Transcriber Note

Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=.




                                MANUAL

                                  OF

                              THE APIARY,


                                  BY

                              A. J. COOK,

                       _Professor of Entomology_

                                IN THE

                 MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.


                            FOURTH EDITION,

  _REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED._

                            SIXTH THOUSAND.


                CHICAGO, ILLS.: THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON

                                 1879.


      Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by

                        THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,

   In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.


                                TO THE

                      REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH,

                                  THE

                  INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE,

                                  THE

             HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF

               PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO

                 APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL

                        IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED

                                  BY

                              THE AUTHOR.




PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.


THE APIARY.

Why another treatise on this subject? Have we not Langstroth, and
Quinby, and King, and Bevan, and Hunter? Yes; all of these. Each of
which has done excellent service in promoting an important industry.
Each of which possesses peculiar and striking excellences. Yet none
of these combine all of the qualities desirable in a popular manual.
Hence, the excuse for another claimant for public favor. Every cultured
apiarist laments that there is no text-book which possesses all of
the following very desirable characters: Simple style, full in its
discussions, cheap, disinterested, up with the times. It is for the
bee-keeping public to decide whether this treatise meets any more fully
the demands made by the latest discoveries and improvements, by the
wants of those eager to learn, and by the superior intelligence which
is now enlisted in the interests of the Apiary.

The following is, in substance, the same as the course of lectures
which I have given each year to the students of the Michigan
Agricultural College, and their desire, as expressed in repeated
requests, has led to this publication.

It will be my desire to consider subjects of merely scientific interest
and value, as fully as scientific students can reasonably desire; and,
that such discussions may not confuse or perplex those who only read or
study with practical ends in view, a very full index is added, so that
the whereabouts of any topic, either of practical or scientific value,
can be easily ascertained.

In considering the various subjects of interest to the bee-keeper, I
am greatly indebted to the authors mentioned above, and also to the
following journals, all worthy of high commendation: Gleanings in Bee
Culture, American Bee Journal, Bee-Keepers' Magazine, and Bee World.

The illustrations for this manual were nearly all drawn by the author
from the natural object.

  Michigan Agricultural College, }
      Lansing, May 1, 1876.      }


PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.


I little thought when I sent out, less than two years ago, the first
edition--3,000 copies--of my little, unpretending, "Manual of the
Apiary," that more than 2,000 copies would be sold in less than one
year, and that in less than two years a second edition would be
demanded by the apiarists of our country.

The very kindly reviews and flattering notices by apiarian, scientific,
and other journals, both American and foreign, and the approval, as
expressed by numerous friendly letters, of our most eminent apiarists,
as also the "unprecedented sale of this little work," have not only
been very gratifying, but also assure me that I was quite right in the
opinion that the time was ripe for some such treatise.

At the urgent request of many apiarian friends, in response to the
oft-repeated desire of my many students, some of whom are becoming
leading apiculturists in our country, and at the suggestion of many
noted apiarists with whom I have no personal acquaintance, I now
send forth this second edition, greatly enlarged, mostly re-written,
even more fully illustrated, and containing the latest scientific
discoveries, and most recent improvements in methods of apiarian
management and bee-keeping apparatus.

It is impossible for me to state how greatly I am indebted to our
excellent American bee periodicals, and enterprising and intelligent
apiarists, for many--yea, for most--of the valuable thoughts and
suggestions which may be found in the following pages. I am tempted
to mention names of those whose aid and favors have been especially
useful, but find the list so large that I must, perforce, forego the
privilege, and only refer to such persons in the text.

With the hope that this second edition may reach even more who desire
instruction in this pleasing art, and that it may still further advance
the interests of scientific apiculture. I send it forth to all those
who wish to study more deeply into the mysteries of insect life, or
to gain further knowledge of one of the most fascinating as well as
profitable of arts.

I make no apology for inserting so much of science in the following
pages. From the letters of inquiry which I am constantly receiving,
especially from apiarists, I am convinced that the people are mentally
hungry for just such food. To satisfy and stimulate just such
appetites is, I am sure, very desirable.

I recommend nothing in this treatise that I have not proved valuable by
actual trial, unless I mention some eminent person as advising it; nor
do I announce any fact or scientific truth that I have not verified,
except as I give it on the authority of some competent person.

For most of the figures of the second edition lam indebted to one of my
pupils, Mr. W. L. Holdsworth, whose skill as an artist needs no praise.

_Appended to this volume is a very full index which will be a great aid
to the student._




CONTENTS.



INTRODUCTION.

  Who May Keep Bees                                       11
    Specialists                                           11
    Amateurs                                              11
  Who are Specially Interdicted                           12
  Inducements to Bee-Keeping                              12
    Recreation                                            12
    Profit                                                13
    Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit                      15
    Adaptation to Women                                   15
    Improves the Mind and Observation                     17
    Yields Delicious Food                                 17
  What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires                    18
    Mental Effort                                         18
    Experience Necessary                                  18
    Learn from Others                                     18
    Aid from Conventions                                  19
    Aid from Bee Papers                                   19
      American Bee Journal                                19
      Gleanings in Bee Culture                            20
      Bee-Keepers' Magazine                               21
    Books for the Apiarist                                21
      Langstroth on the Honey-Bee                         21
      Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping                   22
      King's Text-Book                                    22
      A, B, C of Bee Culture                              22
      Foreign Works                                       22
    Promptitude                                           23
    Enthusiasm                                            24


PART I.

Natural History of the Honey Bee.

CHAPTER I.

  The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom                   27
    The Branch of the Honey-Bee                           27
    The Class of the Honey-Bee                            28
    The Order of the Honey-Bee                            30
    The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee                        31
    The Family of the Honey-Bee                           34
    The Genus of the Honey-Bee                            38
    The Species of the Honey-Bee                          41
    The Varieties of the Honey-Bee                        41
    German, or Black Bee                                  41
    Italian, or Ligurian                                  41
    Fasciata, or Egyptian                                 42
    Other Varieties                                       43
  Bibliography                                            44
    Valuable Books on Entomology                          47

CHAPTER II.

  Anatomy and Physiology                                  48
  Anatomy of Insects                                      48
    Organs of the Head                                    48
    Appendages of the Thorax                              55
    Internal Anatomy                                      56
    Secretory Organs                                      61
    Sex Organs                                            62
    Transformations                                       66
      The Egg                                             67
      The Larva                                           68
      The Pupa                                            68
      The Imago Stage                                     70
    Incomplete Transformations                            70
  Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee                 71
    Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony                    71
      The Queen                                           71
      The Drone                                           86
      The Neuters or Workers                              90

CHAPTER III.

  Swarming, or Natural Method of increase                101

CHAPTER IV.

  Products of Bees, their Origin and Function            104
    Honey                                                104
    Wax                                                  106
    Pollen, or Bee-Bread                                 111
    Propolis                                             112
  Bibliography                                           113


Part II.

  The apiary, its Care and Management                    115

INTRODUCTION.

  Preparation                                            117
    Read a Good Manual                                   117
    Visit some Apiarist                                  117
    Take a College Course                                118
    Decide on a Plan                                     118
  How to Procure our Bees                                118
  Kind of Bees to Purchase                               119
  In What Kind of Hives                                  119
  When to Purchase                                       119
  How Much to Pay                                        120
  Where to Locate                                        120

CHAPTER V.

  Hives and Boxes                                        122
    Box Hives                                            122
    Movable Comb Hives                                   123
      The Langstroth Hive                                123
        Character of the Hive                            124
          The Bottom Board                               127
          The Cover                                      129
          The Frames                                     132
            How to Construct the Frames                  133
              A Block for making Frames                  134
          Cover for Frames                               136
          Division Board                                 137
      The Huber Hive                                     138
    Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey                    141
      Boxes                                              142
      Small Frames or Sections                           144
        Requisites of Good Sections                      144
        Description                                      144
      How to Place Sections in Position                  147
        Sections in Frames                               147
        Sections in Racks                                149

CHAPTER VI.

  Position and Arrangement of the Apiary                 152
    Position                                             152
    Arrangement of Ground                                152
    Preparation for each Colony                          153

CHAPTER VII.

  To Transfer Bees                                       156

CHAPTER VIII.

  Feeding and Feeders                                    159
    How Much to Feed                                     159
    How to Feed                                          160

CHAPTER IX.

  Queen Rearing                                          163
    How to Rear Queens                                   163
    Nuclei                                               165
    Shall we Clip the Queen's Wing?                      168

CHAPTER X.

  Increase of Colonies                                   171
    Swarming                                             171
      Hiving Swarms                                      173
    To Prevent Second Swarms                             175
    To Prevent Swarming                                  176
    How Best to Increase                                 177
    Dividing                                             177
      How to Divide                                      177

CHAPTER XI.

  Italians and Italianizing                              180
    All Should Keep Only Italians                        183
    How to Italianize                                    183
    How to Introduce a Queen                             183
    To Get Italian Queens                                185
    Rearing and Shipping Queens                          186
      To Ship Queens                                     186
      To Move Colonies                                   187

CHAPTER XII.

  Extracting and the Extractors                          188
    Honey Extractor                                      188
      What Style to Buy                                  189
    Use of the Extractor                                 191
    When to use the Extractor                            192
    How to Extract                                       194

CHAPTER XIII.

  Handling Bees                                          195
    The Best Bee Veil                                    196
    To Quiet Bees                                        197
    Bellows Smoker                                       198
      The Quinby Smoker                                  198
      The Bingham Smoker                                 199
    How to Smoke Bees                                    201
    To Cure Stings                                       201
    The Sweat Theory                                     201

CHAPTER XIV.

  Comb Foundation                                        203
    History                                              203
    American Foundation                                  204
    How Foundation is Made                               206
    To Secure the Wax Sheets                             206
    Use of Foundation                                    207
    To Fasten the Foundation                             209
    Save the Wax                                         211
      Methods                                            211

CHAPTER XV.

  Marketing Honey                                        213
    How to Invigorate the Market                         213
    Extracted Honey                                      214
    How to Tempt the Consumer                            214
    Comb Honey                                           215
      Rules to be Observed                               215

CHAPTER XVI.

  Honey Plants                                           218
    What are the Valuable Honey Plants?                  220
      Description with Practical Remarks                 222
        April Plants                                     223
        May Plants                                       225
        June Plants                                      228
        July Plants                                      237
        August and September Plants                      242
      Books on Botany                                    244
        Practical Conclusions                            244

CHAPTER XVII.

  Wintering Bees                                         246
    The Cause of Disastrous Wintering                    246
    Requisite to Safe Wintering--Good Food               248
      Secure Late Breeding                               249
      To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature          249
    Box for Packing                                      250
    Chaff Hives                                          251
    Wintering in Cellar or House                         252
    Burying Bees                                         254
    Spring Dwindling                                     254

CHAPTER XVIII.

  The House Apiary                                       255
    Description                                          255
    Are they Desirable                                   256
    The Case as it Now Stands                            256

CHAPTER XIX.

  Evils that Confront the Apiarist                       258
    Robbing                                              258
    Disease                                              259
    Foul Brood                                           259
      Remedies                                           260
    Enemies of Bees                                      262
      The Bee Moth                                       262
        History                                          266
        Remedies                                         266
      Bee Killer                                         267
      Bee Louse                                          268
        Important Suggestion                             269
      Bee Hawk                                           269
      Tachina Fly                                        270
      Spiders                                            271
      Ants                                               271
      Wasps                                              271
      The King Bird                                      272
      Toads                                              272
      Mice                                               272

CHAPTER XX.

  Calendar and Axioms                                    274
    Work for Different Months                            274
      January                                            274
      February                                           274
      March                                              274
      April                                              275
      May                                                275
      June                                               275
      July                                               275
      August                                             275
      September                                          276
      October                                            276
      November                                           276
      December                                           276
    Axioms                                               277


ILLUSTRATIONS.

    1. Trachea                                            28
    2. Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee                     29
    3. Bee's Wings                                        38
    4. Head of Drone                                      39
    5. Head of Worker                                     39
    6. Head of Bee                                        49
    7. Thorax of Bee                                      55
    8. Nervous System of Drone                            58
    9. Alimentary Canal                                   60
   10. Male Organs of Bee                                 63
   11. Queen Organs                                       64
   12. Larva of Bee                                       68
   13. Pupa of Bee                                        69
   14. Queen Bee                                          72
   15. Labium of Queen                                    73
   16. Part of Queen's Leg                                74
   17. Drone                                              86
   18. Part of Drone's Leg                                87
   19. Worker Bee                                         90
   20. Tongue of Worker Bee                               91
   21. Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker                     92
   22. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--outside           93
   23. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--inside            94
   24. Anterior Leg of Worker                             94
   25. Sting of Worker                                    95
   26. Egg and Brood                                      97
   27. Wax Scales                                        106
   28. Honey-Comb                                        109
   29. Langstroth Hive                                   124
   30. Body of Hive                                      125
   31. Bevel Gauge                                       126
   32. Bottom-Board                                      128
   33. Two-Story Hive                                    130
   34. Cover to Hive                                     131
   35. Frame                                             133
   36. Frame, with Cross-Section of Top-Bar              134
   37. Block for making Frames                           135
   38. Division-Board                                    137
   39. Part of Quinby Hive                               139
   40. Part of Bingham Hive                              140
   41. Glass Honey Box                                   142
   42. Isham Honey Box                                   143
   43. Harbison Section Frame                            143
   44. Chisel                                            144
   45. Block for Section Making                          145
   46. Hetherington Separator                            146
   47. Dove-tailed Section                               146
   48. Phelps Section                                    147
   49. Section Frame                                     148
   50. Sections in Frame                                 149
   51. Southard's Section Back                           150
   52. Wheeler's Section Back                            150
   53. Hive in Shade of Ever-green                       155
   54. Feeder                                            160
   55. Simplicity Feeder                                 161
   56. Queen-cell Inserted in Comb                       167
   57. Shipping Queen Cage                               187
   58. Everett's Extractor                               189
   59. Comb Basket for Extractor                         190
   60. Knife for Uncapping                               191
   61. Knife with Curved Point                           191
   62. Bee-Veil                                          196
   63. Quinby Smokers                                    199
   64. Bingham Smoker                                    199
   65. Comb Foundation                                   203
   66. Comb Foundation Machine                           205
   67. Comb Foundation Cutter                            206
   68. Block for Fastening Foundation                    210
   69. Presser for Block                                 211
   70. Wax Extractor                                     212
   71. Prize Crate                                       216
   72. Heddon Crate                                      217
   73. Maple                                             222
   74. Willow                                            223
   75. Judas Tree                                        224
   76. American Wistaria                                 225
   77. Chinese Wistaria                                  226
   78. Barberry                                          226
   79. White Sage                                        227
   80. White or Dutch Clover                             228
   81. Alsike Clover                                     229
   82. Melilot Clover                                    230
   83. Borage                                            230
   84. Mignonette                                        231
   85. Okra                                              231
   86. Mint                                              232
   87. Pollen of Milk-Weed                               233
   88. Black Mustard                                     233
   89. Rape                                              234
   90. Tulip                                             235
   91. Teasel                                            236
   92. Cotton                                            236
   93. Basswood                                          237
   94. Figwort                                           238
   95. Button-Bush                                       240
   96. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant                          239
   97. Boneset                                           241
   98. Buckwheat                                         242
   99. Golden Rod                                        243
  100. Sun Flower                                        243
  101. Packing-Box for Winter                            250
  102. Gallery of Moth Larva                             262
  103. Moth Larva in Comb                                263
  104. Moth Larvæ                                        264
  105. Moth Cocoons                                      264
  106. Moth with Wings Spread                            264
  107. Male and Female Moths                             265
  108. Bee-Killer                                        268
  109. Bee Louse                                         268
  110. Tachina Fly                                       270
  111. Munn Hive                                         279
  112. Munn's Triangular Hive                            280
  113. Lecanium Tulipiferas                              288
  114. Stem of Motherwort                                289
  115. Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort                      290
  116. Motherwort Bloom                                  291
  117. Sour-Wood                                         292
  118. Stinging-Bug--natural size                        294
  119. Magnified twice                                   294
  120. Beak, magnified                                   294
  121. Antenna, magnified                                295
  122. Anterior leg, exterior view                       295
  123.     "     "   interior view                       295
  124. Claw, extended                                    296
  125. Middle leg, magnified                             296
  126. Southern Bee-Killer                               297
  127. Wings extended                                    297
  128. Head of                                           298
  129. Wing of                                           299
  131. Foot of                                           298
  130. Wing of Asilus Missouriensis                      300
  132. Honey-Comb Coral                                  301
  133. Wasp-stone Coral                                  302



INTRODUCTION.



WHO MAY KEEP BEES.


SPECIALISTS.

Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do whatever the
needs of his business require, with no thought of delay, may make
apiculture a specialty, with almost certain prospects of success.
He must also be willing to work with Spartan energy during the busy
season, and must persist, though sore discouragement, and even dire
misfortune, essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains.
As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in apiculture.
I make no mention of capital to begin with, or territory on which
to locate; for men of true metal--men whose energy of mind and body
bespeak success in advance--will solve these questions long before
their experience and knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of
large apiaries.


AMATEURS.

Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended to those of
any business or profession, who possess the above named qualities,
and control a little space for their bees, a few rods from street and
neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives may securely rest (C. F. Muth,
of Cincinnati, keeps his bees very successfully on the top of his
store, in the very heart of a large city), and who are able to devote
a little time, when required, to care for their bees. The amount of
time will of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with
proper management this time may be granted at any period of the day or
week, and thus not interfere with the regular business. Thus residents
of country, village, or city, male or female, who may wish to be
associated with and study natural objects, and add to their income and
pleasure, will find here, an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies,
shut out from fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point
sadly to departing health, and vigor, and to men the nature of whose
business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too highly
recommended as an avocation.


WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED.

There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially susceptible
to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. Sometimes such persons, if
even stung on the foot, will be so thoroughly poisoned that their eyes
will swell so they cannot see, and will suffer with fever for days,
and, very rarely, individuals are so sensitive to this poison that a
bee-sting proves fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should
never keep bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Kleine and
Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but spurred on by
their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon become so inoculated that they
experience no serious injury from the stings. It is a well-recognized
fact, that each successive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every
bee-keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though with
the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion neither of fear
nor anxiety.


INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING.

RECREATION.

Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the pleasure
which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination about the
apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always presenting the most
pleasurable surprises to those on the alert to receive them. And among
the insect hosts, especially bees, the instincts and habits are so
inexplicable and marvelous, that the student of this department of
nature never ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less
with wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords most
wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look in upon the
book of nature, and study the marvelous pages she is ever waiting to
present. To such, the very fascination of their pursuit is of itself
a rich reward for the time and labor expended. I doubt if there is
any other class of manual laborers who engage in their business, and
dwell upon it, with the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to
meet a scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough study
of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its very nature, go
hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I once asked an extensive
apiarist, who was also a farmer, why he kept bees. The answer was
characteristic: "Even if I could not make a good deal the most money
with my bees, I should still keep them for the real pleasure they
bring me." But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels,
President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties are very
severe. Said he: "For the restful pleasure which I receive in their
management." I am very sure, that were there no other inducement
than that of pleasure, I should be slow to part with these models of
industry, whose marvelous instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever
ministering to my delight and astonishment.

A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and College
classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I took him to see our
apiary, and as we looked at the bees and their handiwork, just as the
nectar from golden-rod and asters was flooding the honey-cells; he
became enraptured, took my little "Manual of the Apiary" home with him,
and at once subscribed for the old _American Bee Journal_. He very soon
purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so much of pleasure
and recreation in the duties imposed by his new charge, that he has
written me several times, expressing gratitude that I had led him into
such a work of love and pleasure.

PROFITS.

The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pursuit. When
we consider the comparatively small amount of capital invested, the
relatively small amount of labor and expense attending its operations,
we are surprised at the abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its
intelligent practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming
that labor--yes, real hard, back-aching labor--is not required in the
apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colonies, will have,
at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous work. Yet this will be
both pleasant and Healthful, and will go hand-in-hand with thought,
so that brain and muscle will work together. Yet this time of hard,
physical labor will only continue for five or six months, and for the
balance of the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure.
Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, indolent,
heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in any other
calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years of experience, where
accurate weight, measure, and counting of change has given no heed to
conjecture, that there is no manual labor pursuit, where the returns
are so large, when compared with the labor and expense.

An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in Michigan, with
the absolute certainty of more than doubling his investment the first
season; while a net gain of 400 per cent, brings no surprise to the
experienced apiarists of our State. This of course applies only to a
limited number of colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States
as a location for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I
ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, have
netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net return of $24.04,
while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above all expense, of over 400
per cent, of their entire value in the spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who
graduated at our College one year since, purchased last spring seven
colonies of bees. The proceeds of these seven colonies have more than
paid all expenses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while
there are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count
the labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered
with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our State
who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, have told me that
their apiaries were more profitable than all the remainder of their
farms. Who will doubt the profits of apiculture in the face of friend
Doolittle's experience? He has realized $6,000, in five years, simply
from the honey taken from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of
all expenses except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks,
and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colonies, and
we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee-keeping made Adam
Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to Capt. Hetherington over $10,000
as the cash receipts of a single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr.
Harbison, so it is reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven
car-loads of comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater
recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money-making, even with
hardships and privations, is attractive and seldom disregarded; such
opportunity with labor that brings, in itself, constant delight, is
surely _worthy_ of attention.

EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT.

Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, that serves
so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds to the poorly paid,
out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, healthful exercise to the
person of sedentary habits, and superb recreation to the student or
professional man, and especially to him whose life-work is of that
dull, hum-drum, routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The
labor, too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and
management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as not to
infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occupation. Indeed, I
have never been more heartily thanked, than by such parsons as named
above, and that, too, because I called them to consider--which usually
means to adopt--the pleasing duties of the apiary.

ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.

Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society has not been
over-ready to favor--our women. Widowed mothers, dependent girls, the
weak and the feeble, all may find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and
profitable labors of the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and
health, can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient
strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when
loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper thought
and management, full colonies need never be lifted, nor work done in
the hot sunshine. Yet right here let me add, and emphasize the truth,
_that only those who will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and
above all promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weakness,
should enlist as apiarists._ Usually a stronger body, and improved
health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and exercise, will make
each successive day's labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding
growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season. One of the
most noted apiarists, not only in America but in the world, sought in
bee-keeping her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation
and influence. Some of the most successful apiarists in our country are
women. Of these, many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning
health, grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which
to vanquish the grim monster. Said "Cyula Linswik"--whose excellent and
beautifully written articles have so often charmed the readers of the
bee publications, and who has had five years of successful experience
as an apiarist--in a paper read before our Michigan Convention of
March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption from in-door work,
on washing-day, by two days' labor among the bees, and I find two
hours' labor at the ironing-table more fatiguing than two hours of the
severest toil the apiary can exact. * * * I repeat, that apiculture
offers to many women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the
care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who experiments
in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find that it means, at some
seasons, genuine hard work. * * * There is risk in the business,
I would not have you ignore this fact, but an experience of five
years has led me to believe that the risk is less than is generally
supposed." Mrs. L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees
very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before the
same Convention, in which she said: "But I can say, having tried both,"
(keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) "I give bee-keeping the
preference, as more profitable, healthful, independent and enjoyable. *
* * I find the labors of the apiary more endurable than working over a
cook-stove in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * I
believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find renewed
vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations of the apiary. * *
* By beginning in the early spring, when the weather was cool and the
work light, I became gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by
mid-summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as
my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously, to
attend an open-air picnic was to return with a head-ache. * * * My own
experience in the apiary has been a source of interest and enjoyment
far exceeding my anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but
two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over $100;
the second year but a few cents less than $300; and the third year
about $250. "The proof of the pudding is in the eating;" so, too, such
words as given above, show that apiculture offers special inducements
to our sisters to become either amateur or professional apiarists.

IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION.

Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observation, and hard,
continuous thought and study, and this, too, in the wondrous realm of
nature. In all this, the apiarist receives manifold and substantial
advantages. In the cultivation of the habit of observation, a person
becomes constantly more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure,
results which also follow as surely on the habit of thought and
study. It is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is
so frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the hive, can
ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his hands. The mind
is occupied, and there is no chance for _ennui_. The whole tendency,
too, of such thought and study, where nature is the subject, is to
refine the taste, elevate the desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get
our youth, with their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome
study, and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies
of the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that even the
old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the rarest food for the
observing faculties, and, best of all, by keeping its votaries face
to face with the matchless creations of the _All Father_, must draw
them toward Him "who went about doing good," and in "whom there was no
guile."

YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD.

A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of mention, is
the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, our very lives,
demand that we should eat sweets. It is a truth that our sugars, and
especially our commercial syrups, are so adulterated as to be often
poisonous. The apiary, in lieu of these, gives us one of the most
delicious and wholesome of sweets, which has received merited praise,
as food fit for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present
day. To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the
equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a
blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and friends
with a most necessary and desirable food element, and this with no
cloud of fear from vile, poisonous adulterations.


WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES.

MENTAL EFFORT.

No one should commence this business who is not willing to read, think
and study. To be sure, the ignorant and unthinking may stumble on
success for a time, but sooner or later, failure will set her seal upon
their efforts. Those of our apiarists who have studied the hardest,
observed the closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the
late terrible winters with but slight loss.

Of course the novice will ask. How and what shall I study?

EXPERIENCE NECESSARY.

Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence with a few
colonies, even one or two is best, and make the bees your companions
at every possible opportunity. Note every change, whether of the bees,
their development, or work, and then by earnest thought strive to
divine the cause.

LEARN FROM OTHERS.

Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. Note their
methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by conversation to gain new and
valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison,
to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice.

AID FROM CONVENTIONS.

Attend conventions whenever distance and means render this possible.
Here you will not only be made better by social intercourse with those
whose occupation and study make them sympathetic and congenial, but you
will find a real conservatory of scientific truths, valuable hints,
and improved instruments and methods. And the apt attention--rendered
possible by your own experience--which you will give to essays,
discussions and private conversations, will so enrich your mind, that
you will return to your home encouraged, and able to do better work,
and to achieve higher success. I have attended nearly all the meetings
of the Michigan Convention, and never yet when I was not well paid for
all trouble and expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions
which I received. These I would carry home, and test as commanded by
the Apostle: "Prove all things and hold fast that which is good."

AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS.

Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the three
excellent bee publications that are issued in our country. It has
been suggested that Francis Huber's blindness was an advantage to
him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs of eyes, his wife's
and servant's, instead of one. So, too, of the apiarist who reads the
bee publications. He has the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too,
of hundreds of intelligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that
squanders his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He who
"_cannot afford_" to take a bee-journal.

It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any one of these
valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. Each has its peculiar
excellences, and all who can, may well secure all of them to aid and
direct their ways.

AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL.

This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its age,
but for the ability with which it has been managed, with scarce any
exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel Wagner, its founder
and long its editor, had few superiors in breadth of culture, strength
of judgment, and practical and historic knowledge of apiculture.
With what pleasure we remember the elegant, really classic, diction
of the editorials, the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities
which marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly
visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel Wagner.
Some one has said that there is something in the very atmosphere of
a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all who approach him. I have
often thought, as memory reverted to the old American Bee Journal, or
as I have re-read the numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's
superior learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his
noble character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding,
instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess the
early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to state that the
American Bee Journal is again in good hands, and that its old prestige
is fully restored. Mr. Newman is an experienced editor, a man of
excellent judgment and admirable balance, a man who demonstrates his
dislike of criminations and recriminations by avoiding them; who has
no special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost sure
to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers who lends his
aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so much to spread apiarian
knowledge. And when I add, that he brings to his editorial aid the
most able, experienced and educated apiarists of the world, I surely
have spoken high but _just_ praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose
enviable reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by
Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. Price, $2.00 a year.

GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE.

This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five years,
by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from the first.
Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly experimenting; a
terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good nature and enthusiasm.
I am free to say, that in practical apiculture I am more indebted to
Mr. Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I
also think that, with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent
advancement of practical apiculture than any other person in our
country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so inimical to
conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises that with which he
has had so brief an experience, and must consequently know so little.
This trait makes it imperative that the apiarist read discriminately,
and then decide for himself. In case of an innovation, wait for
Mr. Root's continued approval, else prove its value before general
adoption. This sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root,
Medina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year.

BEE-KEEPER'S MAGAZINE.

I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less of it than
of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has many very able
contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root deal largely in their own
wares, and, of course, give space to their advertisement, yet, in all
my dealings with them, and I have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have
ever found them prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J.
King, New York. Price, $1.50 a year.

BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST.

Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, both
American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a course to others.
Each book has peculiar excellences, and each one may be read with
interest and profit.

LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE.

Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee-literature.
I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have received from the
study of its pages. It was a high, but deserved encomium, which J.
Hunter, of England, in his "Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work:
"It is unquestionably the best bee-book in the English language."

The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter so replete
with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that it is a
desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studious apiarist
can well be without it. It is especially happy in detailing the methods
of experimentation, and in showing with what caution the true scientist
establishes principles or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully
free from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture
remained stationary, there would have been little need of another
work; but as some of the most important improvements in apiculture are
not mentioned, the book alone would be a very unsatisfactory guide to
the apiarist of to-day. Price, $2.00.

QUINBY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING.

This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's most
successful bee-keepers. It proceeds, I think, on a wrong basis in
supposing that those who read bee-books will use the old box-hives,
especially as the author is constantly inferring that other hives are
better. It contains many valuable truths, and when first written was a
valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper. I understand that the work has
been revised by Mr. L. C. Root. Price, $1.50.

KING'S TEXT-BOOK.

This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently been
revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be regretted that
the publisher did not take more pains with his work, as the typography
is very poor. The price is $1.00.

A B C OF BEE-CULTURE.

This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It is arranged
in the convenient form of our cyclopædias, is printed in fine style,
on beautiful paper, and is to be well illustrated. I need hardly say
that the style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter will, of
course, be fresh, embodying the most recent discoveries and inventions
pertaining to bee-keeping. That it may be kept abreast of apiarian
progress, the type is to be kept in position, so that each new
discovery may be added as soon as made. The price is $1.00.

FOREIGN WORKS.

Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and shows by its
able historical chapters, admirable scientific disquisitions, and
frequent quotations and references to practical and scientific writers
on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient and modern, that the writers were
men of extensive reading and great scientific ability. The book is of
no practical value to us, but to the student it will be read with great
interest. Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in
my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may except back
volumes of the bee-publications.

"The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by Alfred Neighbour,
London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, and as the third edition has
just appeared, is, of course, up with the times. The book is in nice
dress, concise, and very readable, and I am glad to commend it.

A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, is the
"Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. This is also recent.
I think these works would be received with little favor among American
apiarists. They are exponents of English apiculture, which in method
would seem clumsy to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in
implements and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Germans
and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and hence their
text-books and journals compare illy with ours. I believe the many
intelligent foreign apiarists who have come to this country and are
now honored members of our own fraternity, will sustain this position.
_Foreign scientists_ are ahead of American, but we glean and utilize
their facts and discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is
discovered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten times as
many American as foreign apiarists know of this and practice by the
knowledge. In practical fields, on the other hand, as also in skill and
delicacy of invention, we are, I think, in advance. So our apiarists
have little need to go abroad for either books or papers.

PROMPTITUDE.

Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, is prompt
attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock on which many
bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often that they have wrecked
their success. I have no doubt that more colonies die from starvation,
than from all the bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is
this? Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by
absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must we blame?
Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of queen and
workers, just because room is denied them, is very great. Who is the
guilty party? Plainly, neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways,
indifference to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments,
greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be successful,
promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees requires but very
little care and attention. Our every interest demands that this be not
denied, nor even granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention
is slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect
always involves loss--often disaster.

ENTHUSIASM.

Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desirable, if not
an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To be sure, this is
a quality whose growth, with even slight opportunity, is almost sure.
It only demands perseverance. The beginner, without either experience
or knowledge, may meet with discouragements--unquestionably will.
Swarms will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist
will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with great
disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet reproof more sharp
than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these difficulties quickly
vanish. Every contingency will be foreseen and provided against, and
the myriad of little workers will become as manageable and may be
fondled as safely as a pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister
to their needs with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he
does to his gentlest cow or favorite horse. _Persistence in the face of
all those discouragements which are so sure to confront inexperience,
will surely triumph._ In-sooth, he who appreciates the beautiful and
marvelous, will soon grow to love his companions of the hive, and the
labor attendant upon their care and management. Nor will this love
abate till it has kindled into enthusiasm.

True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled by no warmth
of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system and promptitude, stand
in lieu of and make amends for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe
such are rare, and certainly they work at great disadvantage.




                              PART FIRST.




                            NATURAL HISTORY

                                  OF

                            THE HONEY BEE.




                   NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE.




                              CHAPTER I.

                THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.


It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that there
are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It will be both
interesting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we
may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this mighty
concourse of life.

BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon I.,
grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one branch,
appropriately named Articulates, as this term indicates the jointed
or articulated structure which so obviously characterizes most of the
members of this group.

The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a technical
meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of union of two
parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, the parts of an
insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, are styled joints or
articulations. All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure
of a bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its
body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close
inspection we find the legs, the antennæ, and even the mouth-parts,
likewise, jointed.

In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea--which includes the
rollicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether he moves
forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the sow-bug, lively
and plump, even in its dark, damp home under old boards, etc., and the
barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of ships, so that vessels are
often freighted with life within and without.

The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, as the leech,
the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which gives us food, is
related to the dreaded tape-worm with its hundred of joints, which,
mayhaps, robs us of the same food after we have eaten it, and the
terrible pork-worm or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we
have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary.

The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in the bee and
lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. This skeleton, unlike
that of Vertebrates or back-bone animals, to which we belong, is
outside, and thus serves to protect the inner, softer parts, as well
as to give them attachment, and to give strength and solidity to the
animal.

This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-banded
Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, animals of this
branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually bony skeleton; from
the less active Molluscan branch, with their soft, sack-like bodies,
familiar to us in the snail, the clam, the oyster, and the wonderful
cuttle-fish--the devil-fish of Victor Hugo--with its long, clammy arms,
strange ink-bag and often prodigious size; from the Radiate branch,
with its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral
animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents and from
the lowest, simplest. Protozoan branch, which includes animals so
minute that we owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, so
simple that they have been regarded as the apron-strings which tie
plants to animals.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.

_A Trachea magnified._]

THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE.

Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly characterized
by breathing air usually through a very complicated system of
air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are constantly branching, and
almost infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They
are formed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder
formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem,
so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the
wire unmoved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than this
labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee under the
microscope. I have frequently detected myself taking long pauses, in
making dissections of the honey-bee, as my attention would be fixed
in admiration of this beautiful breathing apparatus. In the bee these
tubes expand into large lung-like sacks (Fig. 2, _f_), one each side of
the body.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.

_Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.--After Duncan._]

Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements
and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their
well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we see the
relation between this intricate system of air-tubes--their lungs--and
the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of them since the
earliest time. The class Insecta also includes the spiders, scorpions,
with their caudal sting so venomous, and mites, which have in lieu
of the tubes, lung-like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged
worms--those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical
centipedes or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of being
poisonous and deadly.

The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing Crustacea, with
their branchiæ or gills, nor the worms, which have 110 lungs or gills
but their skin, if we except some marine forms, which have simple
dermal appendages, which, answer to branchiæ.

ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true Insects. The first
term is appropriate, as all have in the imago or last stage, six legs.
Nor is the second term less applicable, as the word insect comes from
the Latin and means to cut in, and in no other articulates does the
ring structure appear 80 marked upon merely a superficial examination.
More than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike
all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body (Fig.
2), namely: the head (Fig. 2, _a_), which contains the antennæ (Fig.
2, _d_), the horn-like appendages common to all insects; eyes (Fig.
2, _e_) and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig. 2, _b_), which bears the
legs (Fig. 2, _g_), and wings, when they are present; and lastly, the
abdomen (Fig. 2, _c_), which, though usually memberless, contains
the ovipositor, and when present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a
more striking metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched
they are worm-like and called larvæ (Fig. 12), which means masked;
afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would hardly be supposed
to be animals at all. They are then known as pupæ, or as in case of
bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). At last there comes forth the imago with
compound eyes, antennæ and wings. In some insects the transformations
are said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ
little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We see in
our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of insects with
incomplete transformations. In such cases there is a marked resemblance
from the egg to the adult.

As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which have only
two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no antennæ, eight
legs, and no transformations (if we except the partial transformations
of the mites), as also the myriapods, which have no marked divisions of
the body, and no compound eyes--which are always present in the mature
insect--many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order
Insects.

SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE.

The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from two Greek
words meaning membrane and wings), which also includes the wasps,
ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This group contains insects which
possess a tongue by which they may suck (Fig. 20, _a_), and strong
jaws (Fig. 21) for biting. Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of
flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four
wings, and undergo complete transformations.

There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of one sub-order
will show a marked likeness to those of another. This is known as
mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully striking between very distant
groups. Darwin and Wallace suppose it is a developed peculiarity,
not always possessed by the species, and comes through the laws of
variation, and natural selection to serve the purpose of protection.
Now, right here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the
other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and
the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and desired to know
whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or some other species. Now, this
insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had only two
wings, had no jaws, while its antennæ were closer together in front
and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the
sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several similar
insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are several families,
as the Œstridæ or bot-flies, the Syrphidæ--a very useful family, as
the larvæ or maggots live on plant-lice--whose members are often seen
sipping sweets from flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees--the
one referred to above belonged to this family--and the Bombyliidæ,
which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like wild and
domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on the larvæ of various of
our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must steal into the nests
of the latter to lay her eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming
evidence that the mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as
they steal in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs.
Possibly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen them
enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to do the same,
found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters each with a poisoned tip.

Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the highest of
insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths a
first place, while others, and with the best of reasons, claim for
Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is admired for the glory
of its coloring and elegance of its form, the beetle for the luster
and brilliancy of its elytra or wing-covers; but these insects only
revel in nature's wealth, and live and die without labor or purpose.
Hymenoptera usually less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive
in color, are yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with
a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be found
among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor the ants are still
better political economists, as they have a specially endowed class
in the community who are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of
each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take their
inhabitants captive and reduce them to abject slavery--requiring them
to perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the
community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating
species have been observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as
some ascend trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain
below, and carry these branches through their tunnels to their
under-ground homes.

The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay their eggs in
other insects, that their offspring may have fresh meat not only at
birth, but so long as they need food, as the insect fed upon generally
lives till the young parasite, which is working to disembowel it,
is full-grown. Thus this steak is ever fresh as life itself. These
parasitic insects show wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in
discovering this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies--a family of these
parasites--boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid beech
or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective victim
further on in direct line with the insect auger, which was to intrude
the fatal egg. I have also watched ichneumon-flies depositing eggs in
leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded with tough hickory leaves
that the fly had to pierce several thicknesses to place the egg in its
snugly-ensconced victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars
in a box, I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And
is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number
of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so
that there may be no danger of famine and starvation, for true it is
that while small caterpillars will receive but one egg, large ones may
receive several. How strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its
wondrous instruments more perfect than any saws of human workmanship,
and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten their eggs to
the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the abnormal growth of food for
the still unhatched young. The providing and caring for their young,
which are at first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight
exception, to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered
a mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call
it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits--that
_must_ go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of communities known
among animals, of whatever branch--all these, no less than the compact
structure, small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more
than warrant that grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and
Packard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. As we
shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of the high--the
bees--in the following pages, I am sure no one will think to degrade
the rank of these wonders of the animal kingdom.

FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidæ, of Leach, which includes not
only the hive bee, but all insects which feed their helpless young, or
larvæ, entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen.

The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed antennæ (Fig.
2, _d_) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, and only
twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 21) are
very strong, and often toothed; the tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, _a_),
as also the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c_), one each side the
tongue, are long, though in some cases much shorter than in others,
and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or
more, under the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff
spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or
the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, except
the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior
legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior
legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first
joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, much widened, and this together
with the broad tibia (Fig. 2, _h_) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, _p_),
forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the
species; and generally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff
hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course
on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the
Apidæ--thieves by nature--cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of
others, usually bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young
are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence like
drone bees need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these
lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, by
eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being unable like
the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children from the nest, they
show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting
for starvation to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate
mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of
their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish
them. Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would refuse
ingress to these merciless vagrants.

The larvæ (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are
maggot-like--wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before
stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all
during their babyhood--the larvæ state--the time when all insects are
most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the
time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required
by egg-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their
mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak
jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at
this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like many
maggots--such as the Hessian-fly larvæ--absorb much of their food
through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has
no anal opening. So there are no excreta other than gas and vapor. What
commendation for their food, _all_ capable of nourishment, and thus all
assimilated.

To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipona, of
Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal
brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the unkept
hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are exceedingly numerous in
each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than
one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess
a prospective commercial importance in these days of artificial
comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is
triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the
front wings. They are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings
that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens.

Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have the wings
longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the
Melipona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa,
India and Australasia. These build their combs in tall trees, fastening
them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be
mentioned.

Of course insects of the genus Bombus--our common bumble-bees--belong
to this family. Here the tongue is very long, the bee large, the
sting curved, with the barbs very short and few. Only the queen
survives the winter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or
board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass
of bee-bread--probably a mixture of honey and pollen--she deposits
several eggs in the mass. The larvæ so soon as hatched out, eat out
thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not
unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees issue
from these cells the same are strengthened by wax. Later in the season
these coarse wax cells become very numerous. Some may be made as cells
and not termed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much
pollen, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At
first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still later
males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two sizes of queen
bumble-bees, the large and the small. The small appear early in the
season, and the large late. A student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham,
who last year had a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season,
thinks this an error. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus
nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, like those
of bees, are smaller before mating and active laying. May not this be
another case like that of the two kinds of worker-bees which deceived
even Huber, an error consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged
observation?

In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble the bumble-bees,
we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or
jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest
wood. These burrows are divided by chip partitions into cells, and in
each cell is left the bee-bread and an egg.

The mason-bee--well named--constructs cells of earth and gravel, which
by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so that they are harder
than brick.

The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful
cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always
mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut--by the
insect's making scissors of its jaws--from various leaves, the rose
being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the
petals or flower leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing
these leaf-sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The
oblong sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular
pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, and
are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed
together. When complete, the single cells are in form and size much
like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is
usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form
are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third
as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the
folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to
leave stationary for some days. These leaf-cutters have rows of hairs
underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each
summer for some years swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called
woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a
single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the foliage
of the same vines quite badly.

I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, which are also
called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a
luster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These
rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds
and shrubs, and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early
summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are frequently
seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or
digging holes, and will hardly escape identification by the observing
apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They
are smaller; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form,
are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly
attired, workers of the apiary.

Other bees--the numerous species of the genus Nomada, and of Apathus,
are the black sheep in the family Apidæ. These tramps, already referred
to, like the English cuckoo and our American cow-blackbird, steal in
upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way
appropriating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus these
insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in these
violated homes. And these same foster-mothers show by their tender
care of these merciless intruders, that they are miserably fooled, for
they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn
practice this same nefarious trickery.

I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful bee
family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, of this State,
I was struck with the fine collection of wild bees which each had made.
Yet, unknowingly, they had incorporated many that were not bees. Of
course, many apiarists will wish to make such collections and also to
study our wild bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope,
too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the valuable
and intensely interesting study of these wonders of nature. I am glad,
too, to open to the reader a page from the book of nature so replete
with attractions as is the above. Nor do I think I have taken too much
space in revealing the strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully
varied habits, of this highest of insect families, at the head of
which. Stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.

  A.--_Anterior Wing of a Bee._ 1, 2, 3.--_Sub-costal or Cubital Cells._
  B.--_Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing._
]

THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs on the
posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal cells (1, 2, 3,
Fig. 3)--the second row from the costal or anterior edge--on the front
or primary wings. On the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus,
opposite the pollen baskets, in the neuters or workers, are rows of
hairs (Fig. 23) which are probably used in collecting pollen. In the
males, which do no work except to fertilize the queens, the large
compound eyes meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig.
4), while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple eyes, called
ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart.
The queens and drones have weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig.
21, _b_), short tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the
broad tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_).

[Illustration: Fig. 4.

_Head of Drone, magnified._

_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._]

[Illustration: Fig. 5.

_Head of Worker, magnified._

_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._]

There is some doubt as to the number of species of this genus, it is
certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or Italian bee, the Apis
fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, are only varieties of the Apis
mellifica, which also includes the German or black bee.

Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata of India
and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, Apis Indica of
India and China, and Apis florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo,
as distinct species. He thinks, also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis
nigrocincta are distinct, but thinks they may be varieties of Apis
Indica. Some regard Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is
probably a variety of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been
found in India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa,
it seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out to be
only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color and size to
distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, then we may suspect,
with good reason, the validity of the above arrangement. If there
is structural difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male
dorsata, then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly
has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to
separate them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the
East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, suspends
its combs to the branches of trees--in rare cases our own bees have
been known to do the same--is said to be cross, to have a very long
tongue, to be larger than our common bee, and to make larger cells.

Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of
different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed.

It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to import these
various species, and see how marked is the difference between them
and ours. Such work can be best accomplished through our National
Association. Very likely, as we come to know these far-off bees as we
know the German and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size,
habits of comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities
developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall sweep them
all into the one species. Apis mellifica, to be regarded as we now
regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only varieties.

It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been native to
the American continent. Without doubt there were no bees of this genus
here till introduced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as
we find that all the continents and islands of the Eastern hemisphere
abound with representatives. It is one more illustration of the
strange, inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution
of animals.

SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES.

The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to the Apis
mellifica. The character of this species will appear in the next
chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and physiology. As before
stated, this species is native exclusively to the Eastern hemisphere,
though it has been introduced wherever civilized man has taken up his
abode.


VARIETIES or THE HONEY-BEE.

GERMAN OR BLACK BEE.

The German or black bee is the variety best known, as through all
the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name German refers
to locality, while the name black is a misnomer, as the bee is a
gray-black. The queen, and in a less degree the drones, are darker,
while the legs and under surface of the former are brown, or copper
color, and of the latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker
I have found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian worker,
and generally less hairy. The black bees have been known no longer than
the Italians, as we find the latter were known both to Aristotle, the
fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, the great Roman poet, who sung of
the variegated golden bee, the first century B. C.; and we can only
account for the wider distribution of the German bee by considering
the more vigorous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only
over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all
Christendom.

LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE.

The Italian bee (see frontis-plate) is characterized as a variety,
not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but also by
possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as
distinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the name
Ligurian bee, which name prevails; in Europe. The name comes from a
province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of
Genoa. This region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and
thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and in warmer,
more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, our beautiful
Italians.

In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, which he
had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed as a military
captain in Italy. He published his experience in 1848, which was read
by Dzierzon, who became interested, and through him the Italian became
generally introduced into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's
first importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England by
Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already referred to.
The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported the Italians from
Dzierzon's apiary into America; and in 1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought
the first colonies that were imported direct from Italy.

The Italian worker (see frontis-plate) is quickly distinguished by
the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. If the colony is
pure, every bee will show three of these golden girdles. The two first
segments or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border,
and also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this
orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much
as in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a greater
or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while the same
color appears more or less strongly marked on the legs. The workers,
too, have longer ligulæ or tongues (Fig. 20) than do the German race,
and their tongues are also a little more hairy. They are also more
active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire base of
her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The
variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking.
Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the Ligurian hills,
yet all the workers will wear the badge of purity--the three golden
bands.

The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and patches
of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite indistinct. But
the underside of the body is always, so far as I have observed, mainly
yellow.

THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE.

The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is very broadly
banded with yellow. I have never seen these bees, but from descriptions
by Latreille, Kirby, and Bevan, I understand that all the bees are
rather smaller, more slim, and much more yellow than the Italians.
Herr Vogel states that they gather no propolis, but that each colony
contains a number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were
probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly land of
promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the reputation: "flowing with
milk and honey." They are thus the oldest of domesticated bees. These,
too, are said to have been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down
the Nile, as the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said
to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also been
reputed very cross.

OTHER VARIETIES.

There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiving some
attention from the German apiarists, and are honored with attention
at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, as we learn from the
bee-publications of those countries. The Cyprian bee, from the Isle of
Cyprus, as its name indicates, is yellow, and probably an offspring
from the Italian or Egyptian. So far as we can learn, it has no merits
which will make it preferred to the Italian. Some say it is more
beautiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which are
not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath, the
Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not considered
superior to the German and Italian.

A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually
distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos.
That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have
noticed among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos.


BIBLIOGRAPHY.

It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give in
this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it relates
to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as there is
quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those who are
eager to know more of this interesting department of natural history, I
will not go into details.

Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C. About
three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to the
world the views then extant on this subject, gathered largely from
the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its
beauty and elegance--would that as much could be said for the subject
matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A
little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his
observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder,
who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous
opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this,
he added opinions of his own, which were not only without foundation,
but were often the perfection of absurdity.

After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress in
natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning,
we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in
the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects,
also, "The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary,
Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems
on the insect transformations. They also revived the study and
practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by
Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray
also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by
Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his
discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated
dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"--all life from eggs--which was completely
established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the
middle of the 18th century, the great Linnæus--"the brilliant Star
of the North"--published his "System Naturæ," and threw a flood of
light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects
was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of wings.
This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his conclusions were
remarkably correct. Linnæus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and
especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and
animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as, Apis mellifica.
He was also the first to introduce classes and orders, as we now
understand them. When we consider the amount and character of the work
of the great Swede we can but place him among the first, if not as the
first, of naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné)
was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last
half of the century appeared the great work of a master in entomology,
DeGeer, who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings
and jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him
in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says: "He united in himself
the highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a
scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian
of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a
spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is such
an ability to observe, as was possessed by the great DeGeer.

Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of France, whose
experiments and researches are of special interest to apiarists.
Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the natural history
of bees. Especially to be commended are his method of experimenting,
his patience in investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word
pictures, and, above all, _his devotion to truth_. We shall have
occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the
great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. Bonnet,
of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also did valuable work,
in which the lover of bees has a special interest. Bonnet is specially
noted for his discovery and elucidation of parthenogenesis--that
anomalous mode of reproduction--as it occurs among the Aphides
or plant-lice, though he did not discover that our bees, in the
production of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author
of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic labors.

At this same period systematic entomology received great aid from
Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained the
development of a caterpillar. His descriptions and illustrations are
wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is
studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of God."

We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius--a student of
Linnæus--who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was
revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of
America were revolutionizing government. He made the mouth organs
the basis of his classification, and thus followed in the path which
DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter
while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders are no
improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, as were his old
master's. In his description of genera--where he pretended to follow
nature--he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists to study
parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish affinities,
he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be
thoroughly studied by all entomologists.

Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest "Roman
of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we have so
frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is called
the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts, transformations,
in fact, all the organs--the entire structure. He gave us our Family
Apidæ, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several
of the species of this genus. In our study of this great man's work, we
constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remarkable talents.
Lamark, of this time, except that he could see no God in nature, did
very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the
learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers
in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise; yet
the work has been to rub up and garnish, rather than to create. So I
will close this brief history with a notice of authors who are very
serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of the treasures
of systematic entomology; only remarking that at the end of the next
chapter I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable
in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially of bees.

VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.

For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects--two
volumes. In this the descriptions and illustrations are very full and
perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, of all
the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but can
be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores.

Kirby and Spence--Introduction to Entomology--is a very complete work.
It treats of the classification, structure, habits, general economy of
insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work,
and a great acquisition to any library.

Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable work, and
being American, is specially to be recommended.

The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley,
will also be found of great value and interest.




CHAPTER II.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.


In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of insects; then
the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology of the honey-bee.


ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions
(Fig. 2): the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs,
the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the
antennæ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives
support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of
legs; and the abdomen, which is composed of a variable number of rings,
and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to the
sting. Within the thorax there are little more than muscles, as the
concentrated strength of insects, which enables them to fly with such
rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within the abdomen, on the
other hand, are the sex-organs, by far the greater and more important
portions of the alimentary canal, and other important organs.

ORGANS OF THE HEAD.

Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent. These consist
of an upper lip--labrum--and under lip--labium--and two pairs of jaws
which move sidewise; the stronger, horny jaws, called mandibles, and
the more membranous, but usually longer, maxillæ. The labrum (Fig. 6,
_l_) is well described in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually,
by a movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called clypeus
(Fig. 6, _c_), and this latter to the broad epicranium (Fig. 6, _o_),
which contains the antennæ, the compound, and, when present, the simple
eyes.

The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under lip, as its
base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the tongue. The base
is usually broad, and is called the mentum, and from this extends the
tongue (Fig. 15, _a_) or ligula. On either side, near the junction of
the ligula and mentum, arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called
the labial palpus (Fig. 6, _k k_), or, together, the labial palpi.
Just within the angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the
paraglossæ (Fig. 15, _d_), one on either side. These are often wanting.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.

Head of Bee much magnified.

  _o_--Epicranium
  _e e_--Compound eyes.
  _a a_--Antennæ,
  _c_--Clypeus.
  _l_--Labrum.
  _m_--Jaws.
  _m x_--2d Jaws.
  _k k_--Labial palpi,
  _t_--Ligula.
]

The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, _m, m_) arise one on either side just
below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. These work sidewise
instead of up and down as in higher animals, are frequently very hard
and sharp, and sometimes armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary
tooth (Fig. 21, _b_) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees.

Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther back, are
the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 6, _m x_), less dense and firm than
the mandibles, but far more complex. They arise by a small joint, the
cardo, next this is a larger joint, the stipes, from this extends on
the inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 20, _c_) or blade, usually fringed
with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while on the outside
of the stipes are inserted the--from one to several jointed--maxillary
palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two joints, and in
some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in some of the beetles,
there is a third member running from the stipes between the palpus and
lacinia called the galea. The maxillæ also move sidewise, and probably
aid in holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder
jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food.

These mouth parts are very variable in form in different insects. In
butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they are transformed
into a tube, which in the last two groups forms a hard, strong beak
or piercer, well exemplified in the mosquito and bed-bug. In all the
other insects we find them much as in the bees, with the separate
parts varying greatly in form, to agree with the habits and character
of their possessors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these
varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, and
no wonder, too, that in their use they were so successful in forming a
natural classification.

Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these parts and
studying their form and relations for himself. By getting his children
interested in the same, he will have conferred upon them one of the
rarest of blessings.

To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully pin it
to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between the eyes. Now
separate the parts by two needle points, made by inserting a needle
for half its length into a pine stick the shape of a pipe-stem, leaving
the point projecting for an inch or more. With one of these in each
hand commence operations. The head may be either side up. Much may be
learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but in all
cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will be of great
value. The best lens is one of Tolles', sold by Mr. Stoddard, of the
Boston optical works. These are very excellent and thus high priced,
costing $14.00. Gray's triplet hand-lenses are very good, are cheap,
and can be procured for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should
have a hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so
that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in a stand
which any one can contrive and make in twenty minutes. I value my
Tolles' lens even more highly than my large compound microscope, which
cost $150. Were I obliged to part with either, the latter would go.

I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, which they
enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would much rather that my
boy would become interested in such study, than to have him possessor
of infinite gold rings, or even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous
charm. Let such pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys,
and they will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with
anxiety and fear.

The antennæ (Fig. 6, _a, a_) are the horn-like jointed organs situated
between or below and in front of the large compound eyes of all
insects. They are sometimes short, as in the house-fly, and sometimes
very long, as in the grasshoppers. They are either straight, curved or
elbowed (Fig. 6). In form, too, they are very various, as thread-like,
tapering, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. It is known
that a nerve passes into the antennæ, but their exact function is
little understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs no
apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell or hearing is
not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds I think no observing
person can doubt. It is proved by the call of the katy-did, the cicada
and the cricket. What apiarist, too, has not noticed the effect of
various sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How
contagious the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the
pleasant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new home.
Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, as we recognize
pitch, or whether they just distinguish the tremor, I think no one
knows. There is some reason to believe that their delicate touch-organs
may enable them to discriminate between vibrations, even more acutely,
than can we by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a
colony of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If insects
can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory conditions
of the air by an excessive development of the sense of touch, then
undoubtedly the antennæ may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that
insects could only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought
Linnæus and Bonnet. Siebold thinks, as the antennæ receive but one
nerve, and are plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing.
Kirby has noticed that some moths turn their antennæ towards the
direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that antennæ are
organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, thinks that the densely
feathered antennæ of the males of various night moths, serve both for
smell and hearing. Prof. A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American
Naturalist, vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments,
proved conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennæ
of the male mosquito are organs of hearing.

That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond question. How
quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the scavenger the filth, and
the bee the precious nectar.

I have reared female moths in my study, and have been greatly
surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to find my room
swarming with males. These bridegrooms entered an open window in the
second-story of a brick building. How delicate must have been the sense
by which they were led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my
cabinet. Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind
which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their perception
of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are carried by the air,
and must reach the insect through this medium. Is it not probable, that
the various breathing mouths of insects are also so many noses, and
that their delicate lining membranes abounding with, nerve filaments,
are the great odor sentinels? This view was maintained by both Lehman
and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of scents, as the
breathing mouths are large and numerous, and most so in insects like
bees and moths, which are most sensitive to odors. How quickly the
bees notice the scent of a strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor
of the venom. I have known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the
glove would be as a pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Sometimes
the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. Yet the odor
is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the poison before I felt
the sting. I have tried the experiments of Huber and Lubbock, and know
that such insects as bees and ants will take no note of food after the
loss of their antennæ. But we must remember that this is a capital
operation. With loss of antennæ, insects lose control of their motions,
and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not probable then that
removing the antennæ destroys the desire for food, as does amputation
with ourselves? Kirby believes with Huber, that there is a scent organ.
Huber's experiments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very
interesting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of turpentine--a
substance very repugnant to bees--to various parts of a bee engrossed
in sipping honey. The bee made no objection, even though it touched the
ligula, until it approached the mouth above the mentum, when she became
much disturbed. He also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon
hardened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near it.
This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so disturbed as
to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good deal, and am inclined
to the following opinion: The antennæ are very delicate touch-organs
or feelers, and are so important in their function and connection that
removal produces a severe shock, but further we know but little about
their function, if they have other, and from the very nature of the
problem we will find it very difficult of solution.

The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are always present in
mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, which may or may not
be present. When present there are usually three, which if we join by
lines, we will describe a triangle, in the vertices of whose angles
are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but
one.

The simple eyes (Fig. 4, _f f f_) are circular, and possess a cornea,
lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight.

From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam, which consisted in
covering the eyes with varnish, they concluded that vision with
these simple eyes is very indistinct, though by them the insect can
distinguish light. Some have thought that these simple eyes were for
vision at slight distances. Larvæ, like spiders and myriapods, have
only simple eyes.

The compound eyes (Fig. 2, _e_) are simply a cluster of simple eyes,
are situated one on either side of the head, and vary much in form and
size. Between or below these are inserted the antennæ. Sometimes these
last are inserted in a notch of the eyes, and in a few cases actually
divide each eye into two eyes.

The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig. 4), most two-wing flies
and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably separated, as in the
worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or simple eyes, of each
compound eye, are hexagonal, or six-sided, and in the microscope
look not unlike a section of honey-comb. The number of these is
prodigious--Leeuwenhoek actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a
dragon-fly--while some butterflies have, over 17,000. The compound
eyes are motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they
give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are capable
of adjustment to accord with different distances, and it has been
supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to their hives, and
the awkward work they make in finding a hive when moved only for a
short distance, that their eyes are best suited to long vision.

Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments with
strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. Honey was
placed on a blue strip, beside several others of various colors. In
the absence of the bees he changed the position of this strip, and
upon their return the bees went to the blue strip rather than to the
old position. Our practical apiarists have long been aware of this
fact, and have conformed their practice to the knowledge, in giving
a variety of colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted
that bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight
distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which would occur
if position alone was guide.

APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX.

The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of the thorax.
The wings are usually four, though the Diptera have but two, and some
insects--as the worker ants--have none. The front or primary wings
(Fig. 3, _A_) are usually larger than the secondary or hind wings
(Fig. 3, _B_), and thus the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax,
to which they are attached, is usually larger than the metathorax or
third ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 3),
covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable
in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more or less
cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more or less
cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and quite important in
classifying. Especially useful are the cells in the second row, from
the frontal or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal
cells. Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, _A_,
1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs or veins
consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one forming an air tube, the
outer one carrying blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we
often find hooks, to attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, _B_, _a_).

[Illustration: Fig. 7.

_Thorax of Bee magnified three times._

_a, a, a_--Muscles. _b, b_--Crust.]

The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly located in the
thorax (Fig. 7, _a, a, a_), whose strength, as well as the rapidity of
the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid are really beyond
computation. Think of a tiny fly outstripping the fleetest horse in the
chase, and then marvel at this wondrous mechanism.

The legs (Fig. 2, _g, g, g_) are six in number in all mature insects,
two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. These are long or
short, weak or strong, according to the habit of the insect. Each leg
consists of the following joints or parts: The coxæ (Fig. 24), which
move like a ball and socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities
of the body-rings. Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter,
the large, broad femur (Fig. 2, _g′_, 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2,
_g′_, 2), frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called
tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed tarsi (Fig.
2, _g′_, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3). All these parts move freely upon each other,
and will vary in form to agree with their use. At the end of the last
tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Fig. 2, _g′_, 4), between which are
the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather
glands, which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to stick
to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The legs, in fact the
whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, owing to the deposit
within the structure of a hard substance known as chitine.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I have noticed
quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the thorax. They vary in form
and position to accord with their use. The mechanism of contraction is
the same as in higher animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary
muscles, when highly magnified, show the striæ or cross-lines the same
as do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful as
microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not bound together by
a membrane as in higher animals. In insects the muscles are widely
distributed, though, as we should expect, they are concentrated in
the thorax and head. In insects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the
thorax (Fig. 7, _a, a, a_) is almost entirely composed of muscles; the
œsophagus, which carries the food to the stomach, being very small.
At the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm. The
number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted over 3,000 in a single
caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are found in the human body.
The strength, too, of insects is prodigious. There must be quality
in muscles, for muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as
strong as those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old
philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas have been made
to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even wagons many hundred times
heavier than themselves.

The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, except
in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or have ganglia, and
some are not.

The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral side of the
body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after passing around the
œsophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the ganglia, which serves as
a brain. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and in squeezing out the
viscera of an insect are easily visible.

The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. The heart
is a long tube situated along the back, and receives the blood at
valvular openings along its sides which only permit the fluid to pass
in, when by contraction it is forced towards the head and emptied into
the general cavity. Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in
motion. According to the best authorities, there are no special vessels
to carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, as this
nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, and thus easily
receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis, everywhere surrounds
the tracheæ or air-tubes--the insect's lungs--and thus receives that
most needful of all food, oxygen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid,
everywhere touches the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital
operations of the animal require.

The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or
corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher animals, and
which give our blood its red color. The function of these discs is to
carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried everywhere through the body by
the ubiquitous air-tubes of insects, we see the discs are not needed.
Except these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as
are other organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in
all normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or any
part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed by the tissue
and converted into the organs, or, to be scientific, are assimilated.
As the blood of insects is nearly destitute of these discs, it is
almost wholly fluid, and is almost wholly made up of nutritious
substance.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.

_Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times._]

The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already been
referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spiracles or breathing
mouths, which vary in number. These are armed with a complex valvular
arrangement which excludes dust or other noxious particles. These
spiracles are lined with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves,
which were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. From
these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, _f, f′_), which
breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. In
the more active insects--as in bees--the main tracheæ, one on each
side of the abdomen, are expanded into large air-sacks (Fig. 2, _f_).
Insects often show a respiratory motion, which in bees is often very
marked. Newport has shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration
gauges the heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of
severe cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration,
consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and are liable
to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there would be
quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he suspended in the
hive amidst the cluster. In the larva state, many insects breathe by
fringe-like gills. The larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy
tufts, while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum,
or last part of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws
the water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly-placed
branchiæ, and then makes it serve a further turn by forcibly expelling
it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. Thus this curious apparatus
not only furnishes oxygen, but also a mode of motion. In the pupa; of
insects there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are
taking place--the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva,
is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal
imago. So oxygen, the most essential--the _sine qua non_--of all animal
food, is still needed. The bees are too wise to seal the brood-cell
with impervious wax, but rather add the porous capping, made of wax and
pollen. The pupæ no less than the larvæ of some two-wing flies, which
live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the vivifying
air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupæ of the mosquito,
awaiting in its liquid home the glad time when it shall unfold its tiny
wings and pipe its war-note, has a similar arrangement to secure the
gaseous pabulum.

The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, as in our
own class of animals, varies very much in length and complexity, as
the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As in mammals and birds,
the length, with some striking exceptions, varies with the food.
Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have a short alimentary canal,
while in those that feed on vegetable food it is much longer.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.

_Alimentary Canal._

  _o_--Honey stomach.  _b_--True stomach.
  _c_--Urinary tubes.  _d_--Intestine.
]

The mouth I have already described. Following this is the throat or
pharynx, then the œsophagus or gullet, which may expand, as in the
bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach (Fig. 9, _o_), may have an
attached crop like the chicken, or may run as a uniform tube as in
our bodies, to the true stomach (Fig. 9, _b_). Following this is the
intestine--separated by some into an ileum and a rectum--which ends
in a vent or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larvæ
that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this is a
viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly into
the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in building their
structures. With it and mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood,
others their paper cells with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons
that are to form the beautiful comb.

Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which secrete a
viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes the passage of food.

The true stomach (Fig. 9, _b_) is very muscular, and often a gizzard,
as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with teeth. The
interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting the gastric juice
which is to liquify the food, that it may be absorbed, or pass through
the walls of the canal into the blood. Attached to the lower portion of
the stomach are numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, _c_) though Cuvier, and
even Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the mucous
glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas.

The intestine when short, as in larvæ and most carnivora, is
straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, while in
most plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its course. Strange
as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are beautiful in
form, and of others pleasant to the taste. In some caterpillars
they are barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue,
and if fossilized, would be greatly admired, as have been the
coprolites--fossil feces of quadrupeds--if set as gems in jewelry. As
it is, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as
the Aphides or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that
escapes in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is
very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropriated
by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would make this a bitter
draught, so here, as elsewhere in life, the bitter and sweet are
mingled. In those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies,
moths, two-wing flies and bugs, the feces are watery or liquid, while
in case of solid food the excrement is solid.

SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS.

I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby gives as
distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though Newport gives
them as one and the same. . In many insects these seem absent. I have
also spoken of the mucous glands, the urinary tubules, etc. Besides
these, there are other secretions which serve for purposes of defense:
In the queen and workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison
intruded with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at
the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (Fig. 25, _c_), and
extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I know of no insects
that poison while they bite, except it be mosquitoes, gnats, etc., and
in these cases no special secreting organ has been discovered. Perhaps
the beak itself secretes an irritating substance. A few exceedingly
beautiful caterpillars are covered with branching spines, which
sting about like a nettle. We have two such species. They are green,
and of rare attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight
inconvenience arising from their irritating punctures. Some insects,
like bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which affords protection,
as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a
hungry bird or half-famished insect passes them by on the other side.
Some insects secrete a gas which is stored in a sack at the posterior
end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger
threatens thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a
retreat. I have heard the little bombardier beetle at such times, even
at considerable distances. The frightful reports about the terrible
horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere nonsense. A more harmless animal
does not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used
to bring them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly as would
their father upon receiving them from the delighted children.

If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that need be
feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage even they, are
seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon.

SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS.

The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig. 10, a) which are
double organs. There may be from one, as in the drone bee, to several,
as in some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In these
vesicles grow the sperm cells or spermatozoa, which, when liberated,
pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas-deferens (Fig. 10, _b,
b_), into the seminal sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in connection with
mucous, they are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks
(Fig. 10, d) joined to these seminal receptacles, which in the male
bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with these viscid
secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle, ready for use,
form the seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is the
ejaculatory duct (Fig. 10, _e, f, g_), which in copulation carries the
male fluid to the penis (Fig. 10, _d_), through which it passes to the
spermatheca of the female. Beside this latter organ are the sheath, the
claspers when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks
(Fig. 10, _i_), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone is held
in the warm hand.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.

_Male Organs of Drone, much magnified._

  _a_--Testes.                      _e_--Common duct.
  _b, b_--Vasa deferentia.          _f, g_--Ejaculatory sack.
  _c, c_--Seminal sacks.            _h_--Penis.
  _d_--Glandular sacks.             _i_--Yellow saccules.
]

[Illustration: Fig. 11.

_Queen Organs, greatly magnified._

  _a, a_--Ovaries.       _d_--Sting.
  _b_--Oviducts.         _e_--Spermatheca.
  _c_--Oviduct.
]

The female organs (Fig. 11) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 11, _a, a_),
which are situated one on either side of the abdominal cavity. From
these extend the two oviducts, (Fig. 11, _b_), which unite into
the common oviduct (Fig. 11, _c_) through which the eggs pass in
deposition. In many insects there is beside this oviduct, and connected
with it, a sack (Fig. 11, _e_) called the spermatheca, which receives
the male fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents,
must ever after do the work of impregnation.

This sack was discovered and its use suggested by Malpighi as early
as 1686, but its function was not fully demonstrated till 1792, when
the great anatomist, John Hunter, showed that in copulation this was
filled. The ovaries are multitubular organs. In some insects there are
but very few tubes--two or three; while in the queen bee there are
more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs _grow_, as do
the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes. The number of eggs is
variable. Some insects, as the mud-wasps, produce very few, while the
queen white-ant extrudes millions. The end of the oviduct, called the
ovipositor, is wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of
concentric rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or drawn in;
sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of wonderful finish,
to prepare for eggs; or again of a tube which may also serve as a sting.

Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at least that
the female only meets the male but once. My pupil, Clement S. Strang,
who made a special study of the structure and habits of bugs during the
past season, noticed that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be
interesting to know whether these females possessed the spermatheca. In
some cases, as we shall see in the sequel, the male is killed by the
copulatory act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species.

To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dissection,
we need more apparatus than has been yet described. Here a good
lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife, a delicate pair of
forceps, and some small, sharp-pointed dissecting scissors--those of
the renowned Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required
a lens to sharpen them--which may also serve to clip the wings of
queens--are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol
will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the muscle
hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly as well, in which
case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This may be applied
with a camel's-hair brush. By dissecting under water the loose portions
will float off, and render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who
had that most valuable requisite to a naturalist, unlimited patience,
not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine
as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary canal and
air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in upon those wondrous
beauties and marvels of God's own handiwork--nature's grand exposition?
Father, why would not a set of dissecting instruments be a most
suitable gift to your son? You might thus sow the seed which would
germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone. Messrs.
Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian supplies, keep boxes of
these instruments, and thus aid to light the torch of genius and hasten
apiarian research?

TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS.

What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken delight and
admiration as the astonishing changes which insects undergo? Just
think of the sluggish, repulsive caterpillar, dragging its heavy form
over clod or bush, or mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand
of nature's great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis,
decked with green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on
the finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous
butterfly; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-rivals
even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and is made fit to
revel in all her decorative wealth. The little fly, too, with wings
dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like, a fairy from leaf to flower, was
but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling in the veriest filth of
decaying nature. The grub to-day drags its slimy shape through the
slums of earth, on which it fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as
the brilliant setting in the bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and
thoughtless belle.

There are four separate stages in the development of insects: The egg
state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago.

THE EGG.

This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its yolk and
its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of all mammals, and
farther, the delicate shell, which is familiar in the eggs of birds and
reptiles. Eggs of insects are often beautiful in form and color, and
not infrequently ribbed and fluted as by a master-hand. The form of
eggs is very various--spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight
and curved (Fig. 26, _b_). All insects seem to be guided by a wonderful
knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs on or
near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in many cases such
food is no part of the aliment of the imago insect. The fly has the
refined habits of the epicure, from whose cup it daintily sips, yet its
eggs are placed in the horse-droppings of stable and pasture.

Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their consummation
is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can be easily and most
profitably studied by breaking and examining a hen's egg each
successive day of incubation. As with the egg of our own species and
of all higher animals, so, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the
essential part--the white is only food, so to speak--soon segments or
divides into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane--the
blastoderm--and this is the initial animal. This blastoderm soon
forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one above the other, as
in our own vertebrate branch. This sack, looking like a miniature bag
of grain, grows, by absorption, becomes articulated, and by budding
out is soon provided with the various members. As in higher animals,
these changes are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon
the incorporations within the eggs of the germ cells from the male,
which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The time it takes
the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged by heat, and will,
therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though in different
species it varies from days to months. The number of eggs, too, which
an insect may produce, is subject to wide variation. Some insects
produce but one, two or three, while others, like the queen bee and
white ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.

_Larva of Bee._]

THE LARVA OF INSECTS.

From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, caterpillar,
and very erroneously worm. These are worm-shaped (Fig. 12), usually
have strong jaws, simple eyes, and the body plainly marked into ring
divisions. Often as in case of some grubs, larval bees and maggots,
there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to each of
the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have
usually ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few--the
loopers or measuring caterpillars--have only four or six, while the
larvæ of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen of the false or
prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval insects is usually short,
direct and quite simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all
developed. The larvæ of insects are voracious eaters--indeed, their
only work seems to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs
at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable. I
have often been astonished at the amount of food that the insects in
my breeding cases would consume. The length of time which insects
remain as larvæ is very variable. The maggot revels in decaying meat
but two or three days; the larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly
a week; the apple-tree borer gnaws away for three years; while the
seventeen-year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years,
groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth for a few
days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, here is patience
exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The name larva, meaning masked, was
given to this stage by Linnæus, as the mature form of the insect is
hidden, and cannot be even divined by the unlearned.

THE PUPA OF INSECTS.

In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting after
its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive days--the
joyous honey-moon--soon to come. In this stage the insect may look
like a seed; as in the coarctate pupa of diptera, so familiar in
the "flax-seed" state of the Hessian-fly, or in the pupa of the
cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. This same form, with more or less
modification, prevails in butterfly pupæ, called, because of their
golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupæ of moths. Other pupæ, as in
case of bees (Fig. 13, _g_) and beetles, look not unlike the mature
insect with its antennæ, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by
a thin membrane, hence the name which Linné gave--referring to this
condition--as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes,
the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed holding
together. Aristotle called pupæ nymphs--a name now given to this stage
in bees--which name was adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth
and eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are in
progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or developing
parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated material stored by the
larva during its prolonged banquet, the wonderful transformation
from the sluggish, worm-like larva to the active, bird-like imago is
accomplished.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.

_Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified._]

Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick, as
the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of bees. These
cocoons are spun by the larvæ as their last toil before assuming
the restful pupa state. The length of time in the pupa-stage is
very various, lasting from a few days to as many months. Sometimes
insects which are two-brooded remain as pupa but a few days in summer,
while in winter they are months passing the quiescent period. Our
cabbage-butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the
Hessian-fly and codling-moth, remain through the long, cold months as
larvæ. How wonderful is this! The first brood of larvæ change to pupæ
at once, the last brood, though the weather be just as hot, wait over
inside the cocoon till the warm days of coming spring.

THE IMAGO STAGE.

This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given by Linné
because the image of the insect is now real and not masked as when in
the larva state. Now the insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its
compound eyes, complex mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs.
In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to reproduce
itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry marriage mood
for a brief space, when the male flees this life to be quickly followed
by the female, she only waiting to place her eggs where the prospective
infants may find suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs,
but feed and care for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees.
Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive females
perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young. The life
of the imago also varies much as to duration. Some live but for a
day, others make merry for several days, while a few species live for
months. Very few imagos survive the whole year.

INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS.

Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts, are
quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. The only
apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence or incomplete
development of the wings in the larvæ and pupæ. The habits and
structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here, as before,
the full development of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago.


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE.

With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of the physiology
of insects in general, we shall now find it easy to learn the special
anatomy and physiology of the highest insects of the order.

THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY.

As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the economy of
the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which is true of many
other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, is the presence in each
family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color, structure,
size, habits and function. Thus we have the queen, a number of drones,
and a far greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby
also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. These are
accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von Berlepsch, ordinary
workers, more deeply colored by loss of hair, dampness, or some other
atmospheric condition. American apiarists are too familiar with these
black bees, for after our severe winters they prevail in the colony,
and, as remarked by the noted Baron, "_They quickly_ disappear." Munn
also tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming
seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, unless it be
the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed, which sometimes fasten
to our bees and become a severe burden.

THE QUEEN BEE.

The queen (Fig. 14), although referred to as the mother bee, was called
the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as late as the last century,
though in the ancient "Bee Master's Farewell," by John Hall, published
in London in 1796, I find an admirable description of the queen bee,
with her function correctly stated. Réaumur as quoted by "Wildman on
Bees," published in London in 1770, says "this third sort has a grave
and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all the
others."

Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, though blind,
through the aid of his devoted wife and intelligent servant, Frances
Burnens, developed so many interesting facts, demonstrated the fact of
the queen's maternity. This author's work, second edition, published in
Edinburgh, in 1808, gives a full history of his wonderful observations
and experiments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a classic,
worthy of study by all.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.

_Queen Bee, magnified._]

The queen, then, is the mother bee, in other words, a fully developed
female. Her ovaries (Fig. 11, _a, a_) are very large, nearly filling
her long abdomen. The tubes already described as composing them are
very numerous, while the spermatheca (Fig. 11, _e_) is plainly visible.
This is muscular, receives abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt,
may or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in contact
with the eggs as they pass by the duet. Leuckart estimates that the
spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000 spermatozoa.

The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is the chief
structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as these are the
characteristic marks of females among all animals. But she has other
peculiarities worthy of mention She is longer than either drones or
workers, being more than seven-eighths of an inch in length, and,
with her long tapering abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty.
The queen's mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than
are those of the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 21, _b_) or mandibles
are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig.
15, _a_), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 15, _b_) and maxillæ are
considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the same in the worker-bee (Fig.
5), are smaller than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the
three ocelli are situated above and between. The queen's wings, too,
(Fig. 14) are relatively shorter than those either of the workers or
drones, for instead of attaining to the end of the body, they reach but
little beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though she has
the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_), in
respect to breadth, has not the cavity and surrounding hairs, which
form the pollen baskets of the workers.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.

_Labium of Queen._

  _a_--Ligula.          _b_--Labial palpi.
  _d, d_--Paraglossæ.
]

The queen possesses a sting (Fig. 11, _d_) which is longer than that of
the workers, and resembles that of the bumble-bees in being curved, and
that of bumble-bees and wasps in having few and short barbs--the little
projections which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which,
in case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instrument,
when once fairly inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs
on each shaft of the worker's sting, there are only three on those of
the queen, and these are very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they
are successively shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon.
Aristotle says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have
found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen's anger, but never
with any evidence of success. Neighbour (page 14, note) gives three
cases where queens used their stings, in one of which cases she was
disabled from farther egg-laying. She stings with slight effect.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.

_Part of Leg of Queen, magnified._

  _t_--Tibia.
  _p_--Broadened tibia and basal tarsus.
  _t s_--Tarsal joints.
]

The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impregnated egg,
which, of course, could only come from a queen that had previously
mated. These eggs are not placed in a horizontal cell, but in one
specially prepared for their reception (Fig. 26, _i_). These queen
cells are usually built on the edge of the comb, or around an opening
in it, which is necessitated from their size and form, as usually the
combs are too close together to permit their location elsewhere. These
cells extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed of
was mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble a pea-nut.
The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the queen or workers.
Huber, who though blind had wondrous eyes, also witnessed the act. I
have frequently seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in
the exact position in which the queen always places her eggs in the
other cells. John Hall, in the old work already referred to, whose
descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate, and
indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness, asserts
that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg as she is the
others. From the character of his work, and its early publication,
I can but think that he had witnessed this rare sight. Some candid
apiarists of our own time and country--E. Gallup among the rest--claim
to have witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so
delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a removal.
The opponents to this view base their belief on a supposed discord
between the queen and neuters. This antagonism is inferred, and I
have but little faith in the inference, or the argument from it. I
know that when royal cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens
destroyed, the workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also
seen queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. I have
also seen several young queens dwelling amicably together in the same
hive. Is it not probable that the bees are united in whatever is to
be accomplished, and that when queens are to be destroyed all spring
to the work, and when they are to live all regard them as sacred? It
is true that the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by
the surrounding conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see
satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions impress
differently the queen and the workers. The conditions which lead to
the building of queen-cells and the peopling of the same are--loss of
queen, when a worker larva from one to four days old will be surrounded
by a cell inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca
having become emptied; great number of worker-bees in the hive;
restricted quarters; the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the
workers little or no room to store honey and lack of ventilation, so
that the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are most
likely to occur at times of great honey secretion.

A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker larva less
than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known queens to be reared from
worker larvæ taken at four-and-a-half days from hatching. In this
latter case, the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected
larva are removed, and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The
development of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to
be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and more
plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, as also its use
and abundance in the cell, was first described by Schirach, a Saxon
clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in 1771. According to Hunter, this
royal pabulum is richer in nitrogen than that of the common larvæ. It
is thick, like rich cream; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the
queen larva not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but
quite a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. We
often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larvæ.
Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future use.

What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal scions simply
receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and occupy a more ample
habitation--for I have more than once confirmed the statement of Mr.
Quinby, that the direction of the cell is immaterial--and yet what
a marvelous transformation. Not only are the ovaries developed and
filled with eggs, but the mouth-organs, the wing's, the legs, and
the sting, aye, and the size, form and habits are all wondrously
changed. That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the
size increased is not so surprising--as in breeding other insects
I have frequently found that kind and amount of food, would hasten
or retard growth, and might even cause a dwarfed imago--but that it
should so essentially modify the structure, is certainly a rare and
unique circumstance, hardly to be found except here and in related
animals. Bevan has suggested that fertile workers', while larvæ,
have received some of this royal jelly, from their position near a
developing queen. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal
jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously thought
this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests of the apiarist,
and especially of the breeder, almost always, so far as I have
observed, make their appearance in colonies long queenless, and I have
noticed a case similar to that given by Quinby, where these occurred
in a nucleus where no queen had been developed. May it not be true,
that a desire for eggs stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs
in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common
high-holder, Colaptes auratus--a bird belonging to the woodpecker
family, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but let cruel hands rob
her of these promises of future loved ones--and wondrous to relate,
she continues to lay more than a score. One thus treated, here on
the College campus, actually laid more than thirty eggs. So we see
that animal desires may influence and move organs that are generally
independent of the will.

The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development than the other
larvæ. When developed from the egg--as in case of normal swarming--the
larva feeds for five days, when the cell is capped by the workers.
The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day.
The end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that this
is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the queen larva,
thus to render her own destruction more easy, should the welfare of
the colony demand it, as now a sister queen may safely give the fatal
sting. The queen now spends nearly three days in absolute repose. Such
rest is common to all cocoon-spinning larvæ. The spinning, which is
done by a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the
delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to
bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now assumes the nymph or pupa
state (Fig. 26, _i_). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a
queen. Huber states that when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into
a joyous excitement, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the
hive from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter accurately,
but I have failed to notice any marked demonstration on the natal day
of her lady-ship the queen, or extra respect paid her as a virgin. When
queens are started from worker larvæ, they will issue as images in ten
or twelve days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle
writes me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half days.

As the queen's development is probably due to superior quality and
increased quantity of food, it would stand to reason that queens
started from eggs are preferable; the more so, as under normal
circumstances, I believe, they are almost always thus started. The best
experience sustains this position. As the proper food and temperature
could best be secured in a full colony--and here again the natural
economy of the hive adds to our argument--we should infer that the
best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept in
such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also confirms
this view. As the quantity and quality of food, and the general
activity of the bees is directly connected with the full nourishment
of the queen-larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of
active gathering--the time when queen-rearing is naturally started by
the bees--we should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons
are superior. My experience--and I have carefully observed in this
connection--most emphatically sustains this view.

Five or six days after issuing from the cell--Neighbour says the third
day--if the day is pleasant, the queen goes forth on her "marriage
flight" otherwise she will improve the first pleasant day thereafter
for this purpose. Huber was the first to prove that impregnation
always takes place on the wing. Bonnet also proved that the same
is true of ants, though in this case millions of queens and drones
often swarm out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these
wholesale matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also frequently
taken bumble-bees in copulo while on the wing. I have also noticed
both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united probably borne down by
the expiring males. That butterflies! moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate
on the wing is a matter of common observation. That it is possible to
impregnate queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens will
caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their advances. That
this ever has been done I also question, though many think they have
positive proof that it has occurred. Yet, as there are so many chances
to be mistaken, and as experience and observation are so excessive
against the possibility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or
inaccurate judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed Huber
in clipping the queen's wing, only to produce a sterile or drone-laying
queen. Prof Leuckart believes that successful mating demands that the
large air-sacks (Fig. 2, _f_) of the drones shall be filled, which he
thinks is only possible during flight. The demeanor of the drones leads
me to think, that the excitement of flight, like the warmth of the
hand, is necessary to induce the sexual impulse.

I presume, that in all the future, Huber's statement that the queen
must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted. Yet it will do
no harm to keep trying. Success may come. Mating, too, in green-houses
or rooms is also impracticable. I have given this thorough trial. The
drones are incorrigible cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even
to overcome the sexual desires.

If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will go forth
again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated that after twenty-one
days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that if impregnated from the
fifteenth to the twenty-first she will be largely a drone-laying queen.
That such absolute dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is
very questionable. Yet, all experienced breeders know that queens kept
through the winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It is quite likely
that the long inactivity of the spermatheca wholly or in part paralyzes
it, so that queens that are late in mating cannot impregnate the eggs
as she desires. This would accord with what we know of muscular
organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a
virgin could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she afterwards
mated. Langstroth thought that he had observed to the contrary.

If the queen be observed after a successful "wedding tour," she will
be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant drone appendages,
consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de-sacks, and the hanging
thread-like ducts.

It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a drone, ever
leaves the hive again except that she leaves with a swarm. Some of the
observing apiarists think that an old queen may be again impregnated.
The fact that queens, with clipped wings, are as long fertile as
others, makes me think that cases which have led to such conclusions
are capable of other explanation.

If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drones, or if for any reason
she fails to mate, her eggs will only produce male bees. This strange
anomaly--development of the eggs without impregnation--was discovered
and proved by Dzierzon, in 1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student of
practical and scientific apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, is
a Roman Catholic priest of Carlesmarkt, Germany. This doctrine--called
parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin--is still doubted
by some quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable:
1st. Unmated queens will lay eggs that will develop, but drones always
result. 2d. Old queens often become drone-layers, but examination shows
that the spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination
was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anatomist, in 1813,
and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have myself made several such
examinations. The spermatheca can easily be seen by the unaided vision,
and by crushing it on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass
cover, the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and
impregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power. In the latter
it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more distended. By use
of a high power, the active spermatozoa or germ-cells become visible.
3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be void of the
sperm-cells, which are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This
most convincing, and interesting observation, was first made by Von
Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite difficult to show
this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch's apiary, but
failed. I have also tried to discover these germ-cells in worker-eggs,
but as yet have been unsuccessful. Siebold has noted the same facts in
eggs of wasps. 4th. Dr. Dönhoff, of Germany, in 1855, took an egg from
a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker-bee.
Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed as soon as the
egg is laid.

Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been found
by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of some of the
lower moths, in the production of both males and females. While the
great Bonnet first discovered what may be noticed on any summer day,
all about us, even on the house-plants at our very windows, that
parthenogenesis is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In
the fall males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays
eggs, which in the spring produce only females; these again produce
only females, and thus on, for several generations, till with the
cold of autumn come again the males and females. Bonnet observed
seven successive generations of productive virgins. Duval noted
nine generations in seven months, while Kyber observed production
exclusively by parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we
see, that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is not
rare in the great insect world.

About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under normal
circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, and as the
condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming the same summer, so
that no drones are required, she usually lays no others the first
season.

It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays quite
a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe this in their
nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This does not seem strange.
The act of forcing the sperm-cells from the spermatheca is muscular and
voluntary, and that these muscles should not always act promptly at
first, is not strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested
that the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells
the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the spermatheca. Mr.
Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question this theory. All
observing apiarists have known eggs to be laid in worker-cells, ere the
cell was hardly commenced, when there could be no pressure. In case of
queen-cells, too, if the queen does lay the eggs--as I believe--these
would be unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen
sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly while laying,
as I have witnessed such a procedure--the same that so greatly rejoiced
the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary hours of watching--but
that she can thus control at the instant this process of adding or
withholding the sperm-cells, certainly seems not so strange as that
the spermatheca, hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these
cells for months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly
dart against the horse's legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg,
can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can
extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may force single
eggs, at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca, and at the same time
add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true.
What gives added force to this view, is the fact that other bees,
wasps and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from
cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same
size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a friend of Dzierzon,
has fully decided the matter. He has shown that old drone cells are as
small as new worker-cells, and yet each harbors its own brood. Very
small queens, too, make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen
will sometimes lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will
then be reared. And will, if she must, though with great reluctance,
lay worker-eggs in drone-cells.

Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell, probably
to see if all is right. If the cell contains any honey, pollen, or
an egg, she usually passes it by, though when crowded, a queen will
sometimes, _especially if young_, insert two or three eggs in a cell,
and sometimes, in such cases, she drops them, when the bees show
their dislike of waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a
breakfast of them. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she
turns about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is
glued, in position (Fig. 26, _b_) to the bottom of the cell.

The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees of the colony,
possesses a surprising longevity. It is not surprising for her to
attain the age of three years in the full possession of her powers,
while they have been known to do good work for five years. Queens,
often at the expiration of one, two, three or four years, depending on
their vigor and excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become
impotent to lay impregnated eggs--the spermatheca having become emptied
of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede the
queen; that is they destroy the old queen, ere all the worker-eggs are
gone, and take of the few remaining ones to start queen-cells, and thus
rear young, fertile and vigorous queens.

It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking queen, with
full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well-filled with male
fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs will hatch. Readers
of the bee-publications know that I have frequently received such for
dissection. The first I ever got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian,
received from the late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I
have examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power
objective. We can only say that the egg is at fault, as frequently
transpires with higher animals, even to the highest. These females are
barren; through some fault with the ovaries, the eggs grown therein
are sterile. To detect just what is the trouble with the egg is a very
difficult problem, if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to
determine the ultimate cause, but without success.

The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus keep the
colony populous; and this she does with an energy that is fairly
startling. A good queen in her best estate will lay two or three
thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen in my observing hive, lay
for some time at the rate of four eggs per minute, and have proved by
actual computation of brood cells, that a queen may lay over three
thousand eggs in a day. Langstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at
the rate of six eggs a minute.

The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty-one eggs
in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she laid fifty-seven
thousand. This queen continued prolific for five years, and must have
laid, says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs.
Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors
have not exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertisement,
the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen
white-ant--an insect closely related to the bees in habits, though
not in structure, as the white-ants are lace-wings and belong to the
sub-order Neuroptera, which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies,
etc.--is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless
thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man's thumb, and composed almost
wholly of eggs, while the rest of her body is not larger than the
same in our common ants, has no other amusement; she cannot walk; she
cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs. What wonder then that
she should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying? She has nothing
else to do, or to feel proud of.

Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different breeds of
fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly demand hives of
India rubber to accommodate them, keeping their hives gushing with
bees and profitable activity while others are so inferior, that the
colonies make a poor, sickly effort to survive at all, and usually
succumb early, before those adverse circumstances which are ever
waiting to confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen,
too, is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The queen will
either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the interims of storing
honey, while, on the other hand, she is stimulated to lay to her utmost
capacity, when all is life and activity in the hive.

It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions, is taught
by instinct, or else that without her volition the general activity
of the worker-bees stimulates the ovaries, how, we know not, to grow
more eggs. We know that such a stimulus is born of desire, in case of
the high-holder, already referred to. That the queen may have control
of the activity of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through
reflex nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees,
which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but quite
likely.

The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and admired
sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined by obsequious
courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of loving caresses,
and whose will is law in this bee-hive kingdom, controlling all the
activities inside the hive, and leading the colony whithersoever they
may go, is unquestionably mere fiction. In the hive, as in the world,
individuals are valued for what they are worth. The queen, as the most
important individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal
or loss noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is
threatened; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is despatched
with the same absence of emotion that characterizes the destruction of
the drones when they have become supernumeraries. It is very doubtful
if emotion or sentimentality are ever moving forces among the lower
animals. There are probably certain natural principles that govern
in the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or
tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an enemy
to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more united than is
generally believed, in a desire to promote the free action of these
principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism among the various bees
has been overrated. Even, the drones, when they are being killed off
in the autumn, make a sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the
welfare of the colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be
exterminated; "so mote it be;" go ahead. The statement, too, that there
is often serious antagonism between the queen and workers, as to the
destruction or preservation of inchoate queens, yet in the cell, is a
matter which may well be investigated. It is most probable that what
tends most for the prosperity of the colony is well understood by all,
and without doubt there is harmonious action among all the denizens of
the hive, to foster that which will advance the general welfare, or to
make war on whatever may tend to interfere with it. If the course of
any of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest assured
that circumstances have changed, and that could we perceive the bearing
of all the surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and
harmonious.

[Illustration: Fig. 17.

_Drone Bee, magnified._]

THE DRONES.

These are the male bees, and are generally found in the hive only
from May to November: though they may remain all winter, and are not
infrequently absent during the summer. Their presence or absence
depends on the present and prospective condition of the colony. If they
are needed, or likely to be needed, then they are present. There are
in nature several hundred in each colony. The number may and should
be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These (Fig. 17) are shorter than
the queen, being less than three-fourths of an inch in length, are
more robust and bulky than either the queen or workers, and are easily
recognized when flying by their loud, startling hum. As in other
societies, the least useful make the most noise. This loud hum is
caused by the less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their
flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their
ligula, labial palpi, and maxillæ--like the same in the queen bee--are
short, while their jaws (Fig. 21, _a_) possess the rudimentary tooth,
and are much the same in form as those of the queen, but are heavier,
though not so strong as those of the workers. Their eyes (Fig. 4)
are very prominent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown
forward. Their posterior legs are convex on the outside (Fig. 18), so,
like the queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without
the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex-organs
(Fig. 10) are not unlike those of other insects, and have already been
sufficiently described.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.

_Part of Leg of Drone, magnified._

  _t_--Tibia.
  _p_--Broadened tibia and basal tarsus.
  _t s_--Joints of Tarsus,
  _c_--Claws.
]

It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones hatch from
unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon, seemingly so incredible,
is as has been shown in speaking of the queen, easily proved and beyond
question. These eggs may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile
worker--which will soon be further described--or from an impregnated
queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such eggs may be
placed in the larger horizontal cells (Fig. 28, _a_), in manner already
described. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six and a half days as
a larva, before the cell is capped. The capping of the drone-cells is
very convex, and projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells,
so that the drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from
the darker color--the wax being thicker and less pure--the capping of
both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to distinguish them
from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from the laying of the egg, the
drones come forth from the cells. Of course variation of temperature,
and other conditions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard
or advance the development of any brood, in the different stages. The
drones--in fact all bees--when they first emerge from the cells, are
gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated.

Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to state. It
is probable, judging from analogy, that they live till accident, the
worker bees, or the performance of their natural function causes their
death. The worker-bees are liable to kill off the drones, which they
do by constantly biting and worrying them. They may also destroy the
drone-brood. It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature
drones even in mid-summer. At the same time, too, they may destroy
inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a sudden check in the
yield of honey, and with the drones is most common at the close of
the season. The bees seem very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs
of the times presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to
the increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey, rapid
increase of brood, crowded quarters--whatever the age of the queen--is
sure to bring many of the male bees. While any circumstances that
indicate a future need of drones will prevent their destruction even in
late autumn.

The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the queen, though
when present they may add animal heat. That their nutrition is active,
is suggested by the fact, that upon dissection, we always find their
capacious stomachs filled with honey.

Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before stated, while
on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the heat of warm sunshiny
days. After mating, the drone organs adhere to the queen, and may be
seen hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the
drones. By holding a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs
is often produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the
queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might be asked
why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds of drones to an
apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice as well. Nature takes
cognizance of the importance of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst
the myriad dangers of the outer world, it is safest and best that her
stay abroad be not protracted; that the experience be not repeated,
and especially, that her meeting a drone be _not delayed_. Hence the
superabundance of drones--especially under natural conditions, isolated
in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the alert for insect
game--is most wise and provident. Nature is never "penny wise and pound
foolish." In our apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it
exists in nature, is not enforced.

The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of the drones,
has led to the theory that from a pure queen, however mated, must ever
come a pure drone. My own experience and observation, which I believe
are those of all apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the
impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of
mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many who would
seem most competent to judge--though I must say I am somewhat skeptical
in the matter--then we must look closely as to our bees, for certainly,
if a mammal, and especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then
we may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it
exists, must come simply from the presence in the female generative
organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in mammals, too, there
is little more than this, for though they are viviparous, so that the
union and contact of the offspring and mother seems very intimate,
during fœtal development, yet there is no intermingling of the blood,
for a membrane ever separates that of the mother from that of the
fœtus, and only the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the
other. To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation,
is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling the
breath of her progeny after birth. I can only say, that I believe this
whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful,
scientific and prolonged observation.

THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES.

These, called "the bees," by Aristotle, and even by Wildman and Bevan,
are by far the most numerous individuals of the hive--there being from
15,000 to 40,000 in every good colony. It is possible for a colony to
be even much more populous than this. These are also the smallest bees
of the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an inch
in length (Fig. 19).

[Illustration: Fig. 19.

_Worker-Bee, magnified._]

The workers--as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle. Jurine, of
Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, sought for and
found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive ovaries--are undeveloped
females. Rarely, and probably very rarely, except that a colony is long
or often queenless, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are
so far developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always
be drone eggs. Such workers--known as fertile--were first noticed by
Riem, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg-laying. Except
in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the other workers.
Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal
cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by
Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen-larvæ were never
reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought
that these bees, while larvæ, were fed, though too sparingly, with the
royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the accelerated
development. Such may be the true explanation. Yet if, as some
apiarists aver, these appear where no brood has been fed, and so must
be common workers, changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a
felt need, then we must conclude that development and growth--as with
the high-holder--spring from desire. The generative organs are very
sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, and we may yet
have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move them to
growth and activity. Though these fertile workers are a poor substitute
for a queen, as they are incapable of producing any but drones, and are
surely the harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they
seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the presence of a
queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will they suffer the
existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even though capped. They seem
to be satisfied, though they have very slight reason to be so. These
fertile workers lay indifferently in large or small cells--often place
several eggs in a single cell, and show their incapacity in various
ways.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.

_Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified._]

  _a_--Ligula.            _c, c_--Maxillæ.
  _b, b_--Labial palpi.   _d_--Paraglossæ.

[The average length of a black worker's tongue, as compared with this
from an Italian, would be from base to _a_.]

The workers, as might be surmised by the importance and variety of
their functions, are structurally very peculiar Their tongues (Fig. 20,
_a_), labial palpi (Fig. 20, _b, b_), and maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c, c_),
are very much elongated, while the former is very hairy, and doubles
under the throat when not in use. The length of the ligula enables them
to reach into flowers with long tubes, and by aid of the hairs they lap
up the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load of sweet,
it is doubled back, enclosed by the labial palpi and maxillæ, and then
extended, thus losing its load of nectar, which at the same time is
sucked into the large honey-stomach. The bees, at will, can force the
honey back from the honey-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells
or given to the other bees.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.

  _a_--Jaw of drone.
  _b_--Jaw of queen.
  _c_--Jaw of worker.
]

The jaws (Fig. 21, _c_) are very strong, without the rudimentary tooth,
while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when the jaws are
closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these are well formed to cut
comb, knead wax, and perform their various functions. Their eyes (Fig.
5) are like those of the queen, while their wings, like those of the
drones, attain the end of the body. These organs (Fig. 3), as in all
insects with rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or
less rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes
their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of anger,
and the slow motion and mellow note of content and joy.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.

_Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, outside, much magnified._

  _t_--Tibia.
  _b_--Rim of hairs.
  _p_--Pollen basket.
  _t s_--Joint of tarsi,
  _c_--Claws.
]

On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a cavity,
made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen basket (Fig.
22, _p_). In these pollen baskets is compacted the pollen, which is
gathered by the mouth organs, and carried back by the four anterior
legs. Opposite the pollen baskets are regular rows of golden hairs
(Fig. 23, _e_), which probably aid in storing and compacting the pollen
balls.

On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and tibia, is a
curious notch (Fig. 24, _C_), covered by a spur (Fig. 24, _B_). For
several years this has caused speculation among my students, and has
attracted the attention of observing apiarists. Some have supposed that
it aided bees in reaching deeper down into tubular flowers, others that
it was used in scraping off pollen, and still others that it enabled
bees to hold on when clustering. The first two functions may belong to
this, though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess it.
The latter function is performed by the claws at the end of the tarsi.

[Illustration: Fig. 23.

_Part of Worker's Posterior Leg, inside, much magnified._

  _e_--Rows of hairs.
  _t_--Tibia.
  _c_--Claws.
]

[Illustration: Fig. 24.

_Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified._]

[Illustration: Fig. 25.

_Worker's Sting, magnified._

  _a_--Tube.
  _b b_--Barbed spears drawn out of tube and turned back,
  _c_--Poison sack.
  _d_--Muscles.
]

The workers, too, possess an organ of defense (Fig. 25), which they
are quick to use if occasion requires. This is not curved as in the
queen, but straight. The gland which secretes the poison is double,
and the sack (Fig. 25, _c_), in which it is stored, is as large as
a flax-seed. The sting proper, is a triple organ, consisting of
three sharp spears, very smooth and of exquisite polish. The most
highly-wrought steel instruments, under a high magnifier, look rough
and unfinished, while the parts of the sting show no such inequalities.
One of these spears (Fig. 25, _a_) is canaliculate--that is, it forms
an imperfect tube--and in this canal work the other two (Fig. 25, _b,
b_), which fill the vacant space, and thus the three make a complete
tube, and through this tube, which connects with the poison sack,
passes the poison. The slender spears which work in the tube are
marvelously sharp, and project beyond it when used, and are worked
alternately by small but powerful muscles (Fig. 25, _d_), so they may
pass through buckskin, or even the thick scarf-skin of the hand. These
are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven of which are prominent,
which extend out and back like the barb of a fish-hook. Hence the
sting cannot be withdrawn, if it penetrates any firm substance, and
so when used, it is drawn from the bee, and carries with it a portion
of the alimentary canal, thus costing the poor bee its life. Darwin
suggests that bees and wasps were developed from the saw-flies, and
that the barbs on the sting are the old-time saws, transformed into the
spear-like barbs. He does not explain why these are so much shorter
and more obscure in the queen, and in other bees and wasps. The
honey-stomach or crop in the workers (Fig. 9, _o_) is well developed,
though no larger than those in the drones. Whether it is more complex
in structure, I do not know.

The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only come from a
queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in the small, horizontal
cell. These eggs are in no wise different, so far as we can see, from
those which are laid in the drone or queen-cells. All are cylindrical
and slightly curved (Fig. 26, _b, c_) and are fastened by one end to
the bottom of the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As
already shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she
extrudes them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These eggs,
though so small--one-sixteenth of an inch long--may be easily seen by
holding the comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With
experience, they are detected almost at once, but I have often found
it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very plainly
visible to my experienced eye.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.

_Egg and Brood._

  _b_ and _c_--Eggs.
  _d, e, f_ and _g_--Various sizes of larvæ.
  _h_--Pupa.
  _i_--Pupa of queen, in queen-cell.
  _k, k_--Caps.
]

The egg hatches in three days. The larva (Fig. 26, _d, e, f, g_),
incorrectly called grub, maggot--and even caterpillar, by Hunter--is
white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till near maturity. It
is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to be given grudgingly, as
it never seems to have more than it wishes to eat, so it is fed quite
frequently by the mature workers. It would seem that the workers fear
an excessive development, which, as we have seen, is most mischievous
and ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager diet.
The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly of pollen, for,
as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no brood will be reared.
Probably some honey is incorporated, as sugar is an essential in the
nutrition of all animals, and we could hardly account for the excessive
amount of honey consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed
by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in caring
for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an
element of this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do
not leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained in
the honey, etc., cannot be added. This makes it a question if water is
ever added. The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair to the
rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when they are most
busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their own thirst?

In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This cap is
composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more porous, and more
easily broken than the caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex
(Fig. 26, _k_). The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the
food placed before it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so
excessively thin that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce
the size of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the
bees, escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength.
Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, seem to
serve as well for brood as when first used. In three days the insect
assumes the pupa state (Fig. 26, _h_). In all insects the spinning of
the cocoon seems an exhaustive process, for so far as I have observed,
and that is quite at length, this act is succeeded by a variable period
of repose. The pupa is also called a nymph. By cutting open cells it is
easy to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing
to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with all its
appendages bound close about it, though the color is still whitish:

In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The old writers were
quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of these was an occasion
of joy and excitement among the bees. All apiarists have noticed how
utterly unmoved the bees are, as they push over and crowd by these
new-comers in the most heedless and discourteous manner imaginable.
Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same
day that they came forth from the cells. This idea is quickly disproved
if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for some days these young
bees do not leave the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when
bees even too young to fly will essay to go with the crowd. These
young bees, like the young drones and queens, are much lighter for the
first few days.

The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in autumn may
live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless stocks, where little
labor is performed, even longer; while those reared in spring will wear
out in three, and when most busy, will often die in from thirty to
forty-five days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there
is a limit to the number which may exist in a colony. As a good queen
will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily, and as
the workers live from one to three months, it might seem that forty
thousand was too small a figure for the number of workers. Without
doubt a greater number is possible. That it is rare is not surprising,
when we remember the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever
attend the individuals of these populous communities.

The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual labor of the
hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in small pellets (Fig. 27,
_a, a_) under the over-lapping rings under the abdomen. I have found
these wax-scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Müller, the
admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South America, the
bees of the genus melipona secrete the wax on the back.

The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larvæ and
cap the cells. The older bees--for, as readily seen in Italianizing,
the young bees do not go forth for the first one or two weeks--gather
the honey, collect the pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called,
bring in the propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and
as a cement, supply the hive with water(?), defend the hive from all
improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is past,
kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy inchoate
queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead
forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to swarm.

When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-keepers
and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The young bees, on the
other hand, will not go forth to glean, even though there be no old
bees to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function of
all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the bees
require that the temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate
considerably above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant upon
nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown by Newport,
may be considerably augmented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced
respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have
the power to ventilate their hives, and thus reduce the temperature,
when the weather is hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and
temper the cold of winter.

[Illustration: _Under Surface of Bee, showing Wax between Segments._]




CHAPTER III.

SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE.


The natural method by which an increase of colonies among bees is
secured, is of great interest, and though it has been closely observed,
and assiduously studied for a long period, and has given rise to
theories as often absurd as sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile
field for investigation, and will repay any who may come with the true
spirit of inquiry, for there is much concerning it which is involved
in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarming
spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other seasons? These
and other questions we are too apt to refer to erratic tendencies of
the bees, when there is no question but that they follow naturally upon
certain conditions, perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the
province of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold
the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the bees?

In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become populous, and
storing very active, the queen, as if conscious that a home could
be overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, commences to deposit
drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps moved by
like considerations, begin to construct, if they are not already in
existence. In fact, drone comb is almost sure of construction at such
times. No sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large,
awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of ten or
fifteen, though there may be not more than three or four. In these,
eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and soon, often before
the cells are even capped--and _very rarely_ before a cell is built, if
the bees are crowded, the hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient,
or the honey-yield very bountiful--some bright day, usually about ten
o'clock, after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive,
a large part of the worker-bees--being off duty for the day, and
having previously loaded their honey-sacks--rush forth from the hive
as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among the number, though
she is by no means among the first, and frequently is quite late in
her exit. The bees, thus started on their quest for a new home, after
many uproarious gyrations about the old one, dart forth to alight upon
some bush, limb, or fence, though in one case I have known the first
swarm of bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting
to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to three
hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and leave for their
new home, which they have probably already sought out.

Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the hive, while
others claim that scouts are in search of one while the bees are
clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line to their new home,
and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would argue that a home is
preêmpted, at least, before the cluster is dissolved. The fact that
the cluster remains sometimes for hours--even over night--and at other
times for a brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster,
in waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, why do bees sometimes
alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm the past
season, upon our College grounds? Was their journey long, so that they
must needs stop to rest, or were they flying at random, not knowing
whither they were going?

If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, and perhaps
rarely, when she is among them, they will, after having clustered,
return to their old home. The youngest bees will remain in the old
hive, to which those bees, if there are any such, which are abroad
in quest of stores will return. The presence of young bees on the
ground--those with flight too feeble to join the rovers--will always
mark the previous home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days,
perhaps rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her
cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new colony forth,
but before she does this, the peculiar note, known as the piping of the
queen, may be heard. This piping sounds like peep, peep, is shrill and
clear, and can be plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor
would it be mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by
a queen still within the cell.

Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen was that of
hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was either of enmity or
fear. Never will an after-swarm leave, unless preceded by this peculiar
note.

At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even three more
colonies may issue from the old home. These last swarms will all be
heralded by the piping of the queen. They will be less particular as
to the time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave
before sun-rise, and even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr.
A. F. Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. They will, too,
as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after swarms are preceded
by the queen, and in case swarming is delayed, may be attended by a
plurality of queens. Berlepsch and Langstroth both saw eight queens
issue with a swarm, while, others report even more. These virgin queens
fly very rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in
their course than will first swarms.

The cutting short of swarming preparations before the second, third, or
even the first swarm issues, is by no means a rare occurrence. This is
effected by the bees' destroying the queen-cells, and sometimes by a
general extermination of the drones, and is generally to be explained
by a cessation of the honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily
recognized, as they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from
the end.

Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and spring, is
sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to famine, mice, or some
other disturbing circumstance, which makes the hive intolerable to the
bees.




CHAPTER IV.

PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND FUNCTION.


Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the useful
products which they give us; and next to the silk-moths in the
importance of these products. They seem the more remarkable and
important, in that so few insects yield articles of commercial value.
True, the cochineal insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an
important coloring material; the lac insect, of the same family, gives
us the important element of our best glue--shellac; the blister-beetles
afford an article prized by the physician, while we are indebted to
one of the gall-flies for a valuable element of ink But the honey-bee
affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another article
of no mean commercial rank--namely, wax. We will proceed to examine the
various products which come from bees.


HONEY.

Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract attention, but
also in importance, is honey. And what is honey? We can only say that
it is a sweet substance gathered from flowers and other sources, by the
bees. We cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would
be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot even call
it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of various sugars,
and thus it is easy to understand why honey varies so much in richness,
color, flavor, and effects on digestion. In fact, it is very doubtful
if honey is a manufactured article at all. It seems most likely
that the bees only collect it as it is distilled by myriad leaves
and flowers, and store it up, that it may minister to their and our
necessities. To be sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some
change while in the bee's stomach; but the rapidity with which they
store, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and sugar fed
to them, and the same immediately extracted from the comb, has led me
to believe that the transforming power of the stomach is very slight,
if, indeed, it exists at all. To be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees
empty combs at night-fall, and found the flavor of honey early the
next morning. In this case, honey might have been already in the bees'
stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of the hive.
The method of collecting the honey has already been described. The
principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the operation.

When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and regurgitates
its precious load, either giving it to the bees or storing it in the
cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees that gather, give all their
honey to the other bees, which latter store it in the cells. This honey
remains for some time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the
water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. If the
honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will generally
granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70°. This is probably
owing to the presence of the cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as
it denotes superior quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and
some from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds
of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others. But that
granulation is a test that honey is pure, is untrue; that it is a sign
of superior excellence, I think quite probable.

When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no sweets, the
bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently essay to rob
other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider mills, or suck
up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark lice, thus adding, may
be, unwholesome food to their usually delicious and refined stores.
It is a curious fact that the queen never lays her maximum number of
eggs except when storing is going on. In fact, in the interims of
honey-gathering, egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The
queen seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable
means of support.

Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing is so
rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is unable to
lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the brood very much
reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly depleted the colony.
This might be called ruinous prosperity. The natural use of the honey
is to furnish the mature bees with food, and when mixed with pollen, to
form the diet of the young bees.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.

_Under-side Abdomen, magnified._

  _a, a, etc._--Wax pellets.

_Wax-Scales in situ, magnified._

  _w_--Wax-scale.
]


WAX.

The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax. This is a solid,
unctious substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a
fat-like material, though not as some authors assert, the fat of bees.
As already observed, this is a secretion formed in pellets, the shape
of an irregular pentagon (Fig. 27, _w_), underneath the abdomen. These
pellets are light-colored, very thin and fragile, and are secreted by
and molded upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets.
Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This
is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid about our own joints,
is formed by the secreting membrane, and does not pass through holes,
as water through a sieve. There are four of these wax-pockets on each
side, and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This
wax can be secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as shown by
Huber, which experiment I have verified. I removed all honey and comb
from my observing-hive, left the bees for twenty-four hours to digest
all food which might be in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which
was better than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that
not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected right
from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The bees commenced
at once to build comb, and continued for several days, so long as I
kept them confined. This is, as we should suppose; sugar contains
hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to form water, while the third
element, carbon, is in the same or about the same proportion as the
oxygen. Now, the fats usually contain little oxygen, and a good deal
of carbon and hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen
would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found true in the
days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of Louisiana, during the
gathering of the cane, would become very fat. They ate much sugar; they
gained much fat. Now, wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the
animal fat of bees, as often asserted--in fact it contains much less
hydrogen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess:

  Oxygen       7.50
  Carbon      79.30
  Hydrogen    13.20

--but it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from its
composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted from a purely
saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the conclusion. It has been
found that bees require about twenty pounds of honey to secrete one of
wax.

That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langstroth and
Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season, when muscular
exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be imperatively necessary to
supply the waste, and give tone to the body. Some may be desirable even
in the quiet of winter. Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy
condition of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food.

It is asserted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in compact
clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such quiet would certainly
seem conducive to most active secretion. The same food could not go
to form wax, and at the same time supply the waste of tissue which
ever follows upon muscular activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could
not give so much milk. But I find, upon examination, that the bees,
even the most aged, while gathering in the honey season, yield up
the wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the active
storing of the past season, especially when comb-building was in
rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the flowers
contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax-pockets. By the
activity of the bees, these are not infrequently loosed from their
position, and fall to the bottom of the hive.

It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the bees, but
only takes place as required. So the bees, unless wax is demanded, may
perform other duties. Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee's
will, or whether it is excited by the surrounding conditions without
any thought, are questions yet to be settled.

These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to the mouth
by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with saliva, and after the
proper kneading by the jaws, in which process it assumes a bright
yellow hue--but loses none of its translucency--it is formed into that
wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb.

Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell being only
about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed as to combine the
greatest strength with the least expense of material and room. It has
been a subject of admiration since the earliest time. That the form is
a matter of necessity, as some claim--the result of pressure--and not
of bee-skill, is not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very
start of the cells, when there can be no pressure. The wasp builds the
same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells, even the drone
and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and perfect, is also untrue,
as a little inspection will convince any one. The late Prof. Wyman
proved that an exact hexagonal cell does not exist. He showed that the
size varies; so that in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a
variation of one diameter. And this in natural, not distorted cells.
This variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but a
variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. The sides, as also the
angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces forming the bases of the
cells also vary.

The bees change from worker (Fig. 28, _c_) to drone-cells (Fig. 28,
_a_), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not by any system
(Fig. 28, _b_), but simply by enlarging or contracting. It usually
takes about four rows to complete the transformation, though the number
of deformed cells varies from two to eight.

[Illustration: Fig. 28.

_Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases, and Gross-sections of Cells illustrated._

_Honey-Comb._

  _a_--Drone-cells,
  _b_--Deformed cells.
  _c_--Worker-cells.
  _d d_--Queen-cells.
]

The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of interest.
The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 28, _e_) whose three faces are
rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre of the floor of the cell.
From the six free or non-adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the
lateral walls or faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is
a point where the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side
meet, and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the opposite
side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms one-third of the
base of each of three opposite cells. One side thus braces the other,
and adds much to the strength of the comb. Each cell, then, is in form
of a hexagonal prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid.

The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry forward
several cells on each side of each comb, constantly adding to the
number, by additions to the edge. Huber first observed the process of
comb-building, noticing the bees abstract the wax-scales, carry them
to the mouth, add the frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the
yellow ribbons which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to
the comb already commenced.

The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 28, _c_) averages little more
than one-fifth of an inch--Réaumur says two and three-fifths lines or
twelfths of an inch. While the drone-cells (Fig. 28, _a_) are a little
more than one-fourth of an inch, or, according to Réaumur, three and
one-third lines. But this distinguished author was quite wrong when he
said: "These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever were
or ever will be made." The depth of the worker-cells is a little less
than half an inch; the drone-cells are slightly extended so as to be
a little more than half an inch deep. These cells are often drawn out
so as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles. The
capping of the brood-cells is dark, porous, and convex, while that of
the honey is white and concave.

The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they are drone
or worker, seems to be determined by the relative abundance of bees
and honey. If the bees are abundant and honey needed, or if there is
no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb (Fig. 28, _a_) is invariably built,
while if there are few bees, and of course little honey needed, then
worker-comb (Fig. 28, _c_) is almost as invariably formed.

All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The fact that
it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been long used as
brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innumerable thin cocoons
which line the cells. These may be separated by dissolving the wax;
which may be done by putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need
not be discarded, for if composed of worker-cells, it is still very
valuable for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the
cells are too small for longer service, which, will not occur till
after many years of use. The function, then, of the wax, is to make
comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form
queen-cells (Fig. 28, _d_) and caps for the brood-cells. (See Appendix,
page 301).


POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD.

An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees tied little
pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fanciful conjecture
probably arose from seeing the pollen balls on the bees' legs.

Even such scientists as Réaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, and many apiarists
of the last century, thought they saw in these pollen-balls the source
of wax. But Huber, John Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed
the presence and function of the wax-pellets already described, and
were aware that the pollen served a different purpose.

This substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufactured by the
bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain it from the stamens of
flowers. But if they gain access to flour when there is no bloom, they
will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case the former term used
above becomes a misnomer, though usually the bee-bread consists almost
wholly of pollen.

As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-baskets
(Fig. 22, _p_) of the posterior legs, to which it is conveyed by the
other legs, and compressed into little oval masses. The motions in this
conveyance are exceedingly rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the
hives, not only with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under
surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the same bee
may have her sucking stomach distended with honey. Thus the bees make
the most of their opportunities. It is a curious fact, noticed even
by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, gather only a single
kind of pollen, or only gather from one species of bloom. Hence, while
different bees may have different colors of pollen, the pellets of
bee-bread on any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is
possible that the material is more easily collected and compacted when
homogeneous.

The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells, and is
unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs, the pollen baskets
being first lowered into the cells. The bee thus freed, leaves the
wheat-like masses thus deposited to be packed by other bees. The cells,
which may or may not have the same color of pollen throughout, are
never filled quite to the top, and not infrequently the same cell may
contain both pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained
by holding the comb between the eye and the sun. If there is no
pollen it will be wholly translucent; otherwise there will be opaque
patches. A little experience will make this determination easy, even
if the comb is old. It is often stated that queenless colonies gather
no pollen, but this is not true, though very likely they gather less
than they otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when
honey is added, contains all the essential elements of animal food. It
certainly contains the very important principle, which is not found in
honey--nitrogenous material.

The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with proper
food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible without it. And though
it is certainly not essential to the nourishment of the bees when in
repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of active
labor.


PROPOLIS.

This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the bees collect
pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product of various
resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the opening buds of the
hickory and horse-chestnut, where it frequently serves the entomologist
by capturing small insects. From such sources, from the oozing gum of
various trees, from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about
unused hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure
their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to collect
their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rapping on the hives
to inform the bees, in case of a death in the family, that they might
join as mourners. This custom still prevails, as I understand, in some
parts of the South. This substance has great adhesive force, and
though soft and pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding
when cold.

The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their supports,
to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up all crevices
except the place of exit, which they often contract, and even to
cover any foreign substance that cannot be removed. Intruding snails
have thus been imprisoned inside the hive. Réaumur found a snail thus
encased; Maraldi, a slug similarly entombed; while I have myself
observed a bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair,
etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this unique
style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees.


BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects more at length,
I would recommend the following authors as specially desirable: Kirby
and Spence, Introduction to Entomology; Duncan's Transformations of
Insects; Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects (American); F. Huber's
New Observations on the Natural History of Bees; Bevan on the Honey
Bee; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American); Neighbour on The Apiary.

I have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and I heartily
commend all of the above. The first and fourth are now out of print,
but can be had by leaving orders at second-hand book-stores.




                             PART SECOND.

                              THE APIARY;

                       Its Care and Management.

                 _Motto:--"Keep all Colonies Strong!"_




                       INTRODUCTION TO PART II.


STARTING AN APIARY.

In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important to make a
good beginning. This demands preparation on the part of the apiarist,
procuring of bees, and location of his apiary.


PREPARATION.

Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper should
inform himself in the art.


READ A GOOD MANUAL.

To do this, he should procure some good manual, and thoroughly study,
especially the practical part of the business; and if accustomed to
read, think and study, should carefully read the whole work. Otherwise,
he will avoid confusion by only studying the methods of practice,
leaving the principles and science, to strengthen, and be strengthened
by, his experience. Unless a student, he had better not take a journal
till he begins the actual work, as so much unclassified information,
without any experience to correct, arrange, and select, will but
mystify. For the same reason, he may well be content with reading a
single work, till experience, and a thorough study of this one, makes
him more able to discriminate; and the same reasoning will preclude his
taking more than one bee-periodical, until he has had at least a year's
actual experience.


VISIT SOME APIARIST.

In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in visiting
the nearest successful and intelligent apiarist. If successful, such an
one will have a reputation; if intelligent, he will take the journals,
and will show by his conversation that he knows of the methods and
views of his brother apiarists, and above all, he will not think he
knows it all, and that his is the only way to success. Learn all you
can of such, an one, but always let your own judgment and common sense
sit as umpire, that you make no plans or decisions that your judgment
does not fully sustain.


TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE.

It will be _most wise_ to take a course in some College, if this is
practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly discussed. Here you will
not only get the best training as to your chosen business, as you will
study, see and handle, and thus will have the very best aids to decide
as to methods, system and apparatus, but will also receive that general
culture, which will greatly enhance life's pleasures and usefulness,
and which ever proves the best capital in any vocation.


DECIDE ON A PLAN.

After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to decide
as to location, hives, style of honey to raise, and general system
of management. But here, as in all the arts, all our work should be
preceded by a well-digested plan of operations. As with the farmer and
gardener, only he who works to a plan can hope for the best success.
Of course, such plans will vary, as we grow in wisdom and experience.
A good maxim to govern all plans is, "go slow." A good rule, which
will insure the above, "Pay as you go." Make the apiary pay for all
improvements in advance. Demand that each year's credits exceed its
debits; and that you may surely accomplish this, keep an accurate
account of all your receipts and expenses. This will be a great aid in
arranging the plans for each successive year's operations.

Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping changes. "Prove
all things, and hold fast that which is good."


HOW TO PROCURE OUR FIRST COLONIES.

To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, it is always best
to get them near at hand. We thus avoid the shock of transportation,
can see the bees before we purchase, and in case there is any seeming
mistake, can easily gain a personal explanation, and secure a speedy
adjustment of any real wrong.


KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE.

At the same price always take Italians, as undoutedly they are best. If
black bees can be secured for three, or even for two dollars less per
colony, by all means take them, as they can be Italianized at a profit
for the difference in cost, and, in the operation, the young apiarist
will gain valuable experience.

Our motto, too, will demand that we only purchase strong colonies. If,
as recommended, the purchaser sees the colonies before the bargain is
closed, it will be easy to know that the colonies are strong. If the
bees, as they come rushing out, remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or
bring to mind the gush and rush at the nozzle of the fireman's hose,
then buy. In the hives of such colonies, all combs will be covered with
bees, and in the honey season, brood will be abundant.


IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES.

As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the style of
hive to be used. Now, if bees can be procured in such hives, they will
be worth just as much more than though in any other hive, as it costs
to make the hive and transfer the bees. This will be certainly as much
as three dollars. _No apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment,
two styles of hives in his apiary._ Therefore, unless you find bees
in such hives as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in box
hives and transfer (see Chapter VII.) to your own hives, as such bees
can always be bought at reduced rates. In case the person from whom
you purchase will take the hives back at a fair rate, after you have
transferred the bees to your own hives, then purchase in any style of
movable comb hive, as it is easier to transfer from a movable comb
hive, than from a box hive.


WHEN TO PURCHASE.

It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April or May--of
course you only purchase strong stocks--if in the latitude of New York
or Chicago--it will be earlier further south--you can afford to pay
more, as you will secure the increase both of honey and bees. If you
desire to purchase in autumn, that you may gain by the experience of
wintering, either demand that the one of whom you purchase insure the
safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce the selling price,
at least one-third, from his rates the next April. Otherwise the novice
had better wait and purchase in spring. If you are to transfer at once,
it is almost imperative that you buy in spring, as it is vexatious,
especially for the novice, to transfer when the hives are crowded with
brood and honey.


HOW MUCH TO PAY.

Of course the market, which will ever be governed by supply and demand,
must guide you. But to aid you, I will append what at present would be
a reasonable schedule of prices almost anywhere in the United States:
For box hives, crowded with black bees--Italians would rarely be found
in such hives--five dollars per colony is a fair price. For black bees
in hives such as you desire to use, eight dollars would be reasonable.
For pure Italians in such hives, ten dollars is not too much.

If the person of whom you purchase, will take back the movable hives
after you transfer the bees, you can afford to pay five dollars for
black bees, and seven dollars for pure Italians. If you purchase in the
fall, require 33⅓ per cent, discount on these rates.


WHERE TO LOCATE.

If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be fixed by your
principal business or profession. And here I may state, that if we may
judge from reports which come from nearly every section of the United
States, from Maine to Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly
go amiss anywhere in our goodly land.

If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select first with
reference to society and climate, after which it will be well to secure
a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap. XVI.), by virtue of your
locality. It will also be well to look for reasonable prospects of a
good home market, as good home markets are, and must ever be, the most
desirable. It will be desirable, too, that your neighborhood is not
overstocked with bees. It is a well-established fact, that apiarists
with few colonies receive relatively larger profits than those with
large apiaries. While this may be owing in part to better care, much
doubtless depends on the fact that there is not an undue proportion of
bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent secretion of nectar.
To have the undisputed monopoly of an area reaching at least four
miles in every direction from your apiary, is unquestionably a great
advantage.

If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your dangers from
possible misfortune may be lessened, then a small farm--especially
a fruit farm--in some locality where fruit-raising is successfully
practiced, will be very desirable. You thus add others of the luxuries
of life to the products of your business, and at the same time may
create additional pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your
other business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex
matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention. Some of
Michigan's most successful apiarists are also noted as successful
pomologists.

For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI.




CHAPTER V.

HIVES AND BOXES


An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course demanded;
and here let me state with emphasis, _that none of the standard hives
are now covered by patents, so let no one buy rights_. Success by
the skillful apiarist with almost any hive is possible. Yet, without
question, some hives are far superior to others, and for certain uses,
and with certain persons, some hives are far preferable to others,
though all may be meritorious. As a change in hives, after one is once
engaged in apiculture, involves much time, labor and expense, this
becomes an important question, and one worthy earnest consideration by
the prospective apiarist. I shall give it a first place, and a thorough
consideration, in this discussion of practical apiculture.


BOX-HIVES.

I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks, and studies--and
success in apiculture can be promised to no other--will ever be content
to use the old box-hives. In fact, thought and intelligence, which
imply an eagerness to investigate, are essential elements in the
apiarist's character. And to such an one a box-hive would be valued
just in proportion to the amount of kindling-wood it contained. A very
serious fault with one of our principal bee-books, which otherwise is
mainly excellent in subject matter and treatment, is the fact that it
presumes its readers to be box-hive men. As well make emperors, kings,
and chivalry the basis of good government, in an essay written for
American readers. I shall entirely ignore box-hives in the following
discussions, for I believe no sensible, intelligent apiarists, such
as read books, will tolerate them, and that, supposing they would, it
would be an expensive mistake, which I have no right to encourage, in
fact, am bound to discourage, not only for the benefit of individuals,
but also for the art itself.

To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect the whole
interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able to exchange combs
from one hive to another, to regulate the movements of the 'bees:
by destroying queen-cells, by giving or withholding drone-comb,
by extracting the honey, by introducing queens, and by many other
manipulations to be explained, which are only practicable with a
movable-frame hive.


MOVABLE-COMB HIVES.

There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive in use among
us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, as each has advocates
among our most intelligent, successful and extensive apiarists. Each,
too, has been superseded by the other, to the satisfaction of the
person making the change. The kind most used consists of a box, in
which hang the frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so
far separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the proper
distance apart. In the other kind, the frames are wider than the comb,
and when in position are close together, and of themselves form two
sides of a box. When in use, these frames are surrounded by a second
box, without a bottom, which, with them, rests on a bottom board. Each
of these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes, etc., where the
details are varied to suit the apiarist's notion. Yet, I believe that
all hives in present use, worthy of recommendation, fall within one or
the other of the above named types.


THE LANGSTROTH HIVE.

This (Fig. 29) is the hive most in use among Americans and Britons,
if not among all who practice improved apiculture. It is stated
that the late Major Munn was first to invent this style of hive. He
states (see Bevan, p. 37) that he first used it in 1834. But, as
suggested by Neighbour in his valuable hand-book, the invention was
of no avail to apiarists, as it was either unknown, or else ignored
by practical men. This invention also originated independently with
Rev. L. L. Langstroth, who brought it forth in 1851, so perfect, that
it needed scarce any improvement; and for this gift, as well as his
able researches in apiculture, as given in his invaluable book, "The
Honey-Bee," he has conferred a benefit upon our art which cannot be
over-estimated, and for which we, as apiarists, cannot be too grateful.
It was his book--one of my old teachers, for which I have no word of
chiding--that led me to some of the most delightful investigations of
my life. It was his invention--the Langstroth hive--that enabled me
to make those investigations. For one, I shall always revere the name
of Langstroth, as a great leader in scientific apiculture, both in
America and throughout the world. His name must ever stand beside that
of Dzierzon and the elder Huber. Surely this hive, which left the hands
of the great master in so perfect a form, that even the details remain
unchanged by many of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear his name.
Thus, though I prefer and use the size of frame first used, I believe,
by Mr. Gallup, still I use the Langstroth hive. (See Appendix, page
287).

[Illustration: Fig. 29.]


CHARACTER OF THE HIVE.

The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, which, would exclude
doors, drawers, and traps of all kinds. The body should be made of
good pine or white-wood lumber, one inch thick, thoroughly seasoned,
and planed on both sides. It should be simply a plain box (Fig. 30),
without top or bottom, and of a size and form to suit the apiarist.
The size will depend upon our purpose. If we desire no comb-honey, or
desire comb-honey in frames, the hive may contain 4,000 cubic inches.
If we desire honey in boxes, it should not contain over 2,000, and may
be even smaller. If the hive is to be a two-story one--that is, one
hive above a similar hive below (Fig. 29)--I prefer that it should
be eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep,
inside measure. If simply small frames or boxes are to be used above,
I would have the hive at least two feet long. A three-fourths inch
rabbet should be cut from the top of the sides or ends as the apiarist
prefers, on the inside (Fig. 30, _c_).

[Illustration: Fig. 30]

The rabbet may equal a little more than one-half the thickness of
the board. Heavy tin strips (Fig. 33), three-fourths of an inch
wide, should be tacked to the side below the rabbet, so as to reach
one-fourth of an inch above the shoulder. These are to bear the frames,
and are convenient, as they prevent the frames from becoming glued to
the hive. We are thus able to loosen the frames without jarring the
bees. I would not have hives without such tin rabbets, though some
apiarists, among whom is Mr. James Heddon, of this State, whose rank
as a successful apiarist is very high, do not like them. The objection
to them is cost, and liability of the frames to move when the hive is
moved. But with their use we are not compelled to pry the frames loose,
and are not so likely to irritate the bees, while making an examination
of the contents of the hive, which arguments are conclusive with me.

Any one who is not a skilled mechanic, especially if he has not a
buzz-saw, had better join the sides of his hives after the style of
making common dry-goods boxes (Fig. 30). In this case, the sides not
rabbeted should project by, else the corners will have to be stopped up
where they were rabbeted.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.

_Bevel-Gauge._]

The mechanic may prefer to bevel the ends of the boards, and unite
them by a miter-joint (Fig. 33). This looks a little better, otherwise
is not superior to the other method. It is difficult to form accurate
joints--_and as everything about the hive should be_ ACCURATE _and_
UNIFORM--this style is not to be recommended to the general apiarist.
To miter with a hand-saw unless one is very skillful, requires a
perfect miter-box, and, even then, much care is required to secure
perfect joints. With a buzz-saw this is easier. We have only to make a
carrier as follows: Take two boards (Fig. 31. _a, b_), each one foot
in length, and dove-tail them together, as though with two others
you meant to make a square box. Be sure that they form a perfect
right-angle. Then bevel the ends opposite the angle, and unite these
with a third board (Fig. 31, c), firmly nailed to the others. We
thus have a triangular pyramid. Through one of the shorter faces make
longitudinal slits (Fig. 31, _d_), so that this can be bolted firmly
to the saw-table. In use, the longer face will reach the saw, and from
thence will slant up and back. Along the back edge of this a narrow
board (Fig. 31, _e_) should be nailed, which will project an inch above
it. This will keep the board to be beveled in line with the carrier,
and will retain the right angles. Of course the boards for the hive
must be perfect rectangles, and of just the right length and width,
before the bevels are cut.

Such a carrier (Fig. 31) I ordered for my Barnes' saw, from a
cabinet-maker. It was made of hard wood, all three joints dove-tailed,
and nicely finished, at a cost of $1.50.

In sawing the ends and sides of the hive, whether by hand or with a
buzz-saw, use should be made of a guide, so that _perfect uniformity_
will be secured.


THE BOTTOM BOARD.

For a bottom board or stand (Fig. 32), we should have a single one-inch
board (Fig. 32, _b_) just as wide as the hive, and four inches longer,
if the bees are to enter at the end of the hive, and as long, and four
inches wider, if the bees are to enter at the side. This is nailed
to two pieces of two by four, or two by two scantling (Fig. 32, _a,
a_). Thus the hive rests two or four inches from the ground. These
scantlings should extend at one end eight inches beyond the board, and
these projections be beveled from the edge of the board, to the lower
outer corner of the scantling. Upon these beveled edges nail a board
(Fig. 32, _d_), which shall reach from the edge of the bottom board to
the ground. We thus have the alighting-board, whose upper edge should
be beveled, so as to fit closely to the bottom board. If the hives are
to be carried into a cellar to winter, this alighting-board (Fig. 31,
_d_) had better be separate, otherwise it is more convenient to have it
attached. It may be made separate at first, or may be easily separated
by sawing off the beveled portion of the scantlings.

Should the apiarist desire his bees to enter at the side of the hive,
the scantling (Fig. 32, _a, a_) should run the other way, and the
alighting-board (Fig. 32, _d_) should be longer, and changed to the
side. I have tried both, and see no difference, so the matter may be
controlled by the taste of the apiarist.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.]

For an opening to the hive (Fig. 32, _c_), I would bevel the middle of
the edge of the bottom board, next to the inclined board. At the edge,
this bevel should be three-quarters of an inch deep and four inches
wide. It may decrease in both width and depth as it runs back, till
at a distance of four inches, it is one-half an inch wide and five
thirty-seconds of an inch deep. This may terminate the opening, though
the shoulder at the end may be beveled off, if desired.

With this bottom board the bees are near the ground, and with the
slanting board in front, even the most tired and heavily-laden will
not fail to gain the hive, as they come in with their load of stores.
In spring, too, many bees are saved, as they come in on windy days,
by low hives and an alighting-board. _No hive should be more than
four inches from the ground_, and no hive should be without the
slanting alighting-board. With this opening, too, the entrance can be
contracted in case of robbing, or entirely closed when desired, by
simply moving the hive back.

Some apiarists cut an opening in the side of the hive, and regulate
the size by tin slides or triangular blocks (Fig. 29); others form an
opening by sliding the hive forward beyond the bottom board--which I
would do with the above in hot weather when storing was very rapid--but
for simplicity, cheapness and convenience, I have yet to see an opening
superior to the above. I think, too, I am a competent judge, as I have
at least a half-dozen styles in present use.

I strongly urge, too, that only this one opening be used. Auger holes
about the hive, and entrances on two sides, are worse than useless. By
enlarging this opening, we secure ample ventilation, even in sultry
August, and when we contract the entrance, no bees are lost by finding
the usual door closed.

Some of our best bee-keepers, as Messrs. Heddon, Baldridge, etc.,
prefer that the bottom board be nailed to the hive (Fig. 39). I have
such hives; have had for years, but strongly object to them. They
will not permit a quick clearing of the bottom board, when we give
a cleansing flight in winter, or when we commence operations in
spring, which, especially if there is a quart or more of dead bees,
is very desirable. Nor with their use can we contract the opening
in cold weather, or to stop robbing, without the blocks (Fig. 29),
tins or other traps. _Simplicity should be the motto in hive-making._
The arguments in favor of such fastening are: Convenience in moving
colonies, and in feeding, as we have not to fasten the bottoms when we
desire to ship our bees, and to feed we have only to pour our liquids
into the hives.

Of course, such points are not essential--only matters of convenience.
Let each one decide for himself, which experience will enable him to do.


THE COVER OF THE HIVE.

The cover (Fig. 33, _a_) should be about six inches high, and like the
lid of a trunk. The length and breadth may be the same as the body of
the hive, and fit on with beveled edges (Fig. 33), the body having
the outer edge beveled, and the cover the inner. If we thus join the
cover and hive with a mitered-joint, we must not be satisfied with
anything less than perfection, else in case of storms, the rain will
beat into our hives, which should never be permitted. Such covers can
be fastened to the hives with hinges, or by hooks and staples. But
unless the apiarist is skilled in the use of tools, or hires a mechanic
to make his hives, it will be more satisfactory to make the cover just
large enough (Fig. 29) to shut over and rest on shoulders formed either
by nailing inch strips around the body of the hive, one inch from the
top, or else inside the cover (Fig. 29). If it is preferred to have a
two-story hive, with the upper story (Fig. 33, _b_) just like the lower
(Fig. 33, _c_), this (Fig. 53) may join the lower by a miter-joint,
while a cover (Fig. 33, _a_) two inches high, may join this with a
similar joint.

[Illustration: Fig. 33.]

If the upper story shuts over the lower and rests on a shoulder (Fig.
29) it may still be made to take the same sized frame, by nailing
pieces one-half an inch square to the corners, whose length shall equal
the distance from the rabbet in the lower story to the bottom board.
Now nail to these upright pieces, parallel to the rabbeted faces below,
a three-eighths inch board as wide as the pieces are long. The top of
these thin boards will take the place of the rabbet in the lower story.
This style, which is adopted in the two-story hives as made by Mr.
Langstroth (Fig. 29), will permit in the upper story the same frames
as used in the lower story, while two more can be inserted. Upon this
upper story a shallow cover will rest. Such covers, if desired, may
be made roof-like (Fig. 34), by cutting end pieces, (Fig 34, b) in
form of the gable of a house. In this case there will be two slanting
boards (Fig. 34, _a, a_), instead of one that is horizontal, to carry
off the rain. The slanting boards should project at the ends (Fig. 34,
_d_), for convenience in handling. In such covers we need thin, narrow
ridge-boards (Fig. 34, _c_), to keep all perfectly dry. These covers
look neat, are not so apt to check, and will dry much quicker after a
rain.

[Illustration: Fig. 34.]

If we secure comb-honey in crates, and winter out-doors--in which case
we shall need to protect in the Northern States--it will be convenient
to have a box of the same general form as the main body of the hive,
from six to eight inches deep, just large enough to set over the body
of the hive and rest on shoulder-strips, and without top or bottom;
this to have such a cover as just described. Such is the arrangement
of Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, which, on the score of simplicity
and convenience, has much to recommend it.

In the above I have said nothing about porticos (Fig. 29). If hives are
shaded as they should be, these are useless, and I believe that in no
case will they pay. To be sure, they are nice for spider-webs, and a
shady place in which bees may cluster; but such are inconvenient places
to study the wondrous fabrics of the spider, even were he a friend of
the bees, and the most successful apiarist will not force his bees to
hang in idle clusters about the hive.


THE FRAMES.

The form and size of frames, though not quite as various as the persons
who use them, are still very different. Some prefer large frames. I
first used one ten by eighteen inches, and afterward a shallow frame
about seven by eighteen (Fig. 29). The advantage claimed for large
frames is that there are less to handle, and time is saved; yet may
not smaller frames be handled so much more dexterously, especially if
they are to be handled through all the long day, as to compensate,
in part at least, for the number? The advantage of the shallow frame
is, as claimed, that the bees will go into boxes more readily; yet
they are not considered so safe for out-door wintering. This is the
style recommended and used by Mr. Langstroth, which fact may account
for its popularity in the United States. Another frame in common use,
is one about one foot square. I use one eleven inches square. The
reasons that I prefer this form are, that the comb seldom breaks from
the frame, the frames are convenient for nuclei, and save the expense
of constructing extra nucleus hives, and that these frames permit the
most compact arrangement for winter and spring, and thus enable us to
economize heat. By use of a division board, we can, by using eight
of these frames, occupy just a cubic foot of space in spring, and by
repeated experiments I have found that a hive so constructed that the
bees always cover the combs during the early cold weather, always gives
the best results. As the honey season comes on more can be added, till
we have reached twelve, as many, I think, as will ever be needed for
brood. This was the size of frame preferred by Mr. Gallup, and is the
one used by Messrs. Davis and Doolittle, and many others of our most
successful apiarists. That this size is imperative is, of course, not
true; that it combines as many desirable points as any other, I think,
is true. For apiarists who are not very strong, especially for ladies,
it is beyond question superior to all others.


HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE FRAMES.

In this description, I shall suppose that the frames desired are of the
form and size (Fig. 35) which I use. It will be easy, for any who may
desire, to change the form at pleasure. For the top-bar (Fig. 35, _a_)
of the frame, use a triangular strip twelve and three-quarter inches
long, with each face of the triangle one inch across. Seven-eighths
of an inch from each end of this, form a shoulder, by sawing from one
angle to within one-fourth of an inch of the opposite face, so that
when the piece is split out from the end, these projections shall be
just one-fourth of an inch thick throughout. For the side pieces (Fig.
35, _b, b_), take strips eleven inches long, seven-eighths of an inch
wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick. Tack with small brads the end of
two of these strips firmly to the shoulder of the top-bar, taking pains
that the end touches squarely against the projection. Now tack to the
opposite ends or bottoms, the ends of a similar strip (Fig. 35, _d_)
eleven and a half inches long. We shall thus have a square frame.

[Illustration: Fig. 35.]

If comb-foundation is to be used, and certainly it will be by the
enterprising apiarist, then the top-bar (Fig. 36, _a_) should be
twelve and three-quarters inches by one-quarter by one inch, with a
rectangular, instead of a triangular, projection below (Fig. 36, _b_),
which should be one-fourth by one-eighth inch, the longest direction
up and down. This should be entirely to one side of the centre, so
that when the foundation (Fig. 36, _c_) is pressed against this piece
it will hang exactly from the centre of the top-bar. If preferred, the
bottom of the frame (Fig. 36, _e_) need not be more than half as wide
or thick as described above.

The timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and of the best pine or
white-wood. Care should be taken that the frame be made so as to hang
vertically, when suspended on the rabbets of the hive. To secure this
very important point--true frames that will always hang true--they
should always be made around a guide.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.

_Frame, also Cross-Section of Top-Bar._]


A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES.

This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board (Fig. 37) eleven
and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches. On both ends of one face
of this, nail hard-wood pieces (Fig. 37, _e, e_) one inch square and
eleven inches long, so that one end (Fig. 37, _g, g_) shall lack
one-fourth inch of reaching the edge of the board. On the other face of
the board, nail a strip (Fig. 37, _c_) four inches wide and eleven and
a quarter inches long, at right-angles to it, and in such position that
the ends shall just reach to the edges of the board. Midway between the
one inch square pieces, screw on another hard-wood strip (Fig. 37, _d_)
one inch square and four inches long, parallel with and three-fourths
of an inch from the edge. To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval
piece of hoop-steel (Fig. 37, _b, b_), which shall bend around and
press against the square strips. The ends of this should not reach
quite to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring, fasten,
by rivets, an inch strap (Fig. 37, _a_), which shall be straight when
thus riveted. These dimensions are for frames eleven inches square,
inside measure, and must be varied for other sizes.

[Illustration: Fig. 37.]

To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames between the
steel springs (Fig. 37, _b, b_) and the square strips (Fig. 37, _e,
e_); then lay on our top-bar and nail, after which we invert the block
and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the top-bar. Now press down on the
strap (Fig. 37, _a_), which will loosen the frame, when it may be
removed, all complete and true. Such a gauge not only insures perfect
frames, but demands that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy.
And some such arrangement should always be used in making the frames.

The projecting ends of the top-bar will rest on the tins (Fig. 33),
and thus the frame can be easily loosened at any time without jarring
the bees, as the frames will not be glued fast, as they would in case
they rested on the wooden rabbets. The danger of killing bees is also
abolished by use of the tins.

When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a
three-sixteenths inch space between the sides and bottom of the
frames, and the sides and bottom of the hive. Even doubling this would
do no harm; though a much wider space would very likely receive comb,
and be troublesome. Frames that fit close in the hive, or that reach to
the bottom, are very inconvenient and undesirable. To secure against
this, our lumber must be thoroughly seasoned, else when shrinkage takes
place our frames may touch the bottom-board.

The distance between the frames may be one-fourth of an inch, though
a slight variation either way does no harm. Some men, of very precise
habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the side of the frames, at top
and bottom, which project just a quarter of an inch, so as to maintain
this unvarying distance; or staples in the bottom of the hive to secure
the same end. Mr. Langstroth so arranged his frames, and Mr. Palmer,
of Hart, Michigan, whose neatness is only surpassed by his success,
does the same thing. I have had hives with these extra attachments, but
found them no special advantage. I think we can regulate the distance
with the eye, so as to meet every practical demand, and thus save the
expense and trouble which the above attachments cost.


COVER FOR FRAMES.

Nothing that I have ever tried is equal to a quilt for this purpose.
It is a good absorbent of moisture, preserves the heat in spring and
winter, and can be used in summer without jarring or crushing the bees.
This should be a real quilt, made of firm unbleached factory, duck,
or cambric--I have used the first with entire satisfaction for four
years--enclosing a thick layer of batting, and hemmed about the edges.
My wife quilts and hems them on a machine. The quilting is in squares,
and all is made in less than fifteen minutes. The quilt should be a
little larger than the top of the hive, so that after all possible
shrinkage, it will still cover closely. Thus, when this is put on, no
bees can ever get above it. When we use the feeder, it may be covered
by the quilt, and a flap cut in the latter, just above the hole in the
feeder, enables us to feed without disturbing the bees, though I place
the feeder at the end of the chamber, wherein are the bees, and have
only to double the quilt back when I feed. The only objection that I
know to the quilt is, that the bees will fasten propolis, and even
comb, between it and the frames, and this looks bad. A little care
'will make this a small objection. Mr. Langstroth used a board above
the frames, which Mr. Heddon uses even now. Perhaps Mr. Heddon never
used the quilts. Perhaps his love of order and neatness caused him to
discard them. Still, I feel to thank Mr. A. I. Root for calling my
attention to quilts.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.]


DIVISION BOARD.

A close-fitting division board (Fig. 38) for contracting the chamber,
is very important, and though unappreciated by many excellent
apiarists, still no hive is complete without it. I find it especially
valuable in winter and spring, and useful at all seasons. This is
made the same form as the frames, though all below the top-bar--which
consists of a strip thirteen inches long by one inch by three-eighths,
and is nailed firmly to the board below--is a solid inch board (Fig.
38, _b_), which is exactly one foot square, so that it fits closely to
the inside of the hive. If desired, the edges (Fig. 38, _e, e_) can be
beveled, as seen in the figure. When this is inserted in the hive it
entirely separates the chamber into two chambers, so that an insect
much smaller than a bee could not pass from the one to the other. Mr.
A. I. Root makes one of cloth, chaff, etc. Yet, I think few apiarists
would bother with so much machinery. Mr. W. L. Porter, Secretary of the
Michigan Association, makes the board a little loose, and then inserts
a rubber strip in a groove sawed in the edges. This keeps the board
snug, and makes its insertion easy, even though heat may shrink or damp
may swell either the board or hive. I have not tried this, but like the
suggestion.

The use of the division board is to contract the chamber in winter, _to
vary it so as to keep combs covered in spring_, to convert the hive
into a nucleus hive, and to contract the chamber in the upper-story of
a two-story hive, when first adding frames to secure surplus comb-honey.


THE HUBER HIVE.

The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged several of his
leaf or unicomb hives together, so that the frames would open like the
leaves of a book; though it has been stated that the Grecians had, in
early times, something similar.

In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved upon the Huber
hive, securing a patent on his triangular frame hive. This, so far as I
can judge, was the Huber hive made practical.

In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minnesota, procured
a patent on his hive, which was essentially the same as the hives now
known as the Quinby and Bingham hives.

Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive, which is
essentially the same as the above, only differing in details. No patent
was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great heart and boundless generosity
endeared him to all acquaintances. Those who knew him best, never
tire of praising the unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we
except Mr. Langstroth, no man has probably done so much to promote
the interest and growth of improved apiculture in the United States.
His hive, his book, his views of wintering, his introduction of the
bellows-smoker--a gift to apiarists--all speak his praise as a man and
an apiarist.

The fact that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great favorite with
those who have used it, and is pronounced by so capable a judge as Mr.
Heddon, to be the best movable-comb hive in existence, that Mr. Quinby
preferred this style or type of hive, that the Quinby form is used
by the Hetherington brothers. Captain J. E., the prince of American
apiarists, and O. J., whose neatness, precision, and mechanical skill
are enough to awaken envy; that the Russell hive is but a modification
of the same type, are surely enough to awaken curiosity and bespeak a
description.

[Illustration: Fig. 39.

_Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support of Quinby Hive._]

The Quinby hive (Fig. 39), as used by the Hetherington brothers,
consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 39) twelve by
seventeen inches, outside measure. The ends of these frames are one
and a half inches wide and half an inch thick. The top and bottom one
inch wide and half an inch thick. The outer half of the ends projects
one-fourth of an inch beyond the top and bottom. This projection is
lined with sheet iron, which is inserted in a groove which runs one
inch into each end of the end-pieces and are tacked by the same nails
that fasten the end-bars to the top and bottom-bars. This iron at the
end of the bar bends in at right-angles (Fig. 39, _a, a_), and extends
one-fourth of an inch parallel with the top and bottom-bars. Thus, when
these frames stand side by side, the ends are close, while half-inch
openings extend between the top and bottom-bars of adjacent frames.
The bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from the bottom-board.
Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with the position of the back
end-bars of the frames is an inch strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 39, _b,
b_) sixteen inches in length. One-third of this strip, from the front
edge back, is bent over so it lies not quite in contact with the second
third, while the posterior third receives the tacks which hold it to
the bottom-board. Now, when in use this iron flange receives the hooks
on the corners of the frames, so that the frames are held firmly, and
can only be moved back and sidewise. In looking at the bees we can
separate the combs at once, at any place. The chamber can be enlarged
or diminished simply by adding or withdrawing frames. As the hooks are
on all four corners of the frames, the frames can be either end back,
or either side up. Boards with the iron hooks close the sides of the
brood cavity, while a quilt covers the frames.

The entrance (Fig. 39, _e_) is cut in the bottom-board as already
explained, except that the lateral edges are kept parallel. A strip of
sheet-iron (Fig. 39, _d_) is tacked across this, on which rest the ends
of the front end-bars of the frames which stand above, and underneath
which pass the bees as they come to and go from the hive. A box,
without bottom and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from
four to six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames.
This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side and top
storing in sections or boxes in summer.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.

_Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive._]

The Bingham hive (Fig. 40) is not only remarkably simple, but is as
remarkable for its shallow depth; the frames being only five inches
high. These have no bottom-bar. The end-bars are one and a half inches
wide, and the top-bar square. The nails that hold the end-bars pass
into the end of the top-bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so
that an edge, not a face, is below; though some are made with a face
below (Fig. 40, _f_), to be used when comb is transferred. The frames
are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each wire (Fig. 40,
_a_) is a little longer than twice the width of the hive when the
maximum number of frames are used. The ends of each wire are united
and placed about nails (Fig. 40, _b, b_) in the ends of the boards
(Fig. 40, _c, c_) which form the sides of the brood-chamber. A small
stick (Fig. 40, _a_) spreads these wires, and brings the frames close
together. A box without bottom and with movable cover, is placed about
the frames. This is large enough and high enough to permit of chaff
packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be made like the
one already described. Mr. Bingham does not bevel the bottom-board,
but places lath under three sides of the brood-chamber, the lath being
nailed to the bottom-board--and then uses the blocks to contract the
entrance (Fig. 40, _g_).

The advantages of this hive are, simplicity, great space above for
surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed one hive above
another to any height desired, while the frames may be reversed, end
for end, or bottom for top, or the whole brood-chamber turned up-side
down. Thus, by doubling, we may have a depth of ten inches for winter.

The objection which I have found in the similar Russell hive, is danger
of killing bees in rapid handling. In the Russell hive the side-bars
are halved together, and held in place by ingeniously contrived wire
hooks. There are no bottom-bars. I have used none of these except
the Russell. They can be manipulated with rapidity, if we care not
how many bees we crush. It hurts me to kill a bee, and so I find the
Langstroth style more quickly manipulated. Mr. Snow, too, who was the
first to make the above style of hive, has discarded it in favor of the
Langstroth. His objection to the above, is the fact that the various
combs are not sure to be so built as to be interchangeable. Yet that
such apiarists as those above named prefer these Huber hives, after
long use of the other style, is certainly not without significance.

       *       *       *       *       *

APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB-HONEY.

Although I feel sure that extracted-honey will grow more and more into
favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful comb, which, from its
exquisite flavor and attractive appearance, has always been, and always
will be, admired and desired. So, no hive is complete without its
arrangement of boxes, section-frames, and crates, all constructed with
the view of securing this delectable comb-honey in the form that will
be most irresistible.


BOXES.

These are for surplus comb-honey in the most salable form. They may be
of any size that best suits the taste of the apiarist, and the pulse of
the market.

[Illustration: Fig. 41.]

It is well that the sides of these be of glass. Such (Fig. 41) may be
made as follows: For top and bottom procure soft-wood boards one-fourth
of an inch thick and of the size desired, one for the bottom and the
other for the top of the box. Take four pieces half an inch square
and as long as the desired height of the honey-box. In two adjacent
sides of these saw grooves in which may slip common glass. These
are for corner pieces. Now tack with small brads the corners of the
bottom-board to the ends of these pieces, then slide in the glass,
and in similar way tack the top-board to the other ends. Through the
bottom-board holes may be bored so that the bees may enter. A similar
box is made by A. H. Russell, of Adrian, Mich., except that tin forms
the corners. These may be made to take from one to three combs, and are
certainly very attractive. If made small and set in a crate so that all
could be removed at once, they would leave little to be desired. The
Isham box (Fig. 42) is essentially like the Russell; only the tin at
the corners is fastened differently. Surely, all great minds do run in
the same channel. Another form (Fig. 43) which I find very desirable,
and which I used in California (where they were introduced by Mr.
Harbison) more than ten years ago, is made as follows: Dress off common
lath so that they are smooth, cut off two lengths the desired height of
the box, and one the desired width; tack this last piece to the ends of
the other two, and to the other end tack a similar strip only half as
wide. We now have a square frame.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.]

[Illustration: Fig. 43.]

Place such frames side by side till a box is made of the desired
length. To hold these together, we have now only to tack on either
side one or two pieces of tin, putting a tack into each section, thus
forming a compact box without ends. The end frames should have a whole
piece of lath for the bottom, and grooves should be cut in the bottom
and top laths, so that a glass may be put in the ends. Of course there
is ample chance for the bees to enter from below. Now, by placing
small pieces of comb, or artificial comb foundation, which ranks as a
discovery with the movable-frame hive and honey-extractor, on the top
of each frame (Fig. 43), the bees will be led to construct a separate
comb in each frame, and each frame may be sold by the retail dealer
separately, by simply drawing the tacks from the tins. Barker and
Dicer, of Marshall, Michigan, make a very neat sectional honey-box,
which is quite like the above, except that paper pasted over the frames
takes the place of the tins. These, too, have wood separators as used
and sold by the gentlemen named. The honey-boxes may be placed directly
on the frames, or in case the queen makes trouble by entering them to
deposit eggs--a trouble which I have seldom met, perhaps because I
give her enough to do below--we can plaice strips one-fourth of an inch
square between the frames and boxes. In case we work extensively for
box honey, we should have a rack or crate so made that we can remove
all the boxes at once; in which case to examine the bees we would not
have to remove all the boxes separately.


SMALL FRAMES OR SECTIONS.

Honey in boxes, unless they consist of sections as just described,
cannot compete with honey in small frames, in our present markets, and
without doubt they will fall more and more into disfavor. In fact,
there is no apparatus for securing comb-honey that promises so well as
these sections. That they are just the thing to enable us to tickle the
market is shown by their rapid growth in popular favor. Three years
ago I predicted, at one of our State Conventions, that they would soon
replace boxes, and was laughed at. Nearly all who then laughed, now
use these sections. They are cheap, and with their use we can get more
honey, and in a form that will make it irresistible.


REQUISITES OF GOOD SECTIONS

The wood should be _white_, the size small, from four to six inches
square, the sections capable of being glassed, at least on the faces,
not too much cut off from brood-chamber, cheap, easily made, and so
arranged as to be put on or taken off the hive _en masse_.

[Illustration: Fig. 44.]


DESCRIPTION.

The style of section which I think will soon replace all others, is
easily made, as follows: For a section four inches square take a strip
of _clean, white_ veneer--cut from basswood, poplar or white-wood--such
as is used to make berry-boxes, two inches wide and twenty inches long;
for larger sections make it proportionally longer. Make a shallow cut
every four inches at right-angles to the sides--though they will do
this, if asked to, at the factory. Now with a chisel (Fig. 44) four
inches long, with one-eighth inch projections at right-angles to
the main blade, cut out sections on the opposite edges of the main
strip--which will leave openings one-eighth inch by four inches,
between the first and second shallow cut and the third and fourth. We
now bend this around a square block (Fig. 45) which will just fill
it, letting the ends over-lap, and drive through these over-lapping
sections one or two small wrought brads on to an iron, (Fig. 45, _b_)
set into the block, by which they will be clinched. Or, by using glue,
we may dispense with the block. Now, if your market requires glassed
sections, or if you wish to insert dividers, either tin or wood, glue
posts one-fourth of an inch square, four in each section along the
uncut sides one-eighth inch from the edges. The ends of these will just
come flush with the gouged edges above and below. Now, by use of tins
such as are used to fasten window-glass, these can be glassed, or if
desired, each one can receive a tin or wooden separator.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.]

If this gluing in of the pieces is thought too troublesome, we may
still achieve the same end by using tin separators in our crates, and
then glass our sections by cutting a square glass, just the size of the
section, outside measure, and with heavy white paper paste two of these
glass to the sections. This makes each section perfectly close, and
is the method devised by Southard and Ranney for practice the coming
season. A paste made of dextrine, tragacanth, or even flour, will
answer to fasten the strips of paper, which need not be more than one
inch wide. A little carbolic acid, or salicylic acid in solution, will
keep the paste from souring.

Every apiarist can make these sections for himself, and thus save
freight and profits of making. They are neat, very cheap--costing but
two mills each--and are made strong by use of the glued posts. They
are also light. Very soon our customers will object to buying wood
and glass, if our unglassed sections of comb-honey are kept in close
glassed crates.

[Illustration: Fig. 46.]

The Hetherington brothers make a very neat section, as follows: The top
and bottom are each two inches wide, of one-quarter inch white pine.
These receive a groove one-eighth inch from the ends, which receives
the sides, one inch wide and one-eighth inch thick, which is pressed
through to a central position and glued. This section is five and a
half inches square. They use wooden dividers (Fig. 46, _a_) one-eighth
of an inch thick, as long as the section, but one inch less in height,
so that below and above is a half-inch space, which permits the bees to
pass readily from one section to another. These are held by a half-inch
strip of tin (Fig. 46, _b, b_), which passes through a groove (Fig. 46,
_c_) in the ends of the dividers, and reaches half an inch farther;
then turns at right-angles and ends in a point (Fig. 46, _b_), which,
when in use, sticks into the top or bottom pieces; and so the four
points hold the dividers in place. When ready to sell, they insert
half-inch glass in the grooves each side the narrow side-pieces, and
with tins fasten glass on the faces, and have a very handsome section.
I think this preferable to the Russell or Isham box or section, as the
one-inch strip of wood covers the part of the comb where it is fastened
to the sides, which is never attractive, while the rest is all glassed.
Such sections were praised in New York and Cincinnati last season as
very fine and neat; equal, if not superior, to all others.

[Illustration: Fig. 47.]

A. I. Root prefers sections made as are children's toy-blocks, the
sides fastened by a sort of mortise and tennon arrangement (Fig. 47). I
have received from Mr. James Heddon a similar section, but neater and
more finished, which is made in Vermont. These are too complex to be
made without machinery, are no better for their fancy corners--in fact,
they are not as strong as is desirable--and, as we cannot afford to
purchase our apparatus when we can as well make it ourselves, I cannot
recommend them for general use.


[Illustration: Fig. 48.]

The Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger sections (Fig. 48) are essentially the
same. The top and bottom are a little more narrow than the sides, and
are nailed to them. The Wheeler sections-invented and patented by Mr.
Geo. T. Wheeler, Mexico, New York, in 1870--are remarkable for being
the first (Fig. 52, _K_) to be used with tin separators (Fig. 52, _M_).
Instead of making the bottoms one-quarter of an inch narrower for a
passage, Mr. Wheeler made an opening in the bottom, as does Mr. Russell.


HOW TO PLACE SECTIONS IN POSITION.

There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and has, as it well
may, earnest advocates--one by use of crates, the other by frames.


SECTIONS IN FRAMES.

I prefer this method, perhaps because I have used it most. These frames
(Fig. 49) are made the same size as the frames in the brood-chamber,
except that they are made of strips two inches wide, and one-fourth of
an inch thick, though the bottom-bar is a quarter of an inch narrower,
so that when two frames are side by side, there is one-fourth of an
inch space between the bottom bars, though the top and side pieces are
close together. The sections are of such a size (Fig. 50, _K_) that
four, or six, or nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames.
Nailed to one side of each large frame are two tin strips (Fig. 50,
_t, t′_) as long as the frame, and as wide into one inch as are the
sections. These are tacked half an inch from the top and the bottom of
the large frames, and so are opposite the sections, thus permitting the
bees to pass readily from one tier of sections to another, as do the
narrower top and bottom-bars of the sections, from those below to those
above. I learned of such an arrangement of sections from A. I. Root.

[Illustration: Fig. 49.]

Captain Hetherington tells me that Mr. Quinby used them years ago. The
tin arrangement, though unlike Mr. Wheeler's (Fig. 52, _M_), would
be readily suggested by it. It is more trouble to make these frames
if we have the tins set in so as just to come flush with the edge
of the end-bars of the frames, but then the frames would hang close
together, and would not be so stuck together with propolis. These may
be hung in the second story of a two-story hive, and just so many as
to fill the same--my hives will take nine--or they can be put below,
beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in case he hangs these below,
inserts a perforated division-board, so that the queen will not enter
the sections and lay eggs. I used them very successfully last summer
without division-boards, and neither brood nor pollen were placed in
a single cell. Perhaps wider tins would prevent this should it occur.
In long hives--the "New Idea"--which I find very satisfactory, after
several years' trial, especially for extracted honey--I have used these
frames of sections, and with the best success. The Italians entered
them at once, and filled them even more quickly than other bees filled
the sections in the upper story. In fact, one great advantage of these
sections in the frames is the Obvious and ample passage-ways, inviting
the bees to enter them. But in our desire to make ample and inviting
openings, caution is required that we do not over-do the matter, and
invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we have Charybdis and
Scylla, and must, by study, learn to so steer between, as to avoid both
dangers.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.]


SECTIONS IN RACKS.

These are to use in lieu of large frames, to hold sections, and are
very convenient when we wish to set the sections only one deep above
the brood-chamber. Though, if desired, we can place one rack above
another, and so have sections two, and even three deep.

[Illustration: Fig. 51.]

[Illustration: Fig. 52.]

Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, use a very neat rack (Fig. 51), in
which they use the thin veneer sections which we recommend as superior
to all others for the general apiarist. They have used these with
excellent success, but without separators, which they wish to insert.
Perhaps by taking out the board partitions (Fig. 51, _B, B_), and
putting tin separators the other way across, they would accomplish
their object. In this case, the ends of the adjacent sections would not
be separated, and the width of the rack would just accommodate two,
three, or four sections, to be governed by size of hive and sections.
The sheet-iron rests (Fig. 51, _H, H, H_) which, with their bent edges,
just raise the rack one-fourth of an inch from the brood frames, would
then run the other way, and give the requisite strength. Thus, the
tins would not be liable to bend, as they would if run the shorter way
of the rack. The end-board, too (Fig. 51. _A_), would be a side-board,
and the strips (Fig. 51, _G, G_), with the intervening glass, would be
at the ends.

The Wheeler rack (Fig. 52) simply holds the sections, while each
section is glassed separately.

Captain Hetherington sets a rack of sections above the frames, and
stands sections one above the other on the side for side storing.
Mr. Doolittle makes a rack by placing frames, such as I have
described--except they are only half as high, and hold but two
sections--side by side, where they are held by tacking a stick on top
across each end of the row. He also places two tiers, two deep, at each
end of the brood-chamber, if he desires to give so much room.

All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey which will sell, will
certainly use the sections, and either adjust them by use of frames or
crates.


FOOT-POWER SAW.

Every apiarist who keeps upwards of fifty colonies of bees, and makes
apiculture a specialty, will find a foot power saw a very valuable
apparatus.

I have now used the admirable combined foot-power saw of W. F. & John
Barnes for a year, and find that it grows in value each month. It
permits rapid work, insures uniformity, and enables the apiarist to
give a finish to his work that would rival that of the cabinet-maker.

Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and set the saws,
and should never run the machine when not in perfect order.




CHAPTER VI.

POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY.


As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to give the
best results, and as this costs some money and more labor, it should
be done once for all. As plan and execution in this direction must
needs precede even the purchase of bees, this subject deserves an early
consideration. Hence, we will proceed to consider position, arrangement
of grounds, and preparation for each individual colony.


POSITION.

Of course, it is of first importance that the apiary be near at hand.
In city or village this is imperative. In the country or at suburban
homes, we have more choice, but close proximity to the house is of
much importance. In a city, it may be necessary to follow friend
Muth's example, and locate on the house-tops, where, despite the
inconvenience, we may achieve success. The lay of the ground is not
important, though if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope
in any direction, but better any way than toward the north.


ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS.

Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove offers inviting
shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp. Such a grove could soon
be formed of basswood and tulip trees, which, as we shall see, are
very desirable, as their bloom offers plenteous and most delicious
honey. Even Virgil urges shade of palm and olive, also that we screen
the bees from winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on
the windward side. Such a screen may be formed of a tall board fence,
which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to protect against
thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding, and will be eschewed by
the apiarist who has an eye to æsthetics. Ever-green screens, either
of Norway spruce, Austrian or other pine, or arbor vitæ, each or all,
are not only very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and
add greatly to the beauty of the grounds. If the apiary is large, a
small, neat, inexpensive house, in the centre of the apiary grounds, is
indispensable. This will serve in winter as a shop for making hives,
frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, while in summer it will
be used for extracting, transferring, storing, bottling, etc. In
building this, it will be well to construct a frost-proof, _thoroughly
drained_, dark, and well-ventilated cellar. To secure the thorough
ventilation, pass a tube, which may be made of tile, from near the
bottom, through the earth to the surface; and another, from near the
bottom, to the chimney or stove-pipe above.


PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY.

Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony. Bees are forced
to cluster outside the hive, where the hives are subjected to the full
force of the sun's rays. By the intense heat, the temperature inside
becomes like that of an oven, and the wonder is that they do not desert
entirely. I have known hives, thus unprotected, to be covered by bees,
idling outside, when by simply shading the hives, all would go merrily
to work. The combs, too, and foundation especially, are liable, in
unshaded hives, to melt and fall down, which is very damaging to the
bees, and very vexatious to the apiarist. The remedy for all this is to
always have the hives so situated that they will be entirely shaded all
through the heat of the day. This might be done by constructing a shed
or house, but these are expensive and inconvenient, and, therefore, to
be discarded. Perhaps the Coe house-apiary (Chap. XVIII) may prove an
exception; but, as yet, we have no reliable assurance of the fact.

If the apiarist has a convenient grove, this may be trimmed high, so
as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement. So arrange the
hives that while they are shaded through all the heat of the day, they
will receive the sun's rays early and late, and thus the bees will
work more hours. I always face my hives to the east. If no grove is at
command, the hives maybe placed on the north of a Concord grape-vine,
or other vigorous variety, as the apiarist may prefer. This should be
trained to a trellis, which may be made by setting two posts, either
of cedar or oak. Let these extend four or five feet above the ground,
and be three or four feet apart. Connect them at intervals of eighteen
inches with three galvanized wires, the last one being at the top of
the posts. Thus we can have shade and grapes, and can see for ourselves
that bees do not injure grapes. If preferred, we may use ever-greens
for this purpose, which can be kept low, and trimmed square and close
on the north. These can be got at once, and are superior in that they
furnish ample shade at all seasons. Norway spruce is the best. These
should be at least six feet apart. A. I. Root's idea of having the
vines of each succeeding row divide the spaces of the previous row,
in quincunx order, is very good; though I should prefer the rows in
this case to be four, instead of three feet apart, especially with
ever-greens. Until protecting shade can be thus permanently secured,
boards should be arranged for temporary protection. Many apiarists
economize by using fruit trees for this purpose, which, from their
spreading tops, answer very well.

Mr. A. I. Root's idea of having sawdust under and about the hives is,
I think, a good one. The hives of the Michigan Agricultural College
(Fig. 53) are protected by ever-greens, trimmed close on the north
side. A space four feet by six, north of the shrubs, was then dug out
to a depth of four inches, and filled with sawdust (Fig. 53, _f_),
underlying which were old bricks, so that nothing would grow up through
the sawdust. The sawdust thus extends one foot back, or west of the
hive, three feet north, and the same distance to the east or front side
of the hive. This makes it neat about the hive, and largely removes
the danger of losing the queen in handling the bees; as should she
fall outside the hive, the sharp-sighted apiarist would be very likely
indeed to see her.

Mr. J. H. Nellis, the able Secretary of the North-Eastern Bee-Keepers'
Association, objects to sawdust, as he thinks it rots too quickly, and
blows about badly. He would use sand or gravel instead. I have tried
both gravel and sawdust, and prefer the latter, as explained above.
By having the sawdust a little below the general surface, and adding
a little once in four or five years, it keeps all nice and agreeable.
After the ever-greens are well started, all the space between the
sawdust areas should be in grass, and kept neatly mown. This takes but
a little time, and makes the apiary always pleasant and inviting.

[Illustration: Fig. 53.]




CHAPTER VII.

TO TRANSFER BEES.


As you may have purchased your bees in box hives, and so, of course,
will desire to transfer them immediately into movable-frame hives, or,
as already suggested, you may wish to transfer from one movable-frame
to another, I will now proceed to describe the process.

The best time to transfer is early in the season, when there is but
little honey in the hives, though it may be done at any time, if
sufficient caution is used: still it should never be done except on
warm days, when the bees are actively engaged in storing. After the
bees are busy at work, approach the old hive, blow a little smoke into
the entrance to quiet the bees, then carry the hive off a few feet,
and turn it bottom up. Place a box over the hive--it will make no
difference whether it fits it close or not, if the bees are so smoked
as to be thoroughly alarmed--and with a stick rap on the lower hive for
about twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey and go with the
queen into the upper hive and cluster. If towards the last we carefully
set the box off once or twice, and vigorously shake the hive, and then
replace the box, we will hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it
more complete. I got this suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few young
bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do no harm. Now
put the box on the old stand, leaving the edge raised so that the bees
which were out may enter, and so all the bees can get air. If other
bees do not trouble, as they usually will not if busily gathering, we
can proceed in the open air. If they do we must go into some room.
I have frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, and often in
a barn. Now knock the old hive apart, cut the combs from the sides,
and get the combs out of the old hive with just as little breakage as
possible. Mr. Baldridge, if transferring in spring, saws the combs
and cross-sticks loose from the sides, turns the hive into the natural
position, then strikes against the top of the hive with a hammer till
the fastenings are broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the combs
are all free and in convenient shape for rapid work.

We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we place a board fifteen to
twenty inches square, covered with several thicknesses of cloth. Some
apiarists think the cloth useless, but it serves, I think, to prevent
injury to comb, brood or honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and
a frame on the comb, and cut out the comb the size of the inside of the
frame, taking pains to save all the brood. Now crowd the frame over
the comb, so that the latter will be in the same position that it was
when in the old hive; that is, so the honey will be above--the position
is not very important--then fasten the comb in the frame, by winding
about all one or two small wires or pieces of wrapping twine. To raise
the frame and comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till the
frame is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and proceed with
the others in the same way till we have all the worker-comb--that with
small cells--fastened in. To secure the pieces, which we shall find
abundant at the end, take thin pieces of wood, one-half inch wide and a
trifle longer than the frame is deep, place these in pairs either side
the comb, extending up and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure
till the bees shall fasten them, and secure the strips by winding with
small wire, just above and below the frame, or else tack them to the
frame with small tacks.

Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very neat method of
fastening comb into frames. In constructing his frames, he bores small
holes through the top, side, and bottom-bars of his frames, about two
inches apart; these holes are just large enough to permit the passage
of the long spines of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has
but to stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it securely.
He can also use all the pieces, and still make a neat and secure frame
of comb. He finds this arrangement convenient, too, in strengthening
insecure combs. In answer to my inquiry, this gentleman said it paid
well to bore such holes in all his frames, which are eleven by sixteen
inches, inside measure. I discarded such frames because of the
liability of the comb to fall out.

Mr. Baldridge makes wads of comb, or comb-cappings, which he finds
good, and by pressing these against the edges of the comb he wishes to
fasten, he fastens them to the frames, quickly and securely.

Having fastened all the worker-comb that we can into the frames--of
course all the other, and all bright drone-comb, will be preserved for
use as guide-comb--and placed the frames in the new hive--these should
be put together if they contain brood, especially if the colony is not
very strong, and the empty frames to one side--we then place our hive
on the stand, pushing it forward so that the bees can enter anywhere
along the alighting-board, and then shake all the bees from the box,
and any young bees that may have clustered on any part of the old hive,
or on the floor or ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately
in front. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all the busier
for having passed "from the old house into the new." In two or three
days, remove the wires or strings and sticks, when we shall find the
combs all fastened and smoothed off, and the bees as busily engaged as
though their present home had always been the seat of their labors.
In case we practice the methods of either Captain Hetherington or Mr.
Baldridge, there will be nothing to remove, and we need only go and
congratulate the bees in view of their new and improved home.

Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the matter is
much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly smoking the bees, we
have but to lift the frames, and shake or brush the bees into the new
hive. For a brush, a chicken or turkey wing, or a large wing or tail
feather from a turkey, goose or peacock, serves admirably. Now, cut out
the comb in the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten
as already suggested. After the combs are all transferred, shake all
remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has already been placed
on the stand previously occupied by the old hive.




CHAPTER VIII.

FEEDING AND FEEDERS.


As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are storing that
the queen deposits to the full extent of her capability, and that
brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when storing ceases, general
indolence characterizes the hive. Hence, if we would achieve the
best success, we must keep the workers active, even before gathering
commences, as also in the interims of honey secretion by the flowers;
and to do this we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom in
the spring, and whenever the neuters are forced to idleness during any
part of the season, by the absence of honey-producing flowers. For a
number of years, I have tried experiments in this direction by feeding
a portion of my colonies early in the season, and in the intervals
of honey-gathering, and always with marked results in favor of the
practice.

Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will receive ample reward
by practicing stimulative feeding early in the season; then his hive
at the dawn of the white clover era will be redundant with bees, well
filled with brood, and in just the trim to receive a bountiful harvest
of this most delicious nectar.

Feeding, too, is often necessary to secure sufficient stores for
winter--for no apiarist, worthy the name, will suffer his faithful,
willing subjects to starve, when so little care and expense will
prevent it.


HOW MUCH TO FEED.

If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be great. A
half pound a day, or even less, will be all that is necessary to
encourage the bees to active preparation for the good time coming. For
information in regard to supplying stores for winter see Chapter XVII.


WHAT TO FEED.

For this purpose I would feed coffee A sugar, reduced to the
consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over from the
previous year. The price of the latter will decide which is the
most profitable. Honey, too, that has been drained or forced out of
cappings, etc., is good, and only good to feed. Many advise feeding the
poorer grades of sugar in spring. My own experience makes me question
the policy of ever using such feed for bees. The policy, too, of
feeding glucose I much question. In all feeding, unless extracted honey
is what we are using, we cannot exercise too great care that such feed
is not carried to the surplus boxes. Only let our customers once taste
sugar in their comb-honey, and not only is our own reputation gone, but
the whole fraternity is injured. In case we wish to have our combs in
the sections filled or capped, we must feed extracted honey, which may
often be done with great advantage.

[Illustration: Fig. 54.

_Division-Board Feeder._

Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc.]


HOW TO FEED.

The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to admit quick
feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged that we can feed
without in any way disturbing the bees. The feeder (Fig. 54) which I
have used with the best satisfaction, is a modified division-board,
the top-bar of which (Fig. 54, _b_) is two inches wide. From the upper
central portion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece, the size of
an oyster-can, is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig 54, _g_), after the
top of the latter has been removed. A vertical piece of wood (Fig. 54,
_d_) is fitted into the can so as to separate a space about one inch
square, on one side from the balance of the chamber. This piece does
not reach quite to the bottom of the can, there being a one-eighth
inch space beneath. In the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 54, _e_)
just above the smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden
float (Fig. 54, _f_) full of holes. On one side, opposite the larger
chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 54, _c_) is cut
off, so that the bees can pass between the can and top-bar on to the
float, where they can sip the feed. The feed is turned into the hole
in the top-bar (Fig. 54, _e_), and without touching a bee, passes down
under the vertical strip (Fig. 54, _d_) and raises the float (Fig. 54,
_f_). The can may be tacked to the board at the ends near the top.
Two or three tacks through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 54,
_d_) will hold the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on
the vertical piece so that it cannot move. Crowding a narrow piece of
woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing a similar strip
around the beveled edge of the division-board makes all snug.

[Illustration: Fig. 55.

_Shuck's Boss Bee-Feeder._

_Simplicity Bee-Feeder._]

One of our students suggests the name "Perfection" for this feeder.
The feeder is placed at the end of the brood-chamber (page 137), and
the top-bar covered by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold the
quilt over, when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the hole in the
top-bar. If a honey-board is used, there must be a hole in this just
above the hole in the division-board feeder. In either case, no bees
can escape, the heat is confined, and our division-board feeder is but
little more expensive than a division-board alone.

Some apiarists prefer a quart tin can with finely perforated cover.
This is filled with liquid, the cover put on, and the whole quickly
inverted and set above a hole in the quilt. Owing to the pressure of
the air, the liquid will not descend so rapidly that the bees cannot
sip it up.

Many other styles of feeders are in use, as the "Simplicity" and
"Boss," but I have yet to see one that in all respects equals the one
figured and described above.

The best time to feed is just at night-fall. In this case the feed will
be carried away before the next day, and the danger to weak colonies
from robbing is not so great.

In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be close above
the bees to economize the heat. In all feeding, care is requisite that
we may not spill the feed about the apiary, as this may, and very
generally will, induce robbing.




CHAPTER IX.

QUEEN REARING.


Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and that the full
number of bees is forty thousand, or even more--though the bees are
liable to so many accidents, and as the queen does not always lay to
her full capacity, it is quite probable that this is about an average
number--it will be seen that each day that a colony is without a queen
there is a loss equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of
the colony, and this is a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of
any day is its special loss, augmented by the several losses of the
previous days. Now, as queens are liable to die, to become impotent,
and as the act of increasing colonies demands the absence of queens,
unless the apiarist has extra ones at his command, it is imperative,
would we secure the best results, to ever have at hand extra queens. So
the young apiarist must early learn


HOW TO REAR QUEENS.

As queens may be needed by the last of May, preparations looking
to the early rearing of queens must commence early. When preparing
the colonies for winter the previous autumn, be sure to place some
drone-comb somewhere near the centre of the colony that has given the
best results the previous season. In March, and certainly by the first
of April, see that all colonies have plenty of bee-bread. If necessary,
place unbolted flour, that of rye or oats is best, in shallow troughs
near the hives. It may be well to give the whole apiary the benefit of
such feeding before the flowers yield pollen. Yet, I have found that
here in Central Michigan, bees can usually gather pollen by the first
week of April, which I think is as early as they should be allowed to
fly, and, in fact, as early as they will fly with sufficient regularity
to make it pay to feed the meal. I much question, after some years of
experiment, if it ever pays to give the bees a substitute for pollen.

The colony under consideration, should be given frames containing
bee-bread which was stored the previous year. At the same time, March
or April, commence stimulative feeding. If you have another colony
equally good with the first, also give that the pollen, and commence
giving it honey or syrup, but only worker-comb should be in the
brood-chamber. This will prevent the close in-breeding which would
of necessity occur if both queens and drones were reared in the same
colony; and which, though regarded as deleterious in the breeding of
all animals, should be practiced in case one single queen is of decided
superiority to all others of the apiary.

Very likely in April, drone-eggs will be laid in drone-comb. I have had
drones flying on the first of May. As soon as the drones commence to
hatch out, remove the queen and all eggs and uncapped brood from some
good, strong colony, and replace it with eggs or brood just hatched
from the colony that is being fed, or if two equally good colonies have
been stimulated, from the one in which no drone-comb was placed. The
queen which has been removed may be used in making a new colony, in
manner soon to be described under "dividing or increasing the number
of colonies." This queenless colony will immediately commence forming
queen-cells (Fig. 56). Sometimes these are formed to the number of
fifteen or twenty, and they are started, too, in a full, vigorous
colony, in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off
edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there are eggs
or larvæ; just hatched, will almost always insure the starting of
queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed, too, that our queens
are started from eggs or from larvæ but just hatched, as we have given
the bees no other, and so are fed the royal pabulum from the first.
Thus, we have met every possible requisite to secure the most superior
queens. By removal of the queen we also secure a large number of cells,
while if we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory to
natural swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable conditions
named above, we shall probably fail to secure so many cells, and may
have to wait longer than we can afford.

Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no others, or
who has only pure Italians, will still find that it pays to practice
this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier, or the breeder of
our larger domestic animals, so, too, the apiarist is ever observing
some individuals of marked superiority, and he who carefully selects
such queens to breed from, will be the one whose profits will make him
rejoice, and whose apiary will be worthy of all commendation. As will
be patent to all, by the above process we exercise a care in breeding
which is not surpassed by the best breeders of horses and cattle, and
which no wise apiarist will ever neglect.

After we have removed all the queen-cells, in manner soon to be
described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-hatched larvæ--always
from those queens which close observation has shown to be the most
vigorous and prolific in the apiary--and thus keep the same queenless
colony or colonies, engaged in starting queen-cells till we have all we
desire. Yet we must not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition
of capped brood, which we may take from any hive as most convenient.
I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should not be started
after the first of September, as I have observed that late queens are
not only less prolific, but shorter lived. In nature, late queens are
rarely produced, and if it is true that they are inferior, it might
be explained in the fact, that the ovaries remain so long inactive.
As queens that are long unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, mated
queens long inactive are enfeebled.

In a week the cells are capped, and the apiarist is ready to form his


NUCLEI.

A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees--a hive and colony on
a small scale, for the purpose of rearing and keeping queens. We want
the queens, but can afford to each nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus
hive, if we use frames not more than one foot square, need be nothing
more than an ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board
to the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, then it may
be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. These are small
hives, need not be more than six inches each way, that is, in length,
breadth, and thickness, and made to contain from four to six frames
of corresponding size. These frames are filled with comb. I have for
the last two or three years used the first named style of nucleus hive,
and have found it advantageous to have a few long hives made, each to
contain five chambers, while each chamber is entirely separate from
the one next to it, is five inches wide, and is covered by a separate,
close-fitting board, and the whole by a common cover. The entrance for
the two end chambers is at the ends near the same side of the hive.
The middle chamber has its entrance at the middle of the side near
which are the end entrances, while the other two chambers open on
the opposite side, as far apart as is possible. The outside might be
painted different colors to correspond with the divisions, if thought
necessary, especially on the side with two openings. Yet I have never
taken this precaution, nor have I been troubled much by losing queens.
They have almost invariably entered their own apartments when returning
from their wedding tour. These hives I use to keep queens during the
summer. Except the apiarist engages in queen-rearing extensively as
a business, I doubt the propriety of building such special nucleus
hives. The usual hives are good property to have in the apiary, will
soon be needed, and may be economically used for all nuclei. In spring
I make use of my hives which are prepared for prospective summer use,
for my nuclei. Now go to different hives of the apiary, and take out
three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has brood, and
so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as you have queen-cells
to dispose of The bees should be left adhering to the frames of comb,
only _we must be certain that the queen is not among them_, as this
would take the queen from where she is most needed, and would lead to
the sure destruction of one queen-cell. To be sure of this, never take
such frames till _you have seen the queen_, that you may be sure she is
left behind. I usually shake off into the nucleus the bees from one or
two more frames, so that, even after the old bees have returned, there
will still be a sufficient number of young bees left in the nucleus to
keep the temperature at a proper height. If any desire the nuclei with
smaller frames, these frames must of course be filled with comb, and
then we can shake bees immediately into the nuclei, as given above,
till they shall have sufficient to preserve a proper temperature. In
this case the queen-cell should be inserted just before the bees are
added; in the other case, either before or after. Such special articles
about the apiary are costly and inconvenient. I believe that I should
use hives even with the largest frames for nuclei. In this case we
should need to give more bees. To insert the queen-cell--for we are
now to give one to each nucleus, so we can never form more nuclei than
we have capped queen-cells--we first cut them out, commencing to cut
on either side the base of the cell, at least one-half inch distant,
_we must not in the least compress the cell_, then cutting up and out
for two inches, then across opposite the cell. This leaves the cell
attached to a wedge-shaped piece of comb (Fig. 56), whose apes is next
the cell.

[Illustration: Fig. 56.]

A similar cut in the middle frame of the nucleus, which in case of the
regular frames is the one containing brood, will furnish an opening
to receive the wedge containing the cell. The comb should also be cut
away beneath (Fig. 56), so that the cell cannot be compressed. After
all the nuclei have received their cells and bees, they have only
to be set in a shady place and watched to see that sufficient bees
remain. Should too many leave, give them more by removing the cover
and shaking a frame loaded with bees over the nucleus; keep the opening
nearly closed, and cover the bees with a quilt. The main caution in
all this _is to be sure not to get any old queen in a nucleus_. In
two or three days the queens will hatch, and in a week longer will
have become fertilized, and that, too, in case of the first queens,
by selected drones, for as yet there are no other in the apiary, and
the apiarist will possess from ten to thirty-five queens, which will
prove his best stock in trade. I cannot over-estimate the advantage of
ever having extra queens. To secure pure mating later, we must cut all
drone-comb from inferior colonies, so that they shall rear no drones.
If drone larvæ are in uncapped cells, they may be killed by sprinkling
the comb with cold water. By giving the jet of water some force they
may be washed out, or we may throw them out with the extractor, then
use the comb for starters in our sections. By keeping empty frames, and
empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept active; yet with so few
bees, one cannot expect very much from the nuclei. After cutting all
the queen-cells from our old hive, we can again insert eggs, as above
suggested, and obtain another lot of cells, or, if we have a sufficient
number, we can leave a single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be
the happy possessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if the even
tenor of its ways had not been disturbed.


SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN'S WING?

In the above operation, as in many other manipulations of the hive,
we shall often gain sight of the queen, and can, if we desire, clip
her wing, if she has met the drone, that in no case she shall lead the
colony away to parts unknown. This does not injure the queen, as some
have claimed. General Adair once stated that such treatment injured the
queen, as it cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by
so excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet we are sure that this is
all a mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as we have seen, go to
the wings to carry nourishment to these members. With the wing goes the
necessity of nourishment and the need of the tubes. As well say that
the amputation of the human leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution,
as it would cut off the supply of blood.

Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of the queen's
wings for years. Yet, these queens show no diminution of vigor: we
should suppose they would be even more vigorous, as useless organs
are always nourished at the expense of the organism, and if entirely
useless, are seldom long continued by nature. The ants set us an
example in this matter, as they bite the wings off their queens, after
mating has transpired. They mean that the queen ant shall remain
at home _nolens volens_, and why shall not we require the same of
the queen bee? Were it not for the necessity of swarming in nature,
we should doubtless have been anticipated in this matter by nature
herself. Still, if the queen essays to go with a swarm, and if the
apiarist is not at hand, she will very likely be lost, never regaining
the hive; but in this case the bees will be saved, as _they will_
return without fail. I always mean to be so watchful, keeping my hives
shaded, giving ample room, and dividing or increasing, as to prevent
natural swarming. But in lieu of such caution I see no objection to
clipping the queen's wing, and would advise it.

Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, the secondary the
second year, the other primary the third, and if age of the queen
permits, the remaining wing the fourth year. Yet, such data, with other
matters of interest and importance, better be kept on a slate or card,
and firmly attached to the hive, or else kept in a record, opposite the
number of the hive. The time required to find the queen is sufficient
argument against the "queen-wing record.". It is not an argument
against the once clipping of the queen's wings, for, in the nucleus
hives, queens are readily found, and even in full colonies this is not
very difficult, especially if we heed the dictates of interest and keep
Italians. It will be best, even though we have to look up black queens,
in full colonies. The loss of one good colony, or the vexatious trouble
of separating two or three swarms which had clustered together, would
soon vanquish this argument of time.

To clip the queen's wing, take hold of her wings with the left thumb
and index finger--never grasp her body, _especially her abdomen_, as
this will be very apt to injure her--raise her off the comb, then
turn from the bees, place her gently on a board or any convenient
object--even the knee will do--she will thus stand on her feet, and
not trouble by constantly passing her legs up by her wings, where they,
too, would be in danger of being cut off. Now, take a small pair of
scissors, and with the right hand open them, carefully pass one blade
under one of the front wings, shut the blades, and all is over. Some
apiarists complain that queens thus handled often receive a foreign
scent, and are destroyed by the bees. I have clipped hundreds, and
never lost one. I believe that the above method will not be open to
this objection. Should the experience of any one prove to the contrary,
the drawing on of a kid glove, or even the fingers of one, might remove
the difficulty.


FERTILE WORKERS.

We have already referred to (pp. 77 and 90) and described fertile
workers. As these can only produce unimpregnated eggs, they are, of
course, valueless, and unless superseded by a queen, will soon cause
the destruction of the colony. As their presence often prevents the
acceptance of cells or a queen, by the common workers, they are a
serious pest.

The absence of worker brood, and the abundant and careless deposition
of eggs--some cells being skipped, while others have received several
eggs--are pretty sure indications of their presence.

To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony with a good queen,
after which the colony may be divided if very strong. Simply exchanging
places of a colony with a fertile worker, and a good strong colony,
will often cause the destruction of the wrong-doer. In this case,
brood should be given to the colony which had the fertile worker,
that they may rear a queen; or better, a queen-cell or queen should
be given them. Caging a queen in a hive, with a fertile worker, for
thirty-six hours, will often cause the bees to accept her. Shaking the
bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will often rid them of the
counterfeit queen, after which they will receive a queen-cell or a
queen.




CHAPTER X.

INCREASE OF COLONIES.


No subject will be of more interest to the beginner, than that of
increasing stocks. He has one or two, he desires as many score, or, if
very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a Hetherington or a Harbison, as
many thousand. This is a subject, too, that may well engage the thought
and study of men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many
veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an increase
of stocks.

Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail methods, let me state
and enforce, that it is always safest, and generally wisest, especially
for the beginner, to be content with doubling, and certainly, with
tripling, his number of colonies each season. Especially let all
remember the motto, "Keep all colonies strong."

There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as swarming, already
described under natural history of the bee; and artificial, improperly
styled artificial swarming. This is also called, and very properly,
too, "dividing."


SWARMING.

To prevent anxiety and constant watching, and to secure a more equable
division of bees, and, as I know, more honey, it is better to provide
against swarming entirely by use of means which will appear in the
sequel. But as this requires some experience, and, as often, through
neglect, either necessary or culpable, swarms may issue, every apiarist
should be ever ready with both means and knowledge for immediate
action. Of course, the hives were all made the previous winter, _and
will never be wanting_. Neglect to provide hives before the swarming
season, is convincing proof that the wrong pursuit has been chosen.

If, as we have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the matter
becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that were there no
other argument, this would be sufficient to recommend the practice of
cutting the queen's wing. Now, if several swarms cluster together, we
have not to separate them, they will separate of themselves and return
to their old home. To migrate without the queen means death, and life
is sweet even to bees, and is not to be willingly given up except for
home and kindred. Neither has the apiarist to climb trees, to secure
his bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-work or pickets of
his fence, from the very top of a tall, slender, fragile fruit tree,
or other most inconvenient places. Nor will he even be tempted to pay
his money for patent hivers. He knows his bees will return to their
old quarters, so he is not perturbed by the fear of loss, or plans
to capture the unapproachable. It requires no effort "to possess his
soul in patience." If he wishes no increase, he steps out, takes the
queen by the remaining wings, as she emerges from the hive, soon after
the bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, puts her in a cage,
opens the hive, destroys, or, if he wishes to use them, cuts out the
queen cells as already described (page 167), gives more room--either
by adding boxes or taking out some of the frames of brood, as they may
well be spared, places the cage enclosing the queen under the quilt,
and leaves the bees to return at their pleasure. At night-fall the
queen is liberated, and very likely the swarming fever subdued for the
season.

If it is desired to hive the absconding swarm with a nucleus colony,
exchange the places of the old hive containing the caged queen, and the
nucleus, to which the swarm will then come. Remove queen-cells from the
old hives as before, give some of the combs of brood to the nucleus,
which is now a full colony, and empty frames, with comb or foundation
starters, or, if you have them, empty combs to both, liberate the
queen at night and all is well, and the apiarist rejoices in a new
colony. If the apiarist has neglected to form nuclei, and so has no
extra queens--_and this is a neglect_--and wishes to hive his swarm
separately, he places his caged queen in an empty hive, with which he
replaces the old hive till the bees return, then this new hive, with
queen and bees, and, still better, with a frame or two of brood,
honey, etc., in the middle, which were taken from the old hive, is
set on a new stand. The old hive, with all the queen-cells except the
largest and finest one removed, is set back, so that the apiarist has
forestalled the issue of after-swarms, except that other queen-cells
are afterward started, which is not likely to happen. The old queen
is liberated as before, and we are in the way of soon having two good
colonies. Some apiarists cage the queen and let the bees return, then
divide the colony as soon to be described.

Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase of colonies,
cage the old queen, destroy cells, and exchange this hive--after
taking out three or four frames of brood to strengthen nuclei--with
one that recently swarmed. Thus a colony that recently sent out a
swarm, but retained their queen, has probably, from the decrease of
bees, loss of brood and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming
fever, and if we give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will
accept the bees from a new swarm, and spend their future energies in
storing honey. Southard and Ranney have been very successful in the
practice of this method. If building of drone-comb in the empty frames
which replaced the brood-frames removed, should vex the apiarist--Dr.
Southard says they had no such trouble--it could be prevented by giving
worker-foundation. If the swarming fever is not broken up, we shall
only have to repeat the operation again in a few days.


HIVING SWARMS.

But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or from taste, or
other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire to "deform her royal
highness." Then the apiarist must possess the means to save the
would-be rovers. The means are good hives in readiness, some kind of
a brush--a turkey-wing will do--and a bag or basket, with ever open
top, which should be at least eighteen inches in diameter, and this
receptacle so made that it may be attached to the end of a pole, and
two such poles, one very long and the other of medium length.

Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster commences to
form, place the hive on the ground near by, leaving the entrance widely
open, which with our bottom-board only requires that we draw the hive
forward an inch Or more over the alighting-board. As soon as the bees
are fully clustered, we must manage as best we can to empty the whole
cluster in front of the hive. As the bees are full of honey we need
have little fear of stings. Should the bees be on a twig that could be
sacrificed, this might be easily out off with either a knife or saw,
and so carefully as hardly to disturb the bees; then carry and shake
the bees in front of the hive, when with joyful hum they will at once
proceed to enter. If the twig must not be cut, shake them all into the
basket, and empty before the hive. Should they be on a tree trunk, or
a fence, then brush them with the wing into the basket, and proceed as
before. If they are high up on a tree, take the pole and basket, and
perhaps a ladder will also be necessary.

Always let ingenuity have its perfect work, not forgetting that the
object to be gained is to get just as many of the bees as is possible
on the alighting-board in front of the hive. Carelessness as to the
quantity might involve the loss of the queen, which would be serious.
The bees to ill not remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should a
cluster form where it is impossible to brush or shake them off, they
can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it above them and
blowing smoke among them. As soon as they are nearly all in--a few
may be flying around, but if the queen is in the new hive, they will
go back to their old home, or find the new one--which Mr. Betsinger
says they will always do, if it is not far removed--remove the hive to
its permanent stand. All washes are more than useless. It is better
that the hive be clean and pure. With such, if they are shaded, bees
will generally be satisfied. But assurance will be made doubly sure by
giving them a frame of brood, in all stages of growth, from the old
hive. This may be inserted before the work of hiving is commenced. Mr.
Betsinger thinks this will cause them to leave; but I think he will
not be sustained by the experience of other apiarists. He certainly
is not by mine. I never knew but one colony to leave uncapped brood;
I have often known them to swarm out of an empty hive once or twice,
and to be returned, after brood had been placed in the hive, when they
accepted the changed conditions, and went at once to work. This seems
reasonable, too, in view of the attachment of bees for their nest of
brood, as also from analogy. How eager the ant to convey her larvæ and
pupæ--the so-called eggs--to a place of safety, when the nest has been
invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless have the same desire to
protect their young, and as they cannot carry them away to a new home,
they remain to care for them in one that may not be quite to their
taste.

If it is not desired to increase, the bees may be given to a colony
which has previously swarmed, after removing from the latter all
queen-cells, and adding to the room by giving boxes and removing some
frames of brood to strengthen nuclei. This plan is practiced by Dr.
Southard. We may even return the bees to their old home by taking the
same precautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and not
swarming will engage their attention in future; and if we exchange
their position with that of a nucleus, we shall be still more likely
to succeed in overcoming the desire to swarm; though some seasons,
usually when honey is being gathered each day for long intervals, but
not in large quantities, the desire and determination of some colonies
to swarm is implacable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive,
each and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify the
propensity, by giving the swarm a new home, and make an effort


TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS.

As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on hand extra
queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei (as already
explained), and thus use these queen cells, he will at once cut them
_all_ out, and destroy them, and give the old colony a fertile queen.
The method of introduction will be given hereafter, though in such
cases there is very little danger incurred by giving them a queen at
once. And by thoroughly smoking the bees, and sprinkling with sweetened
water, and daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of
success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei,
in manner before described. In this way we save our colony from being
without a fertile queen for at least thirteen, days, and that, too,
in the very height of the honey season, when time is money. If extra
queens are wanting, we have only to look carefully through the old hive
and remove all but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly
make sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of bees,
that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such a quest.


TO PREVENT SWARMING.

As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby offered a large
reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had to make the
payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, and partially succeeded, by granting
much space to the bees, so that they should not be impelled to vacate
for lack of room.' The Quinby hive already described, by the large
capability of the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and
side-storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that a
perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the bee-keeping
public. The best aids toward non-swarming are shade, ventilation,
and roomy hives. But as we shall see in the sequel, much room in the
brood-chamber, unless we work for extracted honey--by which means we
may greatly repress the swarming fever--prevents our obtaining honey
in a desirable style. If we add sections, unless the connection is
quite free--in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly
vex us--we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such
crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading the
combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested to me by Mr.
M. M. Baldridge--causing the honey to run down from the combs--sent the
bees crowding to the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming.

It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very rapid,
and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the interims of
honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, secure very rapid breeding,
and still get our honey in sections. Too few experiments, to be at all
decisive, have led me to look favorably in this direction.

The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey without
increase, as practiced and advised by some even of our distinguished
apiarists, seems to me a _very questionable practice_, to which I
cannot even lend my approval by so much as detailing the method. I
would rather advise: keeping a, queen, and the workers all at work _in
every_ hive, if possible, all the time.


HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS.

We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, for, even though no
stock is too much reduced in numbers, no colony lost by not receiving
prompt attention, no Sunday quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in
anxious watching, yet, at best, the old colony is queenless for about
two weeks, _a state of things which no apiarist can or should afford_.
The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as just
described, where we save time by cutting the queen's-wing, and save
loss by permitting no colony to remain queenless, or still better to


DIVIDE.

This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our number
of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, too, when
time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and preferable to
swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since I have kept bees, and
_never without the best results_.


HOW TO DIVIDE.

By the process already described, we have secured a goodly number of
fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed time. Now, as
soon as the white clover harvest is well commenced, early in June, we
may commence operations. If we have but one colony to divide, it is
well to wait till they become pretty populous, but not till they swarm.
Take one of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile
queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we wish to
divide. This must only be done on warm days when the bees are active,
and better be done, while the bees are busy, in the middle of the
day. Remove the division-board of the new hive, and then remove five
combs, well loaded with brood, and of course containing some honey,
from the old colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the
remaining frames and shake the bees into the new hive. _Only be sure
that the queen still remains in the old hive._ Fill both the hives
with empty frames--if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be
still better, if not it will pay to give starters or full frames of
foundation--and return the new hive to its former position. The old
bees will return to the old colony, while the young ones will remain
peaceably with the new queen. The old colony will now contain at least
seven frames of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees,
so that they will work on as though naught had transpired, though
perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added space and five
empty frames. The empty frames may be all placed at one end, or placed
between the others, though not so as to divide brood.

The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., three from
the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young fertile queen, plenty
of bees, those of the previous nucleus and the young bees from the old
colony, and will work with a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the
old colony.

If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the new
colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one frame of
brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two from each of three,
and carry them, bees and all, and place with the nucleus. _Only, be
sure that no queen is removed._ Fill all the hives with empty combs,
or foundation instead of frames, as before. In this way we increase
without in the least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a
colony every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size
of our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, prevent
swarming.

By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add one or two
frames to each nucleus every week, without adding any bees, as there
would be no danger of loss by chilling the brood. In this way, as we
remove no bees, we have to spend no time in looking for the queen, and
may build up our nuclei into full stocks, and keep back the swarming
impulse with great facility.

These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and so I will not
complicate the subject by detailing others. The only objection that
can be urged against them, and even this does not apply to the last,
is that we must seek out the queen in each hive, or at least be sure
that we do not remove her, though this is by no means so tedious if we
have Italians, as of course we all will. I might give other methods
which would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my mind
inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as above described,
the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, and if they do they will
be discovered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the work
may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies as first explained,
and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for
forming new nuclei.




CHAPTER XI.

ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.


The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-plate) have
already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to discuss the
subject in a practical light.

The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted question.
A few among the able apiarists in our country take the ground that a
thorough balancing of qualities will make as favorable a showing for
the German, as for the Italian bees. I think, too, that the late Baron
of Berlepsch held to the same view.

I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. I have never
sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have not been unconsciously
influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have never had, if I except
two years, any direct interest in bees at all, and all my work and
experiments had only the promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum.

Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully
observed and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have
carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of storing,
early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of flowers visited,
amiability, etc., and I believe that to say that they are not superior
to black bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no
wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our Essex and
Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadaverous lank breeds,
with infinite noses, that, happily, are now so rare among us. The
Italians are _far_ superior to the German bees in many respects, and
more--though I am acquainted with all the works on apiculture printed
in our language, and have an extensive acquaintance with the leading
apiarists of our country from Maine to California, yet I know of
scarcely a baker's dozen that have had opportunity to form a correct
judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. That
these men are honest, is beyond question; that those who disagree
with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The black bees are in some
respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper's methods cause
him to give these points undue importance, in forming his judgments,
then his conclusions may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to
wrong conclusions.

The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority:

First. They possess longer tongues (Fig. 20), and so can gather from
flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point has already
been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How much value hangs upon this
structural peculiarity, I am unable to state. I have frequently
seen Italians working on red clover. I never saw a black bee thus
employed. It is easy to see that this might be, at certain times and
certain seasons, a very material aid. How much of the superior storing
qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I am unable
to say.

Second. They are more active, and with the same opportunities will
collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter of observation, which
I have tested over and over again. Yet I will give the figures of
another: Mr. Doolittle secured from two colonies, 309 lbs. and 301
lbs., respectively, of _box honey_, during the past season. These
surprising figures, the best he could give, were from his best Italian
stocks. Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea,
and from hosts of our own apiarists.

Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true of the day,
but of the season. On cool days in spring, I have seen the dandelions
swarming with Italians, while not a black bee was to be seen. On May
7th, 1877, I walked less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight
bees gathering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This
might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to spring
dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be described while
considering the subject of wintering, we think this no objection, but a
great advantage.

Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against robbers.
Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their hard-earned stores
soon find that they have "dared to beard the lion in his den." This is
so patent, that even the advocates of black bees are ready to concede
it.

Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the bee-moth's
larvæ. This is also universally conceded.

Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is probably in part
due to the greater and more constant activity of the neuters. This
is observable at all seasons, but very striking when building up in
spring. No one who will take the pains to note the increase of brood
will long remain in doubt on this point.

Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is desirable to
have the bees very quiet.

Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great advantage.
In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is frequently desirable
to find the queen. In full colonies I would rather find three Italian
queens than one black one. Where time is money, this becomes a matter
of much importance.

Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb while being
handled, which some might regard a doubtful compliment, though I
consider it a desirable quality.

Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other bees. They
will find honey when the blacks gather none, and the time for robbing
is when there is no gathering. This may explain the above peculiarity.

Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference,
did it stand alone, the Italian bees are _far more amiable_. Years ago
I got rid of my black bees, because they were so cross. Two years ago I
got two or three colonies, that my students might see the difference,
but to my regret; for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they
seemed perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour,
and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous Italians
were safely handled, even without smoke. The experiment at least
satisfied a large class of students as to superiority. Mr. Quinby
speaks in his book of their being cross, and Captain Hetherington tells
me, that if not much handled, they are more cross than the blacks.
From my own experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even
more cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as
desirable as the pure Italians.

I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have studied them
most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the above eleven points of
excellence is too strongly stated.

The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than Italians, but
if we use the sectional frames, and on other grounds we can afford to
use no other, we shall find, with the more ample connection between the
brood-chamber and sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many
others have shown, the Italians still give the best returns.

I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more hardy, and have
found many apiarists who agree with me. Yet, others of wide experience,
think that there is no difference, while still others think the
Italians more hardy.

The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, as they
are more active, is quite probable. As I have never had a case of
serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from experience. If the
bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, which is very detrimental to
either black or Italian bees, this point will have no weight, even if
well taken.


ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS.

The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered thus fully,
are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion of all other bees
from the apiary. Truly, no one need to be urged to a course, that adds
to the ease, profit, and agreeableness of his vocation.


HOW TO ITALIANIZE.

From what has been already explained regarding the natural history of
bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change our bees, is
to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize a colony, we have only to
procure and introduce an Italian queen.


HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN.

In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony composed
wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to introduce a queen in the
manner explained in the section on artificial swarming. To introduce a
queen to a colony composed of old bees more care is required. First,
we should seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our
Italian queen in a wire cage, which may be made by winding a strip of
wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen
to twenty meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way
one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on each side,
and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube the size of the
finger. We now have only to put the queen in the tube, and pinch the
ends together, and the queen is caged. The cage containing the queen
should be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey, each of
which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If
we fear the queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes
of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and insert it
in the upper end of the cage before we compress this end. This will
furnish the queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again
open the hive, after a thorough smoking, also the cage, which is easily
done by pressing the upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the
pressure when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. Now
keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the queen emerges,
the bees attack her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another
forty-eight hours. I usually let some honey drip on the queen as soon
as the cage is opened. Some think this renders the bees more amiable. I
have introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely been
unsuccessful.

Mr. Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when he goes to
liberate the queen replaces the wooden stop with one of comb, and
leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eating out the comb. I have
tried this, but with no better success than I have had with the above
method, while with this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do
not receive her kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one
end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage
reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is thus held
by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have never tried this
plan. When bees are not storing, especially if robbers are abundant,
it is more difficult to succeed, and at such time the utmost caution
will occasionally fail of success if the bees are old.

A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always be safely
given at once to the colony, after destroying the old queen.

A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt this course we
must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells that may be formed;
and if the one we supply is destroyed, wait seven days, then destroy
all their queen-cells, and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save
time I should always introduce a queen.

If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very great value,
we might make a new colony, all of young bees, as already described.
Smoke them well, sprinkle with sweetened water, daub the queen with
honey, and introduce immediately. This method would involve really no
risk. If the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still
more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees were rapidly
escaping from the cells; there would soon be enough young bees to
cluster about the queen, and soon enough bees for a good colony. This
plan would not be advisable except in warm weather, and care is also
required to protect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar
for a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring.

By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may commence the
next spring, and, as described in the section explaining the formation
of artificial swarms, we may control our rearing of drones, queens, and
all, and ere another autumn have only the beautiful, pure, amiable,
and active Italians. I have done this several times, and with the most
perfect satisfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add
certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no
other way to make money so easily and pleasantly.


TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN.

Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth at least five
dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell cheap queens. These are
reared--must be reared--without care, and will, I fear, prove very
cheap. It is a question, if any more sure way could be devised to
injure our stocks than the dollar queen business, which is now so
popular. It is quite probable that much of the superiority of Italian
bees is owing to the care and careful selection in breeding. Such
careful selection in-breeding, either with black or Italian bees, is
what will augment the value of our apiaries.

The tendency of the dollar queen business is to disseminate the
inferior queens, many of which will appear in every apiary. These
should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an apiarist will think even the
poorest queens are worth a dollar. My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a
dollar "Albino" queen last season which was not worth a cent. Yet it
cost only a dollar, and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or
even asked for. I think it behooves apiarists to think of this matter,
and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown away three
dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more and buy cheaper in
future.

I believe our breeders should be encouraged to give us the best; to
study the art of breeding, and never send out an inferior queen. In
this way we may hope to keep up the character of our apiaries, and the
reputation of Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where
"natural selection" retained the best, by the "survival of the fittest."


REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS.

I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. After many
inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if any apiarist can afford
to rear queens, such as apiarists wish to buy, for less than four or
five dollars. Only the best should be sold, and no pains should be
spared by the breeder to secure such queens.


TO SHIP QUEENS.

This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a square block
two inches each way, and one and a half inches deep--a hole bored
into a two-inch plank to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom
serves admirably. In this should be inserted a piece of capped
honey, which has been _entirely_ cleaned by bees. Bees will speedily
perform this work, if the comb containing the honey is placed on the
alighting-board. This must be fastened into the shipping-box, which
is easily done, by pinning it with a slender wooden pin, which passes
through holes previously bored in the box. We now cover the open
chamber with fine wire-cloth, put in our queen and fifteen or twenty
bees, and she is ready to ship. _Any uncapped honey to daub the queen
is almost sure to prove fatal._

Mr. A. I. Root furnishes a cage already provisioned with sugar
(Fig. 57), which is very neat and safe. I have received queens from
Tennessee, which were fed exclusively on candy, and came in excellent
condition.

[Illustration: Fig. 57.]


TO MOVE COLONIES.

Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the only
requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for ventilation,
secure fastening of the frames so they cannot possibly move, and combs
old enough so that they shall not break down and fall out. I would
never advise moving bees in winter, though it has often been done with
entire safety. I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after
such disturbance.




CHAPTER XII.

EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR.


The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the queen has no
room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any neglect to give other
room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-combs is unsalable, because the
combs are dark, and the size undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable,
and should never be taken from the bees, except when desired to render
the honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very efficient
auxiliary in the


HONEY EXTRACTOR.

No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for this machine. It
is equally true, that some have blundered quite as seriously in an
opposite direction. For, since Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame
to the world, the apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any
inventor as to him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka,
of Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey--aye, more,
even if it must be thrown away, which will never be necessary, as it
may always be fed to the bees with profit, even then I would pronounce
the extractor an invaluable aid to every bee-keeper.

The principle which makes this machine effective is that of centrifugal
force, and it was suggested to Major von Hruschka, by noticing that
a piece of comb which was twirled by his boy at the end of a string,
was emptied of its honey. Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially
like those now so common, though in lightness and convenience there has
been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a wooden tub, with
a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved in a socket fastened to
the bottom of the vessel, while from the top of the tub, fastenings
extended to the axle, which projected for a distance above. The axle
was thus held exactly in the centre of the tub. Attached to the axle
was a frame or rack to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against
a wire-cloth. The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the
uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a string,
which had been previously wound about the top of the axle, after the
style of top-spinning. Replace the wooden tub with one of tin, and the
string with gearing, and it will be seen that we have essentially the
neat extractor of to-day. As the machine is of foreign invention, it
is not covered by a patent, and may be made by any one without let or
hindrance. A good machine may be bought for eight dollars.

[Illustration: Fig. 58.]


WHAT STYLE TO BUY.

The machine should be as light as is consistent with strength. It is
best that the can be stationary, and that only a light frame be made to
revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine should run with
gearing, not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion,
so that we need not throw even drone larvæ from the brood-cells. The
arrangement for exit of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect
shut-off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I should
also prefer that the can hold considerable honey--thirty or forty
pounds--before it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it.

In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as most
desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the rack might hold four
frames. Mr. O. J. Hetherington has found that winding the rack with
fine wire, serves better than wire-cloth to resist the combs, while
permitting the honey to pass. The rack should set so low in the can
that no honey would ever be thrown over the top to daub the person
using the machine. I think that a wire basket, with a tin bottom, and
made to hook on to the comb-rack (Fig. 58, _a, a_) which will hold
pieces of comb not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor.
Such baskets are appended to the admirable extractor (Fig. 58) made by
Mr. B. O. Everett, of Toledo, Ohio, which, though essentially like the
extractor of Mr. A. I. Root, has substantial improvements, and is the
cheapest, and I think the best extractor, that I have used or seen.

[Illustration: Fig. 59.]

I have tried machines where the sides of the rack (Fig. 59) inclined
down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of comb, but found them
unsatisfactory. The combs would not be sustained. Yet, if the frames
were long and narrow, so that the end of the frame would have to rest
on the bottom of the rack, instead of hanging as it does in the hive,
such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the frame from
falling in, before we commence to turn the machine.

The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred to wood,
as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be either of tin or
galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover to protect the honey from
dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The cloth cover, gathered
around the edge by a rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent
for this purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is
necessary to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To
do this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington honey
knife (Fig. 60). After a thorough trial of this knife, here at the
College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any other that we have
used, though we have several of the principal knives made in the United
States. It is, perhaps, sometimes desirable to have a curved point
(Fig. 61), though this is not at all essential.

[Illustration: Fig. 60.]

[Illustration: Fig. 61.]


USE OF THE EXTRACTOR.

Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it is
nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or extrudes
her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no empty cells. The
honey yield is so great that the workers occupy every available space,
and sometimes even they become unwilling idlers, simply because of
necessity. Seldom a year has passed but that I have noticed some of my
most prolific queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the
proper arrangement and best management of frames for surplus would make
such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the brood-chamber in two-story
hives, with common frames above--the very best arrangement to promote
storing above the brood-chamber--so crowded as to force the queen
either to idleness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact,
as also the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon
extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon this point,
notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide experience and great
intelligence, think me wrong.

The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey-extracted
honey--in poor seasons, when he could get very little, if any, in
sections or boxes.

By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist can secure
nearly if not quite double the amount of honey, that he could get in
combs.

The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the fall, which,
if left in the hive, may cause disease and death.

By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from our surplus
brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable article, and have the
empty combs, which are invaluable for use the next spring. We now have
in our apiary one hundred and fifty such empty combs.

If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket attachment,
at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped sections can be
emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of drone-comb cut from the
brood-chamber, which are so admirable for starters in the sections, can
be emptied of their honey at any season.

By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the price we ask
for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not superior, to the best
comb-honey, and which, were it not for appearance alone, would soon
drive the latter from the market.


WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR.

If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve cents, the
extractor may be used profitably the summer through; otherwise use it
sufficiently often that there may always be empty worker-cells in the
brood-chamber.

It is often required with us during the three great honey harvests--the
white clover, basswood, and that of fall flowers. I have always
extracted the honey so frequently as to avoid much uncapping. If the
honey was thin, I would keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild
heat, that it might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet,
so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that I urge
all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the cells. The
labor of uncapping, with the excellent honey knives now at our command,
is so light, that we can afford to run no risk that the honey produced
at our apiaries shall sour and become worthless.

If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state with no
injury, by healing, though the temperature should never rise above 200°
F. This can best be done by placing the vessel containing the honey
in another containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a
stove, a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel
from touching the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated,
the best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be prevented
by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly above 80° F. If
canned honey is set on top a furnace in which a fire is kept burning,
it will remain liquid indefinitely.

To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or other
impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or wire sieve--I
purposely refrain from the use of the word strainer, as we should
neither use the word strained, nor allow it to be used, in connection
with extracted honey--or else draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet
or molasses gate near the lower end, and after all particles of solid
matter have risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom.
In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the
first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner, and will
of course pass more readily through common toweling or fine wire-cloth.

Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of empty cells.
Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the honey from all the
brood-combs not needed for winter. The honey, too, should be thrown
from pieces of drone-comb which are cut from the brood-frames, and from
the uncapped comb in sections at the close of the season.


HOW TO EXTRACT.

The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of sufficient size
to hold all the frames from a single hive. These should have convenient
handles, and a close-fitting cover, which will slide easily either
way. These will be more easily used if they rest on legs, which will
raise their tops say three feet from the ground. Now, go to two or
three colonies, take enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony.
The bees may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather. If the
bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb is placed
inside. Extract the honey from these, using care not to turn so hard
as to throw out the brood. If necessary, with a thin knife pare off
the caps, and after throwing the honey from one side, turn the comb
around, and extract it from the other. If combs are of very different
weights, it will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly
equal weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now
take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced by
them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of combs, and thus
proceed till the honey has all been extracted. At the close, the one or
two colonies from which the first combs were taken shall receive pay
from the last set extracted, and thus, with much saving of time, little
disturbance of bees, and the least invitation to robbing, in case there
is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary.


TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY.

Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run into them
from the extractor. The honey should be thick, and the vessels may be
sealed or corked, and boxed at once.

If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most conveniently
kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and ought to be waxed
before using them, to make assurance doubly sure against any leakage.
To wax the barrels, we may use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper,
and just as efficient. Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine or
wax should be turned into the barrel, the bung driven in tight, the
barrel twirled in every position, after which the bung is loosened by
a blow with the hammer, and the residue of the wax turned out. Economy
requires that the barrels be warm when waxed, so that only a thin coat
will be appropriated.

Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after being filled,
are cheap, and may be the most desirable receptacles for extracted
honey.

Extracted honey should always be kept in dry apartments.




CHAPTER XIII.

HANDLING BEES.


But some one asks the question, shall we not receive those merciless
stings, or be introduced to what "Josh" calls the "business end of the
bee?" Perhaps there is no more causeless, or more common dread, in
existence, than this of bees' stings. When bees are gathering, they
will never sting unless provoked. When at the hives--especially if
Italians--they will rarely make an attack. The common belief, too, that
some persons are more liable to attack than others, is, I think, put
too strong. With the best opportunity to judge, with our hundreds of
students, I think I may safely say that one is almost always as liable
to attack as another, except that he is more quiet, or does not greet
the usually amiable passer-by, with those terrific thrusts, which would
vanquish even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person _may_ have
a peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites their
darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped, yet, though I take my
large classes each season, at frequent intervals, to see and handle
the bees, each for himself, I still await the first proof of the fact,
that one person is more liable to be stung than another, providing each
carries himself with that composed and dignified bearing, that is so
pleasing to the bees. True, some people, filled with dread, and the
belief that bees regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready
for the battle, that they commence the strife with nervous head-shakes
and beating of the air, and thus force the bees to battle, _nolens
volens_. I believe that only such are regarded with special aversion by
the bees. Hence, I believe that no one need be stung.

Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick motions. Those with
nervous temperaments--and I plead very guilty on this point--need not
give up, but at first better protect their faces, and perhaps even
their hands, till time and experience show them that fear is vain; then
they will divest themselves of all such useless encumbrances. Bees
are more cross when they are gathering no honey, and at such times,
black bees and hybrids, especially, are so irritable that even the
experienced apiarist will wish a veil.


THE BEST BEE-VEIL.

This should be made of black tarlatan, sewed up like a bag, a half
yard long, without top or bottom, and with a diameter of the rim of a
common straw-hat. Gather the top with braid, so that it will just slip
over the crown of the hat--else, sew it to the edge of the rim of some
cheap, cool hat, in fact, I prefer this style--and gather the bottom
with rubber cord or rubber tape, so that it may be drawn over the hat
rim, and then over the head, as we adjust the hat.

[Illustration: Fig. 62.]

Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom (Fig. 62),
and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by the coat or dress. If
the black tarlatan troubles by coloring the shirt or collar, the lower
part may be made of white netting. When in use, the rubber cord draws
the lower part close about the neck, or the lower part tucks within the
coat or vest (Fig. 62), and we are safe. This kind of a veil is cool,
does not impede vision at all, and can be made by any woman at a cost
of less than twenty cents. Common buckskin or sheep-skin gloves can be
used, as it will scarcely pay to get special gloves for the purpose,
for the most timid person--I speak from experience--will soon consider
gloves an unnecessary nuisance.

Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand apiarian
supplies.

Some apiarists think that dark clothing is specially obnoxious to bees.

For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress which, by use
of the rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be instantly raised or
lowered. This will be convenient in the apiary, and tidy anywhere. The
Gabrielle style is preferred, and of a length just to reach the floor.
It should be belted at the waist, and cut down from the neck in front,
one-third the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the
veil. The under-waist should fasten close about the neck. The sleeves
should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, and gathered in
with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will hug the rubber gauntlets
or arm, and prevent bees from crawling up the sleeves. The pantalets
should be straight and full, and should also have the rubber cord in
the hem to draw them close about the top of the shoes.

Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet "head-cap," which she
believes the men even would find a great comfort. This is a simple,
close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses of coarse toweling. The head
is wet with cold water, and the cap wet in the same, wrung out, and
placed on the head.

Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so trimmed that
the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet her brother or sister
apiarists. In such a dress there is no danger of stings, and with it
there is that show of neatness and taste, without which no pursuit
could attract the attention, or at least the patronage, of our refined
women.


TO QUIET BEES.

In harvest seasons, the bees, especially if Italians, can almost always
be handled without their showing resentment. But at other times, and
whenever they object to necessary familiarity, we have only to cause
them to fill with honey to render them harmless, unless we pinch them.
This can be done by closing the hive so that the bees cannot get out,
and then rapping on the hive for four or five minutes. Those within
will fill with honey, those without will be tamed by surprise, and
all will be quiet. Sprinkling the bees with sweetened water will also
tend to render them amiable, and will make them more ready to unite,
to receive a queen, and less apt to sting. Still another method, more
convenient, is to smoke the bees. A little smoke blown among the bees
will scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I have known black bees
in autumn, to be very slow to yield. Dry cotton cloth, closely wound
and sewed or tied, or better, pieces of dry, rotten wood, are excellent
for the purpose of smoking. These are easily handled, and will burn for
a long time. But best of all is a


BELLOWS-SMOKER.

This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth or rotten wood can be
burned in the tube, and will remain burning a long time. The smoke can
be directed at pleasure, the bellows easily worked, and the smoker used
without any disagreeable effects or danger from fire. It can be got
from any dealer in bee apparatus, and only costs from $1.25 to $2.00. I
most heartily recommend it to all.

There are two smokers in use, which I have found very valuable, and
both of which are worthy of recommendation.


THE QUINBY SMOKER.

This smoker (Fig. 63, _a_) was a gift to bee-keepers by the late Mr.
Quinby, and not patented; though I supposed it was, and so stated
in a former edition of this work. Though a similar device had been
previously used in Europe, without doubt Mr. Quinby was not aware
of the fact, and as he was the person to bring it to the notice of
bee-keepers, and to make it so perfect as to challenge the attention
and win the favor of apiarists _instanter_, he is certainly worthy of
great praise, and deserving of hearty gratitude. This smoker, until a
better one appeared, was a very valuable and desirable instrument. Its
faults were, lack of strength, too small a fire-tube, too little draft
when not in use, so that the fire would go out, and too great liability
to fall over on the side, when the fire was sure to be extinguished.
Many of these defects, however, have been corrected, and other
improvements made in a new smoker, called the Improved Quinby (Fig. 63,
_b_).

[Illustration: Fig. 63.]


THE BINGHAM SMOKER.

This smoker (Fig. 64) not only meets all the requirements, which are
wanting in the old Quinby smoker, but shows by its whole construction,
that it has not only as a whole, but in every part, been subject to the
severest test, and the closest, thought and study.

[Illustration: Fig. 64.]

At first sight this seems an improved copy of Mr. Quinby's smoker, and
so I first thought, though I only saw it in Mr. Bingham's hand at a
Convention. I have since used it, examined it in every part, and have
to say that it is not a Quinby smoker. The bellows, the valve, the
cut-off, and even the form, are all peculiar. The special point to be
commended, and, I suppose, the only one patentable, is the cut-off
between the bellows and fire-tube, so that the fire seldom goes out,
while even hard-wood, as suggested by the inventor, forms an excellent
and ever-ready fuel. The valve for the entrance of air to the bellows,
permits rapid work, the spring is of the best clock-spring material,
the leather perfect, not split sheep-skin, while the whole construction
of the bellows, and the plan of the fire-screen and cut-off draft, show
much thought and ingenuity. I am thus full in this description, that I
may not only benefit my readers, all of whom will want a smoker, but
also out of gratitude to Mr. Bingham, who has conferred such a favor
on American apiarists. There are three sizes, which may be bought for
$1.00, $1.50 and $1.75, respectively, including postage.

Mr. Bingham, to protect himself, and preserve the quality of his
invention, has procured a patent. This, provided he has only patented
his own invention, is certainly his right, which I think honesty
requires us all to respect. Like Mr. Langstroth, he has given us a
valuable instrument; let us see that he is not defrauded out of the
justly earned reward for his invention.

Brother apiarists, let us cease this unjust clamor against patents
and patentees. If a man procures a patent on a worthless thing, let
him alone, and where is the damage? If a man procures a patent on a
valuable and desirable invention, then buy it, or pay for the right to
make it, and thus keep the Eighth and Tenth Commandments (Exodus, 20th
chap., 8th and 10th verses). Let us never buy an article unless we know
it is valuable and desirable for us, no matter how stoutly importuned;
but for honesty's sake, and that we may encourage more inventions, let
us respect a man's patent as we would any other property. If we are
in doubt as to the correctness of some person's claim, let us not be
forced to pay a bonus, but first write to some candid editor or other
authority, and if we find a man has a right to the article, then pay
as we would any other debt. I should be very suspicious of any man's
honesty who was not willing to respect such rights.


TO SMOKE BEES.

Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance, then open
from above, and blow in smoke as required. If at any time the bees seem
irritable, a few puffs from the smoker will subdue them. Thus, any
person may handle his bees with perfect freedom and safety. If at any
time the fire-chamber and escape-pipe become filled with soot, they can
easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hard-wood stick inside of
them.


TO CURE STINGS.

In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a moment,
as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger the bees and induce
further stinging. The sting should be withdrawn, and if the pain is
such as to prove troublesome, apply a little ammonia. The venom is an
acid, and is neutralized by the alkali. Pressing over the sting with
the barrel of a watch-key is also said to be of some use in staying the
progress of the poison in the circulation of the blood. In case horses
are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they should be taken as speedily
as possible into a barn (a man, too, may escape angry bees by entering
a building), where the bees will seldom follow, then wash the horses in
soda water, and cover with blankets wet in cold water.


THE SWEAT THEORY.

It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are obnoxious to the
bees, and hence, almost sure targets for their barbed arrows. In warm
weather I perspire most profusely, yet am scarcely ever stung, since
I have learned to control my nerves. I once kept my bees in the front
yard--they looked beautiful on the green lawn--within two rods of a
main thoroughfare, and not infrequently let my horse, covered with
sweat upon my return from a drive, crop the grass, while cooling off,
right in the same yard. Of course, there was some danger, but I never
knew my horse to get stung. Why, then, the theory? May not the more
frequent stings be consequent upon the warm, nervous condition of the
individual? The man is more ready to strike and jerk, the horse to
stamp and switch. The switching of the horse's tail, like the whisker
trap of a full beard, will anger even a good-natured bee. I should
dread the motions more than the sweat, though it may be true that there
is a peculiarity in the odor from either the sensible or insensible
perspiration of some persons, that angers the bees and provokes the use
of their terrible weapons.




CHAPTER XIV.

COMB FOUNDATION.


Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in frames,
comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to insure the proper
position of the full combs, in fact, combs of almost any kind or shape,
are of great importance. So every skillful apiarist is very careful
to save all drone-comb that is cut out of the brood-chamber--where it
is worse than useless, as it brings with it myriads of those useless
gormands, the drones--to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract
the honey, and to transfer it to the sections. He is equally careful
to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of proper size
to domicile full-sized larvæ, and never to sell any comb, or even
comb-honey, unless a much greater price makes it desirable.

No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German thought and
Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving the bees at least a start
in this important, yet expensive work of comb-building, and hence the
origin of another great aid to the apiarist--comb foundation (Fig. 65).

[Illustration: Fig. 65.]


HISTORY.

For more than twenty years the Germans have used impressed sheets of
wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first made by Herr Mehring, in
1857. These sheets are four or five times as thick as the partition at
the centre of natural comb, which is very thin, only 1-180 of an inch
thick. This is pressed between metal plates so accurately formed that
the wax receives rhomboidal impressions which are a _fac simile_ of the
basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of natural comb. The
thickness of this sheet is no objection, as it is found that the bees
almost always thin it down to the natural thickness, and probably use
the shavings to form the walls.


AMERICAN FOUNDATION.

Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as the article
was already in use in Germany, the patent was, as we understand, of no
legal value, and certainly, as it did nothing to bring this desirable
article into use, it had no virtual value. Mr. Wagner was also the
first to suggest the idea of rollers. In Langstroth's work, edition
of 1859, p. 373, occurs the following, in reference to printing or
stamping combs: "Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a
simple instrument somewhat like a wheel cake cutter. When a large
number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed which
would stamp them with great rapidity." In 1866, the King Brothers, of
New York, in accordance with the above suggestion, invented the first
machine with rollers, the _product_ of which they tried but failed to
get patented. These stamped rollers were less than two inches long.
This machine was useless, and failed to bring foundation into general
use.

In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the machine which
brought the foundation into general use. His machine had lengthened
rollers--they being six inches long--and shallow grooves between the
pyramidal projections, so that there was a very shallow cell raised
from the basal impression as left by the German plates. This was the
machine on which was made the beautiful and practical foundation sent
out by "John Long," in 1874 and 1875, and which proved to the American
apiarists that foundation machines, and foundation, too, were to be a
success. I used some of this early foundation, and have been no more
successful with that made by the machines of to-day. To Frederick
Weiss, then, are Americans and the world indebted for this invaluable
aid to the apiarist. Yet, the poor old man has, I fear, received very
meager profits from this great invention, while some writers ignore
his services entirely, not granting him the poor meed of the honor.
Since that time many machines have been made, without even a thank you,
as I believe, to this old man, Weiss. Does not this show that patents,
or something--a higher morality, if you please--is necessary, that
men may secure justice? True, faulty foundation, and faulty machines
were already in use, but it was the inventive skill of Mr. Weiss that
made foundation cheap and excellent, and thus popularized it with the
American apiarists.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.]

These Weiss machines turn out the comb-foundation not only of
exquisite mold, but with such rapidity that it can be made cheap
and practicable. Heretofore these machines have been sold at an
enormous profit. Last November, 1877, I expostulated with one of the
manufacturers of American machines, because of the high price, saying,
as I looked at one of the machines: These ought to be sold for thirty
or forty dollars, instead of one hundred dollars. He replied that such
machines--with rollers, not plates--that gave the foundation the exact
figure of natural comb, were only made, he thought, by the person who
made his machines, and thus convinced me that said person should be
rewarded, _amply rewarded_, for his invention. But as I have since
learned that this is only the Weiss machine, and does no more perfect
work, I now think Mr. Weiss should receive the super-extra profits.
Even with machines at one hundred dollars, foundation was profitable,
as I with many others have found. But with the present price--forty
dollars, which I think, judging from the simplicity of the machine,
advertised at that price (Fig. 66), must be reduced still lower--we can
hardly conceive what an immense business this is soon to become.


HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE.

The process of making the foundation is very simple. Thin sheets of
wax, as thin as is consistent with strength, are simply passed between
the rollers, which are so made as to stamp worker or drone foundation,
as may be desired. The rollers are well covered with starch-water to
secure against adhesion. Two men can roll out about four hundred pounds
per day.

[Illustration: Fig. 67.]


TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS.

To make the thin sheets of wax, Mr. A. I. Root takes sheets or plates
of galvanized iron with a wooden handle. These are cooled by dipping in
ice-water, and then are dipped two, or three times if the wax is very
hot, in the melted wax, which is maintained at the proper temperature
by keeping it in a double-walled vessel, with hot water in the outer
chamber. Such a boiler, too, prevents burning of the wax, which would
ruin it, while it is being melted. After dipping the plates in the wax,
they are again dipped, when dripping has ceased, into the cold water,
after which the sheets of wax are cleaved off, the plates brushed,
wiped, cooled, and dipped again. The boiler used in melting the wax
has the gate with a fine wire sieve attached near the top, so that
the wax as it is drawn off into the second boiler, will be thoroughly
cleansed. Mr. Root states that two men and a boy will thus make four
hundred pounds of wax sheets in a day.

Others use wooden plates on which to mold the sheets, while the
Hetherington brothers prefer, and are very successful with a wooden
cylinder, which is made to revolve in the melted wax, and is so hinged,
that it can be speedily raised above or lowered into the liquid.

For cutting foundation, nothing is so admirable as the Carlin cutter
(Fig. 67, _a_), which is like the wheel glass-cutters sold in the
shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the place of the one of
hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has suggested a grooved board (Fig. 67,
_b_) to go with the above, the distance between the grooves being equal
to the desired width of the strips of comb foundation to be cut.


USE OF FOUNDATION.

I have used foundation, as have many other more extensive apiarists,
with perfect success in the section-boxes. The bees have so thinned it
that even epicures could not tell comb-honey with such foundation, from
that wholly made by the bees. Yet, I forbear recommending it for such
use. When such men as Hetherington, Moore, Ellwood, and L. C. Root,
protest against a course, it is well to pause before we adopt it; so,
while I have used foundation, I think with some small advantage in
sections and boxes for three years, I shall still pronounce against it.

It will not be well to have the word artificial hitched on to our
comb-honey. I think it exceedingly wise to maintain inviolate in the
public mind the idea that comb-honey is _par excellence_, a natural
product. And as Captain Hetherington aptly suggests, this argument is
all the more weighty, in view of the filthy condition of much of our
commercial beeswax.

Again, our bees may not always thin the foundation, and we risk our
reputation in selling it in comb-honey, and an unquestioned reputation
is too valuable to be endangered in this way, especially as in these
days of adulteration, we may not know how much paraffine, etc., there
is in our foundation, unless we make it ourselves.

Lastly, there is no great advantage in its use in the sections, as
drone-comb is better, and with caution and care this can be secured
in ample quantities to furnish very generous starters for all our
sections. This will readily adhere, if the edge be dipped into melted
beeswax, and applied to the sections.

If any one should still be disposed to make such use of foundation,
they should only purchase of very reliable parties, that they may
be sure to use only such wax as is genuine, _yellow_, clean, and
_certainly unmixed with paraffine_, or any of the commercial products
which were first used to adulterate the wax. _Only pure, clean,
unbleached wax should be used in making foundation._ We should be _very
careful_ not to put on the market any comb-honey where the foundation
had not been properly thinned by the bees. Perhaps a very fine needle
would enable one to determine this point without injury to the honey.

But the most promising use of foundation, to which there can be no
objection, is in the brood-chamber. It is astonishing to see how
rapidly the bees will extend the cells, and how readily the queen will
stock them with eggs if of the right size, five cells to the inch.
_The foundation should always be the right size either for worker
or drone-comb._ Of course the latter size would never be used in
the brood-chamber. The advantage of foundation is, first, to insure
worker-comb, and thus worker-brood, and second, to furnish wax, so that
the bees may be free to gather honey. We proved in our apiary the past
two seasons, that by use of foundation, and a little care in pruning
out the drone-comb, we could limit or even exclude drones from our
hives, and we have but to examine the capacious and constantly crowded
stomachs of these idlers, to appreciate the advantage of such a course.
Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells and build drone-cells in
their place; but such action, I believe, is not sufficiently extensive
to ever cause anxiety. I am also certain that bees that have to
secrete wax to form comb, do much less gathering. Wax secretion seems
voluntary, and when rapid seems to require quiet and great consumption
of food. If we make two artificial colonies equally strong, supply the
one with combs, and withhold them from the other, we will find that
this last sends much fewer bees to the fields, while all the bees are
more or less engaged in wax secretion. Thus the other colony gains
much more rapidly in honey, first, because more bees are storing;
second, because less food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason
why extracted-honey can be secured in far greater abundance than can
comb-honey.

The foundation if used the full depth of the frame, stretches so that
many cells are so enlarged as to be used for drone-brood. This demands,
if we use the sheets unstrengthened, that they only be used as guides,
not reaching more than one-third of the depth of the frame. Strips not
less than four inches wide will not sag to do any harm. The foundation,
too, should not quite reach the sides of the frame, as by expansion it
is liable to warp and bend. Captain J. E. Hetherington has invented a
cure for this stretching and warping, by strengthening the foundation.
To do this, he runs several fine copper wires into the foundation as it
passes through the machine.

I understand, too, that Mr. M. Metcalf, of this State, has a similar
device now being patented.

This is a valuable suggestion, as it permits full-sized sheets of
foundation to be inserted in the frames. I presume that very soon all
worker-foundation will contain such wires.


TO FASTEN THE FOUNDATION.

In the thin sections, the foundation can best be fastened by use of
the melted wax. To accomplish this, I have used a block made thus: Saw
a fifteen-sixteenths inch board so that it will just exactly fill a
section. Screw this to a second board, which is one-half inch broader
each way, so that the larger under board will project one-quarter of
an inch each side the top board. Now set the section over the top
board, place the foundation, cut a trifle shorter than the inside of
the section, within, close to the top and one side of the section, and
cause it to adhere by running on a little of the melted wax, which, by
use of a kerosene lamp or stove, may be kept melted. If the basin is
double-walled, with water in the outer chamber and wax in the inner, it
is much safer, as then the wax will never burn.

If the tops of the sections are thick, they may be grooved, and by
crowding the foundation into the groove, and, if necessary, pressing it
with a thin wedge, it will be securely held.

[Illustration: Fig. 68.]

This last method will work nicely in case of fastening into the
brood-frames. But I have found that I could fasten them rapidly
and very securely by simply pressing them against the rectangular
projection from the top-bar already described (page 134). In this case
a block (Fig, 68, _a_) should reach up into the frame from the side
which is nearest to the rectangular projection--it will be remembered
that the projection (Fig. 36) is a little to one side of the centre
of the top-bar, so that the foundation shall hang exactly in the
centre--so far that its upper surface would be exactly level with the
upper surface of the rectangular projection. This block, like the one
described above, has shoulders (Fig. 68, _f_), so that it will always
reach just the proper distance into the frame. It is also rabbeted at
the edge where the projection of the top-bar of the frame will rest,
(Fig. 68, _b_), so that the projection has a solid support, and will
not split off with pressure. We now set our frame on this block, lay
on our foundation, cut the size we desire, which, unless strengthened,
will be as long as the frame, and about four inches wide. The
foundation will rest firmly on the projection and block, and touch the
top-bar, at every point. We now take a board as thick as the projection
is deep, and as wide (Fig. 69, _d_) as the frame is long, which may
be trimmed off, so as to have a convenient handle (Fig. 69, _e_),
and by wetting the edge of this (Fig. 69, _d_) either in water, or,
better, starch-water, and pressing with it on the foundation above the
projection, the foundation will be made to adhere firmly to the latter,
when the frame may be raised with the block, taken off, and another
fastened as before. I have practiced this plan for two years, and have
had admirable success. I have very rarely known the foundation to drop,
though it must be remembered that our hives are shaded, and our frames
small.

[Illustration: Fig. 69.]

The above methods are successful, but probably will receive valuable
modifications at the hands of the ingenius apiarists of our land. Study
in this direction will unquestionably pay, as the use of this material
is going to be very extensive, and any improvements will be hailed with
joy by the bee-keeping fraternity.


SAVE THE WAX.

As foundation is becoming so popular, and is destined to come into
general use, it behooves us all to be very careful that no old comb
goes to waste. Soiled drone-comb, old, worthless worker-comb, and all
fragments that cannot be used in the hives, together with cappings,
after the honey is drained out through a coarse bag or colander--which
process may be hastened by a moderate heat, not sufficient to melt the
wax, and frequent stirring--should be melted, cleansed, and molded
into cakes of wax, soon to be again stamped, not by the bees, but by
wondrous art.


METHODS.

A slow and wasteful method is to melt in a vessel of heated water,
and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing to cool, when the
impurities at the bottom are scraped off, and the process repeated till
all impurities are eliminated.

A better method to separate the wax is to put it into a strong, rather
coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil. At intervals the comb in
the bag should be pressed and stirred. The wax will collect on top of
the water.

To prevent the bag from burning, it should be kept from touching the
bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin in the bottom of the latter,
or else by using a double-walled vessel. The process should be repeated
till the wax is perfectly cleansed.

But, as wax is to become so important, and as the above methods are
slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of wax, specialists,
and even amateurs who keep as many as ten or twenty colonies of
bees, may well procure a wax extractor (Fig. 70). This is also a
foreign invention, the first being made by Prof. Gerster, of Berne,
Switzerland. These cost from five to seven dollars, are made of tin,
are very convenient and admirable, and can be procured of any dealer in
apiarian supplies.

[Illustration: Fig. 70.]

By this invention, all the wax, even of the oldest combs, can be
secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is perfectly neat, there
is no danger of provoking the "best woman in the world," as we are in
danger of doing by use of either of the above methods--for what is more
untidy and perplexing than to have wax boil over on the stove, and
perhaps get on to the floor, and be generally scattered about.

All pieces of comb should be put into a close box, and if any larvæ are
in it, the comb should be melted so frequently that it would not smell
badly. By taking pains, both in collecting and melting, the apiarist
will be surprised at the close of the season, as he views his numerous
and beautiful cakes of comb, and rejoice as bethinks how little trouble
it has all cost.




CHAPTER XV.

MARKETING HONEY.


No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that of marketing
honey. There is no question but that the supply is going to continually
increase, hence, to sustain the price we must stimulate the demand, and
by doing this we shall not only supply the people with a food element
which is necessary to health, but we shall also supersede in part the
commercial syrups, which are so adulterated as not only to be crowded
with filth the most revolting, but are often even teeming with poison.
(Report of Michigan Board of Health for 1874, pp. 75-79.) To bring,
then, to our neighbor's table the pure, wholesome, delicious nectar,
right from the hive, is philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not.

Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given special
attention to this topic for the last few years, and am free to say,
that not a tithe of the honey is consumed in our country that might and
should be.


HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKETS.

First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary that is not
in the most inviting form possible. Grade _all the honey thoroughly_,
and expect prices to correspond with the grade. See that every package
and vessel is not only attractive, but so arranged as not to make the
dealer any trouble or cause him any vexation. One leaky can or crate
may do great injury.

Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey constantly on
hand. Do all you can to build up a home market. The advice to sell to
only one or two dealers is wrong and pernicious. Whether we are to buy
or sell, we shall find almost always that it will be most satisfactory
to deal with men whom we know, and who are close at hand. Only when
you outgrow your home market should you ship to distant places. This
course will limit the supply in the large cities, and thus raise the
prices in the great marts, whose prices fix those in the country. Be
sure to keep honey constantly in the markets.

Third. Insist that each grocer makes the honey _very_ conspicuous. If
necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your own name almost as
prominent as is that of the article.

Fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be sure to
be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to the delivery
yourself, that you may know that all is done "decently and in order."

Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the honey show to the
best effect, and thus captivate the purchaser through the sight alone.

Sixth. _Call local conventions_, that all in the community may know and
practice the best methods, so that the markets may not be demoralized
by poor, unsalable honey.

Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely, and vary
greatly, upon the style of honey to be sold, so we will consider these
kinds separately.


EXTRACTED HONEY.

As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, and is in
every way equal, if not superior--comb itself is innutritious, and very
indigestible--to comb-honey. When people once know its excellence--know
that it is not "strained"--let us, as apiarists, strive in every way
to kill that word--then the demand for this article will be vastly
increased, to the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist.

Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word extracted, and ask
him to spread wide the name and character of the honey. Leave cups
of the honey with the editors and men of influence, and get them to
discuss its origin and merits. I speak from experience, when I say that
in these ways the reputation and demand for extracted honey can be
increased to a surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity.


HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER.

First. Have it chiefly in small cups--jelly cups are best. Many
persons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when if it cost
fifty cents they would not think of purchasing.

Second. Only put it in such vessels as jelly cups or glass fruit jars,
etc., that will be useful in every household when the honey is gone,
that the buyer may feel that the vessel is clear gain.

Third. Explain to the grocer that if kept above the temperature of
70° or 80° F., it will not granulate, that granulation is a pledge
of purity and superiority, and show him how easy it is to reduce the
crystals, and ask him to explain this to his customers. If necessary,
liquify some of the granulated honey in his presence.

Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure that the
vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case jelly cups are
used, that they be filled at the grocery. And don't forget the large
label, which gives the kind of honey, grade, and producer's name.


COMB-HONEY.

This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light-colored and
immaculate, will always be a coveted article for the table, and will
ever, with proper care, bring the highest price paid for honey. So it
will always be best to work for this, even though we may not be able to
procure it in such ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has
all kinds, will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most surely
meet with success.


RULES TO BE OBSERVED.

This, too, should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 50), for, as
before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. Sections from
four to six inches square will just fill a plate nicely, and look very
tempting to the proud house-wife, especially if some epicurean friends
are to be entertained.

The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the white clover
season, so that the apiarist may secure the most of this irresistible
nectar, chaste as if capped by the very snow itself. They should be
taken away as soon as capped, as delay makes them highways of travel
for the bees, which always mar their beauty.

When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before this, we
should place them in hives one upon another, or special boxes made
tight, with a close cover, in which to store either brood-frames in
winter or sections at any season, and sulphur them. This is quickly and
easily done by use of the smoker. Get the fire in the smoker well to
burning, add the sulphur, then place this in the top hive, or top of
the special box. The sulphurous fumes will descend and deal out death
to all moth larvæ. _This should always be done_ before shipping the
honey, if we regard our reputations as precious. It is well to do this
immediately upon removal, and also two weeks after, so as to destroy
the moth larvæ not hatched when the sections are removed.

If separators have been used, these sections are in good condition to
be glassed, and are also in nice shape to ship even without glass, as
they may stand side by side and not mar the comb.

[Illustration: Fig. 71.]

The shipping-crate (Fig. 71) should be strong, neat and cheap, with
handles as seen in Fig. 71--such handles are also convenient in
the ends of the hives, and can be cut in an instant by having the
circular-saw set to wabble. With handles the crate is more convenient,
and is more sure to be set on its bottom. The crate should also be
glassed, as the sight of the comb will say: "Handle with care."

Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (Fig. 72), which is neat and
cheap. Muth's crate is like Heddon's, only smaller.

It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus breakage of one
will not mean general ruin. However, this would be unnecessary in case
the sections were of veneer and glassed, as before described.

[Illustration: Fig. 72.]

In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it will pay him
to furnish his own boxes. These should be made of white-wood, very
neat, and glassed in front to show the honey, and the cover so fixed
that unglassed sections--and these, probably, will soon become the most
popular--cannot be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label,
with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain that "he
who runs may read."

Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of autumn, or the
cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, or the comb will break
from the section when handled. By keeping it quite warm for some days
previous to shipment, it may be sent to market even in winter, but must
be handled very carefully, and must make a quick transit.

Above all, _let "taste and neatness" ever be your motto_.




CHAPTER XVI.

HONEY PLANTS.


As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as honey is mainly
derived from certain flowers, it of course follows that the apiarist's
success will depend largely upon the abundance of honey-secreting
plants in the vicinity of his apiary. True it is that certain bark
and plant lice secrete a kind of liquid sweet--honey of doubtful
reputation--which, in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem
glad to appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large
bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys one
of our best honey trees. This is an undescribed species of the genus
_Lecanium_. I have also seen them thick about three species of plant
lice. One, the _Pemphigus imbricator_, Fitch, works on the beech
tree. Its abdomen is thickly covered with long wool, and it makes a
comical show as it wags this up and down upon the least disturbance.
The leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath the
trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I have found that
the bees avoid this substance, except at times of extreme drouth and
long protracted absence of honeyed bloom. It was the source of no
inconsiderable stores during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago's
great disaster. (See Appendix, page 286).

Another species of _Pemphigus_ gives rise to certain solitary plum-like
galls, which appear on the upper surface of the red elm. These galls
are hollow, with a thin skin, and within the hollows are the lice,
which secrete an abundant sweet that often attracts the bees to a feast
of fat things, as the gall is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the
sweet exudes. This sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be
unwholesome to the bees.

Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our willows,
which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly damage another tree
valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it not that they seldom are
so numerous two years in succession, they would certainly banish from
among us one of our most ornamental and valuable honey-producing
trees. These are fairly thronged in September and October, and not
unfrequently in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by bees,
wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap, up the
oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the _Lachnus dentatus_, of Le
Baron, and the _Aphis salicti_, of Harris.

Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew, which enables them
to add to their stores with surprising rapidity. I remember one morning
while riding on horse-back along the Sacramento river, in California, I
broke off a willow twig beside the road when, to my surprise, I found
it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon further examination I
found the willow foliage was abundantly sprinkled by these delicious
drops. These shrubs were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under
trees. Here then was a real case of honey-dew, which must have been
distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw any such
phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A. H. Atkins, an accurate
and conscientious observer, has noted this honey-dew more than once
here in Central Michigan.

Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of questionable repute
from about cider mills, some from grapes and other fruit which have
been crushed, or eaten and torn by wasps and other insects. That bees
ever tear the grapes is a question of which I have failed to receive
any personal proof, though for years I have been carefully seeking
it. I have lived among the vineyards of California, and have often
watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees tear open
the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the apiary, when the bees
were not gathering, and were ravenous for stores, which, when covered
with sipping bees, were replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in
no instance were mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees
ever attack sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities
which the oriole's beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer them.
Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes thus guilty,
and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen bees rend sound
grapes, which they did with their feet. Yet, if this is the case, it
is certainly of rare occurrence, and is more than compensated by the
great aid which the bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of
cross-fertilization, which is imperatively necessary to his success, as
has been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. It is true
that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only be accomplished
by insects, and early in the season by the honey-bee, is often, if
not always, necessary to a full yield of fruit and vegetables. I am
informed by Prof W. W. Tracy, that the gardeners in the vicinity of
Boston keep bees that they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr.
Bidwell and Prof. Riley are right, and the bee does, rarely--for surely
this is very rare, if ever--destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any
possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist.

But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers.


WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS?

In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance for May is
the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In June white clover
yields largely of the most attractive honey, both as to appearance and
flavor. In July the incomparable basswood makes both bees and apiarist
jubilant. In August buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome,
though it be dark and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan,
August and September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no
other in the richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not
cut-off till the autumn frosts--usually about September 15.

Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and other autumn
flowers of our new northern counties, as yet have blushed unseen,
with fragrance wasted. This unoccupied territory, unsurpassed in its
capability for fruit production, covered with grand forests of maple
and basswood, and spread with the richest of autumn bloom, offers
opportunities to the practical apiarist rarely equaled except in
the Pacific States, and not even there, when other privileges are
considered. In these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the
colony is no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred
are not isolated cases.

In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey-plants.
Those in the first column are annual, biennial or perennial; the
annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: (); the biennial enclosed
in brackets thus: []; while those in the second column are shrubs or
trees; the names of shrubs being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of
commencement of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended,
in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average for Central
Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in small capitals yield very
superior honey. Those with (_a_) are useful for other purposes than
honey secretion. All but those with a * are native or very common in
Michigan. Those written in the plural refer to more than one species.
Those followed by a † are very numerous in species. Of course I have
not named all, as that would include some hundreds which have been
observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great orders
Compositæ and Rosaceæ. I have only aimed to give the most important,
omitting many foreign plants of notoriety, as I have had no personal
knowledge of them:

  ========================================
  DATE.          | Annuals or Perennials.
  ========================================
  April          |Dandelion.
  April and May  |Strawberry. (_a_)
  May and June   |*White Sage, California
  May and June   |*Sumac, California.
  May and June   |*Coffee Berry, California
  June to July   |WHITE CLOVER. (_a_)
  June to July   |ALSIKE CLOVER. (_a_)
  June to July   |*[SWEET CLOVER.]
  June to July   |*Horehound. [Weed.]
  June to July   |Ox-eyed Daisy--Bad
  June to July   |Bush Honeysuckle.
  June to August |*Sage.
  June to August |Motherwort.
  June to frost  |*(Borage.)
  June to frost  |*(Cotton.) (_a_)
  June to frost  |Silk or Milk Weeds.
  June to frost  |(Mustard)†
  June to frost  |*(Rape.) (_a_)
  June to frost  |St. John's Wort.
  June to frost  |(MIGNONETTE.) (_a_)
  July           |(Corn.) (_a_)
  July           |*(Teasel.) (_a_)
  July to August |*Catnip. (_a_)
  July to August |Asparagus. (_a_)
  July to August |*(Rocky M't. Bee Plant)
  July to frost  |Boneset.
  July to frost  |Bergamot.
  July to frost  |Figwort.
  August         |(Buckwheat.) (_a_)
  August         |(Snap-dragon.)
  August to frost|(GOLDEN ROD.)†
  August to frost|Asters.†
  August to frost|Marsh Sun-Flowers.
  August to frost|Tick-Seed.
  August to frost|Beggar-Ticks.
  August to frost|Spanish Needles.

  ========================================
  DATE.          | Shrubs or Trees.
  ========================================
  March and Ap'l |Red or Soft Maple.(_a_)
  March and Ap'l |Poplar or Aspen.
  March and Ap'l |Silver Maple.
  March and Ap'l |*Judas Tree.
  May            |(Shad-bush.)
  May            |(Alder.)
  May            |Maples-Sugar Maple (_a_)
  May            |Crab Apple.
  May            |(Hawthorns.)
                 |{ Fruit Trees--Apple,
  May.           |{ Plum, Cherry, Pear,
                 |{ etc. (_a_)
  May            |Currant and Gooseberry. (_a_)
  May            |*(Wistaria Vine-South)
                 |{ (Chinese Wistaria
  May            |{    Vine--South.)
  May and June   |(Barberry.)
  May and June   |(Grape-vine.) (__a)
  May and June   |Tulip-tree.
  May and June   |(Sumac.)
  June           |Wild-Plum.
  June           |(Black Raspberry.) (_a_)
  June           |Locusts.
  June           |(RED RASPBERRY.) (_a_)
  June           |(Blackberry.)
  June to July   |*Sour-wood--South.
  July           |(Button Bush.)
  July           |BASSWOOD. (_a_)
  July           |(Virginia Creeper.) (_a_)
  July to August |*Pepper-tree, Cal'a.
  July to Sept   |*(St. John's Worts.)
  August         |(Late Sumac.)
  August to Sept.|*Red Gum, California.


DESCRIPTION WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS.

As this subject of bee pasturage is of such prime importance, and as
the interest in the subject is so great and wide-spread, I feel that
details with illustrations will be more than warranted.

[Illustration: Fig. 75.--_Maple._]

We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty colonies of
bees, take the seasons as they average, are all that a single place
will sustain to the greatest advantage. Then, how significant the
fact, that when the season is the best, full three times that number
of colonies will find ample resources to keep all employed. So this
subject of artificial pasturage becomes one well worthy close study and
observation. The subject, too, is a very important one in reference to
the location of the apiary.

It is well to remember in this connection, that two or three miles
should be regarded as the limit of profitable gathering. That is,
apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more colonies, should not be
nearer than four or five miles of each other.

[Illustration: Fig. 74.-_Willow._]


APRIL PLANTS.

As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the best results,
even in the early spring, except the bees are encouraged by the
increase of their stores of pollen and honey; hence, in case we do
not practice stimulative feeding--and many will not--it becomes very
desirable to have some early bloom. Happily, in all sections of the
United States our desires are not in vain.

Early in spring there are many scattering wild flowers, as the
blood-root (_Sanguinaria canadensis_), liver-leaf (_Hepatica
acutiloba_), and various others of the crowfoot family, as also many
species of cress, which belong to the mustard family, etc., all of
which are valuable and important.

The maples (Fig. 73), which are all valuable honey plants, also
contribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are the silver
maples (_Acer dasycarpum_), and the red or soft maples (_Acer rubrum_),
as they bloom so very early, long before the leaves appear. The bees
work on these, here in Michigan, the first week of April, and often
in March. They are also magnificent shade trees, especially those
that have the weeping habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing,
their summer form and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints
in autumn are indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore, _Acer
pseudo-platanus_, and Norway, _Acer platanoides_, are also very
beautiful. Whether superior to ours as honey plants, I am unable to say.

The willows, too (Fig. 74), rival the maples in the early period of
bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March, while others, like the
white willow (_Salix alba_) (Fig. 74), bloom in May. The flowers on one
tree or bush of the willow are all pistillate, that is, have pistils,
but no stamens, while on others they are all staminate, having no
pistils. On the former, they can gather only honey, on the latter only
pollen. That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested
by the fact that I saw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and the
staminate, thronged with bees the past season. The willow, too, from
its elegant form and silvery foliage, is one of our finest shade trees.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.--_Judas Tree_]

In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Kentucky, and even
beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud, _Cercis canadensis_ (Fig. 75),
is not only worthy of cultivation as a honey plant, but is also
very attractive, and well deserving of attention for its ornamental
qualities alone. This blooms from March to May, according to the
latitude.

The poplars--not the tulip--also bloom in April, and are freely visited
by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and i& used for toothpicks. Why
not use it for honey-boxes?

[Illustration: Fig. 76.--_American Wistaria._]


MAY PLANTS.

In May we have the grand sugar maple, _Acer saccharinum_ (Fig. 73),
incomparable for beauty, also all our various fruit trees, peach,
cherry, plum, apple, etc., in fact all the Rosaceæ family. Our
beautiful American Wistaria, _Wistaria frutescens_ (Fig. 76), the
very ornamental climber, or the still more lovely Chinese Wistaria,
_Wistaria sinensis_ (Fig. 77), which has longer racemes than the
native, and often blossoms twice in the season. These are the woody
twiners for the apiarist. The barberry, too, _Berberis vulgaris_ (Fig.
78), comes after fruit blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search
of nectar in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the
beautiful scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart.

[Illustration: Fig. 77.--_Chinese Wistaria._]

[Illustration: Fig. 78.--_Barberry._]

In California, the sumac, the coffee berry, and the famous white sage
(Fig. 79), keep the bees full of activity.

[Illustration: Fig. 79.--_White Sage._]

[Illustration: Fig. 80.--_White or Dutch Clover._]


JUNE PLANTS.

With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover, _Trifolium
repens_ (Fig. 80), whose chaste and modest bloom betokens the
beautiful, luscious, and unrivalled sweets which are hidden in its
corolla tube. Also its sister, Alsike or Swedish, _Trifolium hybrida_
(Fig. 81), which seems to resemble both the white and red clover. It is
a stronger grower than the white, and has a whitish blossom tinged with
pink. This forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, sheep, etc.,
and may well be sown by the apiarist. It will often pay apiarists to
furnish neighbor farmers with seed as an inducement to grow this par
excellent honey plant. Like white clover, it blooms all through June
into July. Both of these should be sown early in spring with timothy,
five or six pounds of seed to the acre, in the same manner that red
clover seed is sown.

[Illustration: Fig. 81.--_Alsike Clover._]

[Illustration: Fig. 82.--_Melilot Clover._]

[Illustration: Fig. 83.--_Borage._]

Sweet clover, yellow and white, _Melilotus officinalis_ (Fig. 82), and
_Melilotus alba_, are well named. They bloom from the middle of June to
the middle of July. Their perfume scents the air for long distances,
and the hum of bees that throng their flowers is like music to the
apiarist's ear. The honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are
biennial, not blooming the first season, and dying after they bloom the
second season. Another disagreeable fact, they have no value except for
honey. They are said to become pernicious weeds if allowed to spread.

The other clovers--lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, and
alfalfa--have not proved of any value with us, perhaps owing to
locality.

Borage, _Borago officinalis_ (Fig. 83), an excellent bee plant, blooms
from June till frost, and is visited by bees even in very rainy
weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is eagerly visited when all
others fail to yield nectar.

[Illustration: Fig. 84.--_Mignonette._]

[Illustration: Fig. 85.--_Okra._]

Mignonette, _Reseda odorata_ (Fig. 84), blooms from the middle of June
till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor, furnishes nectar in
profusion, and is well worthy cultivation. It does not secrete well in
wet weather, but in favorable weather it is hardly equalled.

Okra or gumbo, _Hibiscus esculentus_, (Fig. 85), also blooms in June.
It is as much sought after by the bees in quest of honey, as by the
cook in search of a savory vegetable, or one to give tone to soup.

Sage, _Salvia officinalis_, horehound, _Marrubium vulgare_, motherwort,
_Leonurus cardiaca_, and catnip, _Nepeta cataria_, which latter does
not commence to bloom till July, all furnish nice white honey, remain
in bloom a long time, and are very desirable, as they are in bloom in
the honey dearth of July and August. They, like many others of the mint
family (Fig. 86), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom.

[Illustration: Fig. 86.--_Mint._]

The first and last are of commercial importance, and all may well be
introduced by apiarists, wherever there is any space or waste ground.

The silk or milk-weed furnishes abundant nectar from June to frost, as
there are several species of the genus Asclepias, which is wide-spread
in our country. This is the plant which has large pollen masses which
often adhere to the legs of bees (Fig. 87), and sometimes so entrap
them as to cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised
planting them to kill bees. I say graciously, as I have watched these
very closely, and am sure they do little harm, and are rich in nectar.
Seldom a bee gets caught so as to hold it long, and when these awkward
masses are carried away with the bee, they are usually left at the door
of the hive, where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. The
river bank hard by our apiary is lined with these sweet-smelling herbs,
and we would like even more.

[Illustration: Fig. 87.--_Pollen of Milk-weed._]

[Illustration: Fig. 88.--_Black Mustard._]

Black mustard, _Sinapis nigra_ (Fig. 88) white mustard, _Sinapis
alba_, and rape, _Brassica campestris_ (Fig. 89), all look much alike,
and are all admirable bee plants, as they furnish much and beautiful
honey. The first, if self-sown, blooms July 1st, the others June 1st;
the first about eight weeks after sowing, the others about four. The
mustards bloom for four weeks, rape for three. These are all specially
commendable, as they may be made to bloom during the honey dearth of
July and August, and are valuable plants to raise for the seed. Rape
seems to be very attractive to insects, as the flea beetles and the
blister beetles are often quite too much for it, though they do not
usually destroy the plants till after they have blossomed. I have
several times purchased what purported to be Chinese mustard, dwarf and
tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no better authority, tells
me they are only the white and black, and certainly, they are no whit
better as bee plants. These plants, with buckwheat, the mints, borage
and mignonette, are specially interesting, as they cover, or may be
made to cover, the honey dearth from about July 20th to August 20th.

[Illustration: Fig. 89.--_Rape._]

The mustards and rape may be planted in drills about eight inches
apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four quarts will sow an
acre.

[Illustration: Fig. 90.--_Tulip_]

In this month blooms the tulip tree, _Liriodendron tulipifera_
(Fig. 90)--often called poplar in the South--which is not only an
excellent honey producer, but is one of our most stately and admirable
shade-trees. Now, too, bloom the sumacs, though one species blooms in
May, the wild plum, the raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in
color and flavor, and the blackberry. Corn, too, is said by many to
yield largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel, _Dipsacus
fullonum_ (Fig. 91), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but by English
and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful honey. This last,
too, has commercial importance. The blackberry opens its petals in
June, and also the fragrant locust, which, from its rapid growth,
beautiful form and handsome foliage, would rank among our first shade
trees, except that it is so tardy in spreading its canopy of green, and
so liable to ruinous attack by the borers, which last peculiarity it
shares with the incomparable maples. Washing the trunks of the trees in
June and July with soft soap, will in great part remove this trouble.

[Illustration: Fig. 91.--_Teasel._]

[Illustration: Fig. 92.--_Cotton._]

Now, too, our brothers of the South reap a rich harvest from the
great staple, cotton (Fig. 92), which commences to bloom early in
June, and remains in blossom even to October. This belongs to the
same family--Mallow--as the hollyhock, and like it, blooms and fruits
through the season.


JULY PLANTS.

Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or linden, _Tilia
Americana_ (Fig. 93), which, for the profusion and quality of its honey
has no superior. The tree, too, from its great spreading top and fine
foliage, is magnificent for shade. Five of these trees are within two
rods of my study window, and their grateful fragrance, and beautiful
form and shade, have often been the subject of remark by visitors.

[Illustration: Fig. 93.--_Basswood._]

Figwort, _Scrophularia nodosa_ (Fig. 94), often called rattle-weed, as
the seeds will rattle in the pod, and carpenter's square, as it has
a square stalk, is an insignificant looking weed, with inconspicuous
flowers, that afford abundant nectar from the middle of July till
frost. I have received almost as many for identification as I have of
the asters and golden-rods. Prof. Beal remarked to me a year or two
since, that it hardly seemed possible that it could be so valuable.
We cannot always rightly estimate by appearances alone. It is a very
valuable plant to be scattered in waste places.

[Illustration: Fig. 94.--_Figwort._]

That beautiful and valuable honey plant, from Minnesota, Colorado, and
the Rocky Mountains, cleome, or the Rocky Mountain bee-plant, _Cleome
integrifolia_ (Fig. 96), if self-sown, or sown early in spring, blooms
by the middle of July, and lasts for long weeks. Nor can anything be
more gay than these brilliant flowers, alive with bees all through the
long fall. This should be planted in fall or spring, in drills two feet
apart, the plants six inches apart in the drills. The seeds, which grow
in pods, are very numerous, and are said to be valuable for chickens.
Now, too, commence to bloom the numerous eupatoriums, or bonesets, or
thoroughworts (Fig. 97), which fill the marshes of our country, and
the hives as well, with their rich golden nectar--precursors of that
profusion of bloom of this composite order, whose many species are
even now budding in preparation for the sea of flowers which will deck
the marsh-lands of August and September. Wild bergamot, too, _Monarda
fistulosa_, which, like the thistles, is of importance to the apiarist,
blooms in July.

[Illustration: Fig. 95.--_Button Bush._]

[Illustration: Fig. 96.--_Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant._]

The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named button-bush,
_Cephalanthus occidentalis_, (Fig. 95), also shares the attention
of the bees with the linden; while apiarists of the South find the
sour-wood, or sorrel tree, _Oxydendrum arboreum_, a valuable honey
tree. This belongs to the Heath family, which includes the far-famed
heather bloom of England. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry,
blueberry, and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as
furnishing honey, which is very poisonous, even fatal to those who eat,
the mountain laurel, _Kalmia latifolia_. Yet, a near relative of the
South _Andromeda nitida_, is said to furnish beautiful and wholesome
honey in great quantities. The Virginia creeper also blooms in July.
I wish I could say that this beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn,
is a favorite with the honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms
with wild bees when in blossom, yet I never saw a honey-bee visit the
ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. Now, too, the
St. John's wort, _Hypericum_, with its many species, both shrubby and
herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions to the delicious stores of
the honey-bee. The catnip, too, _Nepeta cataria_, and our cultivated
asparagus--which if uncut in spring will bloom in June--so delectable
for the table, and so elegant for trimming table meats and for banquets
in autumn, come now to offer their nectarian gifts.

[Illustration: Fig. 97.--_Boneset._]


AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS.

The cultivated buckwheat, _Fagopyrum esculentum_, (Fig. 98), usually
blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July--three pecks per
acre is the amount to sow--but by sowing the first of June, it may be
made to bloom the middle of July, when there is generally, in most
localities, an absence of nectar-secreting flowers. The honey is
inferior in color and flavor, though some people prefer this to all
other honey. The silver-leaf buckwheat blooms longer, has more numerous
flowers, and thus yields more grain than the common variety.

Now, too, come the numerous golden-rods. The species of this genus,
_Solidago_ (Fig. 99), in the Eastern United States, number nearly
two-score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and are at home on upland,
prairie and morass. They yield abundantly of rich, golden honey, with
flavor that is unsurpassed by any other. Fortunate the apiarist who can
boast of a thicket of Solidagoes in his locality.

[Illustration: Fig. 98.--_Buckwheat._]

[Illustration: Fig. 99.--_Golden-Rod._]

[Illustration: Fig. 100.--_Aster._]

The many plants usually styled sun-flowers, because of their
resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, which deck the
hill-side, meadow and marsh-land, now unfurl their showy involucres,
and open their modest corollas, to invite the myriad insects to sip
the precious nectar which each of the clustered flowers secretes. Our
cultivated sun-flowers, I think, are indifferent honey plants, though
some think them big with beauty, and their seeds are relished by
poultry. But the asters (Fig. 100), so wide-spread, the beggar-ticks,
_Bidens_, and Spanish-needles of our marshes, the tick-seed,
_Coreopsis_, also, of the low, marshy places, with hundreds more of
the great family Compositæ, are replete with precious nectar, and with
favorable seasons make the apiarist who dwells in their midst jubilant,
as he watches the bees, which fairly flood the hives with their rich
and delicious honey. In all of this great family, the flowers are small
and inconspicuous, clustered in compact heads, and when the plants are
showy with bloom, like the sun-flowers, the brilliancy is due to the
involucre, or bracts which serve as a frill to decorate the more modest
flowers.

I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey plants of our country.
Of course there are many omissions. Let all apiarists, by constant
observation, help to fill up the list.


BOOK ON BOTANY.

I am often asked what books are best to make apiarists botanists. I am
glad to answer this question, as the study of botany will not only be
valuable discipline, but will also furnish abundant pleasure, and more,
give important practical information. Gray's Lessons, and Manual of
Botany, in one volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co.,
New York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject.


PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS.

It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds with soft and
silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom. If his soil is rich,
sugar maples and lindens may well serve a similar purpose. The Judas
tree, too, and tulip trees, both North and South, may well be made to
ornament the apiarist's home. For vines, obtain the wistarias.

Sow and encourage the sowing of Alsike clover and silver-leaf buckwheat
in your neighborhood. Be sure that your wife, children and bees, can
often repair to a large bed of the new giant or grandiflora mignonette,
and remember that it, with cleome and borage, blooms till frost.
Study the bee plants of your region, and then study the above table,
and provide for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape
and buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sowing
at the proper time. Don't forget that borage and the mustards seem
comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be sure that all waste places
are stocked with motherwort, catnip, asters, etc. (See Appendix, page
289).

The above dates are only true for the most part in Michigan and
Northern Ohio, and for more Southern latitudes must be varied, which by
comparison of a few, as the fruit trees, becomes no difficult matter.




CHAPTER XVII.

WINTERING BEES.


This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to the apiarist,
as this is the rock on which some of even the most successful have
recently split. Yet I come fearlessly to consider this question,
as from all the multitude of disasters I see no occasion for
discouragement. If the problem of successful wintering has not been
solved already, it surely will be, and that speedily. So important
an interest was never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is
no reason to think that history is now going to be reversed. Even
the worst aspect of the case--in favor of which I think, though in
opposition to such excellent apiarists as Marvin, Heddon, etc., that
there is no proof, and but few suggestions even--that these calamities
are the effects of an epidemic, would be all powerless to dishearten
men trained to reason from effect to cause. Even an epidemic--which
would by no means skip by the largest, finest apiaries, owned and
controlled by the wisest, most careful, and most thoughtful, as has
been the case in the late "winters of our discontent," nor only choose
winters of excessive cold, or following great drouth and absence of
honey secretion in which to work its havoc--would surely yield to man's
invention.


THE CAUSE OF DISASTROUS WINTERING.

Epidemic, then, being set aside as no factor in the solution, to what
shall we ascribe such wide-spread disasters? I fully believe, and
to no branch of this subject have I given more thought, study, and
observation, that all the losses may be traced either to unwholesome
food, failure in late breeding of the previous year, extremes of
temperature, or to protracted cold with excessive dampness. I know from
actual and wide-spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and
1871 was attended in this part of Michigan with unsuitable honey in the
hive. The previous autumn was unprecedentedly dry. Flowers were rare,
and storing was largely from insect secretion, and consequently the
stores were unwholesome. I tasted of honey from many hives only to find
it most nauseating. I fully believe that had the honey been thoroughly
extracted the previous autumn, and the bees fed good honey or sugar, no
loss would have been experienced. At least it is significant that all
who did so, escaped, even where their neighbors all failed. Nor less
so the fact that when I discovered eight of my twelve colonies dead,
and four more just alive, I cleaned the remaining ones all out, and to
one no worse nor better than the others I gave good capped honey stored
early the previous summer, while the others were left with their old
stores, that one lived and gave the best record I have ever known, the
succeeding season, while all the others died.

Again, suppose that after the basswood season in July, there is no
storing of honey, either from want of space, or from lack of bloom. In
this case brood-rearing ceases. Yet if the weather is dry and warm,
as of course it will be in August and September, the bees continue to
wander about, death comes apace, and by autumn the bees are reduced
in numbers, old in days, and illy prepared to brave the winter and
perform the duties of spring. I fully believe that if all the colonies
of our State and country had been kept breeding by proper use of the
extractor, and feeding, even till into October, we should have had a
different record, especially as to spring dwindling, and consequent
death. In the autumn of 1872 I kept my bees breeding till the first of
October. The following winter I had no loss, while my neighbors lost
all of their bees.

Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the bees. If the
temperature of the hive becomes too high the bees become restless, fat
more than they ought, and if confined to their hives are distended with
their fœces, become diseased, besmear their comb and hives, and die. If
when they become thus disturbed, they could have a purifying flight,
all would be well.

Again, if the temperature becomes extremely low, the bees to keep up
the animal heat must take more food; they are uneasy, exhale much
moisture, which may settle and freeze on the outer combs about the
cluster, preventing the bees from getting the needed food, and thus in
this case both dysentery and starvation confront the bees. That able
and far-seeing apiarist the lamented M. Quinby, was one of the first to
discover this fact; and here as elsewhere gave advice that if heeded,
would have saved great loss and sore disappointment.

I have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation, that in
the past severe winters, those bees which under confinement have been
subject to severe extremes, are the ones that have invariably perished.
Had the bees been kept in a uniform temperature ranging from 35° to 45°
F., the record would have been materially changed.

Excessive moisture, too, especially in cases of protracted cold, is
always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, are constantly
giving off moisture, which of course will be accelerated if the bees
become disturbed, and are thus led to consume more food. This moisture
not only acts as explained above, but also induces fungous growths. The
mouldy comb is not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence
another necessity of sufficient warmth to drive this moisture from
the hive and some means to absorb it without opening the hive above
and permitting a current, which will disturb the bees, and cause the
greater consumption of honey.


THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING--GOOD FOOD.

To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty pounds
by weight not guess--I have known three cases when guessing meant
starvation--of good capped honey (coffee A sugar is just as good). If
desired this may be fed as previously explained, which should be done
so early that all will be capped during the warm days of October. Let
us be wary how we trust even crystallized glucose. It might be safe
during a warm winter, when the bees would have frequent flights, yet
prove disastrous in a cold winter. Let us use it cautiously till its
merits are assured. I prefer, too, that some of the comb in the centre
of the hive has empty cells, to give a better chance to cluster, and
that all the combs have a small hole through the centre, that the bees
may pass freely through. This hole may simply be cut with a knife, or
a tin tube the size of one's finger may be driven through the comb,
and left in if desired, in which case the comb should be pushed out
of the tube, and the tube be no longer than the comb is thick. This
perforatory work I always do early in October, when I extract all
uncapped honey, take out all frames after I have given them the 30
lbs., _by weight_, of honey, confine the space with a division-board,
cover with the quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till the
cold of November calls for further care.


SECURE LATE BREEDING.

Keep the bees breeding till the first of October. Except in years of
excessive drouth, this will occur in many parts of Michigan without
extra care. Failure may result from the presence of worthless queens.
Any queens which seem not to be prolific should be superseded whenever
the fact becomes evident. _I regard this as most important._ Few know
how much is lost by tolerating feeble, impotent queens in the apiary,
whose ability can only keep the colonies alive. Never keep such queens
about. Here, then, is another reason for always keeping extra queens
on hand. Even with excellent queens, a failure in the honey yield
may cause breeding to cease. In such cases, we have only to feed as
directed under the head of feeding.


TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE.

We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature. It is
desirable to keep the temperature between 35° and 50° F. through the
entire winter, from November to April. If no cellar or house is at
hand, this maybe accomplished as follows: Some pleasant dry day in late
October or early November, raise the stand and place straw beneath;
then surround the hive with a box a foot outside the hive, with movable
top and open on the east; or else have a long wooden tube, opposite
the entrance, to permit flight. This tube should be six or eight
inches square, to permit easy examination in winter. The same end may
be gained by driving stakes and putting boards around. When we crowd
between the box and the hive either straw, chaff, or shavings. After
placing a good thickness of straw above the hive, lay on the cover
of the box, or cover with boards. This preserves against changes of
temperature during the winter, and also permits the bees to fly if it
becomes necessary from a protracted period of warm winter weather. I
have thus kept all my bees safely during two of the disastrous winters.

As there is at present no plan of wintering, which promises to serve
so well for all our apiarists, in view of its cheapness, ease,
convenience, and universal efficiency, I will describe in detail the
box now in use at the College, which costs only one dollar per hive,
and which is convenient to store away in summer.

[Illustration: Fig. 101.]


BOX FOR PACKING.

The sides of this (Fig. 101, _a, a_), facing east and west are three
and a half feet long, two feet high on the south end, and two and a
half feet on the north. They are in one piece, which is secured by
nailing the boards which form them to cleats, which are one inch from
the ends. The north end (Fig. 101, _b_) is three feet by two and a
half feet, the south (Fig. 101, _b_), three feet by two, and made the
same as are the sides. The slanting top of the sides (Fig. 101, _a,
a_) is made by using for the upper board, the strip formed by sawing
diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches wide and three
feet long. The cover (Fig. 101, _g_), which is removed in the figure,
is large enough to cover the top and project one inch at both ends. It
should be battened, and held in one piece by cleats (Fig. 101, _h_)
four inches wide, nailed on to the ends. These will drop over the ends
of the box, and thus hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow
from driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the rain
to run off easily, and will dry quickly after a storm. By a single
nail at each corner the four sides may be tacked together about the
hives, when they can be packed in with straw (Fig. 101), which should
be carefully done if the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees.
At the centre and bottom of the east side (Fig. 101, _c_), cut out a
square eight inches each way, and between this and the hive place a
bottomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as removed in
figure to show entrance to hive), before putting around the straw and
adding the cover. This box should be put in place before the bleak
cold days of November, and retained in position till the stormy winds
of April are passed by. This permits the bees to fly when very warm
weather comes in winter or spring, and requires no attention from the
apiarist. By placing two or three hives close together in autumn--_yet
never move the colonies more than three or four feet_ at any one time,
as such removals involve the loss of many bees--one box may be made to
cover all, and at less expense. Late in April these may be removed and
packed away, and the straw carried away, or removed a short distance
and burned.


CHAFF HIVES.

Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, and others, prefer chaff hives, which
are simply double-walled hives, with the four or five inch chambers
filled with chaff. The objection to these I take to be: First, Danger
that so limited a space would not answer in severe seasons; Second,
That such cumbrous hives would be inconvenient to handle in summer;
and, Third, A matter of expense. That they would in part supply the
place of shade, is, perhaps, in their favor, while Mr. A. I. Root
thinks they are not expensive.


WINTERING IN CELLAR OR HOUSE.

With large apiaries the above method is expensive, and specialists
may prefer a cellar or special depository, which I think are quite as
safe, though they demand attention and perhaps labor in winter. After
my experience in the winter of 1874 and 1875, losing all my bees by
keeping them in a house with double walls filled in with sawdust, in
which the thermometer indicated a temperature below zero for several
weeks, in which time my strongest colonies literally starved to death
in the manner already described, I hesitate to recommend a house above
ground for Michigan, though with very numerous colonies it might
do. Such a house must, if it answer the purpose, keep an equable
temperature, at least 3° and not more than 10° above freezing, be
perfectly dark, and ventilated with tubes above and below, so arranged
as to be closed or opened at pleasure, and not admit a ray of light.

A cellar in which we are sure of our ability to control the
temperature, needs to be also dry, dark, and quiet, and ventilated as
described above. As already stated, the ventilator to bring air may
well be made of tile, and pass through the earth for some feet and then
open at the bottom of the cellar. If possible, the ventilator that
carries the foul air off should be connected with a stove pipe in a
room above, with its lower end reaching to the bottom of the cellar.
The College apiary cellar is grouted throughout, which makes it more
dry and neat. Of course it should be thoroughly drained.

The colonies should be put into the depository when the hives are dry,
_before cold weather_, and should remain till April; though in January
and March, if there are days that are warm, they should be taken out
and the bees permitted to fly, though not unless they seem uneasy and
soil the entrance to their hives. _Always_ when taken out they should
be placed on their old stands, so that no bees may be lost. Towards
night, when all are quiet, return them to the cellar. I would not
remove bees till towards night, as it is better that they have a good
flight, and then become quiet. When moved out it is _very_ desirable
to brush away all dead bees which is an argument in favor of a movable
bottom-board. In moving the hives, great care should be exercised not
to jar them. It were better if the bees should not know that they were
being moved at all.

That the moisture may be absorbed, I cover the bees with a quilt, made
of coarse factory cloth, enclosing a layer of cotton batting. Above
this I fill in with straw which is packed in so closely that the cover
may be removed without the straw falling out. If desirable the straw
may be cut--or chaff may be used--and may be confined in a bag made of
factory, so that it resembles a pillow. I now use these and like them.
This is not only an excellent absorbent, but preserves the heat, and
may well remain, till the following June.

I have found it advantageous, when preparing my bees for winter, in
October, to contract the chamber by use of a division board. This is
very desirable if wintered out doors, and with frames a foot square is
very easily accomplished. By use of eight frames the space (one cubic
foot) is very compact, and serves to economize the heat, not only in
winter, but in spring. By thus using a division board with only three
frames, I have been very successful in wintering nuclei. We have only
to guard against low temperature.

Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong in autumn;
but I have said before, never have weak colonies. Yet for fear some
have been negligent. I remark that weak colonies should be united in
preparing for winter. To do this, approximate the colonies each day
four or five feet till they are side by side. Now remove the poorest
queen, then smoke thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened
water scented with essence of peppermint, putting a sufficient number
of the best frames and all the bees into one of the hives, and then set
this midway between the position of the hives at the commencement of
the uniting. The bees will unite peaceably, and make a strong colony.
Uniting colonies may pay at other seasons. It may seem rash to some,
yet I fully believe that if the above suggestions are carried out in
full, I may guarantee successful wintering. But if we do lose our
bees--with all our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in the
spring, with a perfect certainty of making 200 or 300 per cent, on
our investment. Even with the worst condition of things, we are still
ahead, in way of profit, of most other vocations.


BURYING BEES.

Another way to winter safely and very economically, is to bury the
bees. If this is practiced the ground should either be sandy or _well
drained_. If we can choose a side-hill it should be done. Beneath the
hives and around them, straw should be placed. I should advise leaving
the entrance well open, yet secure against mice. _The hives should all
be placed beneath the surface_ level of the earth, then form a mound
above them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or cold. A
trench about the mound to carry the water off quickly is desirable. In
this arrangement the ground acts as a moderator. Five colonies thus
treated the past winter, (1877-8) lost all told less than one-half gill
of bees. As this method has not been so long tried, as the others, I
would suggest caution. Try it with a few colonies, till you are assured
as to the best arrangement, and of its efficacy. I am inclined to think
that it is next to a good snow-bank, as a winter repository.


SPRING DWINDLING.

As already suggested, this is not to be feared if we keep our bees
breeding till late autumn. It may be further prevented by forbidding
late autumn flights, frequent flights in winter, when the weather is
warm, and too early flying in spring. These may all be curtailed or
prevented by the packing system as described above, as thus prepared
the bees will not feel the warmth, and so will remain quiet in the
hive. Nine colonies which I have packed have been remarkably quiet,
and are in excellent condition this, February 25th, while two others
unpacked have flown day after day, much, I fear, to their injury. I
would leave bees in the packing till near May, and in the cellar or
ground, till early flowers bloom, that we may secure against too rapid
demise of bees in spring.




CHAPTER XVIII.

THE HOUSE APIARY.


DESCRIPTION.

This is a double-walled house, which may be rectangular or octagonal in
form. The outer wall should be of brick, and made as thin as possible.
Inside of this there should be wooden strips two-inches thick, which
should receive a layer of paper-sheeting inside, which may be held by
nailing strips two-inches wide immediately inside the first mentioned
strips. These last strips should receive lath, after which all should
be plastered. This may cost more than a purely wooden structure, but
it will be more nearly frost-proof than any other kind of wall, and in
the end will be the cheapest. There will be two dead air-chambers, each
two inches deep, one between the paper and brick, the other between the
paper and the plaster. The entire wall will be at least eight inches
thick. If desired, it may be made less thick by using one-inch strips,
though for our very severe winters the above is none too thick. The
doors and windows should be double and should all shut closely against
rubber. The outer ones should consist of glass, and should be so hung
as to swing out, and in hot weather should be replaced with door, and
window-screens, of coarse, painted, wire gauze. A small window just
above each colony of bees is quite desirable.

Somewhere in the walls there should be a ventilating tube--a brick flue
would be very good--which should open into the room just above the
floor. Above it might open into the attic, which should be well aired.
Ventilators such as are so common on barns might be used.

The pipe for admitting air, should, as in the cellar before described,
pass through the ground and enter the floor from below. A good cellar,
well ventilated and thoroughly dry will be convenient, and should not
be neglected. I would have the building but one story, with joists
in ceiling above eight inches thick. Above these I would sheet with
building paper, fastened by nailing strips two inches deep on top,
above which I would ceil with matched boards. I should lath and plaster
below the joists. The hives, which are to be kept constantly in this
house, may rest on two rows of shelves, one at the floor, the other
three feet high, and should be arranged for both top and side storing
in the small section frames. Indeed, the hive need only consist of
the two rabbeted side-boards (Fig. 30, _c_), and a division-board
with quilt. The entrances of course pass through the wall. An
alighting-board, so hinged as to be let down in summer, but tightly
closed over the entrance during very severe winter weather, I should
think would be very desirable. Between the double windows, which it
will be remembered shut closely against rubber, sacks of chaff may be
placed in winter, if found necessary to keep the proper temperature.
With few colonies this might be very necessary. The adjacent entrances
should vary in color, so that young queens would not go astray, when
they returned from their "Marriage flight."


ARE THEY DESIRABLE?

As yet, I think this question cannot be answered. Some who have tried
them, among whom are Messrs. Russell and Heddon, of this State,
pronounce against them. Perhaps they have faulty houses, perhaps they
have had too brief an experience to judge correctly. Others, among whom
are Messrs. A. I. Root, Burch, and Nellis, have tried them, and are
loud in their favor. I think these first trials are hardly conclusive,
as perfection seldom comes in any system with the first experience.
That the early use of these houses has met with so much favor, seems
to argue that with more experience, and greater perfection, they may
become popular. Yet I would urge people to be slow to adopt these
costly houses, as enough will do so to thoroughly test the matter;
when, if they prove a desideratum, all can build; whereas, if they
prove worthless, we shall not have to regret money squandered, in the
adoption of what was of doubtful value.


THE CASE AS IT NOW STANDS.

The desirable points as they now appear, are: First. The bees are in
condition to winter with no trouble or anxiety. Second. The bees
are handled in the house, and as they fly at once to the windows,
where they can be suffered to escape, they are very easily and safely
handled, even with little or no protection. Third. As we can extract,
manipulate honey boxes, etc., right in the same house, it is desirable
on the score of convenience. Fourth. As the bees are protected from
the sudden rise of the out-door temperature, they will be kept from
frequent flights during the cold, forbidding days of fall, winter and
spring, and will thus be more secure against spring dwindling. Fifth.
As the bees are so independent of out-door heat, because of the thick
walls, with intervening-air-spaces, they are found less inclined to
swarm. Sixth. We can lock our house, and know that thieves cannot steal
our hard-earned property.

The objections to them are: First. The bees leave the hives while being
handled, crawl about the house, from which it is difficult to dislodge
them, especially the young bees. This objection may disappear with
improved houses and practice. Second. In very severe winters, like that
of 1874 and 1875, they may not offer sufficient protection, yet they
would be much safer than chaff hives, as there would be many colonies
all mutually helping each other to maintain the requisite temperature,
and the walls might be even thicker than specified above, without
any serious inconvenience. Third. Some think it pleasanter and more
desirable to handle bees out-doors, where all is unconfined. Fourth.
The cost of the house; yet this is only for once in a life-time, and
saves providing shade, sawdust, packing-boxes, complex hives, etc.

So, we see the question is too complex to be settled except by careful
experiment, and this, too, for a series of years. There are so many now
in use in the various States, that the question must soon be settled. I
predict that these structures will grow more and more into favor.




CHAPTER XIX.

EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST.


There are various dangers that are likely to vex the apiarist, and even
to stand in the way of successful apiculture.--Yet, with knowledge,
most, if not all of these evils may be wholly vanquished. Among these
are: Robbing among the bees, disease, and depredations from other
animals.


ROBBING.

This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inexperienced.
Bees only rob at such times as the general scarcity of nectar forbids
honest gains. When the question comes: Famine or theft, like many
another, they are not slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by
working with the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered
about or left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be feared in
spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both honey and bees, and
thus are unable to protect their own meager stores. The remedies for
this evil are not far to seek:

First. Strong colonies are _very rarely_ molested, and are almost sure
to defend themselves against marauders; hence, it is only the weaklings
of the apiarist's flock that are in danger. Therefore, regard for our
motto, "Keep all colonies strong," will secure against harm from this
cause.

Second. Italians, as before stated, are fully able, and quite as ready,
to protect their rights against neighboring tramps. Woe be to the
thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred rights of the home of
our beautiful Italians. For such temerity is almost sure to cost the
intruder its life.

But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and those too of black bees, are
still easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing of the entrance so
that but a single bee can pass through, is all sufficient. With the
hive we have recommended, this is easily accomplished by simply moving
the hive back.

Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to move them
into the cellar for a few days. This is a further advantage, as less
food is eaten, and the strength of the individual bees is conserved by
the quiet, and as there is no nectar in the fields no loss is suffered.

In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey gathering, we cannot
be too careful to keep all honey from the bees unless placed in the
hives. The hives, too, should not be kept open long at a time. Neat,
quick work should be the watch-word. During times when robbers are
essaying to practice their nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be
more than usually irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; hence the
importance of more than usual caution, if it is desired to introduce a
queen.


DISEASE.

The common dysentery--indicated by the bees soiling their hives, as
they void their feces within instead of without--which has been so
free, of late, to work havoc in our apiaries, is, without doubt, I
think, consequent upon wrong management on the part of the apiarist, as
already suggested in Chapter XVII. As the methods to prevent this have
already been sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible


FOUL BROOD.

This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle--though this is
doubtful, as a stench attends common dysentery--though it has occurred
in our State as well as in States about us, is not familiar to me, I
having never seen but one case, and that on Kelly's Island, in the
summer of 1875, where I found it had reduced the colonies on that
Island to two. No bee malady can compare with this in malignancy. By
it Dzierzon once lost his whole apiary of 500 colonies.--Mr. E. Rood,
first President of the Michigan Association, has lost his bees two or
three times by this same terrible plague.

The symptoms are as follows: Decline in the prosperity of the colony,
because of failure to rear brood. The brood seems to putrefy, becomes
"brown and salvy," and gives off a stench, which is by no means
agreeable, while later, the caps are concave instead of convex, and
have a little hole through them.

There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful plague.
Like the fell "Pebrine," which came so near exterminating the "silk
worm," and a most lucrative and extensive industry in Europe, it, as
conclusively shown by Drs. Preusz and Shönfeld, of Germany, is the
result of fungous or vegetable growth. Shönfeld not only infected
healthy bee larvæ, but those of other insects, both by means of the
putrescent foul brood, and by taking the spores.

Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so infinitesimally
small as often to elude the sharp detection of the expert microscopist.
Most of the terrible, contagious diseases that human flesh is heir to,
like typhus, diphtheria, cholera, small pox, &c., &c., are now thought
to be due to microscopic germs, and hence to be spread from home to
home, and from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary that the spores,
the minute seeds, either by contact or by some sustaining air current,
be brought to new soil of flesh blood or other tissue--their garden
spot--when they at once spring into growth, and thus lick up the very
vitality of their victims. The huge mushroom will grow in a night. So
too, these other plants--the disease germs--will develop with marvelous
rapidity; and hence the horrors of yellow fever, scarlatina, and
cholera.

To cure such diseases, the fungi must be killed. To prevent their
spread, the spores must be destroyed, or else confined. But as these
are so small, so light, and so invisible--easily borne and wafted by
the slightest zephyr of summer, this is often a matter of the utmost
difficulty.

In "Foul Brood" these germs feed on the larvæ of the bees, and thus
convert life and vigor into death and decay. If we can kill this
miniature forest of the hive, and destroy the spores, we shall
extirpate the terrible plague.


REMEDIES.

If we can find a substance that will prove fatal to the fungi,
and yet not injure the bees, the problem is solved. Our German
scientists--those masters in scientific research and discovery, have
found this valuable fungicide in salicylic acid, an extract from the
same willows that give us pollen and nectar. This cheap white powder is
easily soluble in alcohol, and when mixed with borax in water.

Mr. Hilbert, one of the most thoughtful of German bee-keepers, was
the first to effect a radical cure of foul brood in his apiary by
the use of this substance. He dissolved fifty grains of the acid in
five hundred grains of pure spirits. One drop of this in a grain of
distilled water is the mixture he applied. Mr. C. F. Muth, from whom
the above facts as to Herr Hilbert are gathered, suggests a variation
in the mixture.

Mr. Muth suggests an improvement, which takes advantage of the fact
that the acid, which alone is very insoluble in water, is, when
mixed with borax, soluble. His recipe is as follows: One hundred and
twenty-eight grains of salicylic acid, one hundred and twenty-eight
grains of soda borax, and sixteen ounces distilled water. There is no
reason why water without distillation should not do as well.

This remedy is applied as follows: First uncap all the brood, then
throw the fluid over the comb in a fine spray. This will not injure the
bees, but will prove fatal to the fungi.

If the bees are removed to an empty hive, and given no comb for three
or four days, till they have digested all the honey in their stomachs,
and then prevented visiting the affected hive, they are said to be
out of danger. It would seem that the spores are in the honey, and
by taking that, the contagion is administered to the young bees. The
honey may be purified from these noxious germs, by subjecting it to
the boiling temperature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to
the spores of fungoid life. By immersing the combs in a salicylic acid
solution, or sprinkling them with the same, they would be rendered
sterile, and could be used without much fear of spreading contagion.
The disease is probably spread by robber bees visiting affected hives,
and carrying with them in the honey the fatal germs.

I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and water is very
superior, and I much prefer it for either general or special use to
gum Arabic. Yet it soon sours--which means that it is nourishing these
fungoid plants--and thus becomes disagreeable. I have found that a
very little salicylic acid will render it sterile, and thus preserve it
indefinitely.


ENEMIES OF BEES.

Swift was no mean entomologist, as shown in the following stanza:

    "The little fleas that do us tease,
       Have lesser fleas to bite them,
     And these again have lesser fleas,
       And so ad infinitum."

Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave the attacks of
reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they are beset with perils
at home, and perils abroad, perils by night and perils by day.

[Illustration: Fig. 102.]


THE BEE MOTH--_Galleria Cereana_, Fabr.

This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Pyralidæ. This snout
is not the tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr.
Langstroth, who is usually so accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr.
Harris, who stated correctly, that the tongue, the ligula, was "very
short and hardly visible." This family includes the destructive hop
moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its members are very
readily recognized by their unusually long palpi, the so-called snouts.

[Illustration: Fig, 103.]

The eggs of the bee moth are white, globular and very small. These
are usually pushed into crevices by the female moth as she extrudes
them, which she can easily do by aid of her spy-glass-like ovipositor.
They may be laid in the hive, in the crevice underneath it or about
the entrance.--Soon these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking
caterpillars, with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. To
better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap themselves in a
silken tube (Fig. 102) which they have power to spin. They remain in
this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarging it as they eat.
By looking closely, the presence of these larvæ may be known by this
robe of glistening silk, as it extends in branching outlines (Fig. 103)
along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection, even, than the
defaced comb, comes from the particles of comb, intermingled with the
powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will always be seen on
the bottom-board in case the moth-larvæ are at work. Soon, in three or
four weeks, the larvæ are full grown (Fig, 104). Now the six jointed,
and the ten prop-legs--making sixteen in all, the usual number of
caterpillars--are plainly visible.

[Illustration: Fig. 104.]

[Illustration: Fig. 105.]

[Illustration: Fig. 106.]

These larvæ are about an inch long, and show, by their plump
appearance, that they at least, can digest comb. They now spin their
cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very numerous,
singly (Fig. 105, _a_) or in clusters (Fig. 105, _b_) on the comb, or
even in the drone-cells (Fig. 105, _c_) in which they become pupæ, and
in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during the extreme heat of summer,
the moths again appear. In winter, they may remain as pupæ for months.
The moths or millers--sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers--are
of an obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards, that they
are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are about
three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 106) nearly one and
one-fourth inches. The females (Fig. 107) are darker than the males
(Fig. 107), possess a longer snout, and are usually a little larger.
The wings, when the moths are quiet (Fig. 107) are flat on the back for
a narrow space, then slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when
disturbed, will dart forth with great swiftness, so Réaumur styled them
"nimble-footed." They are active by night, when they essay to enter the
hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held
in the hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have been
known to do this even after the head and thorax were severed from the
abdomen, and still more strange, while the latter was being dissected.

[Illustration: Fig. 107.]

It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first moths
occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I have seen these moths
in every month from May to September, and as I have proved by actual
observation that they may pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks,
I think under favorable conditions there may be even three broods a
year. It is true that the varied conditions of temperature--as the moth
larvæ may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or one crowded
with bee life--will have much to do with the rapidity of development.
Circumstances may so retard growth and development that there may not
be more than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood
in a season.

It is stated by Mr Quinby that a freezing temperature will kill these
insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks that a deserted hive
is safe, neither of which assertions are correct. I have seen hives,
whose bees were killed by the severe winter, crowded with moth pupæ or
chrysalids the succeeding summer. I have subjected both larvæ and pupæ
to the freezing temperature without injuring them. I believe, in very
mild winters, the moth and the chrysalids might be so protected as to
escape unharmed, even outside the hive. It is probable too, that the
insects may pass the winter in any one of the various stages.


HISTORY.

These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even Aristotle tells
of their injuries. They are wholly of oriental origin, and are often
referred to by European writers as a terrible pest. Dr. Kirtland, the
able scientist, the first President of our American Bee Convention,
whose decease we have just had to mourn, once said in a letter to Mr.
Langstroth, that the moth was first introduced into America in 1805,
though bees had been introduced long before. They first seemed to be
very destructive. It is quite probable, as has been suggested, that the
bees had to learn to fear and repel them; for, unquestionably, bees do
grow in wisdom.--In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited
knowledge, which once had to be acquired by the animal. Surely bees
and other animals learn to battle new enemies, and vary their habits
with changed conditions, and they also transmit this knowledge and
their acquired habits to their offspring, as illustrated by setter
and pointer dogs. In time, may not this account for all those varied
actions, usually ascribed to instinct? At least, I believe the bee to
be a creature of no small intelligence.


REMEDIES.

In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth. Once
a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even disquiet the
intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call it a blessed evil, as
it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and thus prevent injury to
the markets by their unsalable honey, while to the attentive bee-keeper
it will work no injury at all. Neglect and ignorance are the moth
breeders.

As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by moths, and strong
colonies never. As the enterprising apiarist will only possess these,
it is clear that he is free from danger. The intelligent apiarist will
also provide, not only against weak, but queenless colonies as well,
which from their abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth
invasion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not to court
death, to make no effort to delay it.

In working with bees, an occasional web will be seen glistening
in the comb, which should be picked out with a knife till the
manufacturer--the ruthless larva--is found, when it should be crushed.
Any larva seen about the bottom board, seeking a place to spin its
cocoon, or any pupæ, either on comb or in crack, should also be killed.
If, through carelessness, a colony has become hopelessly victimized
by these filthy, stinking, wax devourers, then the bees and any combs
not attacked should be transferred to another hive, after which the
old hive should be sulphured by use of the smoker, as before described
(page 216), then by giving one or two each of the remaining combs to
strong colonies, after killing any pupæ that may be on them, they will
be cleaned and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony brood, if it
has any vigor remaining, and if necessary a good queen, it will soon be
rejoicing in strength and prosperity.

We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and frames of comb
(page 216), and so need not speak further of them.

BEE KILLER--_Asilus Missouriensis_, Riley.

This is a two-winged fly, of the predacious family Asilidæ, which
attacks, and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon its fluids. It
is confined to the southern part of our country.

The fly (Fig. 108) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong wings, and is
very powerful. I have seen an allied species attack and overcome the
powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I took them both with my net, and now
have them pinned, as they were captured, in our College cabinet. These
flies delight in the warm sunshine, are very quick on the wing, and are
thus not easily captured. It is to be hoped that they will not become
very numerous. If they should, I hardly know how they could be kept
from their evil work. Frightening them, or catching with a net might
be tried, yet these methods would irritate the bees, and need to be
tried before they are recommended. I have received specimens of this
fly from nearly every Southern State. There are very similar flies
North, belonging to the same genus, but as yet we have no account of
their attacking bees, though such a habit might easily be acquired, and
attacks here would not be surprising.

[Illustration: Fig. 108.]

[Illustration: Fig. 109.

_Imago._ _Larva._]


BEE-LOUSE--_Branla Cœca_, Nitsch.

This louse (Fig. 109) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of the uniques
among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite, and serves as
a very good connecting link between insects and spiders, or, still
better, between the Diptera, where it belongs, and the Hemiptera, which
contains the bugs and most of the lice. It assumes the semi-pupa
state almost as soon as hatched, and strangest of all, is, considering
the size of the bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its
nourishment, enormously large. Two or three, and sometimes even more,
(the new Encyclopedia Britannica says 50 or 100), are often found on
a single bee. When we consider their great size we cannot wonder that
they very soon devitalize the bees.

These, as yet, have done little damage, except in the south of
Continental Europe. The fact that they have not become naturalized
in the northern part of the Continent, England or America, would go
to show that there is something inimical to their welfare in our
climate, especially as they are constantly being introduced, coming as
hangers-on to our imported bees. Within a year I have received them
from no less than three sources--twice from New York and once from
Pennsylvania--each time taken from bees just received from Italy. The
only way that I could suggest to rid bees of them would be to make the
entrance to the hive small, so that as the bees enter, they would be
scraped off.


IMPORTANT SUGGESTION.

In view of the serious nature of this pest and the difficulty in the
way of its extinction, I would urge importers, and people receiving
imported queens, to be very careful to see that these lice, which,
from their size, are so easily discovered, are surely removed before
any queen harboring them is introduced. This advice is especially
important, in view of the similarity in climate of our own beautiful
South, to the sunny slopes of France and Italy. Very likely the lice
could not flourish in our Southern States, but there would be great
cause to fear the results of its introduction into our Eldorado, the
genial States of the West. In California, they might be even worse than
the drouth, as they might come as a permanent, not a temporary evil.


BEE HAWK--_Libellula_.

This large, fine lace wing is a neuropterous insect. It works in the
Southern States and is called Mosquito-hawk.--Insects of the same
genus are called dragon flies, devil's, darning-needles, &c. These are
exceedingly predacious. In fact, the whole sub-order is insectivorous.
From its four netted, veined wings, we can tell it at once from
the asilus before mentioned, which has but two wings. The Bee or
Mosquito-hawk is resplendent with metallic green, while the Bee Killer
is of sober gray. The Mosquito Hawk is not inaptly named, as it not
only preys on other insects, swooping down upon them with the dexterity
of a hawk, but its graceful gyrations, as it sports in the warm
sunshine at noonday, are not unlike those of our graceful hawks and
falcons. These insects are found most abundant near water, as they lay
their eggs in water, where the larvæ live and feed upon other animals.
The larvæ are peculiar in breathing by gills in their rectum. The same
water that bathes these organs and furnishes oxygen, is sent out in a
jet, and thus sends the insect darting along. The larvæ also possess
enormous jaws, which formidable weapons are masked till it is desired
to use them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped or unhinged and the
terrible jaws open and close upon the unsuspecting victim, which has
but a brief time to bewail its temerity.

A writer from Georgia, in _Gleanings_, volume 6, page 35, states that
these destroyers are easily scared away, or brought down by boys with
whips, who soon become as expert in capturing the insects, as are the
latter in seizing the bees. The insects are very wild and wary, and I
should suppose this method would be very efficient.

[Illustration: Fig. 110.]


TACHINA FLY.

From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain that there is a
two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina (Fig. 110), that works
on bees. I have never seen these, though I have repeatedly requested
those who have, to send them to me. My friend, Mr. J. L. Davis, put
some sick looking bees into a cage, and hatched the flies which he
told me looked not unlike a small house fly. It is the habit of these
flies, which belong to the same family as our house flies, which they
much resemble, to lay their eggs on other insects. Their young, upon
hatching, burrow into the insect that is being victimized, and grow
by eating it. It would be difficult to cope with this evil, should it
become of great magnitude. We may well hope that this habit of eating
bees is an exceptional one with it.


SPIDERS.

These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees. If
porticos--which are, I think, worse than a useless expense--are
omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for complaints against the
spiders, which on the whole are friends. As the bee-keeper who would
permit spiders to worry his bees would not read books, I will discuss
this subject no further.


ANTS.

These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and seldom, if
ever, I think, do any harm. Should the apiarist feel nervous, he can
very readily brush them away, or destroy them by use of any of the
fly poisons which are kept in the markets. As these poisons are made
attractive by adding sweets, we must be careful to preclude the bees
from gaining access to them. As we should use them in spring, and as we
then need to keep the quilt or honey-board close above the bees, and
as the ants cluster above the brood chamber, it is not difficult to
practice poisoning. One year I tried Paris green with perfect success.


WASPS.

I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, as in Europe, we
hear of such depredations. I have received wasps, sent by our southern
brothers, which were caught destroying bees. The wasps are very
predacious, and do immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect
pests. I have seen wasps carry off "currant-worms" with a celerity that
was most refreshing.

As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much damage--even if
they ever do any--any great damage which may occur would doubtless come
from the social paper-makers. In this case, we have only to find the
nests and apply the torch, or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest
and shoot. This should be done at night-fall when the wasps have all
gathered home. Let us not forget that the wasps do much good, and so
not practice wholesale slaughter unless we have strong evidence against
them.

THE KING BIRD--_Tyrannus Carolinensis_.

This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-catchers, a
very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly insectivorous, and
do immense good by destroying our insect pests. The king bird is the
only one of them in the United States that deserves censure. Another,
the chimney swallow of Europe, has the same evil habit. Our chimney
swallow has no evil ways. I am sure, from personal observation, that
these birds capture and eat the workers, as well as drones; and I dare
say, they would pay no more respect to the finest Italian Queen. Yet,
in view of the good that these birds do, unless they are far more
numerous and troublesome than I have ever observed them to be, I should
certainly be slow to recommend the death warrant.


THE TOADS.

The same may be said of the toads, which may often be seen sitting
demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping up the full-laden
bees with the lightning-like movement of their tongues, in a manner
which can but be regarded with interest, even by him who suffers loss.
Mr. Moon, the well known apiarist, made this an objection to low hives;
yet, the advantage of such hives far more than compensates, and with a
bottom-board, such as described in the chapter on hives, we shall find
that the toads do very little damage.


MICE.

These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the apiary. They
enter the hives in winter, mutilate the comb, irritate, perhaps
destroy, the bees, and create a very offensive stench. They often
greatly injure comb which is outside the hive, destroy smokers, by
eating the leather off the bellows, and if they get at the seeds of
honey plants, they never retreat till they make a complete work of
destruction.

In the house and cellar, these plagues should be, by use of eat or
trap, completely exterminated. If we winter on the summer stands, the
entrance should be so contracted that mice cannot enter the hive. In
case of packing as I have recommended, I should prefer a more ample
opening, which may be safely secured by taking a piece of wire cloth
or perforated tin, and tacking it over the entrance, letting it come
within one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This will give more
air, and still preclude the entrance of these miserable vermin. (See
Appendix, page 293).




CHAPTER XX.

CALENDAR AND AXIOMS.


WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.[1]

[Footnote 1: These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where
the fruit trees blossom about the first of May. By noting these
flowers, the dates can be easily changed to suit any locality]

Though every live apiarist will take one, at least, of the three
excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our country, in
which the necessary work of each month will be detailed, yet it may be
well to give some brief hints in this place.


JANUARY.

During this month the bees will need little attention.--Should the
bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy, which will not happen
if the requisite precautions are taken, and there come a warm day, it
were well to set them on their summer stands, that they may enjoy a
purifying flight. At night when all are again quiet return them to the
cellar.--While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if there
are many dead bees. This is the time, too, to read, visit, study and
plan for the ensuing season's work.


FEBRUARY.

No advice is necessary further than that given for January, though if
the bees have a good fly in January, they will scarcely need attention
in this month. The presence of snow on the ground need not deter the
apiarist from giving his bees a flight, providing the day is warm and
still. It is better to let them alone if they are quiet.


MARCH.

Bees should still be kept housed, and those outside still retain about
them the packing of straw, shavings, &c. Frequent flights do no good,
and wear out the bees. Colonies that are uneasy, and besmear their
hives should be set out, and allowed a good flight and then returned.

The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens and drones
should now be fed, to stimulate breeding. By careful pruning, too,
we may and should prevent the rearing of drones in any but the best
colonies. If from lack of care the previous autumn, any of our stocks
are short of stores, now is when it will be felt. In such cases feed
either honey, sugar, syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath
the quilt.


APRIL.

Early in this month the bees may all be set out. It will be best to
feed all, and give all access to flour, when they will work at it,
though usually they can get pollen as soon as they can fly out to
advantage. Keep the brood chamber contracted so that the frames will
all be covered, and cover well above the bees to economize heat.


MAY.

Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till bloom
appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary, and keep close
watch, that you may anticipate and forestall any attempt to swarm. Now,
too, is the best time to transfer.


JUNE.

Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens. Divide the
colonies, as may be desired, especially enough to prevent attempts at
swarming. Extract if necessary or best; adjust frames or sections, if
comb honey is desired, and be sure to keep all the white clover honey,
in whatever form taken, separate from all other. Now is the best time
to Italianize.


JULY.

The work this month is about the same as that of June.--Supersede all
poor and feeble queens. Keep the basswood honey by itself, and remove
boxes or frames as soon as full. Be sure that queens and workers have
plenty of room to do their best, and suffer not the hot sun to strike
the hives.


AUGUST.

Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between basswood and fall
bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give plenty of room for queen and
workers as fall storing commences.


SEPTEMBER.

Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing ceases, which
usually occurs about the middle of this month; feed sparingly till the
first of October. If robbing occurs, contract the entrance of the hive
robbed. If it is desired to feed honey or sugar for winter, it should
be done the last of this month.


OCTOBER.

Prepare colonies for winter. See that all have at least thirty pounds,
by weight, of good, capped honey, and that all are strong in bees.
Contract the chamber, by using division board, and cover well with the
quilt. Be sure that one or two central frames of comb contain many
empty cells, and that all have a central hole through which the bees
can pass.


NOVEMBER.

Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar or depository,
or pack about those left out on the summer stands.


DECEMBER.

Now is the time to make hives, honey-boxes, &c., for the coming year.
Also labels for hives. These may just contain the name of the colony,
in which case the full record will be kept in a book; or the label may
be made to contain a full register as to time of formation, age of
queen, &c., &c. Slates are also used for the same purpose.

I know from experience that any who heed all of the above may succeed
in bee-keeping,--may win a double success:--Receive pleasure and make
money. I feel sure that many experienced apiarists will find advice
that it may pay to follow. It is probable that errors abound, and
certain that much remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that
what they do not know is greatly in excess of what they do know.


AXIOMS.

The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just as true to-day
as they were when written by that noted author:

There are a few _first principles_ in bee-keeping which ought to be as
familiar to the Apiarist as the letters of the alphabet.

First. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack.

Second. Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing them to accept of
liquid sweets.

Third. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming on their hives,
fill themselves with honey and lose all disposition to sting, unless
they are hurt.

Fourth. Bees dislike any _quick_ movements about their hives,
especially any motion which _jars_ their combs.

Fifth. In districts where forage is abundant only for a short period,
the largest yield of honey will be secured by a _very_ moderate
increase of stocks.

Sixth. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season, will, in
the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and cheapest mode of
managing bees.

Seventh. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, will
inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth, or by
robber-bees.

Eighth. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily be confined
to the season when bees are accumulating honey; and if this, or any
other operation, must be performed when forage is scarce, the greatest
precautions should be used to prevent robbing.

The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in Oettl's
Golden Rule: KEEP YOUR STOCKS STRONG. If you cannot succeed in doing
this, the more money you invest in bees, the heavier will be your
losses; while, if your stocks are strong, you will show that you are
a _bee-master_, as well as & bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on
generous returns from your industrious subjects.

_"Keep all colonies strong."_




APPENDIX.


HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES.

Movable frames have revolutionized bee-keeping, and so out-rank the
reaper and mower, and equal the cotton-gin. Few inventions have exerted
so powerful an influence upon the art which they serve. Their history
will ever be a subject of exceeding interest to bee-keepers, and their
inventor worthy the highest regard as the greatest benefactor of our
art. In writing their history, I have no personal interest or bias, and
am only impelled by a love of truth and justice. I am the more eager
to write this history, as some of our apiarists, and they among the
best informed and most influential (_American Bee Journal_, vol. 14,
p. 380), are misinformed in the premises. In obtaining the data for
this account, I am under many obligations to our great American master
in apiculture. Rev. L. L. Langstroth, whose thorough knowledge and
extensive library have been wholly at my command.

We are informed by George Wheeler, in his "Journey into Greece,"
published in 1682, page 411, that the Greeks had partial control of
the combs. "The tops" of the willow hives "are covered with broad flat
sticks. Along each of these sticks the bees fasten their combs; so that
a comb may be taken out whole."

Swammerdam had no control of the comb, nor had Réaumur. The latter used
narrow hives, which contained but two combs; but these were stationary.
Huber was the first to construct a hive which gave him control of the
combs and access to the interior of the hive. In August, 1879, Huber
wrote to Bonnet as follows: "I took several small fir boxes, a foot
square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them together by hinges, so
that they could be opened and shut like the leaves of a book. When
using a hive of this description, we took care to fix a comb in each
frame, and then introduced all the bees."--(Edinburgh edition of Huber,
p. 4). Although Morlot and others attempted to improve this hive, it
never gained favor with practical apiarists.

[Illustration: Fig. 111.]

The first person to adjust frames in a case appears to have been Mr. W.
Augustus Munn, of England. I have in my possession a letter from Mr.
Munn, dated November 9th, 1863, in which he states that the hive "had
been in use since 1834." The first printed description of any of his
hives appeared in the "Gardener's Chronicle" for 1843. This article
was written by a lady, and signed "E. M. W." Its premature publication
made it impossible for Mr. Munn to secure a patent in Great Britain.
In 1843 he secured a patent in France. The hive patented is fully
described in his "Description of the Bar and Frame Hive," published in
London, in 1844. There is also a figure (Fig. 111). I copy from the
work which is before me, pp. 7 and 8: "An oblong box is formed, about
thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and twelve inches broad. One
of the long sides is constructed to open with hinges, and to hang on
a level with the bottom. As many grooves half an inch broad, half an
inch deep, and about 9½ inches long, are formed 1⅛ inches apart on
the inside of the bottom of the box, as its length will admit. At the
top are corresponding grooves to those made in the bottom of the box.
The bee-frames are made of half inch mahogany, being 12 inches high,
9 inches long, and not more than half an inch broad, sliding into the
fifteen grooves formed on the bottom, and kept securely in their places
by the upper grooves," and by propolis, the author might well have
added. American apiarists need not be told that such a hive would be
wholly impracticable. Without bees in it, the changes of weather would
make the sliding of the frames very difficult; with the bees inside,
the removal of the frames would be practically impossible.

[Illustration: Fig. 112.]

In 1851 Mr. Munn issued a second edition of his book, in the preface of
which I find the following: "Having materially simplified the bar-frame
hive, by forming the 'oblong bar-frames' into 'triangular frames,' and
making them lift out of the top, instead of the back of the bee-box,
I have republished the pamphlet." The triangular hive (Fig. 112) is
described and figured, and is the same as found illustrated in Munn's
"Bevan on the Honey Bee." This hive, although a possible improvement on
the other, is costly, intricate, and still very impracticable. In the
price-list of J. Pettitt, Dover, England, 1864, I find this hive priced
at £3 3s., or about $15.00. From the figure we learn that there were
some wide spaces about the frames. These would of course be filled with
comb, and render the hives entirely unsuitable for common use. That
this hive lacked the essential requisites to success is evident from
words penned by the inventor in 1863: "The hive matters little if the
pasturage is good." And it is easy to see from the complex arrangement
of the frames, and the wide spaces about them, that as Mr. Munn said,
referring to his hive, "When left to themselves the bees shut up the
shop." Had invention stopped with Major Munn's hive, we should to-day
be using the old box hive, and sighing in vain for a better. Neighbour
well says (3d edition, p. 129): "Probably the reason of the invention's
failure was the expensiveness of the Major's fittings, which make the
hive appear more like some astronomical instrument, than a box for
bees. Be this as it may, there was no such thing as a frame hive in use
in England till 1860."

It would seem strange, that after going so far Major Munn should have
failed to give bee-keepers a hive of value. Yet with his view that
smoke injured the bees and brood (2d edition, p. 21), we can readily
see, that with his hive and black bees, a man would need the skin
of a rhinoceros, and nerves of brass, to do much by way of actual
manipulation for practical purposes. It has been truly said that "The
Huber hive can be used with far greater ease and safety, by a novice,
than can Munn's."

It will be seen by reference to "Bee Culture with Movable Frames,"
published by Pastor George Kleine, Hanover, Germany, in 1853, p. 5,
that a druggist by the name of Schmidt, in a work which he published
in Freiburg, in 1851, entitled, "The New Bee Homes," describes a hive
with the Huber leaves having prolonged tops which hung on rabbets, much
as do our frames. These Huber leaves were close-fitting, and so not
practical. Kleine regarded this as inferior to the Huber hive, in that
the combs must be taken out from above. With a side opening he thinks
it would be a material improvement. It is evident from Kleine's work,
that he knew nothing either of Munn or his hive.

In 1847, Jacob Shaw, Jr., then of Hinckley, Ohio, published in the
_Scientific American_, March 5th, 1847, p. 187, the description of a
hive devised by him. A person who has seen the hive tells me that as
described and first used, this hive had close-fitting frames, which
rested in a double-walled tin box. By turning hot water into the
chamber, the frames would be loosened. We do not wonder that, as Mr.
Shaw deposed, he only made one hive, and that he could only persuade
one colony of the several which he tried, to accept the situation, and
that this one soon perished. He got no surplus, and wisely set the hive
aside.

In 1847, the well known agricultural writer, Solon Robinson, suggested
in an article published in the _Albany Cultivator_; a tin hive made
up of unicomb apartments which should set close side by side, and be
connected by inter-communicating holes. Of course, such a hive would
only succeed in the imagination.

M. Debeauvoys published, in 1847, the 2d edition of "Guide de
l'Apiculteur," at Angers, France, in which he described a movable comb
hive, to meet the practical wants of French bee-keepers. This hive
was not only no improvement on that of Huber, but even less easy of
manipulation. The top-bar and uprights of the frames were close-fitting
to the top and sides of the hive. Says M. Hamet, editor of the French
bee paper, in his work, "Cours Pratique D'Apiculture," 1859 edition:
"The removal of the frames is more difficult than from the Huber
hive, and it has never been accepted by the practical bee-keepers of
France." Mr. Chas. Dadant describes this hive, which he once made
and used, in the _American Bee Journal_, vol. 7, p. 197. He says of
it: "The hive worked well when new and empty; but after the bees had
glued the frames, it was difficult to remove them without breaking
the combs. It would have been entirely impossible to remove them at
all, without separating the ends of the hive from the frames with a
chisel. This hive, which had gained 2,500 proselytes in France, was
very soon abandoned by all, and the disciples of Debeauvoys returned
to the old-fashioned straw hive." He adds, further, that these hives
were disastrous to French bee culture. Once misled by movable frames,
they ever afterwards refused them even for trial. Of course Mr. S.
S. Fisher, once commissioner of patents, and an expert, could see
nothing in this hive, or any of the inventor's modifications of it, to
invalidate the Langstroth patent. How grateful all American apiarists
should be, that Mr. Langstroth's invention was of a different type.

As already stated, bars were used centuries ago in Greece. Della Rocca,
in a work published in 1790, also describes bars as used by him.
Schirach used slats across the top of a box with rear-opening doors, as
early as 1771. In Key's work, "Ancient Bee Master's Farewell," London,
1796, p. 42, such hives are described, and beautifully illustrated,
plate 1, figs. 2 and 3. Bevan, London, 1838, describes on p. 82 a
similar hive, with the bars set in rabbets, which is figured on p. 83.

In 1835, Dzierzon, who has been to Germany what Langstroth has to
America, commenced bee-culture. Three years later he adopted the bar
hive, and although these bar hives were previously of little value
to practical apiculture, in his hands they became a most valuable
instrument. To remove the combs, the great German master had to cut
them loose from the sides of the hives. Yet from his great skill in
handling them, his studious habits, and invaluable researches, which
gave to the world the knowledge of parthenogenesis among bees, his hive
and system marked a new era in German apiculture.

In 1851, our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of what foreign
apiarian inventors had done, save what he could find in Huber, and
edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive now in common use among the
advanced apiarists of America. It is this hive, the greatest apiarian
invention ever made, that has placed American apiculture in advance
of that of all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America
could say with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, that the improved hives
were without value except to the amateur, and inferior for practical
purposes? Our apiarists not native to our shores, like the late Adam
Grimm and Mr. Chas. Dadant, always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was
the inventor of this hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness.
Well did the late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly
and truth-loving editor of the early volumes of the _American Bee
Journal_, himself of German origin, say: "When Mr. Langstroth took
up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, and saw wherein
he had failed--failing, possibly, only because he aimed at nothing
more than constructing an observing hive, suitable for his purposes.
Mr. Langstroth's object was other and _higher_. He aimed at making
frames movable, interchangeable, and _practically_ serviceable in bee
culture." And how true what follows: "_Nobody_ before Mr. Langstroth
ever succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable frame
that was of any practical value in bee culture." No man in the world,
beside Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant with this whole subject as
was Mr. Wagner. His extensive library and thorough knowledge made him
a competent judge. Now that the invention is public property, men will
cease to falsify and even perjure themselves, to rob an old man, whose
words, writings, and whole life, shine with untarnished ingenuousness.
And very soon all will unite with the great majority of intelligent
American apiarists of to-day, in rendering to this benefactor of
our art, the credit; though he has been hopelessly deprived of the
pecuniary benefits of his great invention.

Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention of frames
contained in a case, when he made his invention, in 1851, does not
profess to have been the first to have invented them. Every page of his
book shows his transparent honesty, and desire to give all due credit
to other writers and inventors. He does claim, and very justly, to
have invented the first practical frame hive, the one described in his
patent, applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his
book.

While the name of the late Baron Von Berlepsch will always stand in the
front rank of apiarists, he never gave the world any description of a
movable frame hive, until Mr. Langstroth had applied for a patent, and
not until the Langstroth hive was largely in use.

It has been claimed that Mr. Andrew Harbison invented and used in his
father's apiary, previous to 1851, the Langstroth hive. In the _Dollar
Newspaper_ for January 21, 1857, a brother, Mr. W. C. Harbison, who
also lived with his father at the time the invention is said to have
been made, says: "I will venture the prediction that both Quinby's
hive and mine will ere long be cast aside, to give place to a hive
constructed in such a manner that the apiarian can have access to
every part of the hive at pleasure, without injury to the colony.
In this particular both Mr. Quinby and myself have _singly failed_.
The invention of such a hive was reserved for Mr. Langstroth." It is
significant that J. S. Harbison, another brother, who was also with his
father at the time, in his "Bee Culture," San Francisco, 1861, speaks
of the Langstroth hive, p. 149, but not of that of his brother. It
has also been claimed that W. A. Flanders, Martin Metcalf, and Edward
Townley, each invented this hive prior to Mr! Langstroth's invention.
Yet, each of these gentlemen wrote a book, in which no mention is
made of such an invention. Well might Mr. Langstroth say, "I can well
understand what Job meant when he said, 'O! that my enemy had written
a book.'" It is also stated that Mr. A. F. Moon was a prior inventor
of this hive. Mr. Moon's own testimony, that he not only abandoned his
invention, being unable to secure straight combs, but _even forgot all
about it_, till it was discovered in an old rubbish pile, shows that he
did nothing that would, in court, overthrow Mr. Langstroth's claims, or
that in the least conferred any benefit upon bee-keepers. Mr. Maxwell,
of Mansfield, Ohio, was another who is said to have anticipated Mr.
Langstroth. Yet Mr. Maxwell's own son swears that he helped his father
make all his hives, and that his father never used a movable frame
till after 1851. Solon Robinson thought his brother. Dr. Robinson, of
Jamaica Plains, near Boston, made and used movable frame hives prior
to 1852. The wife of Dr. Robinson testified that her husband bought a
right to use the Langstroth hive, and with it made his first movable
frames.

Every claim, both at home and abroad, to the invention of a practical
movable frame hive, prior to that of Mr. Langstroth, when examined,
is found to have no substantial foundation. All previous hives were
plainly inferior to the improved Huber hive as described in Bevan, p.
106. It is a sad blot upon American apiculture, that he who raised
it to the proud height which it occupies to-day, should have been
shamefully defrauded of the just reward for his great invention. But
it gives me the greatest pleasure to state, that by no possible word
could I gather that Mr. Langstroth feels any bitterness towards those
who seem wilfully to have stolen his invention, while with a mantle
of charity, great as is his noble heart, he covers the thousands who
either thought he had no valid claim, or else that the purchase of a
right from others, entitled them to his invention. As an inventor and
writer on apiculture, Mr. Langstroth will ever be held in grateful
memory. How earnestly will American apiarists desire that he may be
spared to us until he completes his autobiography, that we may learn
how he arrived at his great discovery, and may study the methods by
which he gleaned so many rich and valuable truths.

       *       *       *       *       *


LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ--Cook.

In the summer of 1870, this louse, which, so far as I know, has never
yet been described, and for which I propose the above very appropriate
name, tulipiferæ--the Lecanium of the tulip tree--was very common on
the tulip trees about the College lawns. So destructive were they that
some of the trees were killed outright, others were much injured, and
had not the lice for some unknown reason ceased to thrive, we should
soon have missed from our grounds one of our most attractive trees.

Since the date above given, I have received these insects, through the
several editors of our excellent bee papers, from many of the States,
especially those bordering the Ohio River. In Tennessee they seem very
common, as they are often noticed in abundance on the fine stately
tulip trees of that goodly State--in the South this tulip tree is
called the poplar, which is very incorrect, as it is in no way related
to the latter. The poplar belongs to the willow family; the tulip to
the magnolia, which families are wide apart. In Pennsylvania the louse
has been noticed on the cucumber tree--Magnolia acuminata.

Wherever the tulip-tree lice have been observed sucking the sap and
vitality from the trees, there the bees have also been seen, lapping
up a sweet juicy exudation, which is secreted by the lice. In 1870 I
observed that our tulip trees were alive with bees and wasps, even
as late as August, though the trees are in blossom only in June.
Examination showed that the exuding sweets from these lice were what
attracted the bees. This was observed with some anxiety, as the
secretion gives off a very nauseating odor.

The oozing secretions from this and other lice, not only of the
bark-louse family (Coccidæ), but of the plant-louse family (Aphidæ),
are often referred to as honey-dew. Would it not be better to speak of
these as insect secretions, and reserve the name honey-dew for sweet
secretions from plants, other than those which come from the flowers?


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ.

The fully developed insect, like all bark lice, is in the form of a
scale (Fig. 113, 1), closely applied to the limb or twig on which it
works. This insect, like most of its genus, is brown, very convex
above, (Fig. 113, 1), and concave beneath, (Fig. 113, 2). On the under
side is a cotton-like secretion, which serves to enfold the eggs.
Underneath the species in question are two transverse parallel lines of
this white down, (Fig. 113, 2). One of them, probably the anterior, is
nearly marginal, and is interrupted in the middle; while the other is
nearly central, and in place of the interruption at the middle, it has
a V-shaped projection back or away from the other line. The form of the
scale is quadrangular, and not unlike that of a turtle, (Fig. 113, 1).
When fully developed it is a little more than 3-16 of an inch long, and
a little more than ⅔ as wide.

Here at Lansing, the small, yellow, oval eggs appear late in August.
In Tennessee they would be found under the scales in their cotton
wrappings many days earlier. The eggs are 1-40 of an inch long, and
1-65 of an inch wide. These eggs, which are very numerous, hatch in
the locality of their development, and the young or larval lice, quite
in contrast with their dried, inert, motionless parents, are spry
and active. They are oval, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), yellow; and 1-23 of
an inch long, and 1-40 of an inch wide. The eyes, antenna (Fig. 113,
5), and legs, (Fig. 113, 6), are plainly visible when magnified 30
or 40 diameters. The 9-jointed abdomen is deeply emarginate, or cut
into posteriorly, (Fig. 113, 3), and on each side of this slit is a
projecting stylet or hair, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), while from between the
eyes, on the under side of the head, extends the long recurved beak,
(Fig. 113, 4). The larvæ soon leave the scales, crawl about the tree,
and finally fasten by inserting their long slender beaks, when they so
pump up the sap that they grow with surprising rapidity. In a few weeks
their legs and antennæ seem to disappear as they become relatively so
small, and the scale-like form is assumed. In the following summer the
scale is full-formed and the eggs are developed. Soon the scale, which
is but the carcass of the once active louse, drops from the tree, and
the work of destruction is left to the young lice, a responsibility
which they seem quite ready to assume.

[Illustration: Fig. 113.]

In my observations I have detected no males. Judging from others of the
bark-lice, these must possess wings, and will never assume the scale
form, though Prof. P. K Uhler writes me that the males of some bark
lice are apterous.


REMEDIES.

If valued shade or honey trees are attacked by these insatiate
destroyers, they could probably be saved by discreet pruning--cutting
off the affected branches before serious injury was done, or by
syringing the trees with a solution of whale oil, soap--or even common
soft soap would do--just as the young lice are leaving the scales. It
would be still better to have the solution hot. Whitman's Fountain Pump
is admirable for making such applications.

Fig. 1 is slightly magnified; the others are largely magnified.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: Fig. 114.]


MOTHERWORT AS A HONEY PLANT.

(_Leonurus cardiaca L._)

Perhaps none of our common herbs promises better, as a honey plant,
than the one in question. It is a very hardy perennial, and once
introduced in waste places, it is sure to hold its own, until it
becomes desirable to extirpate it, when, at man's bidding, it quickly
lets go its hold, so that it is not a dangerous plant to introduce.
The blossoms appear at this place about June 25th, and persist for a
full month, and during the entire time are crowded with bees, whatever
may be the character of the weather, whether wet or dry, warm or cool,
whether the plant is in the midst of honey plants or isolated. We are
thus assured that the plant is constantly secreting nectar, and is also
a favorite with bees. Rape, mustards and borage seem indifferent to the
weather, but are not favorites with the bees. Motherwort, then, has
three admirable qualities: It is long in bloom, the flowers afford fine
honey at all times, and it is a favorite with the bees. If it could be
made to bloom about three weeks later, coming in just after basswood,
it would have nearly all the desired qualities. I think that we might
bring this about by mowing the plants in May. I am led to this opinion
from the fact that some plants which we set back by transplanting in
May, are still in bloom this August 10th, and are now alive with, bees,
dividing their attention with the beautiful cleome, which, is now in
full bloom, and fairly noisy with bees.

[Illustration: Fig. 115.]


DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.

The stalk is square (Fig. 114), branching, and when cultivated, attains
a height of some four feet; though, as it grows in waste places, it
is seldom more than three feet. The branches, and also the leaves,
are opposite (Figs. 114 and 115), and in the axiles of the latter are
whorls of blossoms (Figs. 115 and 116), which succeed each other from
below to the top of the branching stems. The corolla is like that of
all the mints, while the calyx has five teeth, which are sharp and
spine-like in the nutlets as they appear at the base of the leaves
(Fig. 115). As they near the top, the whorls of blossoms and succeeding
seeds are successively nearer together, and finally become very crowded
at the apex (Fig. 116). The leaves are long and palmately lobed (Fig.
115). The small blossom is purple.

[Illustration: Fig. 116.]


THE SOUR-WOOD TREE.

The sorrel tree (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) (Fig. 117), so called because
of the acidity of the leaves, is a native of the South, but has
been grown even as far north as New York. It often attains no mean
dimensions in its native home along the Alleghanies, often reaching
upward more than fifty feet, and acquiring a diameter of twelve or
fifteen inches.

[Illustration: Fig. 117.]

The flowers are arranged in racemes, are more drooping than represented
in the figure, are white, and with the beautiful foliage make an
ornamental tree of high rank. The bark is rough, and the wood so soft
as to be worthless, either as fuel or for use in the arts. As a honey
tree, it is very highly esteemed; in fact, it is the linden of the
South.


THE JAPAN MEDLAR.

I have received from J. M. Putnam, of New Orleans, La., flowers of the
_Mespilus Japonica_, or Japan plum. He states that it bears a most
delicious fruit, blooms from August till January, unless cut off by a
severe frost, and is proof against ordinary frosts. He states that it
furnishes abundance of delicious honey, and that, too, when his bees
were gathering from no other source.

The _Mespilus Germanica_ grows in England, and is much praised for its
fruit. From Mr. Putnam's account, the _M. Japonica_ is unprecedented
in its length of bloom. We think two months a long time. We pay high
tribute to mignonette, cleome and borage, when we tell of four months
of bloom; but this is mild praise when compared with this Japan plum,
which flowers from August first till January.

The flowers are in a dense panicle, and were still fragrant after their
long journey. The leaf is lanceolate, and very thick, some like the wax
plant. I should say it was an evergreen. The apiarists of the South are
to be congratulated on this valuable acquisition to their bee forage. I
hope it will thrive North as well as South.

       *       *       *       *       *


THE STINGING-BUG.--_Phymata Erosa_, Fabr.

This insect is very widely distributed throughout the United States.
I have received it from Maryland to Missouri on the South, and from
Michigan to Minnesota on the North. The insect will lie concealed among
the flowers, and upon occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm's
length, and suck out its blood and life.

This is a Hemipteran, or true bug, and belongs to the family _Phymatidæ
Uhr_. It is the _Phymata Erosa_, Fabr., the specific name erosa
referring to its jagged appearance. It is also called the "stinging
bug," in reference to its habit of repelling intrusion by a painful
thrust with its sharp, strong; beak.

[Illustration: Fig. 118.--_Side view, natural size._]

[Illustration: Fig. 119.--_Magnified twice._]

[Illustration: Fig. 120.--_Beak, much magnified._]

The "stinging bug" (Fig. 118) is somewhat jagged in appearance, about
three-eighths of an inch long, and generally of a yellow color; though
this latter seems quite variable. Frequently there is a distinct
greenish hue. Beneath the abdomen, and on the back of the head, thorax
and abdomen, it is more or less specked with brown; while across the
dorsal aspect of the broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of brown
(Fig. 119 _d, d_). Sometimes this stripe is almost wanting, sometimes
a mere patch, while rarely the whole abdomen, is very slightly marked,
and as often we find it almost wholly brown above and below. The legs
(Fig. 119, 6), beak and antennæ (Fig. 119, _a_) are greenish yellow.
The beak (Fig. 120) has three joints (Fig. 120, _a, b, c_) and a sharp
point (Fig. 120, _d_).

[Illustration: Fig. 121.--_Antenna, much magnified._]

[Illustration: Fig. 122.--_Anterior Leg, magnified--exterior view._]

[Illustration: Fig. 123.--_Interior view._]

This beak is not only the great weapon of offense, but also the organ
through which the food is sucked. By the use of this, the insect has
gained the soubriquet of stinging bug. This compact jointed beak is
peculiar to all true bugs, and by observing it alone, we are able to
distinguish all the very varied forms of this group. The antenna (Fig.
121) is; four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 121, _a_) is short, the
second and third (Fig. 121, _b_ and _c_) are long and slim, while the
terminal one (Fig. 121, _d_) is much enlarged. This enlarged joint
is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as described
by Latreille. But the most curious structural peculiarity of this
insect, and the chief character of the genus Phymata, is the enlarged
anterior legs (Figs. 122, 123 and 124). These, were they only to aid
in locomotion, would seem like awkward, clumsy organs, but when we
learn that they are used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but
appreciate and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 122, _b_)
and the tarsus (Fig. 122, _a_) are toothed, while the latter is greatly
enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of the femur (Fig. 123) is the
small tibia, while on the lower edge of the tarsus (Fig. 123, d) is a
cavity in which rests the single claw. The other four legs (Fig. 125)
are much as usual.

[Illustration: Fig. 124.--_Claw, extended._]

[Illustration: Fig. 125.--_Middle Leg, much magnified._]

This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, lying in wait,
often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to capture and destroy
unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, butterflies, moths, and
even bees and wasps. We have already noticed how well prepared it is
for this work by its jaw-like anterior legs, and its sharp, strong,
sword-like beak.

It is often caught on the golden rod. This plant, from its very
color, tends to conceal the hug, and from the very character of the
plant--being attractive as a honey plant to bees--the slow bug is
enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee.

As Prof. Uhler well says of the "stinging-bug": "It is very useful in
destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-feeding insects, but is not
very discriminating in its tastes, and would as soon seize the useful
honey-bee as the pernicious saw-fly." And he might have added that it
is equally indifferent to the virtues of our friendly insects like the
parasitic and predaceous species.

We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its destruction
would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely scattered as are the
flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest its case, at least until
its destructiveness becomes more serious than at present.

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: Fig. 126.]

[Illustration: Fig. 127.]


THE SOUTHERN BEE-KILLERS.

_Mallophora orcina and Mallophora bomboides._

I have received from several of our enterprising bee-keepers of the
South--Tennessee, Georgia and Florida--the above insects, with the
information that they dart forth from some convenient perch, and with
swift and sure aim, grasp a bee, bear it to some bush, when they
leisurely suck out all but the mere crust, and cast away the remains.
The bee which is thus victimized, is readily known by the small hole
in the back, through which the juices were pumped out.

The insects plainly belong to the family Asilidæ, the same that
includes the Missouri bee-killer, _Asilus Missouriensis_, the Nebraska
bee-killer, _Promachus bastardi_, and other predatory insects, several
of which, I regret to say, have the same evil habit of killing and
devouring our friends of the hive.

The characters of this family, as given by Loew, one of the greatest
authorities on Diptera, or two-winged flies, are prolonged basal cells
of the wings, third longitudinal vein bifurcate, third joint of antenna
simple, under lip forming a horny sheath, empodium, a projection below
and beneath the claws (Fig. 131, _c_), a horny bristle.

[Illustration: Fig. 128.]

[Illustration: Fig. 131.]

The insects in question belong to Loew's third group, Asilina, as the
antennæ end in a bristle (Fig. 128), while the second longitudinal vein
of the wing (Fig. 129, _b_) runs into the first (Fig. 129, _a_).

The genus is _Mallophora_. The venation of the wings much resembles
that of the genus _Promachus_, the same that contains the Nebraska
bee-killer, though the form of these insects is very different. The
Nebraska bee-killer is long and slim like the _Asilus Missouriensis_
(see Fig. 108), while the one in question is much like the neuter
bumble-bee in form.

In _Mallophora_ and _Promachus_, the venation is as represented in Fig.
129, where, as will be seen, the second vein (Fig. 129, _b_) forks,
while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 130) the third vein is forked,
though in all three genera the third joint of the antennæ (Fig. 128)
ends in a prolonged bristle.

One of the most common of these pests, which I am informed by Dr.
Hagen, is _Mallophora orcina_, Wied, (Fig. 126) is one inch long, and
expands one and three-fourths inches (Fig. 127). The head (Fig. 128)
is broad, the eyes black and prominent, the antennæ three-jointed, the
last joint terminating in a bristle, while the beak is very large,
strong, and like the eyes and antennæ, coal black. This is mostly
concealed by the light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick about the
mouth and between the eyes.

[Illustration: Fig. 129,]

The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow hairs. The
abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with yellow hairs except the
tip, which is black. Beneath, the insect is clear black, though there
are scattering hairs of a grayish yellow color on the black legs. The
pulvilli, or feet pads (Fig. 131, _b_) are two in number, bright yellow
in color, surmounted by strong black claws (Fig. 131, _a_), while below
and between is the sharp spine (Fig, 131, _c_), technically known as
the empodium.

I cannot give the distinctions which mark the sexes, nor can I throw
any light upon the larval condition of the insect.

The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking. Their
flight is like the wind, and perched near the hive, they rush upon the
unwary bee returning to the hive with its full load of nectar, and
grasping it with their hard strong legs, they bear it to some perch
near by, when they pierce the crust, suck out the juices, and drop the
carcass, and are then ready to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee
shows the cause of its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not
always killed at once by this rude onslaught, but often can crawl some
distance away from where it falls, before it expires.

Another insect nearly as common is the _Mallophora bomboides_, Wied.
This fly might be called a larger edition of the one just described,
as in form, habits and appearance, it closely resembles the other.
It belongs to the same genus, possessing all the generic characters
already pointed out. It is very difficult to capture them, as they are
so quick and active.

[Illustration: Fig. 130.]

This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and expands two and a
half inches. The head and thorax are much as in the other species. The
wings are very long and strong, and, as in the other species, are of a
smoky brown color. The abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to
side on the tinder surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant
on the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is a lighter
yellow than in the other species. These insects are powerfully built,
and if they become numerous, must prove a formidable enemy to the bees.

Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia, though it
closely resembles the two just described, is of a different genus. It
is the _Laphria thoracica_ of Fabricius. In this genus the third vein
is forked, and the third joint of the antenna is without the bristle,
though it is elongated and tapering. The insect is black, with yellow
hair covering the upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly
black both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on the
femurs and tibia. This insect belongs to the same family as the others,
and has the same habits. It is found North as well as South.


HONEY-COMB CORAL.

A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern and Northern
United States, is, from its appearance, often called petrified
honey-comb. We have many such specimens in our museum. In some cases
the cells are hardly larger than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an
inch in diameter.

[Illustration: Fig. 132.]

These (Fig. 132) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led to believe,
though the resemblance is so striking that no wonder that the public
generally are deceived. These specimens are fossil coral, which the
paleontologist places in the genus Favosites; favosus being a common
species in our State. They are very abundant in the lime rock in
northern Michigan, and are very properly denominated honey-stone coral.
The animals of which these were once the skeletons, so to speak, are
not insects at all, though often called so by men of considerable
information. It would be no greater blunder to call an oyster or a clam
an insect.

The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the Upper
Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and disappeared in the
early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till the Devonian age, and
no Hymenoptera--bees, wasps, etc.--till after the Carboniferous. So
the old-time Favosites reared its limestone columns and helped to
build islands and continents untold ages--millions upon millions of
years--before any flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious
nectar. In some specimens of this honey-stone coral (Fig. 133), there
are to be seen banks of cells, much resembling the paper cells of some
of our wasps. This might be called wasp-stone coral, except that both
styles were wrought by the self-same animals.

[Illustration: Fig. 133.]




GENERAL INDEX.


                                                PAGE

  A B C of Bee Culture                            22
  Abdomen of Insects                              48
  Air Tubes                                       28
  Albino Bees                                     43
  Alighting-Board                                127
    separate from bottom-board                   127
  Alsike Clover--see clover                      228
  American Bee Journal                            19
  Amateurs                                        11
  Anatomy and Physiology                          48
    of bees                                       71
    of insects                                    48
    internal                                      56
  Antenna                                         51
  Ants                                           271
    remedies for                                 271
    function                                      51
  Apiary,
    where to locate                              120
    grounds                                      152
    house--see house apiary                      255
    position of                                  152
  Apiary Grounds                                 152
    arrangement of                               152
    improvement of                               153
    screens for                                  152
    shade for                                    153
  Apiculture,
    adaptation to women                           15
    as an avocation                               15
    fascination of                                12
    for amateurs                              11, 15
    for specialists                               11
    inducements to                                12
      adaptation to women                         15
      excellence for amateurs                     15
      improves the mind                           17
      recreation                                  12
      yields delicious food                       17
    profits of                                    13
    requisites to                                 18
      conventions                                 19
      enthusiasm                                  24
      experience                                  18
      mental effort                               18
      persistence                                 24
      prompt attention                            23
      publications                                19
      study and thought                           18
      visits to other apiarists                   18
      work                                        11
    unsuited to whom                              12
  Apidæ Family                                    34
    animals of                                    35
    instincts of                                  34
  Apis Genus                                      38
    animals of                                    40
    characters of                                 38
  Apis Mellifica                                  41
  Aristotle                                       44
  Articulate Branch                               27
    animals of                                    27
  Artificial Colonies                            177
    advantages of                                177
    how made                                     177
    one from one                                 177
    one from several                             178
  Axioms                                         277

  Barberry                                       225
    figure                                       226
  Barnes' Saw                                    151
  Basswood                                       237
    figure of                                    237
  Bees,
    as fertilizers                               220
    burying                                      254
    how to procure                               118
    injuring fruit                               220
    kind to purchase                             119
    kinds in each colony                          71
    place in the animal kingdom                   27
    quieted                                      197
      by jarring                                 198
      by smoking                                 198
    value of                                     120
    when to purchase                             119
    who may keep                                  11
    why keep                                      12
  Bee-Bread--see pollen                          111
  Bee Dress for Ladies                           197
  Bee Enemies                                    262
    ants                                         271
    bee-hawk                                     269
    bee-killer                                   267
    bee-louse                                    268
    bee-moth                                     262
    king-bird                                    272
    mice                                         272
    spiders                                      271
    tachina fly                                  270
    toads                                        272
    wasps                                        271
  Bee Gloves                                     197
  Bee Glue--see propolis                         112
  Bee Hawk                                       269
    remedy for                                   270
  Bee-Keepers' Axioms                            277
  Bee-Keepers' Magazine                           21
  Bee-Killer                                     267
    figure of                                    268
    remedies for                                 268
  Bee-Louse                                      268
    figure of                                    268
    remedy for                                   269
  Bee-Moth                                       262
    cocoons of                                   264
      figure of                                  264
    eggs of                                      263
      figure of                             264, 265
    larva of                                     263
      figure of                                  264
    remedies                                     266
    silk tube of                                 263
      figure of                             262, 263
  Bee Plants--see plants                         220
    necessary to success                         218
    list of                                      221
  Bee Veil                                       196
    figure of                                    196
  Bees Angered                              195, 201
    by quick movements                      195, 201
    by sweat                                     201
  Bees Subdued                                   197
  Beeswax                                        106
    from what                                    106
    how separated                                211
  Beggar-Ticks                                   244
  Bergamot                                       238
  Bevan on the Honey-Bee                          22
  Bevel-Gauge                                    126
    figure of                                    126
  Bevel Joints                                   126
  Bibliography                               44, 113
  Bingham Hive                                   140
    figure of                                    140
  Bingham Smoker                                 199
    figure of                                    199
  Black Bees--see German bees                     41
  Blackberries                                   236
  Blood of Insects                                57
  Body of Insects                                 48
    parts of                                      48
  Bombus                                          35
  Boneset                                        288
    figure of                                    241
  Bonnet                                          45
  Books for the Apiarist                          21
    A B C of Bee Culture                          22
    Bevan's Honey-Bee                        22, 113
    foreign                                       22
    Gray's Botany                                244
    Huber                                        113
    Hunter's Manual                               23
    King's Text-Book                              52
    Langstroth on the Honey-Bee                   21
    Neighbour's Apiary                       23, 118
    Quinby's Mysteries                            22
  Books for the Entomologist                 47, 113
    Duncan's Transformations of Insects          113
    Kirby & Spence                                47
    Packard                                  47, 113
    Westwood                                      47
    Reports                                       47
      Fitch                                       47
      Harris                                      47
      Riley                                       47
  Borage                                         231
    figure of                                    230
  Bottom-board                                   127
    figure of                                    128
    immovable                                    129
  Box Hives                                      122
  Boxes                                          142
    Barker & Dicer                               143
    crate for                                    144
    figure of                               142, 143
    Harbison                                     142
      figure of                                  143
    Isham                                        142
      figure of                                  143
    position of                                  144
    Russell                                      142
    special support for                          142
    use                                          142
  Box Honey                                      142
    when to secure                               215
    where to keep                                216
  Branch                                          27
    articulata                                    27
    of the honey-bee                              27
  Breathing of Insects                            59
  Breathing-mouths                                59
  Buckwheat                                      242
    figure of                                    242
  Button-ball                                    238
    figure of                                    240

  Cages
    for introducing queen                        184
    for shipping queen                           186
      figure of                                  187
  Calendar                                       274
  Carpenter Bees                                  36
  Catnip                                    232, 240
  Chaff Hives                                    251
  Chrysalids                                      69
  Circulatory System                              57
  Class                                           28
    insecta                                       28
    of the honey-bee                              28
  Cleome--see Rocky M't'n bee plant              238
  Clover                                         228
    Alsike                                       228
      figure of                                  229
    sweet                                        228
      figure of                                  230
    white                                        228
    figure of                                    228
  Clustering Outside the Hive                    153
    cause of                                     153
    how prevented                                153
      adding room                                176
      extracting                                 188
      shading                                    153
  Cocoons                                         69
    of bees                                       98
  College Course                                 118
  Colonies,
    always strong                                119
    how moved                                    187
  Columella                                       44
  Comb                                           108
    cells in                                     110
      worker                                     110
      drone                                      110
    figure of                                    109
    for guide                                    208
    how fastened                            157, 158
    how made                                108, 110
    transparency of                              110
    use of                                       110
    what determines kind                         110
  Comb Foundation                                203
    American                                     204
    figure of                                    203
    history of                                   203
    how cut                                      207
    how fastened                                 209
    how made                                     206
    use of                                       207
  Comb Foundation Machine                        205
    figure of                                    205
    inventor of                                  205
  Comb Honey                                     215
    apparatus to secure                          141
    care of                                      216
    in boxes                                     142
    in frames                                    144
    in what form                            144, 215
    marketing                                    215
    when to secure                               215
  Conventions                                     19
  Corn                                           235
  Cotton                                         236
    figure of                                    236
  Cover for Frames                               129
  Cover for Hives                                129
    figure of                               130, 131
  Crates,
    section                                      149
    market                                       216
  Cyprian Bee                                     43

  De Geer                                         45
  Digestive Organs                                60
  Diseases                                       259
    dysentery                               247, 259
    foul brood                                   259
  Dissection                                  50, 65
  Dissecting Instruments                      51, 65
    lenses                                    51, 65
    needle points                                 51
    dividers--see separators                     146
  Dividing Colonies--see artificial
      colonies                              171, 177
  Division-board                                 137
    figure of                                    137
    use of                                       138
  Dollar Queens                                  186
  Dorsata Bee                                     40
  Dress for Ladies                               197
  Drones                                          86
    development of                                87
    eggs of                                       87
    eyes of                                       86
    function of                                   83
    influence of, on drone progeny                89
    jaws of                                       86
      figure of                                   92
    leg of                                        86
      figure of                                   87
    longevity of                                  88
    number of                                     86
    tongue of                                     86
    when in hive                              86, 88
    why so numerous                               89
  Dysentery                                 247, 259

  Egg                                             67
    of insects                                    67
    of bee                                        96
  Egyptian Bee                                    43
  Empty Cells                                    188
    importance of                                188
    how to secure                                188
  Entrance to Hive                               128
  Epicranium                                      48
  Extractor,
    of honey                                     188
      figure of                                  189
      Everett's                                  190
      history of                                 188
      how to use                                 194
      knives for                                 191
        figure of                                191
      rack for                                   189
        figure of                                190
      use of                                     191
      when to use                                192
      wire comb baskets for                      189
        figure of                                189
      of wax                                     212
        figure of                                213
  Extracted Honey                                214
    market for                                   214
  Extracting Honey                               191
    how done                                     194
    why done                                     191
    when done                                    192
  Eyes of Insects                                 53
    compound                                      54
    simple                                        54

  Fabricius                                       46
  Family                                          34
    apidæ                                         34
    of the honey-bee                              34
  Feeder                                         160
    figure of                               160, 161
  Feeding                                        159
    amount to feed                               159
    use of                                       159
    what to feed                                 160
      honey                                      160
      sugar                                      160
      flour                                      163
  Female Organs                                   64
  Fertile Workers                                 77
  Fertilization of Flowers by Bees               220
  Figwort                                        238
    figure of                                    238
  Fitch's Report                                  47
  Foot-power Saw                                 151
  Foul Brood                                     259
    cause                                        260
    cure for                                     200
    symptoms of                                  259
  Foundation                                     203
    figure of                                    203
    history of                                   203
    use of                                  203, 207
    how cut                                      207
    how fastened                                 209
    how made                                     206
  Frames                                         132
    arrangement for surplus                      147
    block for making                             134
      figure of                                  135
    cover for                                    136
    figure of                               133, 134
    form of                                      132
    Gallup                                       133
    gauge for construction                       135
      figure of                                  135
    inventor of                                  123
    Langstroth                                   132
    number of                                    132
    section                                      148
    small--see sections                          144
    space about                                  136
    space between                                136
  Fruit trees                                    225

  Gallup Frame                                   133
  Geoffroy                                        45
  Genus,
    apis                                          38
    of the honey-bee                              38
  German or Black Bee                             31
  Gleanings in Bee Culture                        20
  Gloves                                         197
  Golden-rod                                     242
    figure of                                    243
  Grapes Injured by Bees                         220
  Grape Vines for Shade                          153
  Gunther                                         12

  Handling Bees                                  195
  Harris' Injurious Insects                       47
  Harvey                                          44
  Head of Insects                                 48
    organs of                                     43
  Heart of Insects                                57
  Hexapods--see Insects                           30
  Hives                                          122
    alighting-board of                           127
    Bingham                                      140
      figure of                                  140
    bottom-board of                              127
      figure of                                  128
    box not good                                 122
    chaff                                        251
    cover of                                     129
    division-board for                           137
    entrance to                                  128
    figure of                          124, 130, 155
    frames for                                   132
    Huber                                        138
    joints of                                    126
      square                                     126
        figure of                                125
      bevel                                      126
        figure of                                130
    Langstroth                                   123
      figure of                                  124
    lumber for                                   124
    movable comb                                 123
    movable frame                                122
    near the ground                              128
    nucleus                                      165
    position of                                  154
      figure of                                  115
    Quinby                                       139
      figure of                                  139
    rabbet of                                    125
    size of                                      124
  Honey                                          104
    collected, not secreted                      104
    defined                                      104
    extracted                                    193
    for food                                      17
    granulated, how dissolved                    193
    how collected                                105
    how deposited                                105
    how transported                              105
    marketing of                                 213
    natural use of                               106
    source of                                    105
      bark lice                             105, 218
      honey-dew                             105, 219
      plants                                105, 210
      plant lice                            105, 218
      other sources                         105, 219
  Honey-Comb--see comb                           108
  Honey Extractor--see extractor                 188
    figure of                                    189
    importance of                                188
    requisites of                                189
    use of                                       191
    when to use                                  192
  Honey Knives                                   191
    figure of                                    191
  Honey Plants--see plants                       218
    for April                                    223
    for May                                      225
    for July                                     237
    for June                                     228
    for August                                   242
    importance of                                218
    list of                                      221
  House Apiary                                   255
    advantages of                                256
    are they desirable?                          256
    objections to                                257
  Huber                                           71
  Huber Hive                                     138
    kinds of                                     133
  Hunter's Manual                                 23
  Hymenopterous Insects                           31
    the highest                                   32
    parasitic                                     32

  Imago                                           70
  Insecta                                         28
    animals of                                    30
    class                                         28
  Insects, or Hexapods                            30
    abdomen of                                    30
    head of                                       30
    imago of                                      30
    larva of                                      30
    pupa of                                       30
    thorax of                                     30
    transformations of                            66
    transformations, complete                     66
    transformations, incomplete                   70
  Introduction of Cell                           185
    figure of                                    167
  Introduction of Queen                          183
  Intestines                                      61
  Italian Bees                               41, 180
    description of                           42, 181
    figure of                           Frontispiece
    history of                                    41
    superiority of                               181

  Jaws                                            50
    figure of                                     92
  Judas Tree                                     225
    figure of                                    224

  King Bird                                      27?
  King's Text-Book                                22
  Kirby & Spence's Entomology                47, 113

  Labium                                          48
  Labrum                                          48
  Ladies' Bee Dress                              197
  Langstroth, Rev. L. L.                         123
  Langstroth Frame                               132
    figure of                                    124
  Langstroth Hive                                123
    figure of                                    124
  Langstroth on the Honey-Bee                     21
  Larva                                           68
  Latreille                                       45
  Leaf-Cutting Bee                                36
  Legs of Insects                                 90
  Linnæus                                         45
  Ligula                                          49
    figure of                                     91
  Location of Apiary                             120
  Locust Trees                                   236
  Lyonnet                                         46

  Male Organs                                     62
    figure of                                     63
  Mandibles                                       50
    figure of                                     92
  Maple                                     224, 225
    figure of                                    222
  Market--for honey                              213
    crate for                                    216
      figures of                            216, 217
    for comb                                     215
    for extracted                                214
    how to stimulate                             213
    rules for                                    215
  Mason Bees                                  36, 37
  Maxillæ                                         50
  Megachile                                       36
  Melipona                                        35
  Mice                                           272
    remedy for                                   272
  Mignonette                                     231
    figure of                                    231
  Milk-Weed                                      232
    pollen masses of                             233
    figure of                                    233
  Mimicry                                         31
  Mouth Parts                                     48
    figure of                                     49
    variation of                                  50
  Movable-Comb Hives                             123
    two types                                    123
  Moving Colonies                                187
  Multiplying Colonies                           171
  Muscles of Insects                              56
  Mustard                                        233
    figure of                                    233

  Natural History of the Honey-Bee                27
  Natural Method of Increase                     171
  Natural Swarms                                 171
    means to save                                173
      implements required                        173
    not desirable                                171
    second swarms prevented                      175
  Neighbour, The Apiary                           23
  Nerves of Insects                               57
    figure of                                     58
  Neuters                                         90
    cocoon of                                     98
    development of                                96
    eggs of                                       96
    eyes of                                       92
    figure of                                     90
    function of                                   99
      old workers                                 99
      young workers                               99
    honey stomach of                              92
      figure of                                   60
    jaws of                                       92
      figure of                                   92
    larva of                                      97
      figure of                                   97
    longevity of                                  99
    number of                                     90
    pollen baskets of                             93
      figure of                                   93
    pupa of                                       98
      figure of                                   97
    size of                                       90
    sting of                                      95
      figure of                                   95
    tarsi of                                      93
      figure of                               93, 94
    tibia of                                      93
    tongue of                                     92
      figure of                                   91
    wings of                                      92
      figure of                                   38
  Nymphs                                          69

  Order                                           30
    of insects                                    30
    of the honey-bee                              30
  Osmia                                           37
  Ovaries                                         64
    figure of                                     64

  Packard's Entomology                            47
  Palpi                                           49
  Papers                                          19
    American Bee Journal                          19
    Bee-Keepers' Magazine                         21
    Gleanings in Bee Culture                      20
  Paraglossæ                                      49
  Parasitic Insects                               32
  Parasitic Bees                                  37
  Parthenogenesis                                 80
    in bees                                       80
    in other insects                              81
  Plants                                         220
    asters                                       243
      figure of                                  243
    April                                        223
    August                                       242
    barberry                                     225
      figure of                                  226
    basswood                                     237
      figure of                                  237
    beggar-ticks                                 244
    bergamot                                     238
    blackberry                                   236
    boneset                                      238
      figure of                                  241
    buckwheat                                    243
      figure of                                  243
    button-ball                                  238
      figure of                                  240
    catnip                                  232, 240
    clover                                       228
      Alsike                                     228
        figure of                                229
      sweet                                      228
        figure of                                230
      white                                      228
        figure of                                228
    coffee berry                                 226
    corn                                         235
    cotton                                       236
      figure of                                  236
    figwort                                      238
      figure of                                  238
    fruit trees                                  225
    golden-rod                                   242
      figure of                                  243
    Judas tree                                   225
      figure of                                  224
    July                                         237
    June                                         228
    list of                                      221
    locust                                       236
    maples                                  221, 225
      figure of                                  222
    milk-weed                                    232
      pollen-masses                              232
        figure of                                233
    mints                                        232
      figure of                                  232
    mignonette                                   231
      figure of                                  231
    mustard                                      233
      figure of                                  233
    okra                                         232
      figure of                                  231
    poplar                                       225
    rape                                         234
      figure of                                  234
    Rocky Mountain bee                           238
      figure of                                  239
    sage                                         232
      white                                      226
        figure of                                227
    sour-wood                                    240
    Spanish needles                              244
    St. John's wort                              240
    sumac                                        226
    teasel                                       235
      figure of                                  236
    tick-seed                                    244
    tulip tree                                   234
      figure of                                  235
    willow                                       224
      figure of                                  223
    wistaria                                     225
      American                                   225
        figure of                                225
      Chinese                                    225
        figure of                                226
  Pliny                                           44
  Poison from Sting                               12
    innoculation of                               12
  Poison Sack                                     95
  Pollen                                         111
    function of                                  112
    how carried                                  111
    nature of                                    111
    source of                                    111
    where deposited                              112
  Preparation for Apiculture                     117
    college course                               118
    plan                                         118
    read                                         117
    visit                                        117
  Products of Bees                               104
    comb                                         108
      figure of                                  109
    honey                                        104
    pollen or bee-bread                          111
    propolis or bee-glue                         112
    wax                                          106
  Products of Insects                            104
  Propolis or Bee-Glue                           112
    function of                                  113
    nature of                                    112
    source of                                    112
  Publications                                    19
    American Bee Journal                          19
    Bee-Keepers' Magazine                         21
    Gleanings in Bee Culture                      20
  Pupa                                            68
    figure of                                     69

  Queen                                           71
    brood from eggs                          78, 164
    cages                                        184
    cell                                          75
      figure of                             109, 167
      introduction of                            167
        figure of                                167
      when started                               164
      where built                                164
        figure of                                109
    clipping wing of                             168
      how done                                   169
      not injurious                              168
      why done                                   169
    cocoon of                                     77
    development of                                75
    eggs of                                   80, 81
      how impregnated                             81
        Wagner's theory                           81
    fecundity of                              83, 84
    figure of                                     72
    food of larvæ                                 76
    function of                                   83
    how procured                                 185
    importance of                                163
    impregnation of                               78
      only on the wing                            79
    introduction of                              183
    laying of                                     82
    longevity of                                  83
    must have empty cells                        188
    never to be wanting                     163, 176
    never to be poor                             186
    no sovereign                                  85
    ovaries of                                    72
      figure of                                   64
    oviduct of                                    64
    piping of                                    102
    rearing of                          78, 163, 186
    sex of                                        71
    shipping                                     186
    size of                                       72
    spermatheca of                                72
    sterility of                                  83
    sting of                                      71
    tongue of                                     73
      figure of                                   73
    wings of                                      73
  Queen Cells                                     75
    figure of                               109, 167
    how secured                                  164
    introduction of                              167
      figure of                                  167
  Queen Rearing                             163, 186
  Queen Shipping                                 186
    cage for                                     186
      figure of                                  187
  Queen White Ant                                 84
    fecundity of                                  84
  Quilt                                          136
  Quinby, M.                                     138
  Quinby Hive                                    139
    figure of                                    139
  Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-keeping               22
  Quinby Smoker                                  198
    figure of                                    199

  Rabbets for Hive                               125
    of tin                                       125
  Races of the Honey-Bee                          41
    Egyptian                                      43
    German or black                               41
    Italian or Ligurian                           41
      history of                                  41
      characters of                               42
      superiority of                             181
    other                                         43
  Ray                                             44
  Réaumur                                         45
  Respiration                                     59
  Riley's Reports                                 47
  Robbing                                        258
    how checked                                  258
    how prevented                                259
    when to fear                                 258
  Rocky Mountain Bee Plant                       238
    figure of                                    239
  Royal Jelly                                     76
  Russell Hive                                   141

  Salicylic Acid                                 261
    use of                                       261
  Sage                                           232
    white                                        226
      figure of                                  227
  Sawdust                                        154
  Saws                                           151
    Barnes'                                      151
    foot-power                                   151
  Second Swarms                                  102
  Secretion                                       62
  Secretory Organs                                61
  Sections                                       147
    dove-tail                                    147
      figure of                                  146
    Hetherington                                 146
      glassing                                   146
    Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger                     147
      figure of                                  147
    veneer                                       144
      glassing                                   145
  Section Block                                  145
    figure of                                    145
  Section Frame                                  147
    figure of                                    148
    where placed                                 148
  Section Rack                                   149
    Doolittle                                    151
    figure of                               150, 151
    Southard & Ranney's                          150
    use of                                       149
    Wheeler                                      151
  Senses of Insects                               51
    hearing                                       51
    seeing                                        54
    smelling                                      52
    feeling                                       51
  Separators                                146, 150
    figure of                                    146
    tin                                          148
      figure of                             149, 150
    wooden                                       146
      figure of                                  146
  Shade for Hives                                153
    ever-greens                                  154
    grape-vines                                  153
    houses                                       153
    use of                                       153
      prevents idleness                          153
      prevents melting of comb                   153
  Smokers                                        198
    bellows                                      198
      how used                                   201
    Bingham                                      199
      figure of                                  199
    Quinby                                       193
      figure of                                  199
  Sour-wood                                      240
  Spanish Needles                                244
  Specialists                                     11
  Species of the Honey-Bee                        41
  Spermatheca                                     65
  Spiders                                        271
  Spiracles                                       59
  Spring Dwindling                               254
  Starting an Apiary                             117
  Sting                                           95
    figure of                                     95
  Stingless Bees                                  35
  Stings                                         201
    cure of                                      201
  St. John's Wort                                240
  Stomach                                         60
    sucking                                       60
    true                                          60
  Sub-Order                                       31
    Hymenoptera                                   31
    of the honey-bee                              31
  Sumac                                          226
  Sun-Flower                                     243
  Swammerdam                                      44
  Swarming                                  101, 171
    after-swarms                                 103
    clustering                                   103
    drone-brood started                          101
    old colony--how known                        102
    preparation for                              101
      drone-brood                                101
      queen cells                                101
    prevented                                    176
    when to expect                               176
  Swarms                                         172
    hiving                                       173
      easy method                                172
    second                                       172
      how prevented                              172

  Tachina Fly                                    270
    figure of                                    270
  Tailor-Bee                                      36
  Teasel                                         235
    figure of                                    236
  Thorax of Insects                               48
    appendages of                                 55
  Tick-Seed                                      244
  Toads                                          272
  Tongue                                          49
  Trachea                                     28, 59
    figure of                                     28
  Transferring                                   156
    method of                                    160
    when easiest                                 156
  Transformations of Insects                      66
    incomplete                                    70
  Trigona                                         35
  Tulip Tree                                     234
    figure of                                    235

  Uniting                                        253
    when advisable                               253

  Varieties of the Honey-Bee--see races           41
  Veil                                           196
    figure of                                    196
  Virgil                                          44

  Wagner                                          19
  Wagner's Theory                                 81
  Wasps                                          271
    remedies for                                 272
  Water for Bees                                  98
  Wax                                            106
    composition of                               107
    function of                                  108
    how secured                                  211
    importance of                                211
    source of                                    106
  Wax Extractor                                  212
    figure of                                    212
  Wax Pockets                                    106
    figure of                                    106
  Weiss' Foundation Machine                      204
    figure of                                    205
  Westwood on Insects                             47
  Willow                                         224
    figure of                                    223
  Wings                                           65
    clipping                                     168
    figure of                                     38
    of drone                                      86
    of queen                                      73
    of worker                                     92
      figure of                                   38
  Wintering                                      246
    requisites to safe                           248
      absorbents above bees                      253
      chaff hives                                261
      chamber contracted                         253
      colonies prepared                          248
      depositories for                           252
        cellar                                   232
        house                                    252
        house apiary                             255
      good food                                  248
      late breeding                              249
      packing-box                                250
        figure of                                250
      protected if left out                      250
    why disastrous                               246
      excessive moisture                         248
      extremes of temperature                    247
      spring dwindling                           254
      too early cessation of storing             247
      unwholesome food                           247
  Women as Bee-Keepers                            15
  Workers--see Neuters                            90
    fertile                                   77, 90
  Wistaria                                       225
    American                                     225
      figure of                                  225
    Chinese                                      225
      figure of                                  226

  Xylocopa                                        36


INDEX TO APPENDIX.


  Bark Louse                                     286
    of Tulip Tree                                286
  Bee Enemies                               286, 293
  Berlepsch                                      284

  Debeauvoys' Hive                               282
  Della Rocca                                    283
  Dzierzon                                       283
  Dzierzon Hive                                  283

  Fossil Honey Comb                              301
    figures of                              301, 302

  Grecian Hives                                  278

  Harbison Hive                                  284
  History of Movable Frames                      278
  Hives                                          278
    Berlepsch                                    284
    Debeauvoys                                   282
    Della Rocca                                  283
    Dzierzon                                     283
    Harbison                                     284
    Huber                                        278
    Langstroth                                   283
    Munn                                         279
      figures of                            279, 280
    Schirach                                     283
    Schmidt                                      281
    Shaw                                         282

  Insects                                   286, 293
    Laphria thoracica                            300
    Lecanium tulipiferæ                          286
    Mallophora bomboides                         297
    Mallophora orcina                            297
    Phymata erosa                                293

  Japan Medlar                                   293

  Kleine                                         281

  Langstroth Hive                                283
  Laphria thoracica                              300
  Lecanium tulipiferæ                            286
    figure of                                    288

  Mallophora bomboides                           297
      "      orcina                              297
  Motherwort                                     289
    figures of                         289, 290, 291
  Munn Hive                                      279
    figures of                              279, 280

  Phymata erosa                                  293
    figures of                         294, 295, 296
  Plants                                         289
    Japan medlar                                 293
    Motherwort                                   289
    Sour-wood                                    293

  Réaumur                                        278

  Schmidt's Hive                                 281
  Schirach's hive                                283
  Shaw's Hive                                    282
  Sourwood                                       292
    figure of                                    292
  Southern Bee-killers                           297
    figures of                              297, 298
  Stinging Bug                                   293
    figures of                         294, 295, 296
  Swammerdam                                     278

  Triangular Hive                                280
    figure of                                    280


                  =COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.=

                        =NOTICES BY THE PRESS.=

Needs no recommendation--recommends itself.--_Western Rural_, Chicago.

This work is exceedingly valuable--indeed indispensable to
apiarists.--_Voice of Masonry._

Treating the art in all its different branches in a clear, concise and
interesting manner.--_The Canadian Entomologist._

It is the fullest, most practical, and most satisfactory treatise on
the subject now before the public.--_Country Gentleman._

It contains the latest developments of science connected with
bee-culture and honey production.--_Chicago Evening Journal._

It contains the latest scientific discoveries in apiarian management
and bee-keeping apparatus.--_Prairie Farmer, Chicago._

The latest, fullest, most practical and satisfactory treatise on the
subject, now before the public.--_Lambton_, (Canada) _Advocate_.

Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear,
exhaustive, yet pithy and practical manner.--_Rural New Yorker._

It is both a practical and scientific discussion, and nothing that
could interest the bee-raiser is left unsaid.--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._

The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only one
illustrating the various bee plants.--_Lansing_ (Mich.) _Republican_.

Prof. Cook is an entomologist, a botanist, a ready writer, a passionate
lover of the honey-bee, and his new work savors of all these
qualities.--_Standard_, New Bedford, Mass.

I feel like thanking God that we have such a man as Prof. Cook to take
hold of the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he has
done it.--_Gleanings in Bee Culture._

It is a book which does credit to our calling; one that every
bee-keeper may welcome as a fit exponent of the science which gives
pleasure to all who are engaged in it.--_American Bee Journal._

The honey-bee comes with the perfume of summer flowers, and one of
its best friends, A. J. Cook, has written its history and habits in a
handsomely illustrated volume.--_American Poultry Journal._

It is just what might have been expected from the distinguished
author--a work acceptable to the ordinary bee-man, and a delight to the
student of scientific apiculture.--_Bee Keepers' Magazine._

Cook's new "Manual of the Apiary," comes with high encomiums from
America; and certainly it appears to have cut the ground from under
future book makers, for some time to come.--_British Bee Journal._

It is the most complete and practical treatise on bee-culture in Europe
or America. The arrangement is successive, and every topic is lucidly
treated in the Professor's blithesome, light-hearted, pithy, suggestive
style.--_Post and Tribune_, Detroit, Mich.

The typography and general execution of the work is handsome and neat,
and altogether we have a work that may be safely recommended as the
Manual of the Apiarist--the book, par excellence, to which all may
revert with both pleasure and profit, for instruction in the management
of the apiary.--_Michigan Farmer._

It must rank with Henderson's manuals, and share with them the praise
of being an indispensable adjunct to every specialist's library. It is
a scientific, practical book, a book of "how to do" and "why to do,"
tersely written, yet fully expressed; a book to the credit of American
literature.--_Scientific Farmer_, Boston.

[Finger] It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper
and superbly illustrated. Price, bound in cloth, =$1.25;= in paper,
=$1.00,= postpaid. Per dozen: cloth, $12.00; paper, $9.50.

                =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,=

             =972 and 974 West Madison Street, CHICAGO.=


                            [Illustration]

                     =THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL,=

         =Is an elegant fifty-two paged Illustrated Monthly,=

                 DEVOTED EXCLUSIVELY TO BEE-CULTURE,

=At $1.50 per annum, in advance; Sample Copy. 10c.=

  _Capt. J. E. Hetherington Cherry Valley, N. Y., says: The readers of
  the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL and its Present management are, I think, fit
  Subjects for congratulation. You certainly give us a good paper, and
  none of us hesitate to recommend it to the extent of saying that no
  bee-keeper, great or small, can afford to do without it._

I find the Bee Journal an excellent companion and adviser.--L. M.
Wainwright, Noblesville, Ind.

The Bee Journal is the largest and best bee paper published.--D. L.
Franklin, Boone Co., N. Y.

It has saved me $56.25 in hives alone, to say nothing of the other
information.--R. Matthews, Pontiac, Ill.

You have worked up the American Bee Journal almost to
perfection.--Orion Siggins, West Hickory, Pa.

I would not do without the American Bee Journal for three times its
price.--J. E. Kearns, Waterloo, Pa.

I have learned more from it, of how to handle bees, than from all other
sources.--R. Corbett, Malden, Ill.

I consider the Bee Journal the _best_ bee publication--having read them
all.--J. E. Hunter, Jones Co., Iowa.

The Journal grows better every month. No bee man should be without
it.--John Barfoot, New Canton, Ill.

I do not see how any one can do with out it. I have had bees for 40
years.--A. M. Burnett, Valley Mills, Texas.

The Bee Journal comes loaded with good things. I can not see how it
is possible to make it so much better every month.--T. J. Ward, St.
Mary's, Ind.

If you keep on improving the Bee Journal as you have within the past
year, it must soon become the _ne plus ultra_ of bee literature the
World over.--O. W. Speer, Easton, Pa.

I am among the many who are glad that the American Bee Journal fell
into the hands of those who have no hobbies to ride nor axes to grind.
I only express the views of many others.--F. A. Snell, Milledgeville,
Ill.

           _PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST DAY OF EVERY MONTH, BY_

    =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 972 & 974 W. Madison St., Chicago.=


                      =THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL=

                       =APPRECIATIVE NOTICES.=

It is the most valuable publication on bee-culture in America.--_Sun_,
Anoka, Minn.

It is authority in all matters pertaining to
bee-culture.--_Republican_, Mason City, Iowa.

It stands at the head of American publications devoted to
bee-culture.--_Patriot_, Springfield, Mo.

It is a complete guide to those interested in
bee-culture.--_Everybody's Ledger_, Lewiston, Pa.

It is most valuable, and will always find a hearty welcome in every
apiary.--_Herald_, Los Angeles, Cal.

The American Bee Journal; is a publication of great value to all honey
producers.--_Daily News_, Danville, Va.

We recommend the American Bee Journal, as the ablest bee paper in the
United States.--_Farmers' Home Journal._

It is progressive, interesting and valuable to every one who keeps
bees, and is ably edited.--_Agriculturist_, Quincy, Ill.

It is full of useful suggestions and instructive articles to every one
interested in honey producing.--_Democrat_, Allegan, Mich.

It is full to overflowing with matters pertaining to the successful
management of the little honey producers--a thoroughly live
periodical.--_Standard_, New Bedford, Mass.

The Journal surpasses itself; each issue improves upon the last, in
the bright, cheerful appearance and instructive influence of its whole
composition.--W. Williamson, Lexington, Ky.

The American Bee Journal is increasing in influence with each number.
It is a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper, and should be taken and
read by all interested in bee-culture.--_Standard_, Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

I hail the coming of the Bee Journal with joy. It is the greatest light
we have on bee-culture, bringing ideas, not only from the editor, but
from all the other experienced bee men of the land.--L. A. Taber,
Holyoke, Mass.

In its department of journalism, the American Bee Journal stands
without a rival. Devoted exclusively to bee-culture and the production
of pure honey, its columns are filled with such matter as a keeper of
bees can read and profit by. Its table of contents is as full as it is
interesting.--_Gazette_, Lewiston, Pa.

The American Bee Journal ought to be taken by all bee-keepers; it is
neatly printed and replete in useful information about bees and honey.
It fully describes the habits of those busy extractors of sweets from
flowers and herbs, whose products, with the yield from our cows, makes
our land literally flow with "milk and honey."--_Maryland Farmer._

The Bee Journal is pre-eminently above all its competitors. It is
full of fire, enterprise and vim; it discusses the various questions
pertaining to bee-culture with spirit and energetic thought; it is
an honor to its Editor and to the interest which sustains it. It has
no individual axe to grind, but is the fearless champion of all that
is useful and good; steadfast, unwavering, honest; never vacillating
or swerving; but true, as the needle to the pole, to the interest of
bee-keepers. It should be supported by every one interested in bees or
honey.--American Grocer.


                =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,=

               =972 and 974 West Madison St., CHICAGO.=


                   =Ha! Ha! Ha! Just What I Want!=

[Illustration]

The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association, having all the Smokers before
it, "pronounced Bingham's Patent Smoker the best."

J P Moore, of Binghamton, New York, after using one some time, said:
"My Smoker troubles are all over, and the bee-keepers owe you a debt of
gratitude."

Professor Cook, of Michigan Agricultural College, says: "It is the best
in the market."

R. M. Argo, Lowell, Kentucky, says: "It is all that any bee-keeper
could desire."

Paul L. Viallon, Bayou Goula, Louisiana, writes, April 6th, 1878: "Your
Smokers are far superior to any ever invented; and we bee-keepers owe
you a vote of thanks for your Ingenious invention. Many may try to
improve on yours, but I am positive none will make a better one."

This is the first and only bellows Smoker ever made which would burn
stove-wood. It burns anything combustible, and needs no care except
to be refilled once in one or two hours. Works easy, and will throw a
stream of smoke ten feet. It will not go out or wear out. It will save
time, stings and money, and perhaps a valuable horse.

The inventor is the only party having a right to manufacture said
Smoker, and it is safe to buy of him.

  Large size,    2½ inch, by mail =$1.75=
  Standard size, 2 inch,  by mail =$1.50=
  Small size,    1¾ inch,     "   =$1.00=

Address, =T. F. BINGHAM, Otsego, Allegan Co., Mich.=

       *       *       *       *       *

=BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S HONEY KNIFE.=

[Illustration]

These knives are peculiarly constructed, and of the best steel, finish
and temper. To secure the credit of our invention and enable us to
furnish them cheaply, and of standard excellence to bee-keepers, we
have had them patented.

In use, if the combs are held upright the caps are carried away from
the combs so they never touch them after being cut off. If the combs
are laid on a table to uncap, the movable cap-catcher gathers the wide
sheet of caps in a roll, and easily carries all that the largest combs
contain without dropping one upon the comb after being cut off. The
blade is two inches wide; but as only the edge rests on the combs, they
uncap the most delicate combs without tearing, and work as easily as if
only one-fourth inch wide.

  Sent singly, per express, for =$1.00,=
  With Movable Cap-catcher, =$1.25.=

As knives are not carried in the mail, we make 10 per cent, reduction
from _regular retail rates_ to clubs and others who send the money for
three or more, to be sent in one package. [Finger] Send for circular.
Address,

=BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S, Otsego, Mich.=

       *       *       *       *       *

Lansing, Mich., Feb. 11, 1879.--After a thorough trial of your honey
knife here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any
other that we have used, though we have several of the principal knives
made in the United States.

  A. J. Cook.

Middlefield, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1879.--I have been using your two-inch
uncapping knife the past season. For rapidity and ease in operating,
they far excel any knife I have ever used. Its shape and beveled edges
make it perfect for uncapping uneven and crooked combs. It works
equally well with either right or left stroke. We uncapped hundreds of
combs in piece boxes, and both my associates and myself have come to
the conclusion that they facilitate the labor fully one-half, and are
perfection itself, leaving nothing to be desired.

  A. G. Murphy.

Cherry Valley, N. Y., Jan. 5, 1879.--I received the knives all right,
and on account of their superiority I feel that you, and bee-keepers as
well, are entitled to a report on them. For my own use I much prefer
them to any knife I have ever uncapped with, for the reason that I
can uncap much more honey. A better test is in the hands of three or
four of my men who used them for several consecutive days, and without
exception pronounced them the best knives I owned. One even went so
far as to insist that he could uncap one-third; faster than with any
other knife I had, and when uncapping prize boxes he satisfactorily
demonstrated it. You may send me half a dozen for my own apiaries.

  J. E. Hetherington.

The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association especially recommends the Bingham
& Hetherington Honey Knife and the Bingham Smoker.


=Muth's All-Metal Honey Extractor.=

Patented Sept. 24th, 1878.

[Illustration]

Every bee-keeper is aware of the advantages afforded by a judicious
use of the Honey Extractor. The inventions of the movable comb frames
by Rev. L. L. Langstroth, and that of the Honey Extractor by Major v.
Hruschka, are the greatest achievements in the apiary. They have made
it possible to multiply our practical results tenfold, and to put a
system to bee-culture.

Quite a number of different styles of extractors have been made since
their first invention, about 10 or 12 years ago. Mine differs from
others by the slanting sides of the comb basket, arranged above a
receptacle for honey in the same tin can, and with a substantial
gearing which requires not more than the strength of a child to work
the machine all day with ease; frames of different sizes, but smaller
than the comb-basket, and pieces of comb without a frame, are placed
against the slanting sides, and without being fastened, emptied of
their contents completely, and, to the uninitiated, in an incredulous
short time.

The cells having a downward tendency, empty more readily, both in
top and bottom of frames, than when in a vertical position, as every
practical test will show, and the flying of honey, in the shape of a
fine spray, over the top of the can is prevented.

There is a receptacle for 60 lbs. or more of honey in the extractor,
according to the depth of the comb-basket, which can be made of any
size desired--for instance, for Langstroth's and Quinby's frames, the
comb-basket is 18½ inches deep, and the receiver holds about 65 lbs.
of honey. If the American frame is the largest to be extracted, the
comb-basket is only 12 inches deep, while the extractor holds about 140
lbs. of honey before it touches the revolving basket and needs to be
drawn off by the iron faucet at the bottom.

My standard size of comb-basket is 12¼ × 18½ inches, and admits the
Langstroth, Quinby and American frames. When ordering, please state the
largest size of frames used.

When, after the honey season, a number of small frames are unfinished,
six of them can be piled against each side of the comb-basket for
extraction; or, short comb-holders, which are sent with each Extractor,
may be hung on each side, and only four sections emptied at one time.

Extracting two large frames at one time is much the handiest
arrangement, and generally satisfies the most ambitious; but the
Extractor can be made large enough to hold four frames, at an
additional cost of $2.50. A close-fitting cover keeps dust, flies and
bees out when extracting is over. I was obliged to cover my improvement
with a patent, merely to protect my interest.

My Extractor is second to none for all practical purposes, and one of
the cheapest in the market in consideration of material and workmanship.

=Muth's Uncapping Knife,=

[Illustration: IS THIN-BLADED, OF THE BEST STEEL, HANDY FOR THE
PURPOSES INTENDED AND CHEAP.]

               =PRICE FOR EXTRACTOR AND KNIFE, $12.00.=

                   For further particulars, address

                     =C. F. MUTH, Cincinnati, O.=


                           =BARNES' PATENT=

                       =FOOT-POWER MACHINERY.=

                    _Fifteen Different Machines,_

With which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon Makers, and Jobbers in
Miscellaneous work, can compete as to _Quality_ and _Price_ with
steam-power machinery.

WILL SEND MACHINES ON TRIAL IF DESIRED.

_Every Bee-Keeper should have an outfit from these Machines for
hive-making._

[Illustration]

We give the following letter from Mr. W. P. Hogarty, of Wyandotte,
Kans., to show their usefulness. He says: "If any criticise your
circular saw, you can tell them I use it, and with one hand, made all
my bee hives for ninety-five stands of bees, including frames and
section brace, and I feel perfectly able to do the work for one hundred
and fifty stands." * * * "In order that you may know the amount of
work on each of my hives, will say, they are two feet long, by two
feet high, by about two feet wide. They are double walled and double
bottomed, with two inch intervening; and in addition to the nine
frames, there are fifteen cases, each case containing two honey boxes
and two division boards, and three boxes to contain chaff for winter
protection. You will see there is an immense amount of sawing to be
done, but I have found your saw equal to the task required of it."

We will send our illustrated catalogue FREE on application. Say where
you read this, and address

                         W. F. & JOHN BARNES,

                   _Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill._




                       NEW LANGSTROTH BEE HIVE,

                       WITH MANIPULATING SIDE.

This Improvement in the old Langstroth Hive Is exceedingly valuable,
as it allows the closest watching of a colony with the greatest ease
and comfort. By turning the thumb-screw (L) and opening the movable
side (which takes but an instant), frames can be examined, by removing
the loose side-board (M), the bottom-board may be cleaned--giving the
advantages claimed for a loose bottom-board, without its disadvantages.

This Hive is a combination the Langstroth Hive and North Star Hive--as
pated June 5, 1877--and, no doubt, will gain universal approbation as
soon as its advantages are known.

The New Langstroth hive is peculiarly adapted for the production of
comb honey--its Honey Rack is the best in use, and is adapted to the
use of the Prize Boxes. It holds 18 Prize Boxes, with the separators
between them, marked B B in the cut. The wedge (A) holds all with a
vise-like grasp. The outer boxes are glassed as they stand on the hive
(C C C). By removing the wedge (A) any box may be instantly removed,
examined, returned, or replaced by an empty one--the spaces between the
rows readily admitting the fingers for that purpose.

=SAMPLE NEW LANGSTROTH HIVE=--Nailed, Not Painted.

    No. 1.--Brood Chamber, 10 frames, portico, 7½-inch cap--no
       surplus arrangement                                         $2 00

    No. 2.--Same as No. 1, with Comb-Honey Back, complete, same as
       shown by the above cuts                                      3 00

    No. 3.--Same as No. 1, but having 20 frames, and Comb-Honey
       Back--a complete 3-story hive                                3 75

    No. 4.--Brood Chamber, 10 frames, and 7-inch story, with 7
       cases containing Prize Boxes and tin Separators, for
       surplus Honey, with 2-inch cap                               3 00

    No. 5.--Same as No. 4--but having 10 extra frames--a complete
       3-story hive                                                 3 75

    No. 6.--Brood Chamber, with 10 extra frames, for extracting,
       and 2-inch cap,                                              3 00

[Finger] _If painted, add $1.00 each._ [Finger2]

=MATERIAL FOR NEW LANGSTROTH HIVES.=

CUT, READY TO NAIL-(14⅛ × 18⅜ inches inside).

  In lots of  5 No. 1--(one-story), $1 25
       "     10   "        "         1 20
       "     25   "        "         1 10
       "     50   "        "         1 05
       "    100   "        "         1 00

  In lots of  5 No. 6--(two-story), $1 80
       "     10   "        "         1 70
       "     25   "        "         1 60
       "     50   "        "         1 53
       "    100   "        "         1 50

=MATERIAL FOR LANGSTROTH FRAMES.=

CUT, READY TO NAIL--(9⅛ × 17⅝ inches outside).

    100 frames              $1 50
  1,000 frames             $14 00
  6,000 frames, per 1,000  $12 00

[Finger] For sale at wholesale and retail. Address

=SPERRY & CHANDLER, 974 W. Madison St., CHICAGO,=

_Or at the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL OFFICE._


[Illustration]

PRICES TO SUIT THE TIMES. LANGSTROTH AND MODEST HIVES FOR THE MILLION!

                      HONEY BOXES AND SECTIONS,

            Plain and dove-tailed, are large specialties.

=COMB FOUNDATION,=

We are producing in large quantities, and of superior quality. Our
facilities are such that we can supply in any quantity desired on short
notice, and all favoring us with their orders shall have prompt and
satisfactory attention.

=WAX TO BE MADE INTO FOUNDATION.=

Lots of 100 lbs. and upwards sent us, with 12½c. per lb., freight
prepaid, will be made up and cut to any size, and delivered on board
cars here.

=ITALIAN QUEENS!=

The superiority of the Queens reared in our apiaries is so well
established, we shall not here detail their merits; but to those
wishing honey-producing stock, combined with prolificness, we will say
they are not beaten.

  Dowagiac, Michigan, November 20, 1878.

In regard to your bees, if you were my enemy, and I had anything to
say about your stock, I should say the truth, that I count yours worth
more than twice that or any of the numerous strains that I have tested.
They converted me to yellow bees,, notwithstanding that they are not
near as yellow as those I had formerly. I advise you not to buy, or
take as a gift, any other blood; but just stand right where you are,
and perfect the strain by carefully breeding out any imperfections
that may show themselves, and breeding in all the good qualities your
bees now possess. I shall do the same, purchasing of none but you. I
have hybrids crossed by your stock, that are quiet, good-natured, and
splendid comb-builders and storers.

  Yours truly. JAMES HEDDON.

_Extractors, Smokers, Bee Veils,_

and everything needed in the apiary, supplied at the lowest living
rates. Order your goods early, remembering that large yields of honey
are only obtained by having everything ready for securing it.

=J. OATMAN & SONS, Dundee, Ill.=


                     =THE BEST IS THE CHEAPEST!=

                            COFFINBERRY'S

                     =EXCELSIOR HONEY EXTRACTOR!=

                   From Eight to Fourteen Dollars.

Having made several improvements in the EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR for 1879,
it is now offered to the Bee-Keepers of America as the MOST PERFECT
MACHINE IN THE MARKET. The universal favor with which the EXCELSIOR
EXTRACTOR was received in 1878, has induced other manufacturers to
adopt several of its improvements. My experience and experiments of
last season, with the assistance and suggestions of skillful workmen,
have enabled me to perfect an Extractor that =cannot be excelled, and
can only be equaled by being closely imitated=.

The Excelsior is made entirely of metal, and is consequently very
light, strong and durable, with lugs at the bottom for firmly attaching
to the floor if desired.

The strong over-motion gearing, so necessary to ease in running and
speedy operating, was designed and is manufactured expressly for the
Excelsior. A child ten years of age can operate the machine as rapidly
as it can be supplied with combs.

The top or cross-band, to which is attached the gearing, is wrought
iron, three inches broad, with the ends turned down in such manner as
to thoroughly brace and strengthen the can, and holding the basket
firmly in an upright position.

The Comb Basket having vertical sides, insures the extracting power
alike for top and bottom of frames. The sides of the basket being
movable and interchangeable, greatly facilitate the operation of
dusting before and thoroughly cleaning after use if desired.

The basket can be taken from or replaced in the can in a moment, there
being no rusty screws to take out or nuts to remove.

At the bottom of the can, and below the basket, is a cone or metal
standard, in the top of which revolves the bottom pivot of the basket,
thereby giving room for sixty or seventy pounds of honey without
touching the basket or pivot below.

Nos. 3, 4 and 5 have strainers covering the canal leading to the
faucet, which obviate the delay of several hours in waiting for the
honey to settle, and the tedious and wasteful process of skimming. The
faucet being below the bottom level of the honey, renders unnecessary
the usual tipping and wrenching incident to drawing off the honey.
These also have close-fitting metal covers, which entirely exclude
dust, dirt, flies and bees when not in use.

The baskets of Nos. 4 and 5 have no center rod running from top to
bottom, which will be found very convenient by those who uncap both
sides of the comb before putting in the basket, as they can be turned
without removal.

The strong iron handles placed at the sides, a little above the center,
are completely side-braced, and add much to convenience in handling.

The wire baskets are very neat specimens of skillful workmanship,
thoroughly braced at every point where experience has proven it to be
most requisite, and nothing has been omitted that could add to its
efficiency.

The No. 4, for =three= frames, has a triangular basket, movable sides,
no center rod, runs smoothly regardless of number of frames, and is
fast superseding the demand for four-sided baskets.

=A LOWER PRICED MACHINE.=

A cheaper machine being called for by those having but few colonies,
and not making a specialty of bee-keeping, I have made a special size
to take the Langstroth frame, and one for the American, to sell at
=$8.00= each. These have no covers or strainer, and are smaller than
the $12.00 and $14.00 sizes, but for the frames named are equal to the
others for effective work, and are the =best cheap Extractors made=.

=Sizes and Prices:=

  No. 1.--For 2 Langstroth frames, 10 × 18 inches                    $8 00
   "  2.--For 2 American frames, 13 × 13 inches                       8 00
   "  3.--For 2 frames, 13 × 20 inches, or less
                (which embraces all standard sizes)                  12 00
   "  4.--For 3   "        "      "       "                          12 00
   "  5.--For 4   "        "      "       "                          14 00

[Finger] A liberal discount to dealers in Bee-Keepers' supplies and to
parties ordering in quantity. Address, =C. C. COFFINBERRY, Chicago,
Ill.,=

Or =American Bee Journal, Chicago, Ill.=, where samples can be seen.


        REV. A. SALISBURY.                     JOHN M. HAYES.

                         =SALISBURY & HAYES,=

                            [Illustration]

                            Propagators of

                        FINE QUEENS AND BEES,

                 From Imported and Home-bred Mothers.

                 =Manufacturers of Comb Foundation,=

                                HIVES,

                        =Surplus Honey Boxes,=

                     _QUEEN SHIPPING CAGES, &c._

             =Dealers in ALL NECESSARY APIARY SUPPLIES.=

    All work executed in good style, and prices to suit the times.

      [Finger] Send for Circular.

                         =SALISBURY & HAYES,=

                   _Camargo, Douglas County, Ill._

       *       *       *       *       *

             FRIENDS! If you are in any way interested in

                            Bees or Honey!

         We will with pleasure send you a sample copy of our

                  MONTHLY GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE,

     With a Descriptive Price-List of the latest improvements in

              HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS, ARTIFICIAL COMB,

                        =SECTION HONEY BOXES,=

  All books and journals, and everything pertaining to bee culture.

                  *       *       *       *       *

                           NOTHING PATENTED

                  *       *       *       *       *

    Simply send your address on a postal card, written plainly, to

                     =A. I. ROOT, Medina, Ohio.=


                            [Illustration]

                          HALLOCK & CHANDLER

                        DESIGNERS AND ENGRAVER

                               ON WOOD

                          89 Madison Street,

                     Corner of Dearborn, Chicago.

[Finger] Mr. Chandler, of the above firm, being a practical bee-keeper,
will personally supervise the execution of all designs and engravings
for bee-keepers and dealers in apiarian supplies.

[Finger] _Prices Moderate and Satisfaction Guaranteed._ [Finger2]

       *       *       *       *       *

                      =Italian Bees and Queens,=

                           COMB FOUNDATION,

                      =HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS,=

                _SURPLUS HONEY BOXES OF EVERY STYLE,_

                          =FOOT-POWER SAWS,=

   BEE SMOKERS, SEEDS FOR HONEY PLANTS, CASES AND RACKS FOR HIVES,
             SHIPPING CRATES. HONEY KNIVES, QUEEN CAGES,

                =AND EVERYTHING USEFUL IN AN APIARY.=

    [Finger] Our Illustrated Catalogue of Implements for the Apiary,
     SENT FREE.

    Address, =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,= =972 and 974 West Madison St.,
    Chicago.=


                    =PUBLICATIONS FOR THE APIARY,=

                      FOR SALE AT THE OFFICE OF

                     _The American Bee Journal,_

               =974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.=

       *       *       *       *       *

=COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.=

This is a new edition of Prof. Cook's Manual of the Apiary, entirely
re-written, greatly enlarged and superbly illustrated.

Being new, it is fully up with the times on every conceivable subject
that interests the apiarist. It is not only instructive, but intensely
interesting.

It comprises a full delineation of the anatomy and physiology of the
Honey-Bee, illustrated with costly wood engravings, full descriptions
of honey-producing plants, trees and shrubs, &c., splendidly
illustrated--and last, though not least, detailed instructions for the
successful accomplishment of all the various manipulations necessary in
the apiary.

This work is a masterly production, and one that no bee-keeper, however
limited his means, can afford to do without.

It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper,
and superbly illustrated throughout. Price, bound in cloth, $1.25,
postpaid; in paper binding, $1.00, postpaid.


=THE HIVE AND HONEY-BEE, by L. L. Langstroth.=

This is a standard volume, well illustrated and nicely printed. Price,
$2.00.


=MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING, by M. Quinby.=

The author has treated the subject of Bee-Keeping in a manner that
cannot fail to interest all who read this work. Price, $1.50.


=THE DZIERZON THEORY; being a full elucidation of Scientific
Bee-Keeping.=

This "theory" presents in the form of distinct propositions, the
fundamental principles of bee-culture, and in this work the late Baron
of Berlepsch furnishes a condensed statement of the facts and arguments
by which these propositions are demonstrated. It is of untold value to
beginners and all others who desire to study the subject of apiculture.
It is just what thousands want.

It contains 60 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price,
postpaid, 20 cents, or three copies for 50 cents.


=HONEY, AS FOOD AND MEDICINE, by the Editor of the American Bee
Journal.=

This is a pamphlet of 24 pages, discoursing upon the Ancient History
of Bees and Honey; the nature, quality, sources, and preparation of
Honey for the Market; Honey, as an article of Food, giving recipes for
making Honey Cakes, Cookies, Puddings, Foam, Wines, &c.; and Honey
as Medicine, followed by many useful Recipes. It is intended for
consumers, and should be scattered by thousands all over the country,
and thus assist in creating a demand for honey.--Prices: Single copies,
10 cents postpaid; 15 copies for $1.00 by mail, postpaid; 100 copies,
with name and address of honey-producer printed on them, $5.00 by mail,
postpaid; 250 copies, by express, at 4 cents each; 500 or more copies,
by express, at 3 cents each. It is published in German also at the same
prices.


=WINTERING BEES; How to do it Successfully.=

This contains all the Prize Essays on this important subject that were
read before the Centennial Bee-Keepers' Association. The prize ($25 in
gold) was awarded to Prof. Cook's Essay, which is reported in full in
this pamphlet.

It contains 30 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, 15
cents, or five copies for 50 cents.


=SPECIAL EDITION of the Journal.=

Containing the Official Report of the Proceedings of the National
Convention, hold in New York, Oct., 16-18, 1877, with all the Essays
and Discussions,--together with a description of the implements for the
Apiary, on exhibition at the American Institute Fair.--Price 10 cents.

[Finger] _Send by Postal Money Order, Draft or Registered Letter at our
risk._

                      =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,=

               _974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill,_


       *       *       *       *       *


Transcriber Note

Minor typos corrected. Discrepancies between the table of Contents'
section titles and that displayed in the Chapter were corrected. The
Illustrations list ended at number 110 but the volume has 133 numbered
illustrations. So, a copy of the list for numbers 111 to 133 was
appended from the Seventh Edition.