THE VIOLIN

  AND THE ART OF ITS CONSTRUCTION.

  A Treatise on the Stradivarius Violin

  by

  AUGUST RIECHERS,

  Bow and Violin Maker.

  [Copyright of the German and English Editions.]

  With four lithographed plates.


  GOETTINGEN.
  CARL SPIELMEYER’S NACHFOLGER.
  FRANZ WUNDER.
  1895.

  Copyright entered at Stationers Hall, London.




  To his highly revered Friend and Patron

  DR. JOSEPH JOACHIM

  this work is humbly dedicated

  by

  THE AUTHOR.




PREFACE.


The highly esteemed author of this treatise, a renowned violin maker
and clever repairer, of old instruments, having been denied the
pleasure of publishing the same himself, death intervening on January
4th, 1893, his work on the violin and the art of its construction is
now published, in accordance with his last wishes.

This treatise will, no doubt, be all the more welcome to professionals
and amateurs alike, as to my knowledge no such work has yet been
published treating the subject in such an able and thorough manner.

May, therefore, the valuable labours of the deceased author meet with
that universal acknowledgment, which in a very high degree they deserve.

  _Göttingen_, April 1895.

  The Editor.




Index.


  Introduction                                                 Page 7

  I. Of the Wood                                                 ” 10

  II. Of the Construction                                        ” 11

  III. The Ribs                                                  ” 12

  IV. The Back and Edges                                         ” 12

  V. The Belly                                                   ” 13

  VI. The Arching                                                ” 13

  VII. The Purfling                                              ” 14

  VIII. Working-out the Thicknesses of the Belly and Back        ” 15

  IX. The F-holes                                                ” 16

  X. The Bass-bar                                                ” 16

  XI. The Head or Neck                                           ” 18

  XII. The Dimensions, Length of Neck and Body                   ” 18

  XIII. The Finger-board and Nut                                 ” 21

  XIV. The Position of the Neck                                  ” 21

  XV. The Tail-piece                                             ” 22

  XVI. The Pegs                                                  ” 24

  XVII. The Bridge                                               ” 24

  XVIII. The Sound-post                                          ” 25

  XIX. The Strings                                               ” 27

  XX. The Varnish                                                ” 28

  XXI. The Cleaning and Care of the Violin                       ” 32

  XXII. The Bow                                                  ” 32




INTRODUCTION.


In giving publicity to this treatise on the construction of the violin,
I believe I am only meeting the wishes of many, both professionals and
amateurs, who are desirous of learning more particulars concerning the
construction of their instruments, but am also giving a few practical
hints to my younger comrades in the art of violin-making. I hope also
to induce some of my older colleagues to give forth other works of the
same kind, which may serve to ennoble and promote our art.

Times without number I have been asked by friends of the violin, during
my 40 years’ work as a violin maker, to recommend books giving more
exact information on the construction of that instrument, but the only
answer that I have been able to give has been that German technical
literature on the subject is very meagre, and that information from
foreign works is mostly impoverished by feeble translations.

Very few authors understand the general build of the violin thoroughly,
they pay most attention to individual points, those most calculated
to attract the attention of amateurs; for example, the proportions of
single parts, their size, etc. There is only one work I can recommend
which forms an exception to this rule and that is “The Memoirs of
Antonio Bagatella” (Padua 1786) which has been published in a German
translation by Franz Wunder at Göttingen.

It contains not only rules for the construction of violins, violas,
violincellos and basses, as well as distinct instructions for the
restoration of the outline of the belly and back of these instruments,
but also enters into particulars concerning the adjustment and
renovation of the same.

Just as the celebrated violin makers of the last century took the
work of Amati as their model, I have found my master, to whom I, in
common with all my colleagues, look up with admiration, recognising in
him not only the gifted artist, but also the industrious workman and
far-sighted observer--I mean Antonio Stradivarius. Even as a boy I was
very fond of listening to the tales told me by my father, who was a
musician in Hanover and as an autodidact occupied himself with violin
work, tales in which he described to me the wonderful productions
of the old Italian masters and more particularly those of Amati,
Stradivarius, and Guarnerius. He regarded it as a great distinction
shewn to him, and often referred to the fact, that he was allowed
to open and repair the Guarnerius violin of Paganini. After a time,
however, he altered his tone and cursed the Italian as well as his
violin, for the great artist, although he praised my father’s work and
expressed himself perfectly satisfied with it, objected to the payment
of three Thalers for the repairs, considering it an exorbitant charge,
and this, coupled with similar experiences at the hands of others, so
incensed my father that he would not give his consent to my earnest
wish to enter the violin factory; consequently I was apprenticed at the
age of 13 years to a pianoforte manufacturer with whom I remained for
two years, in spite of having shown aptitude in the other direction by
constructing a violin with my own hands at the age of 12 years.

Being released from my apprenticeship at the beginning of my fifteenth
year, I wandered away to Markneukirchen, there to study violin-making
under Hans Ficker; later on I was occupied for a longer period as
assistant to Ludwig Bausch, senior, in Leipsic, to whom I owe a great
deal, for he strengthened me in my love of the art and settled my
belief in the unequalled excellence of Stradivarius. My admiration for
this great master increased even more and more, and in my fifteenth
year, when I began to work for myself in Hanover, I learned even
more of his works and had the happiness to find that my reverence
for him was shared by my friend and patron Dr. Joseph Joachim. Ten
years later, the latter exchanged Hanover for Berlin, and as I was
no longer contented in the former town after his departure in 1872,
I gladly responded to a call from him to prosecute my work in the
Prussian capital and to continue to study the works of Stradivarius,
in order to handle them more worthily and to infuse his ideas into my
own productions. I venture to hope that I have succeeded in the first
part of my undertaking, for, a great number of instruments have passed
through my hands in the course of years, including the incomparable
violins belonging to Dr. Joachim. The second part of my task I do
not consider accomplished. I am ever taking more and more trouble in
working, in the hope of bringing my attempt nearer and nearer to the
hitherto unattained excellence of Stradivarius. I therefore beg my
readers to regard the following chapters with a favourable eye and
to accept them in a friendly spirit as the result of long years of
experience, the confirmation or rectification of which I shall accept
with joy.




I. OF THE WOOD.


There can be no doubt whatever that a correct knowledge and choice of
the wood for the construction of violins is of the utmost importance.
Both these qualifications, however, can only be gained by experience,
since that alone can prove which kind of wood is the most suitable and
produces the best results.

The back, the ribs, the neck, and the head should be of maple, and
neither too hard, nor too soft, nor yet too deeply grained. In every
case light wood should be selected, and I consider Hungarian maple the
best for the purpose. For the belly, the so-called white fir or pine
should be used, as both kinds of wood possess sufficient resonance, and
are easily manipulated. These woods too must be as light as possible,
and should have neither very narrow nor very broad, but regular and
well-formed concentric circles. The Tyrol and the neighbouring cantons
of Switzerland produce the best wood for this purpose. It is to be
observed that the pieces used must be split and not cut.

In my opinion, the much praised American pine is too soft and
resinous, and neither do I consider the American maple qualified for
the construction of violins. The wood used by myself is obtained from
Schoenbach, near Eger, in Bohemia, where large supplies for the needs
of instrument makers are always on hand to be selected from. The age
of the wood I consider of only very small importance; if it has been
laying by for five years, ready cut or split, as the case may be, for
the construction of a violin, it will then be sufficiently dry and will
need no further preparation. I have exactly ascertained the weight
of wood which had been laid by for drying for five years, and then,
having weighed it again at the end of twenty years, have found it had
not become perceptibly lighter. All the violins made by me, some 1600
instruments, have always weighed from 260 to 275 grammes, without the
pegs, finger-board, and tail-piece, a weight which I have generally
found to be that of the violins constructed by Stradivarius.




II. OF THE CONSTRUCTION.


For the space of thirty years I have worked upon the plan of
Stradivarius solely, for I consider that his instruments and their
proportions are the most perfect that can be found. Why, therefore,
should I have taken any other as my model? I have repaired at least
three hundred undoubtedly genuine violins constructed by this great
master, besides having seen and handled many others, and consequently
have had frequent opportunities of thoroughly studying his work, and of
gauging and copying his most beautiful instruments. As the creations
of this incomparable maker seem perfect in every detail, I have never
attempted to make any additions of my own, but have strictly adhered to
specimens produced by him in his prime (1700 to 1720) as my models, and
have found that they differ but very slightly from one another. In Fig.
1., I have given the outlines of a violin of this period (1713) with
the blocks.




III. THE RIBS (Fig. 1. a).


The ribs should be 1¹⁄₂ m/m. thick, and very neatly and evenly planed;
the height should be about 30 m/m. at first. The ribs are curved to
their correct form by means of a hot bending iron, or still better by
a copper clew, and then glued to the blocks. After this, the ribs next
to the back are to be made true to receive the linings. The latter must
be 8 m/m. high, 2¹⁄₂ m/m. thick, and must be made of lime-wood. The
middle linings are to be let into the blocks, so that they cannot break
loose. The blocks must also be made of lime-wood. The edges of the ribs
and the surface of the rim, before being glued on to the prepared back,
must again be very carefully adjusted, so that they appear like one
even surface. This being done, the superfluous wood of the blocks must
be cut away to the shape of the mould (_see_ Fig. 5). The ribs from the
bottom block to the side blocks are then regulated to a height of about
30 m/m., and from the side blocks to the top block (Fig. 3) they are
gradually decreased by 2¹⁄₂ m/m., that is, until 27¹⁄₂ m/m. is reached.
This diminution in the height is most practically thought out and
executed by Stradivarius, the belly obtaining thereby a tension which
offers the necessary resistance to the neck. The upper linings must be
adjusted to the ribs in the same way, and as a matter of course, they
must be curved to the shape of the ribs. The superfluous wood of the
blocks being cut away, the mould is removed.




IV. THE BACK AND EDGES.


It is not of importance whether the back be made in one or two pieces;
nevertheless, Stradivarius seems to have given the preference to a
divided back. I also consider it more advantageous, as, being joined,
it offers greater resistance, and is not so easily pressed outwards on
the sound-post side, as is the case with violins having the back cut in
one piece. The edges of the mid-rib and corners should be 4 m/m. thick,
whereas the upper and lower edges of the back (Fig. 1 ee/ee), gradually
decreasing from the corners, become 1 m/m. thinner.




V. THE BELLY.


The belly must be composed of two parts, and has to be joined together
so exactly that the narrow year-rings are in the middle of the same;
the outer ring which should not be more than 2 m/m. broad and very
equally disposed, may run towards the edges. The edges must be of the
same thickness as those of the back.




VI. THE ARCHING.


It does not seem to me probable that Stradivarius acted without
mature deliberation in making the arch of the back and belly, taken
together, of the same height as the ribs, viz.: 30 m/m.; of course,
I am speaking now of the violins made during his prime. If the back
and belly are placed one upon the other, the height will amount to 30
m/m., the entire external diameter, therefore, must be 60 m/m., since
the ribs, as already stated, have a height of 30 m/m. I am certainly
of the opinion, that Stradivarius substantiated these proportions
by experiments. There are, however, exceptions; the greatest of the
deviations from this rule which has come under my notice, consisted in
the middle line measuring 70 m/m., reckoning from the upper edge of the
belly to the lower edge of the back. No doubt, this violin, made in
1710, was an experiment, the average measurement being considered to
be from 58 to 62 m/m. Now and again, Stradivarius made the arch lower,
whether intentionally or from want of wood, I am not in a position to
say. In this case he makes the ribs correspondingly higher, so that
the above-mentioned measurement may still be 60 m/m. Stradivarius has
also occasionally made the arch of the back less than 15 m/m., and by
way of compensation, in this case, has increased the arch of the belly.
I am of opinion, however, that these deviations are to be ascribed
more to experiment than to accident. He never trusted to chance in
his work, but in the most careful way reflected upon it and took into
consideration all circumstances in connection with it. The arch given
as an example in Fig. 6, is taken from a Stradivarius violin of the
year 1713, and as the belly and back are both of equal height, viz.: 15
m/m., the entire height amounts to 60 m/m.




VII. THE PURFLING.


The purfling is always placed 4 m/m. from the edge and is 1¹⁄₂ m/m.
wide. It consists of three parts, the two outermost of which are
prepared from maple and stained black, while the middle part is made of
the same kind of wood, but unstained. It is of the utmost importance
that the purfling should only be inserted to the depth of one-third
of the thickness of the edges, otherwise the edge will very easily
break off. In the work of Stradivarius, one finds continually on the
back, both above and below, a peg of maple-wood, by means of which he
fastened the back to the block, and the half of this peg is inserted
in the purfling. In violins having a divided back, one finds another
purfling on the bottom block, along the joint of the ribs, but with
backs made in one piece it scarcely ever occurs, because then the under
ribs, as far as the middle rib, are prepared in one piece. The purfling
is not to be regarded as an embellishment, as many suppose it is. It
considerably strengthens the back and the belly towards the edges, and
at the same time offers a protection, especially for the belly, against
cracks, if the instrument, for example, should be opened for repairs
by an inexperienced workman. I will even go so far as to assert that
if the purfling were not employed, old violins could not exist without
numberless cracks, for any violent blow would cause cracks, without
the additional strength given by the purfling, and the greater number
of old and costly violins would come down to us spoilt, or at least
damaged.

The purfling also has this advantage that if perchance the edges get
broken off, they can easily be replaced and the good appearance of the
instrument restored without much trouble.




VIII. WORKING-OUT THE THICKNESSES OF THE BELLY AND BACK.


The thickness of the breast in the back amounts to 4 m/m. at the spot
where the sound-post stands and remains the same to a distance of 50
m/m. towards the bottom block, and 60 m/m. towards the upper block,
while it decreases to 3 m/m. towards the middle rib. The cheeks must
be 1 to 2 m/m. thick. I have assured myself by numberless measurements
that Stradivarius often changed the thickness of the back; and has even
gone so far as to make it 6 m/m., while the belly which he made from
the soundest and most perfect wood, with very evenly disposed grain,
measured always exactly 2¹⁄₂ m/m.




IX. THE F-HOLES.


A well-formed and proportioned F has a great deal to do with enhancing
the appearance of a violin. The F represented in Fig. 7 is a most
perfect specimen of what it should be. Anyone wishing to cut the
F-holes in the belly, should take Fig. 7 and place it in such a way
that the line a/a be exactly 195 m/m. from the outer and upper edge,
and _b b_ almost upon the point of the belly. This will give the right
position of the F-holes and at the same time the measurement of the
body. The greatest width of the opening of the F-holes must be 6 m/m.
The width of the breast between the two upper excisions must never be
narrower than the width of the bridge. In the accompanying illustration
these are very wide apart and might without disadvantage be placed 2
m/m. nearer together. On violins where this distance of the F-holes
is less than 40 m/m., either a narrower bridge must be used or the
bass-bar must be cut out a little, so that the latter may lie close
on to the upper F-hole. The lower lobes of the F-holes are always
slanted outwards by Stradivarius, thus presenting a more symmetrical
appearance. Both incisions are small, but clearly cut.




X. THE BASS-BAR.


After the F-holes have been cut out, the bass-bar can be fixed. It is
made of pine and should be prepared in such a way that the year-rings
lie perpendicularly to the belly. The height of the bass-bar under the
bridge is 10 m/m. and at the two ends 4 m/m. The bass-bar must be 6
m/m. thick in the middle, decreasing in thickness by 1 m/m. towards
the ends. The length should be 280 m/m. The bass-bar must be glued
on so that it lies 35 m/m. from the bottom edge and 40 m/m. from the
upper one. In order to determine exactly the position of the beam,
the width of the bridge should be precisely marked as 40 m/m. on the
inside of the belly and the bass-bar should then be placed to coincide
exactly with the G-foot of the bridge, giving it at the same time such
a slanting position as to bring its upper end within 4 or 6 m/m. of the
middle line of the belly, while its lower end should, on the contrary,
be purposely placed farther away from it. (_See_ illustration).

In order that the bass-bar may obtain the right tension, the side of
it lying next the belly must be slightly curved, sufficiently so for
both ends, before they are glued, to stand away about 2 m/m. In the
process of glueing, the ends must be firmly pressed down. The height
of the bass-bar under the bridge should be 8 m/m., while at the ends
the measurement should amount to 4 m/m. It is scarcely necessary to
remark that the proportions of the bass-bar vary in different violins,
according as they are smaller or larger, high or flat, strong or weak.
A few examples are given here. In a violin of the ordinary type, no
matter whether it be large or small, the proportions will be found to
coincide with the above statement, while a highly arched violin has
a less slanting and less tightened beam than the latter. In the case
of wood of a thickness less than 1¹⁄₂ m/m., the beam should be 1 to 2
m/m. more towards the interior, and also be placed from 3 to 5 m/m.
more slanting, and must in that case also be from 1 to 2 m/m. thicker.
A bass-bar under strong tension gives a sharp and clear tone, while
one of less tension gives a fuller and softer one. With bass-bars of
the height of 12 and even 15 m/m. (so-called acoustic bass-bars), it
is not possible to achieve any success. The fixing of the bass-bar
completes the interior construction of the violin, and consequently the
glueing-on of the belly can now be proceeded with.




XI. THE HEAD OR NECK.


In Fig. 8 we have a very beautiful model, representing as it does a
perfect specimen of Stradivarius. Its form can be obtained by exactly
copying the external outline and the measurements I-XV. The inner
curve of the head must be worked out as shewn in Fig. 8 _b_. The back
at the head (Fig. 8 _c_) should be 4 m/m. thick on the upper side and
gradually increase by 3 m/m. towards the under side, so that at this
point it reaches a thickness of 7 m/m. The peg-holes must be placed
exactly as shewn in the model. If they have short heads, they can be
placed a few millimetres nearer together from A to G without destroying
the appearance of the instrument. The wood for the head and neck must
always be so chosen that the grain and surface lie horizontally.




XII. THE DIMENSIONS, LENGTH OF NECK AND BODY.


None of the old violin makers have attached more importance to the
right position of the F-holes than Stradivarius; hence we gather that
he fully recognised the importance of the dimensions of the body, and
in his violins we always find that the same measurement is retained
between the interior incision of the F-holes and the upper edge. We
shall see later on the great advantages that would accrue to the
musician, if all violin makers would observe the same rules in the
adjustment of the dimensions. I repeatedly have cut off the necks
of hundreds of violins, and by correcting the proportions have made
the possessors of them entirely contented. How many a student has
drudged on through life with a badly proportioned instrument, and in
consequence has never succeeded in obtaining that certainty on his
instrument after which he has diligently striven. We must now, however,
enter rather more into particulars.

I hope that what is to follow, may enable everyone to judge and prove
for himself, whether his violin has the correct dimensions or not. We
will adhere to the measurement accepted by Stradivarius (_see_ Fig. 1
_a a a_), which is exactly 195 m/m. from the upper edge to the incision
of the F-hole, and call it the normal measurement. From this we learn
that the length of the neck, that is to say, the distance from the
lower edge of the nut (the point where the finger-board begins) to the
upper edge of the belly (_b b_) should be exactly 130 m/m., and the
whole length of the body should bear the same proportion to the length
of the neck, as 195 m/m. bears to 130 m/m., or to put it still more
plainly, if we take the total of the two lengths, namely 325 m/m., and
divide it by five, the length of the body should be equal to three
of these parts and that of the neck to two of them. Should a violin
have a longer or shorter body measure than that given above, the neck
must still be in proportion with it of two to three, that is to say,
if the whole measure be divided into five parts, two of such parts
will give the length of the neck. By these means, correct dimensions
will be obtained, and a performer will easily accustom himself to the
proportionate position of the neck, and forthwith obtain certainty of
execution. If only the proportion of the neck to the body be correct,
a performer will scarcely notice, whether the whole measure from the
bridge to the upper nut is 5 to 10 m/m. longer or shorter. Great care
must be taken in placing the upper end of the finger-board; it should
be placed exactly at right angles with the under curve of the head
(_a_), a point which is often paid very little attention to, and yet is
one which is of the utmost importance. For instance, if the upper nut
be placed too far beyond the angle (_a_), the hand must of necessity
be stretched backwards in an uncomfortable position, or the fingers
will fall too high upon the strings. On the other hand, if the nut be
placed too low, the hand has no certain position upon the curve of the
neck, and consequently will play flat in the first position and sharp
in the third. It has often been said to me by musicians, and especially
amateurs, that their violins played sharp in the first position and
flat in the higher ones, and the contrary also has often come under my
notice. The sole cause of these imperfections is the disproportionate
relation in the length of the body and the neck, for whatever may be
the distance between the bridge and the nut, whether long or short, the
position of the different tones themselves is exactly determined by
the laws of acoustics, and always remains in the same relation to the
vibrating string.

I have given in Fig. 12 the exact position of the tones on the
A-string, according to the normal measurement of 325 m/m. given above.
The first tone played (B flat) is always exactly the eighteenth part of
the whole length of the string from the nut to the bridge; the second
tone is the eighteenth part from the first tone, and so on. If the
finger-board is 268 m/m. long, the high E on the A-string will coincide
with the lower end of the same. The above-mentioned imperfection is
also caused by the neck being either too long or too short; in the
first case a performer would play too sharp in the third position, and
too flat in the second; in the higher positions also, he would have
difficulty in finding the correct place for the fingers.




XIII. THE FINGER-BOARD AND NUT.


Both these portions of the instrument must be made of ebony (Fig. 12).
Before the finger-board is glued, the surfaces to be joined must be
made particularly smooth. The length is 268 m/m. in an instrument of
normal size, and in those which are longer and shorter, the necessary
proportion is easily determined. The width of the upper end, near the
nut, is 24 m/m., while at the lower end it measures 45 m/m.

The curve at the nut should be the same as the curve of the bridge, the
thickness being from 4 to 5 m/m. Whilst the centre of the finger-board
should form a straight line lengthways, it must be hollowed out under
the E-string equally to the depth of 1 m/m., and under the G-string to
1¹⁄₂ m/m., in order to prevent the jarring and rattling of the strings.
The thickness of the nut must be 5 m/m. on the under side and 4 m/m. on
the upper. The distance between the two outer string-grooves must be
from 16 to 18 m/m. The strings lie at the nut (_a_) in the case of E,
A, and D-strings at a distance of ¹⁄₂ m/m. from the finger-board, the
G-string 1 m/m. The thickness of the neck, including the finger-board,
is 18 m/m. at the upper curve (Fig. 8_b_ I.) for a hand of ordinary
size, and 24 m/m. at the lower curve (Fig. 8_b_ II); but this thickness
can be altered according to the wish of the performer.




XIV. THE POSITION OF THE NECK.


The neck of the violin must be regulated according to the width of
the finger-board. It must be cut about 7 m/m. longer than the length
required, when in position, in order to allow for its insertion in the
block; the entire length of the neck from the nut to the end should
measure 135 m/m. When this has been duly arranged, the neck can be
fitted into the block. The small semi-circular elongation of the back
of the violin, in common with the upper block, serves principally to
support the neck and keep it in position, at the same time giving the
performer a correct hold.

The finger-board having been glued to the neck, it is of the utmost
importance that the latter should be fitted in very carefully, so that
it protrude 5 m/m. from the belly (Fig. 8_e_).

If the gauge be placed on the centre of the finger-board in the line
_a a_ (Fig. I and II), the end _a_ (Fig. 9, third plate) should fall
exactly on the line of connection between the innermost excisions of
the F-holes, having its centre under the place where the bridge stands,
so that the finger-board may exactly coincide with the measure.

This arrangement gives us not only the correct position of the
finger-board, but also, as we shall see later on, the right height of
the bridge, 35 m/m., and also the suitable position of the strings
according to their height. The measurement marked upon the gauge (Fig.
9), viz.: from _a_ (beginning of the nut) as far as the upper edge
of the belly _b_ (end of the neck) and thence to _a_ (place of the
bridge) must be in such proportion to one another as to give the violin
practical dimensions and height of bridge.




XV. THE TAIL-PIECE (Fig. 11).


This part of the instrument exercises a great influence on the tone,
although the fact is doubted by a great many performers. I will
endeavour to briefly demonstrate my idea upon the subject. In the
first place, I would remark in reference to the shape and size of the
tail-piece that the upper curve must resemble the curve of the bridge.

The semi-circular ridge at the upper end is called the saddle and
must project about 1 m/m. The upper and movable end of the tail-piece
is not arranged at right angles with the middle line of the same,
but inclines about 1¹⁄₂ m/m. towards the G-string. This is done in
order to balance, so to speak, the crooked position of the tail-piece
which has been occasioned by the greater tension of the E-string in
comparison with the G-string, and also to keep the upper edge of the
tail-piece parallel with the upper edge of the bridge, which is very
necessary to the elegant appearance of the lower portion of the violin.
The space between the incisions for G and E-strings should be 30 m/m.
The length of the strings below the bridge from the upper edge of the
same to the saddle on the tail-piece should be 55 m/m., and then the
A-string behind the bridge will give the high E. If the proportion of
the tail-piece to the bridge be changed, that is to say, lengthened or
shortened by the use of a larger or smaller tail-piece with the same
length of the tail-piece fastener, the tension of the strings also
becomes altered, and the tone and vibrations are thereby affected.

If, for instance, the tail-piece is so constructed that the portion of
the A-string behind the bridge gives F, the other strings must also be
correspondingly slackened, for the tension of a string reaches not only
from the bridge to the nut as many suppose, but from the tail-piece
to the peg. In consequence of this, the pressure of the strings on
the instrument can be increased or lessened by means of a longer or
shorter tail-piece, whereby the tone is correspondingly modified.
The gut for the tail-piece should be from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 m/m. thick.
The before-mentioned variations of tone can also be obtained by the
lengthening or shortening of the gut of the tail-piece.

The rest, over which the gut passes, must be made of ebony and be 40
m/m. long by 5 m/m. wide, and must rise 3 m/m. from the belly. The
button, round which the gut passes, must also be made of ebony, and has
to be inserted into the centre of the lower block.




XVI. THE PEGS.


These are generally made of ebony, and care must be taken that they are
inserted exactly in the places marked in Fig. 8. The distance of the
pegs from the upper edge of the outer side of the violin head should
not be more than 10 m/m. The holes in the pegs, through which the
strings pass, should be 2 m/m. from the inside of the head. The outer
ends of the pegs should be level with the sides of the head and be
slightly rounded off.




XVII. THE BRIDGE (Fig. 10).


The bridge is made of maple and should be 40 m/m. wide and 35 m/m.
high, at the bottom it should be 4 m/m. thick, on the top 1¹⁄₂ m/m. The
width of the feet is not to exceed 9¹⁄₂ m/m. (Fig. 10 _a_).

The feet must be fitted exactly to the belly and towards the back
should be sloped sufficiently, so that on the lower side of the bridge
they form an exact right-angle with the centre line of the belly.

It is advisable to powder the feet a little with chalk to prevent the
bridge from being so easily displaced as would otherwise be the case.

The feet of the bridge should stand exactly on the line of connection
between the notches of the F-holes (Fig. 7 _a a_) and at an equal
distance from them on either side. The notches on the bridge for the E
and G-strings are to be 34 m/m. apart.

The lower end of the E-string should not be more than 4 m/m. from the
finger-board at the very most, that of the G-string about 6 m/m., but
never more. The height of the strings is, however, very often adjusted
to the wish of the performer. Herr Joachim, the great violinist, always
adopts the above measurements on his violins.

A highly arched violin does not require so high a bridge as a flatter
one, whilst an instrument with a thin belly needs a thicker bridge
than one of stronger make. These proportions must be carried out very
precisely, as well as the measurements with regard to the hardness or
softness of the wood and the strength or weakness of the bridge.

If the bridge be thick below and thin above, the tone will be clearer
than it would be if these conditions were reversed. If the heart in the
bridge be cut rather small and high up, the tone is rendered harder,
a large heart cut in the surface of the bridge will make the tone
fuller. The use of hard wood for the belly necessitates soft wood for
the bridge, and loosely grained and soft wood needs a hard wood for the
latter.




XVIII. THE SOUND-POST.


The sound-post must be made of pine; in a violin with a belly of normal
thickness its diameter should be 6 m/m. and show by its year-rings an
age from 10 to 12 years. With a thicker belly it should be made about
1 m/m. less in diameter. It must also be shaped so that both ends
exactly fit the arch of the violin. When the sound-post has been placed
in position, its year-rings should be at right angles with those of the
belly, and furthermore, it should be of such a height as to raise the
belly ¹⁄₂ m/m.

The sound-post must be placed upon the belly under the outer edge of
the E-string foot of the bridge, but it should rest upon the back from
2 to 4 m/m. nearer the centre. In its normal position the sound-post
must be placed nearer to the tail-piece than the bridge by about 2¹⁄₂
m/m., that is to say, by about the thickness of the belly.

If one wishes to procure any other tone than that obtained by the
above-mentioned position, the latter should not be altered, at most,
by more than 1 to 2 m/m. A sound-post only ¹⁄₂ m/m. longer, renders
the tone sharper and thinner, while if it be approached nearer the
bridge, the tone becomes clearer and more acute. If the sound-post be
moved more towards the centre of the instrument, the G-string sounds
clearer and firmer, but the E-string on the other hand grows slacker
and softer; if the sound-post be moved from its normal position about 1
m/m. further below the bridge, the tone will be softer, but at the same
time more muffled.

I should like to warn very strongly all performers, whether
professionals or amateurs, against attempting to alter the position of
either the sound-post or the bridge themselves, for such attempts will
in most cases be endless, and very seldom lead to the desired end. I
could adduce proofs of this in many cases, but I will give only one
here by way of example. The celebrated violinist Ole Bull who, after
the loss of all his property in America in the year 1860, took up his
residence with me in Hanover, could not play for an hour together,
without experimenting with his violin, it having become a perfect
passion with him to be always altering the position of the bridge and
the sound-post. Indeed, these experiments often lasted until quite a
short time before the beginning of a concert, and usually ended with
a malediction on himself and his otherwise precious “Josephi” (Joseph
Guarnerius del Gesù).

Still, I must confess that I learned a great deal from his many
researches by dint of observation. When Ole Bull was playing at the
Theatre in Hanover in cold weather, he always breathed a few times into
the F-holes of his violin before the curtain rose, in order to warm the
air in the interior of the instrument, as he was of opinion that in
consequence the violin spoke better. He may have been right. He also
carried E-strings in his waist-coat pocket during wet weather, because
he maintained, and perhaps justly, that they then lasted better.




XIX. THE STRINGS.


It is very difficult to decide on the quality of the strings; their
being light or dark-coloured has no influence on their durability. The
natural colour of the strings is dark, those of a lighter shade having
been sulphured to render them so. The Italian strings are at present
unrivalled, but care should be taken that they do not feel too hard.
The choice of strings according to their thickness really depends on
personal preference, but as a rule those only of medium size should be
chosen, which according to the French measurement of strings would be
14 degrees for the G-string, 23 for the D-string, 14 for the A-string
and 12 for the E-string.

The larger the violin is, the weaker should be the strings. The notion
that a half-sized violin should be thin-stringed, is quite erroneous,
it should, on the contrary, have strings as strong as a full-sized
violin, for owing to the shorter length, the strings, if they be a
weak set, become too loose and do not give a true sound, and offer
insufficient resistance under the pressure of the bow.




XX. THE VARNISH.


There has been for many years a warm and to a certain extent undecided
discussion going on, as to whether the varnishes used by Italian
violin makers were oily and slow-drying ones or spirit varnishes. To
investigate this matter still further, and to arrive at a correct
decision, will have to be left to the future.

I am, however, of the opinion that the old masters made use of spirit
or turpentine-oil until the middle of last century, but never of
linseed-oil or turpentine-oil varnish, as has been often asserted.

My opinion is supported by the following fact. In the year 1860 I had
the good fortune to buy a real Nicolas Amati lute which, although very
much knocked about, still retained a thick varnish of a most beautiful
gold colour. For my information I took the varnish off, in order to
submit it to the analysis of a clever chemist who, being a talented
amateur violinist and also a pupil of Spohr, showed great interest in
the matter and communicated to me, as the result of his investigations,
this fact that among the quantity of varnish which I had placed at
his command, there was not a trace of evidence which could lead to
the conclusion that linseed-oil varnish had been employed. In my own
researches I found that the varnish was immediately dissolved in spirit
of only 90 per cent., while in oil of turpentine and linseed-oil it was
scarcely affected, and by boiling only a small portion was removed.
Again, it is not probable that Stradivarius, in whose workshops about
3000 violins were constructed, would have employed linseed-oil varnish,
seeing that it would have required, in each case, six months for the
violin to get thoroughly dry.

There are many resins which can be dissolved in spirit or oil of
turpentine and used as a varnish, but the preference is generally
given to spirit-varnish, as it dries more quickly. If the spirit or
turpentine-oil has evaporated, only the resin remains.

The greatest attention must be paid to the relative hardness of the
resin and the wood, for both should be of equal density. Hard resin
hinders the vibration of the wood, and consequently the quality of tone
suffers.

In my opinion shellac is quite useless for varnishing, it being much
too hard, but nevertheless it has been employed from 1770 until the
present day, in spite of the fact that the best Italian instrument
might be completely ruined by being varnished with it. In all
Italian instruments the old varnish is always very porous and soft,
and can easily be dissolved by the application of spirit, while,
on the contrary, it requires great labour to effect the same with
turpentine-oil.

Many people affirm that the art of mixing the old Italian varnish which
so charms us with its brilliancy and transparency, is no longer known,
in fact that it is for ever lost. I am, however, of a different opinion
and maintain that our modern varnishes are quite equal to the old, but
what we have until now been unable to produce scientifically, is the
golden-brown underground which the wood of older violins has acquired
through age and other influences. The proof of this I have practically
demonstrated by varnishing old instruments with new varnish, in
imitation, with such success as to arouse the wonder of connoisseurs,
the varnish being quite as transparent and brilliant-coloured as that
used for violins in the last century.

To one other point I should like to call the attention of the reader.
In repairing old instruments of the time of Stradivarius, I have found
that an extraordinary cleanliness and lustre is obtained by rubbing
them with fine glass-paper, which is not the case with Tyrolean and
German violins of the same period. At a later period this peculiarity
was not met with so frequently and from the year 1750 not at all.
This fact I primarily attribute to the action of the resin on the
wood, being also of opinion that the fine dust of the same gets firmly
embedded in the pores of the wood, and in this way, in course of time,
a more or less thick coating is formed.

For one of these practical experiments I took a violin which I had
made myself and the tone of which, through years of constant use,
was therefore quite familiar to me, and gave it a coating of melted
resin on the inside. After this was thoroughly dry and hardened, I
polished the interior and remarked the before-mentioned smoothness
and brilliancy, the obtaining of which firmly convinced me that I had
discovered the truth of the matter. Although, after the glueing-on of
the belly, all the former conditions of the violin remained unchanged,
yet I was astonished to find what a common-place squeaking tone the
instrument had acquired, thus proving to me that with the melted resin
I had obtained in the end exactly the opposite effect to that which
I had hoped for. I was obliged to rest contented with my failure for
a long time, when a lucky chance came to my help. It was this. I
received a real Caspar da Salo violoncello to repair, which had never
been opened and seemed to have been very little played upon, for on it
I found an old bridge which I kept as an ornament and curiosity, and
which, on closer examination, I found was varnished.

When I opened the cello, it was proved without a doubt that the
interior had also received a coating, probably to protect it from dust,
etc. The celebrated old violin makers, in so doing, have pursued the
right course. This discovery also corroborated my own supposition,
that the old masters varnished both the interior and bridge of the
instruments they made.

Now, in order to obtain a ground-priming, I paint the violin, when
the wood of which it is constructed is in its natural state, three
times with pyroligneous acid, with which a golden-brown underground
is obtained, then follows a single coating of spirit and balsam of
Peru in equal proportions, and after this one or two coats of a weak
solution of gamboge or anotta, and finally, over all this I lay on 20
or 30 coats of varnish, according to the thickness required, and which
I prepare as follows:--

Dissolve three parts of sandarac and one of mastic in spirit, and in
order that it may be laid on more easily, add to each half a litre[1]
of varnish, ten drops of oil of turpentine. The colouring of the
varnish I obtain from turmeric and bright red sandal-wood by means
of spirit, using more or less of it, according as to the lighter or
darker tone required; if a brown varnish is required, some soot from
turpentine-oil must be added to the spirit.

I have made innumerable experiments with other resins and colouring
matters, but in the end I always return to those mentioned above as the
best to be used. Dragon’s-blood must not be employed, the colour not
being fast.

When the varnish is dry, it must be very carefully polished with finely
powdered pumice-stone and linseed-oil, applied with a piece of felt.

[1] Half a litre is very little less than a pint.




XXI. THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE VIOLIN.


The instrument must always be kept thoroughly clean and after use
should be carefully wiped with a silken duster. If any dirt should
adhere to it in spite of this precaution, it can be easily removed by
gently rubbing it with a piece of linen, moistened with water, and
afterwards wiping it over with oil of turpentine. The resin which
accumulates on the finger-board and strings can in case of necessity be
removed by the application of a little spirit, or better still, by that
of Eau de Cologne, but great care must be taken in the application, so
that the spirit does not touch the varnish of the belly. Spirit will
also clean the strings and remove from them the effect of perspiration;
the bridge may also be cleaned with it from time to time, but as stated
before, it must be done cautiously, especially in the case of old and
valuable instruments of the time of Stradivarius. The more recently
constructed violins are mostly varnished with shellac, and consequently
are not at all or, at most, very little affected by the application of
spirit.

The interior of a violin should also sometimes be cleaned; this can be
done by putting through the F-holes two or three handsfull of coarse
kitchen salt; these should then be covered with a cloth and the salt
well shaken about, as it will thus collect all the dust, resin and
other dirt which may be in the violin, and when shaken out will carry
all these impurities with it. The strings need not be taken off in
order to effect this.




XXII. THE BOW.


The rank of François Tourte among violin-bow makers is as prominent a
one as that of Stradivarius among violin makers. Each has supplemented
the other. Tourte died in Paris in the year 1835 at the age of 88,
after a life of usefulness almost as long as that of Stradivarius. He
brought the making of bows for stringed instruments to such perfection,
that those bow makers who have succeeded him, have never deviated very
far from the models he left.

I shall here make a few observations on the characteristics of real
Tourte bows which have crossed my path.

The quality, as well as money value, of a bow seems entirely to depend
upon its shape, whether the stick is round or angular. The whole length
of the bow from the point to the end of the nut should be 73 to 74
centimetres. The length of the hair from the lower part of the head to
the nut should measure 63 to 64 centimetres; the height of the head,
including the stick and little plate, should be 23 m/m.; the height of
the nut with the stem to the outer ring where the hair begins 26 m/m.;
the breadth of the hair on the nut should be 11 m/m. and on the head 10
m/m. Tourte used from 80 to 100 hairs for each bow, but now from 150 to
160 are taken.

The stick is made of pernambuco-wood and the nut of ebony; tortoise
shell is however sometimes used for the latter. The decoration may
be in German silver, silver or gold, according to the taste of the
possessor.

The stick must be cut straight and lengthwise with the year-rings, and
is manipulated in such a way that the side-view of the bow shows the
horizontal lines. In this condition the prepared stick must be held
over a charcoal fire, be gradually and equally heated, until it can be
scarcely retained in the hand, and then it must immediately be bent
across the knee to such a degree, as to allow the hair of the finished
bow to lie upon the stick. To accomplish this successfully, a certain
amount of practice and caution is required. The weight of a bow when
finished should not exceed 54 to 57 grammes.

Tourte never polished nor varnished his bows, but only rubbed them
smooth with pumice-stone and linseed-oil. If varnish or polish of any
kind is ever found on one of his bows, it has been put there by other
hands than his.

It has often been asserted that Tourte only left the bows unpolished
and unvarnished from indifference, and I must confess that I also was
once inclined to this opinion until experience taught me better. About
30 years ago I bought a beautiful Tourte bow which I handed to Herr
Joachim to test.

It seemed to him a little too heavy and I, in my want of experience,
imagined that I could easily meet the wish for diminished weight by
a little work. I therefore commenced to work with a file upon this
master-piece, but I found the outer layer of the wood as hard as iron,
so that I had a great deal of trouble to lessen the circumference of
the stick. This circumstance surprised me at the outset of the work,
as in the making of new bows it never occurred to me before. I was in
great fear, however, at the conclusion of my troublesome work, for I
found that the bow had lost all elasticity and power.

Later on, the opportunity presented itself to me of proving that
pernambuco-wood when exposed to the air hardens very rapidly, and I
am therefore convinced that this fact was known to Tourte and that
consequently he only rubbed his bows with linseed-oil, in order to
leave them open to the influence of the air, so that the sticks might
become hardened and strengthened.

If an old bow has become slightly twisted, which may happen with bows
of the best make, this fault can be rectified by cautiously bending
it back to its original form over a charcoal fire, and the bow will
regain its former elasticity.

If any of my readers desire to study more closely the history of
stringed instruments, I can recommend to them very highly the work upon
the subject from the pen of Julius Rühlmann.


Göttingen, Druck der Dieterich’schen Univ.-Buchdruckerei von W. Fr.
Kästner.




Transcriber’s Notes

The figures referenced throughout the text are not present in the
original English edition. You can find them in the original German Die
Geige und ihr Bau on Google Books.

The numbering of the chapter on the back and edges was corrected to IV.
instead of VI. in the table of contents.

Page 10: “intsrument makers” changed to “instrument makers”

Page 28: “My opininon” changed to “My opinion”

Page 34: “opon this master-piece” changed to “upon this master-piece”