are white, forming a conspicuous
band. The under surface is white; the sides are striped with brown. In
the winter dress both the fore part of throat and hinder part of cheek
are white. The eye is brown, beak black, and foot grey. This species is
seventeen inches and a half long, and from twenty-seven to twenty-eight
broad; the wing measures three inches and the tail two and a half.
The Common Guillemots are to be seen around the British coast at all
seasons of the year. About the beginning of May they assemble in their
breeding-places on the rocks, which are also frequented by other birds for
the same purpose. "From the numbers that congregate," observes Yarrell,
"and the bustle apparent amongst them, confusion of interests might be
expected; but, on the contrary, it will be found that the Guillemots
occupy one station, or line of ledges on the rocks, the Razor-bills
another, the Puffins a third, Kittiwake Gulls a fourth, whilst the
most inaccessible pinnacles seem to be left for the use of the lesser
Black-backed and the Herring Gulls. Two distinct species scarcely ever
breed close by the side of each other."

The egg is laid on a ledge or hollow of the bare rock: it is pear-shaped,
about three inches and a quarter long, of a blueish green, or yellowish
green colour, with streaks and blotches of brown or black: sometimes the
eggs are plain white or green. Great numbers of these eggs are collected
by men who descend from the cliff above by means of ropes. The eggs are
hatched in about a month. The young are fed for a short time on the rocks
by their parents, after which they accompany them to the sea. In what
manner they descend seems to be a problem. Mr. Waterton was assured by the
men about Flamborough Head that when the young Guillemot gets to a certain
size, it manages to climb on the back of the old bird, which conveys it
down to ocean; and Mr. Yarrell, in support of this statement, assures us
that he has seen at the base of very high cliffs in the Isle of Wight the
young of Razor-bills and Guillemots "so small that they could not have
made the descent by themselves from the lofty site of their birthplace
without destruction; yet these little birds knew perfectly well how to
take care of themselves, and at the approach of a boat would swim away and
dive like so many Dabchicks." About August, old and young leave the rocks
and take to open water. Audubon gives the following curious description
of these birds on a group of rocks, which consist of several low islands,
destitute of vegetation, and at no great height from the water. "Here
thousands of Guillemots annually assemble at the beginning of May to
deposit each its single egg and raise its young. As you approach these
islands, the air becomes darkened with the multitudes of these birds that
fly about. Every square foot of the ground seems to be occupied by a
Guillemot planted erect, as it were, on the granite rock, but carefully
warming its cherished egg. All look towards the south, and if you are
fronting them, the snowy white of their bodies produces a remarkable
effect, for the birds at some distance look as if destitute of head, so
much does that part assimilate with the dark hue of the rocks on which
they stand. On the other hand, if you approach them in the rear, the isle
appears as if covered with a black pall."


THE LITTLE AUK, OR GUILLEMOT.

The LITTLE AUK, or GUILLEMOT (_Arctica_ or _Mergulus Alle_), is
recognisable by its short thick beak, which is vaulted above, much turned
in at its cutting edge, and incised near its sharp point; in old birds
the bill is furrowed in front of the oval-shaped nostril apertures. The
upper part of the body is deep black, paler upon the fore neck; the under
surface is white, striped with brown upon the sides; the foot is blueish.
In winter the throat is whitish and the neck dark grey. The length of this
species is from nine to ten inches, breadth sixteen to eighteen inches,
length of wing five and a half to six inches, and that of tail one inch
and one-eighth to one and three-eighths. The Little Auk is in Greenland
generally known to the whale-fishers as the "Ice Bird," from an idea that
its presence in any considerable numbers betokens the vicinity of ice. It
is usually found within the Arctic Circle. Captain Parry found it even
as far north as 82° north latitude; and they were numerous between 81°
and 82°. Around Spitzbergen, and Nova Zembla, and near Greenland, it is
common; further south it is much scarcer; in Great Britain it is only a
winter visitor, and is most frequently seen in the Orkney and Shetland
Isles; specimens have, however, been seen upon the English coast, even
as far south as Kent. These birds only visit the shores for the purpose
of incubation, except when driven inland by violent storms; the ocean is
their home, and there they may be seen riding joyfully upon the surge or
sleeping tranquilly with their beak buried among their feathers even amid
the raging of the billows.

"In the course of my voyages across the Atlantic," observes Audubon, "I
have often observed the Little Guillemots in small groups, rising and
flying to short distances at the approach of the ship, or diving close to
the bow and reappearing a little way behind. Now with expanded wings they
would flutter and run as it were on the face of the deep; again they would
seem to be busily engaged in procuring food, which apparently consisted of
shrimps, other crustacea, and particles of seaweeds."

The Little Auk must certainly be regarded as the gayest and briskest
member of its family; when visiting the shore it steps nimbly along on
its toes, vanishes from observation among the stones, or creeps like a
mouse into crevices in the rocks. When out at sea it swims and dives with
wonderful alacrity, remaining under water for even more than a couple of
minutes. Its flight resembles that of the birds above described, but it
moves its little wings even more rapidly than they. During the breeding
season the Little Auks congregate in immense numbers in the vicinity of
the islands on which the eggs are to be deposited. Each pair seeks a
suitable spot among the stones that have fallen upon the beach, and there
lays a single egg of about the same size as that of the Pigeon, and of a
whitish colour slightly tinged with blue. How long incubation continues
is unknown; it has, however, been ascertained that both parents attend to
their solitary young one (which makes its appearance clad in greyish down)
supplying it with food until it is fledged and capable of flying out to
sea.

       *       *       *       *       *

The STARIKIS (_Phaleres_), a race of birds occupying northern regions,
appear to some extent to claim relationship with the Auks and Divers, but
are at once distinguishable from them by the flowing crest which adorns
their head. Their beak is short, and very much depressed, broad, and of
a somewhat triangular shape, it is incised towards the tip, and slightly
vaulted above. The short slender feet are placed very far backwards; the
wings are of moderate length, and tail very short. The thick plumage is
rather brightly coloured. Most of the species belonging to this group are
met with between the north coast of Asia, and the north-west shores of
America. These birds live in small flocks, swimming with ease and celerity
while in quest of their food, which consists of crustacea, mollusca,
and other marine animals. As the night approaches they seek the shore,
where, under the ledges of the rocks, or in burrows dug with their bills
and feet, they retire to rest. The single egg is deposited in similar
situations.


THE STARIKI.

The STARIKI (_Phaleris cristatella_) presents as its most conspicuous
feature a sort of plume upon the head, consisting of six or eight
remarkable feathers, placed close together; other feathers of similar
character, and of a pale white, ornament the sides of the head, and
project over the origin of the bill. The plumage of the adult bird is
blackish brown upon the upper part of the body, and blueish grey beneath,
shading upon the belly to a yellowish grey. The wing-quills and tail are
black, the outermost quill being spotted with brown, and the rest with
white. The eye is dark brown, beak coral-red, and foot blueish. In young
birds the tuft upon the head is wanting; the feathers on the brow are
black, with white shafts; the entire upper portion of the body is black,
except the region of the shoulder, which is grey; the throat is greyish
yellow, and under surface pure white. In its general appearance this bird
resembles a large Quail. Steller, who first discovered the Stariki, met
with it in Behring's Straits; subsequent naturalists have traced it from
thence to the Sea of Japan and the north coasts of America. In disposition
these birds are social and lively. Kittlitz tells us he has seen small
parties of them swimming and diving together in twos and threes.

We learn from the same authority that each pair lays two eggs, which are
moderately large, and of an elongated form. The shell is brownish white,
speckled and marked with brown.

       *       *       *       *       *

The AUKS (_Alcæ_) may in certain senses be considered as intermediate
between the Guillemots and the Coulternebs, resembling the former in
the coloration of their plumage and mode of life, and the latter in
the peculiar structure of their bill. The beak is of moderate length,
very narrow, and very high; the upper mandible bends like a bow along
the culmen, while the lower one turns angularly upwards, and is furrowed
towards its base; the cutting edge, which is also curved, is exceedingly
sharp. The tail is short, and consists of twelve narrow feathers; the
wings are slender, long, pointed, and sometimes sabre-shaped. In their
habits and modes of life these strange-looking birds closely resemble the
Guillemots.

[Illustration: AN ASSEMBLAGE OF AUKS.]


THE RAZOR-BILL.

[Illustration: GREAT AUK, OR THE GIANT PENGUIN (_Alca pinguinus_ or
_impennis_).]

The RAZOR-BILL (_Alca torda_) is from sixteen to seventeen inches long,
by twenty-six and a half to twenty-seven in breadth; the length of wing
is eight inches, and that of tail three and a half. When in nuptial
costume, this species is black upon the upper part of body and fore neck;
a narrow band passing from the base of the beak to the eye, a line formed
by the tips of the secondary quills, and the breast and belly are all pure
white. In winter the neck and sides of head are white. In young birds
the colours are indistinct. The eye is dark brown, beak black, with a
transverse line of white, and foot black. The Razor-bill is emphatically
a sea-bird, passing the greater part of its time upon the ocean, and
living from year's end to year's end almost in the same locality. In
winter these birds may be seen in great numbers in all the Norwegian
fjords, from which they are absent during the summer. They appear likewise
with some regularity upon the north shores of Germany, Holland, France,
and Great Britain, wending their way back at the coming of spring, to
breed in more northern latitudes. In the month of May they resort to the
same breeding-places as the groups above described, and that in even
still greater numbers. Boje observed a flight of Razor-bills measuring
at least a thousand yards across, and which was so long in passing over
his head that he had time to load and fire his gun ten times into the
thick of the passing multitudes. We ourselves have seen equally numerous
flights. Upon the Nyken during the breeding season they may be counted
by hundreds of thousands, sitting in pairs and little societies upon
every available projection of the rock, bending and twisting their heads
in all directions, with most ludicrous pertinacity. In these northern
regions they are so fearless of man that they will allow themselves to be
approached within a few hundred paces without exhibiting the slightest
mistrust. When, however, we tried to seize one of them, they threw
themselves headlong into the sea, from whence, after having swum about and
dived a little, they again ascended to their resting-place. Upon rocks
much resorted to by sea-fowl we have observed that the Razor-bills always
take possession of rents and crevices, in which they deposit their egg.
Some are found under stones, and a few in holes. Each pair produces but a
single egg, which is of large size, much elongated, and very variable both
in colour and markings, insomuch that no two can be found exactly alike.
The young when hatched are clad in a thick coat of brownish black down,
with white faces. Before they are half grown they become impatient of
longer confinement, and apparently excited by the noise around them, throw
themselves into the sea beneath, or roll themselves over and over upon
the rocks until they reach it. The parents immediately follow them, and
instruct them how to obtain food. This first leap of the young is a very
hazardous proceeding, and thousands, instead of falling into the water,
are dashed to pieces on the stones, insomuch that at this season the foot
of the rock is literally covered with their mangled remains.


THE GREAT AUK.

The GREAT AUK (_Alca pinguinus_ or _impennis_). This extraordinary bird
occupied the northern regions of the Atlantic at the commencement of this
century, but is now apparently extinct, owing to the determined pursuit to
which it has been subjected. So abundant was it even a few years ago, that
it was used in Greenland and Iceland as an article of food--at present
its stuffed skin could not be bought for its weight in gold. This species
is described by Fleming as a British bird, and he assures us that it not
unfrequently bred in the Island of St. Kilda. The distinguishing mark of
this interesting species was the rudimentary condition of its wings, for
wings they must be called, presenting as they do all the parts met with
in ordinary birds, but yet so small as to be quite useless as instruments
of flight. The beak, as may be seen in stuffed specimens, is elongated
and very high, and gently curved along its culmen; the lower jaw is deep
and vaulted, but much compressed at its sides; its cutting edge from the
corner of the mouth to beyond the nostrils is nearly straight, but beyond
that bends downwards at an obtuse angle to the tip. The sides of the bill
present several furrows towards its anterior extremity: of these, six
or seven are on the upper, and nine or ten on the lower mandible. The
structure of the foot resembles that of other Auks, as does the plumage.
The tail is also composed of the same number of feathers. Its stature is
nearly that of a Goose; its length being about thirty inches; the wings
are not more than six and a half or seven and a half; the tail measures
three inches or three and a half. Upon the upper surface the plumage
is glossy black; on the throat blackish brown; an oval white patch is
situated immediately in front of the eye. The under side and a thin streak
across the tips of the secondary wing-quills are white. The winter plumage
is entirely white. The beak and feet are black. The history of a bird so
recently blotted out from the list of living creatures becomes a subject
of considerable interest, and several writers have endeavoured to rescue
from oblivion the principal facts recorded concerning its habits and mode
of life. Previous to these inquiries, it was generally understood that
the Great Auk inhabited all parts of the Frozen Ocean; such, however,
appears not to have been the case. We have no proof that it ever visited
the coast of Spitzbergen, nor has it been found on the shores of North
America even at very high latitudes. It is authentically stated that it
used formerly to breed on the Faroe Isles and was a frequent visitor to
the Hebrides. Brüllock obtained one from the latter islands in 1812, and
Fleming was present at the capture of another on St. Kilda's Isle in
1822. A dead specimen was washed ashore in Normandy in 1830, and this is
the furthest point south it is known to have reached. At one time it
seems to have been numerous upon the reefs and rocky islets contiguous to
Newfoundland. Over these rocks a formidable surf continually breaks, and
it was probably on account of their inaccessibility that these situations
were selected as safe breeding-places. Some of these reefs are still known
by names indicative of this circumstance, "Geirfuglasker," for example,
meaning the "Great Auk's Rock." In 1830, a collector of skins, of the
name of Goudmundson undertook two expeditions in search of these birds;
in the first he obtained twelve or thirteen, and in the second eight
specimens; the greater part of which found their way into museums. Others
were procured in the same manner till 1844, when two only, probably the
last of their race, were taken. We will briefly relate the particulars
of their capture, as they will throw some light upon the habits of these
birds. The expedition sent in search of them consisted of fourteen men,
who started in a boat from Kyrkjuebogr one evening in June, and came next
morning to the Island of Eldey, a steep rock rising precipitately from the
sea, and forming in one place a kind of platform, to which the sea rises
at high water-mark. On this platform were seen two Great Auks sitting
amidst a countless host of smaller species, and these at once became the
objects of attack. The frightened creatures made not the slightest attempt
at resistance, but immediately began to run down the cliff, their heads
outstretched and little wings displayed. Notwithstanding the shortness
of their legs they ran with considerable speed, but were, however, soon
overtaken--a sailor with outspread arms drove one of them into a corner
and held it fast--the other was seized close to the edge of the rock.

In 1858, Messrs. J. Wolley and Alfred Newton went to Iceland, but were
unable to land on the Auk Skua, or even to see a bird. They obtained bones
from the inhabitants.

Sir L. M'Clintock, of the _Fox_, says: "The Great Auk has not been
met with on any of the modern Arctic expeditions. I was told in South
Greenland twenty-five years ago, that a young specimen was obtained, but
am not sure of the fact. The resident Europeans are quite aware of the
value attached by naturalists to this bird, so have kept a sharp look-out
for it."

Mr. Proctor, of Durham Museum, writes: "One bird was bought in 1834 by the
Rev. J. Gisborne, for £8. I was in Iceland in 1833, and made every inquiry
for it, but never saw a single bird. I went to the northern parts of
Iceland in 1837 in search of it again, and travelled through the northern
parts as far as Gremsey Iceland--a small island forty miles north of the
mainland--but could not meet with it. I have never seen the bird alive,
neither have I had the eggs. A fisherman in Iceland had two birds and two
eggs in 1846. The birds were sent to Copenhagen; the eggs were broken."

"The Great Auk inhabits the Arctic seas, but is so diminishing in numbers
as now to be rarely seen. It extends from the Arctic Regions to the
Orkneys, in which islands, however, only three of four specimens (a
bird of this species, according to Mr. Bullock, was killed in Bucks)
have been seen in the memory of the oldest inhabitant. Two individuals
are recorded as having been taken at St. Kilda in 1822 and 1829; one in
Buckinghamshire; another found dead at Lundy Island, 1829; another taken
alive in 1834, off the coast of Waterford."

Attempts have been made to impose on collectors by the manufacture of
spurious Auks' eggs. They are considered as copies of the true egg, very
cleverly done.

[Illustration: GIANT PENGUINS.]

"The natives of the Orkneys," says Montagu, "informed Mr. Bullock, on his
tour through those islands several years ago, that only one male had made
its appearance for a long time, which had regularly visited Papa Westra
for several seasons. The female, which the natives call the Queen of the
Auks, was killed just before Mr. Bullock's arrival. The king, or male, Mr.
Bullock had the pleasure of chasing for several hours in a six-oared boat,
but without being able to kill him, though he frequently got near him, so
expert was the bird in its natural element, that it appeared impossible to
shoot him. The rapidity with which he pursued his course under water was
quite incredible." This bird was sent to Mr. Bullock about a fortnight
after his departure, and at the sale of his collection became the property
of the British Museum, which possesses in all two birds and two eggs.

[Illustration: THE COULTERNEB, OR ARCTIC PUFFIN.]

Mr. Champley, who has lately made a tour through Europe and collected
evidence of every bird and egg known to exist, computes the whole at
thirty-four birds and forty-two eggs, of which England has fourteen birds
and twenty-four eggs. Audubon tells us that "Mr. Henry Havell, the brother
of his engraver, when on his passage from New York to England hooked a
Great Auk on the banks of Newfoundland in extremely boisterous weather.
On being hauled on board it was left at liberty on deck. It walked very
awkwardly, often tumbling over, bit every one within reach of its powerful
bill, and refused food of all kinds. After continuing some days on board,
it was restored to its proper element."

In a letter from Hakluyt, written so far back as 1578, we learn the reason
of the rapid extinction of these strange birds; this writer states that
in a locality known as "Penguin Island" they were so numerous and so tame
that flocks of them were driven over a plank into a boat until the boat
was full. "The French," he adds, "are in the habit of salting the flesh of
these birds." We learn from various sources that these birds swam well,
with head erect, and neck thrown back; if alarmed, they immediately dived.
When upon land they sat bolt upright, and running held themselves erect,
walking with short steps; if alarmed, they at once throw themselves into
the sea. The voice is described as a feeble croak. These birds were never
known to defend their eggs, but when laid hold of would bite severely.
Their adroitness in the water was such that Mr. Bullock, as related by
Montagu, followed one of them about for hours in a six-oared boat without
being able to get near it. The food of the Great Auk consisted entirely of
fishes. The single egg laid by the female was deposited in June; in size,
this egg exceeded that of any other European species, being upwards of
five inches long; the shell was thick, lustreless, coarse, and of a dirty
white, variously marked with brown and black. The male and female, we are
told, sat alternately upon their eggs: the young were at first covered
with dark grey down, and soon found their way into the water.


THE COULTERNEB, OR ARCTIC PUFFIN.

The COULTERNEB, or ARCTIC PUFFIN (_Mormon fratercula_), one of the most
remarkable birds we have yet described, although an inhabitant of northern
regions, is a regular summer visitant to our own, where it is known
by a great variety of names all indicative of the strangeness of its
appearance, such as the "Pope," "Mullet," "Sea Parrot," "Jammie," and the
"Norrie." The Coulterneb is at once recognisable from all its brethren
by the peculiar structure of its beak, the shortness of its neck, and
the shape of its head. Its bill, when seen in profile, has a somewhat
triangular shape, being high at the base, and remarkably compressed at
its sides; at its origin it is covered with a thick fold of skin which is
prolonged around the corner of the mouth; its anterior is deeply furrowed,
rather obtuse at its tip, and very sharply edged. In this last respect
the beak cannot be compared with that of any other bird. The feet are
three-toed, strongly webbed, and provided with sharp claws, the points
of which are turned sideways; the small feeble wing is rounded at its
extremity, and the short tail composed of sixteen feathers. The plumage on
the upper parts of the body is short, thick, compact, and smooth, whilst
underneath it is somewhat longer, and more fur-like in appearance. The
top of the head, a band around the neck, and the entire mantle are black;
the cheeks and throat ash-grey. The under parts of the body are white
shading to grey or black at the sides. The eye is dark brown, eye-ring
coral-red, beak pale red at its tip, lighter in the furrows, and blueish
grey towards the base; the corner of the mouth is orange-yellow, and the
foot vermilion-red. The young birds are distinguishable by the comparative
shallowness of their beaks, and the inferior brilliancy of their colours.
This strange bird is twelve inches long, and twenty-three to twenty-three
and a half broad; the wing measures six inches and a half to six and
three-quarters, and the tail two inches and three-quarters.

The Coulternebs inhabit the northern seas as far as 82° north latitude,
and are met with equally upon the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and
America; a few pairs are known to breed in Heligoland; further north they
become more abundant, and in the Frozen Ocean they swim in countless
multitudes; indeed, millions of them may be seen in the summer-time
crowding the vicinity of their breeding-places. In Great Britain they
appear on the coast about April, and betake themselves to various stations
for the purpose of breeding, frequenting for this purpose the cliffs or
turfy ground above them, and occasionally making use of rabbit-burrows.
The Isles of Man, Anglesea, and Wight, are all frequented by them, and
also the Scilly Isles, which in the fourteenth century were held under
the king for the annual payment of six shillings and eightpence or 300
Puffins. The Yorkshire coast, the Fern Islands, and the coasts and islands
of Scotland are also frequented by them.

"On the coast of Labrador," says Audubon, "is Perroquet Island, known
to all the cod-fishers, and celebrated for the number of Puffins that
annually breed there. As we rowed towards it, although we found the water
literally covered with thousands of these birds, the number that flew
over and around the green island seemed much greater, insomuch that one
might have imagined half the Puffins in the world had assembled there.
This far-famed isle is of considerable extent; its shores are guarded
by numberless blocks of rock, and within a few yards of it the water is
several fathoms in depth. The ground rises in the form of an amphitheatre
to the height of about seventy feet, the greatest being from north to
south, and its southern extremity fronting the Strait of Belleisle. For
every burrow in the island previously visited by us, there seemed to be
a hundred here; on every crag and stone stood a Puffin, at the entrance
of every hole another, and yet the sea was covered and the air filled by
them. * * * The burrows were all inhabited by young birds, of different
ages and sizes, and clouds of Puffins flew over our heads each holding a
fish by the head. * * * While flying the Puffins emitted a deep croaking
noise, but they never dropped the fish, and many of them, when brought
down by a shot, still held their prey fast. I beheld with concern the
extraordinary affection manifested by these birds towards each other, for
whenever one fell dead or wounded on the water its mate or a stranger
immediately alighted by its side, swam around it, pushed it with its bill,
as if to urge it either to fly or dive, and seldom would leave it until an
oar was raised to knock it on the head, when, at last aware of the danger,
it would plunge below in an instant. Those which fell wounded immediately
ran with speed to some hole and dived into it, on which no further effort
was made to secure them. Those which happened to be caught alive in the
hand bit most severely, and scratched with their claws at such a rate,
that we were glad to let them escape. The burrows here communicated in
various ways with each other, so that the whole island was perforated as
if by a multitude of subterranean labyrinths, over which one could not run
without danger of falling at almost every step. The voices of the young
sounded beneath our feet like voices from the grave, and the stench was
extremely disagreeable, so that as soon as our boats were filled with
birds we were glad to get away. During the whole of our visit the birds
never left the place, but constantly attended to their avocations. Here
one would rise from beneath, there within a few yards of us another would
alight with a fish and dive into its burrow, or feed the young that stood
waiting at the entrance. The young birds were far from being friendly with
each other, and those we carried with us kept continually fighting so long
as we kept them alive. They used their yet extremely small and slender
bills with great courage and pertinacity, and their cries resembled the
wailings of young whelps. The smaller individuals were fed by the parents
by regurgitation, or received little pieces of fish which were placed in
their mouths; the larger picked up the fish that were dropped before them,
but almost all of them seemed to crawl to the entrance of the hole for the
purpose of being fed. In all the burrows that communicated with others, a
round place was scooped out on one side of the avenue, in the form of an
oven, whilst in those that were single this oven-like place was found at
the end, and was larger than the corridor. All the passages were flattish
above and rounded beneath as well as on the sides. In many instances we
found two birds sitting each on its egg in the same hole."

Their brood consists of but a single egg, about the size of that of a
Duck; of this the shell is coarse and uneven, and the colour pure white,
at least until they become soiled and dirty. Both sexes sit upon the eggs
by turns, but how long the process of incubation lasts we are unable to
state; some observers say five weeks. The dress of the newly-hatched
young is composed of a thick down, of a light grey colour, spotted with
coal-black. During the first day or two of its life, its cry is piping and
very sad; but the note soon gets stronger, yet it is not till they are
fledged that they learn to utter the shrill peculiar cry of the old birds.
The young grow slowly, and after the lapse of a month are able to leave
their holes, and, under the guidance of their parents, plunge into the sea.

Both parents evince the greatest affection for their young one; they go
miles away in order to procure it food, and will face any danger in its
defence. Sometimes, if the female is lost, the male will take upon himself
the entire charge of his nestling, defending it with really serious bites
of his formidable beak, and indefatigably providing for it the means of
subsistence. Should their first egg be taken away, the mother lays a
second, and, if deprived of that, a third, generally in the same hole.
If both parents are destroyed, other birds will supply their places, and
voluntarily devote themselves both to the incubation of the egg and the
rearing of the young. The owners of the localities where these birds build
make them a source of considerable profit; they always rob the birds of
their first egg, but generally leave the second to be hatched and reared;
as soon as it is nearly fledged, however, it likewise is taken possession
of, and thousands upon thousands are thus killed and salted for winter
food.

In the Fern Islands, there being no rabbit-holes, these Puffins are
obliged to dig their own burrows. According to Mr. Selby, this operation
is commenced in May, a hole being generally excavated to a depth of
three feet, often in a curving direction, and occasionally with two
entrances. So intent are the birds upon their work of digging, which
is generally performed by the males, that they will sometimes allow
themselves to be captured by the hand; the same authority states that a
similar indifference to what is passing around them is noticeable during
the business of incubation. In St. Kilda, where their return is hailed
with joy as affording an abundant supply of food, they are taken both by
hand and by means of a horsehair noose, attached to the end of a rod. The
Coulternebs can scarcely be called birds of passage, although during the
winter season many of them journey far south; strictly speaking, they
only migrate from their breeding-places to the open sea, and hence back
again to the cliffs and islands, where they rear their young. Their life,
indeed, may be considered as consisting of two epochs, viz., their summer
residence upon the rocks, and their winter life upon the ocean; of this
latter part of their existence we have still much to learn. Our first
acquaintance with the Coulternebs began in the vicinity of Loffoden, and
the first circumstance which arrested our attention was the manner of
their flight over the sea, keeping so close to the waves that they had
rather the appearance of skating over the surface than of flying through
the air. The bird, in fact, in these peregrinations avails itself both
of its feet and wings, sliding as it were quickly from wave to wave,
half flying and half swimming, striking the air with its wings and the
water with its feet, and advancing by a sort of undulating course that
exactly follows the contour of the rising and sinking waves. During this
remarkable kind of progression the beak seems to be employed in cleaving
the water, reminding the spectator of the Scissor-bill (_Rhynchops_).
When it rises from the waves, however, it flies straight on with untiring
wings, and moves so rapidly that the sportsman who first tries his hand at
shooting them generally fails to hit the mark. In its mode of swimming,
the Coulterneb differs altogether from any other bird of its race; it
rides lighter upon the wave, or sinks at will to any required depth, dives
without the slightest apparent exertion, and without even disturbing the
water around it, It will remain submerged for upwards of three minutes,
and, if we believe the statements of some observers, will plunge to a
depth of thirty fathoms. Upon dry land it walks well, but with a hopping
vacillating step; rises at once from its seat into the air, and alights
from its flight without difficulty. When at rest it usually sits upright
upon the soles of its feet and tail, or else it lies flat on its belly
upon the surface of the rock. When sitting erect, its head and neck are in
constant motion, as though it were perpetually looking for something that
it had lost, giving it a most comical appearance. Its voice is a sort of
deep scream at times it resembles the sound made by a man when yawning, or
by a discontented dog. The food of the Coulternebs consists of crustaceans
and small fishes; but it is principally with the latter that they feed
their young. What may be the special use of the curiously-constructed beak
it is not easy to say; all that we know upon the subject is that they are
able to use it with great adroitness, both while procuring their usual
food, and when lopping the green herbage, which in summer scantily clothes
the rocky fastnesses where they rear their young. As a weapon of defence,
both from the sharpness of its edges and the strength of its muscles, it
is really formidable.

[Illustration: _Plate 40, Cassell's Book of Birds_

FRATERCULA ARCTICA ____ PUFFIN

(_about ½ Nat. size_)]

       *       *       *       *       *

The PENGUINS (_Aptenodytes_) have their wings completely converted into
fins, and only available as instruments of natation. In their appearance
they present but a distant relationship with the Auks and Divers, and form
a distinct family, recognisable by well-marked characters. The general
shape of their bodies may almost be called conical, as it seems gradually
to taper off from the tail upwards, the middle of the trunk presenting
scarcely any perceptible enlargement. Their neck is of moderate length,
but extremely thick, the head small, and the beak, which is nearly of the
same length as the head, straight, strong, hard, and somewhat compressed
at the sides; frequently it is marked externally with transverse furrows.
Its cutting edges are sharp, but it is somewhat blunted at its apex.
The structure of the foot is quite peculiar, seeing that the four toes
with which it is provided, three of which are joined together by a broad
web, are all directed forwards. The wings are so short that they might
almost be called fins, moreover the feathers that cover them rather
resemble scales than ordinary quills. Even the plumage reminds us of the
closely-imbricated scales of fishes; in short, from their whole formation
they are evidently inhabitants of the water rather than of the air. Their
internal structure corresponds with their external appearance; all their
bones are hard, thick, and heavy, they present no openings or cavities for
the reception of air, and even the humerus and femur are filled with oily
matter.

Birds belonging to this remarkable family are inhabitants of the southern
hemisphere, and there occupy a zone extending from 30° to 75° south
latitude, living entirely upon the surface of the ocean, and only visiting
the land during the period of incubation. All the various species of
Penguins are utterly incapable of flight, but their powers of progression
in their proper element are truly astonishing. They bound through the
sea like porpoises, using their short fin-like wings to assist their
progress; by the aid of these they stem the most turbulent waves with the
greatest facility, and during the severest gale descend to the bottom,
where they paddle about in search of crustaceans, small fish, and marine
vegetables. Owing to the thickness and weight of their plumage they swim
very deep in the water, so that very little is to be seen except their
head and neck. Upon dry land they also exhibit considerable agility. The
position of their legs compels them to keep their bodies perfectly erect,
and they thus walk, putting one foot before another almost like human
beings; their gait, however, is waddling, and they get along but slowly;
when alarmed, therefore, they throw themselves down upon their breasts and
push themselves along both with feet and wings, and that so rapidly, that
a man has some difficulty in overtaking them. In this manner they throw
themselves from the rocks or roll down some deep declivity into the sea,
apparently knowing full well that as soon as they reach the water they
are safe from pursuit. Sometimes large parties may be seen from a ship,
going in a given direction as though on a journey, cutting through the
waves with a celerity far surpassing that of the swiftest vessel. During
a considerable portion of the year these birds are employed in providing
for their young, as it is necessary that their progeny should acquire
sufficient vigour to resist the raging element on which they are destined
to dwell, and which they most probably will never leave, except when in
their turn they seek land for the purpose of reproduction.

Of the enormous numbers in which the Penguins are seen upon their
breeding-places in Arctic Regions, Sir J. C. Ross writes thus:--"In
Possession Island, situated in latitude 71° 56´ north, and longitude 71°
7´ east, and composed entirely of igneous rocks, we saw not the smallest
appearance of vegetation, but inconceivable myriads of Penguins completely
and densely covered the whole surface of the island, along the ledges
of the precipices, and even to the summits of the hills, attacking us
vigorously as we waded through their ranks, and pecking at us with their
sharp beaks, disputing possession; this, together with their loud coarse
notes, and the insupportable stench from the deep bed of guano which had
been forming for ages, and which may at some period be valuable to the
agriculturists of our Australian colonies, made us glad to get away again,
after having loaded our boats with geological specimens and Penguins."
Bennett gives similar testimony as to the hosts of these birds occupying
the north end of Macquarie Island in the South Pacific Ocean, where we
are told they occupy a space of about thirty or forty acres. "The number
of Penguins collected together in this spot is immense, but it would be
impossible to guess at it with any near approach to truth, as during the
whole day and night 30,000 or 40,000 of them are continually landing,
and an equal number going to sea. They are arranged when on shore in
as compact a manner and in as regular ranks as a regiment of soldiers,
and are classed with the greatest order, the young birds being in one
situation, the moulting birds in another, the sitting hens in a third,
the clean birds in a fourth, &c., and so strictly do birds in a similar
condition congregate, that should a bird that is moulting intrude itself
upon those that are clean, it is immediately ejected from among them." The
females hatch the eggs by keeping them close between their thighs, and if
approached during the time of incubation, move away, carrying the eggs
with them. At this time the male bird goes to sea and collects food for
the female, which becomes very fat. After the egg is hatched, both parents
go to sea and bring home food for it; it soon becomes so fat as to be
scarcely able to walk, the old birds getting very thin. The young, until
nearly full grown, are covered with a coat of long down.


THE KING PENGUIN.

The KING PENGUIN (_Aptenodytes Patagonica_, and _A. Pennantii_) is the
representative of a group conspicuous for their size, and distinguishable
by the following characters:--Their beak is longer than the head, thin,
straight, but bent downwards at its apex. The upper mandible is furrowed
along its whole length, while the lower one is covered with a smooth bare
skin. The legs, which are short, thick, and placed quite at the hinder
part of the body, are covered with feathers almost to the toes, three
of which are united by a broad web. The short compact plumage is black
upon the head and throat, and bright dark greyish blue on the back and
hinder part of the neck; the belly is white, and breast yellow. A bright
lemon-yellow stripe commences behind the eyes, and passes along the side
of the neck under the chin, where it unites; the scale-like wings are dark
grey; the beak is black at its base, but towards its apex and on the lower
mandible yellow; the scaly foot is dark brown. This species is above three
feet long, and weighs above thirty pounds. The King Penguin inhabits the
seas in the vicinity of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and New
Georgia, and during the breeding season is very common on the coasts of
Patagonia, but it is probable that all the species migrate to considerable
distances.

On the coasts of Patagonia, according to Gray, two very similar species
have been confounded under the name of _A. Patachonica_, the "Emperor"
and the "King," he has therefore called the Emperor Penguin _A. Faceteri_
and the King _A. Pennantii_. The following graphic account of the manners
of _A. Faceteri_ observed by Weddell in the Island of South Georgia is
given by him in his "Voyage to the South Pole." "In pride these birds are
not surpassed even by the Peacock, to which, in beauty of plumage, they
are indeed very little inferior. During the time of moulting, they seem
to repel each other with disgust, on account of the ragged state of their
coats, but as they arrive at the maximum of splendour they re-assemble,
and no one who has not completed his plumage is allowed to enter the
community. Their habit of frequently looking down their front and sides,
in order to contemplate the perfection of their superior brilliancy,
and to remove any speck that might sully it, is truly amusing to an
observer. During the time of hatching, the male is remarkably assiduous,
so that when the hen has occasion to go off to feed or wash, the egg is
transported to him, which is done by placing their toes together, and
rolling it from one to the other, using their beaks to place it properly.
The hen keeps charge of her young nearly a year, and in teaching them to
swim has frequently to use some artifice, for when the young one refuses
to take to the water, she entices it to the side of a rock and pushes it
in, and this is repeated until it takes to the sea of its own accord."
Captain Fitzroy tells us that in the breeding-places of the King Penguins
he has been much amused to see the old bird get on a little eminence and
make a great noise between quacking and braying, holding its head up in
the air as if it were haranguing the penguinnery, while the young one
stands close to it, but a little lower, the old bird having continued
its chatter for about a minute, puts its head down, and opens its mouth
widely, into which the young one thrusts its head, and then appears to
suck from the throat of the mother for a minute or two, after which the
chatter is again repeated, and the young one again fed. This performance
continues for about ten minutes.

[Illustration: THE GOLDEN OR CRESTED PENGUIN (_Chrysocome catarractes_).
ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE.]

       *       *       *       *       *

The TRUE PENGUINS (_Spheniscus_) constitute a section of the above birds
distinguishable by having the beak shorter than the head, straight,
compressed, thick, hard, and irregularly furrowed; the margins are drawn
in, and the base of the lower mandible feathered.


THE SPECTACLED OR CAPE PENGUIN.

The SPECTACLED or CAPE PENGUIN (_Spheniscus demersus_, or _Aptenodytes
demersus_), the best-known member of this group, is about twenty inches
long. In this species the upper parts of the body, the throat and cheeks
and a horse-shoe band upon the breast and sides are blackish grey; a
stripe over the eyes and the under side are white, the latter often marked
with round brownish spots. The beak is black, banded with white, and foot
brown. The Spectacled Penguin is met with in all seas between the Cape
and South Polar Circle in countless numbers: it is also common near the
Falkland Islands and Macquarie Land, and from Cape Horn northwards to
Valparaiso and La Plata. The Cape Penguin swims and dives excellently, but
moves awkwardly and stumbles frequently if it attempts to hurry. According
to Latham, it will frequently run for some time like a quadruped, making
use of its fin-like wings instead of legs till it can recover the upright
posture which it usually maintains. It is said to clamber some way up
the rocks to make a nest, in doing which it has been seen to assist
itself with the bill. It lays two eggs of the size of those of the Duck,
which are thought to be delicious, and are obtained in great numbers
for the table. These birds are frequently kept tame, but do not live in
confinement many months.

       *       *       *       *       *

The LEAPING PENGUINS (_Eudypetes_) constitute a section having the beak
closely compressed at the base, obliquely furrowed, and sharp pointed; the
extremity of the upper mandible is slightly hooked and incised; above each
eyebrow moreover the feathers are prolonged into conspicuous tufts.


THE GOLDEN OR CRESTED PENGUIN.

The GOLDEN or CRESTED PENGUIN (_Chrysocome catarractes_) has the head,
neck, and sides black and over each eye a stripe of pale yellow feathers,
which are lengthened into a crest behind, wings black on the outside,
their hinder edge and under surface white, breast and under surface
silvery white, bill reddish brown, feet greyish white. The female is said
to have the yellow feathers over the eyes shorter, or not prolonged into
a crest.

The Golden Penguin is found in many parts of the Southern Ocean, on the
coast of Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and Tristan d'Acunha; it is also
occasionally seen on the shores of Tasmania and the coast of Australia,
but is most numerous in the Islands of St. Paul's and Amsterdam; in the
latter, where it is met with in great abundance, it may be seen sitting
erect, or basking on the rocks in company with the seals.

[Illustration]




CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS,

ACCORDING TO DR. BREHM.




_ORDER I._

CRACKERS (ENUCLEATORES).

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER I._

THE PARROTS (PSITTACINI).


_FAMILY I._--THE TRUE PARROTS (PSITTACINÆ), i., 34.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Grey Parrots (Psittacus), i., 34;
                          Jako (P. erithacus), i., 35.
      "    "     2.--The Green Parrots (Chrysotis), i., 39;
                     Amazon Parrot (C. Amazonica), i., 39.
      "    "     3.--The Blunt-tailed Parrots (Pionus), i.,40;
                     the Maitakka (P. menstruus), i., 41.
      "    "     4.--The Crested Hawk Parrots (Deroptyus), i., 42;
                     the Crested Hawk Parrot (D. accipitrinus), i., 42.
      "    "     5.--The Dwarf Parrots (Agapornis), i., 43;
                     Swinder's Love Bird (A. Swinderiana), i., 43.
      "    "     6.--The Sparrow Parrots (Psittacula), i., 44;
                     the Sparrow Parrot (P. passerina), i., 44.
      "    "     7.--The Siskin Parrots (Nasiterna), i., 45;
                     the Siskin Parrot (N. pygmæa), i., 45.


_FAMILY II._--THE COCKATOOS (PLYCTOLOPHI), i., 45.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Cockatoos Proper (Cacatua), i., 42;
                         the Lemon-crested Cockatoo (C. galerita), i., 47.
      "    "     2.--The Helmet Cockatoos (Callicephalus), i., 47;
                     the Helmet Cockatoo (C. galeatus), i., 47.
      "    "     3.--The Nose Cockatoos (Licmetis), i., 48;
                     the Nose Cockatoo (L. nasicus), i., 48.
      "    "     4.--The Nestor Cockatoos (Nestor), i., 50;
                     the Nestor Cockatoo (N. productus), i., 50.
      "    "     5.--The Eagle Cockatoos (Dasyptilus), i., 51;
                     the Eagle Cockatoo (D. Pequetii), i., 51.
      "    "     6.--The Long-billed Cockatoos (Microglossus), i., 51;
                     the Casmalos (M. aterrimus), i., 52.
      "    "     7.--The Raven Cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus), i., 54;
                     the Raven Cockatoo (C. Banksii), i., 54.


_FAMILY III._--THE NIGHT PARROTS (STRIGOPES), i., 55.

    _Sub Family_ 1.--The Night Parrots (Strigops), i., 55;
                          the Kakapo (S. habroptilus), i., 55.


_FAMILY IV._--THE ARARAS (ARÆ), i., 58.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Araras (Ara), i., 58;
                          the Scarlet Macaw (A. Macao), i., 58;
                          the Soldier Arara (A. militaris), i., 60;
                          the Anakan (A. severa), i., 60;
                          the Ararauna (A. Sittace Ararauna), i., 62.
      "    "     2.--The Blue Macaws (Anodorhynchus), i., 62;
                     the Hyacinth-coloured Arara (A. hyacinthinus), i., 62.
      "    "     3.--The Wedge-tailed Parrots (Conurus), i., 63;
                     the Garuba (C. luteus), i., 64; the Tiriba
                         (C. leucotis), i., 63;
                     the Carolina Parrakeet (C. Carolinensis), i., 64.
      "    "     4.--The Long-nosed Parrakeets (Enicognathis), i., 66;
                     the Choroy (E. leptorhynchus), i., 66.


_FAMILY V._--THE PARRAKEETS (PALÆORNITHES), i., 66.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Noble Parrakeets (Palæornis), i., 67;
                          the Collared or Rose-ringed Parrot
                           (P. torquata), i., 67;
                          the Bettet (P. pondiceriana), i., 68.
      "    "     2.--The Superb Parrots (Polytelis), i., 69;
                     the Scarlet-crested Superb Parrot (P. Barrabandi),
                          i., 69.
      "    "     3.--The Grass Parrots (Platycercus), i., 70;
                     the Rosella (P. eximius), i., 70.
      "    "     4.--The Variegated Parrots (Psephotus), i., 71;
                     the Variegated Parrot (P. multicolor), i., 71.
      "    "     5.--The Ornamented Parrots (Melopsittacus), i., 72;
                     the Waved Parrot (M. undulatus), i., 72.
      "    "     6.--The Gay Parrots (Nymphicus), i., 77;
                     the Corella (N. Novæ-Hollandiæ), i., 77.
      "    "     7.--The Ground Parrakeets (Pezoporus), i., 78;
                     the Ground Parrakeets (P. formosus), i.,78.


_FAMILY VI._--THE LORIES (LORII), i., 79.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Lories Proper (Lorius), i., 79;
                          the Purple-capped Lory (L. domicella), i., 79.
      "    "     2.--The Lorikeets (Psitteuteles), i., 79;
                     the Dappled Lorikeet (P. versicolor), i., 79.
      "    "     3.--The Purple Lories (Coryphilus), i., 81;
                     the Maiden Lorikeet (C. Tahitianus), i., 81.
      "    "     4.--The Long-tailed Lories (Pyrrhodes), i., 82;
                     the Rasmalas (P. Papuensis), i., 82.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER II._

PASSERINE BIRDS (PASSERES).


_FAMILY I._--THE CROSS-BILLS (LOXIÆ), i., 85.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Cross-bills (Loxia), i., 85;
                          the Large-beaked Cross-bill (L. pityopsittacus),
                              i., 86;
                          the Pine-tree Cross-bill (L. curvirostra),
                              i., 86;
                          the Banded Cross-bill (L. tænioptera), i., 86.
      "    "     2.--The Parrot Greenfinches (Psittirostra), i., 91;
                     the Parrot Greenfinch (P. psittacea), i., 91.


_FAMILY II._--THE BULLFINCHES (PYRRHULÆ), i., 92.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Parrot Bullfinches (Paradoxornis), i., 92;
                          the Parrot Bullfinch (P. flavirostris), i., 92.
      "    "     2.--The Pine Grosbeaks (Pinicola), i., 93;
                     the Pine Grosbeak (P. enucleator), i., 93.
      "    "     3.--The Carmine Grosbeaks (Erythrothorax), i., 95;
                     the Rose Bullfinch (E. roseus), i., 95;
                     the Carmine Bullfinch, (E. erythrinus), i., 95.
      "    "     4.--The Long-tailed Bullfinches (Uragus), i., 97;
                     the Siberian Bullfinch (U. Sibericus), i. 97.
      "    "     5.--The Desert Bullfinches (Bucanetes), i., 98;
                     the Vinous Grosbeak (B. githagineus), i., 98.
      "    "     6.--The True Bullfinches (Pyrrhula), i., 102;
                     the Bullfinch (P. vulgaris), i., 102.
      "    "     7.--The Garden Bullfinches (Serinus), i., 106;
                     the Girlitz (S. hortulanus), i., 106.
      "    "     8.--The Tree Bullfinches (Dryospiza), i., 108;
                     the Canary-bird (D. Canaria), i., 108.


_FAMILY III._--THE FINCHES (FRINGILLÆ), i., 114.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Finches (Fringilla), i., 114;
                          the Chaffinch (F. cœlebs), i., 115;
                          the Mountain Finch (F. montifringilla), i., 118.
      "    "     2.--The Mountain Finches (Montifringilla), i., 119;
                     the Snow Finch (M. nivalis), i., 119.
      "    "     3.--The Winter Finches (Nyphæa), i., 119;
                     the Winter Finch (N. hyemalis), i., 119.
      "    "     4.--The Linnets (Cannabinæ), i., 122;
                     the Brown Linnet (C. linota), i., 122;
                     the Mountain or Grey Linnet (C. montium), i, 124.
      "    "     5.--The Birch Siskins (Linaria), i., 124;
                     the Birch-tree Siskin (L. rubra), i., 124.
      "    "     6.--The True Siskins (Spinus), i., 127;
                     the Common Siskin (S. viridis), i., 127.
      "    "     7.--The Thistle Finches (Carduelis), i., 129;
                     the Goldfinch (C. elegans), i., 129.
      "    "     8.--The Golden Thistle Finches (Astragalinus), i.. 130;
                     the Golden Thistle Finch (A. tristis), i., 130.


_FAMILY IV._--THE SPARROWS PROPER (PASSERES), i., 131.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Sparrows (Passer), i., 131;
                          the Common Sparrow (P. domesticus), i., 131;
                          the Spanish Sparrow (P. Hispanicus), i., 135;
                          the Field or Tree Sparrow (P. montanus), i., 136.
      "    "     2.--The Plain Sparrows (Pyrgitopsis), i., 137;
                     the Plain Sparrow (P. simplex), i., 137.
      "    "     3.--The Golden Sparrows (Chrysospiza), i., 137;
                     the Golden Sparrow (C. lutea), i., 137.
      "    "     4.--The Mountain Sparrows (Petronia), i., 138;
                     the Rock Sparrow (P. rupestris), i., 138.


_FAMILY V._--THE HAWFINCHES (COCCOTHRAUSTÆ), i., 139.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Greenfinches (Chloris), i., 139;
                          the Green Grosbeak, or Greenfinch (C.
                          hortensis), i., 139.
      "    "     2.--The True Hawfinches (Coccothraustes), i., 141;
                     the Hawfinch (C. vulgaris), i., 141.
      "    "     3.--The Evening Hawfinches (Hesperiphona), i., 142;
                     the Evening Cherry Hawfinch (H. vespertina), i., 142.
      "    "     4.--The Large-beaked Hawfinches (Geospiza), i., 143;
                     the Large-beaked Hawfinch (G. magnirostris), i., 143.


_FAMILY VI._--THE PARROT FINCHES (PITYLI), i., 143.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Rose-breasted Grosbeaks (Coccoborus), i., 143;
                          the Rose-breasted Hawfinch (C. Ludovicianus),
                          i., 143.
      "    "     2.--The Tufted Grosbeaks (Cardinalis), i., 145;
                     the Cardinal Grosbeak (C. Virginianus), i., 145.
      "    "     3.--The Grey Finches (Paroaria), i., 146;
                     the Dominican Finch (P. dominicana), i., 146.
      "    "     4.--The Bullfinch Finches (Sporophila), i., 146;
                     the Tiny Finch (S. minuta), i., 146.
      "    "     5.--The Diadem Grosbeaks (Catamblyrhynchus), i., 147;
                     the Diadem Grosbeak (C. diadematus), i., 147.
      "    "     6.--The True Parrot Finches (Pitylus), i., 147;
                     the Ashy-blue Parrot Finch (P. cœrulescens), i., 147.
      "    "     7.--The Masked Parrot Finches (Caryothraustes), i., 147;
                     the Masked Parrot Finch (C. Brasiliensis), i., 147.
      "    "     8.--The Habias (Saltator), i., 148;
                     the Capi (S. cœrulescens), i., 148.
      "    "     9.--The Plant Cutters (Phytotoma), i., 149;
                     the Rarita, or Rara (P. rara), i., 150.


_FAMILY VII._--THE TANGARAS (TANAGRÆ), i., 150.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tangaras Proper (Tanagra), i., 151; the Ornate
                        Tangara (T. ornata), i., 151.
      "    "     2.--The Fire Tangaras (Pyranga), i., 151; the Flax Bird
                       (P. rubra), i., 151; the Summer Red Bird (P.
                        æstiva), i., 152.
      "    "     3.--The Callistes (Calliste), i., 153; the Red-necked
                        Calliste (C. festiva), i., 153.
      "    "     4.--The Callous-beaked Tangaras (Ramphocelus), i.,
                        153; the Tapiranga (R. Brasiliensis), i., 154.
      "    "     5.--The Butcher-Bird Tangaras (Lanio), i., 154; the
                        Black-headed Butcher-Bird Tangara (L.
                        atricapillus), i., 154.
      "    "     6.--The Organist Tangaras (Euphone), i., 154; the
                        Violet Organist, or Guttarama (E. violacea),
                        i., 155.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE BRIGHT-COATED FINCHES (AMADINÆ), i., 155.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Band-Birds, or Collared Finches (Amadina),
                       i., 156; the Collared Finch (A. fasciata),
                       i., 156.
      "    "     2.--The Hooded Finches (Spermestes), i., 157; the
                       Magpie Finch (S. cucullata), i., 158.
      "    "     3.--The Reed Finches (Donacula), i., 158; the Chestnut
                       Reed Finch (D. castaneothorax), i., 158;
                       the Double-banded Reed Finch (D. bivittata),
                       i., 158.
      "    "     4.--The Grass Finches (Poëphila), i., 159; the Admirable
                       Chaff-finch (Chloëbia mirabilis), i., 159.
      "    "     5.--The Rice Finches (Padda), i., 160; The Rice Bird
                      (P. oryzivora), i., 160.
      "    "     6.--The Striped Finches (Pytelia), i., 161; the Little
                      Gold-breast (P. subflava), i., 161.
      "    "     7.--The Speckled Finches (Lagonosticta), i., 162; the
                      Blood Finch (L. minima), i., 162.
      "    "     8.--The Variegated Finches (Emblema), i., 162; the
                      Variegated Finch (E. picta), i., 162.
      "    "     9.--The Bright Finches (Hypochera), i., 163; the Steel
                      Finch (H. ultramarina), i., 163.
      "    "     10.--The Butterfly Finches (Mariposa), i., 163; the
                      Butterfly Finch (M. phœnicotis), i., 163.
      "    "     11.--Astrilds (Astrilda), i., 164; the Pheasant Finch
                      (A. undulata), i., 164.


_FAMILY IX._--THE WEAVER BIRDS (PLOCEI), i., 166.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Social Weaver Birds (Philetaërus), i., 167;
                     the Social Weaver Bird (P. socius), i., 167.
      "    "     2.--The Yellow Weaver Birds (Ploceus), i., 168; the
                     Golden Weaver Bird (P. galbula), i., 168.
      "    "     3.--The Bayas, or Bunting Weaver Birds (Nelicurvius),
                     i., 170; the Baya (N. Baya), i., 170.
      "    "     4.--The Crimson-beaked Weaver Birds (Quelea), i., 171;
                     the Crimson-beaked Weaver Bird, or Diock
                     (Q. sanguinirostris), i., 171.
      "    "     5.--The Tahas (Taha), i., 174; the Taha (T. dubia),
                     i., 174.
      "    "     6.--The Fire-finches (Euplectes), i., 174; the
                     Flame-coloured Fire-finch (E. ignicolor), i., 175.
      "    "     7.--The Buffalo Weaver Birds (Textor), i., 176;
                     the Alecto Buffalo Weaver Bird (T. Alecto), i., 177.


_FAMILY X._--THE WHYDAH OR WIDOW BIRDS (VIDUÆ), i., 178.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Mourning Widows (Coliuspasser), i., 179; the
                     Yellow-shouldered Mourning Widow (C.
                     flaviscapulatus), i., 179.
      "    "     2.--The Long-tailed Widow Birds (Chera), i., 179;
                     the Long-tailed Widow Bird (C. caffra), i., 179.
      "    "     3.--The Cock-tailed Widow Birds (Steganura), i., 180;
                     the Paradise Widow Bird (S. paradisea), i., 180.


_FAMILY XI._--THE BUNTING FINCHES (PASSERELLÆ), i., 181.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Morning Finches (Zonotrichia), i., 181; the
                     White-throated Sparrow (Z. albicollis), i., 182;
                     the Morning Finch (Z. matutina), i., 182.
      "    "     2.--The Bunting Finches Proper (Spizella), i., 183;
                     the Tree Bunting Finch (S. Canadensis), i., 183.
      "    "     3.--The Prairie Bunting Finches (Passerculus), i., 184;
                     the Prairie Bunting Finch (P. savannus), i., 184.
      "    "     4.--The Shore Finches (Ammodromus), i., 184; the Sea
                     Bunting Finch (A. maritimus), i., 184.


_FAMILY XII._--_The Buntings_ (EMBERIZÆ), i., 185.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crested Buntings (Gubernatrix), i., 185; the
                     Crested Bunting (G. cristatella), i., 185.
      "    "     2.--The Grey Buntings (Miliaria), i., 186; the Grey
                     Bunting (M. valida), i., 186.
      "    "     3.--The True Buntings (Emberiza), i., 187; the Golden
                     or Yellow Bunting (E. citrinella), i., 187;
                     the Ortolan (E. or Glycyspina hortulana), i., 188;
                     the Red Bunting (E. or Glycyspina cia), i., 190.
      "    "     4.--The Ornate Buntings (Euspiza), i., 190; the
                     Black-headed Bunting (E. melanocephala), i., 190.
      "    "     5.--The Reed Buntings (Cynchramus), i., 191; the Reed
                     Bunting (C. Schœniclus), i., 191.
      "    "     6.--The Spurred Buntings (Centrophanes), i., 191; the
                     Lark Bunting (C. Lapponicus), i., 192.
      "    "     7.--The Winter Buntings (Plectrophanes), i., 194; the
                     Snow Bunting (P. nivalis), i., 194.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE LARKS (ALAUDÆ), i., 195.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Calandra Larks (Melanocorypha), i., 196; the
                     Calandra Lark (M. calandra), i., 197; the Short-toed
                     Lark, or Calandrelle (M. or Calandritis
                     brachydactyla), i., 198.
      "    "     2.--The Black Larks (Saxilauda), i., 199; the Black
                     or Moor Lark (S. Tatarica), i., 199.
      "    "     3.--The Sand Larks (Ammomanes), i., 199; the Desert
                     Lark (A. deserti), i., 199.
      "    "     4.--The Bunting Larks (Pyrrhulauda), i., 200; the
                     Black-headed Bunting Lark (P. leucotis), i., 201.
      "    "     5.--The Mountain Larks (Phileremos), i., 201; the
                     Alpine Lark (P. alpestris), i., 201.
      "    "     6.--The Tufted Larks (Galerita), i., 203; the Tufted
                     Lark (G. cristata), i., 203.
      "    "     7.--The Wood Larks (Corys), i., 204; the Wood Lark
                     (Corys or Alauda arborea), i., 204.
      "    "     8.--The Larks Proper (Alauda), i., 206; the Skylark
                     (Alauda arvensis), i., 206.
      "    "     9.--The Spur Larks (Macronyx), i., 208; the Sentry
                     Lark (M. capensis), i., 208.
      "    "     10.--The Courser Larks (Alæmon), i., 209; the Desert
                      Courser Lark (A. desertorum), i., 209.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER III._

RAVENS (CORACIROSTRES).


_FAMILY I._--THE YELLOW STARLINGS (ICTERI), i., 211.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Rice-eaters (Dolichonyx), i., 212; the Boblink,
                     or Rice-bird (D. oryzivorus), i., 212.
      "    "     2.--The Marsh Troopials (Agelaius), i., 214; the
                     Red-winged Troopial (A. Phœniceus), i., 214.
      "    "     3.--The Cow-Birds (Molothrus), i., 215; the Cow-Starling
                     (M. pecoris), i., 215.
      "    "     4.--The Yellow or Golden Starlings (Icterus), i., 215;
                     the Jamaica Yellow Bird (I. Jamaicaii), i., 216.
      "    "     5.--The Hang-nests (Hyphantes), i., 218; the Baltimore
                     Golden Starling (H. Baltimori), i., 218.
      "    "     6.--The Cassicans (Cassicus), i., 218; the Japu, or
                     Tufted Cassican (C. cristatus), i., 219.
      "    "     7.--The Boat-tails (Quiscalus), i., 222; the Great
                     Boat-tail (Q. major), i., 222.


_FAMILY II._--THE STARLINGS (STURNI), i., 223.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Starlings Proper (Sturni), i., 223; the Common
                     Starling (S. vulgaris), i., 223; the Sardinian
                     Starling (S. unicolor), i., 227.
      "    "     2.--The Blackbird Starlings (Pastor), i. 227; the Rose
                     Starling (P. roseus), i., 227.
      "    "     3.--The Mina Birds (Acridotheres), i., 228; the Mina
                     Bird (A. tristis), i., 228.
      "    "     4.--The Grakles (Gracula), i., 230; the Musical Grakle
                     (G. musica or religiosa), i., 230.
      "    "     5.--The Ox-biters (Buphaga), i., 231; the African
                     Ox-biter (B. Africanus), i., 231; the Red-beaked
                     Ox-biter (B. erythrorhyncha), i., 231.


_FAMILY III._--THE GLOSSY STARLINGS (LAMPROTORNITHES), i., 232.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Glossy Starlings (Lamprocolius), i., 234;
                     the Bronze-coloured Glossy Starling (L. chalybeus),
                     i., 234.
      "    "     2.--The Glossy Thrush-Starlings (Notauges), i., 234;
                     the Golden-breasted Glossy Starling (N. chrysogaster),
                     i., 234; the Superb Glossy Starling (N. superbus),
                     i., 234.
      "    "     3.--The Scaly Glossy Starlings (Pholidauges), i., 235;
                     the Scaly Glossy Starling (P. leucogaster), i., 235.
      "    "     4.--The Glossy Magpies (Lamprotornis), i., 236; the
                     Brazen Glossy Magpie (L. aënea), i., 236.
      "    "     5.--The Rock Glossy Starlings (Ptilorhinus), i., 237;
                     the White-beaked Rock Glossy Starling
                     (P. albirostris), i., 237.
      "    "     6.--The Mountain Glossy Starlings (Amydrus), i., 238;
                     the Naburup (A. Naburup), i., 238.


_FAMILY IV._--THE ORIOLES (ORIOLI), i., 238.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Satin Birds (Ptilonorhynchus), i., 239; the
                     Satin Bower Bird (P. holosericus), i., 239.
      "    "     2.--The Collar Birds (Chlamydera), i., 240; the
                     Spotted Collar Bird (C. maculata), i., 240.
      "    "     3.--The Orioles Proper (Oriolus), i., 242; the
                     Golden Oriole (O. galbula), i., 242.
      "    "     4.--The Silky Orioles (Sericulus), i., 243; the
                     Golden-crested Oriole (S. chrysocephalus), i., 243.


_FAMILY V._--THE BIRDS OF PARADISE (PARADISEÆ), i., 245.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Birds of Paradise (Paradisea), i., 245;
                     the Footless Bird of Paradise (P. apoda), i., 246;
                     the Wumbi (P. Papuana), i., 246; the Ruby or Red
                     Bird of Paradise (P. rubra), i., 247.
      "    "     2.--The Spiral-tailed Birds of Paradise (Cincinnurus), i.,
                     250; the King of the Birds of Paradise (C. regius),
                     i., 250.
      "    "     3.--The Collared Birds of Paradise (Lophorina), i., 251;
                     the Collared Bird of Paradise (L. superba), i., 251.
      "    "     4.--The Ornate Birds of Paradise (Parotia), i., 251; the
                     Six-feathered Birds of Paradise (P. sex-pennis),
                     i., 251.
      "    "     5.--The Resplendent Epimachi (Seleucides), i., 251; the
                     Resplendent Epimachus (S. resplendens), i., 251.
      "    "     6.--The Epimachi Proper (Epimachus), i., 252; the Collared
                     Epimachus (E. magnus), i., 252.
      "    "     7.--The Magpie Birds of Paradise (Astrapiæ), i., 253; the
                     Magpie Bird of Paradise (A. gularis), i., 253.


_FAMILY VI._--THE RAVENS (CORACES), i., 254.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Choughs (Fregilus), i., 254; the Chough (F.
                     graculus), i., 254.
      "    "     2.--The Alpine Choughs (Pyrrhocorax), i., 255; the
                     Alpine Chough (P. alpinus), i., 255.
      "    "     3.--The Ravens Proper (Corax), i., 257; the Raven
                    (C. nobilis), i., 257.
      "    "     4.--The Vulture Ravens (Corvultur), i., 259; the
                     White-necked Vulture Raven (C. albicollis), i., 259;
                     the Thick-billed Vulture Raven (C. crassirostris),
                     i., 259.
      "    "     5.--The Ornamented Ravens (Pterocorax), i., 260; the
                     Scapulated Raven (P. scapulatus), i., 260.
      "    "     6.--The Crows (Corvus), i., 262; the Carrion Crow
                    (C. corona), i., 262; the Hooded Crow (C. cornix),
                    i., 262.
      "    "     7.--The Rooks (Frugilegus) i., 264; the Rook (F. segetum),
                    i., 264.
      "    "     8.--The Jackdaws (Monedula), i., 266; the Jackdaw (M.
                    turrium), i., 266.
      "    "     9.--The Glossy Crows (Anomalocorax), i., 267; the
                     Glossy Crow (A. splendens), i., 267.
      "    "     10.--The Nutcrackers (Nucifraga), i., 269; the Nutcracker
                     (N. caryocatactes), i., 269.
      "    "     11.--The Piping Crows (Gymnorhina), i., 270; the Flute
                      Bird (G. tibicen), i., 270.
      "    "     12.--The Bell Magpies (Strepera), i., 271; the Bell Bird
                     (S. graculina), i., 271.
      "    "     13.--The Bald-headed Crows (Picathartes), i., 271; the
                      Bald-headed Crow (P. gymnocephalus), i., 271.


_FAMILY VII._--THE JAYS (GARRULI), i., 272.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Magpies (Pica), i., 272; the Magpie (P. caudata),
                     i., 272.
      "    "     2.--The Blue Magpies (Cyanopica), i., 274; the Blue Magpie
                     (C. Cookii), i., 274.
      "    "     3.--The Blue Ravens (Cyanocorax), i., 275; the Hooded Blue
                     Raven (C. pileatus), i., 275.
      "    "     4.--The Blue Jackdaws (Cyanocitta), i., 275; the Crested
                     Blue Jackdaw (C. cristata), i., 275.
      "    "     5.--The Jays Proper (Garrulus), i., 278; the Common Jay
                     (G. glandarius), i., 278.
      "    "     6.--The Unlucky Jays (Perisoreus), i., 279; the Unlucky
                     Jay (P. infaustus), i., 279.
      "    "     7.--The Tree Magpies (Dendrocitta), i., 280; the
                     Wandering Magpie (D. vagabunda), i., 280.
      "    "     8.--The Benteots (Crypsirhina), i., 281; the Benteot
                     (C. varians), i., 281.
      "    "     9.--The Stump Jays (Temnurus), i., 282; the Saw-tail
                     (T. truncatus), i., 282.
      "    "     10.--The Long-tailed Kittas (Urocissa), i., 282; the
                      Long-tailed Kitta (U. Sinensis), i., 282.
      "    "     11.--The Feather-Beaks (Cissa), i., 283; the Sirgang
                     (C. Sinensis), i., 283.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE PLANTAIN EATERS (AMPHIBOLÆ), i., 283.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Plantain Eaters (Musophagæ), i., 283; the
                     Banana Eater (M. violacea), i., 284.
      "    "     2.--The Helmet Birds (Corythaix), i., 285; the
                     White-cheeked Helmet Bird (C. leucotis), i., 285.
      "    "     3.--The Turakos (Corythacola), i., 286; the Crested
                     Turako (C. cristata), i., 286.
      "    "     4.--The Split-beaks (Schizorhis), i., 287; the Alarm Bird
                     (S. zonurus), i., 287.
      "    "     5.--The Mouse Birds (Colii), i., 288; the Wiriwa, or
                     White-cheeked Mouse Bird (C. leucotis), i., 289.




_ORDER II._

THE CATCHERS (CAPTANTES).

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER IV._

BIRDS OF PREY (RAPTORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE FALCONS (FALCONES), i., 293.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hunting Falcons (Hierofalco), i., 299; the
                     Hunting Falcon (H. candicans), i., 299; the Polar
                     Falcon (H. arcticus), i., 299; the Gier Falcon
                     (H. gyrfalco), i., 299.
      "    "     2.--The Wandering Falcons (Falco), i., 300; the Peregrine
                     Falcon (F. peregrinus), i., 301; the Red-necked Falcon
                    (F. ruficollis), i., 303; the Turumdi (F. Chiquera),
                    i., 303.
      "    "     3.--The Tree Falcons (Hypotriorchis), 306; the Tree Falcon
                     (H. subbuteo), i., 306.
      "    "     4.--The Bush Falcons (Hieracidea), i., 307; the Berigora
                     (H. Berigora), i., 307.
      "    "     5.--The Kestrels (Tinnunculus), i., 307; the Lark Kestrel
                     (T. alaudarius), i., 308; the Kestrel (T. cenchris),
                     i., 308.
      "    "     6.--The Red-footed Falcons (Erythropus), i., 310; the
                     Evening Falcon (E. vespertinus), i., 310.
      "    "     7.--The Sparrow Falcons (Rhynchodon), i., 311; the Sparrow
                     Falcon (R. sparverius), i., 311.
      "    "     8.--The Dwarf Falcons (Hierax), i., 312; the Muti
                    (H. cœrulescens), i., 312.


_FAMILY II._--THE HAWKS (ACCIPITRES), ii., 1.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Laughing Hawks (Herpetotheres), ii., 1; the
                     Laughing Hawk (H. cachinnans), ii., 1.
      "    "     2.--The Toothed Hawks (Harpagus), ii., 2; the
                     Double-toothed Hawk (H. bidentatus), ii., 2.
      "    "     3.--The Sparrow Hawks (Nisus), ii., 2; the Sparrow
                     Hawk (N. communis), ii., 2.
      "    "     4.--The Hawks Proper (Astur), ii., 4; the Gos Hawk
                    (A. palumbarius), ii, 4.
      "    "     5.--The Singing Hawks (Mclierax), ii., 6; the Singing
                     Hawk (M. musicus and M. polyzonus), ii, 6.
      "    "     6.--The Serpent Hawks (Polyboroides), ii., 7; the
                     Serpent Hawk (P. typicus), ii., 7.


_FAMILY III._--THE EAGLES (AQUILÆ), ii., 8.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Eagles (Aquila), ii., 10; the Tawny Eagle
                    (A. fulva), ii., 11; the Golden Eagle (A. chrysaëtos),
                    ii., 10; the Imperial Eagle (A. imperialis), ii., 10;
                    the Spotted Eagle (A. nævia) ii., 13; the Dwarf Eagles
                    (Hieraëtos), ii., 13; the Booted Eagle (H. pennata),
                    ii., 14; the Dwarf Eagle (H. minuta), ii., 15.
      "    "     2.--The Wedge-tailed Eagles (Uroaëtos), ii., 15; the Bold
                     Wedge-tailed Eagle (U. audax), ii., 17.
      "    "     3.--The Hawk Eagles (Pseudaëtos Eudolmaëtos, or
                     Asturaëtos), ii., 17; the Hawk Eagle (P. Bonellii),
                     ii., 17.
      "    "     4.--The Hooded Eagles (Spizaëtos), ii., 18; the Martial
                     Hooded Eagle (S. bellicosus), ii., 18.
      "    "     5.--The Tufted Eagles (Lophaëtos), ii., 19; the Tufted
                     Eagle (L. occipitalis), ii., 19.
      "    "     6.--The Destroying Eagles (Pternura), ii., 19; the
                     Urutaurana (P. tyrannus), ii., 20; Isidore's
                     Destroying Eagle (P. Isidori), ii., 21.
      "    "     7.--The Brazilian Eagles (Morphnus), ii., 21; the
                     Crested Brazilian Eagle (M. Guianensis), ii., 21.
      "    "     8.--The Harpy Eagles (Harpyia), ii., 22; the Harpy Eagle
                    (H. destructor), ii., 22.
      "    "     9.--The Sea Eagles (Haliaëtos), ii., 23; the Sea Eagle
                    (H. albicilla), ii., 23; the White-headed Sea Eagle
                    (H. leucocephalus), ii., 23; the African Screaming Sea
                    Eagle (H. vocifer), ii., 27.
      "    "     10.--The River Eagles, or Fish Hawks (Pandion), ii., 30;
                    the Osprey (P. Haliaëtos), ii., 30.


_FAMILY IV._--THE KITES (MILVI), ii., 31.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Short-tailed Kites (Helotarsus), ii., 32; the
                     Short-tailed Kite (H. ecaudatus), ii., 32.
      "    "     2.--The Gliding Kites (Elanus), ii., 34; the True
                     Gliding Kite (E. melanopterus), ii., 34.
      "    "     3.--The Hovering Kites (Ictinia), ii., 35; the
                     Mississippi Kite (I. Mississippiensis), ii., 35.
      "    "     4.--The Crooked-billed Kites (Cymindis), ii., 36; the
                     Buzzard Kite (C. uncinatus), ii., 36.
      "    "     5.--The Hooded Kites (Baza), ii., 37; the Syama (B.
                     lophotes), ii., 37.
      "    "     6.--The Water Kites (Hydroictinia), ii., 37; the Black
                     Kite (H. atra), ii., 37; the Govinda (H. Govinda),
                     ii., 39; the Parasite Kite (H. parasitica), ii., 39.
      "    "     7.--The True Kites (Milvus), ii., 40; the Red or Royal
                     Kite (M. regalis), ii., 40.
      "    "     8.--The Swallow-tailed Kites (Nauclerus), ii., 41; the
                     Swallow-tailed Kite (N. furcatus), ii., 41.
      "    "     9.--The Dwarf Swallow-tailed Kites (Chelidopterix), ii.,
                     42; the Dwarf Swallow-tailed Kite (C. Riocouri), ii.,
                     43.
      "    "     10.--The Meadow Kites (Strigiceps), ii., 43; the Blue
                      Kite, or Hen Harrier (S. cyaneus), ii., 43; the
                      Pallid Harrier (S. pallidus), ii., 43; the
                      Ash-coloured Harrier (S. cineraceus), ii., 44.
      "    "     11.--The Marsh Kites (Circus), ii., 45; the Reed Kite,
                      or Marsh Harrier (C. rufus), ii., 45.
      "    "     12.--The Spotted Kites (Spilocircus), ii., 46; Jardine's
                      Spotted Kite (S. Jardinii), ii., 46.


_FAMILY V._--THE BUZZARDS (BUTEONES), ii., 47.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Eagle Buzzards (Circaëtos), ii., 47; the Snake
                     Buzzard (C. brachydactylus), ii., 48.
      "    "     2.--The Crested Buzzards (Spilornis), ii., 50; the Bacha
                    (S. Bacha), ii., 50.
      "    "     3.--The Honey Buzzards (Pernis), ii., 50; the Wasp Kite
                    (P. apivorus), ii., 50; the Crested Honey Buzzard (P.
                     cristatus), ii., 52.
      "    "     4.--The Rough-legged Buzzards (Archibuteo), ii., 52; the
                     Winter Buzzard (A. Lagopus), ii., 52.
      "    "     5.--The True Buzzards (Buteo), ii., 52; the Common or
                     Mouse Buzzard (B. vulgaris), ii., 52.
      "    "     6.--The Grasshopper Buzzards (Poliornis), ii., 54; the
                     Red-winged Buzzard (P. rufipennis), ii., 54; the Tesa
                    (P. tesa), ii., 54.
      "    "     7.--The Hook-beaked Buzzards (Rostrhamus), ii., 55; the
                     Caracolero (R. hamatus), ii., 55.
      "    "     8.--The Urubitingas (Hypomorphnus), ii., 55; the
                     Urubitinga (H. Urubitinga), ii., 55.


_FAMILY VI._--THE VULTURE FALCONS (POLYBORI), ii., 56.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Vulture Buzzards (Milvago), ii., 57; the Chimango
                     (M. Chimachima), ii., 57; the Vulture Buzzard (M.
                     Australis), ii., 58.
      "    "     2.--The Vulture Falcons (Polyborus), ii., 58; the Carancho
                    (P. Brasiliensis), ii., 58.
      "    "     3.--The Screaming Buzzards (Ibicter), ii., 60; the Ganga
                    (I. Americanus), ii., 60.


_FAMILY VII._--THE CRANE VULTURES (GYPOGERANI), ii., 62.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Secretary or Crane Vulture (Gypogeranus
                     serpentarius), ii., 62.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE VULTURE EAGLES (GYPAËTI), ii., 67.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Lämmergeier (Gypaëtos), ii., 67; the Bearded
                     Vulture (G. barbatus), ii., 67.


_FAMILY IX._--THE VULTURES PROPER (VULTURES), ii., 69.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Wattled Vultures (Sarcorhamphus), ii., 70; the
                     Condor (Sarcorhamphus gryphus), ii., 70; the
                     Californian Condor (S. Californianus), ii., 71; the
                     King of the Vultures (S. papa), ii., 71.
      "    "     2.--The Goose Vultures (Gyps), ii., 73; the Tawny Goose
                     Vulture (G. fulvus), ii., 74; the Sparrow-hawk Goose
                     Vulture (G. Rüppellii), ii., 74.
      "    "     3.--The Crested Vultures (Vultur), ii., 75; the Cowled or
                     Brown Vulture (V. cinereus), ii., 75; the Crested
                     Vulture (Vultur or Lophogyps occipitalis), ii., 76.
      "    "     4.--The Eared Vultures (Otogyps), ii., 76; the Eared
                     Vulture (O. auricularis), ii., 77.


_FAMILY X._--THE RAVEN VULTURES (CATHARTÆ), ii., 77.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Scavenger Raven Vultures (Percnopterus), ii., 78;
                     the Egyptian Raven Vulture (P. stercorarius), ii., 78.
      "    "     2.--The Collared Vultures (Neophron), ii., 79; the Monk
                     Vulture (N. pileatus), ii., 79.
      "    "     3.--The True Raven Vultures (Cathartes), ii., 82; the
                     Urubu (C. aura), ii., 82.
      "    "     4.--The Crow Vultures (Coragyps), ii., 82; the Gallinazo
                     (C. atratus), ii., 82.


_FAMILY XI._--THE DAY OWLS (SURNIÆ), ii., 85.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Falcon Owls (Surnia), ii., 85; the Sparrow-hawk
                     Owl (S. Ulula), ii., 85.
      "    "     2.--The Hare Owls (Nyctea), ii., 86; the Snow Owl
                     (N. nivea), ii., 86.
      "    "     3.--The Stone Owls (Athene), ii., 87; the Stone Owl
                     (Athene noctua), ii., 87.
      "    "     4.--The Burrowing Owls (Pholeoptynx), ii., 89; the
                     Brazilian or Rabbit Owl (P. cunicularia), ii., 90;
                     the Prairie Owl (P. hypogæa), ii., 90.
      "    "     5.--The Sparrow Owls (Microptynx), ii., 91; the European
                     Sparrow Owl (M. passerina), ii., 91.


_FAMILY XII._--THE EARED OWLS (BUBONES), ii., 91.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Uhus (Bubo), ii., 91; the Uhu (B. maximus),
                     ii., 93.
      "    "     2.--The Water Owls (Ketupa), ii., 95; the Brown Fish
                     Owl (K. Ceylonensis), ii., 95.
      "    "     3.--The Eared Owls (Otus), ii., 97; the Woodland Owl
                     (O. sylvestris), ii., 97; the Marsh Owl
                     (O. brachyotus), ii., 98.
      "    "     4.--The Dwarf Eared Owls (Ephialtes), ii., 98; the Dwarf
                     Eared Owl (E. Scops, or E. Carniolica), ii., 98.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE NOCTURNAL OWLS (STRIGES), ii., 99.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tree Owls (Syrnium), ii., 99; the Tree Owl
                     (S. aluco), ii., 99.
      "    "     2.--The Night Owls (Nyctale), ii., 100; the Hairy-footed
                     Night Owl (N. dasypus), ii., 100.
      "    "     3.--The Veiled Owls (Strix), ii., 102; Kirchhoff's Owl
                     (S. Kirchhoffii), ii., 102; the Barn Owl (S. flammea),
                     ii., 102.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER V._

THE GAPERS (HIANTES).


_FAMILY I._--THE SWALLOWS (HIRUNDINES), ii., 104.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Swallows (Cecropis), ii., 105; The Chimney
                     Swallow (C. rustica), ii., 106; the Senegal Swallow
                     (C. Senegalensis), ii., 109; the Thread-tailed Swallow
                     (C. filifera), ii., 110.
      "    "     2.--The Martins (Chelidon), ii., 110; the House Martin
                    (C. urbica), ii., 110; the Ariel (C. Ariel), ii., 113.
      "    "     3.--The Mountain or Shore Swallows (Cotyle), ii., 111;
                     the Rock Swallows (C. rupestris), ii., 111; the Sand
                     Martin (C. riparia), ii., 112.
      "    "     4.--The Wood Swallows (Atticora), ii., 114; the Striped
                     Wood Swallow (A. fasciata), ii., 114.
      "    "     5.--The Sailor Swallows (Progne), ii., 114; the Purple
                     Swallow (P. purpurea), ii., 114.


_FAMILY II._--THE SWIFTS (CYPSELI), ii., 115.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tree Swifts (Dendrochelidon), ii., 118; the
                     Klecho (D. klecho), ii., 118.
      "    "     2.--The Salanganes (Collocalia), ii., 118; the Salangane
                     Proper (C. nidifica), ii., 118; the Kusappi
                     (C. fuciphaga), ii., 119.
      "    "     3.--The Prickly-tailed Swifts (Acanthylis), ii., 121; the
                     White-throated Prickly-tailed Swift (A. caudatus),
                     ii., 122.
      "    "     4.--The Swifts Proper (Cypselus), ii., 122; the Dwarf
                     Swift (C. parvus), ii., 122; the Palm-tree Swift
                     (C. palmarum), ii., 122; the Steeple Swift (C. apus),
                      ii., 122; the Alpine Swift (C. Melba), ii., 123.


_FAMILY III._--THE GOATSUCKERS (CAPRIMULGI), ii., 124.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Podagers (Podager), ii., 125; the Nacunda
                     (P. nacunda), ii., 125.
      "    "     2.--The Twilight Night Jars (Chordeiles), ii., 126;
                     the Night Falcon (C. Virginianus), ii., 126.
      "    "     3.--The Goatsuckers (Caprimulgus), ii., 127; the
                     European Night Jar (C. Europæus), ii., 127;
                     the Resplendent Goatsucker (C. eximius), ii., 128.
      "    "     4.--The Bristled Night Jars (Antrostomus), ii., 128;
                     the Whip-poor-Will (A. vociferus), ii., 128.
      "    "     5.--The African Night Jars (Scotornis), ii., 129; the
                     African Night Jar (S. climacurus), ii., 129.
      "    "     6.--The Lyre-tailed Night Jars (Hydropsalis), ii., 130;
                     the Lyre-tailed Night Jar (H. forcipata), ii., 130.
      "    "     7.--The Streamer Night Jars (Macrodipteryx), ii., 131;
                     the Long-winged Macrodipteryx (M. longipennis),
                     ii., 131; the Streamer-bearing Night Jar (M. or
                     Cosmetornis vexillarius), ii., 131.
      "    "     8.--The Giant Goatsuckers (Nyctibius), ii., 134; the
                     Ibijau, or Earth-eater (N. grandis), ii., 134.


_FAMILY IV._--THE OIL BIRDS (STEATORNITHES), ii., 135.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Guachero, or Oil Bird (Steatornis Caripensis),
                     ii., 135.


_FAMILY V._--THE OWL SWALLOWS (PODARGI), ii., 136.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Dwarf Owl Swallows (Ægotheles), ii., 136; the
                     Dwarf Owl Swallow (Æ. Novæ-Hollandiæ), ii., 137.
      "    "     2.--The Giant Owl Swallows (Podargus), ii., 138; the
                     Giant Owl Swallow (P. humeralis), ii., 138.
      "    "     3.--The Frog-mouths (Batrachostomus), ii., 140; the
                     Plumed Frog-mouth (B. cornutus or Javanicus),
                     ii., 140.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER VI._

SINGING BIRDS (OSCINES).


_FAMILY I._--THE SHRIKES (LANII), ii., 141.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Butcher Birds (Lanius), ii., 141; the Sentinel
                     Butcher Bird, or Great Grey Shrike (L. excubitor),
                     ii., 142; the Southern Shrike (L. meridionalis), ii.,
                     143; the Black-browed Shrike (L. minor), ii., 143.
      "    "     2.--The Butcher Birds Proper (Enneoctonus), ii., 146;
                     the Red-backed Shrike, or True Butcher Bird
                     (E. collurio), ii., 146; the Red-headed Shrike
                     (E. or Phoneus rufus), ii., 146; the Masked Shrike
                     (E. personatus), ii., 147.
      "    "     3.--The Thick-headed Shrikes (Falcunculus), ii., 147;
                     the Falcon Shrike (F. frontatus), ii., 147.


_FAMILY II._--THE BUSH SHRIKES (MALACONOTI), ii., 148.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Flute-voiced Shrikes (Laniarius), ii., 149; the
                     Scarlet Shrike (L. erythrogaster), ii., 149; the
                     Flute Shrike (L. Æthiopicus), ii., 150.
      "    "     2.--The Hooded Shrikes (Telephonus), ii., 150; the
                     Tschagra (T. erythropterus), ii., 150.
      "    "     3.--The Helmet Shrikes (Prionops), ii., 151; the Helmet
                     Shrike (P. cristatus), ii., 151.


_FAMILY III._--THE RAVEN SHRIKES (THAMNOPHILI), ii., 152.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crow Shrikes (Cracticus), ii., 151; the Magpie
                     Shrike (C. destructor), ii., 151.
      "    "     2.--The True Raven Shrikes (Thamnophilus), ii., 152;
                     Vigors' Raven Shrike (T. undulatus), ii., 153.


_FAMILY IV._--THE DRONGO SHRIKES (EDOLII), ii., 154.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The King Crows (Dicrourus), ii., 154; the King Crow,
                     or Finga (D. macrocercus), ii., 154.
      "    "     2.--The Drongos (Chaptia), ii., 154; the Singing Drongo
                     (C. musica), ii., 154.
      "    "     3.--The Flag-bearing Drongos (Edolius), ii., 155; the
                     Bee King (E. paradiseus), ii., 155.


_FAMILY V._--THE SWALLOW SHRIKES (ARTAMI), ii., 156.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Swallow Shrikes (Artamus), ii., 156; the Wood
                     Swallow Shrike (A. sordidus), ii., 156.


_FAMILY VI._--THE TYRANT SHRIKES (TYRANNI), ii., 158.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tyrants (Tyrannus), ii., 158; the Tyrant Shrike,
                     or King Bird (T. intrepidus), ii., 158.
      "    "     2.--The Screaming Tyrants (Saurophagus), ii., 159; the
                     Bentevi (S. sulphuratus), ii., 159.
      "    "     3.--The Fork-tailed Tyrants (Milvalus), ii., 161; the
                     Scissor Bird (M. tyrannus), ii., 161.
      "    "     4.--The Crowned Tyrants (Megalophus), ii., 162; the
                     Royal Tyrant (M. regius), ii., 162.
      "    "     5.--The Stilted Fly-catchers (Gubernates), ii., 163;
                     the Yiperu, or Yetapa (G. Yiperu), ii., 163.
      "    "     6.--The Cock-tailed Fly-catchers (Alectrurus), ii., 163;
                     the Cock-tailed Fly-catcher (A. tricolor), ii., 163.


_FAMILY VII._--THE CATERPILLAR EATERS (CAMPEPHAGÆ), ii., 164.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Red Bird (Pericrocotus), ii., 164; the Red Bird
                     (P. speciosus), ii., 164.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE FLY-SNAPPERS (MYIAGRÆ), ii., 164.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Paradise Fly-catchers (Terpsiphone), ii., 166;
                     the Paradise Fly-snapper (T. paradisea), ii., 166.
      "    "     2.--The Fantails (Rhipidura), ii., 166; the Wagtail
                     Fantail (R. motacilloides), ii., 167.


_FAMILY IX._--THE FLY-CATCHERS (MUSCICAPÆ), ii., 167.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Fly-catchers (Butalis), ii., 168; the Grey
                     or Spotted Fly-catcher (B. grisola), ii., 168.
      "    "     2.--The Mourning Fly-catchers (Muscicapa), ii., 169; the
                     Black-capped or Pied Fly-catcher (M. atricapilla),
                     ii., 170; the Collared or White-necked Fly-catcher
                     (M. albicollis), ii., 170.
      "    "     3.--The Dwarf Fly-catchers (Erythrosterna), ii., 171;
                     the Dwarf Fly-catcher (E. parva), ii., 171.


_FAMILY X._--THE SILK-TAILS (BOMBYCILLÆ), ii., 171.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Silk-tails (Bombycilla), ii., 171; the Bohemian
                     Chatterer, or Wax-Wing (B. garrula), ii., 172.


_FAMILY XI._--THE MANAKINS (PIPRÆ), ii., 174.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Rock Birds (Rupicola), ii., 174; the Cock of the
                     Rock (R. crocea), ii., 174.
      "    "     2.--The True Manakins (Pipræ), ii., 176; the Long-tailed
                     Manakin (P. caudata), ii., 177; the Tije (P. pareola),
                     ii., 177; the Black-cap Manakin (P. manacus), ii.,
                     178.
      "    "     3.--The Panther Birds (Pardalotus), ii., 178; the Diamond
                     Bird (P. punctatus), ii., 178.


_FAMILY XII._--THE BALD-HEADED CROWS (GYMNODERI), ii., 179.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bald Fruit Crows (Gymnocephalus), ii., 180; the
                     Capuchin Bird (G. calvus), ii., 180.
      "    "     2.--The Umbrella Chatterers (Cephalopterus), ii., 181;
                     the Umbrella Bird (C. ornatus), ii., 181.
      "    "     3.--The Bell Birds (Chasmarhynchus), ii., 182; the
                     Bare-necked Bell Bird (C. nudicollis), ii., 182;
                     the Araponga (C. variegatus), ii., 183; the True
                     Bell Bird (C. carunculatus), ii., 183; the
                     Three-wattled Bell Bird (C. tricarunculatus),
                     ii., 183.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE GROUND SINGERS (HUMICOLÆ), ii., 184.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Nightingales (Luscinia), ii., 186; the Nightingale
                     (L. Philomela), ii., 186.
      "    "     2.--The Tree Nightingales (Aëdon), ii., 187; the Tree
                     Nightingale (A. galactodes), ii., 187.
      "    "     3.--The Blue-throated Warblers (Cyanecula), ii., 188;
                     the Swedish Blue-throat (C. Suecica), ii., 189; the
                     White-starred Blue-throat (C. leucocyana), ii., 189.
      "    "     4.--The Ruby Nightingales (Calliope), ii., 190; the
                     Calliope of Kamschatka (C. Camtschatcensis), ii., 190.
      "    "     5.--The Redbreasts (Rubecula), ii., 191; the Robin
                     Redbreast (R. sylvestris), ii., 191.


_FAMILY XIV._--THE WARBLERS (MONTICOLÆ), ii., 193.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Redstarts (Ruticilla), ii., 194; the Black-capped
                     Redstart (R. atra, or R. titys), ii., 194; the Garden
                     Redstart (R. phœnicura), ii., 195.
      "    "     2.--The Meadow Warblers (Pratincola), ii., 195; the
                     Brown-throated Meadow Warbler (P. rubetra), ii., 195;
                     the Black-throated Meadow Warbler (P. rubicola),
                     ii., 196.
      "    "     3.--The Chats (Saxicolæ), ii., 198; the Fallow Chat, or
                     Wheat-ear (S. œnanthe), ii., 198; the Eared Stone
                     Chat (S. aurita), ii., 198; the Black-throated Stone
                     Chat (S. stapazina), ii., 198.
      "    "     4.--The Running Warblers (Dromolæa), ii., 199; the
                     White-tailed Wheat-ear (D. leucura), ii., 200.
      "    "     5.--The Stone Thrushes, or Rock Wagtails (Petrocincla),
                     ii., 202; the Stone Thrush, or Rock Wagtail (P. or
                     Turdus saxatilis), ii., 202; the Blue Rock Wagtail
                     (P. cyanea), ii., 203.
      "    "     6.--The Bush Warblers (Thamnolæa), ii., 204; the Bush
                     Warbler (T. albiscapulata), ii., 204.


_FAMILY XV._--THE THRUSHES (TURDI), ii., 205.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Wood Thrushes (Turdus), ii., 206; the Missel
                     Thrush (T. viscivorus), ii., 206; the Song Thrush
                     (T. musicus), ii., 207; the Fieldfare (T. pilaris),
                     ii., 207; the Redwing (T. iliacus), ii., 210; the
                     Ring Ouzel (T. torquatus), ii., 211; the Blackbird
                     (T. merula), ii., 211.


_FAMILY XVI._--THE MOCKING THRUSHES (MIMI), ii., 213.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Mocking Thrushes (Mimi), ii., 214; the Mocking
                     Bird (M. polyglottus), ii., 214.
      "    "     2.--The Red Mocking Thrushes (Taxostoma), ii., 216;
                     the Ferruginous Mocking Bird (T. rufum), ii., 216.
      "    "     3.--The Cat Birds (Galeoscoptes), ii., 216; the Cat Bird
                     (G. Carolinensis), ii., 216.


_FAMILY XVII._--THE BABBLERS (TIMALIÆ), ii., 218.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Grey Birds (Pycnonotus), ii., 218; the Grey Bird
                    (P. arsinoë), ii., 218; Le Vaillant's Grey Bird
                    (P. Vaillantii), ii., 219.
      "    "     2.--The True Babblers (Timalia), ii., 220; the Red-headed
                     Babbler (T. pileata), ii., 220.
      "    "     3.--The Hook-clawed Babblers (Crateropus), ii., 221; the
                     White-rumped Babbler (C. leucopygius), ii., 221.
      "    "     4.--The Laughing Thrushes (Garrulax), ii., 222; the
                     White-tufted Laughing Thrush (G. leucolophus),
                     ii., 223.


_FAMILY XVIII._--THE WATER OUZELS (CINCLUS), ii., 223.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Water Ouzels (Cinclus), ii., 223; the Water
                     Ouzel, or Dipper (C. aquaticus), ii., 223; the
                     American Water Ouzel (C. Americanus), ii., 228.


_FAMILY XIX._--THE PITTAS (PITTÆ), ii., 228.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Pittas, or Painted Thrushes (Pitta), ii., 228;
                     the Nurang (P. Bengalensis), ii., 228; the Pulih
                    (P. Angolensis), ii., 229; the Noisy Pitta
                    (P. strepitans), ii., 229.


_FAMILY XX._--THE ANT THRUSHES (MYIOTHERÆ), ii., 230.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Ant Birds (Pyriglena), ii., 230; the Fire Eye
                    (P. domicella), ii., 230.
      "    "     2.--The Ant Kings (Grallaria), ii., 231; the Ant King
                    (G. rex), ii., 231.
      "    "     3.--The Tapacolos (Pteroptochus), ii., 231; the Tapacolo,
                     or Tualo (P. megapodius), ii., 231.


_FAMILY XXI._--THE LYRE-TAILS (MENURÆ), ii., 232.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Lyre-tails (Menura), ii., 232; the Lyre Bird
                    (M. superba), ii., 232.


_FAMILY XXII._--THE SONG WARBLERS (SYLVIÆ), ii., 237.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Song Warblers (Curruca), ii, 238; the
                     Sparrow-hawk Warbler (C. nisoria),
                     ii., 238; the Orpheus Warbler (C. Orphea), ii., 239;
                     the Greater Pettichaps (C. or Sylvia hortensis), ii.,
                     240; the Lesser White-throat (C. garrula), ii., 242;
                     the Capirote, or Black-cap (C. atricapilla), ii., 243;
                     the White-throat (C. cinerea), ii., 245; the
                     Spectacled Warbler (C. conspiculata), ii., 246; the
                     White-throated Warbler (C. leucopogon), ii., 247.
      "    "     2.--The Fire-eyed Warblers (Pyrophthalma), ii., 247; the
                     Black-headed Fire-eyed Warbler (P. melanocephala),
                     ii., 248; the Sardinian Fire-eyed Black-head
                     (P. Sarda), ii., 249; the Provence or Dartford Warbler
                     (P. Provincialis), ii., 249.


_FAMILY XXIII._--THE TREE WARBLERS (PHYLLOSCOPI), ii., 252.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tree Warblers (Phyllopneuste), ii., 252; the
                     Field Tree Warbler, or Willow Wren (P. Trochilus),
                     ii., 252.
      "    "     2.--The Leaf Wrens (Reguloides), ii., 254; the Leaf
                     Wren (R. Proregulus), ii., 254.
      "    "     3.--The Garden Warblers (Hypolais), ii., 254; the
                     Melodious Willow Wren (H. hortensis, or H. salicari),
                     ii., 254; the Chiff-Chaff (H. or Sylvia rufa), ii.,
                     255; the Ashy Garden Warbler (H. cinerescens),
                     ii., 256.


_FAMILY XXIV._--THE MARSH WARBLERS (CALAMODYTÆ), ii., 257.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus), ii., 258; the
                     True Reed Warbler (A. turdoides), ii., 258.
      "    "     2.--The Sedge Warblers (Calamodus), ii., 259; the
                     Sedge Warbler (C. phragmitis), ii., 259.
      "    "     3--The Grasshopper Warblers (Locustella), ii., 261;
                    the Grasshopper Warbler (L. certhiola), ii., 261.


_FAMILY XXV._--THE BUSH WARBLERS (DRYMOICÆ), ii., 262.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bush Warblers (Cisticola), ii., 262; the
                     Pinc-Pinc (C. schœnicola), ii., 263.
      "    "     2.--The Tailor Birds (Orthotomus), ii., 264; the
                     Tailor Bird (O. longicauda), ii., 265.
      "    "     3.--The Emu Wrens (Stipiturus), ii., 266; the Emu
                     Wren (S. malachurus), ii., 266.


_FAMILY XXVI._--THE WRENS (TROGLODYTÆ), ii., 269.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Wrens Proper (Troglodytes), ii., 270; the
                     Common Wren (T. parvulus), ii., 270.
      "    "     2.--The Marsh Wrens (Thryothorus), ii., 271; the Carolina
                     Wren (T. Ludovicianus), ii., 272; the House Wren
                     (T. platensis), ii., 273.
      "    "     3.--The Flute Players (Cyphorhinus), ii., 273; the Flute
                     Players (C. cantans), ii., 273.


_FAMILY XXVII._--THE PIPITS (ANTHI), ii., 274.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Pipits (Anthus), ii., 274; the Meadow Pipit
                    (A. pratensis), ii., 274; the Tree Pipit (A. arboreus),
                     ii., 275; the Rock Pipit (A. petrosus), ii., 278.
      "    "     2.--The Field Pipits (Agrodroma), ii., 279; the Stone or
                     Fallow-land Pipit (A. campestris), ii., 279.
      "    "     3.--The Spurred Pipits (Corydalla), ii., 281; Richard's
                     Spurred Pipit (C. Richardii), ii., 282.


_FAMILY XXVIII._--THE WAGTAILS (MOTACILLÆ), ii., 282.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Wagtails (Motacilla), ii., 282; the White
                     Wagtail (M. alba), ii., 283; the Pied Wagtail (M.
                     Yarrellii), ii., 285; the Dhobin (M. Dukhunensis),
                     ii., 286; the Rock Wagtail (M. Lichtensteinii),
                     ii., 286.
      "    "     2.--The Mountain Wagtails (Calobates), ii., 287; the
                     Mountain Wagtail (C. sulphurea), ii., 287.
      "    "     3.--The Sheep Wagtails (Budytes), ii., 288; the Cow or
                     Meadow Wagtail (B. flavus), ii., 289; Ray's Wagtail
                    (B. Rayii), ii., 289; the Velvet-headed or Sheep
                     Wagtail (B. melanocephalus), ii., 290; the
                     Yellow-headed Wagtail (B. citreolus), ii., 291.
      "    "     4.--The Wood Wagtails (Nemoricola), ii., 291; the
                     Gomarita, or Garden Wagtail (N. Indica), ii., 291.
      "    "     5.--The Swallow Wagtails (Enicurus), ii., 192; the
                     Meninting (E. coronatus), ii., 292.


_FAMILY XXIX._--THE ACCENTORS (ACCENTORES), ii., 292.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hedge Sparrows, or Hedge Warblers (Tharraleus),
                     ii., 294; the Hedge Warbler (T. modularis), ii., 294;
                     the Siberian Accentor (T. montanellus), ii., 295.
      "    "     2.--The Lark Accentors (Accentor), ii., 295; the Alpine
                     Accentor (A. Alpinus), ii., 295.


_FAMILY XXX._--THE TITS (PARI), ii., 296.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crested Wrens, or Kinglets (Regulus), ii., 297;
                     the Golden-crested Wren (R. auricapillus), ii., 298;
                     the Dalmatian Wren (R. modestus), ii., 298; the
                     Fire-crested Wren (R. ignicapillus), ii., 299; the
                     Satrap Crowned Wren (R. satrapa), ii., 299; the
                     Ruby-crowned Wren (R. calendulus), ii., 301.
      "    "     2.--The Penduline Titmice (Ægithalus), ii., 302; the
                     Penduline Titmouse (Æ. pendulinus), ii., 302.
      "    "     3.--The Reed Titmice (Panurus), ii., 303; the Bearded
                     Titmouse (P. biarmicus), ii., 303.
      "    "     4.--The Long-tailed Titmice (Orites), ii., 306; the
                     Long-tailed Titmouse (O. caudatus), ii., 306.
      "    "     5.--The Crested Titmice (Lophophanes), ii., 307; the
                     Crested Tit (L. cristatus), ii., 307; the Toupet Tit
                     (L. bicolor), ii., 309.
      "    "     6.--The Wood Tits (Parus), ii., 309; the Great Tit (Parus
                     major), ii., 309; the Sombre Tit (P. lugubris), ii.,
                     311; the Cole Tit (P. ater), ii., 311; the Blue Tit
                    (P. cœruleus), ii., 314; the Azure Tit (P. cyaneus),
                     ii., 316; the Siberian Tit (P. Sibericus), ii., 316;
                     the Marsh Tit (P. palustris), ii., 317; the Carolina
                     Titmouse (P. Carolinensis), ii., 318; the Black-capped
                     Titmouse (P. atricapillus), ii., 318.




_ORDER III._

SEARCHERS (INVESTIGATORES).

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER VII._

THE CLIMBERS (SCANSORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE FLOWER BIRDS (CERTHIOLÆ), iii., 2.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Blue Flower Birds (Cæreba), iii., 2; the Sai,
                     or Blue Cæreba (C. cyanea), iii., 3.
      "    "     2.--The Pitpits (Certhiola), iii., 4; the Banana Quit,
                     or Black and Yellow Creeper (C. flaveola), iii., 4.


_FAMILY II._--THE HONEYSUCKERS (NECTARINIÆ), iii., 5.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Honeysuckers (Hedydipna), iii., 6; the Abu-Risch
                    (H. metallica), iii., 6.
      "    "     2.--The Fire Honeysuckers (Æthopyga), iii., 6; the Cadet
                    (Æ. miles), iii., 6.
      "    "     3.--The Bent-beaks (Cyrtostomus), iii., 7; the Australian
                     Blossom Rifler (C. Australis), iii., 7.


_FAMILY III._--THE SPIDER-EATERS (ARACHNOTHERÆ), iii., 7.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Half-bills (Hemignathus), iii., 8; the Brilliant
                     Half-bill (H. lucidus), iii., 8.
      "    "     2.--The Hanging Birds (Arachnocestra), iii., 8; the True
                     Hanging Bird (A. longirostris), iii., 8.


_FAMILY IV._--THE HONEY-EATERS (MELIPHAGÆ), iii., 9.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Honey-eaters (Myzomela), iii., 10; the
                     Red-headed Honey-eater (M. erythrocephala), iii., 10.
      "    "     2.--The Tufted Honey-eaters (Ptilotis), iii., 10; the
                     Yellow-throated Tufted Honey-eater (P. flavigula),
                     iii., 10.
      "    "     3.--The Brush Wattle Birds (Melichæra), iii., 11; the
                     True Brush Wattle Bird (M. mellivora), iii., 11; the
                     Poe, or Tui (M. or Prosthemadera circinata), iii., 12.
      "    "     4.--The Friar Birds (Tropidorhynchus), iii., 12; the
                     Leather-head (T. corniculatus), iii., 12.


_FAMILY V._--THE HOOPOES (UPUPÆ), iii., 14.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hoopoes Proper (Upupa), iii., 14; the Common
                     Hoopoe (U. epops), iii., 14.
      "    "     2.--The Tree Hoopoes (Irrisor), iii., 15; the Red-beaked
                     Tree Hoopoe (I. erythrorhynchus), iii., 15.


_FAMILY VI._--THE TREE-CLIMBERS (ANABATÆ), iii., 15.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bundle-nests (Phacellodomus), iii., 16; the
                     Red-fronted Bundle-nest (P. rufifrons), iii., 17.


_FAMILY VII._--THE OVEN BIRDS (FURNARII), iii., 18.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Oven Birds (Furnarius), iii., 18; the Red Oven
                     Bird (F. rufus), iii., 18.
      "    "     2.--The Ground Woodpeckers (Geositta), iii., 19; the
                     Burrowing Ground Woodpecker (G. cunicularia),
                     iii., 19.
      "    "     3.--The Stair-beaks (Xenops), iii., 19; the Hairy-checked
                     Stair-beak (N. genibarbis), iii., 20.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE NUT-HATCHES (SITTÆ), iii., 20.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Nut-hatches (Sitta), iii., 20; the Common
                     Nuthatch (S. cæsia), iii., 21; the Syrian Nuthatch
                    (S. Syriaca), iii., 22.
      "    "     2.--The Creepers (Sitella), iii., 22; the Bonneted
                     Creeper (S. pileata), iii., 22.


_FAMILY IX._--THE WALL CREEPERS (TICHODROMÆ), iii., 23.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Wall Creepers (Tichodroma), iii., 23; the Alpine
                     or Red-winged Wall Creeper (T. muraria), iii., 23.


_FAMILY X._--THE TREE CREEPERS (SCANDENTES), iii., 24.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tree Creepers (Certhia), iii., 23; the Common
                     Tree Creeper (C. familiaris), iii., 25.
      "    "     2.--The Sabre Bills (Xiphorhynchus), iii., 26; the Sabre
                     Bill (X. trochilorostris), iii., 26.
      "    "     3.--The Tree Choppers (Dendroplex), iii., 26; the
                     Woodpecker Tree Chopper (D. picus), iii., 26.


_FAMILY XI._--THE WOODPECKERS (PICIDÆ), ii., 26.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Black Woodpeckers (Dryocopus), iii., 27;
                     the European Black Woodpecker (D. martius), iii., 27.
      "    "     2.--The Giant Woodpeckers (Campephilus), iii., 28; the
                     Imperial Woodpecker (C. imperialis), iii., 30; the
                     Ivory-billed Woodpecker (C. principalis), iii., 30.


_FAMILY XII._--THE BLACK WOODPECKERS (MELANERPES), iii., 34.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Black Woodpeckers (Melanerpes), iii., 34; the
                     Red-headed Black Woodpecker (M. erythrocephalus),
                    iii., 34; the Ant-eating Black Woodpecker
                    (M. formicivorus), iii., 36.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE VARIEGATED WOODPECKERS (PICI), iii., 36.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Variegated Woodpeckers (Picus), iii., 36; the
                     Great Spotted Woodpecker (P. major), iii., 36.
      "    "     2.--The Harlequin Woodpeckers (Piculus), iii., 37; the
                     Harlequin Woodpecker (P. minor), iii., 37.
      "    "     3.--The Three-toed Woodpeckers (Apternus), iii., 38; the
                     Three-toed Woodpecker (A. tridactylus), iii., 38.


_FAMILY XIV._--THE GREEN WOODPECKERS (GECINI), iii., 39.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Green Woodpeckers (Gecinus), iii., 39; the Green
                     Woodpecker (G. viridis), iii., 39.


_FAMILY XV._--THE CUCKOO WOODPECKERS (COLAPTES), iii., 41.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Golden Cuckoo Woodpeckers (Colaptes), iii., 41;
                     the Golden-winged Woodpecker (C. auratus), iii., 41;
                     the Red-shafted or Copper Woodpecker (C. Mexicanus),
                     iii., 42.
      "    "     2.--The Field Cuckoo Woodpeckers (Geocolaptes), iii., 43;
                     the Field Woodpecker (G. campestris), iii., 43.


_FAMILY XVI._--THE SOFT-TAILED WOODPECKERS (PICUMNI), iii, 43.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Dwarf Woodpeckers (Picumnus), iii., 43; the
                     Dwarf Woodpecker (P. minutus), iii., 43.


_FAMILY XVII._--THE WRYNECKS (YUNGES), iii., 43.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Wrynecks (Yunx), iii., 43; the Wryneck (Yunx
                     torquilla), iii., 43.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER VIII._

HUMMING BIRDS (STRIDORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE GIANT GNOMES (EUSTEPHANI), iii., 47.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Giant Humming Birds (Patagona), iii., 47; the
                     Giant Humming Bird (P. gigas), iii., 47.
      "    "     2.--The Sword-bill Humming Birds (Docimastes), iii., 49;
                     the Sword-bill Humming Bird (D. ensifer), iii., 49.


_FAMILY II._--THE GNOMES (POLYTMI), iii., 50.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Saw-billed Humming Birds (Grypus), iii., 50; the
                     Saw-bill (G. nævius), iii., 50.
      "    "     2.--The Sickle-billed Humming Birds (Eutoxeres), iii., 51;
                     the Sickle-billed Humming Bird (E. aquila), iii., 51.


_FAMILY III._--THE SUN BIRDS (PHAËTORNITHES), iii., 51.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hermits (Phaëtornis), iii., 51; the Cayenne Hermit
                    (P. superciliosus), iii., 51.


_FAMILY IV._--THE MOUNTAIN NYMPHS (OREOTROCHILI), iii., 52.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hill-stars (Oreotrochilus), iii., 52; the
                     Chimborazian Hill-star (O. Chimborazo), iii., 52.
      "    "     2.--The Sabre-wings (Campylopterus), iii., 54; De
                     Lattrei's Sabre-wing (C. de Lattrei), iii., 54.
      "    "     3.--The Crooked Sabre-wings (Platystylopterus), iii., 55;
                     the Fawn-coloured Sabre-wing (P. rufus), iii., 55.


_FAMILY V._--THE JEWEL HUMMING BIRDS (HYPOPHANIÆ), iii., 55.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Topaz Humming Birds (Topaza), iii., 55; the
                     Crimson Topaz Humming Bird (T. pella), iii., 55.
      "    "     2.--The Capped Humming Birds (Aithurus), iii., 56;
                     the Black-capped Humming Bird (A. polytmus), iii., 56.


_FAMILY VI._--THE WOOD-NYMPHS (LAMPORNITHES), iii., 58.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Mango Humming Birds (Lampornis), iii., 58; the
                     Mango Humming Bird (L. Mango), iii., 58.
      "    "     2.--The Wood-nymphs (Chrysolampis); the Ruby and Topaz
                     Wood-nymph (C. moschita), iii., 59.


_FAMILY VII._--THE FLOWER-NYMPHS (FLORISUGA), iii., 60.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Flower-kissers (Heliothrix), iii., 60; the
                     Brazilian Fairy (H. auriculata), iii., 60.
      "    "     2.--The Flower-suckers (Florisuga), iii., 60; the
                     Pied Jacobin (F. atra), iii., 60.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE FAIRIE (TROCHILI), iii., 60.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Fairy Humming Birds (Trochilus), iii., 60; the
                     Ruby-throated Fairy Humming Bird (T. colubris),
                     iii., 61.
      "    "     2.--The Amethyst Humming Birds (Calliphlox), iii., 64;
                     the Amethyst Humming Bird (C. amethystina), iii., 60.
      "    "     3.--The Wood-stars (Calothorax), iii., 65; Mulsant's
                     Wood-star (C. Mulsantii), iii., 65.


_FAMILY IX._--THE ELVES (LOPHORNITHES), iii., 66.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Plover-crests (Cephalolepis), iii., 66; De
                     Laland's Plover-crest (C. Delalandii), iii., 66.
      "    "     2.--The Coquettes (Lophornis), iii., 66; The Splendid
                     Coquette (L. ornata), iii., 66.
      "    "     3.--The Amazons (Bellatrix), iii., 67; the Royal Amazon
                     (B. regina), iii., 68.
      "    "     4.--The Sun-gems (Heliactinus), iii., 68; the Horned
                     Sun-gem (H. cornutus), iii., 68.


_FAMILY X._--THE SYLPHS (LESBIÆ), iii., 69.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Racket-tailed Sylphs (Steganurus), iii., 70; the
                     White-footed Racket-tail (S. Underwoodii), iii., 70.
      "    "     2.--The Comets (Sparganura), iii., 71; the Sappho Comet
                     (S. Sappho), iii., 71.


_FAMILY XI._--THE MASKED HUMMING BIRDS (MICRORHAMPHI), iii., 74.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Masked Humming Birds (Microrhamphus), iii., 74;
                     the Sharp-bearded Masked Humming Bird (M. oxypogon),
                     iii., 74.
      "    "     2.--The Helmet Crests (Oxypogon), iii., 75; Linden's
                     Helmet Crest (O. Lindenii), iii., 75.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER IX._

THE LIGHT-BEAKS (LEVIROSTRES).


_FAMILY I._--THE BEE-EATERS (MEROPES), iii., 75.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bee-eaters (Merops), iii., 75; the Common
                     Bee-eater (M. apiaster), iii., 76.
      "    "     2.--The Bee-wolves (Melittotheres), iii., 77; the
                     Bee-wolf (M. nubicus), iii., 77.
      "    "     3.--The Bridled Bee-eaters (Coccolarynx), iii., 78;
                     the Bridled Bee-eater (C. frenatus), iii., 78.
      "    "     4.--The Swallow Bee-eaters (Melittophagus), iii., 78;
                     the Swallow Bee-eater (M. hirundinaceus), iii., 78.
      "    "     5.--The Australian Bee-eaters (Cosmaërops), iii., 78; the
                     Australian Bee-eater (C. ornatus), iii., 78.
      "    "     6.--The Nocturnal Bee-eaters (Nyctiornis), iii., 79; the
                     Sangrok (N. Athertonii), iii., 79.


_FAMILY II._--THE ROLLERS (CORACII), iii., 79.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Blue Rollers (Coracias), iii., 80; the Blue
                     Roller (C. garrulus), iii., 80.
      "    "     2.--The Dollar Birds (Eurystomus), iii., 82; the
                     Australian Dollar Bird (E. Australis), iii., 82;
                     the Oriental Dollar Bird (E. Orientalis), iii., 83.


_FAMILY III._--THE SAW-BILL ROLLERS (PRIONITES), iii., 83.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Mot-mots (Prionites), iii., 83; the Mot-mot
                     (P. momota), iii., 83.


_FAMILY IV._--THE BROAD-THROATS (EURYLAIMI), iii., 84.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Trowel-beaks (Corydon), iii., 84; the Sumatran
                     Trowel-beak (C. Sumatranus), iii., 84.
      "    "     2.--The True Broad-throats (Eurylaimus), iii., 85; the
                     Java Broad-throat (E. Javanicus), iii., 85.
      "    "     3.--The Rayas (Psarisomus), iii., 86; the Raya
                     (P. Dalhousiæ), iii., 86.


_FAMILY V._--THE FLAT-BILLS (TODI), iii., 86.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Flat-bills (Todus), iii., 86; the Green Tody
                     (T. viridis), iii., 86.


_FAMILY VI._--THE KINGFISHERS (ALCEDINES), iii., 87.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Kingfishers (Alcedo), iii., 88; the European
                     Kingfisher (A. ispida), iii., 88.
      "    "     2.--The Purple Kingfishers (Ceyx), iii., 89; the Purple
                     Kingfisher (C. tridactyla), iii., 90.
      "    "     3.--The Grey Kingfishers (Ceryle), iii., 90; the Grey
                     Kingfisher (C. rudis), iii., 90.


_FAMILY VII._--THE ALCYONS (HALCYONES), iii., 91.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tree Alcyons (Halcyon), iii., 91; the Red-breasted
                     Tree Alcyon (H. rufiventris), iii., 91.
      "    "     2.--The Wood Alcyons (Todirhamphus), iii., 91; the
                     Yellow-headed Wood Alcyon (T. chlorocephalus), iii.,
                       93.
      "    "     3.--The Blue Alcyons (Cyanalcyon), iii., 94; the Blue
                     Alcyon (C. Macleayii), iii., 94.
      "    "     4.--The Giant Alcyons (Paralcyon, or Dacelo), iii., 94;
                     the Laughing Jackass (P. gigas, or D. gigantea),
                       iii., 94.
      "    "     5.--The Paradise Alcyons (Tanysiptera), iii., 95; the
                     Paradise Alcyon (T. sylvia), iii., 95.
      "    "     6.--The Saw-beaked Alcyons (Syma), iii., 95; the Poditti
                    (S. flavirostris), iii., 96.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE JACAMARS (GALBULÆ), iii., 96.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Jacamars (Galbula), iii., 96; the Green Jacamar
                    (G. viridis), iii., 96.


_FAMILY IX._--THE BUCCOS (BUCCONES), iii., 96.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Sleepers (Nystalus), iii., 97; the Tschakuru
                     (N. Chacaru), iii., 97.
      "    "     2.--The Trappists (Monasta), iii., 98; the Dusky Trappist
                     (M. fusca), iii., 98.
      "    "     3.--The Dreamers (Chelidoptera), iii., 98;
                     the Dark Dreamers (C. tenebrosa), iii., 98.


_FAMILY X._--THE TOURACOS, OR TROGONS (TROGONES), iii., 99.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Fire Touracos (Harpaëtes), iii., 100; the Karna,
                     or Malabar Trogon (H. fasciatus), iii., 100.
      "    "     2.--The Flower Touracos (Hapaloderma), iii., 100; the
                     Narina (H. narina), iii., 100.
      "    "     3.--The Trogons Proper (Trogon), iii., 101; the Surukua,
                     or Touraco (T. Surukua), iii., 101; the Pompeo
                     (T. viridis), iii., 102.
      "    "     4.--The Tocoloros (Prionotelus), iii., 102; the Tocoloro
                     (P. temnurus), iii., 102.
      "    "     5.--The Beautiful-tailed Trogons (Calurus), iii., 103;
                     the Peacock Trogon (C. pavoninus, or Trogon calurus),
                     iii., 103; the Beautiful Trogon (C. Antisianus),
                     iii., 103; the Quesal, or Resplendent Trogon (C.
                     resplendens or paradiseus), iii., 103.


_FAMILY XI._--THE HONEY GUIDES (CUCULIDÆ), iii., 105.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Honey Guides (Indicator), iii., 105; the
                     White-beaked Honey Guide (I. albirostris), iii., 105.


_FAMILY XII._--THE CUCKOOS (CUCULI), iii., 106.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Cuckoos Proper (Cuculus), iii., 106;
                     the Common Cuckoo (C. canorus), iii., 106.
      "    "     2.--The Jay Cuckoos (Coccystes), iii., 110;
                     the Jay Cuckoo (C. glandarius), iii., 110.
      "    "     3.--The Koels (Eudynamys), iii., 110;
                     the Koel (E. orientalis), iii., 111.
      "    "     4.--The Golden Cuckoos (Chrysococcyx), iii., 111;
                     the Didrik, or Golden Cuckoo (C. auratus), iii., 112.
      "    "     5.--The Giant Cuckoos (Scythrops), iii., 113;
                     the Giant Cuckoo, or Channel Bill
                      (S. Novæ-Hollandiæ), iii., 113.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE BUSH CUCKOOS (PHŒNICOPHÆÏ), iii., 114.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bush Cuckoos (Zanclostomus), iii., 14;
                     the Kokil, or Large Green-billed Malkoha
                        (Z. tristis), iii., 114.


_FAMILY XIV._--THE RAIN CUCKOOS (COCCYGI), iii., 114.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Rain Cuckoos (Coccygus), iii., 115;
                     the Rain or Yellow-billed Cuckoo (C. Americanus),
                        iii., 115.
      "    "     2.--The Lizard Rain Cuckoos (Saurothera), iii., 117;
                     the Rain Bird (S. vetula), iii., 117.
      "    "     3.--The Long-tailed Cuckoos (Pyrrhococcyx), iii., 118;
                     the Long-tailed Cuckoo (P. Cayanus), iii., 118.


_FAMILY XV._--THE TICK-EATERS (CROTOPHAGÆ), iii., 118.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tick-eaters (Crotophagæ), iii., 118;
                     the Coroya (C. major), iii., 119;
                     the Ani, or Savanna Blackbird (C. ani), iii., 119;
                     the Wrinkled-beaked Tick-eater (C. rugirostris),
                        iii., 121.


_FAMILY XVI._--THE SPURRED CUCKOOS (CENTROPODES), iii., 122.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Spurred Cuckoos (Centropus), iii., 122;
                     the Egyptian Coucal (C. Ægyptiacus), iii., 122.
      "    "     2.--The Crow Pheasants (Centrococcyx), iii., 122;
                     the Hedge Crow (C. viridis), iii., 123.
      "    "     3.--The Pheasant Coucals (Polophilus), iii., 123;
                     the Pheasant Coucal (P. phasianus), iii., 123.


_FAMILY XVII._--THE BARBETS (CAPITONES), iii., 124.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Ornamented Barbets (Trachyphonus), iii., 125;
                     the Pearl Bird (T. margaritatus), iii., 125.
      "    "     2.--The Golden Barbets (Xantholæma), iii., 126;
                     the Golden Barbet (X. Indica), iii., 126.
      "    "     3.--The Toucan Barbets (Tetragonops), iii., 127;
                     the Toucan Barbet (T. rhamphastinus), iii., 127.


_FAMILY XVIII._--THE TOUCANS (RAMPHASTI), iii., 127.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Arassaris (Pteroglossus), iii., 128;
                     the Arassari (P. aracari), iii., 129.
      "    "     2.--The Toucans Proper (Ramphastus), iii., 130;
                     the Toco Toucan (R. toco), iii., 130;
                     the Kirima, or Red-beaked Toucan (R. erythrorhynchus),
                       iii., 131;
                     the Tukana (R. Temminckii), iii., 132.


_FAMILY XIX._--THE HORNBILLS (BUCEROTES), iii., 132.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Smooth-beaked Hornbills (Rhynchaceros), iii., 134;
                     the Tok (R. erythrorhynchus), iii., 134.
      "    "     2.--The Two-horned Hornbills (Dichoceros), iii., 135;
                     the Homray (D. bicornis), iii., 135.
      "    "     3.--The Wrinkled Hornbills (Rhyticeros), iii., 137;
                     the Djolan, or Year Bird (R. plicatus), iii., 137.
      "    "     4.--The Horned Ravens (Bucorax), iii., 138;
                     the Abbagamba (B. Abyssinicus), iii., 138.




_ORDER IV._

GALLINACEOUS BIRDS (GALLINÆ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER X._

PIGEONS (GYRATORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE FRUIT PIGEONS (TRERONES), iii., 142.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Parrot Pigeons (Phalacroteron), iii., 142;
                     the Parrot Pigeon (P. Abyssinica), iii., 142.


_FAMILY II._--THE DOVES (COLUMBÆ), iii., 143.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Ring-doves (Palumbus), iii., 143;
                     the Ring-dove (P. torquatus), iii., 143.
      "    "     2.--The Doves Proper (Columba), iii., 146;
                     the Stock Dove (C. œnas), iii., 146;
                     the Rock Dove (C. livia), iii., 147.


_FAMILY III._--THE CUCKOO PIGEONS (MACROPYGIÆ), iii., 148.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Passenger Pigeons (Ectopistes), iii., 148;
                     the Passenger Pigeon (E. migratorius), iii., 148.


_FAMILY IV._--THE TURTLE DOVES (TURTURES), iii., 154.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Turtle Doves Proper (Turtur), iii., 154;
                     The Turtle Dove (T. auritus), iii., 155.
      "    "     2.--The Indian Ring-doves (Streptopeleia), iii., 155;
                     the Indian Ring-dove (S. risoria), iii., 155.
      "    "     3.--The Dwarf Pigeons (Chalcopeleia), iii., 157;
                     the Dwarf Pigeon (C. Afra), iii., 157.


_FAMILY V._--THE AMERICAN GROUND PIGEONS (ZENAIDÆ), iii., 158.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Singing Doves (Melopeleia), iii., 158;
                     the Kukuli (M. meloda), iii., 158.
      "    "     2.--The Sparrow Pigeons (Pyrgitænas), iii., 159;
                     the Sparrow Pigeon (P. passerina), iii., 159.
      "    "     3.--The Sparrow-hawk Pigeons (Geopeleia), iii., 160;
                     the Striped Sparrow-hawk Pigeon (G. striata), iii.,
                        160.
      "    "     4.--The Wedge-tailed Pigeons (Stictopeleia), iii., 161;
                     the Wedge-tailed Turtle Dove (S. cuneata), iii., 161.


_FAMILY VI._--THE RUNNING PIGEONS (GEOTRYGONES), iii., 162.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Partridge Doves (Starnœnas), iii., 162;
                     the Partridge Dove (S. cyanocephala), iii., 162.


_FAMILY VII._--THE BRONZE-WINGED PIGEONS (PHAPES), iii., 163.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crested Bronze-winged Pigeons (Ocyphaps), iii.,
                        163;
                     the Crested Bronze-wing (O. lophotes), iii., 163.
      "    "     2.--The True Bronze-winged Pigeons (Phaps), iii., 164;
                     the Common Bronze-wing (P. chalcoptera), iii., 164.
      "    "     3.--The Quail Pigeons (Geophaps), iii., 166;
                     the Partridge Bronze-wing (G. scripta), iii., 166.
      "    "     4.--The White-fleshed Pigeons (Leucosarcia), iii., 167;
                     the Wonga-Wonga Pigeon (L. picata), iii., 167.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE HACKLED PIGEONS (CALLŒNAS), iii., 167.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hackled Pigeons (Callœnas), iii., 167;
                     the Hackled Ground Pigeon (C. Nicobarica), iii., 167.


_FAMILY IX._--THE CROWNED PIGEONS (GOURÆ), iii., 168.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crowned Pigeons (Goura), iii., 168;
                     the Crowned Pigeon (G. coronata), iii., 169;
                     the Victoria Crowned Pigeon (G. Victoriæ), iii., 170.


_FAMILY X._--THE TOOTHED PIGEONS (DIDUNCULUS), iii., 170.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Toothed Pigeons (Didunculus), iii., 170;
                     the Toothed Pigeon (D. strigirostris), iii., 170.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XI._

THE TRUE GALLINACEOUS BIRDS (RASORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE SAND GROUSE (PTEROCLÆ), iii., 173.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Sand Grouse (Pterocles), iii., 173;
                     the Ganga (P. arenarius), iii., 174;
                     the Large Pin-tailed Grouse, or Khata (P. alchata),
                        iii., 175;
                     the Common Sand Grouse (P. exustus), iii., 176;
                     the Striped Sand Grouse (P. Lichtensteinii), iii.,
                        178.
      "    "     2.--Pallas's Sand Grouse (Syrrhaptes), iii., 178;
                     Pallas's Sand Grouse (S. paradoxus), iii., 178.


_FAMILY II._--THE GROUSE (TETRAONES), iii., 179.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Grouse Proper (Tetrao), iii., 179;
                     the Capercali (T. urogallus), iii., 181.
      "    "     2.--The Heath Cocks (Lyrurus), iii., 183;
                     the Black Cock (L. tetrix), iii., 185.
      "    "     3.--The Hazel Grouse (Bonasia), iii., 190;
                     the Hazel Grouse (B. sylvestris), iii., 190.
      "    "     4.--The Pinnated Grouse (Cupidonia), iii., 191;
                     the Prairie Hen (C. Americana), iii., 191.
      "    "     5.--The Ptarmigans (Lagopus), iii., 195;
                     the Willow Ptarmigan (L. albus), iii., 196;
                     the Alpine or Grey Ptarmigan (L. Alpinus), iii., 198;
                     the Red Grouse (L. Scoticus), iii., 200.


_FAMILY III._--THE PARTRIDGES (PERDICES), iii., 202.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Snow Partridges (Tetraogallus), iii., 203;
                     the Caspian Snow Partridge (T. Caspius), iii., 203;
                     the Himalayan Snow Cock (T. Himalayensis), iii., 203.
      "    "     2.--The Red-legged Partridges (Caccabis), iii., 206;
                     the Greek Partridge (C. Græca or saxatilis), iii.,
                        206;
                     the Chuckore (C. Chukor), iii., 207;
                     the Red-legged Partridge (C. rubra), iii., 208;
                     the Barbary Partridge (C. petrosa), iii., 209.
      "    "     3.--The True Partridges (Perdix), iii., 210;
                     the Common Partridge (P. cinerea), iii., 210.
      "    "     4.--The Francolins (Francolinus), iii., 212;
                     the Black Partridge (F. vulgaris), iii., 212.
      "    "     5.--The Bare-necked Pheasants (Pternistes), iii., 213;
                     the Red-necked Pheasant (P. rubricollis), iii., 213.


_FAMILY IV._--THE AMERICAN PARTRIDGES (ODONTOPHORI), iii., 214.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tree Partridges (Odontophorus), iii., 214;
                     the Capueira. (O. dentatus), iii., 214.
      "    "     2.--The Tree Quails (Ortyx), iii., 216;
                     the Virginian Partridge (O. Virginianus), iii., 216.
      "    "     3.--The Tufted American Partridges (Lophortyx), iii., 219;
                     the Californian Partridge (L. Californianus), iii.,
                         219;
                     Gambel's Partridge (L. Gambelii), iii., 220.


_FAMILY V._--THE QUAILS (COTURNICES), iii. 222.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Quails (Coturnix), iii., 222;
                     the Common Quail (C. communis), iii., 222.
      "    "     2.--The Dwarf Quails (Excalfactoria), iii., 224;
                     the Chinese Quail (E. Chinensis), iii., 224.


_FAMILY VI._--THE BUSH QUAILS (TURNICES), iii., 225.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Bush Quails (Turnix), iii., 225;
                     the Black-breasted Bush Quail (T. pugnax), iii., 226;
                     the African Bush Quail (T. Africanus), iii., 227.
      "    "     2.--The Plain Wanderers (Pedionomus), iii., 227;
                     the Collared Plain Wanderer (P. torquatus), iii., 227.


_FAMILY VII._--THE TUFTED PHEASANTS (PHASIANIDÆ), iii., 228.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tufted Pheasants (Lophophorus), iii., 228;
                     the Monaul, or Impeyan Pheasant (L. resplendens),
                        iii., 229;
                     Lhuys' Pheasant (L. Lhuysii), iii., 232.
      "    "     2.--The Horned Pheasants, or Tragopans (Ceriornis), iii.,
                        232;
                     the Sikkim Horned Pheasant (C. Satyra), iii., 232;
                     the Jewar, or Western Horned Pheasant
                       (C. melanocephala), iii., 233.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE JUNGLE FOWLS (GALLI), iii., 235.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Jungle Fowls (Gallus), iii., 235;
                     the Kasintu, or Red Jungle Fowl (G. Bankiva), iii.,
                         235;
                     the Ceylon Jungle Fowl (G. Stanleyii), iii., 236;
                     the Javanese Jungle Fowl (G. furcatus), iii., 236;
                     the Sonnerat Jungle Fowl (G. Sonnerati), iii., 237.


_FAMILY IX._--THE PHEASANTS (PHASIANI), iii., 237.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Macartney Pheasants (Euplocamus), iii., 238;
                     the Siamese Fireback (E. prælatus), iii., 238;
                     the Sikkim Kaleege, or Black Pheasant (E. or
                        Gallophasis melanotus), iii., 238;
                     the Kelitsch, or White-crested Kaleege Pheasant
                     (E. or Gallophasis albocristatus), iii., 239.
      "    "     2.--The Silver Pheasants (Nycthemerus), iii., 240;
                     the Silver Pheasant (N. argentatus), iii., 240.
      "    "     3.--The Pheasants Proper (Phasianus), iii., 242;
                     the Common Pheasant (P. colchicus), iii., 242;
                     the Chinese Ring-necked Pheasant (P. torquatus),
                        iii., 243;
                     the Japanese Pheasant (P. versicolor), iii., 244;
                     Sœmmering's Pheasant (P. Sœmmeringii), iii., 245;
                     Reeves's Pheasant (P. Reevesii), iii., 246.
       "   "     4.--The Golden Pheasants (Thaumalea), iii., 247;
                     the Golden Pheasant (T. picta), iii., 247;
                     Lady Amherst's Pheasant (T. Amherstiæ), iii., 248.
       "   "     5.--The Eared Pheasants (Crossoptilon), iii., 250;
                     the Chinese Eared Pheasant (C. auritum), iii., 250.
       "   "     6.--The Argus Pheasants (Argus), iii., 250;
                     the Argus Pheasant (A. giganteus), iii., 250.
       "   "     7.--The Peacock Pheasants (Polyplectron), iii., 251;
                     the Chinquis, or Assam Peacock Pheasant (P. chinquis),
                        iii., 251.


_FAMILY X._--THE PEACOCKS (PAVONES), iii., 253.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Peacocks (Pavo), iii., 253;
                     the Common Peacock (P. cristatus), iii., 254;
                     the Black-winged Peacock (P. nigripennis), iii., 255;
                     the Japan Peacock (P. muticus), iii., 255.


_FAMILY XI._--THE GUINEA FOWLS (NUMIDÆ), iii., 256.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Royal Guinea Fowls (Acryllium), iii., 256;
                     the Vulturine Royal Guinea Fowl (A. vulturinum),
                       iii., 256.
       "   "     2.--The Tufted Guinea Fowls (Guttera), iii., 257;
                     Pucheran's Tufted Guinea Fowl (G. Pucheranii), iii.,
                        257.
       "   "     3.--The True Guinea Fowls (Numida), iii., 258;
                     the Common Guinea Fowl (N. meleagris), iii., 258;
                     the Mitred Pintado (N. mitrata), iii., 258;
                     the Tuft-beaked Pintado (N. ptilorhyncha), iii., 259.


_FAMILY XII._--THE TURKEYS (MELEAGRIDES), iii., 259.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Turkeys (Meleagris), iii., 259;
                     the Puter, or Wild Turkey (M. gallopavo), iii., 259.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE AUSTRALIAN JUNGLE FOWL (TALLEGALLI), iii., 264.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Brush Turkeys (Catheturus), iii., 266;
                     the Brush Turkey (C. Lathamii), iii., 266.
       "   "     2.--The Maleos (Megacephalon), iii., 268;
                     the Maleo (M. Maleo), iii., 268.
       "   "     3.--The Leipoas (Leipoa), iii., 270;
                     the Ocellated Leipoa (L. ocellata), iii., 270.


_FAMILY XIV._--THE MEGAPODES (MEGAPODII), iii., 273.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Megapodes (Megapodius), iii., 273;
                     the Australian Megapode (M. tumulus), iii., 273.


_FAMILY XV._--THE CURASSOWS (CRACIDÆ), iii., 275.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Curassows, or Hoccos (Craces), iii., 276;
                     the Common or Crested Curassow (Crax alector), iii.,
                        276;
                     the Wattled Curassow (C. carunculata), iii., 278;
                     the Red Curassow (C. rubra), iii., 278;
                     the Galeated Curassow (C. pauxi), iii., 278.
       "   "     2.--The Mountain Curassows (Oreophasis), iii., 278;
                     the Mountain Curassow (O. Derbyanus), iii., 278.


_FAMILY XVI._--THE GUANS (PENELOPÆ), iii., 279.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Guans (Penelope), iii., 279;
                     the Supercilious Guan (P. superciliaris), iii., 280;
                     the Pigmy, or Piping Guan (P. or Pipile leucolophus),
                        iii., 280;
                     the Aracuan (P. or Ortalida Aracuan), iii., 280.
      "    "     2.--The Crested Guans (Opisthocomus), iii., 281;
                     the Hoactzin, or Stink Bird (O. cristatus), iii., 281.


_FAMILY XVII._--THE TINAMOUS (CRYPTURIDÆ), iii., 282.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tinamous Proper (Crypturus), iii., 282;
                     the Tataupa (C. Tataupa), iii., 283.
      "    "     2.--The Inambus (Rhynchotus), iii., 285;
                     the Inambu (R. rufescens), iii., 285.
      "    "     3.--The American Quails (Nothura), iii., 285;
                     the Lesser American Quail (N. nana), iii., 285.
      "    "     4.--The Macucas (Trachypelmus), iii., 285;
                     the Macuca (T. Brasiliensis), iii., 285.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XII._

SHORT-WINGED CURSORIAL BIRDS (BREVIPENNES).


_FAMILY I._--THE OSTRICHES (STRUTHIONES), iii., 287.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Ostriches (Struthio), iii., 287;
                     the African Ostrich (S. Camelus), iii., 287.
      "    "     2.--The Nandus (Rhea), iii., 291;
                     the Nandu, or American Ostrich (R. Americana), iii.,
                        291;
                     the Long-billed Nandu (R. macrorhynchus), iii., 299;
                     the Dwarf Nandu (R. Darwinii), iii., 299.
      "    "     3.--The Emus (Dromæus), iii., 301;
                     the Emu (D. Novæ:-Hollandiæ), iii., 301;
                     the Spotted Emu (D. irroratus), iii., 301.


_FAMILY II._--THE CASSOWARIES (CASUARII), iii., 302.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Cassowaries (Casuarius), iii., 302;
                     the Helmeted Cassowary (C. galeatus), iii., 302;
                     the Mooruk (C. Bennettii), iii., 302;
                     the Australian Cassowary (C. Australis), iii., 307.


_FAMILY III._--THE KIVIS (APTERYGES), iii., 309.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Kivis (Apteryx), iii., 309;
                     the Australian Apteryx, or Kivi-Kivi (A. Australis),
                        iii., 309;
                     Mantell's Apteryx (A. Mantellii), iii., 310;
                     Owen's Apteryx (A. Owenii), iii., 311.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XIII._

THE STILT-WALKERS (GRALLATORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE BUSTARDS (OTIDES), iv., 2.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Bustards (Otis) iv., 2;
                     the Great Bustard (O. tarda), iv., 2.
      "    "     2.--The Little Bustards (Tetrax), iv., 5;
                     the Little Bustard (T. campestris), iv., 5.
      "    "     3.--The Houbaras (Hubara), iv., 6;
                     the Indian Houbara (H. Macquenii), iv., 6;
                     the African Ruffled Bustard (H. undulata), iv., 8.
      "    "     4.--The Florikins (Sypheotides), iv., 8;
                     the Bengal Florikin (S. Bengalensis), iv., 8.


_FAMILY II._--THE COURSERS (TACHYDROMI), iv., 9.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Desert Coursers (Cursorius), iv., 10;
                     the Cream-coloured Courser (C. isabellinus), iv., 10.
      "    "     2.--The Crocodile Watchers (Trochilus), iv., 11;
                     the Egyptian Crocodile Watcher (T. Ægyptiacus),
                        iv., 11.


_FAMILY III._--THE PRATINCOLES (TRACHELIÆ), iv., 12.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Pratincoles (Glareola), iv., 12;
                     the Collared Pratincole (G. pratincola), iv., 13.


_FAMILY IV._--THE THICK-KNEES (ŒDICNEMI), iv., 14.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Thick-knees (Œdicnemus), iv., 14;
                     the Common Thick-knee (O. crepitans), iv., 14.


_FAMILY V._--THE PLOVERS (CHARADRII), iv., 15.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Golden Plovers (Charadrius), iv., 16;
                     the Golden Plover (C. auratus), iv., 16;
                     the Ringed Plover (C. hiaticula), iv., 18.
      "    "     2.--The Dotted Plovers (Eudromias), iv., 18;
                     the Dotterel (E. Morinellus), iv., 19.
      "    "     3.--The Shore Plovers (Ægialites), iv., 20;
                     the Little Shore Plover (Æ. minor), iv., 20.


_FAMILY VI._--THE LAPWINGS (VANELLI), iv., 21.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Peewits (Vanellus), iv., 21;
                     the Peewit, or Lapwing (V. cristatus), iv., 22.
      "    "     2.--The Spur-winged Lapwings (Hoplopterus), iv., 23;
                     the Spur-winged Lapwing (H. spinosus), iv., 23.
      "    "     3.--The Lappeted Peewits (Sarciophorus), iv., 24;
                     the Lappeted Peewit (S. pileatus), iv., 24.


_FAMILY VII._--THE TURNSTONES (STREPSILATES), iv., 24.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Turnstones (Strepsilas), iv., 24;
                     the Turnstone (S. interpres), iv., 24.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE OYSTER-CATCHERS (HÆMATOPI), iv., 27.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Oyster-catchers (Hæmatopus), iv., 27;
                     the Pied Oyster-catcher (H. ostralegus), iv., 27.


_FAMILY IX._--THE SNIPES (LIMICOLÆ), iv., 29.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Woodcocks (Scolopax), iv., 30;
                     the Woodcock (S. rusticola), iv., 30.
      "    "     2.--The Marsh Snipes (Gallinago), iv., 33;
                     the Common Snipe (G. Scolopacinus), iv., 34.
      "    "     3.--The Moor Snipes (Philolimnos), iv., 35;
                     the Jack Snipe (P. gallinula), iv., 35.


_FAMILY X._--THE SANDPIPERS (TRINGÆ), iv., 35.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Curlew Sandpipers (Limicola), iv., 36;
                     the Pigmy Curlew Sandpiper (L. pygmæa), iv., 36.
      "    "     2.--The Sanderlings (Calidris), iv., 36;
                     the Sanderling (C. arenaria), iv., 36.
      "    "     3.--The Mud Sandpipers (Pelidna), iv., 38;
                     the Mud Sandpiper (P. subarquata), iv., 38.
      "    "     4.--The Dwarf Sandpipers (Actodroma), iv., 38;
                     the Dwarf Sandpiper (A. minuta), iv., 38.
      "    "     5.--The Ruffs (Philomachus), iv., 39;
                     the Ruff (P. pugnax), iv., 39.


_FAMILY XI._--THE PHALAROPES (PHALAROPI), iv., 42.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hyperborean Phalaropes (Lobipes), iv., 43;
                     the Hyperborean Phalarope (L. hyperboreus), iv., 43.
      "    "     2.--The Phalaropes Proper (Phalaropus), iv., 43;
                     the Red Phalarope (P. rufus), iv., 43.


_FAMILY XII._--THE LONGSHANKS (TOTANI), iv., 44.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The True Sandpipers (Actitis), iv., 45;
                     the Common Sandpiper (A. hypoleucos), iv., 45.
      "    "     2.--The Greenshanks (Glottis), iv., 46;
                     the Greenshank (G. chloropus), iv., 46.
      "    "     4.--The Godwits (Limosa), iv., 47;
                     the Red or Bar-tailed Godwit (L. rufa), iv., 48.
      "    "     5.--The Stilts (Hypsibates), iv., 49;
                     the Black-winged Stilt (H. himantopus), iv., 49.


_FAMILY XIII._--THE AVOCETS (RECURVIROSTRÆ), iv., 50.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Avocets (Recurvirostra), iv., 50;
                     the Scooping Avocet (R. avocetta), iv., 50.


_FAMILY XIV._--THE CURLEWS (_Numenii_), iv., 51.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Curlews (Numenius), iv., 51;
                     the Great Curlew, or Whaap (N. arquatus), iv., 51.


_FAMILY XV._--THE IBISES (_Ibides_), iv., 54.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Falcinels (Falcinellus), iv., 55;
                     the Glossy Ibis (F. igneus), iv., 55.
      "    "     2.--The Scarlet Ibises (Ibis), iv., 56;
                     the Scarlet Ibis (I. rubra), iv., 56.
      "    "     3.--The True Ibises (Threskiornis), iv., 56;
                     the Egyptian or Sacred Ibis (T. religiosa), iv, 56.


_FAMILY XVI._--THE SPOONBILLS (PLATALEÆ), iv., 58.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Spoonbills (Platalea), iv., 58;
                     the Common Spoonbill (P. leucorodia), iv., 58.


_FAMILY XVII._--THE BOAT-BILLS (CANCROMATA), iv., 59.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Whale-headed Storks (Balæniceps), iv., 59;
                     the Whale-headed Stork, or Shoe-beak (B. rex),
                        iv., 59.
      "    "     2.--The Boat-bills (Cancroma), iv., 62;
                     the Savaku, or Boat-bill (C. cochlearia), iv., 62.


_FAMILY XVIII._--THE SHADOW BIRDS (SCOPI), iv., 62.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Shadow Birds (Scopus), iv., 62;
                     the Hammer-head, or Shadow-Bird (S. umbretta),
                        iv., 62.


_FAMILY XIX._--THE STORKS (CICONIÆ), iv., 63.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tantali (Tantalus), iv., 65;
                     the Ibis-like Tantalus (T. ibis), iv., 66.
      "    "     2.--The True Storks (Ciconia), iv., 67;
                     the White or House Stork (C. alba), iv., 69.
      "    "     3.--The Simbils (Sphenorhynchus), iv., 70;
                     the Simbil (S. Abdimii), iv., 70.
      "    "     4.--The Giant Storks (Mycteria), iv., 71;
                     the Senegal Jabiru (M. Senegalensis), iv., 71;
                     the Jabiru (M. Australis), iv., 71.
      "    "     5.--The Adjutants, Argalas, or Marabous (Leptoptilos),
                        iv., 74;
                     the African Marabou (L. crumenifer), iv., 74;
                     the Indian Adjutant, or Argala (L. argala), iv., 74.
      "    "     6.--The Clapper-billed Storks (Anastomus), iv., 75;
                     the African Clapper Bill (A. lamelligerus), iv., 75.


_FAMILY XX._--THE HERONS (ARDEÆ), iv., 76.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Herons Proper (Ardea), iv., 78;
                     the Common Heron (A. cinerea), iv., 78;
                     the Giant Heron (A. Goliath), iv., 80.
      "    "     2.--The White Herons (Herodias), iv., 81;
                     the Great White Heron (H. alba), iv., 81;
                     the Lesser Egret (H. garzetta), iv., 82.
      "    "     3.--The Cattle Herons (Bubulcus), iv., 82;
                     the Cattle Heron (B. ibis), iv., 82.
      "    "     4.--The Night Herons (Nycticorax), iv., 82;
                     the Night Heron (N. Europæus), iv., 82.
      "    "     5.--The Dwarf Bitterns (Ardetta), iv., 83;
                     the Little Bittern (A. minuta), iv., 83.
      "    "     6.--The Bitterns (Botaurus), iv., 85;
                     the Common Bittern (B. stellaris), iv., 85.


_FAMILY XXI._--THE SUN BITTERNS (EURYPYGÆ), iv., 86.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Sun Bitterns (Eurypyga), iv., 86;
                     the Sun Bittern (E. helias), iv., 86.


_FAMILY XXII._--THE CRANES (GRUES), iv., 87.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Cranes Proper (Grus), iv., 89;
                     the Common Crane (G. cinerea), iv., 89.
      "    "     2.--The Demoiselle Cranes (Anthropoides), iv., 90;
                     the Demoiselle Crane (A. virgo), iv., 90.


_FAMILY XXIII._--THE AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES (BALEARICÆ), iv., 90.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The African Crowned Cranes (Balearica), iv., 90;
                     the Crowned African Crane (B. pavonina), iv., 90.


_FAMILY XXIV._--THE FIELD STORKS (ARVICOLÆ), iv., 91.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Snake Cranes (Dicholophus), iv., 91;
                     the Brazilian Cariama (D. cristatus), iv., 91.
      "    "     2.--The Trumpeters (Psophia), iv., 94;
                     the Agami (P. crepitans), iv., 94.


_FAMILY XXV._--THE SCREAMERS (PALAMEDEÆ), iv., 95.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Horned Screamers (Palamedea), iv., 96;
                     the Aniuma (P. cornuta), iv., 96.
      "    "     2.--The Tschajas (Chauna), iv., 97;
                     the Chauna, or Tschaja (C. Chavaria), iv., 97.


_FAMILY XXVI._--THE RAILS (RALLI), iv., 98.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Snipe Rails (Rhynchæa), iv., 98;
                     the Golden Rail (R. Capensis), iv., 99.
      "    "     2.--The Water Rails (Rallus), iv., 99;
                     the Water Rail (R. aquaticus), iv., 99.
      "    "     3.--The Aramides (Aramides), iv., 100;
                     the Serrakura (A. gigas), iv., 101.
      "    "     4.--The Land Rails (Crex), iv., 101;
                     the Land Rail, or Corn Crake (C. pratensis), iv., 101.


_FAMILY XXVII._--THE JACANAS (PARRÆ), iv., 102.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Jacanas Proper (Parra), iv., 102;
                     the Chilian Jacana (P. Jacana), iv., 102.
      "    "     2.--The Water Pheasants (Hydrophasianus), iv., 103;
                     the Chinese Jacana, or Water Pheasant (H. Sinensis),
                         iv., 103.


_FAMILY XXVIII._--THE GALLINULES (GALLINULÆ), iv., 103.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Gallinules (Porphyrio), iv., 105;
                     the Hyacinthine Porphyrio (P. hyacinthinus), iv., 105;
                     the Purple Gallinule (P. chloronotus), iv., 106.
      "    "     2.--The Water Hens (Stagnicola), iv., 106;
                     the Common Moor-hen (S. chloropus), iv., 107.
      "    "     3.--The Coots (Fulica), iv., 110;
                     the Common Coot (F. atra), iv., 111.


_FAMILY XXIX._--THE FINFOOTS (PODOÆ), iv., 112.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Finfoots (Heliornis), iv., 112;
                     the Surinam Finfoot, or Picapare (H. Surinamensis),
                        iv., 112.

       *       *       *       *       *




_ORDER V._

THE SWIMMERS (NATATORES).

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XIV._

THE SIEVE-BEAKS (LAMELLIROSTRES).


_FAMILY I._--THE FLAMINGOES (PHŒNICOPTERI), iv., 115.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Flamingoes (Phœnicopterus), iv., 115;
                     the Flamingo (P. roseus), iv., 115.


_FAMILY II._--THE SWANS (CYGNI), iv., 119.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Mute Swan (Cygnus olor), iv., 121.
      "    "     2.--The Whistling Swan (C. musicus), iv., 123.
      "    "     3.--Bewick's Swan (C. Bewickii), iv., 126.
      "    "     4.--The Black-necked Swan (C. nigricollis), iv., 126.
      "    "     5.--The Black Swan (C. atratus), iv., 127.


_FAMILY III._--THE GEESE (ANSERES), iv., 129.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Spur-winged Geese (Plectropterus), iv., 131;
                     the Spur-winged Goose (P. Gambensis), iv., 131.
      "    "     2.--The Wild Geese (Anser), iv., 131;
                     the Grey or Wild Goose (A. cinereus), iv., 131.
      "    "     3.--The Swan Geese (Cygnopsis), iv., 131;
                     the Canada Goose (C. Canadensis), iv., 131.
      "    "     4.--The Snow Geese (Anser or Chen), iv., 135;
                     the Snow Goose (A. or C. hyperboreus)., iv., 135.
      "    "     5.--The Sea Geese (Bernicla), iv., 135;
                     the Brent Goose (B. torquata), iv., 136.
      "    "     6.--The Foxy Geese (Chenalopex), iv., 137;
                     the Nile Goose (C. Ægyptiacus), iv., 138.
      "    "     7.--The Dwarf Geese (Nettapus), iv., 139;
                     the White-bodied Goose Teal (N. Coromandelianus),
                        iv., 140.
      "    "     8.--The Cereopsis Geese (Cereopsis), iv., 142;
                     the Cereopsis Goose (C. Novæ-Hollandiæ), iv., 142.


_FAMILY IV._--THE DUCKS (ANATES), iv., 143.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Ruddy Ducks (Casarca), iv., 145;
                     the Ruddy Sheldrake, or Brahminy Duck (C. rutila),
                        iv., 145.
      "    "     2.--The Sheldrakes (Vulpanser), iv., 146;
                     the Common Sheldrake (V. tadorna), iv., 146.
      "    "     3.--The Tree Ducks (Dendrocygna), iv., 148;
                     the Widow Duck (D. viduata), iv., 148.
      "    "     4.--The Wild Ducks (Anas), iv., 150;
                     the Wild Duck (A. boschas), iv., 150.
      "    "     5.--The Wood or Summer Ducks (Aix), iv., 154;
                     the Wood or Summer Duck (A. sponsa), iv., 154;
                     the Chinese Teal, or Mandarin Duck (A. galericulata),
                        iv., 155.
      "    "     6.--The Shoveler Ducks (Spatula), iv., 156;
                     the Shoveler Duck (S. clypeata), iv., 156.
      "    "     7.--The Musk Ducks (Cairina), iv., 157;
                     the Musk Duck (C. moschata), iv.; 157.


_FAMILY V._--THE DIVING DUCKS (FULIGULÆ), iv., 158.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Eider Ducks (Somateria), iv., 159;
                     the Eider Duck (S. mollissima), iv., 163;
                     the King Eider (S. spectabilis), iv., 165;
                     the Western or Steller's Eider Duck (S. or Heniconetta
                        Stelleri), iv., 166.
      "    "     2.--The Scoters (Oidemia), iv., 166;
                     the Velvet Scoter (O. fusca), iv., 166.
      "    "     3.--The Fen Ducks (Aythya), iv., 167;
                     the Red-headed Duck, or Pochard (A. ferina), iv., 163.
      "    "     4.--The Pin-tailed Ducks (Erismatura), iv., 169;
                     the White-headed Pin-tailed Duck (E. leucocephala),
                        iv., 169.


_FAMILY VI._--THE GOOSANDERS (MERGI), iv., 170.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Dwarf Mergansers (Mergellus), iv., 170;
                     the White-headed Merganser (M. albellus), iv., 170.
      "    "     2.--The True Goosanders (Mergus), iv., 172;
                     the Green-headed Goosander (M. merganser), iv., 172.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XV._

THE SEA-FLIERS (LONGIPENNES).


_FAMILY I._--THE TERNS (STERNÆ), iv., 176.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Rapacious Terns (Sylochelidon), iv., 177;
                     the Caspian Tern (S. Caspia), iv., 178.
      "    "     2.--The River Terns (Sterna), iv., 178;
                     the Common Tern (S. hirundo), iv., 179.
      "    "     3.--The Dwarf Terns (Sternula), iv., 181;
                     the Lesser Tern (S. minuta), iv., 181.
      "    "     4.--The Water Swallows (Hydrochelidon), iv., 181;
                     the Black Marsh Tern (H. nigra), iv., 182;
                     the White-winged Tern (H. leucoptera), iv., 183;
                     the White-bearded Tern (H. leucoptera), iv., 183.
      "    "     5.--The Fairy Terns (Gygis), iv., 183;
                     the White or Silky Tern (G. candida), iv., 183.
      "    "     6.--The Noddies (Anous), iv., 184;
                     the Noddy (A. stolidus), iv., 184.


_FAMILY II._--THE SCISSOR BILLS (RHYNCHOPES), iv., 185.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Scissor Bills (Rhynchops), iv., 185;
                     the Indian Scissor Bill (R. orientalis), iv., 185.


_FAMILY III._--THE GULLS (LARI), iv., 186.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Fishing Gulls (Larus), iv., 187;
                     the Great Black-headed Gull (L. marinus), iv., 188;
                     the Lesser Black-backed Gull (L. fuscus), iv., 190.
      "    "     2.--The Ice Gulls (Pagophila), iv., 193;
                     the Ivory Gull (P. eburnea), iv., 193.
      "    "     3.--The Kittiwakes (Rissa), iv., 194;
                     the Kittiwake (R. tridactyla), iv., 194.
      "    "     4.--The Black-headed Gulls (Chroicocephalus), iv., 195;
                     the Laughing Gull (C. ridibundus), iv., 195;
                     the Great Black-headed Gull (C. ichthyaëtus),
                       iv., 197;
                     the Lesser Black-headed Gull (C. melanocephalus),
                       iv., 198;
                     the Little Gull (C. minuta), iv., 198.
      "    "     5.--The Rosy Gulls (Rhodostethia), iv., 203;
                     Ross's Rosy Gull (R. Rossii), iv., 203.


_FAMILY IV._--THE SKUAS (LESTRES), iv., 198.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Skuas (Lestris), iv., 198;
                     the Common Skua (L. catarractes), iv., 199;.
                     Buffon's or the Parasite Skua (L. parasiticus), iv.,
                        202.


_FAMILY V._--THE ALBATROSSES (DIOMEDEÆ), iv., 203.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Albatrosses (Diomedea), iv., 203;
                     the Wandering Albatross (D. exulans), iv., 205;
                     the Yellow-billed Albatross (D. chlororhynchus), iv.,
                        206;
                     the Sooty Albatross (D. fuliginosa), iv., 207.


_FAMILY VI._--THE PETRELS (PROCELLARIÆ), iv., 207.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Giant Petrels (Procellaria), iv., 208;
                     the Giant Petrel (P. gigantea), iv., 208;
                     the Fulmar Petrel (P. glacialis), iv., 209;
                     the Cape Petrel (P. Capensis), iv., 217.
      "    "     2.--The Duck Petrels (Prion), iv., 213;
                     the Duck Petrel (P. vittatus), iv., 213.


_FAMILY VII._--THE STORM PETRELS (OCEANIDES), iv., 214.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Storm Swallows (Thalassidroma), iv., 215;
                     the Common Storm Petrel (T. pelagica), iv., 215.
      "    "     2.--The Storm Swifts (Oceanodroma), iv., 217;
                     Leach's Storm Petrel (O. Leachii), iv., 217.


_FAMILY VIII._--THE PUFFINS (PUFFINI), iv., 217.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Puffins (Puffinus), iv., 217;
                     the Manx Puffin, or Shearwater (P. Anglorum), iv.,
                        218.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XVI._

OAR-FOOTED SEA-FLIERS (STEGANOPODES).


_FAMILY I._--THE TROPIC BIRDS (PISCATRICES), iv., 219.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tropic Birds Proper (Phaëton), iv., 219;
                     the White-tailed Tropic Bird (P. æthereus), iv., 220;
                     the Red-tailed Tropic Bird (P. phœnicurus), iv., 220.
      "    "     2.--The Gannets (Sula), iv., 221;
                     the Common Gannet (S. alba), iv., 223.


_FAMILY II._--THE FRIGATE BIRDS (TACHYPETES), iv., 224.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Frigate Birds (Tachypetes), iv., 224;
                     the Frigate Bird (T. aquila), iv., 224.


_FAMILY III._--THE CORMORANTS (HALIEI), iv., 227.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Darters, or Snake Necks (Plotus), iv., 228;
                     the Anhinga (P. anhinga), iv., 228;
                     Le Vaillant's Snake Bird (P. Levaillantii), iv., 230.
      "    "     2.--The Cormorants Proper (Phalacrocorax), iv., 230;
                     the Cormorant (P. carbo), iv., 234.


_FAMILY IV._--THE PELICANS (PELECANI), iv., 235.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Pelicans (Pelecanus), iv., 235;
                     the White Pelican (P. onocrotalus), iv., 237;
                     the Great Tufted or Dalmatian Pelican (P. crispus),
                        iv., 239.

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER XVII._

DIVERS (URINATORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE GREBES (PODICIPITES), iv., 240.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crested Grebes (Podiceps), iv., 240;
                     the Crested Grebe (P. cristatus), iv., 242.
      "    "     2.--The Dwarf Grebes (Podiceps minor), iv., 244;
                     the Little Grebe (P. minor), iv., 244.


_FAMILY II._--THE SEA DIVERS (COLYMBI), iv., 245.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Great Northern Diver (Colymbus glacialis), iv.,
                        247;
                     the Black-throated Diver (C. arcticus), iv., 248;
                     the Red-throated Diver (C. septentrionalis), iv., 249.


_FAMILY III._--THE LOONS (URIÆ), iv., 250,

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Black Guillemots (Cephus), iv., 250;
                     the Black Guillemot (C. grylle), iv., 250.
      "    "     2.--The True Guillemots (Uria), iv., 251;
                     the Common or Foolish Guillemot (U. troile), iv., 253.
      "    "     3.--The Little Auks (Mergulus, or Arctica), iv., 254;
                     the Little Auk (M. or A. Alle), iv., 254.


_FAMILY IV._--THE STARIKIS (PHALERES), iv., 255.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Crested Divers (Phaleris), iv., 255;
                     the Stariki (P. cristatella), iv., 255.


_FAMILY V._--THE AUKS (ALCÆ), iv., 255.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Auks (Alca), iv., 256;
                     the Razor-bill (A. torda), iv., 256.
      "    "     2.--The Great Auks (Pinguinus, or Plautus), iv., 258;
                     the Great Auk (P. impennis), iv., 258.
      "    "     3.--The Coulternebs (Mormon), iv., 262;
                     the Coulterneb, or Arctic Puffin (M. fratercula),
                         iv., 262.


_FAMILY VI._--THE PENGUINS (APTENODYTÆ), iv., 265.

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The King Penguins (Aptenodytes), iv., 265;
                     the King Penguin (A. Patagonica), iv., 266.
      "    "     2.--The True Penguins (Spheniscus), iv., 267;
                     the Spectacled or Cape Penguin (S. demersus), iv.,
                         267.
      "    "     3.--The Leaping Penguins (Eudypetes), iv., 268;
                     the Golden or Crested Penguin (E. catarractes), iv.,
                         268.

[Illustration]




    CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS

    AS ADOPTED IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER I._

    BIRDS OF PREY (ACCIPITRES). [LINNÆUS.]

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER I._

    DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY (ACCIPITRES DIURNI).


_FAMILY I._--VULTURES (VULTURIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bearded Vultures (Gypaetinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Condors (Sarcorhamphinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Vultures Proper (Vulturinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Eagle Vultures (Gypohieracinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE FALCONS (FALCONIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Caracaras (Polyborinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Buzzards (Buteoninæ).
      "    "     3.--The Eagles (Aquilinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Falcons Proper (Falconinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Kites (Milvinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Sparrow Hawks (Accipitrinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Harriers (Circinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_SUB-ORDER II._

    NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY (ACCIPITRES NOCTURNI).


_FAMILY I_.--THE OWLS (STRIGIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hawk Owls (Surninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Horned Owls (Buboninæ).
      "    "     3.--The Owlets (Syrninæ).
      "    "     4.--The Owls Proper (Striginæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER II._

    PASSERES.

       *       *       *       *       *


_TRIBE I._

    GAPERS (FISSIROSTRES).

    _SUB-TRIBE I._--NOCTURNAL FISSIROSTRES (FISSIROSTRES NOCTURNI).


_FAMILY I._--THE GOATSUCKERS (CAPRIMULGIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Oil Birds (Steatorninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Goatsuckers Proper (Caprimulginæ).
      "    "     3.--The Podagers (Podagerinæ)

    _SUB-TRIBE II._--DIURNAL FISSIROSTRES (FISSIROSTRES DIURNI).


_FAMILY II._--THE SWALLOWS (HIRUNDINIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Swifts (Cypselinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Swallows Proper (Hirundininæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE ROLLERS (CORACIADÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Rollers (Coracianæ).
      "    "     2.--The Todies (Todinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Broad-throats (Eurylaiminæ).
      "    "     4.--The Mot-mots (Momotinæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE TROGONS (TROGONIDÆ).


_FAMILY V._--THE KINGFISHERS (ALCEDINIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Buccos (Bucconinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Halcyons (Halcyoninæ).
      "    "     3.--The Kingfishers (Alcedininæ).
      "    "     4.--The Jacamars (Galbulinæ).


_FAMILY VI._--THE BEE EATERS (MEROPIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Bee Eaters (Meropinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_TRIBE II._

    SLENDER-BILLS (TENUIROSTRES).


_FAMILY I._--THE HOOPOES (UPUPIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Hoopoes Proper (Upupinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Plumed Birds (Epimachinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE SUN BIRDS (PROMEROPIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Sun Birds Proper (Promeropinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Guit-Guits (Cærebinæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE HUMMING BIRDS (TROCHILIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Wedge-tailed Humming Birds
                        (Grypinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Curved-billed Humming Birds
                        (Trochilinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Straight-billed Humming
                        Birds (Mellisuginæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE HONEY-EATERS (MELIPHAGIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Honey-creepers (Mezomelinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Honey-eaters Proper (Meliphaginæ).
      "    "     3.--The Honey-feeders (Melithreptinæ).


_FAMILY V._--THE CREEPERS (CERTHIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Oven Birds (Furnarinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Sharp-tails (Synallaxinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Tree-creepers (Dendrocolaptinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Creepers Proper (Certhinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Nut-hatches (Sittinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Mohouas (Orthonycinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Wrens (Menurinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_TRIBE III._

    THE TOOTHED-BILLS (DENTIROSTRES).


_FAMILY I._--THE WARBLERS (LUSCINIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Soft-tailed Warblers (Malurinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Warblers Proper (Luscininæ).
      "    "     3.--The Robins (Erythacinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Accentors (Accentorinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Titmice (Parinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Bush-creepers (Mniotiltinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Wagtails (Motacillinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE THRUSHES (TURDIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Ant-thrushes (Formicarinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Thrushes Proper (Turdinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Babblers (Timalinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Orioles (Oriolinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Bulbuls (Pycnonotinæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE FLY-CATCHERS (MUSCICAPIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Mourners (Querulinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Alectrures (Alectrurinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Tyrants (Tyranninæ).
      "    "     4.--The Becards (Tityrinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Fly-catchers Proper (Muscicapinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Greenlets (Vireoninæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE CHATTERERS (AMPELIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Thick-heads (Pachycephalinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Manakins (Piprinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Chatterers Proper (Ampelinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Cuckoo Shrikes (Campephaginæ).
      "    "     5.--The Drongo Shrikes (Dicrurinæ).


_FAMILY V._--THE BUTCHER BIRDS (LANIIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Butcher Birds Proper (Laniinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Bush Shrikes (Thamnophilinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_TRIBE IV._

    THE CONICAL BILLS (CONIROSTRES).


_FAMILY I._--THE CROWS (CORVIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Piping Crows (Phonegaminæ).
      "    "     2.--The Jays (Garrulinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Tree Crows (Calleatinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Crows Proper (Corvinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Fruit Crows (Gymnoderinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Choughs (Pyrrhocoracinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE BIRDS OF PARADISE (PARADISEIDÆ).


_FAMILY III._--THE STARLINGS (STURNIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Glossy Starlings (Ptilorhynchinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Grakles (Graculinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Ox-peckers (Buphaginæ).
      "    "     4.--The Starlings Proper (Sturninæ).
      "    "     5.--The Boat-tails (Quiscalinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Hang-nests (Icterinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Troop-birds (Agelainæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE FINCHES (FRINGILLIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Weavers (Ploceiæ).
      "    "     2.--The Hawfinches (Coccothraustinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Tanagers (Tanagrinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Finches Proper (Fringillinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Buntings (Emberizinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Larks (Alaudinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Bullfinches (Pyrrhulinæ).
      "    "     8.--The Cross-bills (Loxianæ).
      "    "     9.--The Plant Cutters (Phytotominæ).


_FAMILY V._--THE COLIES (COLIDÆ).


_FAMILY VI._--THE PLANTAIN EATERS (MUSOPHAGIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Plantain Eaters Proper (Musophaginæ).
      "    "     2.--The Hoactzins (Opisthocominæ).


_FAMILY VII._--THE HORNBILLS (BUCEROTIDÆ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER III._

    THE CLIMBERS (SCANSORES).


_FAMILY I._--THE TOUCANS (RAMPHASTIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Toucans (Ramphastinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE PARROTS (PSITTACIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ I.--The Ground Parrots (Pezoporinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Macaws (Arainæ).
      "    "     3.--The Lories (Lorinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Parrots Proper (Psittacinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Cockatoos (Cacatuinæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE WOODPECKERS (PICIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Barbets (Capitoninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Soft-tailed Woodpeckers (Picumninæ).
      "    "     3.--The Woodpeckers Proper (Picinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Green Woodpeckers (Gecininæ).
      "    "     5.--The Black Woodpeckers (Melanerpinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Cuckoo Woodpeckers (Colaptinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Wrynecks (Yuncinæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE CUCKOOS (CUCULIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Honey Guides (Indicatorinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Rain Cuckoos (Saurotherinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Ground Cuckoos (Coccyzinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Tick Eaters (Crotophaginæ).
      "    "     5.--The Cuckoos Proper (Cuculinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER IV._

    PIGEONS (COLUMBÆ).


_FAMILY I._--THE PIGEONS (COLUMBIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Fruit Pigeons (Treroninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Doves (Columbinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Crowned Pigeons (Gourinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Toothed Pigeons (Didunculinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Dodos (Didinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER V._

    GALLINACEOUS BIRDS (GALLINÆ).


_FAMILY I._--THE CURASSOWS (CRACIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Guans (Penelopinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Curassows Proper (Cracinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE MEGAPODES (MEGAPODIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tallegallas (Tallegallinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Mound Birds (Megapodinæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE PHEASANTS (PHASIANIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Peacocks (Pavoninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Pheasants Proper (Phasianinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Jungle Fowls (Gallinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Turkeys (Meleagrinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Tufted Pheasants (Lophophorinæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE GROUSE (TETRAONIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Partridges (Perdicinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Quails (Turnicinæ).
      "    "     3.--The American Partridges (Odontophorinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Grouse Proper (Tetraoninæ).
      "    "     5.--The Sand Grouse (Pteroclinæ).


_FAMILY V._--THE SHEATHBILLS (CHIONIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Shore Larks (Thinocorinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Sheathbills Proper (Chionidinæ).


_FAMILY VI._--THE TINAMOUS (TINAMIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tinamous (Tinaminæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER VI._

    OSTRICHES (STRUTHIONES).


_FAMILY I._--THE OSTRICHES (STRUTHIONIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Ostriches Proper (Struthioninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Kivis (Apteryginæ).
      "    "     3.--The Bustards (Otidinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER VII._

    STILT-WALKERS (GRALLÆ).


_FAMILY I._--THE PLOVERS (CHARADRIADÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Thick-knees (Œdicneminæ).
      "    "     2.--The Coursers (Cursorinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Pratincoles (Glareoliæ).
      "    "     4.--The Plovers Proper (Charadrinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Oyster Catchers (Hæmatopodinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Turnstones (Cinclinæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE HERONS (ARDEIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Trumpeters (Psophinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Cranes (Gruinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Herons Proper (Ardeinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Storks (Ciconinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Ibises (Tantalinæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE WOODCOCKS (SCOLOPACIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Godwits (Limosinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Longshanks (Totaninæ).
      "    "     3.--The Avocets (Recurvirostrinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Sandpipers (Tringinæ).
      "    "     5.--The Woodcocks Proper (Scolopacinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Phaleropes (Phalaropodinæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE SCREAMERS (PALAMEDEIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Jacanas (Parrinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Screamers Proper (Palamedeinæ).


_FAMILY V._--THE RAILS (RALLIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Rails Proper (Rallinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Gallinules (Gallinulinæ).

       *       *       *       *       *


_ORDER VIII._

    GEESE (ANSERES).


_FAMILY I._--THE DUCKS (ANATIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Flamingoes (Phœnicopterinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Spur-winged Geese (Plectropterinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Geese Proper (Anserinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Swans (Cygninæ).
      "    "     5.--The Ducks Proper (Anatinæ).
      "    "     6.--The Diving Ducks (Fuligulinæ).
      "    "     7.--The Pin-tailed Ducks (Erismaturinæ).
      "    "     8.--The Goosanders (Merginæ).


_FAMILY II._--THE DIVERS (COLYMBIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Divers Proper (Colymbinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Grebes (Podicipinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Finfoots (Heliorninæ).


_FAMILY III._--THE AUKS (ALCIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Auks (Alcinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Crested Divers (Phaleridinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Penguins (Spheniscinæ).
      "    "     4.--The Loons (Urinæ).


_FAMILY IV._--THE PETRELS (PROCELLARIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Petrels Proper (Procellarinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Albatrosses (Diomedeinæ).


_FAMILY V._--THE GULLS (LARIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Gulls Proper (Larinæ).
      "    "     2.--The Scissor-bills (Rhynchopinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Terns (Sterninæ).


_FAMILY VI._--THE PELICANS (PELICANIDÆ).

    _Sub-Family_ 1.--The Tropic Birds (Phaetoninæ).
      "    "     2.--The Darters (Plotinæ).
      "    "     3.--The Pelicans Proper (Pelicaninæ).




INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES.


    Abbagamba, iii., 138

    Abu-Risch, iii., 6

    Accentor, ii., 292

       "      Alpine, ii., 295

       "      Siberian, ii., 295

    Adjutant, iv., 74

    Agami, iv., 94

    Alarm Bird, i., 287

    Albatross, iv., 203

        "      Sooty, iv., 207

        "      Yellow-billed, iv., 206

        "      Wandering, iv., 205

    Alcyon, iii., 91

       "    Blue, iii., 94

       "    Giant, iii., 94

       "    Paradise, iii., 95

       "    Red-breasted Tree, iii., 91

       "    Saw-beaked, iii., 95

       "    Tree, iii., 91

       "    True Paradise, iii., 95

       "    Wood, iii., 91

       "    Yellow-headed Wood, iii., 93

    Amazon, iii., 67

      "     Royal, iii., 68

    Anakan, i., 60

    Anhinga, iv., 228

    Ani, iii., 119

    Aniuma, iv., 96

    Ant-king, ii., 231

    Apteryx, Mantell's, iii., 310

       "     Owen's, iii., 311

    Aracuan, iii., 280

    Aramides, iv., 100

    Araponga, ii., 183

    Arara, i., 58

      "    Hyacinth-coloured, i., 62

      "    Soldier, i., 60

    Ararauna, i., 62

    Arassari, iii., 128, 129

    Argalas, iv., 74

    Astrild, i., 164

       "     Grey, i., 164

       "     Pheasant, i., 164

    Auk, iv., 250

     "   Great, iv., 258

     "   Little, iv., 254

     "   Proper, iv., 235

    Avocet, Scooping, iv., 50


B.

    Babbler, ii., 218

       "     Hook-clawed, ii., 221

       "     Red-headed, ii., 220

       "     True, ii., 220

       "     White-rumped, ii., 221

    Bacha, ii., 50

    Banana-eater, i., 284

    Band Bird, i., 156

    Barbet, iii., 124

      "     Golden, iii., 126

      "     Toucan, iii., 127

    Baya, i., 170

    Bearded Cuckoo, iii., 98

    Bee-eater, iii., 75

        "      Australian, iii., 78

        "      Bridled, iii., 78

        "      Swallow, iii., 78

        "      Common, iii., 76

        "      Nocturnal, iii., 79

    Bee-king, ii., 155

    Bee-wolf, iii., 77

    Bell-bird, i., 271, 182

        "      Bare-necked, ii., 182

        "      True, ii., 183

        "      Three-wattled, ii., 183

    Bent-beaks, iii., 7

    Bentevi, ii., 159

    Berigora, i., 307

    Bettet, i., 68

    Benteot, i., 281

    Bittern, iv., 83

       "     Common, iv., 85

       "     Little, iv., 83

       "     Sun, iv., 86

    Blackbird, Savanna, iii., 119

    Black-cap, ii., 243

    Blackcock, iii., 185

    Black-head, Sardinian Fire-eyed, ii., 249

    Black Pheasant, iii., 238

    Blossom Rifler, Australian, iii., 7

    Blue Birds, iii., 2

    Blue Cæreba, iii., 3

    Blue-throat, White-starred, ii., 189

         "       Swedish, ii., 189

    Boat-bills, iv., 59, 62

    Boat-tails, i., 222

        "       Great, i., 222

    Boblink, i., 212

    Bower Bird, Satin, i, 239

    Broad-throat, iii., 84

         "        Java, iii., 85

         "        True, iii., 85

    Bronze-wing, Partridge, iii., 166

         "       Common, iii., 164

         "       Crested, iii., 163

         "       True, iii., 164

    Brush Wattle Bird, iii., 11

            "           True, iii., 11

    Buccos, iii., 96

    Bullfinch, i., 92, 102

        "      Carmine, i., 95

        "      Parrot, i., 92

        "      Rose, i., 95

        "      Siberian, i., 97

    Bundle-nest, iii., 16

         "       Red-fronted, iii., 17

    Bunting, i., 185

       "     Black-headed, i., 190

       "     Crested, i., 185

       "     Garden, i., 188

       "     Golden, i., 187

       "     Grey, i., 186

       "     Lark, i., 191

       "     Meadow, i., 190

       "     Red, i., 190

       "     Reed, i., 191

       "     Snow, i., 194

       "     Spur, i., 191

    Bustard, iv., 2

       "     African Ruffled, iv., 8

       "     Great, iv., 2

       "     Little, iv., 5

    Butcher-bird, Sentinel, ii., 142

          "       Proper, ii., 146

          "       True, ii., 146

    Buzzard, ii., 47

       "     Common, ii., 52

       "     Crested, ii., 50

       "     Crested Honey, ii., 52

       "     Grasshopper, ii., 54

       "     Honey, ii., 50

       "     Mouse, ii., 52

       "     Red-winged, ii., 54

       "     Rough-legged, ii., 52

       "     Snake, ii., 47, 48


C.

    Cadet, iii., 6

    Calliope of Kamschatka, ii., 190

    Calliste, i., 153

       "      Red-necked, i., 153

    Canary, i., 107

    Capercali, iii., 181

    Capi, i., 148

    Capirote, ii., 243

    Capuchin Bird, ii., 100

    Caracolero, ii., 55

    Carancho, ii., 58

    Cariama, Brazilian, iv., 91

    Casmalos, i., 52

    Cassican, i., 218

       "      Tufted, i., 219

    Cassowary, iii., 302

        "      Australian, iii., 307

        "      Helmeted, iii., 302

    Cat-bird, ii., 216

    Catchers, i., 291

    Caterpillar-eaters, ii., 164

    Chaffinch, i., 115

    Channel-bill, iii., 113

    Chat, ii., 198

    Chat, Black-throated Stone, ii., 198

      "   Eared Stone, ii., 198

      "   Fallow, ii., 198

    Chatterer, Bohemian, ii., 172

        "      Umbrella, ii., 181

    Chauna, iv., 97

    Cherry-bird, i., 242

    Chickadee, ii., 318

    Chiff-chaff, ii., 255

    Chimango, ii., 57

    Chinquis, iii., 251

    Chopper, Woodpecker Tree, iii., 26

    Choroy, i., 66

       "    Alpine, i., 255

    Choughs, i., 254

    Chuckore, iii., 207

    Clapper-bill, African, iv., 75

    Climber, iii., 1

       "     Tree, iii., 24

    Clipper, ii., 197

       "     Common Tree, iii., 25

       "     Wagtail, ii., 197

    Cockatoo, i., 45

        "     Banks' Raven, i., 54

        "     Eagle, i., 51

        "     Helmet, i., 47

        "     Leadbeater's, i., 47

        "     Lemon-crested, i., 47

        "     Nestor, i., 50

        "     Nose, i., 48

    Cock of the Rock, ii., 174

    Collar-bird, i., 240

         "       Spotted, i., 240

    Comet, iii., 71

      "    Sappho, iii., 71

    Condor, ii., 70

       "    Californian, ii., 71

    Coot, iv., 110

      "   Common, iv., 111

    Coquette, iii., 66

        "     Splendid, iii., 66

    Corella, i., 77

    Cormorant, iv., 227

        "      Proper, iv., 230

        "      Common, iv., 234

    Coroya, iii., 119

    Coucal, iii., 122

       "    Egyptian, iii., 122

       "    Pheasant, iii., 123

    Courser, iv., 9

       "     Cream-coloured, iv., 10

    Coulterneb, iv., 262

    Cow Bird, i., 215

    Cracker, i., 23

    Crake, Corn, iv., 101

    Crane, iv., 87

      "    African Crowned, iv., 90

      "    Common, iv., 89

      "    Demoiselle, iv., 90

      "    Numidian, iv., 90

      "    Peacock, iv., 90

      "    Snake, iv., 91

    Creeper, iii, 22

       "     Alpine Wall, iii., 23

       "     Black and Yellow, iii, 4

       "     Bonneted, iii., 22

       "     Red-winged Wall, iii., 23

       "     Tree, iii., 23

       "     True Tree, iii., 23

       "     Wall, iii., 23

    Crocodile-watcher, iv., 11

    Cross-bill, i., 85

         "      Banded, i., 86

         "      Large-beaked, i., 86

         "      Pine-tree, i., 86

    Crow, Bald-headed, i., 271; ii., 179

      "   Carrion, i., 262

      "   Glossy, i., 267

      "   Hooded, i., 263

      "   Long-tailed, i., 280

      "   Mountain, i., 254

      "   Pheasants, iii., 122

      "   Piping, i., 270

    Cuckoo, iii., 105

       "    Bush, iii., 114

       "    Common, iii., 106

       "    Giant, iii., 113

       "    Golden, iii., 111, 112

       "    Jay, iii., 110

       "    Long-tailed, iii., 118

       "    Proper, iii., 106

       "    Rain, iii., 115

       "    Spurred, iii., 122

    Curassow, iii., 275

        "     Common, iii., 276

        "     Crested, iii., 276

        "     Galeated, iii., 278

        "     Mountain, iii., 278

        "     Red, iii., 278

        "     True, iii., 276

        "     Wattled, iii., 278

    Curlew, iv., 51

       "    Great, iv., 51

    Cushat, iii., 143


D.

    Darter, iv., 228

    Dhobin, ii., 286

    Diamond Bird, ii., 178

    Didrik, iii., 112

    Didunculus, iii., 170

    Dipper, ii., 223

    Diver, iv., 240

      "    Black-throated, iv., 248

      "    Great Northern, iv., 247

      "    Proper, iv., 245

      "    Red-throated, iv., 249

    Djolan, iii., 137

    Dollar-bird, iii., 82

         "       Australian, iii., 82

         "       Oriental, iii., 83

    Dove, Carolina Turtle, iii., 148

      "   Greenland, iv., 250

      "   Ground, iii., 159

      "   Partridge, iii., 162

      "   Rock, iii., 147

      "   Singing, iii., 158

      "   Speckled Turtle, iii., 161

      "   Stock, iii., 146

      "   Turtle, iii., 154, 155

      "   Wedge-tailed Turtle, iii., 161

    Dotterel, iv., 19

    Dreamers, iii., 98

        "     Dark, iii., 98

    Drongo, ii., 154

       "    Flag-bearing, ii, 155

       "    Singing, ii., 154

    Duck, iv., 143

      "   Brahminy, iv., 145

      "   Diving, iv., 158

      "   Eider, iv., 159

      "   Fen, iv., 167

      "   King Eider, iv., 165

      "   Mandarin, iv., 155

      "   Musk, iv., 157

      "   Pin-tailed, iv., 169

      "   Red-headed, iv., 168

      "   Shoveler, iv., 156

      "   St. Cuthbert's, iv., 163

      "   Steller's Eider, iv., 166

      "   Summer, iv., 154

      "   Tree, iv., 148

      "   True Eider, iv., 163

      "   Western Eider, iv., 166

      "   White-headed Pin-tailed, iv., 169

      "   Widow, iv., 148

      "   Wild, iv., 148

      "   Wood, iv., 154

    Dunbird, iv., 168


E.

    Eagle, ii., 8

      "    African Screaming Sea, ii., 27

      "    Bold Wedge-tailed, ii., 17

      "    Booted, ii., 14

      "    Brazilian, ii., 21

      "    Crested Brazilian, ii., 21

      "    Destroying, ii., 19

      "    Dwarf, ii., 14, 15

      "    Golden, ii., 10

      "    Harpy, ii., 22

      "    Hawk, ii., 17

      "    Hooded, ii., 18

      "    Imperial, ii., 10

      "    Martial Hooded, ii., 18

      "    Sea, ii., 23

      "    Spotted, ii., 13

      "    Tawny, ii., 10

      "    True, ii., 10

      "    Tufted, ii., 19

      "    Wedge-tailed, ii., 15

      "    White-headed Sea, ii., 23

    Earth-eater, ii., 134

    Egret, Lesser, iv., 82

    Elves, iii., 66

    Emu, iii., 300, 301

     "   Spotted, iii., 301

    Epimachi, i, 251

    Epimachus, Collared, i., 252

        "      Resplendent, i., 251


F.

    Fairy, iii., 60

      "    Brazilian, iii., 60

    Falcinels, iv., 55

    Falcon, i., 294

       "    Dwarf, i., 312

       "    Evening, i., 310

       "    Hunting, i., 299

       "    Night, ii., 126

       "    Noble, i., 294

       "    Peregrine, i., 301

       "    Red-footed, i., 310

       "    Red-necked, i., 303

       "    Sparrow, i., 311

       "    Tree, i., 306

       "    Wandering, i., 300

    Fantail, ii., 166

       "     Wagtail, ii., 167

    Feather-beaks, i., 283

    Fieldfare, ii., 207

    Finch, i., 114

      "    Admirable Chaff, i., 159

      "    American, i., 181

      "    Blood, i., 162

      "    Bright-coated, i., 155

      "    Butterfly, i., 163

      "    Chaff, i., 159

      "    Chestnut Reed, i, 158

      "    Collared, i., 156

      "    Dominican, i., 146

      "    Fire, i., 174

      "    Flame-coloured Fire, i., 175

      "    Hooded, i., 157

      "    Magpie, i., 158

      "    Morning, i., 181, 182

      "    Mountain, i., 118

      "    Prairie Bunting, i., 184

      "    Reed, i., 158

      "    Shore, i., 184

      "    Sea Bunting, i., 184

      "    Snow, i., 119

      "    Steel, i., 163

      "    Tiny, i., 146

      "    Tree Bunting, i., 183

      "    Variegated, i., 162

      "    Winter, i., 119

    Finfoot, iv., 112

       "     Surinam, iv., 112

    Finga, ii., 154

    Fireback, Siamese, iii., 238

    Fire-eye, ii., 230

    Fire Tangara, i., 151, 152

    Flamingo, iv., 115

    Flat-bill, Green, iii., 86

    Flax Bird, i., 151

    Florikin, iv., 8

    Flower Bird iii., 2

         "      Nymph, iii., 59

         "      Sucker, iii., 60

    Flute Bird, i., 270

         "      Player, ii., 273

    Fly-catcher, ii., 158

         "       Black-capped, ii., 170

         "       Cock-tailed, ii., 163

         "       Collared, ii., 170

         "       Dwarf, ii., 171

         "       Grey, ii., 168

         "       Mourning, ii., 169

         "       Pied, ii., 170

         "       Spotted, ii., 168

         "       Stilted, ii., 162

         "       True, ii., 167

         "       White-necked, ii., 170

    Fly-snapper, ii., 164

         "       Paradise, ii., 166

         "       Royal, ii., 166

    Four-wings, ii., 131

    Francolin, iii., 212

    Friar Bird, iii., 12

    Frigate Bird, iv., 224

    Frog-mouth, ii., 140

         "      Plumed, ii., 140


G.

    Gallinaceous Birds, iii., 141

             "          True, iii., 172

    Gallinazo, ii., 82

    Gallinule, iv., 105

        "      Common, iv., 107

        "      Purple, iv., 106

        "      True, iv., 106

    Ganga, ii., 60; iii., 174

    Gannet, iv., 221

       "    Common, iv., 223

    Gapers, ii., 104

    Gar-cock, iii., 200

    Garuba, i., 63

    Geese, iv., 129

      "    Dwarf, iv., 139

      "    Foxy, iv., 136

      "    Sea, iv., 135

    Girlitz, i., 106

    Gnome, iii., 50

      "    Giant, iii., 47

    Goatsucker, ii., 124

         "      Common, ii., 127

         "      Giant, ii., 134

         "      Resplendent, ii., 127

    Godwit, iv., 47

       "    Bar-tailed, iv., 48

       "    Gold-breast, Little, i., 161

       "    Red, iv., 48

    Goldfinch, i., 129

    Gomarita, ii., 291

    Goosander, iv., 170

        "      Green-headed, iv., 172

        "      White-headed, iv., 170

    Goose, Spur-winged, iv., 131

      "    Brent, iv., 135

      "    Canada, iv., 131

      "    Cereopsis, iv., 142

      "    Grey, iv., 131

      "    Nile, iv., 138

      "    Snow, iv., 135

      "    Teal, White-bodied, iv., 140

      "    Wild, iv., 131

    Goshawk, ii., 4

    Govinda, ii., 39

    Grakle, i., 230

       "    Musical, i., 230

    Grebe, iv., 240

      "    Crested, iv., 242

      "    Little, iv., 244

    Greenfinch, i., 139

    Greenshank, iv., 46

    Grey Bird, ii., 218

        "      Le Vaillant's, ii., 219

    Grosbeak, Cardinal, i., 145

        "     Carmine, i., 95

        "     Diadem, i., 147

        "     Green, i., 139

        "     Pine, i., 93

        "     Vinous, i., 98

    Ground Singers, ii., 184

    Grouse, Common Sand, iii., 176

       "    Hazel, iii., 190

       "    Hybrid, iii., 187

       "    Large Pin-tailed, iii., 175

       "    Large Sand, iii., 174

       "    Pallas's Sand, iii., 178

       "    Pinnated, iii., 191

       "    Proper, iii., 179

       "    Red, iii., 200

       "    Sand, iii., 173

       "    Striped Sand, iii., 178

       "    Tribe, iii., 179

    Guachero, ii., 135

    Guan, iii., 279

      "   Lord Derby's, iii., 278

      "   Pigmy, iii., 280

      "   Piping, iii., 280

      "   Supercilious, iii., 280

    Guillemot, iv., 254

        "      Black, iv., 250

        "      Common, iv., 253

        "      Foolish, iv., 253

        "      True, iv., 251

    Guinea-fowls, iii., 256

          "       Common, iii., 258

          "       Pucheran's Tufted, iii., 257

          "       Royal, iii., 256

          "       Royal Vulturine, iii., 256

          "       Tufted, iii., 257

    Gull, iv., 186

      "   Black-headed, iv., 195

      "   Fishing, iv., 187

      "   Great Black-backed, iv., 188

      "   Great Black-headed, iv., 197

      "   Herring, iv., 190

      "   Large White-winged, iv., 191

      "   Laughing, iv., 195

      "   Lesser Black-backed, iv., 190

      "   Lesser Black-headed, iv., 198

      "   Yellow-legged, iv., 190

      "   Glaucous White-winged, iv., 191

      "   Ice, iv., 193

      "   Ivory, iv., 193

      "   Lesser White-winged, iv., 192

    Guttarama, i., 155


H.

    Habias, i., 148

    Half-bill, iii., 8

        "      Brilliant, iii., 8

    Hammer Head, iv., 62

    Hanging Bird, iii., 8

          "       True, iii., 8

    Harrier, ii., 43

       "     Ash-coloured, ii., 44

       "     Marsh. ii., 45

       "     Pallid, ii., 43

    Hawfinch, i., 139, 141

        "     Evening Cherry, i., 142

        "     Large-beaked, i., 143

        "     Rose-breasted, The, i., 143

    Hawk, ii., 1

      "   Double-toothed, ii., 2

      "   Laughing, ii., 1

      "   Serpent, ii., 7

      "   Singing, ii., 6

      "   Sparrow, ii., 2

      "   True, ii., 4

      "   True Singing, ii., 6

    Heathcock, iii., 183

    Hedge Crow, iii., 123

    Hedge Singer, ii., 187

    Helmet Bird, i., 285

         "       White-cheeked, The, i., 285

    Helmet-crest, iii., 75

          "       Linden's, iii., 75

    Hen Harrier, ii., 43

    Hermit, Cayenne, iii., 51

    Heron, iv., 76

      "    Cattle, iv., 82

      "    Common, iv., 78

      "    Giant, iv., 80

      "    Great White, iv., 81

      "    Night, iv., 82

      "    White, iv., 81

    Hill Star, Chimborazean, iii., 52

    Himalaya Snow Cock, iii., 204

    Hoactzin, iii., 281

    Hoccos, iii., 275

    Homray, iii., 135

    Honey Guide, iii., 105

         "       White-beaked, The, iii., 105

    Honey-eater iii., 9

         "      Red-headed, iii., 10

         "      True, iii., 10

         "      Tufted, iii., 10

         "      Yellow-throated Tufted, iii., 10

    Honeysucker, iii., 5

         "       Fire, iii., 6

    Hoopoe, iii., 14

       "    Red-beaked Tree, iii., 15

       "    Tree, iii., 15

    Hornbill, iii., 127

        "     Abyssinian, iii., 138

        "     Proper, iii., 132

        "     Smooth-beaked, iii., 134

        "     Two-horned, iii., 135

    Houbara, iv., 6

       "     Indian, iv., 6

    Humming-bird, iii., 45

          "       Amethyst, iii., 64

          "       Black-capped, iii., 56

          "       Crimson Topaz, iii., 55

          "       Giant, iii., 47

          "       Jewel, iii., 55

          "       Mango, iii., 58

          "       Masked, iii., 74

          "       Ruby-throated Fairy, iii., 61

          "       Saw-bill, iii., 50

          "       Sharp-bearded Masked, iii., 74

          "       Sickle-billed, iii., 51

          "       Sword-bill, iii., 47


I.

    Ibijau, ii., 134

    Ibis, iv., 54

      "   Egyptian, iv., 56

      "   Glossy, iv., 55

      "   Sacred, iv., 56

      "   Scarlet, iv., 56

      "   White, iv., 56

    Inambu, iii., 284


J.

    Jabiru, iv., 71

       "    Senegal, iv., 71

    Jacamar, iii., 96

       "     Green, iii., 96

       "     True, iii., 96

    Jacana, iv., 102

       "    Chilian, iv., 102

       "    Chinese, iv., 103

    Jackdaw, i., 266

       "     Green, i., 283

    Jacobin, Pied, iii., 60

    Jako, i., 35

    Japu, i., 219

    Jay, i., 272

     "   Common, i., 278

     "   Unlucky, i., 279

    Jewar, iii., 233

    Jungle-fowl, iii., 235

         "       Australian, iii., 265

         "       Javanese, iii., 236

         "       of Ceylon, iii., 236

         "       Red, iii., 235

         "       Sonnerat, iii., 237


K.

    Kakapo, i., 55

    Karna, iii., 100

    Kasintu, iii., 235

    Katakoli, iii., 237

    Kellitsch, iii., 239

    Kestrel, i., 307, 308

       "     Lark, i., 308

    Khata, iii., 175

    King Crow, ii., 154

    Kingfisher, iii., 86

         "      European, iii., 88

         "      Grey, iii., 90

         "      Purple, iii., 89, 90

    Kinglet, ii., 297

    Kirima, iii., 131

    Kirrik, iii., 238

    Kite, ii., 31

      "   Black, ii., 37

      "   Blue, ii., 43

      "   Buzzard, ii., 36

      "   Crooked-billed, ii., 36

      "   Dwarf Swallow-tailed, ii., 43

      "   Field, ii., 43

      "   Gliding, ii., 34

      "   Hovering, ii., 35

      "   Jardine's Spotted, ii., 46

      "   Meadow, ii., 43, 44

      "   Mississippi, ii., 35

      "   of the Steppes, ii., 43

      "   Parasite, ii., 39

      "   Red, ii., 40

      "   Reed, ii., 45

      "   Royal, ii., 40

      "   Short-tailed, ii., 32

      "   Spotted, ii., 46

      "   Swallow-tailed, ii., 41

      "   True, ii., 37

      "   True Gliding, ii., 34

    Kitta, i., 282

      "    Long-tailed, i., 282

    Kittiwake, iv., 194

    Kivis, iii., 309

    Kivi-Kivi, iii., 309

    Klecho, ii., 118

    Koel, iii., 111

    Koels, iii., 110

    Kuil, iii., 111

    Kokil, iii., 114

    Kuau, iii., 250

    Kukuli, iii., 158

    Kusappi, ii., 119


L.

    Lapwings, iv., 21, 22

        "     Spur-winged, iv., 23

    Lark, i., 195

      "   Alpine, i., 201

      "   Black, i., 199

      "   Black-headed Bunting, i., 201

      "   Bunting, i., 200

      "   Calandra, i., 196, 197

      "   Courser, i., 209

      "   Desert, i., 199

      "   Desert Courser, i., 209

      "   Field, i., 206

      "   Proper, i., 203

      "   Sand, i., 199

      "   Sentry, i., 208

      "   Short-toed, i., 198

      "   Sky, i., 206

      "   Spur, i., 208

      "   Stilted, i., 208

      "   Tufted, i., 203

      "   Wood, i., 204

    Laughing Jackass, iii., 94

    Leather-head, iii., 12

    Leipoa, Ocellated, iii., 270

    Light Beak, iii., 75

    Linnet, i., 122

       "    Brown, i., 122

       "    Grey, i., 124

       "    Mountain, i., 124

    Longshanks, iv., 44

    Loons, iv., 250

    Lorikeet, Dappled, i., 79

        "     Maiden, i., 81

        "     Swainson's, i., 80

    Lory, i., 79

      "   Blue-striped, i., 82

      "   Papuan, i., 82

      "   Purple-capped, i., 79

    Love-bird, Swinder's, i., 43

    Lyre-bird, ii., 232


M.

    Macaw, Scarlet, i., 58

    Macuca, iii., 285

    Macrodipteryx, Long-winged, ii., 13

    Magpie, i., 272

       "    Bell, i., 271

       "    Blue, i., 274

       "    Brazen Glossy, i., 236

       "    Glossy, i., 236

       "    Tree, i., 280

       "    Wandering, i., 280

    Maltakka, i., 41

    Malkoha, Large Green-billed, iii., 114

    Maleo, iii., 268

    Manakin, ii., 174

       "     Black-cap, ii., 178

       "     Long-tailed, ii., 177

       "     True, ii., 176

    Marabou, iv., 74

       "     African, iv., 74

    Martin, ii., 110

       "    Sand, ii., 112

    Megapode, iii., 273

        "     Australian, iii., 273

    Meninting, ii., 292

    Mergansers, iv., 170

    Mimic Thrush, ii., 214

    Mina Bird, i., 228

    Mocking-bird, ii., 214

          "       Ferruginous, ii., 216

    Monaul, iii., 229

    Moor-hen, Common, iv., 107

    Mooruk, iii., 302

    Mot-mot, iii., 83

    Mountain Nymphs, iii., 52

    Mouse Bird, White-cheeked, i., 289

    Muti, i., 312


N.

    Naburup, i., 238

    Nacunda, ii., 125

    Nandu, iii., 291

      "    Dwarf, iii., 299

      "    Long-billed, iii., 299

      "    True, iii., 291

    Narina, iii., 100

    Night Jar, ii., 124

        "      African, ii., 129

        "      Bristled, ii., 128

        "      Lyre-tailed, ii., 130

        "      Streamer-bearing, ii., 131

        "      Twilight, ii., 126

    Nightingale, ii., 186

         "       Ruby, ii., 190

    Noddy, iv., 184

    Nurang, ii., 228

    Nutcracker, i., 268

    Nuthatch, iii., 20

        "     Common, iii., 21

        "     Syrian, iii., 22


O.

    Oak Jackdaw, i., 278

    Oil Bird, ii., 135

    Oriole, i., 238

       "    Golden, i., 242

       "    Golden-crested, i., 243

    Organist, Violet, i., 155

    Ortolan, i., 188

    Osprey, ii., 30

    Ostrich, iii., 287

       "     American, iii., 291

    Ouzel, American Water, ii., 228

      "    Water, ii., 223

    Oven-bird, iii., 18

        "      Red, iii., 18

    Owl, ii., 84

     "   Barn, ii., 102

     "   Brazilian, ii., 90

     "   Brown Fish, ii., 95

     "   Burrowing, ii., 89

     "   Day, ii., 84

     "   Dwarf Eared, ii., 98

     "   Eared, ii., 91

     "   European Sparrow, ii., 91

     "   Hairy-footed, ii., 100

     "   Kirchhoff's Veiled, ii., 102

     "   Marsh, ii., 98

     "   Nocturnal, ii., 99

     "   Prairie, ii., 90

     "   Proper, Stone, ii., 87

     "   Rabbit, ii., 90

     "   Snow, ii., 86

     "   Sparrow, ii., 91

     "   Sparrow-hawk, ii., 85

     "   Stone, ii., 87

     "   Tree, ii., 99

     "   Woodland, ii., 97

    Owl-Swallow, ii., 136

         "       Dwarf, ii., 136

         "       Giant, ii., 138

         "       True Dwarf, ii., 137

    Ox-biter, i., 231

        "     African, i., 231

        "     Red-beaked, i., 231

    Oyster-catcher, Pied, iv., 27


P.

    Panther Birds, ii., 178

    Papacolo, ii., 231

    Paradise Bird, i., 245

          "        Birds, King of, i., 250

          "        Collared, i., 251

          "        Footless, i., 246

          "        Magpie, i., 252

          "        Red, i., 247

          "        Ruby, i., 247

          "        Six-feathered, i., 251

    Parrakeet, i., 63

        "      Carolina, i., 64

        "      Ground, i., 78

    Parrot, i., 24

       "    Amazon, i., 39

       "    Black--tailed Superb, i., 70

       "    Blunt-tailed, i., 40

       "    Crested Hawk, i., 42

       "    Dwarf, i., 43

       "    Grass, i., 70

       "    Green, i., 39

       "    Long-billed, i., 51

       "    Long-tailed, i., 57

       "    Night, i., 55

       "    Rose-ringed, i., 67

       "    Scarlet-crested Superb, i., 69

       "    Siskin, i., 45

       "    Superb, i., 69

       "    Sparrow, i., 44

       "    True, i., 34

       "    Variegated, i., 71

       "    Waved, i., 72

    Parrot-finch, i., 143

          "       Ashy Blue, i., 147

          "       Masked, i., 147

    Partridge, iii., 202

        "      American, iii., 214, 216

        "      Barbary, iii., 209

        "      Black, iii., 212

        "      Californian, iii., 219

        "      Caspian Snow, iii., 203

        "      Capueira, iii., 214

        "      Common, iii., 210

        "      Gambel's, iii., 220

        "      Red-legged, iii., 206, 208

        "      Snow, iii, 203

        "      Virginian, iii., 216

    Passerine Birds, i., 83

    Peacock, iii., 253

       "     Black-winged, iii., 254

       "     Common, iii., 254

       "     Japan, iii., 255

    Pearl Bird, iii., 125

    Peckers, Tree, iii., 24

    Peewit, iv., 21, 22

       "    Lappeted, iv., 24

    Pelican, iv., 235

       "     Great Tufted, iv., 239

       "     White, iv., 237

    Penguin, iv., 265

       "     Cape, iv., 267

       "     Crested, iv., 268

       "     Golden, iv., 268

       "     King, iv., 266

       "     Leaping, iv., 268

       "     Spectacled, iv., 267

       "     True, iv., 267

    Petrel, iv., 203

       "    Cape, iv., 211

       "    Common Storm, iv., 215

       "    Duck, iv., 213

       "    Fulmar, iv., 209

       "    Giant, iv., 208

       "    Storm, iv., 214

       "    True, iv., 207

    Pettichaps, The Greater, ii., 240

    Phalarope, iv., 42

        "      Hyperborean, iv., 43

        "      Red, iv., 43

    Pheasant, Assam Peacock, iii., 251

        "     Argus, iii., 250

        "     Bare-necked, iii., 213

        "     Chinese Eared, iii., 250

        "     Chinese Ring-necked, iii., 243

        "     Common, iii., 242

        "     Eared, iii., 250

        "     Golden, iii., 247, 248

        "     Horned, iii., 232

        "     Impeyan, iii., 229

        "     Japanese, iii., 244

        "     Lady Amherst's, iii., 248

        "     Lhuys', iii., 232

        "     Macartney, iii., 238

        "     Peacock, iii., 251

        "     Proper, iii., 242

        "     Red-necked, iii., 213

        "     Reeves', iii., 246

        "     Sikkim Horned, iii., 232

        "     Silver, iii., 240

        "     Snow, iii., 204

        "     Soemmerring's, iii., 245

        "     Tufted, iii., 228

        "     Western Horned, iii., 233

        "     White-crested Kaleege, iii., 239

    Picapare, iv., 112

    Pie, Sea, iv., 27

    Pigeon, iii., 141

       "    American Ground, iii., 158

       "    Bronze-winged, iii., 163

       "    Crowned, iii., 168

       "    Cuckoo, iii., 148

       "    Dwarf, iii., 157

       "    Fruit, iii., 142

       "    Ground, iii., 158

       "    Hackled Ground, iii., 167

       "    Parrot, iii., 142

       "    Passenger, iii., 148

       "    Quail, iii., 166

       "    Running, iii., 162

       "    Sparrow, iii., 159

       "    Striped Sparrow-hawk, iii., 160

       "    Toothed, iii., 170

       "    Victoria Crowned, iii., 170

       "    White-fleshed, iii., 167

       "    Wonga-Wonga, iii., 167

       "    Wood, iii., 143

    Pinc-Pinc, ii., 263

    Pintado, Mitred, iii., 258

       "     Tuft-beaked, iii., 259

    Pipit, ii., 274

      "    Fallow-land, ii., 279

      "    Meadow, ii., 274

      "    Richard's Spurred, ii., 282

      "    Rock, ii., 278

      "    Stone, ii., 279

      "    Spurred, ii., 281

      "    Tree, ii., 275

    Pirol, i., 242

    Pitpit, iii., 4

    Pitta, ii., 228

      "    Noisy, ii., 229

    Plain-wanderer, Collared, iii., 227

    Plantain-eaters, i., 283

    Plant-cutters, i., 149

    Plover, iv., 15

       "    Dotted, iv., 19

       "    Golden, iv., 16

       "    Little Ringed, iv., 20

       "    Little Shore, iv., 20

       "    Ringed, iv., 18

       "    Shore, iv., 20

    Plover-crest, De Laland's, iii., 66

    Pochard, iv., 168

    Poditti, iii., 96

    Poe, iii., 12

    Pompeo, iii., 101

    Porphyrio, Hyacinthine, iv., 105

    Prairie Hen, iii., 191

    Pratincole, iv., 12

         "      Collared, iv., 13

    Prey, Birds of, i., 291

    Prion, Broad-billed, iv., 213

    Ptarmigan, iii., 195

        "      Alpine, iii., 196

        "      Brown, iii., 200

        "      Grey, iii., 196

        "      Willow, iii., 196

    Puffin, Arctic, iv., 262

       "    Manx, iv., 218

    Pulih, ii., 229

    Puter, iii., 259


Q.

    Quail, iii., 222

      "    African Bush, iii., 227

      "    American, iii., 284

      "    Black-breasted Bustard, iii., 226

      "    Bush, iii., 225

      "    Chinese, iii., 224

      "    Common, iii., 222

      "    Dwarf, iii., 224

      "    Lesser Mexican, iii., 284

    Quesal, iii., 103

    Quit, Banana, iii., 4


R.

    Rail, iv., 98

      "   Golden, iv., 99

      "   Land, iv., 101

      "   Snipe, iv., 98

      "   Water, iv., 99

    Rain Bird, iii., 117

    Rara, i., 150

    Rarita, i., 150

    Raven, i., 210, 257

      "    Blue, i., 275

      "    Crested Blue, i., 275

      "    Proper, i., 254

      "    Scapulated, i., 260

      "    Thick-billed Vulture, i., 259

      "    Vulture, i., 257

      "    White-necked Vulture, i., 259

    Raya, iii., 86

    Razor Bill, iv., 236

    Red Bird, ii., 164

    Redstart, ii., 194

        "     Black-capped, ii., 194

        "     Garden, ii., 195

    Rice-bird, i., 160

        "      (Bobolink), i., 212

    Ring-dove, iii., 143

        "     Indian, iii., 155

    Robin Redbreast, ii., 191

    Rock Bird, ii., 174

    Roller, iii., 79

       "    Blue, iii., 80

       "    Saw-bill, iii., 83

    Rook, i., 264

    Ruff, iv., 39


S.

    Sabre-bill, iii., 26

    Sabre-wing, iii., 54

         "      De Lattrei's, iii., 54

         "      Fawn-coloured, iii., 55

         "      True, iii., 55

    Sai, iii., 2

    Salangane, ii., 118

        "      Proper, ii., 113

    Sanderling, iv., 36

    Sandpiper, iv., 35

        "      Common, iv., 45

        "      Curlew, iv., 36

        "      Dwarf, iv., 38

        "      Mud, iv., 38

        "      Pigmy Curlew, iv., 36

        "      True, iv., 45

    Sangrok, iii., 79

    Savaku, iv., 62

    Saw-tail, i., 282

    Scissor-bill, iv., 185

          "       Indian, iv., 185

    Scissor-bird, ii., 161

    Scoter, iv., 166

       "    Velvet, iv., 166

    Screamer, iv., 95

        "     Crested, iv., 91

        "     Horned, iv., 96

    Sea-fliers, iv., 175

         "      Oar-footed, iv., 219

    Searchers, iii., 1

    Secretary, ii., 62

    Serrakura, iv., 101

    Settler's Clock, iii., 94

    Shadow Bird, iv., 62

    Shearwater, iv., 218

    Sheldrake, iv., 146

        "      Common, iv., 146

        "      Ruddy, iv., 145

    Shell-eater, iv., 75

    Short-winged Cursorial Birds, iii., 287

    Shrike, ii., 141

       "    Black-browed, ii., 143

       "    Bush, ii., 148

       "    Crow, ii., 151

       "    Drongo, ii., 154, 155

       "    Falcon, ii., 147

       "    Flute, ii., 150

       "    Flute-voiced, ii., 149

       "    Grey, ii., 143

       "    Helmet, ii., 151

       "    Hooded, ii., 150

       "    King, ii., 158

       "    Magpie, ii., 151

       "    Masked, ii., 147

       "    Raven, ii., 151, 152

       "    Red-backed, ii., 146

       "    Red-headed, ii., 146

       "    Scarlet, ii., 149

       "    Southern, ii., 143

       "    Swallow, ii., 156

       "    Tyrant, ii., 158

       "    Thick-headed, ii., 147

       "    Vigors' Raven, ii., 153

       "    Wood Swallow, ii., 150

    Sieve-beak, iv., 114

    Sikkim Kaleege, iii., 238

    Silk-tail, ii., 171

        "      European, ii., 172

    Simbil, iv., 70

    Singing Birds, ii., 141

          "        Tooth-beaked, ii., 141

    Sirgang, i., 283

    Siskin, Common, i., 127

       "    Birch tree, i., 124

       "    True, i., 127

    Skua, Common, iv., 199

      "   Buffon's, iv., 202

      "   Parasite, iv., 202

    Sleeper, iii., 97

    Sluggard, iii., 96

    Snake-bird, Le Vaillant's, iv., 230

    Snake-neck, iv., 228

    Snipe, iv., 29

      "    Common, iv., 34

      "    Jack, iv., 35

      "    Marsh, iv., 33

      "    Moor, iv., 35

      "    Painted Cape, iv., 99

      "    True, iv., 29

    Sparrow, Common, i., 131

       "     Field, i., 136

       "     Golden, i., 137

       "     Hedge, ii., 294

       "     Marsh, i., 135

       "     Plain, i., 137

       "     Proper, i., 131

       "     Rock, i., 138

       "     Song, i., 182

       "     Spanish, i., 135

       "     Tree, i., 136

       "     White-throated, i., 181, 182

    Spider-eater, iii., 7

    Split-beak, i., 287

    Spoonbill, iv., 58

         "     Common, iv., 58

    Spur-fowl, iii., 266

        "      Painted, iii., 286

    Stair-beak, iii., 19

         "      Hairy-cheeked, iii., 20

    Starika, iv., 255

    Starling, i., 211

        "     Baltimore Golden, i., 218

        "     Bronze-coloured Glossy, i., 234

        "     Common, i., 223

        "     Cow, i., 215

        "     Glossy, i., 232

        "     Golden, i., 215

        "     Golden-breasted Glossy, i., 234

        "     Mountain Glossy, i., 238

        "     Proper, i., 223

        "     Rock Glossy, i., 237

        "     Rose, i., 227

        "     Sardinian, i., 227

        "     Scaly Glossy, i., 235

        "     Superb Glossy, i., 234

        "     True Glossy, i., 234

        "     White-headed Glossy, i., 237

        "     Yellow, i., 211, 215

    Stilt, Black-winged, iv., 49

    Stilt-walkers, iv., 1

    Stink Bird, iii., 281

    Stock-dove, iii., 146

    Stone Curlew, iv., 14

    Stork, iv., 63

      "    Clapper-billed, iv., 75

      "    Field, iv., 91

      "    Giant, iv., 71

      "    House, iv., 69

      "    Shoe-beak, iv., 59

      "    True, iv., 67

      "    White, iv., 69

      "    White headed, iv., 59

    Storm Bird, iv., 203

    Sun Bird, iii., 51

    Sun-Gem, iii., 68

       "     Horned, iii., 68

    Surukua, iii., 101

    Swallow, ii., 104

       "     American Sailor, ii., 114

       "     Ariel, ii., 113

       "     Chimney, ii., 106

       "     Mountain, ii., 111

       "     Purple, ii., 114

       "     Rock, ii., 111

       "     Shore, ii., 111

       "     Sea, iv., 176

       "     Striped Wood, ii., 114

       "     Senegal, ii., 109

       "     Thread-tailed, ii., 110

       "     True, ii., 105

       "     Water, iv., 181

       "     Wood, ii., 114

    Swan, iv., 119

      "   Bewick's, iv., 126

      "   Black, iv., 127

      "   Black-necked, iv., 126

      "   Mute, iv., 121

      "   Whistling, iv., 123

    Swift, ii., 115

      "    Alpine, ii., 123

      "    Dwarf, ii., 122

      "    Palm-tree, ii., 122

      "    Prickly-tailed, ii., 121

      "    Steeple, ii., 122

      "    Tree, ii., 118

      "    White-throated Prickly-tailed, ii., 122

    Swimmers, iv., 114

    Syama, ii., 37

    Sylph, iii., 69

      "    Racket-tailed, iii., 70

      "    White-footed Racket-tailed, iii., 70


T.

    Taha i., 174

    Tailor-bird, ii., 264

         "       Long-tailed, ii., 265

    Tallegallus, iii., 265

         "       Wattled, iii., 266

    Tangara, i., 150

       "     Black-headed Butcher-bird, i., 154

       "     Butcher-bird, i., 154

       "     Callous-beaked, i., 153

       "     Organist, i., 154

       "     Ornata, i., 151

    Tantalus, iv., 65

       "      Ibis-like, iv., 66

    Tapiranga, i., 154

    Tataupa, iii., 283

    Teal, Chinese, iv., 155

    Tern, iv., 176

     "    Black Marsh, iv., 182

     "    Caspian, iv., 178

     "    Common, iv., 179

     "    Lesser, iv., 181

     "    Rapacious, iv., 177

     "    River, iv., 178

     "    Silky, iv., 183

     "    White, iv., 183

     "    White-bearded, iv., 183

     "    White-winged, iv., 183

    Tesa, ii., 54

    Tody, iii., 86

    Thick-knee, iv., 14

         "      Common, iv., 14

    Thistlefinch, Golden, i., 130

    Thornbill, Columbian, iii., 74

    Thrasher, ii., 216

    Thrush, ii., 184

       "    Ant, ii., 230

       "    Climbing, iii., 17

       "    Juniper, ii., 207

       "    Laughing, ii., 222

       "    Missel, ii., 206

       "    Mocking, ii., 213

       "    Noisy, ii., 218

       "    Painted, ii., 228

       "    Song, ii., 207

       "    True, ii., 205

       "    White-tufted Laughing, ii., 223

    Tick-eater, iii., 118

         "      True, iii., 118

         "      Wrinkled, iii., 121

    Tije, ii., 177

    Tinamou, iii., 282

    Tiriba, i., 63

    Tit, ii., 296

     "   Azure, ii., 316

     "   Blue, ii., 313, 314

     "   Cole, ii., 311

     "   Crested, ii., 307

     "   Great, ii., 309

     "   Long-tailed, ii., 306

     "   Marsh, ii., 317

     "   Siberian, ii., 316

     "   Sombre, ii., 311

     "   Toupet, ii., 309

     "   Wood, ii., 309

    Titling, Meadow, ii., 274

    Titmouse, Bearded, ii., 303

        "     Black-cap, ii., 318

        "     Carolina, ii., 318

        "     Long-tailed, ii., 306

        "     Penduline, ii., 302

        "     Reed, ii., 303

        "     True Penduline, ii., 302

    Tocoloro, iii., 101

    Tody, iii., 86

    Tok, iii., 134

    Toucan, iii., 127

       "    Proper, iii., 130

       "    Toco, iii., 130

       "    Red-billed, iii., 131

    Touraco, iii., 99, 101

       "     Fire, iii., 100

       "     Flower, iii., 100

    Tragopan, iii., 232

    Trappist, iii., 98

        "     Dusky, iii., 98

    Traro, ii., 60

    Tree-climber, iii., 15

    Tree Nightingale, ii., 187

    Trochilus, iv., 11

    Trogon, iii., 99

       "    Beautiful, iii., 103

       "    Beautiful-tailed, iii.,

       "    Malabar, iii., 100

       "    Peacock, iii., 103

       "    Proper, iii., 101

       "    Resplendent, iii., 103

    Troopial, i., 212

        "     Marsh, i., 214

        "     Red-winged, i., 214

    Tropic-bird, iv., 219

         "       Red-tailed, iv., 220

         "       White-tailed, iv., 220

    Trowel--beaked Sumatran, iii., 84

    Trumpeter, iv., 94

        "      Golden-breasted, iv., 94

    Tschagra, ii., 150

    Tschaja, iv., 97

    Tschakuru, iii., 97

    Tui, iii., 12

    Tukana, iii., 132

    Turaku, i., 285

    Turkey, iii., 259

       "    Brush, iii., 266

       "    Buzzard, ii., 82

       "    Wild, iii., 259

    Turnstone, iv., 24

    Turumdi, i., 303

    Tyrant, Fork-tailed, ii., 161

      "     Royal, ii., 162


U.

    Uhu, ii., 91, 93

    Umbrella Bird, ii., 181

    Urubitinga, ii., 55

    Urubu, 11., 82

    Urutaurana, ii., 20


V.

    Vulture, ii., 64

       "     Bearded, ii., 67

       "     Buzzard, ii., 58

       "     Cowled, ii., 75

       "     Crane, ii., 62

       "     Crested, ii., 75

       "     Eared, ii., 76

       "     Egyptian Raven, ii., 78

       "     Falcons, ii., 56

       "     Goose, ii., 73

       "     Monk, ii., 79

       "     Raven, ii., 77

       "     Scavenger, ii., 78

       "     Sparrow-hawk Goose, ii., 74

       "     Tawny Goose, ii., 74

       "     True, ii., 69

       "     Wattled, ii., 70

    Vultures, Goose, King of the, ii., 71


W.

    Wader, Hard-billed, iv., 54

      "    Marsh, iv., 87

      "    Swallow-winged, iv., 12

    Wagtail, ii., 282

       "     Cow, ii., 289

       "     Garden, ii., 291

       "     Meadow, ii., 289

       "     Mountain, ii., 287

       "     Pied, ii., 285

       "     Ray's, ii., 289

       "     Rock, ii., 286

       "     Sheep, ii., 288, 290

       "     Swallow, ii., 292

       "     Velvet-headed, ii., 290

       "     White, ii., 283

       "     Yellow-headed, ii., 291

    Warbler, ii., 193

       "     Ashy Garden, ii., 256

       "     Black-headed Fire-eyed, ii., 248

       "     Black-throated Meadow, ii., 196

       "     Blue-throated, ii., 187

       "     Brown-throated Meadow, ii., 195

       "     Bush, ii., 204, 262

       "     Field Tree, ii., 252

       "     Fire-eyed, ii., 247

       "     Garden, ii., 240, 254

       "     Grasshopper, ii., 261

       "     Hedge, ii., 294

       "     Marsh, ii., 257

       "     Meadow, ii, 195

       "     Orpheus, ii., 239

       "     Provence Fire-eyed, ii., 249

       "     Reed, ii., 258

       "     Running, ii., 199

       "     Rüppell's, ii., 247

       "     Sedge ii., 250

       "     Song, ii., 237

       "     Sparrow-hawk, ii., 238

       "     Spectacled, ii., 246

       "     Tree, ii., 252

       "     True Reed, ii., 258

       "     White-bearded, ii., 247

    Water-hen, iv., 103

    Wax-wing, Bohemian, ii., 172

    Weaver-bird, i, 166

         "       Alecto Buffalo, i., 177

         "       Buffalo, i., 176

         "       Crimson-beaked, i., 171

         "       Dinamelli Buffalo, i., 177

         "       Golden, i., 168

         "       Red-beaked Buffalo, i., 176

         "       Social, i., 167

    Whaap, iv., 51

    Wheat-ear, ii., 198

        "      White-tailed, ii., 200

    Whip-poor-Will, ii., 128

    White-throat, ii., 245

          "       The Lesser, ii., 242

    Whydah Birds, i., 178

    Widow-bird, i., 178

         "      Cock-tailed, i., 180

         "      Long-tailed, i., 179

         "      Paradise, i., 180

    Widow, Mourning, i., 179

      "    Mourning Yellow-shouldered, i., 179

    Wiriwa, i., 289

    Wood Chat, ii., 146

    Woodcock, iv., 30

    Wood-nymph, iii., 58

         "      Ruby and Topaz, iii, 59

    Woodpecker, iii., 26

         "      Ant-eating Black, iii., 36

         "      Black (_Dryocopus_), iii., 27

         "      Black (_Melanerpes_), iii., 34

         "      Burrowing Ground, iii., 19

         "      Copper, iii., 42

         "      Cuckoo, iii., 41

         "      Dwarf, iii., 43

         "      European Black, iii., 27

         "      Field, iii., 43

         "      Giant, iii., 28

         "      Golden-winged; iii., 41

         "      Great Spotted, iii., 36

         "      Green, iii., 39

         "      Ground, iii., 19

         "      Harlequin, iii., 37

         "      Imperial, iii., 30

         "      Ivory-billed, iii., 30

         "      Red-headed Black, iii., 34

         "      Red-shafted, iii., 42

         "      Soft-tailed, iii., 43

         "      Three-toed, iii., 38

         "      Variegated, iii., 36

    Wood Star, iii., 65

        "      Mulsant's, iii., 65

    Wren, ii., 269

      "   Carolina, ii., 272

      "   Common, ii., 270

      "   Crested, ii., 297

      "   Dalmatian, ii., 298

      "   Firm, ii., 266

      "   Fire-crested, ii., 299

      "   Golden-crested, ii., 298

      "   House, ii., 273

      "   Leaf, ii.. 254

      "   Marsh, ii, 271

      "   Melodious Willow, ii., 254

      "   Ruby-crowned, ii., 301

      "   Satrap, ii., 299

      "   Willow, ii., 252

    Wryneck, iii., 43

    Wumbi, i., 246


Y.

    Year Bird, iii., 137

    Yellow Bird, Jamaica, i., 216

    Yetapa, ii., 163

    Yiperu, ii., 163




GENERAL INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES.


    Acanthylis caudacuta, ii., 122

    Accentor Alpinus, ii., 295

        "    modularis, ii., 294

    Acridotheres tristis, i., 228

    Acrocephalus turdoides, ii., 258

    Acryllium vulturinum, iii., 256

    Actitis hypoleucos, iv., 45

    Aëdon galactodes, ii., 187

    Agapornis Swinderiana, i., 43

    Agelaius phœniceus, i., 214

    Agrodroma campestris, ii., 279

    Aithurus polytmus, iii., 56

    Aix galericulata, iv., 155

     "  sponsa, iv., 154

    Alæmon desertorum, i., 209

    Alauda arborea, i., 204

       "   arvensis, i., 206

    Alca pinguinus, iv., 258

      "  torda, iv., 256

    Alcedo ispida, iii., 88

    Alectrurus tricolor, ii., 163

    Amadina fasciata, i., 156

    Ammodromus maritimus, i., 184

    Ammomanes deserti, i., 199

    Amydrius Naburup, i., 238

    Anas boschas, iv., 150

    Anastomus lamelligerus, iv., 75

    Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, i., 62

    Anomalocorax splendens, i., 267

    Anous stolidus, iv., 184

    Anser cinereus, iv., 131

      "   hyperboreus, iv., 135

    Anthropoides virgo, iv., 90

    Anthus aquaticus, ii., 279

       "   arboreus, ii., 275

       "   petrosus, ii., 278

       "   pratensis, ii., 274

    Antrostomus vociferus, ii., 128

    Aptenodytes demersus, iv., 267

         "      Patagonica, iv., 266

         "      Pennantii, iv., 266

    Apternus tridactylus, iii., 38

    Apteryx Australis, iii., 309

       "    Mantellii, iii., 310

       "    Owenii, iii., 311

    Aquila chrysaëtos, ii., 10

       "   fulva, ii., 10

       "   imperialis, ii., 10

       "   nævia, ii., 13

    Aræ, i., 58

    Ara Ararauna, i., 62

     "  Macao, i., 58

     "  militaris, i., 60

     "  severa, i., 60

    Arachnocestra longirostris, iii., 8

    Aramides gigas, iv., 101

    Archibuteo lagopus, ii., 52

    Arctica Alle, iv., 254

    Ardea cinerea, iv., 78

      "   Goliath, iv., 80

    Ardetta minuta, iv., 83

    Argus giganteus, iii., 250

    Artamus sordidus, ii., 156

    Astragalinus tristis, i., 130

    Astur palumbarius, ii., 4

    Athene noctua, ii., 87

    Atticora fasciata, ii., 114

    Aythya ferina, iv., 168


B.

    Balæniceps rex, iv., 59

    Balearica pavonina, iv., 90

    Batrachostomus cornutus, ii., 140

           "       Javanensis, ii., 140

    Baza lophotes, ii., 37

    Bellatrix regina, iii., 68

    Bernicla torquata, iv., 136

    Bombycilla garrula, ii., 172

    Bonasia sylvestris, iii., 190

    Botaurus stellaris, iv., 85

    Bubo maximus, ii., 93

    Bubulcus ibis, iv., 82

    Bucanetes githagineus, i., 98

    Buceros cristatus, iii., 133

    Bucorax Abyssinicus, iii., 138

    Budytes citreolus, ii., 291

       "    flavus, ii., 289

       "    melanocephalus, ii., 290

       "    Rayii, ii., 289

    Buphaga Africana, i., 231

       "    erythrorhyncha, i., 231

    Butalis grisola, ii., 168

    Buteo vulgaris, ii., 52


C.

    Cacatua galerita, i., 47

       "    Leadbeateri, i., 47

    Caccabis Chukor, iii., 207

        "    Græca, iii., 206

        "    petrosa, iii., 209

        "    rubra, iii., 208

        "    saxatilis, iii., 206

    Cæreba cyanea, iii., 3

    Cairina moschata, iv., 157

    Calamodus phragmitis, ii., 259

    Calandritis brachydactyla, i., 198

    Calidris arenaria, iv., 36

    Callænas Nicobarica, iii., 167

    Callicephalus galeatus, i., 47

    Calliope Camtschatcensis, ii., 190

    Calliphlox amethystina, iii., 64

    Calliste festiva, i., 153

    Calobates sulphurea, ii., 287

    Calothorax Mulsanti, iii., 65

    Calurus Antisianus, iii., 103

       "    paradiseus, iii., 103

       "    Pharomacrus, iii., 103

       "    resplendens, iii., 103

    Calyptorhynchus, i., 54

           "         Banksii, i., 54

    Campephilus imperialis, iii., 30

         "      principalis, iii., 30

    Campylopterus De Lattrei, iii., 54

          "       hemileucurus, iii., 54

    Cancroma cochlearia, iv., 62

    Cannabinæ, i., 122

    Cannabina linota, i., 122

        "     montium, i., 124

    Caprimulgus Europæus, ii., 127

         "      eximius, ii., 128

    Cardinalis Virginianus, i., 145

    Carduelis elegans, i., 129

    Caryothraustes Brasiliensis, i., 147

    Cassicus cristatus, i., 219

    Casarca rutila, iv., 145

    Casuarius Australis, iii., 307

        "     Bennettii, iii., 302

        "     galeatus, iii., 302

    Catamblyrhynchus diadematus, i., 147

    Cathartes aura, ii., 82

    Catheturus Lathamii, iii., 266

    Cecropis filifera, ii., 110

        "    rustica, ii., 106

        "    Senegalensis, ii., 109

    Centrophanes Lapponicus, i., 192

    Cephalolepis Delalandii, iii., 66

    Cephalopterus ornatus, ii., 181

    Cephus grylle, iv., 250

    Cereopsis Novæ-Hollandiæ, iv., 142

    Ceriornis melanocephalus, iii., 233

        "     Satyra, iii., 232

    Certhia familiaris, iii., 25

    Certhiola flaveola, iii., 4

    Ceryle rudis, iii., 91

    Ceyx tridactyla, iii., 90

    Chalcopeleia Afra, iii., 157

    Chaptia musica, ii., 154

    Charadrius auratus, iv., 16

         "     hiaticula, iv., 18

         "     pluvialis, iv., 16

    Chasmarhynchus carunculatus, ii., 183

          "        nudicollis, ii., 182

          "        variegatus, ii., 183

    Chauna Chavaria, iv., 97

    Chelidon Ariel, ii., 113

        "    urbica, ii., 110

    Chelidopterix Riocouri, ii., 43

    Chen hyperboreus, iv., 135

    Chenalopex Ægyptiacus, iv., 138

    Chenopsis atratus, iv., 127

    Chera caffra, i., 179

    Chiroxiphia caudata, ii., 177

    Chlamydera maculata, i., 240

    Chloëbia mirabilis, i., 159

    Chloris hortensis, i., 139

    Chordeiles Virginianus, ii., 126

    Chroicocephala minuta, iv., 198

    Chroicocephalus ichthyaëtus, iv., 197

           "        melanocephalus, iv., 198

           "        ridibundus, iv., 195

    Chrysococcyx auratus, iii., 112

    Chrysocome catarractes, iv., 268

    Chrysolampis moschata, iii., 59

    Chrysospiza lutea, i., 137

    Chrysotis Amazonicus, i., 39

    Ciconia alba, iv., 69

    Cincinnurus regius, i., 250

    Cinclus Americanus, ii., 228

       "    aquaticus, ii., 223

    Circaëtus brachydactylus, ii., 48

        "     Gallicus, ii., 48

    Circus rufus, ii., 45

    Cissa Sinensis, i., 283

    Cisticola Schœnicola, ii., 263

    Coccoborus Ludovicianus, i., 143

    Coccolarynx frenatus, iii., 78

    Coccothraustæ, i., 139

    Coccothraustes vulgaris, i., 141

    Coccygus Americanus, iii., 115

    Coccystes glandarius, iii., 110

    Colaptes Mexicanus, iii., 42

        "    auratus, iii., 41

    Colius leucotis, i., 289

       "   Senegalensis, i., 289

    Coliuspasser flaviscapulatus, i., 179

    Collocalia fuciphaga, ii., 119

         "     nidifica, ii., 118

    Columba ænas, iii., 146

       "    livida, iii., 147

    Colymbus arcticus, iv., 248

        "    glacialis, iv., 247

        "    septentrionalis, iv., 249

    Conuri, i., 63

    Conurus Carolinensis, i., 63

       "    leucotis, i., 63

       "    luteus, i., 63

    Coracias garrulus, iii., 80

    Coragyps atratus, ii., 82

    Corax nobilis, i., 257

    Corvus cornix, i., 262

       "   corona, i., 262

       "   frugilegus, i., 264

    Corvultur albicollis, i., 259

    Corydalla Richardii, ii., 282

    Corydon Sumatranus, iii., 84

    Coryphilus Tahitianus, i., 81

    Corys arborea, i., 204

    Corythacula cristata, i., 286

    Corythaix leucotis, i., 285

    Cosmaërops ornatus, iii., 78

    Cosmetornis vexillarius, ii., 131

    Coturnix communis, iii., 222

    Cotyle riparia, ii., 112

       "   rupestris, ii., 111

    Cracticus destructor, ii., 151

    Crateropus leucopygius, ii., 221

    Crax alector, iii., 276

      "  carunculata, iii., 278

      "  rubra, iii., 278

    Crex pratensis, iv., 101

    Crossoptilon auritum, iii., 250

    Crotophaga ani, iii., 119

         "     major, iii., 119

         "     rugirostris, iii., 121

    Crypsirhina varians, i., 281

    Crypturus Tataupa, iii., 283

    Cuculus canorus, iii., 106

    Cupidonia Americana, iii., 191

    Curruca atricapilla, ii., 243

       "    cinerea, ii., 245

       "    conspicillata, ii., 246

       "    garrula, ii., 242

       "    hortensis, ii., 240

       "    leucopogon, ii., 247

       "    nisoria, ii., 238

       "    Orphæa, ii., 239

       "    Rüppellii, ii., 247

    Cyanalcyon Macleayii, iii., 94

    Cyanecula Suecica, ii., 189

    Cyanocitta cristata, i., 275

    Cyanocorax pileatus, i., 275

    Cyanopica cyanea, i., 274

        "     Cookii, i., 274

    Cygnopsis Canadensis, iv., 131

    Cygnus atratus, iv., 127

      "    Bewickii, iv., 126

      "    mansuetus, iv., 121

      "    musicus, iv., 123

      "    olor, iv., 121

    Cymindis uncinatus, ii., 36

    Cynchramus Schœniclus, i., 191

    Cyphorhinus cantans, ii., 273

    Cypselus apus, ii., 122

        "    Melba, ii., 123

        "    palmarum, ii., 122

        "    parvus, ii., 122

    Cyrtostomus Australis, iii., 7


D.

    Dacelo giganteus, iii., 94

    Daption Capensis, iv., 211

    Dasyptilus Pequetii i., 51

    Dendrochelidon Klecho, ii., 118

    Dendrocitta vagabunda, i., 280

    Dendrocygna viduata, iv., 148

    Dendroplex picus, iii., 26

    Deroptyus, i., 42

    Diardigallus prælatus, iii., 238

    Dichoceros bicornis, iii., 135

    Dicholophus cristatus, iv., 91

    Dicrourus macrocercus, ii., 154

    Didunculus strigirostris, iii., 170

    Diomedea chlororhynchus, iv., 206

        "    exulans, iv., 205

        "    fuliginosa, iv., 207

    Docimastes ensifer, iii., 49

    Dolichonyx oryzivorus, i., 212

    Donacula castaneothorax, i., 158

    Dromæus irroratus, iii., 301

       "    Novæ-Hollandiæ, iii., 301

    Dromolæa leucura, ii., 200

    Dryocopus martius, iii., 27

    Dryospiza Canaria, i., 158


E.

    Ectopistes migratorius, iii., 148

    Edolius paradiseus, ii., 155

    Elanus melanopterus, ii., 34

    Emberiza citrinella, i., 187

    Emblema picta, i., 162

    Enicognathis leptorhynchus, i., 66

    Enicurus coronatus, ii., 292

        "    Leschenhaultii, ii., 292

    Enneoctonus collurio, ii., 146

         "      personatus, ii., 147

         "      rufus, ii., 146

    Enucleatores, i., 23

    Ephialtes scops, ii., 98

    Ephthianura albifrons, ii., 197

    Epimachus magnus, i., 252

    Erismatura leucocephala, iv., 169

    Erythaca rubecola, ii., 191

    Erythropus vespertinus, i., 310

    Erythrosterna parva, ii., 171

    Erythrothorax, i., 95

          "        erythrinus, i., 95

          "        roseus, i., 95

    Eudromias Morinellus, iv., 19

    Eudynamys Orientalis, iii., 111

    Euphone violacea, i., 155

    Euplectes ignicolor, i., 175

    Euplocamus melanotus, iii., 238

         "     Nycthemerus, iii., 240

         "     prælatus, iii., 238

    Eurylaimus Javanicus, iii., 85

    Eurypyga helias, iv., 86

    Eurystomus Australis, iii., 82

         "     Orientalis, iii., 83

         "     Pacificus, iii., 82

    Euspiza melanocephala, i., 190

    Eutoxeres aquila, iii., 51

    Excalfactoria Chinensis, iii., 224


F.

    Falcinellus igneus, iv., 55

    Falco chiquera, i., 303

      "   peregrinator, i., 299

      "   peregrinus, i., 301

      "   ruficollis, i., 303

    Falcunculus frontatus, ii., 147

    Florisuga atra, iii., 60

    Francolinus vulgaris, iii., 212

    Fregilus graculus, i., 254

    Fringillæ, i., 114

    Fringilla cælebs, i., 115

        "     montifringilla, i., 118

    Frugilegus segetum, i., 264

    Fulica atra, iv., 111

    Furnarius rufus, iii., 18


G.

    Galbula viridis, iii., 96

    Galeoscoptes Carolinensis, ii., 216

    Galerita cristata, i., 203

    Gallinago scolopacinus, iv., 34

    Gallinula chloropus, iv., 107

    Galloperdix lunulosa, iii., 286

    Gallophasis albocristatus, iii., 239

         "      melanotus, iii., 238

    Gallus Bankiva, iii., 235

       "   furcatus, iii., 236

       "   Sonnerati, iii., 237

       "   Stanleyii, iii., 236

    Garrulax leucolophus, ii., 223

    Garrulus glandarius, i., 278

    Gecinus viridis, iii., 39

    Geocolaptes campestris, iii., 43

    Geopeleia striata, iii., 160

    Geophaps scripta, iii., 166

    Geositta cunicularia, iii., 19

    Geospiza magnirostris, i., 143

    Geronticus Æthiopicus, iv., 56

    Glareola pratincola, iv., 13

    Glottis chloropus, iv., 46

    Glycispina cia, i., 190

         "     hortulana, i., 188

    Goura coronata, iii., 169

      "   Victoriæ, iii., 170

    Gracula musica, i., 230

       "    religiosa, i., 230

    Grallaria rex, ii., 231

    Graphephasianus Soemmerringii, iii., 245

    Grus cinereus, iv., 89

    Grypus nævius, iii., 50

    Gubernates Yiperu, ii., 163

    Gubernatrix cristatella, i., 185

    Guttera Pucheranii, iii., 257

    Gygis candida, iv., 183

    Gymnocephalus calvus, ii., 180

    Gymnorhina tibicen, i., 270

    Gypaëtos barbatus, ii., 67

    Gypogeranus serpentarius, ii., 62

    Gyps Rüppellii, ii., 74

      "  fulvus, ii., 74

    Gyrinorhyncha minuta, i., 146


H.

    Hæmatopus ostralegus, iv., 27

    Halcyon rufiventris, iii., 91

    Haliaëtos albicilla, ii., 23

        "     leucocephalus, ii., 23

        "     vocifer, ii., 27

    Hapaloderma narina, iii., 100

    Harpactes fasciatus, iii., 100

    Harpagus bidentatus, ii., 2

    Harpyia destructor, ii., 22

    Hedydipna metallica, iii., 6

    Heliactinus cornutus, iii., 68

    Heliornis Surinamensis, iv., 112

    Heliothryx auriculata, iii., 60

    Helotarsus ecaudatus, ii., 32

    Hemignathus lucidus, iii., 8

    Heniconetta Stellerii, iv., 166

    Herodias alba, iv., 81

        "    garzetta, iv., 82

    Herpetotheres cachinnans, ii., 1

    Hesperiphona vespertina, i., 142

    Hieraëtos minuta, ii., 15

        "     pennata, ii., 14

    Hierax cœrulescens, i., 312

    Hierofalco Arcticus, i., 299

    " candicans, i., 299

    Himantopus melanopterus, iv., 49

    Hirundo rustica, ii., 106

    Hoplopterus spinosus, iv., 23

    Hubara Macquenii, iv., 6

       "   undulata, iv., 8

    Hyas Ægyptiacus, iv., 11

    Hydrochelidon leucopareja, iv., 183

          "       leucoptera, iv., 183

          "       nigra, iv., 182

    Hydroictinia atra, ii., 37

          "      Govinda, ii., 39

          "      parasitica, ii., 39

    Hydrophasianus Sinensis, iv., 103

    Hydropsalis forcipata, ii., 130

    Hyphantes Baltimore, i., 218

    Hypochera ultramarina, i., 163

    Hypolais cinerescens, ii., 256

       "     hortensis, ii., 254

       "     rufa, ii., 255

    Hypomorphnus urubitinga, ii., 55

    Hypotriorchis subbuteo, i., 306

    Hypsibates himantopus, iv., 49


I.

    Ibicter Americanus, ii., 60

       "    nudicollis, ii., 60

    Ibis rubra, iv., 56

    Icterus Jamacaii, i., 216

    Ictinia Mississippensis, ii., 35

    Indicator albirostris, iii., 105

    Irrisor erythrorhynchus, iii., 15


J.

    Jeracidea Berigora, i., 307


K.

    Ketupa Ceylonensis, ii., 95


L.

    Lagonosticta minima, i., 162

    Lagopus albus, iii., 196

       "    alpinus, iii., 198

       "    mutus, iii., 198

       "    Scoticus, iii., 200

    Lampornis mango, iii., 58

    Lamprocolius chalybeus, i., 234

    Lamprotornis aënea, i., 237

    Laniarius Æthiopicus, ii., 150

        "     erythrogaster, ii., 149

    Lanius collurio, ii., 146

       "   minor, ii., 143

       "   excubitor, ii., 142

       "   meridionalis, ii., 143

    Larus argentatus, iv., 190

      "   fuscus, iv., 190

      "   glaucus, iv., 191

      "   leucopterus, iv., 192

      "   marinus, iv., 188

    Leipoa ocellata, iii., 270

    Leptoptilus argala, iv., 74

         "      crumenifer, iv., 74

    Lestris catarractes, iv., 199

       "    parasiticus, iv., 202

    Leucosarcia plicata, iii., 167

    Licmetis nasicus, i., 48

    Limicola pygmæa, iv., 36

    Limosa rufa, iv., 48

    Linaria rubra, i., 124

    Lobipes hyperboreus, iv., 43

    Locustella certhida, ii., 261

         "     Rayii, ii., 261

    Lophophorus Impeyanus, iii., 229

         "      Lhuysii, iii., 232

         "      refulgens, iii., 229

         "      resplendens, iii., 229

    Lophortyx Californianus, iii., 219

        "     Gambelii, iii., 220

    Lophorhina superba, i., 251

    Lophophanes cristatus, ii., 307

    Lophoaëtos occipitalis, ii., 19

    Lophornis ornata, iii., 66

    Lorii, i., 79

    Lorius domicella, i., 79

       "   cyanostriatus, i., 82

    Loxiæ, i., 85

    Loxia tænioptera, i., 86

      "   curvirostra, i., 86

      "   pityopsittacus, i., 86

    Luscinia Philomela, ii., 186

    Lyrurus tetrix, iii., 185


M.

    Macrodipteryx longipennis, ii., 131

    Macronyx Capensis, i., 209

    Mariposa phœnicotis, i., 163

    Megacephalon Maleo, iii., 268

    Megalophus regius, ii., 162

    Megapodius tumulus, iii., 273

    Melanocorypha Calandra, i., 197

    Meleagris gallopavo, iii., 259

    Melopeleia meloda, iii., 158

    Melanerpes formicivorus, iii., 36

         "     erythrocephalus, iii., 34

    Melichæra mellivora, iii., 11

    Melierax musicus, ii., 6

    Melittophagus hirundinaceus, iii., 78

    Melittotheres nubicus, iii., 77

    Melopsittacus undulatus, i., 72

    Menura superba, ii., 232

    Mergellus albellus, iv., 170

    Mergulus Alle, iv., 254

    Mergus merganser, iv., 172

       "   serrator, iv., 173

    Merops apiaster, iii., 76

    Mettapus Coromandelianus, iv., 140

    Microglossus, i., 51

          "       aterrimus, i., 52

    Microptynx passerina, ii., 91

    Microrhamphus oxypogon, iii., 74

    Miliaria valida, i., 186

    Milvago Australis, ii., 58

       "    Chimachima, ii., 57

    Milvulus tricarunculatus, ii., 183

        "    tyrannus, ii., 161

    Milvus regalis, ii., 40

    Molothrus pecoris, i., 215

    Monedula turrium, i., 266

    Montifringilla nivalis, i., 119

    Mormon fratercula, iv., 262

    Morphnus Guianensis, ii., 21

    Motacilla alba, ii., 283

        "     Dukhunensis, ii., 286

        "     Lichtensteinii, ii., 286

        "     Rayii, ii., 289

        "     Yarrellii, ii., 285

    Muscicapa albicollis, ii., 170

        "     atricapilla, ii., 170

    Musophaga violacea, i., 284

    Mycteria Australis, iv., 71

        "    Senegalensis, iv., 71

    Myzomela erythrocephala, iii., 10


N.

    Nasiterna pygmæa, i., 45

    Nauclerus furcatus, ii., 41

    Nelicurvius Baya, i., 170

    Nemoricola Indica, ii., 291

    Neophron pileatus, ii., 79

    Nestor productus, i., 50

    Nettapus Coromandelianus, iv., 140

    Nimus polyglottus, ii., 214

    Nisus communis, ii., 2

    Notauges chrysogaster, i., 234

        "    superbus, i., 234

    Nothura nana, iii., 285

    Nucifraga caryocatactes, i., 269

    Numenius arquatus, iv., 51

    Numida meleagris, iii., 258

       "   mitrata, iii., 258

       "   ptilorhyncha, iii., 259

    Nyctale dasypus, ii., 100

    Nyctea nivea, ii., 86

    Nycthemerus argentatus, iii., 240

    Nyctibius grandis, ii., 134

    Nycticorax Europæus, iv., 82

    Nyctiornis Athertonii, iii., 79

    Nymphæa hyemalis, i., 119

    Nymphicus Novæ-Hollandiæ, i., 77

    Nystalus Chacuru, iii., 97


O.

    Oceanodroma Leachii, iv., 217

    Ocyphaps lophotes, iii., 163

    Odontophorus dentatus, iii., 214

    Œdicnemus crepitans, iv., 14

    Œgialites minor, iv., 20

    Œgithalus pendulinus, ii., 302

    Œgotheles Novæ-Hollandiæ, ii., 137

    Œthopyga miles, iii., 6

    Oidemia fusca, iv., 166

    Opisthocomus cristatus, iii., 281

    Oreophasis Derbyanus, iii., 278

    Oreotrochilus Chimborazo, iii., 52

    Oriolus galbula, i., 242

    Orites caudatus, ii., 306

    Ortalida Aracuan, iii., 280

    Orthotomus longicauda, ii., 265

    Ortyx Virginianus, iii., 216

    Ossifragus giganteus, iv., 208

    Otis tarda, iv., 2

      "  tetrax, iv., 5

    Otogyps calvus, ii., 77

    Otus brachyotus, ii., 98

      "  sylvestris, ii., 97

    Oxypogon Lindenii, iii., 75


P.

    Padda oryzivora, i., 160

    Pagophila eburnea, iv., 193

    Palæornis Pondicerianus, i., 67

        "     torquatus, i., 67

    Palæornithes, i., 66

    Palamedea cornuta, iv., 96

    Palumbus torquatus, iii., 143

    Pandion Haliaëtos, ii., 30

    Panurus biarmicus, ii., 303

    Paradisea apoda, i., 246

        "     Papuana, i., 246

        "     rubra, i., 247

    Paradoxornis flavirostra, i., 92

    Paralcyon gigas, iii., 94

    Pardalotus punctatus, ii., 178

    Parotia sex-pennis, i., 251

    Parra jacana, iv., 102

    Parus ater, ii., 311

      "   atricapillus, ii., 318

      "   bicolor, ii., 309

      "   cœruleus, ii., 314

      "   Carolinensis, ii., 318

      "   cyaneus, ii., 316

      "   lugubris, ii., 311

      "   major, ii., 309

      "   palustris, ii., 317

      "   Sibericus, ii., 316

    Paroaria dominicana, i., 146

    Passer domesticus, i., 131

       "   Hispanicus, i., 135

       "   montanus, i., 136

    Passerculus Savannus, i., 184

    Passeres, i., 83

    Pastor roseus, i., 227

    Patagona gigas, iii., 47

    Pavo cristatus, iii., 254

      "  muticus, iii., 255

      "  nigripennis, iii., 255

      "  spicifer, iii., 255

    Pedionomus torquatus, iii., 227

    Pelecanus crispus, iv., 237

        "     onocrotalus, iv., 237

    Pelidna subarquata, iv., 38

    Penelope superciliaris, iii., 280

    Perdix cinerea, iii., 210

    Pericrocotus speciosus, ii., 164

    Perisoreus infaustus, i., 279

    Pernis apivorus, ii., 50

       "   cristatus, ii., 52

    Petrocincla cyana, ii., 203

         "      saxatilis, ii., 202

    Petronia rupestris, i., 138

    Pezoporinus formosus, i., 78

    Phacellodomus rufifrons, iii., 17

    Phaëton æthereus, iv., 220

       "    phœnicurus, iv., 220

    Phaëtornis superciliosus, iii., 51

    Phalacrocorax carbo, iv., 234

    Phalacroteron Abyssinica, iii., 142

    Phalaropus hyperboreus, iv., 43

         "     rufus, iv., 43

    Phaleris cristatella, iv., 255

    Phaps chalcoptera, iii., 164

    Phasianus Colchicus, iii., 242

        "     Reevesii, iii., 246

        "     Soemmerringii, iii., 245

        "     torquatus, iii., 243

        "     veneratus, iii., 246

        "     versicolor, iii., 244

    Phileremos Alpestris, i., 201

    Philetaërus socius, i, 167

    Philolimnos gallinula, iv., 35

    Philomachus pugnax, iv., 39

    Phœbetria fuliginosa, iv., 207

    Phœnicopterus roseus, iv., 115

    Phœnicura ruticilla, ii., 195

    Pholeoptynx cunicularia, ii., 90

         "      hypogæa, ii., 90

    Pholidauges leucogaster, i., 235

    Phoneus rufus, ii., 146

    Phyllopneuste Trochilus, ii., 252

    Phytotoma rara, i., 150

    Pica caudata, i., 272

    Picathartes gymnocephalus, i., 271

    Piculus minor, iii., 37

    Picumnus minutus, iii., 43

    Picus major, iii., 36

    Pinicola enucleator, i., 93

    Pioni, i., 40

    Pipile leucolophos, iii., 280

    Pipra caudata, ii., 177

      "   manacus, ii., 178

      "   pareola, ii., 177

    Pitta Angolensis, ii., 229

      "   Bengalensis, ii., 228

      "   strepitans, ii., 229

    Pityli, i., 143

    Pitylus cœrulescens, i., 147

    Platalea leucorodia, iv., 58

    Platycerci, i., 70

    Platycercus eximius, i., 70

    Platystylopterus rufus, iii., 55

    Plautus impennis, iv., 258

    Plectrophanes nivalis, i., 194

    Plectropterus Gambensis, iv., 131

    Ploceus galbula, i., 168

    Plotus Anhinga, iv., 228

       "   Levaillantii, iv., 230

    Plyctylophus, i., 45

    Podager nacunda, ii., 125

    Podargus humeralis, ii., 138

    Podiceps cristatus, iv., 242

        "    minor, iv., 244

    Poliornis rufipennis, ii., 54

        "     Tesa, ii., 54

    Polyboroides typicus, ii., 7

    Polyborus Brasiliensis, ii., 58

        "     vulgaris, ii., 58

    Polyplectron chinquis, iii., 251

    Polytelis, i., 69

        "      Barrabandi, i., 69

    Porphyrio hyacinthinus, iv., 105

        "     chloronotus, iv., 106

    Pratincola rubetra, ii., 195

        "      rubicola, ii., 196

    Prion vittatus, iv., 213

    Prionites momota, iii., 83

    Prionops cristatus, ii., 151

        "    poliocephalus, ii., 151

    Priontelus temnurus, iii., 102

    Procellaria Capensis, iv., 211

         "      gigantea, iv., 208

         "      glacialis, iv., 209

    Progne purpurea, ii., 115

    Prosthemadera circinata, iii., 12

    Psarisomus Dalhousiæ, iii., 86

    Psephotus multicolor, i., 71

    Pseudaëtos Bonellii, ii., 17

    Psittacini, i., 24

    Psittacula, i. 43

         "      passerina, i., 44

    Psitteuteles Swainsonii, i., 80

          "      versicolor, i., 79

    Psittirostra psittacea, i., 91

    Psophia crepitans, iv., 94

    Pternistes rubricollis, iii., 213

    Pternura tyrannus, ii., 20

    Pterocles alchata, iii., 175

        "     arenarius, iii., 174

        "     exustus, iii., 176

        "     Lichtensteinii, iii., 178

    Pterocorax scapulatus, i., 260

    Pteroglossus Aracari, iii., 129

    Pteroptochus megapodius, ii., 231

    Ptilonorhynchus albirostris, i., 237

           "        holosericus, i., 239

    Ptilotis flavigula, iii., 10

    Puffinus Anglorum, iv., 218

    Pycnonotus arsinoë, ii., 218

        "      Vaillantii, ii., 219

    Pyranga æstiva, i., 152

       "    rubra, i., 151

    Pyrgitænas passerina, iii., 159

    Pyrgitopsis simplex, i., 137

    Pyriglena domicella, ii., 230

    Pyrophthalma melanocephala, ii., 248

          "      Provincialis, ii., 249

          "      Sarda, ii., 249

    Pyrrhococcyx Cayanus, iii., 118

    Pyrrhocorax alpinus, i., 255

    Pyrrhodes Papuensis, i., 82

    Pyrrhula vulgaris, i., 102

    Pyrrhulauda leucotis, i., 201

    Pyrrhulæ, i., 92

    Pytelia subflava, i., 161


Q.

    Quelea sanguinirostris, i., 171

    Quiscalus major, i., 222


R.

    Rallus aquaticus, iv., 99

    Ramphastus erythrorhynchus, iii., 131

         "     Temminckii, iii., 132

         "     toco, iii., 130

    Ramphocelus Brasilianus, i., 154

    Ramphomicron heteropogon, iii., 74

    Recurvirostra avocetta, iv., 50

    Reguloides Proregulus, ii., 254

    Regulus auricapillus, ii., 298

       "    calendulus, ii., 301

       "    cristatus, ii., 298

       "    flavicapillus, ii., 298

       "    ignicapillus, ii., 299

       "    modestus, ii., 298

       "    pyrocephalus, ii., 299

       "    satrapa, ii., 299

       "    tricolor, ii., 299

    Rhea Americana, iii., 291

      "  Darwinii, iii., 299

      "  macrorhyncha, iii., 299

    Rhipidura motacilloides, ii., 167

    Rhodostethia rosea, iv., 203

          "      Rossii, iv., 203

    Rhynchæa Capensis, iv., 99

    Rhynchaceros erythrorhynchus, iii., 134

    Rhynchodon sparverius, i., 311

    Rhynchops orientalis, iv., 185

    Rhyncotus rufescens, iii., 284

    Rhyticeros plicatus, iii., 137

    Rissa tridactyla, iv., 194

    Rostrhamus hamatus, ii., 55

    Rubecula sylvestris, ii., 191

    Rupicola crocea, ii., 174

    Ruticilla atra, ii., 194

        "     phœnicura, ii., 195

        "     titys, ii., 194


S.

    Saltator cœrulescens, i., 148

    Sarciophorus pileatus, iv., 24

    Sarcorhamphus Californianus, ii., 71

          "       condor, ii., 70

          "       Gryphus, ii., 70

          "       papa, ii., 71

    Saurophagus sulphuratus, ii., 159

    Saurothera vetula, iii., 117

    Saxicola aurita, ii., 198

        "    Œnanthe, ii., 198

        "    leucura, ii., 200

        "    stapazina, ii., 198

    Saxilauda Tatarica, i., 199

    Schizorhis zonurus, i., 287

    Scolopax rusticola, iv., 30

    Scopus umbretta, iv., 62

    Scotornis climacurus, ii., 129

    Scythrops Novæ-Hollandiæ, iii., 113

    Seleucides alba, i., 251

        "      resplendens, i., 251

    Sericulus chrysocephalus, i., 243

    Serinus hortulanus, i., 106

    Sitella pileata, iii., 22

    Sitta cæsia, iii., 21

      "   Syriaca, iii., 22

    Somateria mollissima, iv., 163

        "     spectabilis, iv., 165

        "     Stellerii, iv., 166

    Sparganura Sappho, iii., 71

    Spathura Underwoodii, iii., 70

    Spatula clypeata, iv., 156

    Spenorhynchus Abdimii, iv., 70

    Spermestes cucullata, i., 158

    Spheniscus demersus, iv., 267

    Spilocircus Jardinii, ii., 46

    Spilornis Bacha, ii., 50

    Spinus viridis, i., 127

    Spizaëtos bellicosus, ii., 18

    Spizella Canadensis, i., 183

    Stagnicola chloropus, iv., 107

    Starna cinerea, iii., 210

    Starnœnas cyanocephala, iii., 162

    Steatornis Caripensis, ii., 135

    Steganurus Underwoodii, iii., 70

    Stercorarius parasiticus, iv., 202

    Sterna hirundo, iv., 179

    Sternula minuta, iv., 181

    Stictopeleia cuneata, iii., 161

    Stipiturus malachurus, ii., 266

    Strepsilas interpres, iv., 24

    Struthio camelus, iii., 287

    Sturnus unicolor, i., 227

       "    vulgaris, i., 223

    Strepera graculina, i., 271

    Streptopeleia risoria, iii., 155

    Strigiceps cyaneus, ii., 43

         "     cineraceus, ii., 44

         "     pallidus, ii., 43

    Strigops habroptilus, i., 55

    Strix flammea, ii., 102

      "   Kirchhoflii, ii., 102

    Sula alba, iv., 223

    Surnia nisoria, ii., 85

       "   funerea, ii., 85

       "   ulula, ii., 85

    Sylochelidon Caspia, iv., 178

    Sylvia hortensis, ii., 240

       "   rufa, ii., 255

    Syma flavirostris, iii., 96

    Sypheotidis Bengalensis, iv., 8

    Syrnium aluco, ii., 99

    Syrrhaptes paradoxus, iii., 178


T.

    Tachypetes aquila, iv., 224

    Taha dubia, i., 174

    Tallegallus Lathamii, iii., 266

    Tangara ornata, i., 151

    Tantalus ibis, iv., 66

    Tanysiptera dea, iii., 95

         "      nympha, iii., 95

         "      sylvia, iii., 95

    Taxostoma rufum, ii., 216

    Telephonus erythropterus, ii., 150

    Temnurus truncatus, i., 282

    Terpsiphone paradisea, ii., 166

    Tetragonops ramphastinus, iii., 127

    Tetrao Cupido, iii., 191

       "   urogallus, iii., 181

    Tetraogallus Caspius, iii., 203

          "      Himalayensis, iii., 304

    Tetrax campestris, iv., 5

    Textor Alecto, i., 177

       "   Dinemellii, i., 177

       "   erythrorhynchus, i., 176

    Thalassidroma pelagica, iv., 215

    Thamnolæa albiscapulata, ii., 204

    Thamnophilus undulatus, ii., 153

          "      Vigorsii, ii., 153

    Tharralcus montanellus, ii., 295

         "     modularis, ii., 294

    Thaumalea Amherstiæ, iii., 248

        "     picta, iii., 247

    Threskiornis religiosa, iv., 56

    Thryothorus Ludovicianus, ii., 272

         "      platensis, ii., 273

    Tichodroma muraria, iii., 23

    Timalia pileata, ii., 220

    Tinnunculus alaudarius, i., 308

         "      Cenchris, i., 308

    Todirhamphus chlorocephalus, iii., 93

    Todus viridis, iii., 87

    Topaza pella, iii., 55

    Trachypelmus Brasiliensis, iii., 285

    Trachyphonus margaritatus, iii., 125

    Trochilus colubris, iii., 61

    Troglodytes parvulus, ii., 271

    Trogon calurus, iii., 103

       "   Surucua, iii., 101

       "   viridis, iii., 102

    Tropidorhynchus corniculatus, iii., 12

    Turdus merula, ii., 211

       "   musicus, ii., 207

       "   saxatilis, ii., 202

       "   pilaris, ii., 207

       "   torquatus, ii., 211

       "   viscivorus, ii., 206

    Turnix Africanus, iii., 227

       "   Gibraltariensis, iii., 227

       "   pugnax, iii., 226

    Turtur auritus, iii., 155

    Tyrannus intrepidus, ii., 158


U.

    Upupa epops, iii., 14

    Uragus Sibericus, i., 97

    Urax pauxi, iii., 278

    Uria troile, iv., 253

    Uroaëtos audax, ii., 17

    Urocissa Sinensis, i., 282

    Uromitus filifera, ii., 110


V.

    Vanellus cristatus, iv., 22

    Vidua paradisea, i., 180

    Vulpanser tadorna, iv., 146

    Vultur cinereus, ii, 75

       "   occipitalis, ii., 76


X.

    Xantholema Indica, iii., 126

    Xenops genibarbis, iii., 20

    Xiphorhynchus trochilrostris, iii., 26


Y.

    Yunx torquilla, iii., 43


Z.

    Zanclostomus tristis, iii., 114

    Zonotrichia albicollis, i., 182

         "      matutina, i., 182


THE END.

    CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN, BELLE SAUVAGE WORKS, LONDON, E.C.




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    Principles of Ornamental Art. By F. E. HULME, F.L.S., F.S.A., Art
    Master in Marlborough College, Author of "Freehand Ornament," &c.
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    Studies in Design, for Builders, Architects, Designers, House
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    cloth, £3 3s.

    Sketching from Nature in Water-Colours. By AARON PENLEY, Author
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    Homely Scenes from Great Painters, containing _Twenty-four
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    Poems and Pictures. With about 100 highly-finished Engravings, by
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    gilt cloth, 21s.

    The Leopold Shakspere. Dedicated, by permission, to H.R.H. Prince
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    Illustrated Travels: A Record of Discovery, Geography, and
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    The Races of Mankind. A Popular Description of the Characteristics,
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    Royal Quarto Shakespeare. Edited by CHARLES and MARY COWDEN CLARKE,
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    new large type on royal 4to paper. Complete in 3 vols., cloth gilt,
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    £1 5s.

    Shakespeare, Cassell's Illustrated. Imperial 8vo Edition. With 600
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    Cassell's Arabian Nights. With 350 Illustrations by GUSTAVE DORÉ
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    The World of Wit and Humour. With about 400 Illustrations.
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    The World of Wonders. A Record of Things Wonderful in Nature,
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    Æsop's Fables. _New and Enlarged Edition._ With about 150 Original
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THE DORÉ FINE ART VOLUMES.

    The Doré Gallery. Containing 250 of the finest Drawings of
    GUSTAVE DORÉ, selected from the "Doré Bible," Milton's "Paradise
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    gilt, One Vol., complete, £5 5s.; cloth gilt, in Two Vols., £5
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    The Doré Scripture Gallery of Illustration. Containing 250 Drawings
    of Scripture Subjects by GUSTAVE DORÉ. With an Essay, Critical and
    Historical, on Sacred Art, by EDMUND OLLIER. Complete in Two Vols.,
    £5 10s.; or Four Vols., £6 6s.

    The Doré Bible. With 230 Illustrations by GUSTAVE DORÉ. 1,600
    pp., small folio Two Vols., cloth, £8; morocco, £12; full morocco
    elegant, £15. _Royal 4to Edition_, Two Vols., leather gilt, £3
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    Dante's Inferno. With Seventy-six full-page Engravings by GUSTAVE
    DORÉ. Translated by Rev H. F. CARY, M.A. Crown folio, cloth, £2
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    Dante's Purgatorio and Paradiso. With Sixty full-page Engravings by
    GUSTAVE DORÉ. Uniform with the INFERNO, and same price.

    Milton's Paradise Lost. With full-page Illustrations by _Gustave
    Doré_. With Notes and a Life of Milton by the late Rev. R. VAUGHAN,
    D.D. _New Edition_, imperial 4to, cloth gilt, £2 10s.; full morocco
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    La Fontaine's Fables. With Eighty-six full-page and numerous
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    Don Quixote. With about 400 Illustrations by GUSTAVE DORÉ. Royal
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    Atala. By CHATEAUBRIAND. With Thirty full-page and many smaller
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    Days of Chivalry; being the Legend of Croquemitaine. With nearly
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    Adventures of Baron Munchausen. With Thirty-one full-page
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    Legend of the Wandering Jew. With Twelve Large Designs by _Gustave
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    _CASSELL PETTER & GALPIN: LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK._


STANDARD WORKS.

    British Battles on Land and Sea. By JAMES GRANT, Author of "The
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    Cassell's History of England, from the Earliest Period to
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    Cassell's History of the War between France and Germany. Complete
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    Cassell's History of the United States. Vols. I. and II. with 200
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    Cassell's History of India. With Maps, Plans, and Illustrations.
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    The History of Protestantism. By the Rev. J. A. WYLIE, LL.D. Vols.
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    Old and New London. A Narrative of its History, its People, and
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    Cassell's Household Guide. A Guide to Every Department of Practical
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    Cassell's New Popular Educator. Revised to the Present Date, with
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    Cassell's Popular Recreator. A Guide and Key to In-door and
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    Cassell's Technical Educator. Complete in Four Vols., each
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    The Vicar of Wakefield, and other Works by Oliver Goldsmith. With
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    Cassell's Gulliver's Travels. With Eighty-eight Engravings by
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    Illustrated Readings. Containing about 500 choice Selections from
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BIBLES, RELIGIOUS WORKS, &c.

    Cassell's Guinea Illustrated Bible. With 900 Illustrations, Full
    References, a Concordance, Family Register, &c. &c. Royal 4to,
    1,476 pp., cloth, gilt edges, 21s.; morocco, 25s.

    The Child's Bible. With 220 Illustrations. Demy 4to, cloth gilt, £1
    1s.; leather, 30s.; morocco elegant, 42s.

    The Doré Bible. _Royal 4to Edition._ Complete in Two Vols., with
    220 Illustrations by GUSTAVE DORÉ. Bound in leather, gilt edges, £3
    10s.; full morocco, antique, £6 6s.

    The Life of Christ. By the Rev. F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S., Canon
    of Westminster, and Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. Two Vols.,
    24s.; calf antique, £2 2s.; tree calf, £2 5s.

    Keble's Christian Year, Cassell's Illustrated Edition. Beautifully
    printed and profusely Illustrated. Extra crown 4to, cloth, 7s. 6d.;
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    Cassell's Bible Dictionary. With nearly 600 Illustrations. Imperial
    8vo, 1,159 pp. Complete in One Vol., cloth, 21s.; or Two Vols.,
    cloth, 25s.; or One Vol., russia or morocco, 40s.

    Matthew Henry's Commentary. NEW ANNOTATED EDITION, consisting
    of Supplementary Original Notes contributed by eminent Biblical
    Scholars of the present day. Complete in Three Volumes, royal 4to,
    cloth, £3 10s.

    Cassell's Family Prayer-Book. 400 pages, demy 4to, cloth, 7s. 6d.;
    cloth, gilt edges, 9s.; morocco, £1 1s.

    The Bible Educator. Edited by the Rev. E. H. PLUMPTRE, D.D.,
    assisted by some of the most Eminent Scholars and Divines of the
    day. With upwards of 400 Illustrations and Maps. Complete in Four
    Volumes. Extra crown 4to, cloth, 6s. each; or Two Double Volumes,
    cloth, £1 1s.; half calf, marbled edges, £1 11s. 6d.

    Daily Devotion for the Household. Containing a Short Prayer, with
    Hymn and a Portion of Scripture for Every Morning and Evening in
    the Year. With Twenty-four full-page Plates. Royal 4to, cloth, gilt
    edges, £1 5s.; leather, £1 15s.

    Cassell's Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Edited by the Rev. W.
    BRAMLEY-MOORE, M.A. With 181 Engravings by Sir JOHN GILBERT,
    MORTEN, EDWARDS, &c. &c. Imperial 8vo, 732 pp., cloth, 12s.; full
    gilt cloth, 15s.

    Cassell's Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Containing 100 Illustrations
    by SELOUS and PRIOLO. Imperial 8vo, 400 pp., cloth, 7s. 6d.; full
    gilt cloth, gilt edges, 10s. 6d.

    Cassell's Bunyan's Holy War. Uniform with the above, and same price.


POPULAR WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY.

THE NEW AND CHEAPER EDITIONS OF LOUIS FIGUIER'S POPULAR SCIENTIFIC WORKS,

Containing all the Original Illustrations, the Text Revised and Corrected,
price =7s. 6d.= each, comprise:--

    The Human Race. Newly Edited and Revised by ROBERT WILSON, Fellow
    of the Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh. With 242 Illustrations.

    Mammalia. Revised and Corrected by Professor E. PERCEVAL WRIGHT,
    M.D. With 260 Illustrations.

    The World before the Deluge. With 233 Illustrations. _Fifth
    Edition._ Revised and Corrected by W. H. BRISTOW, F.R.S.

    The Ocean World. With 427 Illustrations. _Third Edition._ Revised
    and Corrected by Professor E. PERCEVAL WRIGHT, M.D.

    Reptiles and Birds. With 300 Illustrations. _Second Edition._
    Revised and Corrected by Captain PARKER GILLMORE.

    The Insect World. With 576 Illustrations. _Fourth Edition._ Revised
    by Professor DUNCAN, M.D., F.R.S.

    The Vegetable World. With 470 Illustrations. _Third Edition._
    Revised and Corrected by an EMINENT BOTANIST.

    Cassell's Brehm's Book of Birds. Translated from the Text of Dr.
    BREHM, by Professor T. RYMER JONES, F.R.S. With upwards of 400
    Engravings, and numerous full-page Coloured Plates. _Complete in
    Four Volumes_, 4to, cloth, 7s. 6d.; cloth gilt, gilt edges, 10s.
    each; or Two Vols., half-calf, £2 2s.

    The Book of the Horse. By Samuel Sidney. With 25
    fac-simile Coloured Plates, from Original Paintings, and upwards of
    100 Wood Engravings. Demy 4to, cloth gilt, 31s. 6d.; half-morocco,
    gilt edges, £2 2s.

    Transformations of Insects. By Professor P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.D.,
    F.R.S. With about 250 Illustrations. _New and Cheaper Edition._ Now
    ready, demy 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.

    Cassell's Popular Natural History. With about 2,000 Engravings and
    Coloured Plates. Complete in Four Volumes, cloth, 42s.

    The Illustrated Book of Poultry. By L. WRIGHT. A Complete and
    Practical Treatise on the Breeding, Rearing, and Management of
    every known variety of Poultry. With 50 exquisite Coloured Plates
    of Prize Birds, painted from Life, and numerous Engravings. Demy
    4to, 600 pp., cloth bevelled, gilt edges, 31s. 6d.; half-morocco,
    gilt edges, £2 2s.

    The Book of Pigeons. By ROBERT FULTON. Edited and arranged by LEWIS
    WRIGHT. Illustrated with 50 life-like Coloured Plates, painted
    expressly for this Work, and with numerous Engravings on Wood. Demy
    4to, cloth, bevelled, gilt edges, 31s. 6d.; hall-morocco, gilt
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    _Cassell Petter & Galpin; London, Paris & New York._


MISCELLANEOUS WORKS.

    A Ride to Khiva. By Capt. F. BURNABY, Royal Horse Guards. Being a
    narrative of the Author's adventures and experiences during his
    recent journey to Khiva, with some Remarks upon Russia's Advance
    Eastward towards India. One vol., 500 pp., demy 8vo, with large
    Maps showing districts traversed, &c., 21s.

    Cassell's Family Magazine. A High-class Illustrated Family
    Magazine. Monthly, 7d.; Yearly Vols., 9s.

    Civil Service, Guide to Employment in the. _New Edition._ With an
    Introduction by J. D. MORELL, LL.D. Containing the New Regulations
    complete. Cloth, 2s. 6d.

    Civil Service, Guide to the Indian. By A. C. EWALD, F.S.A. _New and
    Cheaper Edition._ Cloth, 2s. 6d.

    Cobden Club Essays. Second Series. 500 pp., demy 8vo, cloth, 15s.
    _Second Edition._

    Decorative Design, Principles of. By CHRISTOPHER DRESSER, Ph.D.,
    F.L.S., &c. Illustrated with Two Coloured Plates and numerous
    Designs and Diagrams. _Second Edition._ Extra crown 4to, cloth
    gilt, 7s. 6d.

    Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Brewer's; giving the Derivation,
    Source, or Origin of Common Phrases, Allusions, and Words that have
    a Tale to Tell. By the Rev. Dr. BREWER. _New and Cheaper Edition._
    Demy 8vo, 1,000 pages, cloth, 7s. 6d.

    Facts and Hints for Every-day Life. A Comprehensive Book on Every
    Subject connected with the Comforts of Home and the Health and
    Prosperity of its Inmates. _Second Edition._ Cloth, 2s, 6d.

    Historical Scenes. Containing some of the most striking episodes
    from History. Selected by E. SPOONER from the writings of the
    following writers, and used by special permission:--FULLER,
    CARLYLE, MOTLEY, FROUDE, PRESCOTT, FRASER-TYTLER, MILMAN,
    Archbishop TAIT, Dean STANLEY, Dr. ARNOLD. Fcap. 8vo, 224 pages,
    cloth, 4s. 6d.

    Local Government and Taxation. The Volume of COBDEN CLUB ESSAYS
    for 1875. Edited by J. W. PROBYN. Cloth, 12s. 6d.

    Manners of Modern Society. A Comprehensive Work on the Etiquette of
    the Present Day. _Fourth Edition._ Cloth gilt, 2s. 6d.

    North-West Passage by Land, The. By Lord MILTON and Dr. CHEADLE.
    _Original Edition_, demy 8vo, cloth, with Twenty-two full-page
    Illustrations and Two Maps, 21s. _New and Cheaper Edition_, crown
    8vo, with Maps and Illustrations, cloth, 2s. 6d.; cloth gilt, gilt
    edges, 3s. 6d.

    Practical Kennel Guide, The. By Dr. GORDON STABLES, Author of
    "Cats: their Points and Characteristics." With Illustrations. 192
    pages, crown 8vo., cloth, 3s. 6d.

    Practical Poultry-Keeper, The. _Ninth Edition._ A Standard Guide
    to the Management of Poultry for Domestic Use, the Market, or
    Exhibition. By L. WRIGHT. With 48 Plain Illustrations. Cloth, 3s.
    6d.; or 36 Plain and 8 New Chromo Plates, 5s.

    Quiver, The. The Illustrated Magazine for Sunday Reading. Monthly,
    6d.; and Yearly Volumes, 7s. 6d.

    Shorter English Poems. By Professor HENRY MORLEY. Being Vol.
    I. of CASSELL'S LIBRARY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Containing the
    leading characteristic shorter Poems of English Literature, from
    the earliest period to the present time, with upwards of 200
    Illustrations. 512 pages, extra crown 4to, cloth, 12s. 6d.

    Stock Exchange Year-Book, The. By THOMAS SKINNER. Containing a
    careful Digest of Information relating to the Origin, History, and
    Present Position of each of the Joint Stock Companies and Public
    Securities known to the Markets of the United Kingdom. Cloth, 5s.

    Talks about Trees. A Popular Account of their Nature and Uses. By
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    cloth gilt, gilt edges, 5s.

    The Theory and Action of the Steam-Engine: For Practical Men. By W.
    H. NORTHCOTT, C.E., Author of "Lathes and Turning," &c. Demy 8vo,
    224 pages, with numerous Diagrams and Tables, cloth, 7s. 6d.


EDUCATIONAL WORKS.

    A First Sketch of English Literature. By HENRY MORLEY, Professor of
    English Literature at University College, and Examiner in English
    Language, Literature, and History to the University of London.
    _Fourth and Cheaper Edition._ Crown 8vo, 912 pp., cloth, 7s. 6d.

    A Complete Manual of Spelling. On the Principles of Contrast and
    Comparison. By J. D. MORELL, LL.D., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
    _Forty-fifth Thousand._ Cloth, 1s.

    Little Folks' History of England. By ISA CRAIG-KNOX. With Thirty
    Illustrations. _New and Cheaper Edition._ Cloth, 1s. 6d.

    The Animal Kingdom. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. With numerous
    Illustrations. _Twentieth Thousand, Revised and Corrected._ Cloth,
    1s. 6d.

    Cassell's School Board Arithmetic. With about 3,000 Examples. 1s.
    6d.; or with Key, 1s. 9d. KEY separate, 6d.

    Hart's Elementary Chemistry. By the Rev. H. MARTYN HART, M.A. With
    Coloured Frontispiece and numerous Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d.

    Colour. By A. H. CHURCH, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the
    Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. With Coloured Plates and
    numerous Diagrams. Cloth, 2s. 6d.

    Elementary Lessons in Applied Mechanics. By Professor R. S. BALL,
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    Cloth, 2s.

    Natural Philosophy in Easy Lessons. By Professor TYNDALL, F.R.S.
    _Third Edition._ Cloth, 2s. 6d.

    Euclid, Cassell's. Edited by Professor WALLACE, A.M. _One Hundredth
    Thousand._ 8vo, 216 pp., stiff covers, 1s.; cloth, 1s. 6d.

    Algebra (Elements of), Cassell's. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1s. 6d.

    A Course of Painting in Neutral Tint. With 24 Plates from Designs
    by R. P. LEITCH. The Letterpress to each Plate contains Full
    Instructions to the Learner, and the Plates show the progress of
    the work through its different stages. Oblong 4to, cloth, price 5s.

    A Course of Water-Colour Painting. By _R. P. Leitch_. With 24
    Coloured Plates, and full Instructions to Learners. _Fourth
    Edition._ Cloth, 5s.

    Cassell's German-English and English-German Pronouncing Dictionary.
    _New Edition._ Crown 8vo, 864 pages, cloth, 3s. 6d.

    Cassell's Latin-English, English-Latin Dictionary. 914 pp., demy
    8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.

    Cassell's Modern School Copy-Books. A very comprehensive Series,
    printed from Copper-plate copies on superior writing paper.
    Prepared in accordance with the requirements of the New Code of
    1876. Complete in 18 Books, price 3d. each.

    Cassell's Graduated Copy-Books, adapted to the requirements of the
    New Code for 1876; each Book containing 24 pages of Writing Copies,
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    Cassell's Penny Copy-Books. Complete in 18 Books, price 1d. each.

    Cassell's Penny Drawing-Copy Books. Complete in 28 Books, price 1d.
    each, each Penny Book consisting of 14 pages of Drawing Copies,
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    Cassell's Sixpenny Drawing Copies. Comprising Five Series of Books,
    each Series complete in Twelve Parts, price 6d. each; Twelve
    Packets on Cardboard, price 1s. each; or One Volume, cloth, 7s, 6d.

    Cassell's Course of Practical Geometry. By E. A. DAVIDSON.
    Consisting of 64 Copies on Cardboard, in Packet, 5s.

    Cassell's School Board Freehand Drawing Copy Books, consisting of
    4 Books, each containing 16 pp., fcap. folio, 1s. 4d. the set.

    The Marlborough French Grammar. _Tenth Edition, Enlarged and
    Revised._ Arranged and Compiled by the Rev. J. F. BRIGHT, M.A.,
    Master of the Modern School in Marlborough College. 164 pages,
    cloth, 2s. 6d.

    The Marlborough French Exercises. _Sixth Edition, Enlarged and
    Revised._ By the Rev. G. W. DE LISLE, M.A., French Master in
    Marlborough College. Cloth, 3s. 6d.

    Cassell's French-English and English-French Dictionary. _New and
    Revised Edition._ By Professors DE LOLME and WALLACE. Crown 8vo,
    956 pages, cloth, 3s. 6d.

    The Marlborough German Grammar. _New and Enlarged Edition._
    Arranged and Compiled by the Rev. J. F. BRIGHT, M.A. Cloth, 3s. 6d.

    A Course of Sepia Painting. With 24 Plates from Designs by R. P.
    LEITCH. The Letterpress to each contains Full Instructions to the
    Learner, and the Plates show the progress of the work through the
    different stages. Oblong 4to, cloth, price 5s.

    Cassell's School Board Geometrical Drawing Copy Books, consisting
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    _Cassell Petter & Galpin: London, Paris & New York._


GALBRAITH AND HAUGHTON'S SCIENTIFIC MANUALS.

    By the Rev. Professor GALBRAITH, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College,
    Dublin, and the Rev. Professor HAUGHTON, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

    Manual of Arithmetic. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
    Manual of Plane Trigonometry. Cloth, 2s. 6d.
    Manual of Euclid. Books I., II., III. Cloth, 2s. 6d.
    Manual of Euclid. Books IV., V., VI. Cloth, 2s. 6d.
    Manual of Mathematical Tables. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
    Manual of Mechanics. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
    Manual of Optics. Cloth, 2s. 6d.
    Manual of Hydrostatics. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
    Manual of Tides and Tidal Currents. With Tidal Cards, 3s.
    Manual of Astronomy. Cloth, 5s.
    Manual of the Steam Engine. Cloth, 3s. 6d.
    Manual of Algebra. Part I., 2s. 6d. Complete, 7s. 6d.
    The Three Kingdoms of Nature. Illustrated. Cloth, 5s.
    A Manual of Natural Philosophy. With 160 Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d.

⁂ _A Complete List of_ CASSELL PETTER & GALPIN'S _Educational Works
will be found in their_ EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE, _a copy of which will be
forwarded post free on application_.


BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE.

    =Little Folks.= Vols. I., II., III., and IV. of the NEW AND
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    each.

    ⁂ LITTLE FOLKS _is published in Monthly Parts, 6d.; and in
    Half-Yearly Volumes, 3s. 6d._

The Little Folks' Picture Gallery. Containing about 150 Beautiful
Pictures, with accompanying Rhymes to each Picture, by the Author of "Home
Chat." _Fourth Edition, enlarged._ Crown 4to, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 5s.

Little Folks' Picture Album. Uniform with the "Little Folks' Picture
Gallery," containing 168 Large Pictures, with accompanying text printed in
bold type. Cloth elegant, gilt edges, 5s.

Paws and Claws: being True Stories of Clever Creatures, Tame and
Wild. By One of the Authors of "Poems Written for a Child." Profusely
Illustrated. _Second Edition._ Fcap. 4to, cloth gilt, 5s.

Around and About Old England. By C. L. MATÉAUX. With numerous
Illustrations. 240 pages, extra fcap. 4to, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 5s.

Through Picture-Land. By C. L. MATÉAUX, being the New Volume of the
PICTURE TEACHING SERIES Containing about 200 Illustrations. Fcap. 4to, 192
pages, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3s. 6d.

The Cosy Corner Series. A Series of Story Books for Children. Each Book
containing nearly ONE HUNDRED FULL-PAGE PICTURES.

    =Bright Rays for Dull Days.=
    =Chats for Small Chatterers.=
    =Pictures for Happy Hours.=
    =Ups and Downs of a Donkey's Life.=

Each book contains 184 pages, fcap. 8vo, cloth gilt, gilt edges, with
Medallion, price, each 2s. 6d.

The Boy Joiner and Model-Maker. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. Containing
Practical Directions for Making numerous Articles of Use and Ornament.
Illustrated. Extra fcap. 4to, 256 pages, cloth gilt, 5s.

Tiny Houses and their Builders. Uniform with "Paws and Claws." Profusely
Illustrated. 192 pages, fcap. 4to, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 5s.

Hymns and Poems for Little Folks. (Uniform with the "Children's Album.")
Containing a charming Collection of the favourite Hymns and Poems. With
150 full-page Illustrations. Super-royal 16mo, 320 pages, cloth, 3s. 6d.

The Old Fairy Tales. A Choice Collection of Favourite Fairy Tales.
Collected and Edited by JAMES MASON. With 24 full-page and numerous other
Original Illustrations. _New and Cheaper Edition._ Super-royal 16mo,
cloth, gilt edges, 1s. 6d.

Pussy Tip-Toes Family. With numerous full-page Illustrations. Fcap. 4to,
192 pages, cloth, bevelled boards, gilt edges, 5s.

Frisk and His Flock. With numerous full-page Illustrations. Fcap. 4to,
192 pages, cloth, bevelled boards, gilt edges, 5s.

Peeps Abroad for Folks at Home. By C. L. MATÉAUX. Uniform with "Home
Chat" and "Sunday Chats;" describing Foreign Lands and Foreign Cities. 256
pp., fcap. 4to. Profusely Illustrated. _Third Edition._ 5s.

Fairy Tales Told Again. With 24 full-page Illustrations by GUSTAVE DORÉ.
Imp. 8vo. _New and Cheaper Edition_, 5s.

Half-Hours with the Early Explorers. By T. FROST. Containing Narratives
of the Adventures and Discoveries of the Early Explorers. _Second
Edition._ Profusely Illustrated. 240 pp., fcap. 4to, cloth, 5s.

The Child's Book of Song and Praise. With 250 Illustrations and 33
Pieces of Music, with Accompaniments. _Second Edition._ Cloth, 5s.; cloth
gilt, gilt edges, 6s. 6d.

Robinson Crusoe. _New Edition._ With One Hundred Illustrations. Royal
8vo, cloth, 5s.; full gilt, 6s. 6d.

Swiss Family Robinson. _New Edition._ With 140 Illustrations and
Coloured Frontispiece. Cloth, plain, 5s.; full gilt, 6s. 6d.

    [hand] _A List of_ CASSELL PETTER & GALPIN'S _Children's Books will
        be forwarded post free on application_.

       *       *       *       *       *

    [hand] _The following CATALOGUES of CASSELL PETTER & GALPIN'S
       PUBLICATIONS can be had from all Booksellers, or post free
       on application to the Publishers_:--

    =CASSELL PETTER & GALPIN'S COMPLETE CATALOGUE=, containing a List
    of Several Hundred Volumes, including Bibles and Religious Works,
    Fine Art Volumes, Children's Books, Dictionaries, Educational
    Works, History, Natural History, Household and Domestic Treatises,
    Hand-books and Guides, Science, Travels, &c. &c., together with a
    Synopsis of their numerous Illustrated Serial Publications, sent
    post free on application to CASSELL PETTER & GALPIN, Ludgate Hill,
    London.

    =CASSELL'S EDUCATIONAL CATALOGUE=, containing a Description of
    their Educational Works, together with a List of Mathematical
    Instruments, Water-Colours, &c.

    =CASSELL'S CLASSIFIED LIST=, containing a List of Books arranged
    according to their value, from 6d. upwards.

    _Cassell Petter & Galpin: London, Paris & New York._

       *       *       *       *       *

    +------------------------------------------------------------------+
    |                   Transcriber notes:                             |
    |                                                                  |
    | P. 9. Plate 32. "OTIS MAQUEENII" changed to "OTIS MACQUEENII".   |
    | P. 99.  'Rallus aquaticus', corrected 'Rallus'.                  |
    | P. 159. 'after a about', removed 'a'.                            |
    | P. 217. 'it length', changed 'it' to 'its'.                      |
    | P. 242. 'It the' changed 'It' to 'In'.                           |
    | P. 257. 'fiords' changed to 'fjords'.                            |
    | P. 276. 'I. Mississippensis' changed to 'I. Mississippiensis'    |
    | P. 279. 'Flute Shirke' changed 'Shirke' to 'Shrike'.             |
    | P. 286. 'Florisuci' changed to 'Florisuga', as this genus is not |
    | written in plural.                                               |
    | P. 298. 'FAMILY VI. ... iii' Changed 'iii' to 'iv'.              |
    | P. 306. '(Boblink)' changed to 'Bobolink).                       |
    | Fixed various punctuation .                                      |
    +------------------------------------------------------------------+