The Project Gutenberg eBook of Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast

Author: Frederick J. H. Merrill

Release date: July 19, 2022 [eBook #68564]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: D. Appleton and Company, 1890

Credits: Charlene Taylor, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARRIER BEACHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST ***





  BARRIER BEACHES OF THE
  ATLANTIC COAST.

  BY FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, PH. D.


  _REPRINTED FROM THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY
  FOR OCTOBER, 1890._

  NEW YORK:
  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
  1890.




  BARRIER BEACHES OF THE
  ATLANTIC COAST

  BY
  FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, PH. D.


From Cape Cod to Cape Florida our coast is fringed with barrier
beaches. They are the reefs of sand which protect the mainland shore
from the storm-waves of the ocean. Isolated and uninhabited were
most of these sea-born barriers for a long period in the history of
our country, but the need of a breathing-place on the part of the
thousands who inhabit our crowded cities has caused, within a few
years, a great transformation. Railroad and turnpike bridges have been
built, connecting many of them with the shore. Hotels and cottages,
club-houses and bathing-houses, in short, buildings for every purpose
which contributes to the pleasure and comfort of man have sprung up, as
it were by magic, on the south shore of Long Island, on the coast of
New Jersey, Virginia, and the Carolinas, on the famed sea-islands of
Georgia, and on the coast of eastern Florida.

Much alike are these peninsulas and islands wherever we view them along
the coast. The chief variation is in the vegetation which clothes them.
The beaches of Long Island are almost barren, but from New Jersey
southward many are covered with dense forests which vary in their
trees according to the latitude. At Sandy Hook, oaks, red cedars,
hollies, maples, and sassafras-trees grow in wonderful luxuriance. On
Seven-Mile Beach and Holly Beach the swamp magnolia abounds among the
others. In the Carolinas the palmetto appears, often ragged in outline
and blighted by the winter frosts. In northern Florida the palmettos
are more numerous and show the influence of a warmer climate, while
on the southern extremity of the zone of barrier beaches the cocoanut
palm, planted by accident or design, rears its leafy crown in luxuriant
verdure.

It is not the design of the writer to describe in detail the beaches of
the Atlantic coast, but rather to consider their history and mode of
growth. As it has been his fortune to spend much time on the sea-shore
of New Jersey, he proposes to discuss the barrier beaches of that State
as types of their genus.

They are sandy islands and peninsulas, from two to twenty miles in
length and from half a mile to a mile in width, separated by inlets
and usually divided from the mainland by an interval of several miles,
in which are broad expanses of salt meadow, fringing and separating a
series of channels, bays, and sounds.

The beaches which are now in their highest state of development are
Sandy Hook, Seven-Mile Beach, and Holly Beach near Cape May. These
typical examples of the sea-born barriers are much alike in structure,
and consist of four principal divisions. The first division, or
interior, is an undulating area covered with heavy timber, of which
the size suggests its age. Immense hollies, oaks, pines, and red
cedars abound, many of the first measuring two feet in diameter, and
some of the latter attaining a circumference of four or five yards.
The sassafras grows in remarkable luxuriance and immense grape-vines
are everywhere to be seen, overhanging a dense undergrowth. In spring
and summer the ground is covered with fragrant blossoms; columbines,
violets, pinks, orchids, and a host of other flowers lend their blight
colors to enhance the varied greens of the foliage. This is the beach
primeval. Skirting it seaward is the second division, which bears
smaller timber. Low cedars, hollies, and pines are here the chief forms
of arboreal vegetation, and fewer flowering plants are seen. This zone
is of later formation, and its trees are younger than those of the
first. Adjoining it is the third division, which consists of a belt of
undulating dunes a few hundred feet or yards in width, and bearing
the mossy Hudsonia or scrubby bushes of beach plum and wax-myrtle, or
in some places, especially on the outer row of dunes, only supporting
a meager growth of beach grass. Frequently, between two rows of dunes,
an expanse of salt meadow occurs, or a sand flat bearing stunted forms
of plant life. With this third division ends the domain of vegetation,
succeeded by the sloping strand upon which the tide rises and falls.
The sand-bar, exposed at low water at the extremity of the beach,
is constantly increased in length and height by the action of the
currents, and the process of beach formation is here continually in
progress.

As the tide falls, the sand laid bare is rapidly dried by the wind
and carried above high-water mark. Then, safe beyond the reach of
the waves, the minute particles are borne still farther from the
water, and striking against some piece of drift-wood, bush, or tuft
of grass, quickly build a hillock, which grows larger and larger as
more sand falls upon it, and a dune is formed many feet in height.
The material of which these dunes are composed is never at rest, but
flies hither and thither with the wind, and a hillock ten or fifteen
feet high to-day may noiselessly be taken down to-morrow and rebuilt a
hundred yards away. In time, as the beach grows seaward and the dunes
increase in number, those of earlier formation, which are somewhat
protected from the breeze, catch a few seeds, and tufts of grass begin
to grow upon them. Still later, the mossy Hudsonia or some starveling
wax-myrtle finds a little sustenance, and as years elapse the dunes
become so thickly covered with vegetation that under the protection of
the seaward hillocks they retain their form with comparatively little
change.

Thus have the beaches grown. First a sand flat built by ocean waves
and currents; then a series of low, shifting dunes; next sheltered
hillocks, on which grasses and shrubs fasten their protecting roots;
succeeding the latter a growth of small cedars and pines; and, finally,
as centuries roll on, majestic forest trees raise their spreading tops
and shelter a dense undergrowth.

These few words suffice to describe the beaches’ growth, their
physiology; but many pages might be written upon their history,
the details of their development, their changes and their decay.
Unfortunately, the records are but incomplete. From the memories of
old men we can glean some facts in regard to the former condition and
extent of certain beaches and concerning marked changes in them which
have been notable events to men of quiet lives. In a few instances,
surveys were made a century or two ago which can be compared with those
of to-day. At present we can watch the changes which occur from year to
year. As geological science advances we can speculate concerning the
past on the basis of present knowledge and observation. We have little
accurate information, but, after all, we have much that is interesting.

The beach of Sandy Hook forms the northern extremity of the New Jersey
sea-coast. Previous to 1778 it was connected with the base of the
Navesink Highlands by a sandy isthmus, the mouths of the Navesink and
Shrewsbury Rivers being open to the east; but from that date until
about 1830, and from 1848 until 1889, it has been united with the
mainland at Monmouth Beach by a narrow strip of sand.

According to records in the office of the Surveyor-General of East
Jersey and in that of the United States Coast Survey, the point of
Sandy Hook advanced northward about one mile between 1685 and 1885. The
lighthouse was built about 1764 near the water’s edge, and the ground
on which it stands had then existed for only fifteen years as a portion
of _terra firma_.

In 1844 the point was about two hundred and fifty yards north of
its present limit. Since that date it has receded slowly toward the
south, and toward the west has extended a quarter of a mile. We have
no evidence concerning the date of formation of the old “Hook” which
existed before 1685. It is now well marked by immense forest trees,
which exceed in height and size of trunk any of their species known to
the writer in the neighborhood of New York.

The rapid growth of Sandy Hook is due to a current which flows
northward from the vicinity of Manasquan, carrying with it a great
quantity of sand removed from the water-front of Asbury Park, Long
Branch, Seabright, and that vicinity, which is dropped along the border
of the “Hook” and its extremity. The investigations of the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey have shown that the ebb and flow of
the tides from and to New York Bay produce this current by drawing a
stream of water through False Hook Channel, which lies between Sandy
Hook and a submerged bar called False Hook half a mile to the east.
The stream flows northward more than seven hours out of twelve, and
from this fact property-owners in the neighborhood of Long Branch may
appreciate what becomes of their real estate when it disappears during
the storms. If there were any means of identifying the soil, it might
all be found on the rapidly growing point of Sandy Hook.

About 1778 a channel was opened across the narrow isthmus which
united Sandy Hook with the base of the Navesink Highlands, and a new
passage being thus afforded for the tidal currents of the Navesink and
Shrewsbury Rivers, the old Shrewsbury Inlet, which formed the common
mouth of those two estuaries, was gradually closed by the northward
extension of the sand-spit which formed the southern limit, and in
1810 became impassable. The barrier thus formed existed until 1830 or
1831, when it was broken through and a second inlet was created. By a
change in the tidal currents, due to the formation of this new inlet,
the isthmus which formerly connected Sandy Hook with the Highlands of
Navesink was again brought into existence and remained until 1835. An
artificial channel was then cut through it, and this being gradually
deepened and widened by the ebb and flow of the tides, has ever since
remained open. The second Shrewsbury inlet closed in 1840 near Island
Beach, having moved northward nearly three miles during its existence
of nine or ten years. In 1837 or 1838 the third and last inlet opened
near the present Bellevue Hotel, and afforded a better channel for
navigation than the second inlet, which it followed in its northward
course and survived by about eight years. From 1848 until September,
1889, no inlet has been opened; but this fact is due rather to the
efforts of the railroad company to maintain its road-bed than to a
diminution of the tendency of the waves and tidal currents to open a
passage.

The facts and dates concerning the Shrewsbury Inlets have been obtained
chiefly by inquiry from old fishermen and sailors who have spent
their lives on or near the waters of the Navesink and Shrewsbury
Rivers. Coming from a number of independent sources, they agree very
closely, and those here given may be accepted as worthy of credence.
The tendency of the inlets to work northward, periodically closing and
reopening farther south, has been observed in all those between Point
Pleasant and Sandy Hook, especially in those of Manasquan and Shark
Rivers. Between Point Pleasant and Cape May, however, all the inlets
are moving southward.

From Monmouth to the head of Barnegat Bay there is no beach similar to
that of Sandy Hook. Instead of a sand-reef separated from the mainland
by a navigable channel, there is only the sloping strand adjoining,
as at Long Branch, the foot of an upland bluff, or as at Spring Lake,
Seagirt, and Point Pleasant, with its crest on a level with the surface
of the upland. Between Bay Head and Cape May, however, there are twelve
beaches, mostly well developed and preserved, and named respectively
Squan, Island, Long, Island or Little, Brigantine, Absecon, Peck’s,
Ludlam’s, Seven-Mile, Five-Mile or Holly, Two-Mile, and Poverty. The
majority of these, however, do not show the high degree of development
exhibited by Seven-Mile and Five-Mile Beaches. Some appear to be only
in the earlier stages of growth, while others have passed their prime
and are now yielding to the attacks of wind and wave.

These agents have been hitherto considered only with reference to
their constructive effect on the beaches, and it now remains to
consider their destructive action.

When the wind blows from the west it carries back to the sea much of
the sand which the east wind had piled up in dunes, and, but for the
fact that the latter wind prevails, the sand-hills would not long
exist. By a surplus of constructive action, however, the beaches are
all moving to the west. Year after year sand is removed from their
eastern margin by the winter storms, and carried north or south
according to the direction of the prevailing current. The winds from
the ocean drive the dunes westward, and, with the possible exception of
Sandy Hook, all the beaches are now underlaid by an old salt meadow,
originally formed in sheltered waters on their west side. In this turf,
when exposed during an unusually low tide, the footprints of cattle
are seen in many places, made, it is claimed, when the salt meadow was
a pasture and lay on the shoreward side of the beach. This westward
recession has, in many cases, amounted to more than a mile within two
centuries.

On many of the beaches south of Point Pleasant the westward progress of
the dunes has been made over and through the native forest. As a result
of this, gnarled cedars, dying and dead, are found among the dunes; and
in many cases stumps may be seen in the sand within reach of the tide.

Near the northern end of Seven-Mile Beach, at the time of the writer’s
visit in 1885, an immense dune forty feet in height and half a mile
in length had been for many years encroaching steadily upon the dense
forest. The tree-tops here projected above the summit of the ridge
like the heads of drowning men above the waves; while on the outer
flank of the overwhelming mass of sand the gnarled, skeleton trunks
of those which had perished in it stood bare and grim, showing with
dreary grayness the fate of the earlier victims of which the ragged and
wave-worn stumps alone remained. A more desolate scene the writer has
never witnessed.

At Long Branch the wear of the coast has been very great. According to
the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, a strip of land varying
from three hundred to five hundred feet in width was removed between
Deal Beach and Monmouth during the twenty-seven years preceding 1868.
In the vicinity of Seabright the amount of wear was a little less
than two hundred feet during that period. Of late years the rate of
recession has been diminished in the neighborhood of Long Branch by
the means of artificial protection employed, but near Seabright the
shore line is said to have receded at least two hundred feet during the
past quarter of a century. At Cape May the wear of the shore has been
continuous except where the land is protected by jetties or a stone
sea-wall, the rate of encroachment varying from ten to thirty feet a
year.

Besides these alterations produced in the beaches by their westward
progress, the variations in the positions of the inlets and the
subsidence of the coast have caused many important changes. The history
of the Shrewsbury Inlets has already been given; it remains to mention
a few of those south of Point Pleasant.

Squan and Island Beaches, which now form a peninsula about twenty miles
long, terminating at Barnegat Inlet, were separated from 1750 to 1812
by Cranberry Inlet, which was nearly opposite the mouth of Tom’s River.
Since 1812 near the site of this old inlet there have been others of
brief duration, and one is said to have existed before 1755 opposite
the mouth of the Metedeconk River, which separated Squan Beach from the
mainland.

The old Barnegat Lighthouse is said to have stood nearly six hundred
yards north of the present south shore of the inlet, at a point now
occupied by the center of the channel. In 1855 the old tower was at
the water’s edge, so that the inlet has moved southward approximately
twenty yards per year.

Absecon Inlet, which separates Brigantine Beach from Absecon Beach, has
encroached upon the latter about four hundred yards in twenty years;
and the ocean front of that portion of Absecon Beach which is occupied
by Atlantic City extended in 1855 nearly half a mile farther east than
it did in 1885. About 1875 jetties were built which arrested the action
of the tidal currents, and, the wear of the shore being thus prevented,
a considerable area was restored.

Submerged tree-stumps and other evidences of a subsidence of the coast
may be found on the beaches and the salt meadows, but a detailed
enumeration of them would be beyond the scope of the present article.

In Cape May County the depression has not been less than twenty feet,
and has possibly been much greater. The evidence of some old buildings
on the shore of Delaware Bay suggests a subsidence of about four feet
during the last two centuries.

It is doubtful whether depression _alone_ has caused the wear of
the coast. A comparison of the present outline of Holly Beach with
that determined by a survey in 1772 shows an accretion on the south
and east, since the latter date, more than three and a half miles
long and averaging three eighths of a mile in width, and on many
other beaches a similar growth has taken place. During the past five
years the ocean has rapidly encroached upon these beaches, while the
subsidence of the coast, so far as we know, has been uniform throughout
the past two centuries. It would appear, therefore, that the growth
and decay of the beaches are more dependent upon the action of the
ocean currents and winds than upon other agencies. Unquestionably the
depression of the coast renders the beaches more subject to overflow
and erosion by the waves and currents; but the evidence at many points
shows that the latter are capable of forming large areas of beach
where the conditions of their existence and action favor construction
rather than destruction. While these currents act as at present, the
cost of preventing the ravages of the sea, by the methods commonly
in use, would probably be much greater than the value of the land
protected, for the fine sand is so unstable when wet that bulkheads and
breakwaters are quite ephemeral.

After an extended examination of the various systems of shore defense
in use between Sandy Hook and Cape May, it appears to the writer that
the only effectual means of protection is the construction of jetties
extending far enough from the shore to intercept the currents which
carry away the sand loosened by the waves. Such jetties have added a
large area to the territory of Atlantic City, and have protected the
shore at Cape May; no doubt they would be effective everywhere if
properly constructed.

The experience of the past ten years on the New Jersey coast shows
conclusively that the ocean front is not fit for building purposes, for
it is impossible to protect a house near the water’s edge from injury
or destruction in the heaviest storms. The height and force of the
waves in such a tempest as that of September 10 and 11, 1889, render
them irresistible to any body or structure which nature or art has yet
produced, and anything within their reach must suffer. The immediate
water-front is only available for parks; and, if devoted to this use,
when protected from the erosive action of the currents by suitable
jetties, would remain a neutral ground which, in fair weather, would
afford numberless attractions to the occupants of dwellings placed far
enough from the strand to be out of reach of the storm-waves.

Property-owners along the ocean front of the beaches have generally
made the mistake of supposing that the domain of the Atlantic was
bounded by the high-water mark of the spring tides. Any one who
should build a dwelling on the strand below ordinary high-water mark
would be considered lacking in common sense, yet it is scarcely less
foolish to build within reach of the storm-waves. It is, of course,
true that many cottages are now much nearer the water’s edge than
they were a few years ago. This is due to the wear of the shore by
currents already described as flowing parallel to it and removing the
sand which the waves have loosened. If the action of these currents
should be stopped--and there is good evidence to show that a system
of jetties would intercept them and cause them to drop their stolen
load of sand--the wear of the shore would be arrested and the yearly
encroachments of the ocean would cease.

With regard to the inundation of Atlantic City by the sea in the
great September storm of 1889 it should be said that this catastrophe
ought not to be considered very wonderful, since the greater portion
of the city is less than ten feet above mean tide, and the highest
point recorded by the New Jersey State Survey is only thirteen feet
above that level. As ordinary tides rise a foot above this plane, and
spring tides nearly two feet, it is evident that a prolonged easterly
storm would soon cause a considerable area to be overflowed. Since the
bays and channels which lie between the beach and the mainland are
almost completely landlocked and the inlets are relatively narrow, the
water-level is soon raised to a height of two or three feet above the
meadows, and this is sufficient to cover most of the railroad tracks.
To be sure, no such inundation as the recent one has occurred since
Atlantic City became a place of importance, nor do the old residents
on the coast remember such a storm in former years; but it is evident
that, while the beaches were uninhabited, such a storm as the one in
question would attract less attention, since it would cause little if
any loss of property.

The genesis of the beaches is still a matter for speculation, but
it may be safely affirmed that they originated as sand-bars, formed
under water by wave and current action. How these bars were brought
above water, so that the wind could exert its constructive power, is
uncertain. A plausible hypothesis is, that while the ocean was breaking
on the mainland shore and forming the Quaternary terraces, which may be
seen there, sand-bars were made under water, and that the continental
elevation which raised these terraces to their present position
from twenty-five to eighty feet above tide, brought these sand-bars
above water into a horizon of Æolian action. Once above the sea, the
beaches would maintain their existence. A continued elevation of the
coast would add to their seaward extent and a depression would cause
a westward recession until they were brought to rest by contact with
the mainland shore. In New Jersey the latter condition may be observed
between Long Branch and Point Pleasant and also at Cape May.

So far as it is known to the writer, the only way in which a beach can
be entirely destroyed is by an inlet shifting its position. In this
case the beach obliterated is replaced by the extension of an adjacent
beach.

Of the beaches south of New Jersey not enough is known to the writer
to permit of a detailed biographical sketch. Their form and structure
show that they have been subject to the same formative agencies and
vicissitudes as those already described. In addition to the Georgia
sea-islands of _ante-bellum_ fame, may be mentioned as familiar
examples the barriers which in Virginia and North Carolina separate
Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds from the ocean; in Florida, Amelia Island
on which is built the city of Fernandina; Anastasia Island, in front
of St. Augustine; and the beaches which separate Halifax and Indian
Rivers from the Atlantic. The last named rivers are the lagoons which
separate the barriers from the mainland shore. Lake Worth is one of
these lagoons, of which the inlet has been closed.

To what extent the Florida Keys may be included in the category of
barrier beaches must be decided by future investigation. Key West
is evidently a wave-built sand-bar composed of fragments of coral,
molluscan shells, and foraminifera, and it seems likely that Cayo Largo
and others of that type may be of similar origin. The coquina deposits
of the vicinity of St. Augustine are also wave-formed.

The hypothesis of Prof. Louis Agassiz, that the Florida Keys are all
of organic origin--i. e., that they were formed by the growth of coral
reefs--may be true so far as the determination of their location and
direction. A submerged reef of coral may have formed a nucleus on
which the waves and currents deposited a load of calcareous sand, but
the superficial portion is evidently similar in origin to that of the
beaches farther north.

Barrier beaches are found on all the sea-coasts of the world where
opportunity for their growth has been afforded, and those of New Jersey
may be regarded as types of these formations in all their essential
features.




TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:


  Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.

  Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.

  Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.

  The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is
    entered into the public domain.



*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARRIER BEACHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.