HINTS TO TRAVELLERS

                         SCIENTIFIC AND GENERAL

                              TENTH EDITION
                         _REVISED AND CORRECTED_

                  FROM THE NINTH EDITION EDITED FOR THE
                Council of the Royal Geographical Society
                                   BY
                    E. A. REEVES, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
          _Map Curator and Instructor in Surveying to the Royal
                         Geographical Society._

                                VOL. II.

               METEOROLOGY, PHOTOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, NATURAL
                   HISTORY, ANTHROPOLOGY, INDUSTRY AND
                   COMMERCE, ARCHÆOLOGY, MEDICAL, ETC.

                                 LONDON
                     THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
                         KENSINGTON GORE, S.W. 7
                        _AND AT ALL BOOKSELLERS_

                                  1921

                  _Price of the two Volumes, 21s. net.
          To Fellows, at the Office of the Society, 15s. net._

                                 LONDON:
              PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
  DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1.




PREFACE TO VOL. II.


The first seven sections of this volume have been carefully revised,
but required no serious alteration. The eighth section required very
extensive changes and additions, due to the great progress of Tropical
Medicine in the last fourteen years. The Society is much indebted to Dr.
Andrew Balfour, C.B., C.M.G., Director-in-Chief of the Wellcome Bureau of
Scientific Research, who has very kindly revised and extended the Medical
Hints in the light of his wide experience in the Sudan and in the East
during the War.

In the instructions for the use of drugs the word “tablet” has been
used to denote products compressed in the form usually described by a
proprietary word that belongs in law only to the products of a particular
firm.

                                                                 A. R. H.




CONTENTS.


                                                                     PAGE

                               SECTION I.

  METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY (by Hugh Robert Mill, D.SC., LL.D.,
    F.R.S.E., formerly President Royal Meteorological Society and
    Director British Rainfall Organization)                           1-50

    General Remarks, 1—A Record of Weather, 2—Non-Instrumental
      Observations, 3—Instrumental Observations, 11—Observations for
      Forecasting the Weather, 32—Extra-European Weather Services,
      42—Table of Relative Humidity, 44—Table showing Pressure of
      Saturated Aqueous Vapour in Inches of Mercury at Lat. 45° for
      each degree Fahr. from -30° to 119°, 50—Isothermal, Isobaric,
      and Rainfall Maps, 50.

                               SECTION II.

  PHOTOGRAPHY (by J. Thomson, formerly Instructor in Photography,
    R.G.S. Revised by the late J. McIntosh, Secretary Royal
    Photographic Society of Great Britain)                           51-62

    The Camera, 51—Selecting a Camera, 51—The Hand Camera,
      52—Camera Stand, 54—Lenses, 54—Exposure Tables, 56—Sensitive
      Plates or Films, 57—How to keep Plates and Films Dry,
      58—Apparatus and Chemicals for Development, 58—Photography
      in Natural Colours, 61.

                              SECTION III.

  GEOLOGY (by the late W. T. Blanford, F.R.S. Revised by Prof.
    E. J. Garwood, F.R.S.)                                           63-78

    General Remarks, 63—Outfit, 64—Collections, 65—Mountain Chains,
      70—Coasts, 71—Rivers and River-Plains, 72—Lakes and Tarns,
      73—Evidence of Glacial Action, 74—Deserts, 75—Early History
      of Man in Tropical Climates, 76—Permanence of Ocean Basins,
      76—Atolls or Coral-Islands, 77.

  MEMORANDUM ON GLACIER OBSERVATIONS. (Revised by Alan G.
    Ogilvie)                                                         78-81

                               SECTION IV.

  NATURAL HISTORY (by the late H. W. Bates, F.R.S. Revised by
    W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, British Museum, Natural History)           82-105

    Outfit, 82—Where and What to Collect, 89—Mammals and Birds,
      91—Preserving Mammals, &c., in Alcohol, 92—Preparation of
      Skeletons of Animals, 94—Reptiles and Fishes, 96—Land and
      Freshwater Mollusca, 97—Insects, 99—Botanical Collecting,
      99—Fossils, 104—General Remarks, 104—Observations of Habits,
      &c., 104.

                               SECTION V.

  ANTHROPOLOGY (by the late E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.)           106-129

    Physical Characters, 106—Language, 110—Arts and Sciences,
      113—Society, 118—Religion and Mythology, 124—Customs, 126.

  NOTE BY PROFESSOR R. R. MARETT                                       129

  QUERIES OF ANTHROPOLOGY (by the late Sir A. W. Franks,
    K.C.B., F.R.S.)                                                129-132

  ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES (by W. L. H. Duckworth, M.D., SC.D.,
    M.A.)                                                          132-137

                               SECTION VI.

  INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE (by Sir John Scott Keltie, LL.D.,
    formerly Secretary R.G.S.)                                     138-147

    General Remarks, 138—Minerals and Metals, 140—Vegetable
      Products, 141—Agriculture, 143—Animal Products, 144—Trade,
      144—Climate, 145—Facilities and Hindrances to Commercial
      Development, 146.

                              SECTION VII.

  ARCHÆOLOGY (by D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G., D.LITT.)                   148-159

    Recording, 148—Cleaning and Conservation, 156.

                              SECTION VIII.

  MEDICAL HINTS (by the late William Henry Cross, M.D. Revised
    by Andrew Balfour, C.B., G.M.G., M.D.)                         160-292

    Introduction, 160—General Hints, 168—Diseases and their
      Prevention and Treatment, 169—Medicines, Medical
      Appliances, &c., 252—Treatment of Wounds and Injuries,
      275.

  CANOEING AND BOATING (by the late J. Coles)                      293-297

  ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES (by Maj.-General Lord
    Edward Gleichen, K.C.V.O.)                                     298-305

  ON THE GIVING OF NAMES TO NEWLY-DISCOVERED PLACES                    306

  INDEX                                                            307-318




MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.


                                                                      PAGE

  Diagram showing how to read Thermometer Scale                         13

  Mr. H. F. Blanford’s Portable Thermometer Screen                      15

  Hut for Sheltering Thermometers                                       16

  Section of Assmann’s Aspiration Psychrometer                          20

  Diagram showing how to read Barometer Vernier                         27

  The Collie Barometer, with the Deasy Mounting                         30

  Diagram showing Cyclone Paths and Circulation of Winds in Cyclones    33

  Charts of the World showing Isothermal Lines for January and July     50

  Charts of the World showing Isobaric Lines for January and July       50

  Rainfall Chart of the World                                           50

  Bellows Camera                                                        52

  Twin-Lens Camera                                                      53

  Homocentric Lens                                                      55

  General Collecting Case for Natural History Specimens                 93

  Drying Press for Botanical Specimens                             100-101

  Diagrams of the Human Skull illustrating Craniological Descriptions  134

  Diagrams of the Human Skull illustrating Cranial Measurements        135

  Diagram of Portion of the Thigh-Bone for Measurement of its length   137

  Diagram showing some of the Principal Organs of the Body, and the
    Course of the Main Blood-Vessels                                   162

  Spectacles for Preventing Snow-Blindness                             199

  Diagram illustrating method of compressing the Main Artery of
    the Thigh                                                          278

  Diagrams illustrating methods of Restoring Breathing in cases
    of Drowning                                                        284

  Diagram of the Human Skeleton, giving the Names and Positions
    of the Chief Bones                                                 285

  Diagrams showing Bandaging of Broken Jaw                             289




HINTS TO TRAVELLERS.

_VOL. II._




I.

METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY.

_By HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.SC, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Formerly President
Royal Meteorological Society, and Director of the British Rainfall
Organization._


The nature of the meteorological observations made by a traveller or by
a resident in regions where there is no organised meteorological service
will necessarily depend on the object which he has in view, the time he
is able to devote to meteorological work, his knowledge of meteorology as
a science, and his interest in it.

Of the many ways in which a traveller may add to the knowledge of
atmospheric conditions, five may be specially mentioned:—

    1. _A record of the weather, observed day by day with regard
    both to non-instrumental observations and the readings of
    instruments._ This may be taken as the minimum incumbent on all
    travellers.

    2. _Observations for forecasting the weather and obtaining
    warning of storms._ This is sometimes of vital importance; it
    is always valuable at the time, and occasionally the results
    are worth recording. It may, however be looked upon as a
    practical application of the systematic observations.

    3. _Observations with a view to determining the character of
    the local climate._ The traveller passing through a country can
    do little in this way, as long continued uniform observations
    in one place are necessary to fix the annual variations.
    Still, the recording of such data as may be obtained is always
    important in a little-known region, and the work of several
    travellers at different seasons will allow some fair deductions
    to be drawn. When a day is spent in camp, much importance
    attaches to regular observations made every two hours, from
    which the diurnal changes of climate may be ascertained.

    4. _Special meteorological researches._ These usually demand
    special instruments and skilled observers. Observations in the
    upper air by kites or balloons in particular, must be an end in
    themselves. Exact measures of radiation in deserts, of rainfall
    in forests and on adjacent open ground, of temperature during
    land and sea breezes, or of fogs, thunderstorms, tornadoes,
    etc., in places subject to those visitations, are always of
    value. As a rule, however, the traveller cannot devote much
    time to these matters, unless the study of physical geography
    is the object of his journey.

    5. _The collection of existing meteorological records._ It
    sometimes happens that at outlying stations meteorological
    observations have been taken and recorded for a considerable
    time. If they have not been already communicated to some
    meteorological centre, the traveller should obtain a copy of
    them, and also compare the instruments in use with his own.
    He might in some cases aid in securing a knowledge of local
    climate by inducing residents at outlying stations to start
    regular observations.

The first two ways of advancing meteorology need alone be considered in
detail; but with regard to all, it must be clearly understood that the
value of the work is greater the more carefully the observations are made
and recorded, and the more remote and less known the region.

1. A RECORD OF WEATHER.—The traveller who makes his journey for any
other purpose than the study of physical geography would be wise to
burden himself as little as possible with instruments, but to understand
thoroughly and use faithfully the few he carries. In a rapid march many
different climates may be traversed in a few weeks, and the records of
variation of weather so obtained could not have much value; but when a
halt of a few days or of a week or two is made, systematic observations
become valuable.


NON-INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS.

The first place must be given to non-instrumental observations, which may
be made at any time on the march or in camp, and should always be noted
at the time they are made in the rough note-book, and copied carefully
into the journal each evening. These observations in the rough note-book
will necessarily be mixed up with others on various subjects; but the
meteorological facts should have a place reserved for themselves in the
journal, say at the end of each day’s work.

_Wind._—Observations of the direction and force of the wind at several
fixed hours in the day are advisable for comparison with instrumental
readings; but on the march every decided change should be recorded if
the nature of the country permits. In the depths of a forest, or in a
narrow valley, the wind, if felt at all by the traveller, gives scarcely
any clue to the movement of the air over the open country, but in most
cases the movements of low clouds, when any are in sight, may be taken
as a fairly satisfactory test. The direction is to be observed by means
of the compass, and it will be sufficient to estimate it by the eight
principal points—North, North-east, East, South-east, South, South-west,
West, and North-west. Any sudden changes in direction so pronounced as
to be noticeable should be recorded, for, taken in conjunction with the
barometer readings, if the journey is along a route of nearly constant
level, they are valuable aids in predicting the weather. In some places
the direction of the wind undergoes a well-marked regular diurnal change
in perfectly settled weather.

Wind is always named by the direction from which it blows. The force of
the wind is best estimated on the scale Calm, Light, Moderate, Fresh,
Strong, and Gale. It is impossible, without long experience and the
tuition of a trained observer, to assign relative numbers to these
forces which should have any permanent value for comparison with the
observations of others. Travelling on foot in a strong wind is always
uncomfortable, and in a gale very difficult. If it is impossible to
make way against the wind at all, or to pitch tents, the force may be
put down as Hurricane after it has passed, the traveller bearing in
mind that if he can write in his note-book at all, while unsheltered,
a hurricane is not blowing. If a lake or a river without appreciable
current is in sight, wind just sufficient to produce white crests on the
waves may be called fresh, and that sufficient to blow away spray from
the crests deserves to be termed strong. At sea, in a sailing-vessel,
it is possible to acquire great skill in estimating wind-force; hence
Beaufort’s scale, originally devised with reference to the amount of sail
a well-equipped frigate could carry, has come into extensive use, and it
is as well to know it. By comparison with anemometers, the approximate
velocity in miles per hour corresponding to the numbers on the scale has
been estimated:—

  BEAUFORT’S SCALE OF WIND FORCE.[1]

  -----+-----------------+------------------
       |                 | Mean Velocity in
   No. |      Name.      |  miles per hour.
  -----+-----------------+------------------
    0  | Calm            |         0
    1  | Light air       |         1
    2  | Light breeze    |         4
    3  | Gentle breeze   |         9
    4  | Moderate breeze |        14
    5  | Fresh breeze    |        20
    6  | Strong breeze   |        26
    7  | Moderate gale   |        33
    8  | Fresh gale      |        42
    9  | Strong gale     |        51
   10  | Whole gale      |        62
   11  | Storm           |        75
   12  | Hurricane       |        92
  -----+-----------------+-----------------

The duration of strong wind should be noted, as well as the time of any
marked change of strength. The land and sea winds of tropical coasts show
a well-marked relation to the position of the sun and the hour of sunset,
and in places where these winds blow the hours of calm and change should
be noted. On mountain slopes a similar diurnal effect may be noticed;
the wind usually blows uphill during the day and downhill at night,
while in valleys it usually blows either with or against the direction of
the river. Local winds of peculiar character are sometimes met with in
association with mountains such as the Föhn of the Alps, the Chinook wind
of the Rocky Mountains, and the Helm wind of the Eden Valley in England
and Adam’s Peak in Ceylon.

Whirlwinds and tornadoes are rare phenomena, but if met with, it is worth
while to take some trouble to put on record at least the hour of their
appearance (local time), the direction in which the whirl moves onward,
and the breadth of the path of destruction it leaves behind. When a storm
of wind has passed over a wooded region and blown down many trees, the
direction in which most of the trunks lie is worth observing. The top of
the tree usually falls in the direction in which the wind was blowing,
hence the root usually points to the direction of the wind. Waterspouts
are closely allied to whirlwinds, and in any of those phenomena of
revolving columns of air it is of much theoretical importance to
determine the direction of the whirl about the axis, _i.e._, whether the
rotation is in the direction of the hands of a watch or the opposite.
The prevailing wind of a district may often be discovered by the slope
of trees growing on open ground, or still better, by the difference in
the degree of wave erosion on small lakes. If the banks are of the same
material all round, the side against which the prevailing wind drives the
waves will always be the most worn away.

_Cloud and Sunshine._—It would be impossible to keep a record of the
countless changes in the cloud-covering of an English sky, but in many
parts of the world the absence or presence of cloud is a function of
latitude, altitude, and season, of great stability, and worthy of being
attentively studied. The amount of cloud is usually estimated as the
number of tenths of the sky covered; but it is a very difficult thing
indeed to compare a tenth of the visible sky near the horizon with a
tenth near the zenith. There is no difficulty, however, in observing when
the sky is completely overcast or quite free of cloud, and as a matter of
convenience the belt round the horizon to the height of thirty degrees
may be neglected, _i.e._, the lower third of the distance from the
horizon to the zenith. Very often it will be found that clouds form and
disappear at certain hours of the morning or evening, and it is useful to
get exact information on the subject.

Of more importance than the amount of cloud is its nature, elevation,
and movement. Distinct species of cloud have been recognised for a long
time, and from more recent studies it would appear that they owe their
distinctive appearance to the altitude at which they float in the air.
Meteorologists distinguish a number of classes and transitional forms of
cloud; it is enough for the traveller to be able to recognise the most
definite types, viz., Cirrus, Cumulus, Stratus, and Nimbus. _Cirrus_
clouds are the small tufts or wisps of cloud which float very high in the
atmosphere, and to which the popular name of “mare’s tails” is applied.
The transitional form, _Cirro-Cumulus_, popularly known as “mackerel
scales” or “mackerel sky,” is equally easy to identify. _Cumulus_ clouds
are great woolly-looking heaps of cloud, the lower surface of which
is often nearly horizontal, while above they well into an exuberant
variety of rounded forms. They represent the condensation of moisture
in ascending columns of heated air. _Stratus_ clouds are low-lying
sheets of condensed moisture, which, being usually seen at a low angle,
appear like thin layers parallel to the horizon. The transitional type
_Cirro-Stratus_ is usually seen in the form of great feather-like clouds
stretching across nearly the whole sky. _Nimbus_ is a rather low-lying
cloud from which rain is falling even if the rain is re-evaporated
before reaching the ground. The lowest clouds of all, those resting
on the surface of the ground and enveloping the observer, are called
_mist_ and _fog_. The two are distinguished by the fact that a mist wets
objects immersed in it, while a fog does not. All clouds, except Cirrus,
are physically the same, consisting of minute globules of liquid water
falling through a portion of air saturated with moisture. The globules
being small offer a relatively great surface to friction, and so fall
very slowly, and in the higher clouds they evaporate on the lower surface
before they have time to agglomerate into raindrops. In the highest of
all clouds, the cirrus type, the particles are spicules of ice and not
globules of water. It is a common error to suppose that black clouds
differ from white clouds. All clouds are white when they reflect the
light of the sun, and all are black when they come between the eye and
the sun in sufficient thickness to cut off a considerable portion of its
light.

The sudden appearance of a particular kind of cloud is important as
a weather sign. It shows that changes are going on in the vertical
circulation of the atmosphere. Hence if cirrus or cumulus cloud should be
observed to be increasing the fact should be noted, and the direction in
which the clouds are moving should be noted also.

In observing cloud-motion attention should be given only to the sky
overhead; at any lower angle the parallax due to viewing the clouds
obliquely deprives the observation of value. It is also necessary to
distinguish between the movement of the upper and of the lower clouds,
as these are floating in very different parts of the atmosphere. It is
comparatively rarely that the motion, say of nimbus and cirrus, is in the
same direction. On a lofty mountain, strata of cloud which from below
were seen to be cumulus may be passed through as layers of mist, and on
emerging from them their upper surface may be seen below one. In many
mountains the cloud-belt is as sharply defined as the snow-line, and its
variations should be carefully observed.

Clouds should occasionally be photographed as a record. This should
be done especially when a type of cloud comes to be recognised as a
usual one, for while exceptional forms may prove interesting, a record
of the usual forms is certain to be valuable. In this connection a
protest may be made against the horrible custom of some amateur and of
many professional photographers of printing in clouds from some stock
negative in their pictures of scenery. The cloud is an essential part of
a picture, and it is better to leave an over-exposed sky of natural cloud
than to insert a beautiful representation of a cloud-form which may be
one never visible in the particular place or at the particular season.

_Mist, Fog and Haze._—Mist or fog at low levels will of course be
recorded whenever observed, and its density and duration noted. A good
way to define the density of thick fog is to measure the number of yards
at which an object becomes indistinguishable, and the most convenient
object for the purpose is a person. Light mists lie over water or marshes
at certain hours in particular seasons, and their behaviour should always
be observed. It often happens that the distant view from a height is
obscured by a haze not due to moisture, and this appearance should be
noticed with a view to discovering its cause. The smoke from forest or
prairie fires in Canada sometimes produces so thick a haze as to put a
stop to surveying operations for weeks at a time. Haze is often due to
dust blown from deserts, or ejected from volcanoes, and sometimes to
swarms of insects.

_Rain and Dew._—The journals of most travellers fail to give a clear
idea of the prevalence of rain during their journeys, and it is much to
be desired that something more explicit than “a showery day” or “fairly
dry” should be recorded. The hour of commencement and cessation of rain
during a march should be noted, and some indication given as to whether
the rain fell heavily or lightly. In this way any tendency to a diurnal
periodicity of rain would be detected, and some definite meaning would be
given to the terms rainy season and dry season. If rain occurs during the
night it should also be recorded, and the amount of night rains should
always be measured by means of a rain gauge in the manner to be described
later.

The general condition of a country with regard to rain may often be
judged from the appearance of vegetation or the marks of former levels
of high-water in lakes or rivers. Thus on mountain slopes or the sides
of a valley any difference in the luxuriance of vegetation according to
exposure probably indicates the influence of rainfall as guided by the
prevailing wind. So, too, the appearance of lines of drifted débris on
the banks some distance from the edge of a lake or river may be taken
as indications of the height to which the waters sometimes rise; and
conversely the appearance of rows of trees in the middle of a wide
shallow lake may indicate the line of a river which has temporarily
flooded the surrounding meadows. Such observations have an important
bearing on climate.

The appearance and amount of dew are also to be recorded. The most
important points to notice are the hour in the evening when the deposit
commences, and the hour in the morning when the dew disappears. It should
be noted also whether the deposit of dew is in the form of small globules
standing apart on exposed surfaces, or if it is heavy enough to run
together into drops and drip from vegetation to the ground.

_Thunderstorms and Hail._—The occurrence of thunderstorms should of
course be noted, and here the hour of occurrence is of very great
importance, for thunderstorms frequently show a marked diurnal period.
The appearance of lightning without thunder should be recorded when it
is observed, but this will naturally be almost always after sunset.
Hailstorms usually accompany thunderstorms, and sometimes take the place
of them. The occurrence of hail is most frequent in summer, and records
of the size of hailstones are important. If possible they should, when
very large, be photographed along with some object of known size, and
their structure described. It might at least be noticed whether they are
hard and clear, like pure ice, or opaque like compacted snow, or made up
of concentric layers of clear and opaque ice alternately.

_Snow._—Snow falls in all parts of the world, although in tropical or
sub-tropical latitudes only at great elevations above sea-level. The
actual limits of snowfall at sea-level are as yet imperfectly known, and
any observations of snow showers in the neighbourhood of the tropics
are of importance. It is essential in such a case to record also the
approximate elevation of the land. On mountains in all latitudes the
position of the snow-line should be noted at every opportunity. This is
the line above which snow lies permanently all the year round, or below
which snow completely melts in summer; and it is a climatic factor of
some importance. It may be remarked, for instance, that if the traveller
finds snow lying on grass, moss, or other vegetation, he is certainly
not above the snow-line. It is necessary also to notice that glaciers
may descend unmelted a long distance below the level of perpetual snow.
While the conditions of snow lying on the ground in the Arctic regions
and above the snow-line in any part of the world are matters pertaining
more to geology and mountaineering than to meteorology, the duration of
snow-showers, the character of the snow, and the depth to which it lies
on ground below the snow-line are too important from their bearing on
climatology to be overlooked.

The character of the snow as it falls varies from the sleety, half-melted
drops common in warm air to the fine dust of hard, separate ice-crystals
found in the intense cold of a Polar or Continental winter. The feathery
appearance of lightly-felted flakes is an intermediate type between the
two extremes. In measuring the depth of snow as it lies, care should be
taken to select open ground where there is no drifting, and when the
snow is not too deep the measurement can usually be best made with a
walking-stick on which a scale of feet and inches (or of centimetres)
has been cut. Such a stick is useful for measuring the depth of shallow
streams, and for many other purposes. The result should be entered as
“depth of fallen snow,” so that there may be no risk of confusing the
figures with the amount of snowfall estimated as rain. Speaking roughly,
a foot of snow is usually held to represent an inch of rain. A violent
storm of wind, accompanied with falling or driving snow, is termed a
_blizzard_ in the western United States, and a _buran_ in Siberia. The
name blizzard has been naturalized in the Antarctic, but it is not known
that this phenomenon is identical with the American storm.

_Frost._—The appearance of frost in the form of hoar-frost (the way
in which atmospheric water-vapour is deposited in air below the
freezing-point), or of thin ice formed on exposed water, should always
be carefully looked for and noted. In hot, dry countries the intense
radiation from the ground at night often reduces the temperature below
the freezing-point, although, during the day, the ground may be very hot.
The appearance of frost at sunrise is a valuable check on the readings
of a minimum thermometer, and in most cases is a more trustworthy datum.
Similarly in cold countries, where snow is lying on the ground or ice
covering the rivers, the appearance of thaw, especially in cloudy
weather, is a delicate test of the rise of the air temperature to the
freezing-point. The traveller should never fail to record cases of
melting and solidifying of any substances due to changes of temperature.
The softening of candles and the freezing of mercury or of spirits give
information regarding temperature at least as valuable as the readings of
thermometers.

_Other Observations._—Any peculiar atmospheric phenomena, such as the
appearance of the zodiacal light after sunset, the aurora, the electrical
lights seen on pointed objects, and known as St. Elmo’s fire, rainbows,
especially lunar rainbows, haloes, the appearance of mock-suns or moons,
meteors or shooting stars, should be noted on their occurrence, as many
of them are valuable weather prognostics. Attention should also be given
to any appearances of mirage, or other effects of irregular distribution
of atmospheric density. A mirage is only rarely so perfect as to show
ships inverted in the air, palm-grown islands in the sea, or distant
oases in the desert. The common form is an unusual intensification of
refraction, raising land below the horizon into sight, or apparently
cutting off the edges of headlands or islands at sea or on large lakes.
It is worth while observing the temperature of the air and of the water
or ground when an unusually clear mirage effect is visible.

Another interesting series of observations may be made on the colours of
the sky and clouds at sunrise and sunset. A phenomenon often observed at
sunset, but the existence of which is still sometimes denied, should be
looked for. This is the appearance of a gleam of coloured light at the
moment when the upper edge of the sun dips below a cloudless horizon. A
note should be made of the nature of the horizon, whether land or sea,
and of the colour of the light if it should be observed. When opportunity
offers, the first ray of the rising sun might be similarly observed.

The traveller should, at the end of each day, give his opinion of the
nature of the weather, saying whether he felt it hot or cold, relaxing
or bracing, close or fresh. Such observations have no necessary relation
to degree of temperature or humidity as recorded by instruments; but
the human body is the most important of all instruments, and everything
which affects it should be studied. By paying attention to the foregoing
instructions, an observant traveller will bring home a far better
meteorological log without instruments than a more careless person
could produce by the diligent reading of many scales. Yet, in enforcing
the importance of non-instrumental observations, we must not leave the
impression that the readings of instruments are of little value. It is,
in ordinary circumstances, only by the readings of instruments that the
climate of one place can be compared with that of another, and only the
best results of instrumental work are precise enough to form a basis for
climatological maps.


INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS.

The minimum requirement of instrumental observations by a traveller is
the reading twice daily of the barometer and of the dry and wet bulb
thermometers, to ascertain the temperature and humidity of the air,
also the reading once daily, in the morning, of the minimum thermometer
which has been exposed all night, and on days in camp of the maximum
thermometer also. It is very desirable to expose a rain gauge whenever
it is practicable to do so. Unless special meteorological researches are
to be carried out, nothing farther in the way of observations need be
attempted. A very useful supplement to the necessary observations is the
use of a self-recording barograph or thermograph; but these are delicate
instruments, liable to get out of order unless very carefully handled,
and it will not always be possible to make use of them.

The observer must understand what his instruments are intended to
measure, how they act, and how they should be exposed, read, and the
reading recorded. He must know enough about all these things to be
able to dispense with unnecessary precautions only possible at fixed
observatories, and, at the same time, to neglect nothing that is
necessary to secure accuracy in the results.

_Thermometer Corrections._—All thermometers, without exception, should
have the degree marks engraved on the stem, or on a slip of enamel within
the outer tube, and be supplied with a certificate from the National
Physical Laboratory showing the error of the scale at different points.
This certificate should be in duplicate, and a copy ought to be left
in a safe place at home. After a long journey the thermometers which
have been in use should be sent to have their errors re-determined. The
corrections are not, however, to be applied by the observer unless he is
working out his observations for some special purpose. No thermometer is
passed at the National Physical Laboratory if its error approaches one
degree, so that for all ordinary purposes of description a certificated
thermometer may be looked on as correct. But when the readings are being
critically discussed and compared with the observations of other people,
the correction is of the greatest importance. _It cannot be too strongly
impressed upon an observer that, in reading meteorological instruments,
he must read exactly what they mark, and record that figure in his
observation-book on the spot._ The corrections can be applied afterwards
by the specialist who discusses the work. For subsequent reference it is
necessary to note in the observation-book the registered N.P.L. number
of the thermometer in use, and if a thermometer should get broken and
another be used instead, the number of the new instrument must be noted
at the date where it is first employed. Care should be taken to use the
same thermometer for one purpose all the time if possible, and only an
accident to the instrument should necessitate a change being made.

Thermometers are either direct-reading or self-registering. The former
are used for obtaining the temperature at any given moment, the latter
for ascertaining the highest or the lowest temperature in a certain
interval of time. They are filled either with mercury, or a light fluid
which freezes less readily, such as alcohol or creosote.

_Thermometer Scales._—The particular system on which the thermometers are
graduated is of no importance, but merely a matter of convenience. The
Fahrenheit scale is used for meteorological purposes in English-speaking
countries; but for all other scientific purposes the Centigrade scale
is used everywhere. One can be translated into the other very simply
by calculation[2]; but it is convenient for a traveller to have all his
thermometers graduated in accordance with one scale only.

The graduation, as marked on the stem of the thermometer, is usually to
single degrees, but anyone can learn to read to tenths of a degree by
a little practice. Care must be taken to have the eye opposite the top
of the mercury column. Suppose it to be between 50 and 51, the exact
number of tenths above 50 is to be estimated thus: If the mercury is just
visible above the degree mark it is 50°.1, if distinctly above the mark
50°.2, if nearly one-third of the way to the next mark 50°.3, if almost
half-way 50°.4, exactly half-way 50°.5, a little more than half-way
50°.6, about two-thirds of the way 50°.7, if nearly up to the next mark
50°.8, and if just lower than the mark of 51° it is 50°.9. The eye soon
becomes accustomed to estimating these distances.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.—_Reading Thermometer Scale above and below Zero._]

In using a thermometer below zero, the observer must pay attention to
the change in the direction of reading the scale, the fractions of a
degree counting downward from the degree mark instead of upward from
it, as in readings above zero. Readings below the zero of the scale are
distinguished in recording them by prefixing the minus sign. The annexed
figure shows the reading of two thermometers graduated to fifths of
a degree, one showing a temperature of 1°.4, the other of -1°.4. The
British Meteorological Office now recommends the use of the Centigrade
thermometer graduated from the absolute zero, _i.e._, the freezing point
is shown by 273°, the boiling point as 373°.

_Care of Thermometers._—Mercurial thermometers will always be employed
for ordinary purposes in places where the temperature is not likely
to fall to -40°: _i.e._, everywhere except in the polar regions and
the interior of continents north of 50° N. These thermometers are very
strong and are not easily broken except by violence. The one vulnerable
part is the bulb, which is of thin glass and filled with heavy mercury.
Hence, in carrying thermometers, care has to be taken to protect the bulb
from coming in contact with any hard object. The best way to carry an
unmounted thermometer is in a closed brass or vulcanite tube with a screw
top, the inside of the tube being lined with india-rubber and provided
with a cushion of cotton-wool for the bulb to rest on. If the thermometer
is mounted in a wooden frame it should be secured in a box so that the
frame is firmly held and the bulb projects into a vacant part of the box,
which may be lightly filled with cotton-wool or provided with a deep and
well-padded recess. Every thermometer which is not graduated above 120°
should have an expansion at the top of the tube which the mercury that
may be driven beyond the scale by over-heating will not fill; otherwise
any accidental over-heating will break the bulb.

The unavoidable shaking or any sudden shock during travelling is apt
to cause the mercury column to separate, and a portion of it may be
driven to the top of the tube, where it may remain unless looked for and
brought back. Hence it is important to see that the top of the bore of
the tube is visible, and not covered by any attachment holding the tube
to a wooden frame. Thermometer readings are absolutely valueless unless
the whole of the mercury fills the bulb and forms a continuous column in
the stem. To bring a broken column together the best plan is to invert
the thermometer, if necessary shaking it gently, until the mercury flows
from the bulb and entirely fills the tube, leaving a little vacant dimple
in the mass of mercury in the bulb. When this is done, the thermometer
should be brought into its normal position bulb downwards, and the column
will usually be found to have united. If this method does not succeed the
thermometer may be held in the hand by the upper end, raised to the full
stretch of the arm, and swung downwards through a wide arc with a steady
sweep. I have never known this method to fail.

_Thermometer Screens._—It is usual at fixed stations to expose the
thermometer to the air by hanging it in a screen made of louvre-boards
so arranged that the air penetrates it freely while the direct rays of
the sun are cut off. The Stevenson screen, constructed on this plan with
a door opening on the side away from the sun, is well adapted for use
in temperate countries; but it is too cumbrous to carry on a journey and
does not afford sufficient ventilation for use in tropical countries.
An excellent substitute is the canvas screen devised by the late Mr. H.
F. Blanford, which consists of a bamboo frame carrying the thermometers
(with their bulbs four feet from the ground). The whole structure is five
feet high, and is sufficient for any places where the wind is moderate.
It is constructed of bamboos or rods of light wood, cords, and canvas,
which may readily be made up before starting, and it is easily renewed
or repaired. The canvas roof should be triple or quadruple according
to the thickness of the material. Such a screen will afford sufficient
protection at night, or even in the day, if set up in the shade, and it
will throw off rain; but in the sun it will require a thick mat as an
additional protection on or preferably stretched above the roof.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.—_Mr. H. F. Blanford’s Portable Thermometer
Screen._]

For a more permanent station the form of exposure recommended by a
committee of the British Association for use in tropical Africa will be
found very suitable in hot countries.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.—_Hut for Sheltering Thermometers._]

The thermometers are placed in a galvanised iron cage, which is kept
locked for safety. This cage is suspended under a thatched shelter,
which should be situated in an open spot at some distance from buildings.
It must be well ventilated, and protect the instruments from being
exposed to sunshine or rain, or to radiation from the ground. A simple
hut, made of materials available on the spot, would answer this purpose.
Such a hut is shown in the drawing (Fig. 2). A gabled roof with broad
eaves, the ridge of which runs from north to south, is fixed upon four
posts, standing four feet apart. Two additional posts may be introduced
to support the ends of the ridge beam. The roof at each end projects
about eighteen inches; in it are two ventilating holes. The tops of the
posts are connected by bars or rails, and on a cross bar is suspended the
cage with the instruments. These will then be at a height of six feet
above the ground. The gable-ends may be permanently covered in with mats
or louvre-work, not interfering with the free circulation of the air, or
the hut may be circular. The roof may be covered with palm-fronds, grass,
or any other material locally used by the natives for building. The floor
should not be bare but covered with grass or low shrubs.

The great object of these precautions is to obtain the true temperature
of the air, and avoid the excessive heating due to the direct rays or
reflected heat of the sun falling on the thermometers, and the excessive
cooling due to the radiation of heat from the thermometers to a clear
sky at night. Such a shelter is absolutely necessary when maximum and
minimum thermometers are used; but can be dispensed with for the simple
observation of the temperature of the air at a given time. This may be
effected by securing a rapid flow of air over the thermometer, either by
causing the air to flow past the instrument or by causing the instrument
to move rapidly through the air. It has been found by experiment that
the true temperature of the air is obtainable in this way whether the
operation is performed in sunshine or in shade; but it is preferable to
do so in the shade.

_Sling Thermometer._—The sling thermometer is the most simple and
convenient of all instruments for ascertaining the temperature of the
air. It is an unmounted thermometer with a cylindrical bulb, and the
degree-marks engraved on the glass stem. The upper end terminates in
a ring to which a silk cord about two feet long is attached. As a
precaution it is as well to secure the cord by a couple of clove hitches
round the top of the thermometer stem as well as to the ring, as the
thermometer would then be held securely even if the ring broke. The
thermometer is used by whirling it in a vertical circle about a dozen
times, the observer taking care, by having a loop of the string round the
wrist or finger, that it is not allowed to fly off. Then the thermometer
is read, swung once more, and read again. This process is repeated
until two consecutive readings are identical; when this is the case the
instrument shows the true temperature of the air. It is sufficient to
note the final temperature in the observing book.

The risk of breaking a sling thermometer is the only drawback to its use.
Only a silk cord should be used, and it should be examined frequently
to see that it has not got chafed. In swinging the thermometer, an open
place must be selected where it is not likely to come in contact with a
branch or any other object.

_Hygrometers._—As the humidity or degree of moisture in the atmosphere
is a very important climatic factor it is necessary to measure it as
carefully and as frequently as the temperature of the air. There are many
instruments, called psychrometers or hygrometers, for doing this; but few
of them are simple enough for the use of a traveller. The proportion of
water-vapour in air is a little difficult to understand at first, because
it is not a constant quantity as in the case of the other constituents of
air, but varies according to the amount of water-surface exposed to the
air and according to the temperature. The maximum amount of water-vapour
which can be present in air varies with the temperature, being greater
as the temperature is higher and less as the temperature is lower. Thus,
if air at 50° F. contains the maximum amount of water-vapour which it
can contain at that temperature, it is said to be _saturated_, for it
will take up no more and evaporation stops; and if the temperature were
to fall ever so little there would be more water-vapour present in the
air than it could hold and some would separate out and condense into dew
or rain, hence the temperature of saturation is called the dew-point.
But if air saturated at 50° is warmed up say to 60° it can then contain
more water-vapour than it has, and the temperature would require to
fall 10° before dew or rain could form. When the air is not saturated
water exposed to it evaporates rapidly until the maximum quantity of
water-vapour is again present, a larger quantity corresponding to the
higher temperature. At any given temperature the essential thing to know
about the humidity of the air is the additional amount of water-vapour it
could take up before becoming saturated, or in other words the humidity
relative to the maximum humidity possible at the existing temperature.
The relative humidity is expressed in percentages of the maximum humidity
possible (saturation) at the actual temperature of observation. It may
be measured by two methods, (1) finding the dew-point or temperature at
which the amount of vapour present saturates the air; (2) by finding the
rate at which the air allows evaporation to proceed; the farther the air
is from saturation the more rapid is the rate.

The dew-point may be found directly by means of an instrument by
which the air is cooled down until it begins to deposit moisture on a
polished surface, but such an instrument is inconvenient to handle when
travelling. It may also be found indirectly by calculation from the
relative humidity.

The relative humidity is most easily calculated from the rate of
evaporation. It is one of the laws of evaporation that heat is required
to change liquid into vapour, and when evaporation is going on heat is
being abstracted from surrounding bodies, and they are growing colder.
By allowing evaporation to take place from the bulb of a thermometer the
rate of evaporation may be measured by the fall of temperature produced,
and tables have been constructed to convert the differences between the
wet and dry bulb readings into relative humidities.

The wet-bulb thermometer consists of an ordinary thermometer, the bulb of
which is covered with clean muslin and kept moist by means of a piece of
cotton lamp-wick dipping into a small vessel of pure water. Care must be
taken to have the water quite pure and free from salt, otherwise the true
reduction of temperature will not be observed. Hence special precautions
are necessary when observing at sea or in an arid country where the
ground is covered with incrustations of salt.

In any form of wet bulb thermometer when the air is much below the
freezing point, it will usually be found most satisfactory to remove the
muslin covering and allow the bulb to become covered with a coating of
ice, by dipping it into water and allowing the water to freeze upon it.
Evaporation takes place from solid ice sufficiently rapidly to give the
true wet-bulb readings at least with a sling thermometer.

When the air is saturated, _i.e._, relative humidity = 100 per
cent., there is no difference in the reading of the wet and dry bulb
thermometers, and the greater the difference between the readings at a
given air temperature the smaller is the relative humidity of the air.

The wet-bulb thermometer has to be exposed to the air with the same
precautions as are taken in the case of the dry bulb. The two may
be hung side by side—but at least six inches apart—in the screen or
cage described on p. 15; or the wet bulb may be employed as a sling
thermometer. One way to do this is to tie a muslin cap on the bulb of the
sling thermometer with a piece of wet lamp-wick coiled round the upper
part of the bulb, and then whirl it until the reading becomes constant,
taking care to moisten the bulb again if it should become dry. Another
way is simply to twist a piece of filter-paper or blotting-paper round
the bulb, and dip it in water before swinging.

_Aspiration Psychrometer._—Perhaps the most convenient form of wet and
dry bulb thermometer for use by a traveller is that known as Assmann’s
Aspiration Psychrometer. It requires no protecting screen, is not subject
to the risk attending the use of the sling thermometer, and gives an
extremely close approximation to the true temperature and humidity.
The principle of the instrument is very simple. The wet and dry bulb
thermometers are enclosed separately each in an open tube (see Fig. 4)
through which a current of air is drawn by means of a fan, actuated by
clockwork in the upper part of the case. In making an observation, all
that is required is to see that the water vessel for the wet bulb is
filled and the bulb properly moist, and that the dry bulb is free from
any condensed moisture. The instrument is then hung to a branch or other
support placed in the open air (or even held in the hand), preferably in
the shade, although this is not essential, and the clockwork wound up.
Air will then be drawn over the bulbs for five minutes or more, and if
the temperature of each thermometer has not become steady by the time the
clockwork has run down, it must be wound up again.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.—_Section of Assmann’s Aspiration Psychrometer._]

The thermometers in Assmann’s Psychrometer are graduated according to the
Centigrade scale, and each degree is subdivided into fifths on a slip of
porcelain enclosed in the outer tube of the thermometer (see p. 13).

_Minimum Thermometer._—The minimum temperature of the night can usually
be ascertained by a traveller exposing a minimum thermometer when the
camp is set up and reading it in the morning before starting on his way.
There are several forms of minimum thermometer, but the only one likely
to be used is that known as Rutherford’s. It is very delicate and liable
to go out of order. The instrument should be of full size, as used in
meteorological stations at home; it must be packed so as to be as free as
possible from shock or vibration, and ought to be carried in a horizontal
position. The bulb is filled with alcohol or some similar clear fluid,
and within the column of spirit in the stem there is included a little
piece of dark glass shaped like a double-headed pin. This is the index
which continues pointing to the lowest temperature until the instrument
is disturbed or re-set. The thermometer has to be hung in a horizontal
position. When the temperature rises, the column of spirit moves along
the tube, flowing past the index without disturbing it. When the
temperature falls, the spirit returns towards the bulb, flowing past the
index _until the end of the column touches the end of the index_. The
phenomenon known as surface-tension gives to the free surface of any
liquid the properties of a tough film, and the smaller the area of a
free surface is, the greater is this effect of surface-tension. Hence it
is that the inner surface of the column of alcohol is not penetrated by
the glass index, but draws the index with it backwards towards the bulb.
As soon as the temperature begins to rise, the alcohol once more flows
past the index towards the farther end of the tube. The end of the index
farthest from the bulb remains opposite the mark on the stem indicating
the lowest temperature which had occurred since it was last set, and this
reading must be taken without touching the thermometer.

To set the index it is only necessary to tilt the bulb end of the tube
upwards, when the index will slide down by its own weight until it comes
in contact with the inner surface of the end of the column of alcohol.

_Care of a Minimum Thermometer._—The chief dangers to which a minimum
thermometer are liable are three—(1) the index being shaken into the
bulb, (2) the index being shaken partly or wholly out of the column of
spirit, and sticking in the tube, and (3) the column of spirit becoming
separated or a portion of the spirit evaporating into the upper end of
the tube.

The thermometer should be so constructed as to make it impossible for the
index to get into the bulb, or with an index so long as not wholly to
leave the tube, and this should be seen to before purchasing. When any of
the other derangements occurs the natural instinct of an observer is to
immerse the thermometer in warm water until the spirit entirely fills the
tube, and then allow it to cool. The only drawback to this simple method
is the almost inevitable bursting of the bulb and destruction of the
thermometer. This method should never be attempted; but if the warning
were not given, the idea would be sure to occur to the observer some time
or other, and he would proceed to destroy his thermometer with all the
fervour of a discoverer. The only satisfactory way to rectify a deranged
minimum thermometer is as follows:

If the column is separated, but the index remains in the spirit, grasp
the instrument firmly by the upper end and swing it downwards with a
jerk (as in the case of the mercurial thermometer mentioned on p. 23).
If the index has been shaken out of the spirit and remains sticking in
the upper part of the tube, or if a little spirit has volatilised into
the top of the tube and cannot be shaken down by the first method, a
quantity of spirit should be passed into the upper end of the tube by
grasping the thermometer by the bulb end of the frame and swinging in the
same way. When the index is immersed or the drop of volatilised spirit
joined on to the column, the first process of swinging by grasping the
upper end of the tube will bring the instrument into working order.
After any operation of this kind the thermometer should be kept in a
vertical position bulb downwards, to allow the spirit adhering to the
sides of the tube to drain back completely. Then the thermometer should
be brought into the horizontal position and set by allowing the index to
slide down to the end of the column of spirit. The end of the column of
spirit farther from the bulb should always show the same temperature as
the dry-bulb thermometer. If it should be observed to read a degree or
two lower, it will be found that some of the spirit has volatilized and
condensed at the end of the tube.

The minimum thermometer should be exposed to the air four or six feet
from the ground under a screen or roof, like that described on p. 15, so
that it is not exposed to the open sky, and the ground under the shelter
should be covered with grass or leaves, not on any account left bare. The
loss of heat by radiation of the ground to the open sky will produce a
night temperature much lower than that of the air a few feet above the
ground, and a radiation thermometer is often employed, laid on the grass
and exposed to the sky to measure this effect. Travellers, however, can
rarely be expected to make observations of such a kind, as the instrument
is one of extreme delicacy.

_Maximum Thermometers._—Maximum registering thermometers are
filled with mercury, and are less liable to get out of order than
spirit-thermometers. The simplest and best form for use by travellers is
Negretti and Zambra’s. Its principle is very simple. When the temperature
rises and the mercury in the bulb expands, it forces its way along the
stem in the usual manner; but there is a little constriction in the
tube just outside the bulb which breaks the column as the temperature
begins to fall, and so prevents the mercury in the bulb from drawing
back the thread of mercury from the tube. The thermometer is hung
horizontally, and the end of the mercury farthest from the bulb always
shows the highest temperature since it was last set. Before reading the
thermometer, it is well to take the precaution of seeing that the inner
end of the thread of mercury is in contact with the constriction in the
tube, and if, by the shaking of the instrument or otherwise, the mercury
has slipped away from this position, it should be brought back to it by
tilting the thermometer bulb downwards very gently, then returning it to
the horizontal position and reading.

To set this thermometer, it is only necessary to hold it vertically bulb
downwards and shake it slightly, if necessary striking the lower end of
the frame carrying the instrument, gently against the palm of the hand.
This causes the mercury to pass the constriction and re-enter the bulb.
When set, the end of the column farther from the bulb should indicate the
same temperature as the ordinary dry-bulb thermometer.

Another form of maximum thermometer is known as Phillips’. It is an
ordinary mercurial thermometer, but a short length of the upper part of
the column in the tube is separated from the rest by a little bubble of
air. It is used in the horizontal position, and as the temperature rises
the whole column moves forward, while, when the temperature falls, only
that portion behind the air-bubble retires towards the bulb. The tip of
the column thus remains to mark the maximum temperature to which its
farther end points. The instrument is set by gently tilting the bulb end
downwards, when the detached portion of the column at once runs back
until stopped by the air-bubble. This is the most convenient instrument
to use at a fixed station; but in travelling it is apt to get out of
order as shaking may have the effect of allowing the air-bubble to escape
into the upper part of the tube, or into the bulb, and the instrument
cannot easily be brought into working order again.

_Rain-Gauge._—While measurements of rainfall can possess no
climatological value unless they are carried on continuously at a
fixed station, some very interesting observations may be made by the
traveller both during the night when in camp, and during heavy showers
when compelled to stop on the march. The rain-gauge is in itself the
most simple of all scientific instruments, for it consists essentially
of a copper funnel to collect the rain as it falls, and a bottle to
contain what has been collected. A graduated measuring glass is the only
accessory required. Rain is measured by the depth to which the water
would lie on level ground if none soaked in, evaporated or flowed away.
On an emergency, a rain-gauge can be improvised out of a biscuit tin,
or any vessel with vertical sides and an unobstructed mouth. Such a
vessel standing level would collect the rain, the depth of which might be
measured by an ordinary inch-rule. It is rare, however, to find rain so
heavy as to give any appreciable depth when collected in a vessel freely
open to evaporation, and in order to estimate the amount of rainfall
to small fractions of an inch, the device is employed of measuring the
water collected in the receiver of the gauge in a glass jar of much
smaller diameter than the mouth of the collecting funnel. Thus, if the
funnel exposes a surface of fifty square inches, and the measuring glass
has a cross-section of one square inch, the fall of 1/50 of an inch of
rain on the funnel will give a quantity of water sufficient to fill the
measuring glass to the depth of an inch. In this way the actual rainfall
may be read to the thousandth part of an inch without trouble. The
smallest diameter for a serviceable rain-gauge is five inches, and this
size is well adapted for the traveller. A three-inch rain-gauge might
be employed, but the results obtained with it are not so satisfactory.
The rain-gauge should be placed in an open situation, so that it is not
sheltered by any surrounding trees or buildings, and it ought to be
firmly fixed by placing it between three wooden pegs driven securely
into the ground. The mouth of the gauge should be level, and when the
instrument is fixed, the rim of the funnel ought to be one foot above
the ground. A spare measuring glass should be carried, but as there is
always a considerable risk of breaking such fragile objects, it is well
to carry also one or two small brass measures of the capacity of half
an inch, two-tenths of an inch, and one-tenth of an inch of measured
rainfall. In this way, although no satisfactory record could be kept
of light rainfall, a very fair estimate may be made of any torrential
showers, the half-inch measure being used first, and then the smaller
measures, finally estimating by eye the fraction of the tenth of an inch
that remains over. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that an
estimate formed in this way is not an accurate measurement, and the fact
of using the rough method must be stated in the note-book.

When snow falls along with rain, the melted snow is measured as
equivalent to rainfall, and if the funnel of the rain-gauge should
contain some unmelted snow at the time of observation, it should be
warmed until the snow melts before a measurement is taken. When snow
falls in a strong wind the drift that occurs makes it almost impossible
to measure the amount accurately, but an effort should be made to
estimate the average depth of the snow over a considerable area.

If the receiving bottle of the rain-gauge should be broken by frost or
accident, any other bottle may be used, or in default of a bottle, the
copper case itself will act as a receiver, although the risk of loss by
evaporation, and by the wetting of a large surface in pouring out the
water, is considerably increased.

At a fixed station the rain-gauge should be read every morning. The
traveller who only exposes his rain-gauge during a halt should be careful
to state the hours when it was exposed and when it was read.

_Barometers._—The barometer is the most delicate, and at the same time
the most important, instrument which a meteorologist has to employ. It
requires particular care in transport, and must be very carefully mounted
and read, while several accessory observations have to be made at each
reading in order to ascertain the corrections required for the subsequent
calculation of the results. The function of the barometer is to measure
the pressure of the air at the time of observation, and this purpose may
be carried out by the use of two different principles. The oldest and
best method is to measure the height at which a column of heavy fluid is
maintained in a tube entirely free from air. The weight of this column is
equal to the weight of a column of the atmosphere of the same sectional
area. Mercury being the densest fluid is the only one usually employed,
because the column balancing a column of the atmosphere of equal
sectional area is the shortest that can be obtained, and, consequently,
a mercurial barometer is the most portable that can be constructed on
this principle. The mercurial barometer has come to be recognised as the
standard in all parts of the world.

The average height of the column of mercury in a barometer is about
thirty inches, and, consequently, the whole instrument cannot well be
made less than three feet long, so that when account is taken of the
glass tube, and the amount of mercury it contains, it is long, fragile
and heavy. To avoid the disadvantages inherent in such an instrument,
the method of measuring the pressure of the air by the compression of a
spring holding apart the sides of an air-free flexible metallic box was
devised, and the aneroid barometer invented. The aneroid is graduated
on the dial in “inches,” _i.e._, divisions each of which corresponds to
a change of atmospheric pressure, equal to that measured by one inch of
mercury in a standard barometer. Although a carefully constructed aneroid
is a very useful instrument indeed, it is not to be trusted like a
mercurial barometer kept in a proper place. But a good aneroid is likely
to be much more serviceable to the ordinary traveller on the march than
a standard mercurial barometer, every packing and unpacking of which
exposes it to the risk of breakage, or to the equally fatal risk of air
obtaining access to the vacuous space at the top of the tube. The scale
of a barometer may be divided into millimetres, or, as now recommended
by the British Meteorological Office, into millibars or thousandths of
a hypothetical “atmosphere.” We shall describe the Fortin barometer,
which is best adapted for use at a fixed station, and one devised by
Prof. Collie and Capt. Deasy, which is portable enough for the use of
travellers.

_The Fortin Barometer._—The barometer must be kept in a room with as
equable a temperature as possible; the instrument must be absolutely
vertical—hence it should be hung freely and not touched while it is being
read; it must be in a good light, and yet be sheltered from the direct
rays of the sun. The measurement of the height of any mercurial barometer
is that of the difference of level between the surface of the mercury in
the tube and the surface of the mercury in the cistern. When the mercury
rises in the tube it falls in the cistern, and _vice versâ_, although
when the cistern is much wider than the tube the changes of level there
are much less than those in the tube. In most barometers an arbitrary
correction is made to allow for this change, the “inches” engraved on
the scale not being true inches. In the Fortin barometer, however, the
lower end of the measuring rod is brought in contact with the mercury in
the cistern before every reading, and then the scale of inches engraved
on the upper part of the measuring rod gives the true height of the
column of mercury. In calculating the barometric pressure for purposes
of comparison, five corrections have to be applied: (1) for temperature,
which requires the temperature of the barometer at the time of reading to
be observed, (2) for altitude, which necessitates knowing the elevation
of the place of observation above sea-level, (3) for the force of gravity
at sea-level, which requires the latitude to be known, (4) for the
capillary attraction between the mercury and the glass tube, which is a
constant for each barometer, (5) for the slight imperfection in engraving
the scale (index error), which is also a constant for each instrument.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.—_Two Readings of the Barometer Vernier._]

It is enough for the observer at a fixed station, and to such alone can
the use of a Fortin barometer be recommended, to read the temperature on
the thermometer attached to the barometer and to read the height of the
mercury in the barometer tube. These two figures he is to enter in his
note-book, and unless he is himself discussing the results, he should
apply no correction whatever to them. The rules for observing, then, are:—

1. Read the attached thermometer and note the reading.

2. Bring the surface of the mercury in the cistern into contact with the
ivory point which forms the extremity of the measuring rod by turning the
screw at the bottom of the cistern. The ivory point and its reflected
image in the mercury should appear just to touch each other and form a
double cone.

3. Adjust the vernier scale so that its two lower edges shall form a
tangent to the _convex_ surface of the mercury. The front and back edges
of the vernier, the _top_ of the mercury, and the eye of the observer are
then in the same straight line.

4. Take the reading, and _enter the observation as read_ without either
correcting it to freezing point or reducing it to the sea-level.

The scale fixed to the barometer is divided into inches, tenths, and
half-tenths, so that each division on this scale is equal to 0.050 inch.

The small movable scale or vernier attached to the instrument enables
the observer to take more accurate readings; it is moved by a rack and
pinion. Twenty-four spaces on the fixed scale correspond to twenty-five
spaces on the vernier; hence each space on the fixed scale is larger than
a space on the vernier by the twenty-fifth part of 0.050 inch, which is
0.002. Every long line on the vernier (marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) thus
corresponds to 0.010 inch. If the lower edge of the vernier coincides
with a line on the fixed scale, and the upper edge with the twenty-fourth
division of the latter higher up, the reading is at once supplied by
the fixed scale as in A (Fig. 5), where it is 29.500 inches. If this
coincidence does not take place, then read off the division on the fixed
scale, above which the lower edge of the vernier stands. In B (Fig. 5)
this is 29.750 inches. Next look along the vernier until one of its lines
is found to coincide with a line on the fixed scale. In B this will be
found to be the case with the second line above the figure “2.” The
reading of the barometer is therefore:—

  On fixed scale          29.750
  On vernier (12 × .002)    .024
                          ------
  Correct reading         29.774

Should two lines on the vernier be in equally near agreement with two on
the fixed scale, then the intermediate value should be adopted.

5. Lower the mercury in the cistern by turning the screw at the bottom
until the surface is well below the ivory point; this is done to prevent
the collection of impurities on the surface about the point.

The transport of barometers requires very great care in order to prevent
the introduction of air into the tube or the fracture of the tube by
the impact of the mercury against the top. To reduce the risk of these
accidents, the barometer must be carried with the tube quite _full of
mercury_, and in an inverted position, at least with the cistern end kept
higher than the top of the tube. The flexible cistern of the Fortin type
of barometer allows of it being screwed up tight so as to fill the tube
and close the lower end of it. In case of breakage, the operation of
fitting a new tube is not very difficult, but unless the tube has been
carried out ready filled with mercury, this cannot well be attempted. In
order to drive out the film of air adhering to the glass on the inside,
it is necessary, after filling the tube, to raise its temperature to
the boiling-point of mercury. No one should attempt either to fill or
to change a barometer tube unless he has had practice in doing so under
expert supervision beforehand.

_The Collie Portable Mercurial Barometer._—This instrument is not likely
to be broken in travelling. It is quickly set up, and from such tests
as have been applied, it appears to give excellent results. The cistern
and vacuum tube at the top are of equal diameter, and are connected by a
flexible tube, and the difference in level of the mercury may be measured
directly by means of a graduated rod, or as in Deasy’s mounting by means
of a vernier. There is no attached thermometer, but if the instrument be
used in the open air, and is exposed for ten minutes or a quarter of an
hour before using, it will be sufficient to note the temperature of the
air in the usual way.

The upper end (Fig. 7) is about 2.5 inches long, and contains an
air-trap, into which all the air that may accidentally enter the
barometer, either by the tap leaking, through the rubber tubing, or
through either of the joints, must find its way. The lower or reservoir
end (Fig. 8) is about 4.5 inches long, and has an air-tight glass tap
about an inch below the broad part. These ends are forced into the rubber
tubing, and, as an additional precaution against leakage, copper wire is
bound round the joints. The scale is cut on an aluminium bar, along which
two carriages, to which the barometer is attached, move up and down, and
they can be clamped to the bar at any place (Fig. 6). By means of the
verniers attached to the carriages, which are divided to 0.002 of an
inch, it is easy to estimate the height of the mercury to 0.001.

To use the barometer, the carriages are put on the scale bar; the lower
one is clamped at the bottom of the bar, and the upper one some inches
higher up; the barometer is attached to the carriages by clamps which fit
over the joints; the rubber cap is removed from the reservoir end, the
tap opened, the verniers put in the middle of their runs, and the upper
carriage moved up the bar until there is a vacuum. By means of the screws
on the right of the carriages the verniers are moved up or down until the
top of the mercury at each end is in line with the edges of the rings
attached to the verniers, which fit round the glass ends. Both verniers
are then read, and the difference gives the height of the barometer. The
rubber cap on the reservoir end is merely to prevent the small quantity
of mercury, which should be left above the tap when it is closed, from
being shaken out when travelling.

[Illustration: FIG. 6. THE COLLIE BAROMETER, WITH THE DEASY MOUNTING, IN
ITS NORMAL WORKING POSITION.

FIG. 7. THE UPPER CARRIAGE AND VERNIER ON A LARGER SCALE, WITH BAROMETER
ATTACHED.

FIG. 8. THE LOWER CARRIAGE AND VERNIER, WITH RESERVOIR END OF BAROMETER
ATTACHED. (Same scale as Fig. 7.)]

To pack up the barometer, lower the upper carriage _very slowly_ until
the mercury has touched the top of the glass; then detach the barometer
from this carriage, and either let the upper end hang vertically below
the reservoir, or detach the reservoir end from its carriage and raise
it till the barometer hangs vertically. By this means the barometer is
completely filled with mercury, and then the tap must be closed. The tube
is then to be coiled away in its padded box. When too much air is found
in the trap, it must be extracted by means of the air-pump.

_The Aneroid Barometer._—The aneroid barometer is so convenient on
account of its portability that, although much less trustworthy than a
mercurial barometer, it is much more likely to be used by a traveller.
Care should be taken in using it to see that the pointer has come to a
position of equilibrium, and it should be tapped gently before reading.
The eye must be brought directly over the end of the pointer, and the
reading made to one-hundredth of an inch, the barometer being held in
a horizontal position. Every opportunity of comparing the aneroid with
a standard mercurial barometer should be taken, and a note made of the
readings of both. The mercurial barometer will require to be corrected
for temperature before its indications can be used for correcting the
aneroid, as all good aneroids are compensated for changes of temperature.
The readings of an aneroid give a very fair idea of the changes of
atmospheric pressure, and are very much better than none at all, although
they cannot in any case be accepted as of the highest order of accuracy.

The Watkin mountain aneroid, which is so constructed as to be thrown into
gear at the moment when it is read, appears to be free from the worst
errors of the ordinary aneroid.

For climatological purposes, it is impossible to make barometric
observations of value while travelling unless the altitude of each
camping-place is accurately known. This is practically never the case
except when travelling along the sea-shore or the margin of a great lake
the elevation of which has been determined. But, meteorology apart,
barometric readings in any little known country are of value, because by
comparing them with simultaneous readings taken at a neighbouring fixed
station, new data as to the altitude of the country may be obtained.
While in camp, it would be an extremely useful thing to make barometer
readings, even with an aneroid, every two hours, in order to get some
information as to the normal daily range of atmospheric pressure.

_The Boiling-point Thermometer._—The temperature at which water
boils depends on the pressure of the atmosphere, so that an accurate
observation of the boiling-point of water enables the pressure of the
atmosphere at the moment of observation to be determined with the utmost
accuracy. This method of determining atmospheric pressure having been
used hitherto almost solely for the purpose of measuring altitudes, the
boiling-point thermometer is usually known as the Hypsometer, but its
records are quite as valuable for use at fixed stations as in mountain
climbing. Mr. J. Y. Buchanan recommends the use of a boiling-point
thermometer with a very open scale graduated to fiftieths of a degree
Centigrade and entirely enclosed in a wide glass tube through which
steam from water boiling in a copper vessel is passing. On a thermometer
of this kind change of pressure can be measured by the change of
boiling-point more accurately than with the aid of a mercurial barometer.
See Table, Vol. I., p. 293.

2. OBSERVATIONS FOR FORECASTING THE WEATHER.—The familiar name of
“weather-glass” is appropriately applied to the barometer, for in most
parts of the world it is the surest indicator of any approaching storm.

The scientific prediction of the weather by means of the barometer
involves the comparison of the simultaneous readings of barometers over
as wide an area as possible, and can only be carried out where there is
a complete telegraph system and a public department charged with the
work. The storms of wind and rain which break the more usual steady
weather are usually associated with the formation of centres of low
atmospheric pressure towards which wind blows in from every side. These
atmospheric depressions move, as a rule, in fairly regular tracks, the
rate of movement of the centre of the depression having no relation to
the rate at which the wind blows or to the direction of the wind. The
term _cyclone_ is usually applied to such a moving depression, because of
the rotating winds round the centre; but the size of a cyclone may vary
from a vast atmospheric eddy extending across the whole breadth of the
Atlantic to one only a few miles in diameter. The strength of the wind in
a cyclone depends on the barometric gradient; in other words, the greater
the difference in atmospheric pressure between two neighbouring points
the stronger is the wind that blows between them. Or, when a cyclone is
passing over an observer, the more rapidly the barometer falls _or rises_
the stronger may the wind be expected to blow.

In direct contrast to the cyclone or depression is the system of high
pressure rising to a centre from which the wind blows out on every
side. This is called an anticyclone, and is a condition which, once
established, may last for many days, or even weeks, without change. It is
the typical condition for dry calm weather in all parts of the world.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.—CYCLONE PATHS AND CIRCULATION OF WINDS IN CYCLONES
IN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERES.]

The direction of movement of the centres of cyclones in the northern
hemisphere is usually westward and northward near the equator, the
path of the centre bending to the right as it proceeds, and becoming
ultimately eastward and southward. In the southern hemisphere the
direction of the centre near the equator is westward and southward,
turning towards the left as it proceeds. The rotation of the wind about
the centre of a cyclone in the northern hemisphere is inwards towards
the centre in the direction opposite to the hands of a watch, and in the
southern hemisphere it is in the direction in which the hands of a watch
move (Fig. 9). In the centre of a cyclone there is a calm, a well-known
danger to sailing ships caught in such a storm at sea, because there is
no wind to move the vessel, but a tremendous sea driven in from the gale
which rages all round from every point of the compass. The law of storms
has been very fully studied, and rules have been drawn up to enable
sailors to ascertain the direction in which the centre of an approaching
cyclone lies and the direction in which it is moving. In a work intended
mainly for travellers on land it is not necessary to give these rules;
all that is required is to tell how the approach of dangerous storms may
be ascertained some time in advance. The fact that the barometer is high
or low is in itself of no value for prediction. The important thing to
know is the distribution of atmospheric pressure at a given moment over a
considerable area. To the isolated observer this is impossible, and he
can only judge of the state of the atmosphere by observing the _rate_ at
which the barometer is falling or rising. Thus, if for several days the
barometer has been steadily and slowly rising, he will probably be right
in believing that an anticyclonic condition is establishing itself, and
that the weather may be expected to continue fine for many days to come,
even after a gradual fall of the barometer begins. A sudden fall of the
barometer, on the other hand, is always a sign of wind, and usually of
wet weather as well. This is a particularly valuable sign of approaching
storm in those parts of the world where, as in the tropics, the normal
weather is very uniform and steady. In such places a very sudden fall,
say one-tenth of an inch in an hour, is a sure precursor of a violent
storm. As the barometer continues to fall, the wind will probably
continue to increase in force, and when the barometer reaches its lowest
point it will either fall calm (if the centre of the cyclone is passing
over the observer) or suddenly change in direction. The rapid rise of the
barometer after a great depression is also always accompanied by strong
wind, though not so frequently by rain.

It must be clearly understood that these remarks refer only to
observations at a fixed station. If a fall of barometer is observed
in travelling, it may be due either to a change in the state of the
atmosphere or to a change in the traveller’s height above sea-level.
This is the reason why it is absolutely essential, in making barometric
estimates of height (or boiling-point determinations), to have
simultaneous observations going on at a base-station, or preferably at a
series of intermediate stations.

The ordinary prognostics of the approach of rain or bad weather differ
in different localities, and require a considerable amount of local
knowledge before they can be utilised. The peculiar absorption band in
the solar spectrum due to the water vapour of the Earth’s atmosphere,
and called the rain-band, is a valuable guide to an experienced observer
with a spectroscope in predicting rain. The only instrument, however,
likely to be useful to the ordinary traveller is the wet and dry bulb
thermometer. When the two thermometers have the same reading, indicating
saturation of water vapour, or when they approach at temperatures above
60° F. within two degrees or so, rain may be expected, or possibly mist.
The appearance of low clouds clinging to the hillsides is an indication
that the temperature at the place where they are is below the dew-point.
The appearance of the upper clouds, taken in conjunction with the
readings of the barometer, is a valuable indication of forthcoming
weather changes. The increase of cirrus clouds in a clear sky with a
falling barometer, or the appearance of a solar or lunar halo, may be
taken as a sure sign of an approaching cyclone, the intensity of which
may be foreseen by the _rate_ at which the barometer is falling.

While the weather of places on the west coasts of temperate continents
exposed to the prevailing sea-wind is usually made up of a succession
of cyclones of different degrees of intensity, and of the anticyclonic
intervals between them, over the greater part of the Earth’s surface the
climate is much more uniform, and the seasonal changes are the principal
cause of changes of weather. To understand these general conditions it is
necessary to consider the elements of climatology.

3. OUTLINES OF CLIMATOLOGY.—The air is in constant movement on account
of the unequal way in which the heat of the sun falls on different
parts of the Earth’s surface, and at different seasons of the year. All
the conditions of the atmosphere show a certain diurnal periodicity
which is most marked in the regions of steady climate between and
near the tropics. Thus, as a rule, the minimum temperature of the air
occurs just before sunrise, the maximum temperature from two to three
hours after noon. The amount of difference between the maximum and
minimum temperature of the day (daily range) is least near the sea or
in wet regions (a maritime climate) and greatest in the interior of
the continents, especially where the rainfall is slight (a continental
climate). Over the sea itself the daily range of air temperature averages
only 3 Fahrenheit degrees; but in the heart of a continent, especially in
a desert, it may exceed 60 Fahrenheit degrees.

Diurnal changes of pressure are proportionally much smaller in amount
than changes of temperature, and are to be observed as a regular
phenomenon only in the tropics, or elsewhere during very settled weather.
There are usually two maxima daily, about 10 A.M. and 10 P.M., and two
minima occurring about 4 A.M. and 4 P.M. It is only in rare cases that
the total barometric range exceeds 0.10 inch, very frequently it is not
greater than 0.04 inch. Still it is convenient to remember in the tropics
that a fall of the barometer not greater than 0.10 inch between 10 A.M.
and 4 P.M. is to be expected, and does not indicate either the approach
of a storm (if the observer is at rest) or the ascent of 100 feet (if he
is on the march).

Associated with the diurnal changes of temperature in settled weather are
changes of wind due to local configuration of the ground. The wind, for
example, usually blows up a mountain side, or up a steep valley, during
the day, and down a mountain, or down a steep valley, during the night.
So, too, the regular land and sea breezes found on the borders of the sea
or of great lakes blow from water to land in the day time and from land
to water at night. Here the determining cause is the fact that land is
warmed and cooled by radiation, and in turn heats or chills the air much
more than water does. In the settled climates of high tropical plateaus
a regular diurnal change of wind direction has been observed, the wind
blowing successively from all points of the compass.

A similar diurnal periodicity occurs in the amount of cloud, in the
moisture of the air, the fall of rain, the occurrence of thunderstorms,
etc. It is also to be noticed in the flow of rivers in mountainous
regions where the streams take their rise from glaciers or snow, the
rapid melting of which by the heat of the sun causes the volume of water
to increase greatly in the afternoon, while the cessation or reduction of
the rate of melting at night diminishes the volume of the river in the
morning and forenoon.

Periodic changes of greater amount but similar in kind are produced by
the alternation of the seasons, the difference between the mean values
of the months in which the phenomena are at a maximum and minimum
respectively being termed the annual range. With regard to temperature,
very moderate changes occur in the tropical zones where the altitude
of the noon-day sun is always great, and the length of day and night
varies little with the season (for the most part less than 5 Fahrenheit
degrees); but in the temperate and frigid zones there are strongly marked
annual changes. As in the case of daily range, proximity to the sea is
a controlling factor in the annual range of temperature. To take a very
characteristic instance, the annual range between the mean temperature of
July and January is about 23 Fahrenheit degrees in the Lofoten islands
on the margin of the Atlantic, while it is 120 Fahrenheit degrees at
Verkhoyansk in the same latitude, but in the centre of the Asiatic
continent.

The extreme months for air temperature are January and July in almost
every part of the world, the maximum occurring north of the equatorial
belt in July and south of it in January.

The annual changes in barometric pressure and wind are equally marked.
The belt of low pressure which lies nearly under the vertical sun moves
northward over the surface of the globe in the northern summer, coming
to its most northerly position in July: returning southward after the
sun, it reaches its most southerly position in January. This belt of
low pressure is also a belt of calms, known by sailors as the Doldrums,
and it is a belt of frequent rains, so that as it approaches and passes
over a place there is a rainy season, followed by a dry season when it
retires. Near the mean position of the belt of low pressure, where it
passes over a place twice in the year, there are two rainy seasons.
The low pressure belt is bordered to north and south by belts of high
atmospheric pressure, from which the trade-winds blow towards the
equator, and the westerly anti-trades blow towards the poles. These are
also subject to the annual change; but the different action of land and
sea on the distribution of pressure exercises a greater influence than
does the difference of latitude. As the greater heating and cooling of
the land each day causes the phenomena of daily land and sea breezes,
so the greater heating and cooling of the land between summer and
winter causes seasonal land and sea winds, blowing from land to sea in
winter, from sea to land in summer. Generally speaking, the pressure is
greater—in the same latitude—where the air is cooler, so that outside the
frigid zones cold areas are usually areas of high pressure, from which
wind blows out in every direction, while warm areas are areas of low
pressure towards which wind blows in on every side.

The distribution of rainfall on the land is dependent on the direction
of the rain-bringing wind and the configuration of the surface. Thus
when the rain-bringing wind meets a mountain range, it deposits a great
rainfall on the exposed slopes, but passes over as a dry wind which
yields little rain to the region beyond. In places where the wind changes
with the season, as in southern Asia, the distribution of rainfall is
entirely different during the continuance of the different monsoons.

All these questions of normal climate can be more easily illustrated on
maps than explained by words. But the reader must be cautioned against
taking the condensed and generalised representations of small-scale maps
as showing all that is known on the subject. Even the magnificent plates
in the ‘Atlas of Meteorology,’ which forms part of Bartholomew’s Physical
Atlas, cannot show everything that is known; and in many parts of the
world so little has yet been ascertained as to the climatic conditions
that generations of observers will be required to make it possible for
meteorologists to draw a uniform trustworthy map of the whole world
showing the distribution of any one element of climate.

_Isothermal maps._—The principle of an isothermal map is that of
representing the distribution of temperature by drawing lines through
all the places where the temperature is the same at a given time. It is
usual to take this time as an average month in an average year. Thus in
a map of isotherms for January (see p. 50), what is shown is not the
temperature of any particular day in any particular January, but that
of an average day in a long series of Januaries. Hence it is not likely
that the _exact_ distribution of temperature shown in the map will
ever be found on any January day; but it is to be expected that most
days in every January will have a distribution of temperature which is
very similar to that shown. The same is of course true of maps showing
pressure, or rainfall, or any other average condition.

Again, the isotherm is necessarily constructed from average temperatures
which have been corrected so as to be applicable to the same level. On
the equator, for instance, the summit of a lofty mountain is seen by
the snow on it to have a temperature not exceeding 32° F., while at
sea-level the temperature may be 90°. But observations have been made
showing the rate at which the temperature of the air diminishes as the
height increases, and although the rate varies in different places and
at different seasons, it may be taken roughly as one Fahrenheit degree
in 300 feet. Now if the mountain top with a temperature of say 30° F.
is known to be 18,000 feet above the sea, the addition of 1° for every
300 feet, or 60° altogether, would give the temperature of 90° as that
corresponding to sea-level. By applying such corrections, the isothermal
maps have been constructed to show the distribution of temperature at the
level of the sea. In order to compare the temperature he has observed
with that on the map the observer must calculate the average of his daily
observations for the month in question, and then make the correction for
the altitude of his station.

Similarly, in ascertaining from an isothermal map the mean temperature
of a particular place, care must be taken to subtract from the number
of degrees of the isotherm passing through the place one degree for
every 300 feet of elevation. Of course it will usually happen that no
isotherm as shown on the map runs through the point the mean temperature
of which it is desired to obtain. In that case the temperature at the
point will be found by considering its relative position between the two
nearest isotherms. Thus, if it lie half-way between the lines of 60°
and 70°—measured perpendicularly to the isotherms—the temperature of
65° may be assumed; if it lies one-tenth of the distance from 60° and
nine-tenths from 70°, it is safe to assume 61°; if three-tenths from 70°
and seven-tenths from 60°, then assume 67°. If the point lie in a loop
of a single isotherm, _e.g._, Cape St. Roque, the eastern point of South
America in the map for January, lying within the 80° isotherm, one can
only guess that the temperature is above 80° and it may be assumed to be
below 85°. The method of representation is unsatisfactory in such a case.

These facts being borne in mind, the study of isotherm maps will be found
to give an excellent general idea of the distribution of climate at
sea-level, and if the contour lines of 600 and 6000 feet are traced on
the maps the areas within which corrections of over -2° and -20° have to
be applied to the isothermal values to get the temperature at the place
will be easily recognised.

_Isobaric Maps._—Isobars are drawn from the data of the height of the
barometer corrected to sea-level values and to the temperature of 32°
F., exactly in the same way as isotherms are drawn from the data of
thermometer readings or contour lines from data of altitude measurements.
The practical value of the study of isobars is very great, because of the
importance of assuming a probable value of sea-level pressure in reducing
the barometric or boiling-point thermometer readings for determining
elevation, and also because of the intimate relation between the form and
proximity of isobars and the direction and force of the winds.

Barometric gradient is measured by the difference between the isobars per
unit of length. For instance, gradient is frequently expressed in the
number of hundredths of an inch difference between barometers fifteen
nautical miles apart. The greater the gradient of pressure is, the more
closely together must the isobars be drawn in order to represent it. For
example, in the isobaric map for January (p. 50) a very steep gradient is
shown on the east coast of Asia, north of Japan, and a remarkably gentle
gradient in the interior of Asia from the Black Sea eastward. The steeper
the gradient the stronger is the wind.

The arrows in the isobaric maps (which are represented flying with the
wind) show the average directions of the wind over the world for the
months in question. The relation they bear to the isobars becomes clear
on inspection, although, on account of the greater number of observations
available for some parts of the world than for others, all the arrows are
not drawn with the same amount of certainty, and the direction of a few
contradicts that of most. As a general rule, the following facts may be
taken as absolutely established: (1) Wherever there is a region of high
pressure the wind blows out from it in all directions. (2) Wherever there
is a region of low pressure the wind blows in towards it from every side.
(3) The wind never blows perpendicularly to the isobars or directly from
higher to lower pressure, but always in a curved or spiral path inclined
to the isobars. (4) In the northern hemisphere the wind blows out from
a high pressure area in the same direction as the hands of a watch
move, but in the southern hemisphere in the opposite direction. Also in
the northern hemisphere the wind blows into a low-pressure area in the
direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch and in the southern
hemisphere in the same direction as the hands of a watch move. (5)
Recognising that the wind blows nearly parallel to the direction of the
isobars, the following statement (known as Buys Ballot’s Law) expresses
its direction both for high-pressure and for low-pressure areas: If you
stand with the lower pressure on your left hand, and the higher pressure
on your right hand, in the northern hemisphere the wind will be blowing
on your back, but in the southern hemisphere in your face.

_Rainfall Maps._—Rainfall is represented on maps by lines of equal
precipitation termed Isohyets. These represent actual figures without
reduction for elevation or other local conditions, and a rainfall map
can consequently be studied as a direct record of observed facts. The
map (p. 50) of mean annual rainfall brings out clearly the equatorial
zone of heavy rains crossing the Amazon valley, the Congo valley, the
southeastern peninsulas of Asia and the Malay archipelago. North and
south of this belt are the nearly rainless regions of the tropical
deserts, extended northward and southward over the continents, and
merging nearer the poles into the fairly-watered temperate zones. The
rainfall maps for separate months show the intimate relation between
rainfall and the direction of the wind taken in conjunction with the
configuration of the land. Even on the coast, when the prevailing wind
is off shore, there may be scarcely any rain, as on the west coast of
tropical South America. In the very heart of a continent the rainfall
may be very heavy where the sea-wind blows across a great plain before
striking the mountains, as is illustrated by the eastern slope of the
Andes. Rainfall is, however, one of the most inconstant elements of
meteorology, and the actual rainfall of any year may differ very widely
from the average. The practical value of exact statistics of rainfall
is, however, greater than that of any other climatological condition; for
the water supply and the fertility of the land depend in every case on
the rain that falls either locally or on the heights of the water-sheds.

In order to pursue the subject further the chapters on the atmosphere in
the writer’s ‘Realm of Nature’ (London, Murray; New York, Scribner) and
Mr. L. C. W. Bonacina’s ‘Climatic Control’ (London, A. and C. Black) may
be useful. The most systematic treatment of climatology will be found in
Hann’s ‘Handbuch der Klimatologie,’ 3 vols. (Stuttgart), which contains
numerous references to special works; the essential part of this treatise
is translated by Professor R. de C. Ward, under the title of ‘Handbook of
Climatology,’ Part I. (Macmillan). The most important work of all is the
great ‘Atlas of Meteorology’ by Dr. A. Buchan and Dr. A. J. Herbertson,
forming Vol. III. of Bartholomew’s ‘Atlas of Physical Geography’ (London,
Constable), which gives an unrivalled series of climate and weather-maps
with explanatory letterpress.

The recent great advances in meteorology have rendered the old textbooks
obsolete, while the new data, especially those regarding the upper
regions of the atmosphere, have not yet been built into a coherent
system. Sir Napier Shaw’s ‘Forecasting Weather’ (London, Constable &
Co.) is a pioneer discussion, and the numerous publications of the
Meteorological Office, South Kensington, London, S.W.7, may be consulted
with much advantage.

Daily synoptical weather-maps are published by the Weather Service of
almost every civilised country. Those for the United Kingdom may be
obtained from the Meteorological Office of the Air Ministry. The only
weather-maps of large areas produced regularly are the Pilot Charts
of the North Atlantic and the North Pacific, published monthly by the
Hydrographic Office at Washington, and those of the North Atlantic and
Mediterranean published monthly by the Meteorological Office in London.
These show the tracks of cyclones, and give a great deal of information
as to the meteorology and currents of the oceans. They are intended
primarily for the use of sailors.

The following list gives the name of the official weather service of
all countries outside Europe and the town in which the head office
is situated. Application might be made to any of these offices for
information as to the stations where standard instruments are established
in the country in question.

  EXTRA-EUROPEAN WEATHER SERVICES.

  ===================+====================================+================
  Country.           |                 Name.              |  Place.
  ===================+====================================+================
  _America_:—        |                                    |
                     |                                    |
  Canada             | Meteorological Service of the      |
                     |   Dominion of Canada               | Toronto.
  United States and  |                                    |
    West Indies      | Weather Bureau                     | Washington.
  Mexico             | Observatorio meteorologico         |
                     |   magnetico central                | Mexico.
  Salvador           | Observatorio Astronomico y         | San Salvador.
                     |   Meteorologico                    |
  Guatemala          | Instituto fisico-geografico        | San José.
  Cuba               | Real Colegio de Belen de la        |
                     |   compania de Jesus                | Havana.
  Brazil             | Central Meteorological Department  |
                     |   of the Navy                      | Rio de Janeiro.
  Uruguay            | Observatorio meteorologico del     |
                     |   colegio pio de Villa Colon       | Montevideo.
  Argentina          | Oficina meteorologica Argentina    | Buenos Aires.
  Chile              | Oficina meteorologica              | Santiago.
  Peru               | Harvard College Observatory        | Arequipa.
                     |                                    |
  _Africa_:—         |                                    |
                     |                                    |
  Algeria            | Service météorologique             | Algiers.
  British Central    |                                    |
    Africa           |                                    | Zomba.
  Egypt              | Observatory                        | Helwan.
  Madagascar         | Observatoire                       | Tananarive.
  Mauritius          | Royal Alfred Observatory           | Pamplemousses.
  Union of South     | Meteorological Branch, Irrigation  |
    Africa           |   Department                       | Johannesburg.
                     |                                    |
  _Asia_:—           |                                    |
                     |                                    |
  India              | Meteorological Department          | Calcutta.
  Japan              | Central Meteorological Observatory | Tokyo.
  Ceylon             | Surveyor-General’s Office          | Colombo.
  Hongkong           | Observatory                        | Hongkong.
  China              | Imperial Maritime Customs          | Peking.
    ”                | Observatoire de Zi-ka-wei          | Shanghai.
  Philippine Islands | Weather Bureau                     | Manila.
  Dutch East Indies  | Magnetic and Meteorological        | Batavia.
                     |   Observatory                      |
                     |                                    |
  _Australasia and   |                                    |
    Pacific_:—       |                                    |
                     |                                    |
  Australia          | Commonwealth Meteorological Service| Melbourne.
  New Zealand        | Meteorological Office              | Wellington.
  Hawaii             | Weather Bureau                     | Honolulu.
  ===================+====================================+================

In addition to the above, which are regular government services specially
organised for publishing and utilising the data from numerous observing
stations, there are many isolated stations in all parts of the world.
There are no colonies which do not possess some meteorological stations,
and at many mission stations meteorological observations are made. It
would always be well for a traveller to try to ascertain where in the
vicinity of his route meteorological stations have been established and
over what period of time their records extend.

In the Table (pp. 44-49), taken from Marriott’s “Hints to Meteorological
Observers,” is given the relative humidity for every 2° of temperature
from 20° to 80°, and for every two-tenths of a degree of difference
between the dry and wet-bulb readings from 0°·2 to 18°·0.

To use the Table: Look in the column on the left or right for the nearest
degree to the dry-bulb reading; then carry the eye horizontally along
until the column is reached corresponding to the difference between the
readings of the dry and wet-bulb thermometers, when the relative humidity
will be found. Intermediate readings can be interpolated in the usual way.

_Example:_ Dry-bulb 58°·5, wet-bulb 52°·7, the difference is 5°·8. Having
found 58° in the column on the left or right, run the eye along this line
until the column under 5°·8 is reached, when the relative humidity will
be found, viz., 67.

  TABLE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY.

  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        |  0.2  0.4  0.6  0.8  1.0  1.2  1.4  1.6  1.8  2.0  2.2  2.4  2.6
  ======+=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |   93   86   80   74   68   63   59   55   51   47   44   41   37
    22  |   94   88   82   76   70   65   60   56   53   50   47   44   41
    24  |   94   88   83   78   73   69   65   61   57   53   50   47   44
    26  |   95   90   85   80   76   72   68   64   61   57   54   51   48
    28  |   96   92   88   84   80   76   72   69   66   63   60   57   54
    30  |   96   93   90   87   84   81   78   75   72   70   67   64   62
    32  |   97   94   91   89   87   84   82   80   78   76   73   71   69
    34  |   97   95   93   91   89   87   85   83   81   80   78   76   74
    36  |   98   96   94   93   91   89   87   86   84   82   80   79   77
    38  |   98   96   94   93   91   89   87   86   85   83   81   80   78
    40  |   98   97   95   94   92   90   88   87   86   84   82   81   79
    42  |   98   97   95   94   92   90   88   87   86   84   83   81   80
    44  |   98   97   95   94   92   90   88   87   86   84   83   82   81
    46  |   99   97   95   94   92   91   89   88   87   85   84   82   81
    48  |   99   97   95   94   92   91   89   88   87   85   84   82   81
    50  |   99   97   96   94   93   92   90   89   88   86   85   83   82
    52  |   99   97   96   94   93   92   90   89   88   86   85   83   82
    54  |   99   97   96   94   93   92   90   89   88   86   85   83   82
    56  |   99   97   96   94   93   92   90   89   88   87   86   84   83
    58  |   99   97   96   94   93   92   90   89   88   87   86   85   84
    60  |   99   97   96   94   93   92   91   90   89   88   86   85   84
    62  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   91   90   89   88   86   85   84
    64  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   91   90   89   88   86   85   84
    66  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   91   90   89   88   87   86   85
    68  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   92   91   90   89   87   86   85
    70  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   92   91   90   89   87   86   85
    72  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   92   91   90   89   87   86   85
    74  |   99   98   96   95   94   93   92   91   90   89   88   87   85
    76  |   99   98   97   96   95   93   92   91   90   89   88   87   86
    78  |   99   98   97   96   95   94   93   92   91   90   89   88   87
    80  |   99   98   97   96   95   94   93   92   91   90   89   88   87
  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        |  2.8  3.0  3.2  3.4  3.6  3.8  4.0  4.2  4.4  4.6  4.8  5.0  5.2
        +=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |   34   32   29   27   25   23   21   19   18   17   16   15   14
    22  |   38   36   33   31   29   27   25   23   21   19   18   17   15
    24  |   42   39   36   34   32   30   29   27   25   23   21   19   18
    26  |   45   43   41   39   37   35   33   31   29   27   26   25   23
    28  |   52   50   48   46   44   42   40   38   36   34   33   32   30
    30  |   60   58   55   53   51   49   47   45   44   42   40   39   37
    32  |   67   65   63   61   60   58   56   54   53   51   50   48   47
    34  |   72   71   69   67   65   63   62   60   59   57   56   55   53
    36  |   76   74   72   71   69   68   66   64   63   61   60   59   58
    38  |   77   76   74   73   71   70   69   67   66   64   63   62   61
    40  |   78   76   75   74   72   71   70   68   67   65   64   63   62
    42  |   78   77   76   75   73   72   70   69   68   66   65   64   63
    44  |   79   78   77   76   74   73   72   71   70   68   67   65   64
    46  |   79   78   77   76   74   73   72   71   70   68   67   66   65
    48  |   80   79   78   77   75   74   73   72   71   69   68   67   66
    50  |   80   79   78   77   75   74   73   72   71   70   69   68   66
    52  |   81   80   79   78   76   75   74   73   72   71   70   69   67
    54  |   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   73   72   71   70   69   68
    56  |   82   81   80   79   77   76   75   74   73   72   71   70   69
    58  |   83   82   81   80   78   77   76   75   74   73   72   71   70
    60  |   83   82   81   80   78   77   76   75   74   73   72   71   70
    62  |   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74   73   72   71
    64  |   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74   73   72   71
    66  |   84   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74   73   72
    68  |   84   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74   73   72
    70  |   84   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74   74   73
    72  |   84   83   82   81   80   79   79   78   77   76   75   74   73
    74  |   85   84   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74   73
    76  |   85   84   83   82   81   80   80   79   78   77   76   75   74
    78  |   86   85   84   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   75   74
    80  |   86   85   84   83   82   81   80   79   78   77   76   76   75
  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        |  5.4  5.6  5.8  6.0  6.2  6.4  6.6  6.8  7.0  7.2  7.4  7.6  7.8
        +=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |   13   12   11   10    9    8    7    6    6    6    5    5    5
    22  |   14   13   12   11   10    9    9    8    8    7    7    6    6
    24  |   17   16   15   14   13   12   11   10   10    9    9    8    8
    26  |   21   20   19   18   17   16   15   14   14   13   12   11   10
    28  |   29   27   26   25   24   23   21   20   19   18   17   16   15
    30  |   36   35   33   32   31   30   29   28   28   27   26   25   24
    32  |   45   44   42   41   39   38   37   36   35   34   33   32   31
    34  |   52   51   50   49   47   46   45   44   43   41   40   39   38
    36  |   57   55   54   53   52   51   49   48   47   46   45   44   43
    38  |   60   58   57   56   55   54   52   51   50   49   48   47   46
    40  |   61   60   59   58   57   56   54   53   52   51   50   49   48
    42  |   62   61   60   59   58   57   56   55   54   53   52   51   50
    44  |   63   62   61   60   59   58   57   56   55   54   53   52   51
    46  |   64   63   62   61   60   59   58   57   56   55   54   53   52
    48  |   65   64   63   62   61   60   59   58   57   56   55   54   53
    50  |   65   64   63   62   61   60   59   58   58   57   56   55   54
    52  |   66   65   64   63   62   61   60   59   59   58   57   56   55
    54  |   67   66   65   64   63   62   61   60   59   58   57   56   55
    56  |   68   67   66   65   64   63   62   61   60   59   58   57   56
    58  |   69   68   67   66   65   64   63   62   61   60   59   58   57
    60  |   69   68   67   66   65   64   63   62   62   61   60   59   59
    62  |   70   69   68   67   66   65   64   63   63   62   61   60   59
    64  |   70   69   68   68   67   66   65   64   63   62   61   60   59
    66  |   71   70   69   68   67   66   65   64   64   63   62   61   60
    68  |   71   70   69   69   68   67   66   65   65   64   63   62   61
    70  |   72   71   70   69   68   67   66   65   65   64   63   62   61
    72  |   72   71   70   70   69   68   67   66   65   64   63   62   61
    74  |   72   71   70   70   69   68   67   66   66   65   64   63   62
    76  |   73   72   71   71   70   69   68   67   66   65   65   64   63
    78  |   73   72   71   71   70   69   68   67   67   66   65   64   63
    80  |   74   73   72   72   71   70   69   68   67   67   66   65   64
  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °     °   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        |  8.0  8.2  8.4  8.6  8.8  9.0  9.2  9.4  9.6  9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4
        +=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |    5   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    22  |    5    5    5    5    4    4   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    24  |    7    7    6    6    6    5    5    5    5    5    4   ..   ..
    26  |   10    9    9    8    8    7    7    6    6    6    5    5    5
    28  |   15   14   14   13   13   12   12   11   10   10    9    9    8
    30  |   23   22   21   20   19   18   17   16   15   15   14   14   13
    32  |   30   29   29   28   27   27   26   25   24   23   23   22   21
    34  |   37   36   36   35   34   33   33   32   31   30   30   29   28
    36  |   42   41   40   39   39   38   37   36   35   34   34   33   32
    38  |   45   44   43   42   42   41   40   39   38   37   36   35   34
    40  |   47   46   45   44   44   43   42   41   40   39   38   37   36
    42  |   49   48   47   46   45   44   43   42   41   40   40   39   38
    44  |   50   49   48   47   46   46   45   44   43   42   41   41   40
    46  |   51   50   49   48   47   47   46   45   44   43   43   42   41
    48  |   52   51   50   49   48   48   47   46   45   44   44   43   42
    50  |   53   52   51   50   49   49   48   47   46   45   45   44   43
    52  |   54   53   52   51   50   50   49   48   47   46   46   45   44
    54  |   55   54   53   52   51   51   50   49   48   47   47   46   45
    56  |   56   55   54   53   52   52   51   50   49   48   48   47   46
    58  |   57   56   55   54   53   53   52   51   50   49   49   48   47
    60  |   58   57   56   55   54   54   53   52   51   50   50   49   48
    62  |   58   57   56   56   55   55   54   53   52   51   51   50   49
    64  |   59   58   57   57   56   55   55   54   53   52   52   51   50
    66  |   60   59   58   58   57   56   55   54   53   52   52   51   51
    68  |   60   59   58   58   57   56   56   55   54   53   53   52   52
    70  |   61   60   59   59   58   57   57   56   55   54   54   53   52
    72  |   61   60   60   59   58   58   57   56   55   54   54   53   53
    74  |   62   61   61   60   59   59   58   57   56   55   55   54   54
    76  |   63   62   61   61   60   59   59   58   57   56   56   55   54
    78  |   63   62   61   61   60   60   59   58   57   56   56   55   55
    80  |   64   63   62   62   61   60   60   59   58   57   57   56   55
  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        | 10.6 10.8 11.0 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12.0 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13.0
        +=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    22  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    24  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    26  |    5    5    4   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    28  |    8    7    7    7    6    6    6    5    5    5    5    5    4
    30  |   13   12   12   12   11   11   10   10   10    9    9    9    8
    32  |   20   20   19   19   18   17   17   16   16   15   15   15   14
    34  |   27   27   26   26   25   24   24   23   23   22   21   21   20
    36  |   31   31   30   30   29   28   28   27   27   26   25   25   24
    38  |   33   33   32   32   31   30   30   29   29   28   27   27   26
    40  |   35   35   34   34   33   32   32   31   31   30   29   29   28
    42  |   37   36   36   35   34   33   32   32   31   31   30   30   29
    44  |   39   39   38   37   36   35   34   34   33   33   32   32   31
    46  |   40   39   39   38   37   36   35   35   34   34   33   33   32
    48  |   41   40   40   39   38   37   36   36   35   35   34   34   33
    50  |   42   41   41   40   40   39   39   38   37   36   35   35   34
    52  |   44   43   43   42   41   40   40   39   38   38   37   37   36
    54  |   45   44   44   43   42   41   41   40   39   39   38   38   37
    56  |   46   45   45   44   43   42   42   41   40   40   39   39   38
    58  |   47   46   46   45   45   44   44   43   42   41   40   40   39
    60  |   47   46   46   45   45   44   44   43   42   42   41   41   40
    62  |   48   47   47   46   46   45   45   44   43   43   42   42   41
    64  |   49   48   48   47   47   46   46   45   44   44   43   43   42
    66  |   50   49   49   48   48   47   47   46   45   45   44   44   43
    68  |   51   50   50   49   48   47   47   46   45   45   44   44   43
    70  |   51   50   50   49   49   48   48   47   46   46   45   45   44
    72  |   52   51   51   50   50   49   49   48   47   47   46   46   45
    74  |   53   52   52   51   50   49   49   48   47   47   46   46   45
    76  |   53   52   52   51   51   50   50   49   48   48   47   47   46
    78  |   54   53   53   52   52   51   51   50   49   49   48   48   47
    80  |   54   53   53   52   52   51   51   50   49   49   48   48   47
  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        | 13.2 13.4 13.6 13.8 14.0 14.2 14.4 14.6 14.8 15.0 15.2 15.4 15.6
        +=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    22  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    24  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    26  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    28  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    30  |    8    7    7    7    6    6    6    6    5    5    5    5    5
    32  |   14   13   13   13   12   12   11   11   11   10   10   10   10
    34  |   20   19   18   18   17   17   16   16   15   15   15   14   14
    36  |   24   23   23   23   22   22   21   21   20   20   19   19   18
    38  |   26   25   25   24   24   23   23   22   22   21   21   20   20
    40  |   28   27   27   26   25   25   25   24   24   23   23   22   22
    42  |   29   28   28   27   26   26   26   25   25   24   24   23   23
    44  |   31   30   30   29   28   28   27   26   26   25   25   24   24
    46  |   32   31   31   30   29   29   28   27   27   26   26   25   25
    48  |   33   32   32   31   30   30   29   29   29   28   27   27   26
    50  |   34   33   33   32   32   31   31   30   30   29   28   28   27
    52  |   36   35   35   34   33   32   32   31   31   30   29   29   28
    54  |   37   36   36   35   34   33   33   32   32   31   30   30   29
    56  |   37   36   36   35   35   34   34   33   33   33   32   32   31
    58  |   39   38   38   37   36   35   35   34   34   34   33   33   32
    60  |   39   38   38   37   37   36   36   35   35   35   34   34   33
    62  |   40   39   39   38   38   37   37   36   36   35   35   34   34
    64  |   41   40   40   39   39   38   38   37   37   36   36   35   35
    66  |   42   41   41   40   40   39   39   38   38   37   36   36   35
    68  |   42   41   41   40   40   39   39   38   38   38   37   37   36
    70  |   43   42   42   41   41   40   40   39   39   38   38   37   37
    72  |   44   43   43   42   42   41   41   40   40   39   39   38   38
    74  |   45   44   44   43   43   42   42   41   41   40   40   39   39
    76  |   46   45   45   44   43   43   43   42   42   41   40   40   39
    78  |   47   46   46   45   44   43   43   42   42   41   41   40   40
    80  |   47   46   46   45   45   44   44   43   43   42   41   41   40
  ======+=================================================================
  Dry Bulb Reading.
        |                    DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE READINGS
        |                 OF THE DRY AND WET BULB THERMOMETERS.
        |   °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °    °
        | 15.8 16.0 16.2 16.4 16.6 16.8 17.0 17.2 17.4 17.6 17.8 18.0
        +=================================================================
     °  |
    20  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    22  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    24  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    26  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    28  |   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    30  |    4    4   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..   ..
    32  |    9    9    9    8    8    8    7    7    7    7    6    6
    34  |   14   13   13   13   12   12   12   11   11   11   10   10
    36  |   18   17   17   16   16   15   15   14   14   14   13   13
    38  |   20   19   19   18   18   17   17   16   16   16   15   15
    40  |   22   21   21   20   20   19   19   18   18   18   17   17
    42  |   23   22   22   21   21   20   20   19   19   19   18   18
    44  |   24   23   23   22   22   21   21   20   20   20   19   19
    46  |   25   24   24   23   23   22   21   21   21   21   20   20
    48  |   26   25   24   23   23   22   22   22   21   21   20   20
    50  |   27   26   26   25   25   24   24   23   22   22   21   21
    52  |   28   27   27   26   26   25   25   24   24   24   23   23
    54  |   29   28   28   27   27   26   26   25   25   25   24   24
    56  |   31   30   29   29   28   28   27   27   26   26   25   25
    58  |   32   31   31   30   30   29   29   28   28   28   27   27
    60  |   33   32   32   31   31   30   30   29   29   28   28   27
    62  |   33   33   33   32   32   31   31   30   30   29   29   28
    64  |   34   34   33   32   32   31   31   30   30   29   29   29
    66  |   35   34   34   33   33   32   32   32   31   31   30   30
    68  |   36   35   35   34   34   33   33   33   32   32   31   31
    70  |   36   36   35   35   35   34   34   33   33   32   32   31
    72  |   37   37   36   36   35   35   34   34   34   33   33   32
    74  |   38   38   37   37   36   36   35   35   35   34   34   33
    76  |   39   38   38   37   37   37   36   36   36   35   35   34
    78  |   39   39   39   38   38   37   37   36   36   35   35   34
    80  |   40   39   39   38   38   37   37   36   36   35   35   35
        +=================================================================

  TABLE SHOWING THE PRESSURE OF SATURATED AQUEOUS VAPOUR IN INCHES OF
  MERCURY AT LATITUDE 45° FOR EACH DEGREE FAHRENHEIT FROM -30° TO 119°.

  -----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+-----+--------
     ° |  Inch. |  ° |  Inch. |  ° |  Inch. |  ° |  Inch. |   ° | Inches.
   -30 | 0.0099 |  0 | 0.0440 | 30 | 0.1665 | 60 | 0.5192 |  90 | 1.4128
   -29 | 0.0105 |  1 | 0.0461 | 31 | 0.1738 | 61 | 0.5379 |  91 | 1.4578
   -28 | 0.0111 |  2 | 0.0482 | 32 | 0.1815 | 62 | 0.5572 |  92 | 1.5040
   -27 | 0.0117 |  3 | 0.0504 | 33 | 0.1888 | 63 | 0.5771 |  93 | 1.5514
   -26 | 0.0123 |  4 | 0.0527 | 34 | 0.1964 | 64 | 0.5976 |  94 | 1.6001
   -25 | 0.0130 |  5 | 0.0551 | 35 | 0.2043 | 65 | 0.6187 |  95 | 1.6502
   -24 | 0.0137 |  6 | 0.0577 | 36 | 0.2125 | 66 | 0.6405 |  96 | 1.7017
   -23 | 0.0144 |  7 | 0.0604 | 37 | 0.2210 | 67 | 0.6630 |  97 | 1.7546
   -22 | 0.0152 |  8 | 0.0632 | 38 | 0.2297 | 68 | 0.6862 |  98 | 1.8088
   -21 | 0.0160 |  9 | 0.0661 | 39 | 0.2388 | 69 | 0.7101 |  99 | 1.8646
   -20 | 0.0168 | 10 | 0.0691 | 40 | 0.2482 | 70 | 0.7347 | 100 | 1.922
   -19 | 0.0177 | 11 | 0.0723 | 41 | 0.2579 | 71 | 0.7601 | 101 | 1.980
   -18 | 0.0186 | 12 | 0.0756 | 42 | 0.2679 | 72 | 0.7862 | 102 | 2.041
   -17 | 0.0196 | 13 | 0.0790 | 43 | 0.2783 | 73 | 0.8131 | 103 | 2.103
   -16 | 0.0206 | 14 | 0.0825 | 44 | 0.2890 | 74 | 0.8409 | 104 | 2.166
   -15 | 0.0217 | 15 | 0.0862 | 45 | 0.3001 | 75 | 0.8695 | 105 | 2.231
   -14 | 0.0228 | 16 | 0.0901 | 46 | 0.3116 | 76 | 0.8989 | 106 | 2.298
   -13 | 0.0239 | 17 | 0.0942 | 47 | 0.3235 | 77 | 0.9292 | 107 | 2.366
   -12 | 0.0251 | 18 | 0.0985 | 48 | 0.3358 | 78 | 0.9604 | 108 | 2.437
   -11 | 0.0263 | 19 | 0.1030 | 49 | 0.3485 | 79 | 0.9925 | 109 | 2.509
   -10 | 0.0276 | 20 | 0.1076 | 50 | 0.3616 | 80 | 1.0255 | 110 | 2.583
   - 9 | 0.0289 | 21 | 0.1124 | 51 | 0.3751 | 81 | 1.0595 | 111 | 2.659
   - 8 | 0.0303 | 22 | 0.1174 | 52 | 0.3891 | 82 | 1.0945 | 112 | 2.736
   - 7 | 0.0318 | 23 | 0.1226 | 53 | 0.4036 | 83 | 1.1305 | 113 | 2.817
   - 6 | 0.0333 | 24 | 0.1282 | 54 | 0.4186 | 84 | 1.1675 | 114 | 2.898
   - 5 | 0.0349 | 25 | 0.1339 | 55 | 0.4341 | 85 | 1.2056 | 115 | 2.982
   - 4 | 0.0366 | 26 | 0.1399 | 56 | 0.4501 | 86 | 1.2447 | 116 | 3.067
   - 3 | 0.0383 | 27 | 0.1461 | 57 | 0.4666 | 87 | 1.2850 | 117 | 3.156
   - 2 | 0.0401 | 28 | 0.1526 | 58 | 0.4836 | 88 | 1.3264 | 118 | 3.246
   - 1 | 0.0420 | 29 | 0.1594 | 59 | 0.5011 | 89 | 1.3690 | 119 | 3.338
  -----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+----+--------+-----+--------

[Illustration: ISOTHERMAL LINES SHOWING THE MEAN TEMPERATURE (FAHR.) OF
THE GLOBE FOR JANUARY.

_Published by the Royal Geographical Society in “Hints to Travellers.”
1921._]

[Illustration: ISOTHERMAL LINES SHOWING THE MEAN TEMPERATURE (FAHR.) OF
THE GLOBE FOR JULY.

_Published by the Royal Geographical Society in “Hints to Travellers.”
1921._]

[Illustration: ISOBARIC LINES AND PREVAILING WINDS OF THE GLOBE FOR
JANUARY.

_Published by the Royal Geographical Society in “Hints to Travellers.”
1921._]

[Illustration: ISOBARIC LINES AND PREVAILING WINDS OF THE GLOBE FOR JULY.

_Published by the Royal Geographical Society in “Hints to Travellers.”
1921._]

[Illustration: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL OF THE GLOBE.

_Published by the Royal Geographical Society in “Hints to Travellers.”
1921._]




II.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

_By J. THOMSON, formerly Instructor in Photography R.G.S._

Revised by J. MCINTOSH, _Secretary of the Royal Photographic Society of
Great Britain._


The photographic camera should form an essential part of the traveller’s
outfit, as it affords the only trustworthy means of obtaining pictorial
records of his journey, and it is also helpful in making the survey of
a new region, delineating its contours, its geological and botanical
features, and ethnographical types of race. The camera and materials
necessary for a journey may be readily obtained, so designed as to
minimise space and weight, and in every way so perfectly adapted to
the traveller’s needs as to ensure successful results in every variety
of climate, and render the operation of taking a photograph extremely
simple. It is necessary, however, that the traveller should make himself
master of the principles involved in the production of a successful
photograph, as he will have to depend on his personal effort in exposing
and developing the plate, etc. He should also acquire a knowledge of the
construction of the camera, to enable him to effect slight repairs when
necessary.

In selecting an outfit he must first decide upon the size of plate to be
carried, and that need not exceed what is termed “half-plate,” 6½ × 4¾
inches; which is large enough for the best work. The smallest effective
size for scientific work may be “quarter-plate,” 4¾ × 3¼ inches; in
use in many hand-cameras. Negatives on this scale, if perfect, may
be enlarged for book illustration, or printed as lantern slides. The
two sizes given form a very complete outfit when extra weight may be
conveniently carried.

_Selecting a Camera._—The cameras should have bellows bodies of Russian
leather which folds into small space, the woodwork must be well seasoned
to prevent warping, or cracking under a hot sun. The framework should be
metal-bound at the corners, and the camera fitted with a rising front and
swing back, although the swing back is not indispensable. A reversible
back (now universal) is of advantage, as it enables the operator to
take vertical or horizontal views without turning the camera on its
side. If the camera is fitted with a swing-front, the swing-back becomes
unnecessary. The swing-front is in all ways preferable to the swing-back.

[Illustration: BELLOWS CAMERA.]

_The Hand-camera._—Hand-cameras are designed to carry a dozen or more
plates or films in flat sheets or in spools, so arranged inside the
camera as to be changed after each exposure by simply turning a milled
head, or moving a lever. Rolled films are not recommended for travellers’
use in hot and humid climates. Sir Martin Conway says: “A traveller who
carries glass plates and flat films will probably bring home a larger
percentage of good negatives from a long mountain journey than one who
relies upon spools of films.” There can be no question about the force
and accuracy of this statement. My own experience goes to prove that a
camera arranged for glass plates and flat films is best.

[Illustration: TWIN-LENS CAMERA (OPEN).]

The twin-lens hand-camera made by Ross, of New Bond Street, London,
offers several advantages in its design. It is fitted with a focal-plain
shutter which is in every way simple and effective. The twin lenses are
of equal focal length, enabling the object to be photographed to be seen
on the same scale as it will appear in the finished negative, so that
just what is required may be embraced in the field. It consists of a
stout body of thoroughly seasoned hardwood, not easily damaged by rough
usage. The principal fittings required for adjusting the instrument are
inside, protected by the outer case. The exception to this arrangement
is the milled head by means of which the two lenses are focussed at the
same time. The lenses are of uniform focal length, so that the image
transmitted by the “finder” is a counterpart of the image which falls
upon the sensitive plate. The advantage of this is that the object to be
taken is seen on the finder-screen to scale exactly as it will appear
in the finished photograph. By this means the operator has it in his
power to place the object in the required position on the screen at the
moment of exposure. This is of signal importance if the object is moving
about. It must also be noted that this form of camera may be used when
the operator is facing at right angles to the object to be photographed.
I have frequently found that natives of foreign countries resent the
liberty taken of pointing a camera at them, and fly as if they expected
to be shot. The slides are each made to hold two plates, or flat films.
They are strong, serviceable, and easily managed, while the body of the
camera is so arranged as to carry a roll holder. The camera can also be
adapted to stereoscopic work, and fitted for the use of glass plates,
flat films, or rolled films.

A light tripod stand should be taken for supporting the camera when
longer exposures are required than can be given in the hand. A very
satisfactory compromise has been adopted by Sir W. Abney between using
the camera in the hand and on a tripod. He rests the camera on top of
a walking-stick when making hand exposures, with the result that he
overcomes all tremor caused by pulsation, and so secures photographs full
of sharp detail.

The same object is obtained by the reflex type of camera in which the
image formed by the lens is thrown upon a silver-faced mirror and
reflected upward to the focussing screen. Focussing can be carried out,
and a moving object followed till the moment when the exposure is made.
The reflex type of camera is a trifle less bulky than the twin-lens, and,
of course, only one high class and expensive lens is required.

_A Focussing-cloth._—This is used for keeping out the light while
focussing, being thrown over the camera and the head of the operator.
It is generally made of black velvet, but waterproof sheeting is much
better. It should have rings sewn on to one edge, or some arrangement by
which it may be attached to the camera so as not to be blown away.

_Camera-stand._—There are many varieties of tripod stands, with legs
either folding or sliding into a small compass. For mountainous country
it is of great advantage to have a stand with telescopic legs, as they
can be readily altered in length so as to stand firmly on slopes or rocky
ground. The smallest size, weighing about 3 lbs., and measuring 33 in.
long when closed, and standing about 4 ft. 6 in. high, is steady enough
to support a 6½ × 4¾ camera without perceptible vibration in a moderate
wind.

_A Small Circular Cup Level_, let into the wood of the camera, for
levelling the camera on the tripod, is a useful addition.

_Lenses._—There are many lenses in the market, and as it is impossible
to do good work with an inferior lens, it is necessary to exercise great
care in selecting this part of a photographic outfit. Lenses known as
rectilinear or symmetrical are useful to a scientific explorer, and are
well fitted for producing pictorial effect in his work.

Ordinary portrait lenses are designed specially for rapid work, and
this is attained at the cost of qualities in a lens most useful to an
explorer. The so-called portrait combination should therefore be avoided.

Rectilinear and symmetrical lenses give true images of objects to be
photographed free from distortion, so that straight lines are reproduced
as straight lines. In this way they are invaluable where accurate
measurements have to be taken from photographs produced by them.

[Illustration: HOMOCENTRIC LENS.]

Ross’s homocentric lens is one of the most useful lenses. It has a flat
field, is free from what is called “coma” and astigmatism, and is so
perfectly corrected as to fit it for interior and exterior work alike. It
is also a rapid hand-camera lens. The homocentric are made in series to
suit all cameras. Other lenses may also be noted, viz.: _c._ Dallmeyer’s
rapid rectilinear, including about 37°. _d._ Zeiss’s anastigmat, made
by Ross, consists of a double front lens and a triple back lens. It
is intended for portraits, groups, copying, and general outdoor work.
The combinations being brought closely together, gives them great
illuminating power. They have an angular aperture of from 858 to 908, and
can therefore be used as wide-angle lenses when desired. In consequence
of the peculiar system of correction for oblique pencils adopted in these
lenses, they behave somewhat differently from the usual types with regard
to the mode of compensating the effect of the resulting aberrations
between centre and margin of the field. This is, of course, only possible
in the case of perfectly plane objects. In all other cases—landscape,
instantaneous work, or interiors—the centre should be focussed rather
than objects at a distance or foreground.

_Focus._—It will be sufficient to say that focal length means the
distance between the diaphragm of a lens, and the ground-glass screen
when the image of a distant object is seen most distinctly on the screen.

_Exposure Tables._—Exposure tables are based on the focal length of a
lens, in relation to the diameter of the diaphragm of a lens. Thus,
if the focus is eight inches and diameter of diaphragm one inch, the
relationship will be expressed by _f_/8 or by the uniform standard
number 4, and so on, as in table. The diaphragms are so arranged for
size of opening that each succeeding number requires double the exposure
necessary with the one preceding it. _f_/11.3, for example, requires
double the exposure wanted with _f_/8.

  U. S. Nos.       4     8     16    32   64    128   256
                  _f_   _f_    _f_   _f_  _f_    _f_   _f_
  Ratio of Stops. ---   ----  ---   ----  ---   ---   ---
                   8    11.3   16   22.6  32   45.2    64

Such tables are useful guides to the relative duration of exposure with
diaphragms of different sizes applied to the same lens. They afford no
clue, however, to time of exposure to be given with any particular lens
or diaphragm. This can be best ascertained by experience, as duration of
exposure of a plate or film in the camera depends on the sensitiveness
of the plate, the time of day, the sun, the state of the atmosphere,
the nearness or distance of the object to be photographed, etc. To take
an extreme case of the difference of time required to impress the plate
with the image of an exterior view and that of an interior, a landscape
open and well lighted may be taken in the fraction of a second, while a
dimly-lighted interior with the same lens would require an hour, both
being taken with plates coated with the same emulsion. The duration of
exposure may be approximately estimated by using an exposure meter such
as may be obtained from any photographic dealer’s. It is useful to keep
an exposure record; a handy book for this purpose is published by Messrs.
Burroughs & Welcome. In this book rules are set down for exposure during
different months of the year and for different latitudes. These are apt
to prove misleading to the amateur. The simplest method of measuring
the actinic power of light in any latitude, and at any moment, is by
actinometer, giving plate-speeds, focus of lens, etc. Watkins “Bee
Meters” are excellent for this purpose.

_Sensitive Plates or Films._—Gelatine plates are now made commercially by
a large number of firms and of great excellence; they keep indefinitely
before exposure, and for a long time afterwards and before development
and under some circumstances (as for instantaneous pictures, portraits,
and dimly-lighted interiors) will give results which could hardly be
obtained at all on collodion plates. Gelatine plates are made of various
degrees of sensitiveness; the slowest are best for ordinary landscape
work. They are generally supplied in parcels of a dozen each, packed face
to face with strips of folded paper between opposite edges. The card
boxes in which they are usually packed are an insufficient protection
against injury and damp. In all cases it is advisable, and for sea
voyages and damp climates essential, to have each package of a dozen
plates soldered down in a tin case, and afterwards packed in a light
wooden box with tow or cotton wool, and the box screwed (not nailed)
down. In packing them up again after exposure or after development, a
good plan (due to Sir W. Abney) is to provide oneself with a number of
cardboard frames exactly the size of the plates, made of strips of card
about ¼ in. wide, one of which is inserted between every two plates film
to film. The packages thus made up should be soldered down again, and
treated with at least as much care as the original plates in packing.
Should there be no available means of resoldering the boxes, it will be
better to have tin boxes with the lid turned well down, the joinings to
be closed by strong well-gummed paper or medical rubber strapping. It
will also be well to be provided with a supply of waterproof paper, or
cloth, as an additional precaution in packing and in case of emergencies.

Sensitive films in rolls or spools are made by the Kodak and other
companies, and may be used successfully in their proper roll-holders
when they can be kept perfectly dry in temperate climates. Flat films
made by Kodak, Ltd., and others have many advantages for travellers. The
celluloid of which they are made is very much lighter than glass, and
in exposure and development may be treated in the same way as a glass
plate. When plates can be carried, the extra weight is compensated for by
greater certainty of success, and general excellence in the photographs.

_How to Keep Plates and Films Dry._—When the traveller has a long journey
before him, and the prospect of storing his plates and films for months
both before and after exposure, it is of the greatest importance that
precautions should be taken against the inroads of damp. This applies
with full force when the country to be explored has a hot, humid climate.
Plates and films that have absorbed moisture, causing decomposition in
the sensitive gelatine coating, are frequently brought back to this
country to be developed, and are the most fruitful cause of failure. The
remedy is simple, but can only be applied when packing and repacking
the plates. Some guarantee should be sought from makers of plates and
films that they are packed perfectly dry, and that the packing used is
also dry. Assuming that work has to be done in a damp climate and that
the plates have been exposed in the camera and require to be repacked,
they should be dried in a box containing a small quantity of chloride
of calcium. The box used for drying may be also designed to carry the
camera and outfit. It should have a lid with a rim of rubber padding, so
that by putting the lid on and a weight on it, the box would be fairly
air-tight. Stack the exposed plates, or films, in the bottom of box, so
separated as to permit the passage of air between. Place a cup or saucer
on the bottom of box containing chloride of calcium. (The chloride should
be first dried on a piece of iron over a fire.) Put on the lid and allow
the plates to remain for an hour or more. Dry all the packing materials,
remove the plates from the box and repack. The chloride will have
absorbed the moisture in the plates, and rendered them quite dry and safe
for preserving for an indefinite length of time.

_Apparatus and chemicals for development._—The development of the plates
or films after exposure in the camera requires practice and experience
in order to secure the best results. Instructions for development
are sent out with all commercial plates or papers, but many failures
would certainly result from attempting to work by these without some
preliminary practice at home. As plates, &c., will keep after exposure
(if well protected from damp) for 18 months, or longer if properly
packed, it is not, of course, necessary to develop them _en route_,
although if the traveller possess sufficient skill, and if ample
water-supply and other facilities can be secured, it will be advantageous
for many reasons to do so. On a long journey, when the temperature is
not too high, use of convenient resting-places may be made to develop
from time to time a few plates selected from the whole, both as tests
for exposure and as proof that all the apparatus is in order. The
following list comprises all that is absolutely required for developing
8 or 10 dozen gelatine plates:—Three papier-mâché dishes, two 3-ounce
glass measures, three 6-ounce bottles, containing strong solutions of
pyrogallic acid preserved with potassium meta-bisulphite, potassium
bromide, and sodium carbonate respectively, 1 lb. hyposulphite of soda,
and ¼ lb. alum, both in crystals, 4 or 5 feet of india-rubber tubing and
a spring clip, to make a syphon for a water supply from a jug or can, a
basin or tub to serve as a sink, a folding rack for draining the plates.

There are several convenient new developing agents in the market:
Hydro-Kinone, Eikonogen, Glycin, Metol, Rodinal, and Amidol. Some of
these were made and named in Germany, they are no longer procurable under
their German names. English manufacturers are however making substitutes
quite as good under new names, and these can be obtained from the
dealers. Many of them can be obtained in compressed form.

The traveller is recommended for advanced study of photography, such
works as Instructions in Photography by Sir Wm. Abney, The Science and
Art of Photography by Chapman Jones, and The Manual of Photographic
Exposure and Development by Alfred Watkins, which may be had from any
photographic dealer’s.

The aim of the traveller-photographer should be the production of good
_negatives_. It often requires years of study on the part of professional
operators (with advantages impossible to the traveller) before thoroughly
good negatives are habitually produced; and it must not be supposed that
a person taking up photography for the first time, in a few hurried
moments before departure on a journey, will attain other than very
unsatisfactory results.

The operations necessary for taking a picture are briefly as
follows:—Having selected the position from which the view is to be
taken (for valuable hints as to the _artistic_ production of pictures
see Robinson’s ‘Pictorial Effect in Photography’), the tripod stand is
first set up, and the head approximately levelled by means of the pocket
level, altering the position or length of the legs as may be necessary.
The camera is next screwed on to the stand, and the lens selected which
on trial is found to include the required amount of subject. For groups
or portraits a long focus lens with wide aperture, such as Dallmeyer’s
“Rapid rectilinear,” 11 in. focus, should be used. The next operation
is to focus the picture accurately on the ground-glass screen of the
camera. The focussing-cloth is thrown over the head and the camera,
so as to exclude the light as much as possible, and while looking at
the inverted image on the ground glass, the milled head of the rack
adjustment is turned till the image appears as sharp as possible. The
camera is now turned about on its vertical axis till it exactly includes
the view intended to be taken, and the screw is tightened. It may be
necessary to raise or lower the front of the camera carrying the lens
in order to include objects at a high or low elevation; if the vertical
range of this sliding front is insufficient, the camera must be tilted;
but, if this is done, care must be taken to set the focussing-screen
vertical again by means of the swing back, and to readjust the focus.
The full aperture of the lens should always be used for focussing,
and if the image is not sharp all over the plate it will be necessary
to insert a diaphragm in the lens, using the largest that will effect
the required object. Having then put the cap on the lens, the hinged
frame carrying the focussing-glass is turned over, and one of the
slides carrying the sensitive plates is inserted in its place. The
slides should be exposed as little as possible to the light, especially
avoiding direct sunlight; however carefully constructed, it is difficult
to make them absolutely light-tight. The shutter of the slide is then
withdrawn, and the exposure made by removing the cap from the lens for
time exposure, and by a spring shutter for instantaneous work. The time
of exposure must be estimated according to circumstances, and it requires
considerable experience to judge of it accurately. A record should be
kept in a note-book of every plate exposed, giving the number, date,
time, exposure, subject, &c. If the plates cannot be developed the same
evening, and the slides are wanted for fresh plates, they must be packed
up again, and should be numbered. This is best done by marking the number
on the back with a bit of dry soap, or in the film with a lead pencil.
The image on the plate after exposure is latent and invisible, and has
to be developed. This is effected by pouring on the plate, laid in one
of the flat dishes, a dilute solution containing pyrogallic acid, soda,
and potassium bromide. The excellence of the result largely depends on
the due proportion between these constituents, and here more experience
is perhaps necessary than in any other part of the process. The image
having been fully developed, the plate is well washed, and then immersed
in a solution of alum, which hardens the film. After another thorough
washing it is “fixed” by immersion in a solution of sodium hyposulphite,
which dissolves out the unchanged bromide of silver, and, being once
more well washed, it is finished, and must be set up in the rack to dry
spontaneously. On no account must heat be applied, not even the warmth
of sunlight, or the wet film will melt. When dry it must be varnished
to protect the film. The printing operations are best deferred till
the return home, as they would involve the carriage of a large amount
of extra apparatus. It is generally best to get the printing done by a
professional printer; but if the traveller prefers to print from his own
negatives he will find full instructions in each packet of paper which he
buys.

Colour sensitive plates are now much used and, when a yellow glass filter
is placed immediately in front of, or behind, the lens, will give in
the print the same variations in depth of tint which the eye sees in
the landscape, or other object. The nearest to perfection among these
plates are those known as Panchromatic, but they must be developed in
total darkness. The subject is a large one and should be studied in the
pamphlets on ‘orthochromation’ published by Kodak (Wratten Division), and
Ilford, Ltd.

As regards the expense of a photographic outfit, at the present time
the manufacturing trade is still very unsettled, some goods cannot be
supplied, and all have been greatly increased in price. Quarter plates
which used to be sold at a shilling per dozen are now about 3_s._ 6_d._
Application should be made to the dealers for current prices.

The camera, slides and lenses may be arranged to pack into a solid
leather case, conveniently in the form of a knapsack, measuring about
16 in. wide, 12 in. high, and 5 in. deep. This can easily be carried on
the back of one man, and is of a more convenient shape than the cases
generally sold for the purpose.

The plates and other apparatus, with the exception of the knapsack and
its contents, and the tripod stand, are best packed for travelling in a
strong basket, which is much better than a box, being more elastic and
lighter. It will weigh, when packed with the apparatus, and a gross of 7½
× 5 plates, about 60 lbs.


_Photography in Natural Colours._

It is now possible for the traveller to bring home records of what he has
seen in natural colours. There are two or three known methods by which
this may be done, but few are available for the work of exploration. The
picture obtained by the method patented by Mr. Ives and named Krōmskōp
Photography is produced by three monochrome images. These have however
been taken through three tinted glasses in a camera of a special kind.
The images may be thrown upon a screen by means of a special lantern; the
light passes through tinted glasses of colours complementary to those
employed in making the negatives with the result that the picture on the
screen exhibits all the varied hues of nature. The devices however are
exceedingly expensive and can be satisfactorily employed only by those
who thoroughly understand the apparatus and the problems which have to be
solved.

Simpler processes are the Autochromic and The Paget Colour Plate process.
In the Autochromic process the manufacturers coat a sheet of glass
with minute specks of three colours, blue, violet green and orange,
irregularly spread, and lay a coat of panchromatic emulsion on top. The
photographer exposes through the glass, thus obtaining a negative. The
developed silver, the negative image, is dissolved away and the silver
bromide remaining is developed giving a positive image in natural colours.

In the Paget process the glass is coated with points of colour laid in
a regular pattern. This is called the screen plate and is placed in the
dark slide face to face with a colour-sensitive plate, and the expression
is made through the screen plate. From the negative so obtained a
monochrome positive plate is made, and this is bound up in contact with
one of the screen plates. Some little experience is necessary to obtain
correct register.

Each process has its difficulties. Most photographers consider that the
Autochrome plate gives the nearest approach to natural colours, but the
slides are very dense and require an intense light to show them well. The
Paget plate is much more transparent and possesses the advantage that any
number of positives may be made from the negative, whereas the Autochrome
plate having been converted into a positive cannot be multiplied,
resembling in that particular the earliest form of photography, the
Daguerrotype.

None of these colour processes are suitable for photographing objects in
motion. The exposures may be reckoned as from fifteen to twenty times as
long as with an ordinary slow plate.




III.

GEOLOGY.

_By THE LATE W. T. BLANDFORD, F.R.S._

_Revised by PROF. E. J. GARWOOD, F.R.S._


A traveller who has not devoted some time to studying geology in the
field must not be surprised or disappointed if the rocks of any country
which he may happen to traverse appear to him a hopeless puzzle. If he
desires to investigate the geological structure of an unknown region, he
should previously devote some time to mastering, with the aid of a good
geological map and description, the details of some well-known tract.

Under the term “Geological Observations,” two very distinct types of
inquiry are commonly confounded. The first of these, to which the name
of Geological Investigation ought properly to be restricted, consists
in an examination of the rocks of a country as a whole, so as to
enable a geological map, or, at all events, geological sections, to
be constructed. This demands a knowledge of rocks (petrology), some
acquaintance with the details of geological surveying, and, usually,
with the elements of palæontology—a science that, in its turn, requires
a preliminary study of biology, and especially of zoology. Despite all
these hard terms, any intending traveller who has a taste for geology—if
he has none he had better not waste time upon the subject—will find that
a few months’ study in any good museum, a course of geological lectures,
and, above all, a few days in the field with a good geologist, will start
him very fairly equipped with the great requisite to all successful
scientific investigation, a knowledge of how to observe, and what to
observe.

The term “Geological Observations” is, however, often, but incorrectly,
used in a second sense, which implies a restriction of the observations
to the useful minerals found in any country, or to what is termed
economic geology. Here also a preliminary knowledge of the elements of
geological science will be found very useful, and will frequently enable
the traveller to form much more trustworthy conclusions as to the nature
and value of mineral deposits than he could without such a guide. But the
essential point is to recognise a valuable mineral when seen, and for
this some knowledge of mineralogy is requisite.

_Outfit._—The essential articles of a geologist’s outfit are neither
numerous nor cumbrous. A very large proportion of the known geology of
the world has been made out with no more elaborate appliances than a
hammer, a pocket compass with a small index to serve as a clinometer,
a pocket-lens, a note-book and a pencil. No scientific observer has to
depend more on his own knowledge and faculty for observation, and less on
instrumental appliances, than a geologist.

The best hammer for general purposes should weigh from 12 to 24 oz. and
should have a square flat end, and a straight cutting end—the latter
should be horizontal, and the inner face of the hammer a continuous plane
surface. The ends should be of steel, not too highly tempered. The hole
for the handle should be as large as possible (with a small hole the
handles are so weak as to be liable to break), and the handle should be
secured in the hole by a wooden wedge, and an iron one driven into and
across the wooden one. It is advisable to take a few spare ash handles
and iron wedges. Cut a foot-measure in notches on the handle—this is very
useful for measuring thickness of beds, &c. It is as well to have more
than one hammer in case of loss, and if fossil-collecting is anticipated,
at least one heavy hammer, with one end fashioned to serve as a pick,
three or four cold chisels of various sizes, and a short crow-bar will
be found useful. In London, hammers, chisels, &c., may be procured of
Messrs. Buck, 242, Tottenham Court Road.

A very good pocket compass, the shape and size of a watch, with a
clinometer arm, is made by Troughton and Simms, 138, Fleet Street. The
use of the clinometer is for measuring the angle of dip in rocks. If more
accuracy of measurement is required than is afforded by looking at a bed,
a section, or a hill-side, and holding the straight-edge attached to the
compass parallel to the dip, and if a surface can be found that affords
the exact inclination, it is usually practicable, by means of a note-book
laid on the rock surface, or, better still, a folding two-foot rule
with a slot for sliding in the compass-clinometer, to obtain a plane
sufficiently close to that at which the beds dip to enable the angle to
be determined with a very short straight-edge. As a rule, except with
very low angles of dip, the variation in the inclination of the rocks
themselves exceeds the limits of error of the instrument. A little care,
however, is necessary in taking dips; for the apparent dip seen in a
section, such as is often exposed in a cliff, may differ widely from the
true dip, which will only be shown _if the section runs at right angles
to the strike of the beds_. Dips seen on the sides of hills at a distance
are but rarely correct for the same reason.

A prismatic compass and an aneroid are frequently of great service: the
former to determine the position on the map, if one exists, and to aid in
making a rough map, if there is none; and the latter to estimate roughly
the heights on the road travelled, especially in mountainous countries,
and also to measure the thickness of horizontal beds. Both form a part of
the outfit of most modern travellers. A good aneroid gives sufficiently
accurate determinations of height for a rough but adequate geological
section across any country, if the distances are known. The Watkin
mountain aneroid of Hicks and Co., Hatton Garden, is the most accurate
for considerable heights.

_Collections._—Geological specimens require little more than paper and
boxes, or biscuit tins, for packing. Occasionally fossils or minerals are
fragile, and need tow or grass to protect them from injury; but there is
no risk from the animal and vegetable enemies of zoological or botanical
collections. The only important point to be borne in mind is that _every
specimen should be labelled on the spot_, or, at all events, in the
course of the day on which it is collected. Strong paper is best for
labels, and these should not be put up in contact with the rock-fragments
themselves, or they will be worn by sharp edges and become illegible,
if not rubbed to fragments. Always wrap each specimen in paper, or
some substitute, then add the label, and then an outer covering. The
label,[3] if nothing else is written, should always record the locality
distinctly written.

A collection of rock specimens may show what kinds of rock occur in a
country, but the information afforded is very meagre, and, in general, of
very small value. Such collections, indeed, unless made by a geologist,
and accompanied by notes, are scarcely worth the carriage. If such
specimens are taken, care should be used to select them from the rocks
in place, _not from loose blocks_ that may have been transported from a
distance. In certain cases, however, where the traveller does not intend
to penetrate beyond the low ground, pebbles brought down by streams give
some indication of the strata which occur higher in the drainage basin,
and the information may be useful to future explorers, but they should
always be labelled as such. No fragments of spar or crystals should be
collected merely because they are pretty.

In taking specimens of useful minerals, such as coal or metallic ores,
the traveller should always endeavour to procure them himself from
the place of occurrence, and if such are brought to him by natives,
he should, if practicable, visit the locality whence the samples were
procured. The value of all useful minerals depends both on quality and
quantity; the former can to some extent be ascertained from a sample,
but the amount available can only be estimated after a visit to the
locality. Most metallic ores occur in veins or lodes. These were
originally cracks in the rock, and have been irregularly filled with
minerals, different from those in the neighbourhood. It is, however, very
difficult, and often impossible, to estimate from surface examination
whether the quantity of ore occurring in veins is likely to prove large;
some idea may possibly be obtained if underground workings exist. Many
of the ores of iron and manganese, some of those of other metals, and
all coal and salt occur in beds, and here it is important to see what
is the thickness, and to ascertain whether the mineral is equally pure
throughout. Iron ores occur in most countries, and unless very pure
and within easy reach of water-carriage, are not likely to be worth
transport. The value of salt also depends on facilities for carriage.
Coal, however, may be of value anywhere; but it is improbable that seams
of less thickness than four or five feet can be of much use, except in
countries where there is a skilled mining population and a considerable
demand for the mineral. It does not follow because much thinner seams
are sufficiently valuable to be worked in Western Europe, that they
would pay for extraction in a country where the mechanical arts are less
advanced. Still the occurrence of thin seams is worthy of record, as
thicker deposits may exist in the neighbourhood. It must not be inferred,
however, that a seam of small thickness at the surface will become
thicker below. The reverse is equally probable.

A blow-pipe is extremely useful for ascertaining the nature of ores, and
for determining minerals generally, and a small blow-pipe case might be
added to a traveller’s kit, if he thinks it probable that he may meet
with minerals in any quantity. But in general they are not to be found
in such profusion as to render it difficult to carry away specimens
sufficient for determination at leisure. A blow-pipe, too, is of no use
to any one unacquainted with the method of employing it, though this is
easy to acquire.[4]

To form a rough idea of the value of iron ore, see whether it is
heavy; to form some notion of the quality of coal, pile up a heap and
set fire to it. If it does not burn freely, the prospects of the coal
being useful are small. It may be anthracitic, and very valuable with
proper appliances; but anthracite is not of the same general utility as
bituminous coal. Good coal should burn freely, with more or less flame,
and should leave but little ash, and it is preferable that the ash should
be white, not red, as the latter colour is often due to the presence of
pyrites, a deleterious ingredient.

Gold and gems have, as is well known, been procured in considerable
quantities from the sands of rivers and alluvial deposits. The deposits
known to the natives of any country are often of small value, and the
rude methods of washing prevalent in so many lands suffice to afford a
fair idea of the wealth or poverty of the sand washed. Gold and, wherever
it is found, platinum occur in grains and nuggets, easily recognised by
their colour and their being malleable; but gems, such as diamond, ruby,
sapphire, are not so easy to tell from less valuable minerals. They
may be recognised by their crystalline form and hardness. A diamond is
usually found in some modification of an octahedron, and the crystalline
facets are often curved; rubies and sapphires are really differently
coloured varieties of corundum or emery, and occur, when crystalline,
in six-sided pyramids or some modification. A diamond is the hardest of
known substances; nothing will scratch it, and it will scratch all other
minerals. Sapphire will scratch everything except diamond. Topaz will
scratch quartz.

In collecting fossils, it is useless to take many specimens of one kind
unless carriage is exceptionally plentiful. Two or three good examples of
each kind are usually sufficient, but as many kinds as possible should
be collected. Great care is necessary that all specimens from one bed be
kept distinct from those from another stratum, even if the bed be thin
and the fossils in the two beds chiefly the same species. If there is
a series of beds, one above the other, all containing fossils, measure
the thickness roughly, draw a sketch-section in your note-book, apply a
letter or a number to each bed in succession on the sketch, and label the
fossils from that bed with the same number or letter.

Remains of Vertebrata, especially of mammals, birds and reptiles, are of
great interest; but it is useless to collect fragments of bones without
terminations. Skulls are much more important than other bones, and even
single teeth are well worth collecting. After skulls, vertebræ are the
most useful parts of the skeleton, then limb bones. If complete skeletons
are found, they are usually well worth some trouble in transporting. If
fossil bones are found abundantly in any locality, and the traveller has
no sufficient means of transport, he will do well to carry away a few
skulls, or even teeth, and carefully note the locality for the benefit
of future geologists and explorers. The soil of limestone caverns, and
especially the more or less consolidated loam, rubble, clay, or sand
beneath the flooring of stalagmite, if it can be examined, should always
be searched for bones, and also for indications of man or his works.

The foregoing remarks are intended for all travellers, especially for
those who have paid little or no attention to geology. It would be far
beyond the object of the present notes to attempt to give instruction
in the methods of geological observation; all who wish to know more
fully what questions are especially worthy of attention, should consult
the article on Geology by the late Dr. Charles Darwin and Professor.
J. Phillips in the ‘Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry.’ But a
few hints may be usefully added here for those who have already some
knowledge of geology, who do not require to have such terms as dip,
strike, fault, or denudation explained to them, and who are sufficiently
conversant with geological phenomena to be able to distinguish
sedimentary from volcanic, and metamorphic from unaltered rocks, and to
recognise granite, gneiss, schist, basalt, trachyte, slate, limestone,
sandstone, shale, &c., in the field. Assuming then that a traveller with
some knowledge of field geology is making a journey through a tract of
the earth’s surface, the geology of which is unknown, what will be the
best method of procedure and the principal points to which he should
direct his attention?

On the whole, the most useful record of a journey, whether intended
for publication or merely as a memorandum, is a sketch geological map
of the route followed, with the dips and strikes of the rocks and
approximate boundaries to the formations, supplemented by notes and
sketch-sections. Where, as is commonly the case in mountain-chains, and
frequently in less elevated portions of the country, the rocks are much
disturbed, and especially if the number of systems exposed is large and
the changes frequent, no traveller can expect to do more than gain a
very rough and general idea of the succession of beds in detail, and of
the structure; but by making excursions in various directions, whenever
a halt is practicable, by searching for fossils as a guide to the age
and for the identification of beds with each other, and by carefully
noting the general dip and strike of the more conspicuous beds, it is
often possible, especially if an opportunity occurs of retracing the road
followed, or of traversing a parallel route, to make out the structure
of a country that at first appears hopelessly intricate. Dense forest is
perhaps the worst obstacle to geological exploration; snow is another,
though not quite so serious a disadvantage. It is always a good plan to
climb commanding peaks; the general direction of beds, obscure from the
lower ground, not unfrequently becomes much clearer when they are seen
from above.

In level and undulating regions, on the other hand, it frequently happens
that enormous tracts of country are occupied by the same formation,
and if the rocks are soft, and especially if they are horizontal, or
nearly so, little, if any, rock is to be seen in place. In this case
water-courses should be searched for sections, and the pebbles found in
the stream-beds examined, care being taken not to mistake transported
pebbles derived from overlying alluvium or drift for fragments of the
underlying rock. Where the same formation prevails over large tracts, it
is usually easy, by examining the stones brought down by a stream, to
learn whether any other beds occur. It is astonishing how even a small
outcrop of hard rock at a remote spot in the area drained by a stream
will almost always yield a few fragments that can be detected by walking
two or three hundred yards up the stream-bed and carefully examining the
pebbles.

Not infrequently different rocks support different vegetation, and by
noting the forms that are peculiar, the constitution of hills at a
considerable distance may be recognised. Thus some kinds of rock will be
found to support evergreen, others deciduous trees, others grass, whilst
a fourth kind may be distinguished by the poverty or want of vegetation.
It is not well to trust too much to such indications, but they may show
which hills require examination and which do not. The form assumed by the
outcrop of some hard beds is often characteristic, and may be recognised
at a considerable distance.

One most important fact should never be forgotten; mineral character,
whether of sedimentary or volcanic rocks, is absolutely worthless as a
guide to the age of beds occurring in distant countries. The traveller
should never be led to suppose, because a formation, whether sedimentary
or volcanic, in a remote part of the world, is mineralogically and
structurally identical with another in Europe, or some country of which
the geology is well known, that the two are of contemporaneous origin.
The blunders that have been made from want of knowledge of this important
caution are innumerable.

There are a few points of geological interest well worthy of the
investigation of those who traverse unexplored, or partially explored,
tracts of the earth’s surface. Amongst these are the following:—

_Mountain-Chains._—Few, if any, geologists now believe that mountains
were simply thrust up from below; all admit that, at least in the
majority of cases, where great crumpling of the strata has taken place,
there has been lateral movement of the earth’s crust. But the causes,
extent and date, of the lateral movements are still, to a great degree,
matters of conjecture, and every additional series of observations
bearing on the question is of importance. There are many mountain-chains
of which very little is yet known. In every case good sections are
required, drawn as nearly to scale as practicable, through the range
from side to side, and including the rocks at each base. The nature and
distribution of all volcanic and crystalline rocks, both in the range and
throughout the neighbouring areas, are especially noteworthy, and also
the relations of the later beds, if any, on the flanks of the mountains,
to those constituting the range itself. The derivation of the materials
of the former from the latter, and the relative amount of disturbance
shown by the two, and by the different members of each, will afford a
clue to the date of upheaval; and two or more periods of movement may
thus be determined, where intrusive igneous rocks, such as granite,
occur, their relations to the surrounding rocks should be carefully
noted, and specimens at the contact of the two rocks collected. If
altered sedimentary rocks are found these should be traced, if possible,
away from the igneous rock until some indication of their age is obtained
from included fossils.

The distinction between a contemporaneous lava flow and an intrusive
sheet of igneous rock is not always at first sight apparent; if the
latter, it may pass from one bed to another or send tongues upwards
into the overlying strata. Search should be made in the beds overlying
the igneous rock for signs of alteration by heat. Thus limestone may be
re-crystallised into marble, or shales altered into flinty hornstone.

_Volcanoes and Volcanic Rocks._—It is almost needless to say that any
additional information on the distribution of volcanic vents, recent or
extinct, is of interest. In the case of extinct vents, the geological
date of the last eruptions should be ascertained if practicable. This may
sometimes be determined by finding organic remains or sedimentary beds of
known age interstratified with the ashes or lava-streams near the base of
the volcano.

_Coasts._—The subject of the erosion of coasts is now fairly understood,
and there is no doubt that the relative importance of this form of
denudation was greatly overrated by many geological writers, who took
their ideas of geological denudation generally from the phenomena
observed in the islands, and on some of the coasts of Western Europe.
Still, wherever cliffs occur, they afford good sections, and deserve
examination. One question will usually present itself to almost every
geological observer, and that is, whether any coast he may be landing
upon affords evidence of elevation or depression. In the former case,
beds of rolled pebbles or of marine shells, similar to those now living
on the shore, may be found at some elevation above high-water mark.
Very often the commonest molluscs in raised beds are the kinds occurring
in estuaries, which are different from those inhabiting an open coast.
Caution is necessary, however, that heaps of shells made by man, or
isolated specimens transported by animals (birds or hermit-crabs), or
by the wind, be not mistaken for evidence of raised beds.[5] If the
shore is steep, terraces on the hillsides may mark the levels at which
the sea remained in past times, but some care is necessary not to
mistake outcrops of hard beds for terraces. If dead shells of species
of mollusca, only living in salt-water estuaries, are found in places
now beyond the influence of the tide, it is a reasonable inference that
elevation has taken place.

The evidence of depression, on the other hand, unless there are buildings
or trees partly sunk in the water, is much less readily obtained, and
neither trees nor buildings are available as evidence, unless the
depression is of comparatively recent date. The best proof is the form
of the coast. If deep inlets of moderate breadth occur, with numerous
branches, a little examination will frequently show whether such inlets
are valleys of subaërial erosion, as they not unfrequently are, that
have been depressed below the sea. A good and familiar example of such
a depressed valley is to be found at Milford Haven in South Wales. In
higher latitudes, the coast should be examined for signs of the action of
sea ice, and stones should be collected from icebergs which have drifted
from outside the accessible area; the shape of these stones and the
proportion of those having only one smoothed side should be noted.

_Rivers and River-Plains._—At the present time a question of much
interest is the antiquity of existing land-areas, and some light may be
thrown upon this, if the relations of existing river-basins to those of
past times can be determined. If a stream cuts its way through a high
range, it is probable that the stream is of greater antiquity than the
range, and either once ran at an elevation higher than the crest of the
ridge now traversed, or else has cut its way through the range gradually
during the slow elevation of the latter. Where a river traverses a great
alluvial plain, it may fairly be inferred that a long time has been
occupied in the accumulation of the deposits to form the plain; but
it remains to be seen whether those deposits are not partly marine or
lacustrine. If upheaval has taken place over any portion of the plain, or
if the river has cut its bed deeper, sections may be exposed, and these
should always be examined for fossil remains. Bones of extinct animals
are not unfrequently found in such deposits.[6]

_Lakes and Tarns._—The mode of origin of lakes is always a subject of
considerable geological interest, and any evidence which bears on the
origin of a particular lake should be carefully noted. Lakes may be
divided broadly into two classes: (1) Rock basins, (2) impounded hollows.
Lakes of the latter class may, as a rule, be readily recognised and
accounted for. The material forming the barrier may be due to a moraine,
screes, or a landslip, or may result from the presence of a glacier
in the main valley damming back the drainage of a lateral tributary.
When lakes occur near the summit of a pass, they may often be traced to
deposition of delta material on the floor of the valley brought down by
a tributary stream. In this case, the inability of the stream to remove
the material may often be traced to the abstraction of the head waters
of the valley by the encroachment of the stream on the other side of the
watershed. Rock basins, on the other hand, are frequently difficult to
account for. They may occupy volcanic craters, or lie in areas of special
depression (earthquake districts), or synclinal folds. They may be due
to upheaval of old valley systems, causing reversal of drainage, or to
subsidence at the upper end of a valley.

In special cases they may be due to the solution of soluble rock
(rock-salt, gypsum, limestone, or dolomite). Many not otherwise
explicable have been attributed to ice erosion during glacial periods,
and it is still a moot point how far these lakes are due to partial
changes in the elevation of the country, some observers having adopted,
while many others dispute, the views of the late Sir A. Ramsay, who
believed all these hollows to have been scooped out by ice moving over
the surface in the form of a glacier or an ice-sheet. The origin of any
lake met with should, if possible, be investigated and assigned to one of
these causes.

_Evidence of Glacial Action._—Closely connected with the subject of lakes
is that of glacial evidence generally. There is probably no geological
question which has produced more speculation of late years than the
inquiry into the traces of a comparatively recent cold period in the
earth’s history, and the former occurrence of similar glacial epochs at
regular or irregular intervals of geological time.

The evidence of the last glacial epoch may be traced in two ways—by the
form of the surface, which has been modified by the action of ice, and
by changes that have taken place in the fauna and flora of the country
in consequence of the alteration in the climate. The effects of an
ice-sheet, like that now occurring in Greenland, if such formerly existed
in comparatively low latitudes, must have been to round off, score and
polish the rocks of the country in a peculiar manner, easily recognised
by those familiar with glaciated areas. Care should be taken that the
peculiar scoring and grooving of rock surfaces produced by the action of
sand transported by the wind be not mistaken for glacial evidence. Cases
also occur where movement among a mass of unconsolidated conglomerate
or scree material has produced striation of the pebbles; in this case,
however, careful observation will disclose a similar striation in the
material of the matrix as well. Glaciers, properly so called, are
confined to hilly or mountainous countries, and the valleys formerly
occupied by them retain more or less the form of the letter U instead of
taking the shape of the letter V, as they do when they have been cut out
by running water. The sides of the valley, when modified by a glacier,
have a tendency to assume the form of slopes unbroken by ravines, and
with all ridges planed away or rounded, whilst in ordinary valleys of
erosion by water, the sides consist of a series of side valleys or
ravines, divided from each other by sharp ridges running down to the
main valley. Large and small masses of rock, preserving to a considerable
extent an angular form, but frequently polished and grooved by being
ground against the sides or bottom of the valley, are carried down by the
ice, and either left behind, perched up high on the slopes of the valley,
or accumulated in a vast heap or bank, known as a terminal moraine, at
the spot where the ice has terminated, or as lateral moraines on the
sides of the valley. The nature of the rock will usually show whether the
fragments on the side of a hill or at the bottom of a valley are derived
from the higher parts of the drainage area, or whether they have merely
fallen down from the neighbouring slopes. In the latter case, they may be
due to landslips; in the former, their shape and the erosion they have
undergone will aid in showing whether they have been transported by water
or ice.

The surfaces that have been modified by earlier glacial epochs must in
general have been long since removed by other denuding agencies. The
most important evidence of former ice action consists in the occurrence,
embedded in fine sediment, of large boulders, occasionally preserving
marks of polish and striation, and usually, though not always, angular.
Accumulations of this kind afford evidence of transport by two different
agencies, water, which has brought the silt, and ice, which has carried
the boulders. If the water had been in rapid movement, and thus capable
of moving the boulders, it would have carried away fine silt or sand,
instead of depositing it. Evidence of ice action has thus been traced
equally in the boulder clay of North-Western Europe, and in the Palæozoic
boulder beds of India, South Africa, and Australia, and probably of South
America.

It is well to search in all mountain ranges for traces of glacial action.
In many mountain chains, even in comparatively low latitudes, proofs have
been found of the existence of glaciers, at a much lower level than at
present, dating from a comparatively recent geological period, whilst
in other mountain regions none have been recognised. The question also
whether glacial action has been contemporaneous in the two hemispheres
is of the greatest importance, and the evidence hitherto adduced is of a
very conflicting character.

_Deserts._—The great sandy or salt plains, with a more or less barren
surface, that occupy a large area in the interior of several continents,
have only of late years received due attention from geologists. A great
thickness of deposits must occur in many of these vast, nearly level,
tracts, for the underlying rocks are often completely concealed over
immense areas. The investigation of the deposits is frequently a matter
of great difficulty for want of sections; but, where practicable, a
careful examination should be made, and exact descriptions of the
formations exposed recorded. Some, at all events, of these beds appear
to be entirely deposited from the air, and consist of the decomposed
surfaces of rocks and the sand and silt from stream deposits, carried up
by wind and then redeposited on the surface of the country. Such deposits
are very fine, formed of well-rounded grains, and, as a rule, destitute
of stratification. The geologist who has especially described these
formations, Baron F. von Richthofen, in his work on China, attributes
to the loess of the Rhine and Danube valleys a similar origin. It is
usual to find beds due to water-action, rain-wash and stream-deposits,
interstratified with the subaërial accumulations. Further observations on
these formations are desirable. The occurrence of blown sands, the origin
of these accumulations, and the peculiar ridges they assume, usually at
right angles, but in some remarkable cases parallel to the prevailing
winds, are questions deserving of additional elucidation.

_Early History of Man in Tropical Climates._—Very little has been
discovered as to the races of men formerly inhabiting tropical regions.
It is evident that a race unacquainted with fire could only have existed
in a country where suitable food was procurable throughout the year, and
this must have been in a region possessing a climate like that found
in parts of the tropics at the present day. It is possible that an
investigation of the cave deposits in the tropics may throw some light
on this subject. “Kitchen middens,” as they are termed—the mounds that
have once been the refuse heaps of human habitations—are also worthy of
careful examination.

_Permanence of Ocean-Basins._—Within the last few years some geologists
have adopted the theory that all the deep-sea area has been the same
from the earliest geological times, and that the distinction between the
depressions occupied by the oceans and the remaining undepressed portion
of the earth’s crust, constituting the continents and the shallow seas
around their coasts, is permanent. This view is very far from being
universally or even generally accepted amongst geologists, although
many who hesitate to accept the theory as a whole admit that parts of
the oceans may have been depressions since the earth’s crust was first
consolidated.

The argument on both sides depends upon theories to which travellers can
contribute but little except by observations on the geology, fauna, and
flora of oceanic islands, and by the investigation of coral-reefs and
especially of atolls. In ranges of hills or mountains near the coast
both of continents and islands and in all tracts where evidence of
recent elevation exists, search should be made for deep-sea deposits.
These are fine calcareous or argillaceous beds, often containing small
Foraminifera or Radiolaria, which, however, are generally extremely
minute, and require microscopical examination for detection. If any beds
of consolidated calcareous or siliceous ooze or especially if red or
gray clay (in older rocks, slate, or even quartzite) be found associated
with pelagic deposits, such as coral limestone, a few small fragments of
the beds should always be brought away for examination, and any distinct
fossil remains found in such beds, for instance echinoderms (sea-urchins
or star-fishes) or sharks’ teeth, should be carefully preserved with some
of the matrix. Deep-sea deposits have recently been discovered in several
parts of the world, for instance, the West Indies, the Solomon Islands,
the islands of Torres Straits and Southern Australia, as well as in
Europe.

_Atolls or Coral-Islands._—Each of the remarkable coral-islands of the
Pacific and Indian oceans consists usually of an irregular ring, part or
the whole of which is a few feet above the sea, and which encircles an
inner lagoon of no great depth. The outer margin of the reef around each
island slopes rapidly, sometimes precipitately, to a depth of, usually,
several hundred fathoms. Darwin, taking these facts into consideration,
together with the circumstance that no coral-reefs are known to be formed
at a greater depth than about 15 to 20 fathoms (90 to 120 feet), showed
that all the facts of the case could be explained by the theory that
coral-islands were formed in areas of subsidence. This view was generally
accepted until Prof. A. Agassiz, Sir John Murray, and other writers
brought forward evidence in favour of coral-islands being founded on
shoals that may be areas of elevation.

Much light has been thrown on this subject by recent exploration. Two
instances in especial may be mentioned. The examination of Christmas
Island in the Indian Ocean, South of Sumatra, by Mr. Andrews, has shown
it to be a raised atoll, founded on a volcanic base, whilst, on the other
hand, borings on the atoll of Funafuti, one of the Marshall Islands in
the Western Pacific, carried to a depth of over 1000 feet on the ring
itself, and to 245 feet below sea-level in the middle of the lagoon, have
yielded results which, in the opinion of the geologists engaged, Prof.
Sollas and Prof. Edgeworth David, completely confirm Darwin’s theory.

It is probable that atolls originate in more than one way, some being
formed in rising or stationary tracts, others in areas of depression.
The important question, from a geographical point of view, is not so
much how isolated atolls were formed as whether the great tracts in the
Pacific and Indian oceans in which no islands occur except atolls, for
instance, the Marshall, Gilbert and Low archipelagoes in the former, and
the Laccadives and Maldives in the latter, have been areas of extensive
subsidence during the later geological periods. Further evidence on this
question may perhaps in time be furnished by additional borings, for
one of which an island of the Maldive group would furnish an excellent
locality, since there is in this case independent evidence to indicate
that the archipelago occupies part of a sunken tract. Meantime any
additional details would be useful, such as careful soundings around
those atolls which have not been fully surveyed, so as to give an
accurate profile of the sea-bottom in the neighbourhood.


MEMORANDUM ON GLACIER OBSERVATIONS.

Revised by ALAN G. OGILVIE.

The recent movements of glaciers may be noted by the following signs:—

When the ice is advancing, the glaciers generally have a more convex
outline, the icefalls are more broken into towers and spires, and piles
of fresh rubbish are found shot over the grass of the lower moraines.
Moraines which have been comparatively recently deposited by advancing
ice are disturbed, show cracks, and are obviously being pushed forward or
aside by the glacier. There is a tendency for the glacier to terminate in
a vertical front, or “Chinese wall,” as distinguished from the sloping
snout of a stationary or retreating glacier, owing to the more rapid
advance of the upper layers. If the advance is rapid the overhanging
layers will fall, and an ice talus will collect in front. An inspection
of the ice will often disclose horizontal lines of sheering which in a
side view are seen to rise towards the terminal wall. Search should be
made along these sheer planes for included moraine material, and any
proofs of elevation of this material noted.

When the ice is in retreat it terminates in a gently sloping snout. The
marks of its further recent extension are seen fringing the glacier both
at the end and sides in their lower portions, the glacier fails to fill
its former bed, and bare stony tracts, often interspersed with pools or
lakelets, lie between the end of the glacier and the mounds of recent
terminal moraines.

Where a glacier has retreated to any considerable extent, careful
observations of the form of its bed are of value. What is the nature of
the rock surfaces exposed—convex or concave; are they rubbed smooth on
their leesides; how far have the contours of the cliffs or slopes, or
the sides of any gorge, been modified where they have been subjected to
ice-friction? Is there any evidence that the ice has flowed over large
boulders, or loose soils, such as gravel, without disturbing them? How
has it affected rocks of different hardness, for instance, veins of
quartz in a less hard rock? Generally, do the appearances indicate that
the glacier has excavated, or only abraded and polished its bed; that
it has scooped out new rock-basins, or only cleaned out, scratched, and
preserved from filling-up by alluvial deposits or earthslips, existing
basins? What is the general character of the valley bottom and the slopes
above and below the most conspicuous ancient moraines?

With a view to ascertaining the oscillations in length of a glacier,
the traveller or surveyor should, if possible, mark on the ground the
position of the end of the glacier at the time of his visit, so that
the next visitor will be able to measure the movement that has taken
place since his predecessor’s visit. Leaving out of question elaborate
trigonometrical methods, such, for instance, as have been carried out on
the Rhone Glacier in Switzerland, the following means may be adopted for
recording the position of the glacier front with considerable accuracy.
Paint some signs on large boulders, not too far from the end of the
glacier, and measure their distance from it by a tape (Richter’s system),
or build a low wall of stones of a few yards in length, and, say 15 to
20 inches in height, some distance from the ice-end, and measure this
distance (Gosset’s system). It is to be recommended that the stones of
these walls should also be painted. In either case the date and distance
should be painted on the stones. If the traveller himself returns after
some interval—even after only two or three weeks—he will be able to
judge of the movement of the glacier, and he will have laid down a basis
for further observations by future travellers. A plane-table sketch on
a fairly large scale with contours or form lines of the ice front and
its immediate vicinity is of the greatest value, as it records not only
the position but also the form of the glacier. The sketch should, of
course, show the position of the painted boulders or other fixed points
near the ice. To ascertain the recent retreat of a glacier, measure the
distance from the ice front to the most advanced terminal moraine, where
vegetation first shows itself. The bare ground recently left by glaciers
is easily recognisable. The diminution of volume is best measured by
ascertaining the height of bare soil left on the sides of the lateral
moraines in the portion of the glacier within the zone of vegetation. All
photographic representations of the glacier end, and of the ground which
has been freed from the glacier ice, are of great value. Those will be of
most service that show the position of the glacier-snout with relation
to some conspicuous rock or other feature in the local scenery. Each
photograph should be dated, and the bearings and distance of the camera
with reference to any such feature accurately noted.

Neighbouring glaciers often furnish very different results as regards
advance or retreat, owing to the fact that steep glaciers anticipate in
their oscillations those the beds of which are less inclined.

One of the results most to be desired is an exact knowledge of the dates:

    I. Of the maximum extension of the ice.
   II. Of the commencement of retreat.
  III. Of the minimum.
   IV. Of the commencement of fresh increase.

and even information giving approximate dates—say, to within a decade,
may prove to be of value.

In dealing with a mountain group, therefore, the traveller should note
where he can get the information as to the past, the date of the
commencement of the actual movement of _each glacier_, and in all cases
whether the ice is in advance, or retreat, or stationary. Of course the
rate of forward movement, or velocity of the ice, and the oscillations in
the extension of the ice must be kept carefully distinct. Observations
should also be made on the presence of blue bands, and their relation to
the lines of stratification in the névé noted.

Should time and circumstances permit, a series of observations of the
velocity of the ice is of value. These may be made after Tyndall’s
method, by planting a line of sticks across the glacier, or by painting
marks on boulders, the position of which relatively to ascertained points
on the mountain-side has been accurately fixed. The size of the glacier
that is, the area of its basin and its length, also the slope of its
bed above, as well as at the point measured, should be noted. The rate
of movement of the ice appears to be connected both with the volume of
the glacier and the inclination of its bed, and is considerably affected
by temperature. Thus a rise in temperature may even be accompanied by a
temporary advance, but in this case a sagging will take place higher in
the névé, producing a concave cross-section, showing that the advance is
not due to increased snowfall, but to a decrease in the viscosity of the
ice.

The advance or retreat of a glacier are not the only factors to take into
account in estimating the decrease or diminution of the volume of ice.
The highest level of the transverse convexity of the glacier at various
points in its course should also be noted. If the glacier is bounded
laterally by rocky walls, marks may conveniently be painted on these,
opposite one another. The vertical height of the marks above the ice at
the sides should be noted, and the date of the observation recorded.

A society, entitled the Commission Internationale des Glaciers, has
been formed to promote the study of glacial movements and other points
of interest and importance. Their reports from their inception to 1905
were published in the ‘Archives des Sciences,’ Geneva, the journal of
the Swiss Alpine Club, and from 1906 to 1913 in the ‘Zeitschrift für
Gletscherkunde,’ Berlin. A summary of the reports in English appeared
throughout these years in the ‘Journal of Geology,’ Washington. The
European War has disorganised this international society, but steps are
being taken to establish some organisation to replace it.




IV.

NATURAL HISTORY.[7]

_By the late H. W. BATES, F.R.S._

Revised by W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT, _British Museum (Natural History)_.


In the present state of Biological Science, travellers who intend to
devote themselves specially to the zoological or botanical investigation
of new or little-known countries, require to be trained for the work
beforehand, and are consequently well-informed as to methods and
appliances. It is not for them that these ‘Hints’ are drawn up, but for
general travellers and explorers, who, whilst engaged chiefly in survey,
wish to know how best to profit by their opportunities of benefiting
science by collecting examples of new or rare species, and how to
preserve and safely transmit their specimens. The observations refer only
to explorations by land.

_Outfit_[8]—

    A magazine sporting rifle, either Mannlicher ·256, or
    Lee-Enfield ·303, and ammunition (solid and soft-nosed, split
    or hollow-point bullets).

    Double-barrel 12-bore gun—for choice a Keeper’s hammerless
    non-ejector gun and ammunition (Nos. 3 and 5 shot).[9]

    Double-barrel ·410 hammer-gun and ammunition (Nos. 8, 10 and 12
    shot).

    Cartridges with a full charge of powder and No. 8 shot will
    kill larger birds at a considerable distance; those with Nos.
    10 and 12 shot are specially loaded for collecting smaller
    birds at closer quarters, and may be used at distances of from
    fifteen to twenty-five yards without damaging the specimens.
    The loads are: ⅜ oz. No. 12 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9
    grains Schultz; ½ oz. No. 10 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9
    grains Schultz. In damp climates black powder will be found
    more reliable. If shot larger than No. 8 is used with this
    gun, the pattern is erratic and the result uncertain. Messrs.
    Cogswell and Harrison, 226 Strand, W.C., have had considerable
    experience in loading cartridges for these guns, and their Nos.
    10 and 12 shot is even and carefully screened.

    No. 1 saloon pistol and ammunition (turned-over caps with dust
    shot). This pistol will be found of great value for collecting
    small birds at very close quarters in thick cover, or the more
    active lizards. It can be easily carried in a holster on a
    belt, to which is also attached a small pouch for ammunition.
    Small brass turned-over caps, loaded with a pinch of dust-shot,
    can be had of Messrs. Cogswell and Harrison.

    Telescope.

    Binocular field-glasses.

    Traps can be procured from Mr. S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road,
    Highgate, N. (apply, in the first place, by letter). For
    catching hyænas, etc., large traps are supplied; for smaller
    mammals, Brailsford live-traps and Cyclone and Schuyler
    break-back traps are the best, and should be procured in
    several sizes. Pitfall-traps made by sinking earthenware jars
    flush with the ground are also useful.

    Several air-tight zinc-lined collecting boxes, fitted with
    light wooden trays. These are made by Messrs. Lovelace and
    Co., 20 Gloucester Road, S.W., and will be found extremely
    serviceable for packing, storing, and transmitting skins of
    smaller mammals and birds. When starting they can be packed
    full of stores. Uniform cases may be substituted, but, unless
    protected by wooden travelling-covers, are liable to get
    damaged and to admit insects.

    A set of carpenter’s tools; screws and French nails of various
    sizes.

    A set of soldering irons and soft solder, etc.

_For skinning large Mammals_*—

    2 shoemakers’ knives.†

    3 large scalpels.

    1 small saw.†

    1 pair cutting-pincers.†

    1 pair pliers.†

_For skinning small Mammals and Birds_*—

Taxidermist’s box containing:

    6 scalpels.†

    1 oil-stone.†

    2 pairs of scissors (one short-bladed, one dissecting).†

    2 pairs of tow-pliers (like curling-irons, for inserting tow or
    cotton-wool into the necks of bird-skins).†

    1 pair of forceps.†

    1 pair of tweezers.†

    1 pair cutting-pliers.†

    1 pair compasses.†

    1 2-foot rule marked in tenths of an inch.†

    1 millimetre rule.

    3 darning needles.†

    Needles and thread.

    1 tin of mixed pins.

    Bundles of galvanized wire (for inserting in tails of small
    mammals and in necks of bird-skins).

    3 hog-hair brushes for applying arsenical soap.

    2 egg-drills (two sizes).†

    2 blow-pipes (two sizes).†

    2 pencils.

    1 small biscuit tin of fine boxwood sawdust.

    1 2-lb. tin of candle naphthaline.

    1 2-lb. tin crystal.

    1 2-lb. tin plaster of Paris.

    3 1-lb. tins of arsenical soap (in treacle tins), or the same
    weight of powdered arsenic.

    1 2-lb. tin burnt alum.

    1000 labels for bird-skins.

    500 labels for small mammals.

    2 bundles of wool.

    Tow (which can be used as packing).

    6 pieces of fine mesh wire-netting (for making cages, etc.).

* All the articles mentioned in this list can be best procured from Mr.
S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road, Highgate, N. Apply, in first place, by
letter.

† Those marked with a cross (†) can be obtained from Messrs. Buck, 242
Tottenham Court Road, W.C.

_For preserving Reptiles, Batrachians, and Fish_—

    These should be preserved in spirits whenever practicable.

_For larger specimens_—

    2 or 4 four-sided copper tanks with a round opening of six
    inches diameter, closed with a screw cover. Each tank is fitted
    into a strong wooden case with a lid secured by hinges and
    lock, and furnished on two opposite sides with a rope handle.

_For smaller specimens liable to be damaged_—

    2 or 4 wooden cases divided into four or six compartments,
    each containing a pickle jar, with glass rubber-edged stopper
    secured by an adjustable iron fastening.

    3 dozen or more corked glass tubes of various sizes.

    A supply of sheets of zinc, soldering irons and soft solder (to
    make extra tanks).

    1000 parchment labels bearing numbers.

    If the above specially constructed zinc tanks cannot be
    procured, wide-mouthed earthenware jars, tightly closed with
    cork or rubber, may be used.

    The glass tubes will be found specially useful for collecting
    Arachnida, Myriopoda, small Mollusca, etc.

_For collecting Insects_—

    Store boxes lined with cork-carpet.

    Triangular envelopes of smooth foolscap paper for butterflies
    and thin-bodied moths.

    Card fly-discs.

    Entomological pins (boxes of various sizes).

    2 zinc oval pocket boxes lined with cork-carpet (two sizes).

    6 or more sets (four each) of glass-bottomed pill-boxes covered
    with jaconet.

    2 pairs of entomological forceps.

    4 insect killing-bottles (two sizes) in leather cases. (Hinton
    & Co., 38 Bedford Street, Strand, W.C.)

    A small bottle of oxalic acid, with stabbing quill fixed in
    cork, for killing large insects.

    2 flat killing-bottles for beetles, with glass tube passing
    through the cork and fitted with a cork plug.

    2 small entomological lamps.

    6 tins of bicycle oil.

    1 dozen 1-lb. tins of golden syrup or treacle.

    2 sugar brushes.

    1 3-oz. bottle of acetate of amyl (“Essence of Pear Drops,” for
    mixing with treacle) (Hinton & Co.).

    3 butterfly-nets (two round, one kite-shaped) with extra
    bags.[10]

    1 water-net (for aquatic insects).

    Several pieces of cork-carpet about a foot square (for making
    extra store boxes).

    1 pocket lens.

    2 large pickle-jars of carbolized sawdust to be used as packing
    for beetles after they have been killed.

    3 dozen corked glass tubes (three sizes).[11]

_For instructions regarding the collecting and preservation of specimens
in all branches of natural history, travellers and others are recommended
to provide themselves with a ‘Handbook of Instructions for Collectors,’
issued by the British Museum (Natural History). With illustrations.
Second edition, 1904. Price 1s. 6d._

[Illustration]

In humid tropical countries, where the ubiquitous ants are likely to
destroy specimens before they are ready to be packed away, drying-cages,
suspended from the roof of a hut or tent, are absolutely necessary.
These can be readily made from old packing-cases, but a few square feet
of wire gauze must be provided for the back and front of the cages, and
the cord by which they are suspended must be threaded through a small
calibash containing oil, or, better still, naphthaline, to prevent ants
from descending from the roof. The cages may be so arranged as to be
taken to pieces and put together again readily; one, for birds, should
be about 2 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot 6 inches high and 1 foot broad;
the other, for insects and other small specimens, may be about one-third
less. They should have folding doors in front, with panels of wire gauze,
and the backs wholly of the latter material; the sides fitted with racks
to hold six or eight plain shelves, which in the smaller cage should be
covered with cork, or any soft wood that can be obtained in tropical
countries. A strong ring fixed in the top of the cage, with a cord having
a hook attached at the end by which to hang it in an airy place, will
keep the contained specimens out of harm’s way until they are quite dry,
when they may be stowed away in suitable close-fitting boxes. An even
simpler and perfectly effective plan is to take a number of pieces of
stout wire each about 18 inches long, bend each end into a loop, and
round the middle solder a funnel-shaped piece of tin to contain powdered
candle-naphthaline. The upper loop of each wire can be secured with
string to a rafter, and between the lower loops flat boards, or a series
of boards, can be suspended on which skins may be placed to dry. This
method has been proved to be safe, no ants ever venturing to cross the
naphthaline.

A few yards of india-rubber waterproof sheeting may be found useful as a
temporary covering to collections in wet weather or in crossing rivers.

To those who have had little or no experience in field-collecting it may
be useful to give some idea of the impedimenta considered absolutely
essential for an ordinary day’s work when it is desired to collect, as
far as possible, in all branches of zoology, and the most convenient
means of disposing of such. The collector should be accompanied, if
possible, by two intelligent natives to act as bearers, who may, with
patience, be developed into useful assistant-collectors.

A 12-bore gun or rifle, according to circumstances, with ammunition, to
be carried by the first bearer.

A ·410 collecting gun and twenty-five cartridges, including a few
cartridges with full loads of 8 shot: the cartridges to be carried by
self, the gun, when not in use, to be carried by the second bearer. The
10 shot and 12 shot ·410 cartridges should be carried in the two lower
waistcoat pockets, where they are easily accessible, and the few 8 shot
cartridges in some other pocket.

Saloon pistol in holster with pouch for carrying ammunition on belt,
strapped round the waist, so that it can be easily and quickly made use
of.

A butterfly-net carried by self, or by the second bearer if not in use.

Large oval zinc pocket-box lined with cork carpet, containing a stock of
pins, both large and small, stuck in one side of the cork carpet ready
for use; to be carried in the right-hand side-pocket of the coat.

Entomological forceps, pointed forceps, and larger forceps for picking up
scorpions, large spiders, etc., and entomological killing-bottle; to be
carried in the left-hand side-pocket of the coat.

Two larger-sized corked glass tubes half-full of spirits and
a camel’s-hair brush to be carried in the right and left top
waistcoat-pockets, for collecting small spiders, etc. It is difficult to
pick up the swift-running ground-haunting species without injury, but,
by dipping the brush in spirits and placing it on them, they are at once
stupefied, and may then be easily transferred to the tube.

The spirit is also required for saturating the small plug of cotton-wool
to be pushed down the throat of each bird as soon as it has been killed;
the gape should then be plugged with dry cotton. Specimens thus prepared
may be carried, even in a hot climate, for several hours without
deteriorating.

A game bag carried by the second bearer, with a large supply of paper for
wrapping up birds when shot.

Several sets of glass-top pill-boxes carried in the ‘hare’-pocket, or in
one of the pockets of the game-bag, to which they can be transferred when
filled.

A pickle pot in Willesden canvas or basket-work cover with handle,
half filled with spirits, for collecting small snakes, lizards, frogs,
scorpions, etc.; to be carried by the first bearer, who should be
instructed how to hunt for reptiles, etc.

If possible, a beetle-killing bottle should be added to the above
impedimenta, and may be carried in the left-hand breast-pocket of the
coat.

A Norfolk coat is a most useful article of clothing, and should be
provided with a deep ‘hare’ pocket running round the skirt and divided in
the middle.

After a very short time the collector will be able to find any article he
may require by instinct, and without loss of time. To have a pocket for
each article, and to know where it is, saves an infinity of trouble.

At daylight the traps should be visited, and any specimens to be
preserved should at once be sent back into camp.

Collecting should always, if possible, be vigorously prosecuted during
the early morning hours, when birds, etc., are feeding, and are much more
easily procured.

When butterflies and thick-bodied moths are placed in the killing-bottle,
care should be taken to see that they die with their wings turned the
‘right way,’ _i.e._, with the underside outermost. Those which die with
the upper side outermost should be at once reversed with the aid of a
pin or the sharp-pointed forceps, and then replaced in the bottle. If
not attended to at once they become rigid, and the wings get rubbed and
spoilt before they are quite dead.

_Where and what to collect._—The countries which are now the least known
with regard to their natural history are New Guinea and some of the large
islands to the east of it, East Sumatra, the highlands of Mindanao and
other Philippine Islands, Formosa, Tibet, Indo-China, and other parts of
Central Asia, Equatorial Africa, and Central South America. A special
interest attaches to the indigenous products of oceanic islands, _i.e._,
islands separated by a deep sea from any large tract of land. Those who
have opportunities could not fail to make interesting discoveries by
collecting specimens of the smaller animals (insects, molluscs, etc.,)
and plants in these isolated localities. Both in continental countries
and on islands the truly indigenous species will have to be sought for
on hills and in the remote parts, where they are more likely to have
escaped extermination by settlers and the domestic animals introduced by
them. In most of the better-known countries the botany has been better
investigated than the zoology, and in all these there still remains
much to be done in ascertaining the exact station, and the range, both
vertical and horizontal, of known species of animals and plants. This
leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on, namely,
that some effective means should be adopted by the traveller to record
the _exact locality_ and _date_ of every specimen he collects.[12]

A traveller may be puzzled, in the midst of the profusion of animal
and vegetable forms which he sees around him, to know what to collect
and what to leave. Books can be of little service to him on a journey,
and he had better at once abandon all idea of encumbering himself with
them. A few days study at the principal museums before he starts on his
voyage may teach him a great deal, and the cultivation of a habit of
close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will
teach him a great deal more. As a general rule all specimens which he
may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred
to those common near the civilised parts, and he should bear in mind
that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives,
and are offered for sale to strangers, are almost sure to be of species
well known in European museums. He should strive to obtain as much
variety as possible, and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of
specimens of one or a few species, but as some of the rarest and most
interesting species closely resemble others which may be more common, he
should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side
by side. In most countries, as already remarked, the truly indigenous,
and often the rarest, species are to be found only in the mountains
at considerable elevations and in the primitive forests, the products
of cultivated districts being nearly all widely distributed and well
known. In Botany a traveller, if obliged to restrict his collecting,
might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their
economic uses; always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree
or shrub whose root, bark, leaves, wood, etc., are used by the natives,
and to preserve a few specimens of them. But if he has the good fortune
to ascend any high mountain not previously explored, he should make as
complete a collection of the flowering plants as possible, at the higher
elevations. The same may be said of insects found on mountains, where
they occur in great diversity—on the shady and cold sides rather than on
the sunny slopes—under stones, and about the roots of herbage, especially
near springs, on shrubs and low trees, and so forth; for upon a knowledge
of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend the solution of many
curious questions regarding the geographical distribution of forms over
the earth. In Reptiles, the smaller Batrachians (Frogs, Salamanders,
etc.) should not be neglected, especially the extremely numerous family
of tree-frogs; the arboreal, or rock-haunting species of Lizards seen out
of reach, and the swift-running forms that inhabit sandy plains may be
secured with a charge of dust-shot, the saloon pistol being especially
handy for this purpose. Snakes should be taken without injuring the head,
which is the most important part of the body: a cleft stick may be used
in securing them by the neck, or they may be shot, and on reaching camp
placed in the jars of spirits. As large a collection as possible should
be made of the smaller Fishes and Tortoises of lakes and rivers.

_Mammals and Birds._[13]—An ordinary geographical expedition will hardly
have the means at its disposal for bringing home many specimens of the
larger animals, but many species in regions visited only by adventurous
explorers are still desiderata in the large museums of Europe; and
additional specimens of all genera of which there are numerous closely
allied species (_e.g._, Rodents, Antelope, Deer, etc.), and of all the
small nocturnal mammals would be welcome to zoologists. If only portions
can be obtained, skulls with horns attached are to be preferred. The
smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game
bag, folded in paper, the mouth, anus and any wounds being first plugged
with cotton-wool. In a hot climate when the birds have to be carried for
some distance before they are skinned, a plug of cotton-wool dipped in a
weak solution of formaline or in spirits should be pushed down the gullet
into the stomach, before the mouth is plugged with dry cotton-wool. This
precaution will insure specimens remaining fresh for many hours.

Small dull-coloured birds are most likely to be new or interesting.
Immediately after killing a small mammal or bird, make a note of the
colour of its eyes and soft parts, and, if time admits, of the dimensions
of its trunk and limbs. Full directions for skinning will be found in the
British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-29. It should however be mentioned that
in large-headed Parrots, Woodpeckers, Ducks, and some other birds, in
which the skin of the head cannot be turned back, an incision has to be
made in the nape, through which the skull can be pushed and cleansed, the
incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches. In finishing
the skin of a bird the feet should be placed side by side, with the claws
folded and fastened together by means of a pin run transversely through
the soles. The protruding ends of the pin can afterwards be cut off close
to the feet. This is Mr. W. Foster’s plan, and is by far the best and
neatest method. When the skin is dry, it should be laid on its back in
one of the trays fitted into the zinc-lined collecting boxes, and secured
by means of a couple of stout pins passed through the head at the base of
the lower mandible and through the root of the tail. By dovetailing the
specimens into one another, they can thus be packed with the least loss
of space, and need not again be moved. They require no wrapping or paper,
and are much more easily looked over to see that no insects have attacked
them.

_Preserving Mammals, etc., in Alcohol._—When Mammals cannot be prepared
as skins with skulls, according to the British Museum directions, they
may prove of service if preserved in spirits. Indeed, when a series of
skins has been made, additional specimens may well be placed in spirits,
while in the case of Bats half the individuals taken of any species
should be skinned and half put in spirits.

On the subject of the preservation of such spirit specimens, the late Dr.
G. E. Dobson has published the following ‘Hints’:—

[Illustration: GENERAL COLLECTING-CASE.]

The general collecting case should be made of strong block tin, or,
better still, of copper, rectangular in form, about 2 feet × 1 foot ×
1 foot 8 inches in height, having in the top a circular aperture from
6 to 8 inches in diameter, closed by a well-fitting brass screw-cap,
the flange of which is made air-tight by a well-greased leather collar.
This should fit accurately into a similarly shaped box of inch boards,
having a simple flat lid (not projecting beyond the sides), secured by
eight long screws, and provided with a strong iron handle. This case
should be filled with the strongest methylated spirits procurable (in
foreign countries over-proof rum, brandy, or arrack will suit equally
well). If circumstances admit, two or more such cases should be taken,
or four wide-mouthed earthenware jars placed in a square wooden case,
separated by light wooden partitions, and having their mouths closed by
well-fitting bungs tied down with bladder and string. On arrival at the
collecting station one of the jars should be half filled with spirits
from the tin case. Into this each specimen, as it is obtained, having
been slit along the side of the abdomen, should be put, and allowed to
remain 24 hours before being transferred to the general collecting case.
When the latter can hold no more the specimens should be removed one by
one and packed in the moist state in the other wide-mouthed jars, one
above the other, like herrings in a cask, each rolled in a piece of thin
cotton cloth, in which a label, having the locality and date written
in pencil, should be placed. When the jar has been thus filled to the
mouth a glass or two of the strong spirits (kept in reserve) should be
poured in so as to fill up the interstices, but not to appear on the
surface, which should be covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool. A
few drops of carbolic acid, if the spirit be weak, will greatly aid its
preserving powers. The bung should then be replaced, secured round the
margin outside with a mixture of tallow and wax, and tied down securely
with bladder or skin, and the name of the collector and district written
legibly outside. The jar is now ready for transmission to any distance,
for specimens thus treated will keep good in the vapour alone of strong
spirits for months. Other jars may be filled in like manner, and finally,
the general collecting case. Incisions should invariably be made in the
_sides_ (not in the centre line) of all animals, so as to allow the
spirits to enter, and no part of the intestines should be removed. In the
case of _Tortoises_ the opening may be made in the soft parts round the
thighs; if this be not done, the body soon becomes distended with gases.
_Frogs_ should always be first placed in weak spirits, and after being
soaked for one or two days, be removed to strong alcohol. _Crabs_ should
be rolled up alive in thin cotton-cloths, secured by thread tied round,
and may then be readily killed by immersion in alcohol; if this be not
done they lose many of their limbs in their dying struggles.

_Preparation of Skeletons of Animals._—In many cases it will be found
impossible to preserve the whole animal, especially if of large size, but
it may advantageously be converted into a skeleton by attention to the
following directions of the late Sir W. H. Flower, F.R.S.

If the animal is of small size—say not larger than a Fox—take off the
skin except from the feet below the wrist and ankle joints. If it is
intended to preserve the skin as a zoological specimen as well as the
skeleton, the bones of the feet should all be left in the skin; they can
be easily extracted afterwards, and will be preserved much more safely
in their natural covering. Remove all the contents of the abdominal
and thoracic cavities; also the larynx, gullet, and tongue. In doing
this be careful to leave attached to the base of the skull the chain of
bones which supports the root of the tongue. These may either be left
in connection with the skull, or cleaned separately and tied to the
skeleton. Then clear away, with the aid of a knife, as much as possible
of the flesh from the head, body, and limbs, without cutting or scraping
the bones, or separating them from each other. At any intervals that may
be necessary during this process it will be desirable, if practicable,
to leave the body in water, so as to wash away as much of the blood as
possible from the bones, and a few days’ soaking in water frequently
changed will be an advantage.

The body, with all the bones held in connection by their ligaments,
should then be hung up to dry in a place where there is a free current
of air, and out of the way of attacks from animals of prey. Before they
get hard the limbs may be folded by the side of the body in the most
convenient position, or they may be detached and placed inside the trunk.

When thoroughly dry the skeletons may be packed in boxes with any
convenient light packing material between them. Each should be well
wrapped in a separate piece of paper or canvas, as sometimes insects will
attack the ligamentary structures and allow the bones to come apart.

If it can be avoided, skeletons should never be packed up so long as any
moisture remains in them, as otherwise decomposition will go on in the
still adhering soft parts, and cause an unpleasant smell.

If the animal is of larger size it will be most convenient to take it
partially to pieces before or during the cleaning. The head may be
separated from the neck, the vertebral column divided into two or more
pieces, and the limbs detached from the trunk; but in no case should the
small bones of the feet be separated from one another. The parts should
then be treated as above described, and all packed together in a canvas
bag.

In the cetacea (porpoises, etc.), look for two small bones suspended in
the flesh, just below the vertebral column, at the junction of the lumbar
and caudal regions (marked externally by the anal aperture). They are the
only rudiments of the pelvis, and should always be preserved with the
skeleton.

If there is no opportunity of preserving and transporting entire
skeletons, the skulls alone may be kept. They should be treated as above
described, picked nearly clean, the brain being scooped out through the
_foramen magnum_, soaked for a few days in water, and dried.

Every specimen should be carefully labelled with the popular name of the
animal, if known, and at all events, with the sex, the _exact locality_
at which it was procured, and the _date_.

For the purpose of making entire skeletons, select, if possible, adult
animals; but the skulls of animals of all ages may be advantageously
collected.

Collectors of skins should always leave the skull intact. It should be
taken out, labelled with a corresponding number to that on the skin, and
dried with as much flesh on it as possible.

_Reptiles and Fishes._—Full directions for preserving these will be
found in the British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 33-47. The following ‘hints’
were prepared by the late Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., who collected these
animals most successfully in Guatemala:—

Almost any spirit will answer for this purpose, its fitness consisting
in the amount of alcohol contained in it. In all cases it is best to
procure the strongest possible, as it is less bulky, and water can
always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount. When
the spirit sold retail by the natives is not sufficiently strong, by
visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings
(the strongest) of the still, which will be stronger than he requires
undiluted. The spirit used should be reduced to about 20° over proof, and
the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer. If this is
not at hand, a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength
of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising
to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle. When the spirit
has been used this test is of no value. When reptiles or fish are first
immersed, it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker. Large
specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily. The rapidity with which this
absorption takes place should be carefully watched, and in warm climates
the liquid tested at least every twelve hours, and fresh spirit added
to restore it to its original strength. In colder climates it is not
requisite to watch so closely, but practice will show what attention is
necessary. It will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about
proportionate to the rate of decomposition. Spirit should not be used
too strong, as its effect is to contract the outer surface, and close
the pores, thus preventing the alcohol from penetrating through to the
inner parts of the specimen. _The principal point, then, is to watch that
the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the
specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in._ It will be found that
after a few days the spirit retains its strength: when this is the case,
the specimen will be perfectly preserved. Spirit should not be thrown
away, no matter how often used, so long as the traveller has a reserve of
sufficient strength to bring it back to its requisite strength.

In selecting specimens for immersion, regard must be paid to the means
at the traveller’s disposal. Fishes up to 9 inches long may be placed
in spirit, after a slit has been cut in the side of the belly to allow
the spirit to enter to the entrails. With larger specimens, it is better
to pass a long knife outside the ribs, so as to separate the muscles on
each side of the vertebræ. It is also as well to remove as much food from
the entrails as possible, taking care to leave all these in. The larger
specimens can be skinned, leaving, however, the intestines in, and simply
removing the flesh. Very large specimens preserved in this way absorb
very little spirit. All half-digested food should be removed from snakes
and animals. In spite of these precautions, specimens will often appear
to be decomposing; but, by more constant attention to restrengthening the
spirit, they can, in most cases, be preserved.

A case (copper is the best), with a top that can be unscrewed and
refixed easily, should always be carried as a receptacle. The opening
should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted; this is to hold
freshly-caught specimens. When they have become preserved, they can all
be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes. Zinc is best, as it does
not corrode so easily. The traveller will find it very convenient to
take lessons in soldering, and to be able to make his own boxes. If he
takes them ready-made, they had best be arranged so as to fit one into
another before they are filled. When moving about, all specimens should
be wrapped in calico or linen or other rags to prevent their rubbing
one against the other. This should also be done to the specimens in the
copper case when a move is necessary, as well as to those finally packed
for transmission to Europe. These last should have all the interstices
between the specimens filled in with cotton-wool or rags. If a leak
should occur in a case, specimens thus packed will still be maintained
moist, and will keep some time without much injury. Proof spirit should
be used when the specimens are finally packed, but it is not necessary
that it should be fresh.

_Land and Freshwater Mollusca._[14] Full instructions for collecting
these will be found in the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 113-115.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., has contributed the following
notes on collecting these animals: Mollusca are always most abundant on
limestone rocks, and should be searched for under the larger stones
lying about the ground, and under fallen trees and logs in the woods
and forests. They may generally be found adhering to the surface of the
stone or wood. Many species are often only 0.05 inch in length, so that
very close examination is necessary. In damp spots, generally in ravines
with a northerly aspect, the dead leaves when damp with dew in the early
morning may be turned over one by one, and the under surface examined
for minute species; larger species will be found very frequently on the
surface of the ground below the layer of decaying vegetable matter. Many
may also be secured by tearing off the bark of decaying trees. In the
drier parts of the country some species are only to be found among the
roots of shrubs, at considerable depth; by digging these up and shaking
the earth on to paper, small shells may be found on close examination.
At a dry place like Aden, I should expect to find most of the living
land-shells in such a habitat. Look well in limestone caves on the damp
surface of the rock; some forms hide themselves under a coating of earthy
matter. Search also on damp moss and rocks near waterfalls.

Some species will be found high up on the bushes and trees. This is
the habit of certain African forms especially; not so in India. A very
good idea of the land-shells of a country may at first be obtained by
the examination of the beds of the streams, either along the highest
flood-line, or in the fine sand and mud collected in the bed. Land-shells
found in such situations are usually old and bleached, but the living
specimens will not be far off.

The leaves and stems of water plants should be examined, and Confervæ
taken out of the water and well washed in a basin; in these, and in the
mud of ponds and still rivers, many minute shells may be found.

The best way of preserving minute shells is to put them into glass tubes
plugged with wool; it is better than cork. Capital collecting tubes can
be made out of the smaller sorts of bamboo and the large grasses. A
certain number of every species (at least a dozen) should be preserved
in spirits for the sake of the anatomy. It is best to kill them first in
water and then put them into spirits; if this is not done they contract,
so that it is impossible to form any idea of the form of the mantle and
other parts, and they become so hard they are difficult to cut up.

A good method of keeping the small shells and slugs, especially in
spirits, is to put them with labels into small tubes plugged with wool,
and then place the tubes in a large jar, capable of holding three or four
dozen.

Other small shells, ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter, may be put into
pill-boxes at once, for in a dry climate they very soon dry up. The very
large animals may be removed by boiling them in water, but when time does
not admit of attending to the cleaning of the shells, species, such as
Unios, may be put into empty soup-tins and then filled up with dry sand.

It is very important to make a few notes on the colour of the animal,
attaching a number for reference on the box or in the tube, and the
operculum, when present, should always be preserved.

With respect to slugs, note the surface of the mantle, and always the
form of the extremity of the foot, whether pointed or provided with a
mucous pore; and again the lobes of the mantle. Preserve them in spirits
as above. Drawings from the living animal are invaluable, and should be
made if possible. Very little is known of the Asiatic forms; they are of
much interest, and have been very little collected.

_Insects._—For the best means of preserving the various orders of insects
the traveller should consult the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 48-89.

_Botanical Collecting._—Full instructions will be found in the ‘British
Museum Handbook,’ pp. 116-125.

The following instructions have been prepared by the late Mr. J. Ball,
F.R.S.:—

To obtain good specimens of dried plants in a condition serviceable to
scientific men, the following are the chief points to be observed:—

1. _Selection of Specimens._—The object is to give as much information
as possible respecting the plant which it is intended to collect. Small
plants not exceeding 16 inches in height should be collected _entire with
the roots_. Slender plants of greater dimensions may be folded to the
same length, and may often be collected entire. Of larger plants, shrubs
and trees, the object is to show as much as possible of the plant within
the limit of the size of your drying paper. As an universal rule, both
the flower and fruit (seed-vessel) should, if possible, be preserved.
Of those plants whereon the male and female flowers grow separately,
specimens of both should, if possible, be collected.

2. _Conveyance of Specimens to Camp or Station._—Tin boxes made for the
purpose are generally used in Europe for carrying botanical specimens
until they can be placed in the drying press. They answer sufficiently
well in cool weather, but in hot countries specimens are often partly
withered before they can be laid out; and a rough portfolio, into which
the plants can be put when (or soon after) they are gathered, is much to
be preferred.

Such a portfolio is easily prepared with two sheets of millboard
connected by an endless tape, so as to be easily slung over the shoulder;
between these about thirty or forty sheets (60 to 80 folds) of thin soft
(more or less bibulous) paper may be carried and kept in place by a strap
or piece of twine. With two such portfolios a traveller can carry as many
plants as it is possible to collect with advantage in a day. As soon
as possible after being gathered, the specimens should be laid roughly
between the sheets of paper: except in the case of delicate flowers,
no special care is needed, and no harm comes of two or three being put
together.

[Illustration]

3. _The Drying Press._—The great object, both to secure good specimens
and to save labour and weight of paper, is to get the plants dried
quickly, and for this one of the first conditions is to lose as little
time as possible. When practicable, the specimens should always be put in
the press on the same day on which they are gathered. The press should
be made with two outer gratings of iron wire; the outer frame of strong
wire, about a quarter of an inch in diameter—the size being that of the
paper used. Between these the paper is laid. As to the choice of drying
paper, the general rule is, that the coarser it is the better, provided
it be quite or nearly quite free from size.

To enable the plants to dry quickly, the traveller should be provided
with light wooden gratings of the same size as the drying paper. I think
the size 18 inches × 12 inches is quite large enough. The iron wire outer
gratings may with advantage be a quarter of an inch longer and broader to
save the edges of the wooden gratings.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: GRATING SEEN FROM THE EDGE.]

[Illustration: GRATING SEEN FROM ABOVE.]

These should be made of light laths fastened with a few nails (all the
better if these are of copper), the interstices should be rather less
than three-quarters of an inch, at all events not more. Their use is
to allow the air to circulate through the pile of plants that are being
dried. One should be inserted at each interval of about two inches
(counting the drying paper and the plants laid out for drying), and
when this is done the parcel may with advantage be exposed to the sun
or placed near a fire, as the case may be. In dry warm climates, the
majority of plants may be dried in the course of a few days, and will be
fit to pack up, without any need of changing the drying paper in which
they were originally placed; but in damp weather, and in regard to plants
of thick fleshy foliage, it is usually necessary to change the paper more
than once before the specimens are thoroughly dry.

The pile of paper, with plants between each five or six thicknesses of
paper, and gratings at intervals of about two inches, should be squeezed
between the outer (iron) gratings by means of two strong straps. Too much
pressure is not desirable. For a pile ten or twelve inches thick, the
parcel may be pulled nearly as tight as a moderate man can do it; but in
proportion as the thickness is less, the pressure should be moderated.

Plants with fleshy leaves are very difficult to dry well. The best way
is to dip them in quite boiling water for a minute or less, then to lay
them between a few sheets of drying paper with slight pressure, merely
to remove the exterior moisture, and then place them (when externally
dry) in the drying press. Plants collected in rain should be treated in a
similar way to remove outer moisture before it is attempted to dry them.

4. When once dry, plants may be packed away between paper of almost any
kind. Old newspapers answer very well. The only precaution needed is to
preserve them from insects.

The chief trouble in collecting plants is to get the paper already used
thoroughly dry before it is again employed. The best resource in dry
climates is to stretch cords and hang these papers exposed to sun and
air. Artificial heat must be resorted to in wet seasons, but the process
is then slow and troublesome.

For a traveller wishing to make large collections, the time consumed in
changing the paper in which the plants are dried becomes an important
consideration. I have adopted with advantage a suggestion of the late
Professor A. Gray to use, instead of ordinary drying paper, sheets cut
to the proper size, of the paper-felt which is used for laying under
carpets. The specimens when originally laid out for drying are placed
within sheets of thin paper without size, such as filtering paper, and
as a rule these do not need to be changed. One sheet of felt-paper is
generally sufficient between each layer of plants, and the operation of
changing the paper is very quickly effected.

It is an important rule to note _the locality_ where the specimens have
been collected, _with the date_. If proper care be taken to keep together
all the specimens collected at the same time, it is not necessary to
place a separate scrap of paper within each sheet; but it is advisable to
do this when the dried specimens are packed for transmission home.

5. _Seeds._—Travellers may easily make valuable contributions to our
knowledge of the vegetation of distant countries by preserving seeds
of remarkable and unusual plants. The only precautions necessary are,
to select seeds that are fully ripe; if enclosed in a seed vessel, or
covering of a succulent character, to take care that this is thoroughly
dried before they are packed; and that they are preserved from moisture
during the homeward voyage. Small seeds may be enclosed in paper, the
larger kinds in canvas bags, and the whole wrapped in a piece of oiled
cloth. It is very desirable to keep each description of seed separate,
and to note the place where it was gathered, with indications of
altitude, soil, and climate.

6. _Bulbs._—These are easily obtained, but as a rule, they should be
taken only at the end of the growing season, and kept until the leaves
are quite withered. They should be packed dry in a small box with
shavings, or other elastic stuffing. The same treatment will suit the
pseudo-bulbs of some orchids.

7. _Fleshy Tubers._—Fleshy and thick tubers are best sent in boxes,
wrapped in slightly moist materials, such as cocoa-nut fibre, peat, or
leaf mould.

8. _Living Plants._—As a general rule, these require to be established in
pots or boxes for some time before being packed for transmission. They
travel best in what are called Wardian cases; but an ordinary wooden box
covered with a glass top, and with sufficient moisture in the soil and
air to prevent excessive evaporation, is found to answer the purpose. The
cases should be kept on deck under some protection from the direct heat
of the sun. Tropical plants should be despatched so as to reach England
during the summer months. At other seasons they are liable to perish from
cold.

9. _Succulent Plants_, such as cacti, aloe, houseleeks, &c., survive
for a long time if packed without earth in a perfectly dry box, with
sufficient openings for ventilation.

10. Small plants with woody roots and cuttings of larger species of
plants from the north or south temperate zones often travel successfully
when merely packed with a little soil, slightly moist, about the roots,
and a wrapping of damp moss, or similar substance, tied up in thick paper
or canvas. There is, however, much risk of failure in these cases where,
on the homeward voyage, it is necessary to pass through the tropics.

As a general rule, plants are more often injured by excess of moisture
than by being sent too dry.

It is desirable to make use of every favourable opportunity for sending
botanical collections of all kinds to England, as in hot countries they
are always exposed to risk of injury.

It is scarcely necessary to mention that living plants, as well as seeds,
and bulbs, should be placed in the hands of skilful gardeners after
reaching this country. The chance of preserving interesting specimens
is commonly much greater when they are sent to botanic gardens than when
entrusted to private cultivators. In all cases information as to the
soil and climate of the native home of the plant is a necessary guide to
proper treatment.

_Fossils._—The collection of fossils and minerals (except in the case
of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals) is not to be
recommended to the traveller, if he is not a geologist. Fossils from
an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of
superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same
time investigated. In the cases, however, of recent alluvial strata or
the supposed beds of ancient lakes, or deposits in caves, or raised
sea-beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals, the
traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity
offers. If the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil
remains, the traveller will, of course, provide himself with a proper
geological outfit, and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving
Europe. (_See_ Section III.) For suggestions as to the collecting and
preserving fossils and minerals, cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp.
126-135.

_General Remarks._—All collections made in tropical countries should
be sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they soon become
deteriorated and spoilt unless great care be bestowed upon them.

_Observations of Habits, etc._—Travellers have excellent opportunities
of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature, and these
‘Hints’ would be very deficient were not a few remarks made upon this
subject. To know what to observe in the economy of animals is in
itself an accomplishment which it would be unreasonable to expect the
general traveller to possess, and without this he may bring home only
insignificant details, contributing but little to our stock of real
knowledge. One general rule, however, may be kept always present to the
mind, and this is, that anything concerning animals which bears upon the
relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth observing
and recording. Thus, it is important to note the various enemies which
each species has to contend with, not only at one epoch in its life,
but at every stage from birth to death, and at different seasons and in
different localities. The way in which the existence of enemies limits
the range of a species should also be noticed. The inorganic influences
which inimically affect species, especially intermittently (such as the
occurrence of disastrous seasons), and which are likely to operate
in limiting their ranges, are also important subjects of inquiry. The
migrations of animals, and especially any facts about the irruption of
species into districts previously uninhabited by them, are well worth
recording. The food of each species should be noticed, and if any change
of customary food is observed, owing to the failure of the supply, it
should be carefully recorded. The use in nature of any peculiar physical
conformation of animals, the object of ornamentation, and so forth,
should also be investigated whenever opportunity occurs. Any facts
relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties,
or the converse—that is, the antipathy to intercrossing of allied
varieties—would be extremely interesting. In short, the traveller should
bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more
important than mere anecdotes about animals.

To observe the actions of the larger animals, a telescope or field-glass
will be necessary. The traveller should bear in mind, if a microscope
is needed in his journey, that by unscrewing the tubes of the telescope
in which all the small glasses are contained, a compound microscope of
considerable power may be produced.




V.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

_By the late SIR E. B. TYLOR, D.C.L., F.R.S._


The characters of men’s bodies and minds being matters of common
observation, Europeans not specially trained in anthropology, who have
happened to be thrown among little-known tribes, often bring home
valuable anthropological information. Though explorers, traders, and
colonists have made their way into almost every corner of the earth, it
is surprising to find how many new facts may still be noted down by any
careful observer. If familiar with anthropological methods, he will, of
course, observe more and better. The hints here given will serve to draw
attention to interesting points which might otherwise be overlooked.
Directions for such investigation, drawn up in much greater detail, will
be found in the small British Association manual entitled: ‘Notes and
Queries on Anthropology’ (Royal Anthropological Institute, 50, Great
Russell Street, W., 4th edition (1912), price 5_s._) For fuller details
see the international agreement for the Unification of Anthropometric
Measurements to be made on the living subject. English translation of the
official version, W. L. H. Duckworth.

_Physical Characters._—On first coming among an unfamiliar race, such
as the Negroes, the traveller is apt to think them almost alike, till
after a few days he learns to distinguish individuals more sharply. This
first impression, however, has a value of its own, for what he vaguely
perceived was the general type of the race, which he may afterwards
gain a more perfect idea of by careful comparison. Among tribes who for
many generations have led a simple uniform life and mixed little with
strangers, the general likeness of build and feature is very close, as
may be seen in a photograph of a party of Caribs or Andamaners, whose
uniformity contrasts instructively with the individualised faces of a
party of Europeans. The consequence is that a traveller among a rude
people, if he has something of the artist’s faculty of judging form, may
select groups for photography which will fairly represent the type of
a whole tribe or nation. While such portrait-groups are admirable for
giving the general idea of a race, characteristic features belonging
to it should be treated separately. For instance, to do justice to the
Tartar eye or the Australian forehead, the individual feature must be
carefully sketched or photographed large.

How deceptive mere unmeasured impressions of size may be is shown by
the well-known example of the Patagonians, who, though really only tall
men (averaging 5 feet 11 inches), long had the reputation of a race of
giants. Such measurements as any traveller can take with a measuring-tape
and a three-foot rule with sliding square are good if taken with proper
precautions. As the object of the anthropologist is to get a general
idea of a race, it may be in some respects misleading to measure at
random one or two individuals who are perhaps not fair specimens. If
only a few can be measured, they should be selected of ordinary average
build, full-grown but not aged. What is much better is to measure a
large number (never less than thirty) of persons taken indiscriminately
as they come, and to record the measurements of each with sex, age,
name, locality, etc. Such a table can afterwards be so classified as to
show not only the average or mean size, but the proportion of persons
who vary more or less from that mean size; in fact, it represents on
a small scale the distribution of stature, etc., in the whole people.
Gigantic or dwarfish individuals, if not deformed, are interesting, as
showing to what extremes the race may run. The most ordinary measurements
are height, girth round chest, fathom or length of outstretched arms,
length of arm from shoulder and leg from hip, length of hand and foot.
The traveller may find that such measuring of another race shows very
different stature and girth from that of his own companions, who, if
they are well-grown Europeans, may stand 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet,
and measure 34 to 36 inches round the chest. Beyond this, he will find
that the relative proportions of parts of the body differ from those
he is accustomed to. An example of this is seen by placing Europeans
and negroes side by side, and noticing how much nearer the knee the
negro’s finger-tips will reach. It will be found that body measurement
needs skill in taking the corresponding points, and in fact all but the
simplest measures require some knowledge of anatomy. This is especially
the case with skull measurements. There are instruments for taking the
dimensions of the living head, and with care and practice the untrained
observer may get at some of the more conspicuous, such as the relative
length and width of the skull as taken by hatters. This roughly indicates
the marked difference between dolichocephalic or long-headed peoples,
like the African negro, and brachycephalic or short-headed peoples, like
the Kalmuks and other Tartars. Attention should be paid also to the
degree of prognathism or projection of jaw, which in some races, as the
Australian, gives a “muzzle” unlike the English type. Where practicable,
native skeletons, and especially skulls, should be sent home for accurate
examination. How far this can be done depends much on the feeling of the
people; for while some tribes do not object to the removal of bones,
especially if not of their own kinsfolk, in other districts it is hardly
safe to risk the displeasure of the natives at the removal of the dead—a
feeling which is not only due to affection or respect, but even more to
terror of the vengeance of the ghosts whose relics have been disturbed.

In describing complexion, such terms as “brown” or “olive,” so often
used without further definition in books of travel, are too inexact
to be of use. Broca’s scale of colours (_see_ Final Report of British
Association Committee on Anthropometric Method. R. Anthrop. Institute,
1909) gives means of matching the tints of skin, hair and eyes; if
this is not forthcoming, the paint-box should be used to record them.
Among rude tribes, the colour of the skin is often so masked by paint
and dirt that the subject must be washed to see the real complexion.
Hair is also an important race-mark, varying as it does in colour from
flaxen to black, and also in form and size of the hairs; for instance
the American Indian’s coarse straight hair seems almost like a horse’s
tail in comparison with the Bushman’s hair with its natural frizz of tiny
spirals. Locks of hair should therefore be collected. The traveller,
however, will often find some difficulty in getting such specimens, from
the objection prevalent in the uncivilised world of letting any part of
the body, such as hair and nail-clippings, pass into strangers’ hands
lest they should be used to bewitch their former owner. Even in such
countries as Italy, to ask for a lock of a peasant-girl’s hair may lead
to the anthropologist being suspected of wishing to practise love-charms
on her.

Differences of temperament between nations are commonly to be noticed;
for instance, in comparing the shy and grave Malays with the boisterous
Africans. It is an interesting but difficult problem how far such
differences are due to inherited race-character, and how far to such
social influences as education and custom, and to the conditions of
life being cheerful or depressing. Nor has it yet been determined how
far emotions are differently expressed by different races, so that
it is worth while to notice particularly if their smiling, laughing,
frowning, weeping, blushing, etc., differ perceptibly from ours. The
acuteness of the senses of sight, hearing and smell, among wild peoples
is often remarkable, but this subject is one on which many accounts have
been given which require sifting. The skill of savages in path-finding
and tracking depends in great measure on this being one of their most
necessary arts of life to which they are trained from childhood, as, in
an inferior degree, gipsies are with us. The native hunter or guide’s
methods of following the track of an animal, or finding his own way
home by slight signs, such as bent twigs, and keeping general direction
through the forest by the sky and the sheltered sides of the trees, are
very interesting, though when learnt they lose much of their marvellous
appearance. The testing of the mental powers of various races is an
interesting research, for which good opportunities now and then occur.
It is established that some races are inferior to others in volume and
complexity of brain, Australians and Africans being in this respect
below Europeans, and the question is to determine what differences
of mind may correspond. Setting aside the contemptuous notions of
uneducated Europeans as to the minds of “black-fellows” or “niggers,”
what is required is, to compare the capacity of two races under similar
circumstances. This is made difficult by the fact of different training.
For instance, it would not be fair to compare the European sportsman’s
skill in woodcraft and hunting with that of the native hunter, who
has done nothing else since childhood; while, on the other hand, the
European, who has always lived among civilised people, owes to his
education so much of his superior reasoning powers, that it is mostly
impossible to get his mind into comparison with a savage’s. One of the
best tests is the progress made by native and European children in
colonial or missionary schools, as to which it is commonly stated that
children of African or American tribes learn as fast as or faster than
European children up to about twelve, but then fall behind. Even here it
is evident that other causes besides mental power may be at work, among
them the discouragement of the native children when they become aware of
their social inferiority. The subject is one of great importance, both
scientifically and as bearing on practical government.

Both as a matter of anthropology and of practical politics the
suitability of particular races to particular climates is of great
interest; sometimes this depends on one race being free from a disease
from which another suffers, as in the well-known immunity of negroes from
yellow fever. Or it may be evident that tribes have become acclimatised,
so as to resist influences which are deadly to strangers; for instance,
the Khonds flourish in the hills of Orissa, where not only Europeans but
the Hindus of the plains sicken of the malaria in the unhealthy season.
That such peculiarities of constitution are inherited and pass into the
nature of the race, is one of the keys to the obscure problem of the
origins of the various races of man as connected with their spread over
the globe. As yet this problem has not passed much beyond the stage of
collecting information, and no pains should be spared to get at facts
thus bearing on the history and development of the human species.
European medical men in districts inhabited by uncivilised races have
often made important observations of this kind, which they are glad to
communicate, though being occupied with professional work they do not
follow them up. In all races there occur abnormal varieties, which should
be observed with reference to their being hereditary, such as Albinos,
whose dead-whiteness is due to absence of pigment from the skin. Even
such tendencies as that to the occurrence of red hair where the ordinary
hue is black, or to melanism or diseased darkening of the skin, are worth
remark. It is essential to discover how far these descend from parents
to children, which is not the case with such alterations as that of the
Chinese feet, which, in spite of generations of cramping, continue of the
natural shape in the children.

_Language._—Before coming to actual language, remark may be made on the
natural communication of all races carried on by pantomimic signs without
spoken words. This is the “gesture language” to which we are accustomed
among the deaf-and-dumb, and which sometimes also comes into practical
use between tribes ignorant of one another’s languages, as on the
American prairies. It is so far the same in principle everywhere, that
the explorer visiting a new tribe, having to make frequent use of signs
to supplement his interpreter, or to eke out his own scanty knowledge
of the native language, soon adapts himself to the particular signs in
vogue. He will observe that, as to most common signs, such as asking for
food or drink, or beckoning or warning off a stranger, he understands
and is understood quite naturally. Signs which are puzzling at first
sight will prove on examination to be intelligible. Some are imitative
gestures cut short to save trouble, or they may have a meaning which was
once evident, like the American Indian sign for dog, made by trailing
two forked fingers, which does not show its meaning now, but did so in
past times, when one of the principal occupations of the dog was to trail
a pair of tent-poles attached to his back. Besides its practical use,
the gesture-language has much scientific interest from the perfect way
in which it exposes the working of the human mind, expressing itself by
a series of steps which are all intelligible. It will be particularly
observed that it has a strict syntax; for instance, that the quality or
adjective must always follow the subject or substantive it is applied to.
Thus, “the white box” may be expressed by imitating the shape and opening
of a box, and then touching a piece of linen or paper to show its colour;
but if the signs be put in the contrary order, as in the English words,
the native will be perplexed. It is worth while, in countries where
gesture-language is regularly used, to note down the usual signs and
their exact order.

In recording a vocabulary of a language not yet reduced to form in a
grammar and dictionary, the traveller may seek for equivalents of the
principal classes of words in his own grammar: verbs, substantives,
adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, etc. But the structure of the
language he is examining will probably differ from any he is familiar
with, the words actually used not coming precisely into these classes.
The best method is for the traveller to learn a simple sentence, such as
“the men are coming,” and to ascertain what changes will convert them
into “the men are going,” “the women are coming.” He thus arrives at the
real elements of the language and the method of combining them. Having
arrived at this point, he will be able to collect and classify current
ideas, such as the following:—

    _Actions_—as stand, walk, sleep, eat, see, make, etc.

    _Natural Objects and Elements_—as sun, moon, star, mountain,
    river, fire, water, etc.

    _Man and other Animals_—as man, woman, boy, girl, deer, buck,
    doe, eagle, eagles, etc.

    _Parts of Body_—as head, arm, leg, skin, bone, blood, etc.

    _Trees and Plants._

    _Numerals_ (noticing how far they extend, and whether referring
    to fingers).

    _Instruments and Appliances_—as spear, bow, hatchet, needle,
    pot, boat, cord, house, roof, &c.

    _Arts and Pastimes_—as picture, paint, carving, statue, song,
    dance, toy, game, riddle, &c.

    _Family Relationships_ (as defined by native custom).

    _Social and Legal Terms_—as chief, freeman, slave, witness,
    punishment, fine, &c.

    _Religious Terms_—as soul, spirit, dream, vision, sacrifice,
    penance, &c.

    _Moral Terms_—as truth, falsehood, kindness, treachery, love,
    &c.

    _Abstract Terms_, relating to time, space, colour, shape,
    power, cause, &c.

The interjections used in any language can be noted, whether they are
organic expressions of emotion, like _oh!_ _ugh!_ _ur-r-r!_ or sounds
the nature of which is not so evident. Also imitative words which name
animals from their cries, or express sounding objects or actions by their
sounds, are common in all languages, and strike the stranger. Examples
of such are _kah-kah_ for a crow, _twonk_ for a frog, _pututu_ for a
shell-trumpet, _haitschu_ for to sneeze. When such imitative words are
noticed passing into other meanings where the connection with sound
is not obvious, they become interesting facts in the development of
language; as, to take a familiar example from English, the imitative verb
to _puff_ becomes a term for light pastry and metaphorically blown-up
praise.

It is only when the traveller has a long or close acquaintance with a
tribe, that he is able to deal satisfactorily with the vocabulary and
structure of their language. To be able to carry on a conversation in
broken sentences is not enough, for an actual grammar and dictionary is
required to enable philologists to make out the structure and affinities
with other languages. It used to be customary to send out English lists
of thirty or forty ordinary words to have equivalents put to them in
native languages. As every detail of this kind is worth having, these
lists cannot be said to be quite worthless, but they go hardly any way
toward what is really wanted. They are liable to frequent mistakes, as
when the barbarian, from whom the white man is trying to get the term
“foot,” answers with a word meaning “my leg,” which is carefully taken
down and printed. Such poor vocabularies cannot even be relied on to
show whether a language belongs to a particular family, for the very
word which seems to prove this may be borrowed. Thus, in various African
vocabularies, there appears the word _sapun_ (or something similar) with
the meaning of _soap_; but this is a Latin word which has spread far
and wide from one country to another, and proves nothing as to original
connection between languages which have adopted it. While it is best
not to under-rate the difficulty of collecting such information as to
a little-known dialect as will be really of service to philology, it
must be remembered that travellers still often have opportunities of
preserving relics of languages, or at any rate special dialects, which
are on the point of dying out unrecorded. Where no proper grammar and
dictionary has been compiled, it is often possible to find some European
or some interpreter fairly conversant with the language, with whose aid
a vocabulary may be written out and sentences analysed grammatically,
which, when read over to intelligent natives and criticised by them,
may be worked into good linguistic material. It is worth while to pay
attention to native names of plants, minerals, &c., as well as of places
and persons, for these are often terms carrying significant meaning. Thus
_ipecacuanha_ is stated by Martius to be _i-pe-caa-guéne_, which in the
Tupi language of Brazil, signifies “the little wayside plant which makes
vomit.”

_Arts and Sciences._—The less civilised a nation is, the ruder are its
tools and contrivances; but these are often worked with curious skill
in getting excellent results with the roughest means. Stone implements
have now been so supplanted by iron that they are not easily found in
actual use. If a chance of seeing them occurs, as, for instance, among
some Californian tribe, who still chip out arrow-heads of obsidian, it is
well to get a lesson in the curious and difficult art of stone-implement
making. In general, tools and implements differing from those of the
civilised world, even down to the pointed stick for root-digging and
planting, are worth collecting, and to learn their use from a skilled
hand often brings into view remarkable peculiarities. This is the case
with many cudgel or boomerang-like weapons thrown at game, slings or
spear-throwers for hurling darts to greater distances than they can be
sent by hand, blow-tubes for killing birds, and even the bow-and-arrow,
which in northern Asia and America shows the ancient Scythian or Tartar
form, having to be bent inside out to string it. Though fire is now
practically made almost everywhere with flint and steel or lucifers,
in some districts, as South Africa or Polynesia, people still know the
primitive method of fire-making by rubbing or drilling a pointed stick
into another piece of wood. Europeans find difficulty in learning this
old art, which requires some knack. As is well known to sportsmen,
different districts have their special devices for netting, trapping
and other ways of taking game and fish, some of which are well worth
notice, such as spearing or shooting fish under water, artificial decoys,
and the spring-traps set with bent boughs, which are supposed to have
first suggested the idea of the bow. While the use of dogs in hunting
is found in most parts of the world, there is the utmost variety of
breeds and training. Agriculture in its lower stages is carried on by
simple processes; but interesting questions arise as to the origin of
its grain and fruits, and the alterations in them by transplanting into
a new climate and by ages of cultivation. Thus in Chili there is found
wild what botanists consider the original potato; but while maize was a
staple of both Americas at the time of Columbus, its original form has no
more been identified than that of wheat in the Old World. The cookery of
all nations is in principle known to the civilised European; but there
are special preparations to notice, such as bucaning or drying meat on
a hurdle above a slow fire, broiling kebabs or morsels of meat on the
skewer in the East, etc. Many peoples have something peculiar in the way
of beverages, such as the chewed Polynesian _kava_, or the South American
_maté_ sucked through a tube. Especially fermented liquors have great
variety, such as the _kumiss_ from mares’ milk in Tartary, the _pombe_ or
millet-beer of Africa, and the _kvass_ or rye-beer of Russia. The rudest
pottery made by hand, not thrown on the wheel, is less and less often met
with, but ornamentation traceable to its being moulded on baskets is to
be seen; and calabashes, joints of bamboo, and close-plaited baskets are
used for water-vessels, and even to boil in. Among the curious processes
of metal-working, contrasting with those of modern Europe, though
often showing skill of their own, may be mentioned the simple African
smelting-forge by which iron-ore is reduced with charcoal in a hole in
the ground, the draught being supplied by a pair of skins for bellows.
In the far East a kind of air-pump is used, of which the barrels are
hollowed logs. The Chinese art of patching cast-iron with melted metal
surprises a European, and the Hindu manufacture of native steel (_wootz_)
is a remarkable process. No nation now exists absolutely in the Bronze
Age, but this alloy still occupies something of its old place in Oriental
industry. As an example of the methods still to be seen, may be mentioned
the Burmese bell-founding, which is done, not in a hollow mould of sand,
but by what in Europe is called the _cire perdue_ process, the model of
the bell being made in beeswax and imbedded in the sand-mould, the wax
being melted and the hot metal taking its place. The whole history of
machinery is open to the traveller, who still meets with every stage
of its development, from savagery upward. He sees, for instance, every
tilling implement from the stake with fire-hardened point, and the hoe
of crooked branch, up to the modern forms of plough. In like manner he
can trace the line from the rudest stone-crushers or rubbers for grinding
seed or grain up to the rotating hand-mills or querns still common in
the East, and surviving even in Scotland. From time to time some special
contrivance may be seen near its original home, as in South America
the curious plaited tube for wringing out the juice from cassava, or
the net hammock which still retains its native Haitian name _hamaca_.
Architecture still preserves in different regions interesting early
stages of development, from the rudest breakwinds, or beehive huts of
wattled boughs, up to houses of logs and hewn timber, structures of mud
and adobes, and masonry of rough or hewn stone. Even the construction
of the bough-hut or the log-house often has its peculiarities in the
arrangements of posts and rafters. Among the modes of construction
which interest the student of architectural history is building with
rough unhewn stones. Many examples of “rude stone monuments” are to be
seen on our own moors and hills. The most familiar kinds are _dolmens_
(_i.e._, “table-stones”), formed by upright stones bearing a cap-stone;
they were burial-places, and analogous to the cists or chambers of rough
slabs within burial-mounds. Less clearly explicable are the single
standing-stones or _menhirs_ (_i.e._, “long-stones”), and the circles of
stones or _cromlechs_. Ancient and obscure in meaning as such monuments
are in Europe, there are regions where their construction or use comes
down to modern times, especially in India, where among certain tribes
the deposit of ashes of the dead in dolmens, the erection of menhirs
in memory of great men, and even sacrifice in stone circles, are
well-known customs. The traveller may also sometimes have opportunities
of observing the ancient architectural construction by fitting together
many-sided stones into what are sometimes called Cyclopean walls, a
kind of building which seems to have preceded the use of squared blocks,
fastened together with clamps or with mortar. Vaulting or roofing by
means of courses of stones projecting inwards one course above the other
(much as children build with their wooden bricks), so as to form what
architects call a “false arch,” is an ancient mode of construction found
in various parts of the world where the “true arch” with its keystone
has not superseded it. It often appears that rude nations have copied
the more artistic buildings of higher neighbours, or inherited ancient
architectural traditions. Thus traces of Indian architecture have found
their way into the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, and hollow squares
of mud-built houses round a courtyard in northern Africa have their plan
from the Asiatic caravanserai. In boat-building some primitive forms, as
the “dug-out,” hollowed by the aid of fire from a tree-trunk, and the
bark-canoe, are found in such distant regions that we cannot guess where
they had their origin. When, however, it comes to the outrigger-canoe,
this belongs to a district which, though very large, is still limited, so
that we may at least guess whereabouts it first came into use, and it is
important to note every island to which it has since travelled. So there
is much in the peculiar build and rig of Malay prahus, Chinese junks,
etc., which is worth noting as part of the history of ship-building.
This may suffice to give a general idea of the kind of information as to
the local arts which it is worth while to collect, and to illustrate by
drawings and photographs of objects too large to bring away.

Naturally, nations below the upper levels of culture have little or no
science to teach us, but many of their ideas are interesting as marking
stages in the history of the human mind. Thus, in the art of counting,
which is one of the foundations of science, it is common to find the
primitive method of counting by fingers and toes still in practical use,
while in many languages the numeral words have evidently grown up out
of such a state of things. Thus _lima_, the well-known Polynesian word
for five, meant “hand,” before it passed into a numeral. All devices for
counting are worth notice, from the African little sticks for units and
larger sticks for tens, up to the ball-frames with which the Chinese and
Russian traders reckon so rapidly and correctly. It is a sign of lowness
in a tribe not to use measures and weights, and where these appear in
a rough way, it is interesting to discover whether vague lengths, such
as finger, foot, pace, are used, or whether standard measures and
weights have come in. If so, these should be estimated according to
our standards with as much accuracy as possible, as it may thus become
possible to ascertain their history. In connection with this comes the
question of money, as to whether commerce is still in the rudimentary
stage of exchanging gifts, or has passed into regular barter, or risen to
regular trade, with some sort of money to represent value, even if the
circulating medium be only cowries, or bits of iron, or cakes of salt,
all which are current money to this day in parts of Africa. Outside the
present higher civilisation, more or less primitive ideas of astronomy
and geography will be found to prevail. Among tribes like the American
Indians the obvious view suggested by the senses still prevails, that
the earth is a flat round disc (or sometimes square, with four quarters
or winds) overarched by a solid dome or firmament, on which the sun and
moon travel—in inland countries going in and out at holes or doors on
the horizon, or, if the sea bounds the view, rising from and plunging
into its waves at sunrise and sunset. These early notions are to us
very instructive, as they enable us to realise the conceptions of the
universe which have come down to us in the ancient books of the world,
but which scientific education has uprooted from our own minds. With
these cosmic ideas are found among the lowest races the two natural
periods of time, namely, the lunar month and the solar year, determined
by recurring winters, summers, or rainy seasons. Such tribes divide the
day roughly by the sun’s height in the sky, but among peoples civilised
enough to have time-measures and the sun-dial, there is a tolerably
accurate knowledge of the sun’s place at the longest and shortest days,
and indeed, throughout the year. The astronomy of such countries as India
has been of course described by professional astronomers; but among ruder
nations there is still a great deal unrecorded—for instance, as to the
constellations into which they map out the heavens. This likening stars
and star-groups to animals and other objects is almost universal among
mankind. Savages like the Australians still make fanciful stories about
them, as that Castor and Pollux are two native hunters, who pursue the
kangaroo (Capella) and kill him at the beginning of the hot season. Such
stories enable us to understand the myths of the Classical Dictionary,
while modern astronomers keep up the old constellations as a convenient
mode of mapping out the sky. As to maps of the earth, even low tribes
have some notion of their principle, and can roughly draw the chart
of their own district, which they should be encouraged to do. Native
knowledge of natural history differs from much of their rude science in
its quality, often being of great positive value. The savage or barbarian
hunter knows the animals of his own region and their habits with
remarkable accuracy, and inherited experience has taught him that certain
plants have industrial and medicinal uses. Thus, in South America the
Europeans learnt the use of India-rubber or caoutchouc, which the native
tribes were accustomed to make into vessels and playing-balls, and of the
Peruvian bark or cinchona, which was already given to patients in fever.

Here a few words may be said of magic, which, though so utterly futile
in practice, is a sort of early and unsuccessful attempt at science. It
is easy, on looking into the proceedings of the magician, to see that
many of them are merely attempts to work by false analogy or deceptive
association of ideas. The attempt to hurt or kill a person by cutting
or piercing a rude picture or image representing him, which is met with
in all the four quarters of the globe, is a perfect example of the way
in which sorcerers mistake mere association of ideas for real cause
and effect. Examined from this point of view, it will be found that a
large proportion of the magic rites of the world will explain their own
meaning. It is true that this is not the only principle at work in the
magician’s mind; for instance, he seems to reason in a loose way that any
extraordinary thing will produce any extraordinary effect, so that the
peculiar stones and bits of wood which we should call curiosities become
to the African sorcerer powerful fetishes. It will often be noticed that
arts belonging to the systematic magic of the civilised world, which has
its source in Babylon and Egypt, have found their way into distant lands
more readily indeed than useful knowledge, so that they may even be met
with among barbaric tribes. Thus it has lately been pointed out that the
system of lucky and unlucky days, which led the natives in Madagascar to
kill many infants as of inauspicious birth, is adopted from Arabic magic,
and it is to be expected that many other magical arts, if their formulas
are accurately described, may in like manner be traced to their origin.

_Society._—One of the most interesting features of savage and barbaric
life is the existence of an unwritten code of moral conduct, by which
families and tribes are practically held together. There may be no
laws to punish crime, and the local religion may no more concern
itself directly with men’s behaviour to one another than it did in
the South Sea Islands. But among the roughest people there is family
affection, and some degree of mutual help and trust, without which,
indeed, it is obvious that society would break up, perhaps in general
slaughter. Considering the importance of this primitive morality in the
history of mankind, it is unfortunate that the attention of travellers
has been so little drawn to it, that our information is most meagre
as to how far family affection among rude tribes may be taken to be
instinctive, like that of the lower animals, or how far morality is
produced by public opinion favouring such conduct as is for the public
good, but blaming acts which do harm to the tribe. It is desirable to
inquire what conduct is sanctioned by custom among any people, whether,
for instance, infanticide is thought right or wrong, what freedom
of behaviour is approved in youths and girls, and so on. For though
breaches of custom may not be actually punishable, experience will soon
convince any explorer among any rude tribe that custom acts in regulating
their life even more strictly than among ourselves. The notion of even
savages leading a free and unrestrained life is contradicted by those
who know them best; in fact, they are bound in every act by ancestral
custom. While each tribe thus has its moral standard of right and wrong,
this differs much in different tribes, and one must become intimately
acquainted with any people to ascertain what are really their ruling
principles of life. Accounts have been often given of the natural virtue
and happiness of rude tribes, as in the forests of Guiana or the hills of
Bengal, where the simple native life is marked by truthfulness, honesty,
cheerfulness, and kindness, which contrast in a striking way with the
habits of low-class Europeans. There are few phenomena in the world more
instructive than morality thus existing in practical independence either
of law or religion. It may still be possible to observe it for a few
years before it is altered by contact with civilisation, which, whether
it raises or lowers on the whole the native level, must supersede in
great measure this simple family morality.

The unit of social life is the family, and the family is based on a
marriage-law. Travellers who have not looked carefully into the social
rules of tribes they were describing, or whose experience has been of
tribes in a state of decay, have sometimes reported that marriage hardly
existed. But this state of things is not confirmed as descriptive of any
healthy human society, however rude; in fact, the absence of definite
marriage appears incompatible with the continued existence of a tribe.
Therefore statements of this kind made by former visitors should be
carefully sifted, and marriage-laws in general deserve careful study.
The explorer will hardly meet with marriage at so low a stage that
the union can be described as little beyond annual pairing; but where
divorce is almost unrestricted, as in some African tribes, there is more
or less approach to this condition, which is possible, though unusual,
under such laws as that of Islam. Polygamy, which exists over a large
part of the globe, is a well-understood system, but information is less
complete as to the reasons which have here and there led to its opposite
polyandry, as among the Toda hill-tribes and the Nairs in South India.
Among customs deserving inquiry are match-making festivals at spring-tide
or harvest, when a great part of the year’s marriages are arranged. This
is not only often done among the lower races, but traces of it remain in
Greece, where the dances at Megara on Easter Tuesday are renowned for
wife-choosing, and till lately in Brittany, where on Michaelmas Day the
girls sate in a row decked in all their finery on the bridge of Penzé,
near Morlaix. The custom of bride-capture, where the bridegroom and his
friends make show of carrying off the bride by violence, is known in
Europe as a relic of antiquity, as in ancient Rome, Wales within the
last century or two, or Tyrol at the present day; but in more barbaric
regions, as on the Malay peninsula or among the Kalmuks of North Asia,
it may be often met with, practised as a ceremony, or even done in
earnest. On the other hand, restrictions on marriage between kinsfolk or
clansfolk are more prominent among the lower races than in the civilised
world, but their motive is even now imperfectly understood. Partly these
restrictions take the form we are accustomed to of prohibiting marriage
between relatives more or less near in our sense, but among nations
at a lower level they are apt to involve also what is called exogamy
or “marrying-out.” A tribe or people—for instance, the Kamilaroi of
Australia, or the Iroquois of North America—is divided into hereditary
clans, members of which may not marry in their own clan. In various parts
of the world these clans are named from some animal, plant, or other
object, and anthropologists often call such names “totems,” this word
being taken from the native name among Algonquin tribes of North America.
For an instance of the working of this custom among the Iroquois tribes
a Wolf was considered brother to a Wolf of any other tribe, and might
not marry a Wolf girl, who was considered as his sister, but he might
marry a Deer or a Heron. In contrast with such rules is the practice of
endogamy, or “marrying-in,” as among some Arab tribes, who habitually
marry cousins. But it will be found that the two rules often go together,
as where a Hindu must practically marry within his own caste, but at
the same time is prohibited from marrying in his own gotra or clan.
Researches into totem-laws are apt to bring the traveller into contact
with other relics of the ancient social institutions in which these laws
are rooted, especially the practice of reckoning descent not on the
father’s side, as with us, but on the mother’s side, after the manner of
the Lycians, whose custom seemed extraordinary to the Greeks in the time
of Herodotus, but may be still seen in existence among native tribes of
America or in the Malay islands. Even the system of relationship familiar
to Europeans is far different from those of regions where forms of the
“classificatory system” prevail, in which father’s brothers and mother’s
sisters are called fathers and mothers. In inquiring into native laws of
marriage and descent, precautions must be taken to ensure accuracy, and
especially such ambiguous English words as “uncle” or “cousin” should be
kept clear of.

Another point on which travellers have great opportunity of seeing with
their own eyes the working of primitive society is the holding and
inheritance of property, especially land. Notions derived from our modern
law of landlord and tenant give place in the traveller’s mind to older
conceptions, among which individual property in land is hardly found.
In rude society it is very generally the tribe which owns a district as
common land, where all may hunt and pasture and cut fire-wood; while,
when a family have built a hut, and tilled a patch of land round it, this
is held in common by the family while they live there, but falls back
into tribe-land if they cease to occupy it. This is further organised in
what are now often called “village communities,” which may be seen in
operation in Russia and India, where the village fields are portioned out
among the villagers. Those who have seen them can understand the many
traces in England of the former prevalence of this system in “common
fields,” etc. There is the more practical interest in studying the
working of this old-world system from the light it throws on projects of
communistic division of land, which in such villages may be studied, and
its merits and defects balanced. On the one hand it assures a maintenance
for all, while on the other it limits the population of a district, the
more so from the obstinate resistance which the counsel of “old men”
who manage a village always oppose to any improved method of tillage.
Not less perfectly do the tenures existing in many countries show the
various stages of landholding which arise out of military conquest. The
absolute ownership of all the land by a barbaric chief or king, which
may be seen in such a country as Dahome, whose subjects hold their lands
on royal sufferance, is an extreme case. In the East, feudal tenures of
land granted for military service still have much the same results as in
mediæval Europe.

At low levels of civilisation the first dawning of criminal law may be
seen in the rule of vengeance or retaliation. The person aggrieved, or
his kinsfolk if he has been killed, are at once judges and executioners,
and the vengeance they inflict stands in some reasonable relation to
the offence committed. Not only is such vengeance the great means of
keeping order among such rude tribes as the Australians, but even among
half-civilised nations like Abyssinians and Afghans the primitive law may
still be studied in force, carried out in strict legal order as a _lex
talionis_, not degraded to mere illegal survival in outlying districts
like the “vendetta” of modern Europe, carried on even now, in spite of
criminal jurisprudence, which for ages has striven to transfer punishment
from private hands to the State. Whether among savages, barbarians, or
the lower civilised nations, the traveller will find everywhere matter
of interesting observation in the law and its administration. The law
may be still in the state of unwritten custom, and the senate or council
of old men may be the judges, or the power at once of lawgiver and judge
may have passed into the hands of the chief, who, as among the modern
Kaffirs, may make a handsome revenue by the cattle given him as fees
by both sides, a fact interesting as illustrating the times when an
European judge took gifts as a matter of course. Among the nations at
higher levels of culture in the East, for instance, most of the stages
may still be seen through which the administration of law, criminal and
civil, was given over to a trained legal class. One important stage in
history is marked by religion taking to itself legal control over the
conduct of a nation. The working of this is seen among Oriental nations,
whether Mohammedan, Brahman, or Buddhist, whose codes of law are of an
ecclesiastical type, and the lawyers theologians. There is much to
be learnt from the manner in which such law is administered, and the
devices are interesting by which codes framed under past conditions of
society are practically accommodated to a new order of things, without
professedly violating laws held to be sacred, and therefore unchangeable.
Ordeals, which have now disappeared from legal procedure among European
nations, are often to be met with elsewhere. Thus in Arabia the ordeal by
touching or licking hot iron is still known (the latter is an easy and
harmless trick, if the iron is quite white-hot). In Burma, under native
rule, the ancient trial of witches by “swimming” went on till lately. In
many countries also symbolic oaths invoking evils on the perjurer are
to be met with, as when the Ostyaks in Siberia swear in court by laying
their hand on a bear’s head, meaning that a bear will kill them if they
lie. It shows the carelessness with which Europeans are apt to regard the
customs of other nations, that in English courts a Chinese is called upon
to swear by breaking a saucer, under the entirely erroneous belief that
this symbolic curse is a Chinese judicial oath.

The most undeveloped forms of government are only to be met with in a few
outlying regions, as among some of the lower Esquimaux or Rocky Mountain
tribes, where life goes on with hardly any rule beyond such control as
the strong man may have over his own household. Much oftener travellers
have opportunity of studying, in a more or less crude state, the types of
government which prevail in higher culture. It is of especial interest to
see men of the whole tribe gathered in assembly (the primitive _agora_)
to decide some question of war or migration. Not less instructive are
the proceedings of the council of old men (the primitive _senate_), who,
among American tribes or the hill tribes of India, transact the business
of the tribe; they are represented at a later social stage by the
village-elders of the Hindus or the Russians. Among the problems which
present themselves among nations below the civilised level is that of the
working of the patriarchal system, still prevailing among such tribes as
the Bedaween, while often the balance of power is seen adjusting itself
between the patriarchal heads of families and the leaders who obtain
authority by success in war. The struggle between the hereditary chief
or king and the military despot, who not only usurps his place but seeks
to establish hereditary monarchy in his own line, is one met with from
low to high levels of national life. The traveller’s attention may be
called to the social forces which do their work independently of men in
authority, and make society possible, even when there is little visible
authority at all. The machinery of government described in books is often
much less really powerful than public opinion, which controls men’s
conduct in ways which are so much less conspicuous that they have hardly
yet been investigated with the care they deserve.

_Religion and Mythology._—While great religions, like Mohammedanism and
Buddhism, have been so carefully examined that European students often
know more about their sacred books than the believers themselves, yet the
general investigation of the religions of the world is very imperfect,
and every effort should be made to save the details from being lost
as one tribe after another disappears, or passes into a new belief.
Missionaries have done much in recording particulars of native religions,
and some have had the skill to describe them scientifically; but the
point of view of the missionary engaged in conversion to another faith
is unfavourable for seeing the reasons of the beliefs and practices he
is striving to upset. The object of the anthropologist is neither to
attack nor defend the doctrines of the religion he is examining, but to
trace their rational origin and development. It is not only among the
rudest tribes that religious ideas which seem of a primitive order may be
met with, but these hold their place also among the higher nations who
profess a “book-religion.” Thus the English or German peasant retains
many ideas belonging to the ancestral religion of Thor and Woden, and the
modern Burmese, though a Buddhist, carries on much of the old worship of
the spirits of the house and the forest, which belong to a far earlier
religious stratum than Buddhism. It is in many districts possible for
the traveller to obtain at first hand interesting information as to the
philosophical ideas which underlie all religions. All over the world,
people may be met with whose conception of soul or spirit is that
belonging to primitive animism, namely, that the life or soul of men,
beasts, or things, resides in the phantoms of them seen in dreams and
visions. A traveller in British Guiana had serious trouble with one of
his Arawaks, who, having dreamt that another had spoken impudently to
him, on waking up went quite naturally to his master to get the offender
punished. So it is reported that our officials in Burma have considered
themselves disrespectfully treated when the wife or servant of the person
they have come to see has refused to wake him, the Englishman not
understanding that these people hold early animistic ideas, believing
the soul to be away from the sleeper’s body in a dream, so that it
might not find its way back if he were disturbed. As scientific ideas
of the nature of life and dreams are rapidly destroying these primitive
conceptions, it is desirable to collect all information about them for
its important bearing on the history of philosophy and religion. The same
may be said as to the ancient theory of diseases as caused by demons, and
the expulsion and exorcism of them as a means of cure, which may still
be studied everywhere outside the scientific nations. Information as to
religious rites is of course valuable, even when the foreign observer
does not understand them, but if possible their exact meaning should be
made out by some one acquainted with the language, otherwise acts may
be confused which have really different senses, as where a morsel of
food offered as a pious offering to an ancestral ghost may be taken for
a sacrifice to appease an angry wood-demon. A people’s idea as to the
meaning of their own rites may often be very wrong, but it is always
worth while to hear what they think of the purpose of their prayers,
sacrifices, purifications, fasts, feasts, and other religious ordinances,
which even among savage tribes have been long since stereotyped into
traditional systems.

Mythology is intimately mixed up with religion, which not only ascribes
the events of the world to the action of spirits, demons, or gods, but
everywhere individualises many of these beings under personal names,
and receives as sacred tradition wonder-tales about them. Thus, to
understand the religion of some tribes, we have not only to consider the
rude philosophy under which such objects as heaven and earth or sun and
moon are regarded as personal beings, whose souls (so to speak) are the
heaven-god and earth-god, the sun-god and moon-god; but we have to go
on further and collect the religious myths which have grown on to these
superhuman beings. The tales which such a people tell of their origin and
past history may to some extent include traditions of real events, but
mostly they consist of myths, which are also worth collecting, as they
often on examination disclose their origin, or part of it. This is seen,
for instance, in the South Sea Island tale of the god Maui, whose death,
when he plunged into the body of his great ancestress the Night, is an
obvious myth of the sunset. The best advice as to native mythology is to
write down all promising native stories, leaving it to future examination
to decide which are worth publishing. The native names of personages
occurring in such stories should be inquired into, as they sometimes
carry in themselves the explanation of the story itself, like the name of
Great-Woman-Night in the Polynesian myth just referred to. Riddles are
sometimes interesting, as being myths with an explanation attached, like
the Greek riddle of the twelve black and twelve white horses that draw
the chariot of the day. It is not too much to say that everything which a
people thinks worth remembering as a popular tradition, and all the more
if it is fixed in rhyme or verse, is worth notice, as likely to contain
something of historical value. That it may not be historically true is
beside the question, for the poetic fictions of a tribe often throw more
light on their history than their recollections of petty chiefs who
quarrelled fifty years ago. The myths may record some old custom or keep
up some old word that has died out of ordinary talk, or the very fact of
their containing a story known elsewhere in the world may give a clue to
forgotten intercourse by which it was learnt.

_Customs._—It remains to say a few words as to the multifarious customs
which will come under the traveller’s observation. It does not follow
that because these may be mentioned or described in books they need
not be further looked into. The fact is that accurate examination in
such matters is so new, that something always remains to be made out,
especially as the motives of so many customs are still obscure. The
practice of artificially deforming the infant’s skull into a desired
shape, which is not quite forgotten even in Europe, may be noticed with
respect to the question whether the form to which the child’s head is
bulged or flattened is the exaggeration of the natural form of an admired
caste or race. If not, what can, for instance, have induced two British
Columbian tribes, one to flatten their foreheads and the other to mould
them up to a peak? In tattooing, an even more widespread practice, it
is well to ascertain whether the pattern on the skin seems to have been
originally tribe-marks or other signs or records, or whether the purpose
is ornament. In South-East Asia the two motives are present at once, when
a man has ornamental designs and magical charm-figures together on his
body. With regard to ornaments and costumes, the keeping-up of ancient
patterns for ceremonial purposes often affords curious historical hints.
Thus in the Eastern Archipelago, the old-fashioned garments of bark-cloth
are used in mourning by people who have long discarded them in ordinary
wear, and another case is found among some natives of South India, whose
women, though they no longer put on an apron of leaves as their real
ordinary garment, wear it over a cotton skirt on festival-days. Among
the amusements of a people, songs are often interesting musically, and
it is well to take them down, not only for the tunes, but also for the
words, which sometimes throw light on old traditions and beliefs. Dancing
varies from spontaneous expression of emotion to complex figures handed
down by tradition and forming part of social and religious ceremony. The
number of popular games in the world is smaller than would be supposed.
When really attractive they may be adopted from one people to another
till they make their way round the world. Any special variety, as of ball
or draughts, should therefore be noticed, as it may furnish evidence of
intercourse by which it may have come from some distant nation.

Though the subjects of anthropological interest are not even fully
enumerated in the present chapter, some idea may have been given of
the field of observation still open to travellers, not only in remote
countries, but even in Europe. In taking notes, the explorer may be
recommended not to be afraid of tedious minuteness, whereas the lively
superficiality of popular books of travel makes them almost worthless for
anthropology.[15]

       *       *       *       *       *

In looking through the above remarks, written some years since,
alteration has seemed hardly needful. The writer thinks, however, that
it may be useful to call attention to the increased opportunities of
travellers to study and obtain implements of the rudest and most ancient
Stone Age. Up to a few years ago they could only have expected to
find proof of the recent use among savages of stone hatchets, knives,
arrow-heads, etc., such as in Europe are relics of ancient tribes. These,
indeed, have been known for more than a generation not to be the oldest
relics of the kind, but have been called neolithic or of the New-Stone
Age, to distinguish them from the far older and lower types of the
mammoth period, called palæolithic or of the Old-Stone Age. Implements
of this class, after their discovery in Europe, were soon noticed in
India, and are now especially recognised as found over a great part
of Africa. Of later years, in the islands of the South Pacific, stone
implements of an even lower class have not only been found in the ground,
but there is evidence that they had remained in use into modern times.
In Tasmania it is on record from European eye-witnesses that tools made
from chips of hard stone by trimming to an edge on one side, and which
were grasped in the hand without any handle, were the cutting and hacking
instruments of the natives into the last century, almost up to the time
of their extinction. Thus apparently the oldest known phase of human
life endured in this region untouched by civilisation, and travellers
have the opportunity of studying its recent relics in Tasmania, while
similar traces of rude Stone Age life, though not reaching up to so
late a time, are making their appearance both in West Australia and New
Zealand. Travellers should be careful to consider whether chipping is
really artificial, and not due to natural action of water or wind-blown
sand. There is no doubt that many “implements” in our museums are freaks
of nature, _e.g._, those found in such quantities in the desert plateaux
above the lower Nile.

Travellers of the present day have still opportunities of observation in
the history of culture which will have disappeared in another generation.
Inquiry in outlying countries should be made for the vanishing survivals
of arts and customs, stories, and even languages. In Europe there is much
of this kind to be met with by the inquirer, especially off the beaten
track. Thus the dug-out canoe, the monoxyle of Hippokrates, need not be
sought on African lakes, for it is still the fisherman’s craft of Hungary
and Bosnia; and in the same region the apparatus for producing the
ceremonial need-fire by friction of wood, which disappeared from Scotland
towards the beginning of last century, and the “whithorn” of coiled bark,
the rustic musical instrument just vanishing from English peasant life,
are still in ceremonial use. As for savage tribes which come within
the traveller’s ken, though their stone implements have been mostly
superseded by the white man’s cutlery, many arts of the remote past may
still be seen. The yet simpler means of producing fire by drilling a
stick with the hands without further mechanical adaptation may still be
seen among savages who have not lost their old arts, and the twisting of
thread with the hands, which preceded the use of even the spindle, is
not everywhere forgotten. Though the study of the religion and folk-lore
of the savage and barbaric world must be left to those who are residents
rather than visitors, the passer-by who inquires may see primitive rites
of religion or magic. Thus in many an Indian house in Arizona or New
Mexico the traveller is reminded of his classic recollections when he
sees the first morsel of the meal thrown into the fire as an offering to
the ancestral spirits.


NOTE BY PROFESSOR R. R. MARETT.

‘Although Sir Edward Tylor’s summary account of the task of the field
anthropologist was written many years ago, and is now reproduced in a
substantially unaltered form, one can confidently recommend it as still
adequate to the needs of a rapidly progressing science. The general plan
of campaign, so brilliantly sketched here, remains much the same. On the
other hand, the traveller in these latter days, instead of opening up
fresh fields, must for the most part be content to work over old ground
more carefully than his predecessors. Unless, therefore, he is prepared
to discard superficial modes of observation and devote himself to a
critical and intensive study of the available facts, he had much better
leave the subject alone. It will help greatly if he has been through a
course of special training, such as several of the leading Universities
can nowadays provide.’—R. R. MARETT.

The following books will be found useful to the traveller, besides those
mentioned above:—

‘Handbook of Folk-lore’; published by the Folk-lore Society. Ed. C. S.
Burne.

‘Anthropology’: Prof. R. R. Marett. Home University Library. Williams &
Norgate.


QUERIES OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

_By the late SIR A. W. FRANKS, K.C.B., F.R.S._


I. _Physical Character._

Average height of men and women in each tribe. Character of hair:
straight, wavy, curly, frizzy, or woolly. Prognathism. Strength in
lifting and carrying weights, &c. Speed in running. Accuracy of aim.
Knowledge of numbers, weights, and measures.


II. _Mode of Subsistence._

Whether mainly by hunting, or by pastoral or agricultural pursuits. Any
instances of dwellings in caves.

Use of boats; forms of boats and of paddles; mode of paddling.

Any particular stratagems used in hunting, snares and traps; implements
for hunting; use of dogs and of cross-bows, as well as bows and arrows.

Fishing; nets; fish-hooks; spears; any javelins or arrows with loose
heads attached by a cord.

Modes of cooking, and implements used; any particular observances in
cooking or at meals; any separation of sexes at meals. How is fire
produced? and are any persons charged with the preservation of it?

Forms and construction of houses. Separation of the sexes.

Furniture of houses.

Plans of towns and fortifications.

Plants cultivated for food or manufactures; agricultural implements.


III. _Religion and Customs._

Birth ceremonies.

What are the idols and their names? Is there any distinction between them
in importance? What worship is paid to them? and what offerings are made,
and on what occasions?

Are there any particular superstitions? What fetishes or amulets are
used? by whom are they made? Are there any forms of divination, any use
of casting lots with cowries, ordeals by poison or otherwise?

Vampire beliefs and ghost beliefs generally.

Cannibalism, and motives for the same.

Funeral rites. Belief in a future state. Deposit of objects with the
dead, and whether deposited broken or whole, in or on the graves.

Are burial customs associated with belief in destiny after death?

It is important that the traveller should distinguish between genuine
native traditions and those acquired through contact with civilised
peoples.

Peace survivals among newer peoples.


IV. _Arts and Manufactures._

Mode of spinning and weaving; patterns and materials employed.

Dyeing and nature of dyes.

Any mode of preparing and working leather.

Any knowledge of glass-making. If not acquainted with the manufacture of
glass, do they melt down broken European glass and beads to make armlets
and other ornaments?

Musical instruments: their forms, nature, and names.

Knowledge of pottery and mode of manufacture.

Use and manufacture of tobacco and other narcotics; forms of
tobacco-pipes; any ceremonies connected with smoking; use of snuff;
snuff-bottles.

Manufacture and trade in salt, wine, beer, or other liquors.

Knowledge of simple medical remedies, cupping, etc.

Ivory and wood-carving.

Metallurgy: working in the various metals, whether by a special class of
people or tribes; implements used in smelting, etc. Where are the ores
obtained?

Is there any knowledge of precious stones?


V. _Personal Ornaments, Disfigurements, etc._

Are there any special marks made by tattooing or cicatrices to
distinguish the various tribes? are they the same in both sexes? Drawings
of these marks would be very desirable, distinguishing each tribe.

Are the teeth filed or knocked out? If the former, into what shapes are
they filed? when is the filing effected? and is it the same for both
sexes?

Is antimony used for the eyelids? and how is it applied?

Are ear-ornaments worn by either sex? are they pendent or inserted in the
lobe? Are there any nose or lip ornaments?

Is the hair cut into any peculiar shape, or is its colour altered by
dyeing?

Is any cap or protection worn on the penis, as by the Kafirs and other
tribes?

Any peculiarities of dress for men and women? any distinction between
married and unmarried?

What protection is worn in battle? What are the forms of the weapons? and
is any missile weapon in use?

Is there any mutilation of the sex organs?

Are any marks used as distinctions for bravery, success in hunting or
rank?


VI. _Ivory and Wood Carving._

If elephant ivory is not of native origin, where is it obtained? Are
any other materials of the same nature employed in carving, such as
walrus-tusk, cachalot teeth, etc.? Are any very hard woods employed; and
if so, how are they worked?


VII. _Money._

What kinds of money are in use? Do the coins pass by weight as bullion,
or have they a recognised value? Are any objects such as iron bars or
tools, salt, pieces of cotton, cowries, beads, wampum, etc., employed as
a means of exchange? If so employed, is there any recognised way in which
their value is certified, or is their value the subject of bargain in
each case?


ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES.

_By W. L. H. DUCKWORTH, M.D., SC.D., M.A._

The following notes deal in the briefest possible manner with the more
important observations to be made on human bones; and it is conceivable
that some such records might be obtained under circumstances precluding
the observer from securing or removing the actual specimens, and even
in instances where only a very brief period is available for inspecting
them. It is convenient to arrange the observations under the following
separate headings:—

1. The circumstances attending the death of the individual should be
first investigated, and observations concerning the mode and locality
of interment should be recorded (cf. Professor Tylor’s Schedule, under
‘Funeral Rites’).

2. The general condition of the specimen next demands attention. This is
to some extent dependent upon circumstances referred to in the preceding
section. From the texture and preservation of the actual bony substance,
a rough estimate may be formed as to the lapse of time since the death
of the individual. The occurrence of the skull alone, or at a distance
from the remainder of the skeleton, should be noted.

3. The greater weight and size, as well as the greater prominence of the
brow-ridges and ridges at the back of the skull, serve to distinguish
the male _sex_, but in many cases the determination of sex is almost
impossible.

As regards _age_, skulls are conveniently described as immature, adult or
senile. Immature skulls lack the full complement of teeth or of sockets
for these, and a deep cleft is seen to cross the base of the skull about
an inch in front of the large hole (foramen magnum) for the spinal cord.
Upon the attainment of maturity this cleft is obliterated, by the fusion
of its margins. In senile crania, the sutural lines on the surface are
almost entirely obliterated, and the jaws are toothless and much reduced
in size and prominence.

4. The skull may be deformed. It is important to attempt to distinguish
_deformation_ produced during life (either artificially or otherwise)
from that determined by the weight of superincumbent soil after
interment. Artificial deformation is manifested in most cases by
flattening of the forehead, or of the back of the skull, or of both. But
posthumous deformation is quite irregular, the face is often involved as
well as the brain-case, there is often extreme flattening from side to
side, and the bones are usually fragile and tend to fall apart.

5. _Trephine-holes_, indicative of enterprise in operative surgery,
should be noted. The regularity of contour and the size of the hole
often gives the clue to its real nature. It must be remembered
that, in the process of exhumation, injuries closely resembling the
foregoing operative wounds may be received by skulls, and therefore
the circumstances of exhumation demand enquiry in this connection.
Some skulls are found to have been incised or engraved with decorative
patterns after death.

6. _Craniological descriptions_ deal with the appearances presented by
skulls in each of the five normal positions or aspects depicted in Fig. 1.

In the first view or aspect (Fig. 1, B) the general form of the skull
is shewn, and in proportions the cranial case may be either elongated
or rotund; or again, if elongated, it may be elliptical (with no great
difference in form between front and back), ovoid (when the hinder end is
the broader), or rhomboid (lozenge or diamond-shaped).

In Fig. 1, C, the profile line, and its modification by prominent
brow-ridges or jaws, claims attention. In Fig. 1, D, the general form
of the eye (orbital aperture) and nose (nasal aperture), as well as
the relative breadth of the face, are considered. Fig. 1, E, shows the
palate, and the number and forms of the teeth are studied from this
point of view. In Fig. 1, A, the form of the transverse cranial arc, and
any irregularities, such as flattening or the production of a keeled
(scaphoid) appearance, should be noted.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.

The five normæ, or aspects of the human skull, viz.:—(B) Norma
verticalis, the vertex view; (C) Norma lateralis; (D) Norma facialis; (E)
Norma basilaris; (A) Norma occipitalis.]

7. The _lower jaw_ is studied independently. The prominence of the chin,
the squareness of the angle, the stoutness of the whole bone, and
the number and characters of the teeth are the chief points to which
attention is directed.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Measurement of the length of the skull with
callipers (Flower’s Craniometer as modified by Dr. Duckworth).

FIG. 3.—Measurement of the length of the skull with another form of
callipers.]

8. _Cranial measurements_ are made with callipers and a flexible steel or
tape measure. These objects, as well as a graduated two-meter rod used
for measuring stature or long bones, are supplied in a travelling case
by Messrs. Hermann of Zürich, who have made them to Professor Martin’s
designs. The whole outfit costs about £4, but the instruments can be
obtained separately. Messrs. Hermann also make a modified form of the
callipers, known as Flower’s Craniometer (cf. Fig. 2). Measurements
are recorded in millimeters, in which the various callipers, etc., are
graduated. The latter instruments may have the forms represented in
Fig. 2 (Flower’s Craniometer) or Fig. 3, in which are shown the exact
positions of the instruments in measuring the length of the skull.

The chief measurements may be now enumerated in order of importance:—

    i. The _extreme length_ of the brain-case, measured as shown in
    Figs. 2 and 3.

    ii. The _maximum breadth_ of the skull is measured on the
    brain-case.

    iii. The _circumference_ of the brain-case (as distinct from
    the face) is measured with the flexible tape passed round the
    brow-ridges and the back of the skull. The measurement is that
    of the greatest circumference of the brain-case obtainable in
    this way.

    iv. Measurements illustrative of the degree of prominence
    of the upper jaw are two in number, and are made with the
    callipers. The two measurements start from the same point
    behind; this point is the middle of the front edge, or margin,
    of the hole for the spinal cord (foramen magnum), shown in
    Fig. 1, E. From this common point, the upper or _basi-nasal
    measurement_ passes to the upper border of the nasal bones in
    the middle line of the face, and the lower or _basi-alveolar
    measurement_ passes to the extreme front edge of the upper jaw
    in the middle line, just above and between the upper incisor
    teeth.

9. _Measurements of the long bones_ of the limbs. These are best made
by means of a graduated rod with fixed and movable limbs, resembling a
large pair of callipers. Such a rod is supplied (as indicated above) by
Messrs. Hermann. The bones to be measured are six in number for each side
of the body, viz.:—those of the upper arm and thigh (humerus and femur);
then two for the forearm (called radius and ulna, the former being the
shorter); and two for the leg (called tibia and fibula, the former, or
shin-bone, being the larger). The extreme or maximum length is measured
in each case, excepting those of the femur and tibia.

    i. The femur is measured obliquely, that is, from its ball-like
    head to a line touching _both_ prominences at the lower end, as
    shown at B in Fig. 4. This represents the position of the bone
    in a person standing erect.

    ii. The spiny processes on the upper end of the tibia are not
    included in the measurement of its length.

Immature limb-bones are recognised by the line which demarcates the
extreme ends, or epiphyses, from the shaft (or diaphysis). Sexual
differences are chiefly indicated by greater length, stoutness, and also
by the development of osseous ridges in male bones.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Position of the thigh-bone for measurement of its
length.]

10. The measurements of the long bones are used in estimating the
_stature_. Special notice is to be paid to individuals of giant or of
dwarf stature. In this connection particular mention should be made in
the following instances:—

    (_a_) Where the thigh bone measures more than 52 cm., or less
    than 36 cm.

    (_b_) Where the shin bone measures more than 42 cm., or less
    than 28 cm.

    (_c_) Where the fibula measures more than 41 cm., or less than
    28 cm.

    (_d_) Where the upper arm bone measures more than 37 cm., or
    less than 26 cm.

    (_e_) Where the ulna measures more than 29 cm., or less than 20
    cm.

    (_f_) Where the radius measures more than 27 cm., or less than
    19 cm. (only adult bones being considered, and the sex, where
    known, recorded).

11. Adult skulls will also excite attention when the horizontal
circumference (measured in accordance with the directions provided above)
is greater than 56 cm., or less than 47 cm.




VI.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.[16]

_By SIR JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., formerly Secretary, R.G.S._


The kind of information desired under this heading may be summed up in
the three following questions, so far as uncivilised or semi-civilised
countries are concerned:—

    (1.) What are the available resources of the country that may
    be turned to industrial or commercial account?

    (2.) What commercial products can find an available market in
    the country?

    (3.) What are the facilities for or hindrances to intercourse
    between the country and the rest of the world?

    Or, briefly, (1) Resources; (2) Wants; (3) Accessibility.

These include the questions of suitability for immigration and
colonisation.

What is known as commercial geography is one of several special
applications of geographical knowledge. From this practical point of
view, therefore, the observations collected under other heads in this
book will be of service, especially if the requirements of commerce
are kept in view at the same time as the _desiderata_ of science. From
this standpoint, the sections on Meteorology, Geology, Natural History,
and Anthropology should be consulted. Even general geographical and
topographical observations will be of practical service—the general lie
of the country, its altitudes, and its character at certain altitudes,
its mountains, hills, valleys, plains, rivers—if regarded from the
special standpoint of habitability and possibilities of development.

The suggestions contained in this, as in the other sections of this
manual, are meant both for the ordinary explorer or traveller who may
have to pass rapidly through a country and for those who may have
more opportunity for making leisurely observations. To the former the
following brief hints may prove serviceable:—

Observe and note—

    1. As regards RESOURCES:—

    The extent or quantity, quality, facilities for raising or
    collecting, for transport and shipment, etc., of

    (_a_) The natural products, such as minerals and metals,
    especially gold, silver, coal, iron, copper, tin, nitre,
    guano, phosphates, etc.; timber useful for various purposes;
    vegetable products, useful for food, fibres, dye-stuffs, or
    medicine—gums, resins, etc.; animal products useful for food,
    skins, fur, feathers; riverine or lacustrine products, useful
    for food, oil, or other purposes.

    (_b_) Substances cultivated for food or for manufacturing
    purposes.

    (_c_) Articles manufactured for clothing, for domestic,
    warlike, or other purposes.

    (_d_) Native methods of developing resources, of carrying on
    manufactures, and of transport.

    (_e_) Practicability of developing the resources of the country
    by European methods.

    2. As to WANTS:—

    (_a_) What particular things used by the natives could be
    profitably supplied from the outside?

    (_b_) What do the natives lack that might be introduced and
    supplied from the outside?

    (_c_) In all cases be particular to note favourite materials,
    shapes, colours, or other peculiarities, as of cloths,
    implements, ornaments, such as beads, anklets, etc.

    3. As to ACCESSIBILITY:—

    Note the nearest ports and railways; the character and
    connections of native roads, if any; the navigability of
    rivers, inlets and lakes for various kinds of craft at various
    seasons of the year; heights of passes, whether suitable for
    animals or only for porters, whether blocked at any season of
    year; routes likely to be suitable for railways.

In all cases where practicable, specimens of products should be obtained,
in order that specialists at home may judge of their industrial or
commercial value.

For those who may have more leisure for observation, some or all of the
following detailed hints may be useful:—

MINERALS AND METALS.—It is not necessary to add much here to what has
been said under Geology. If the traveller is not himself competent, or
has no opportunity to test the value of these products, he should bring
home specimens; this, if possible, should be done in any case. Under this
section a look-out should be kept for any indication of naphtha, asphalt,
or mineral oils. From the commercial point of view the important points
are—

_Quality._—To what extent are minerals or metals, as gold, copper, iron,
phosphates, mixed up with other matter? What is the yield per ton of ore?
In the case of coal, how does it burn, and what is the percentage of ash?
Next—

_Quantity._—Does the substance occur in sufficient quantity to make it
worth expenditure of capital and labour? The information must be obtained
by personal inspection. Finally—

_Locality._—Is the situation of the deposits easily accessible? How are
they situated with reference to routes, existing or practicable? and how
with reference to ports of embarkation? Could they be worked with the
resources available in the country, or would labour and machinery require
to be introduced? If worked in the country, is there any neighbouring
market for the manufactured products? What are the native processes (if
any) of obtaining and working minerals?

We must again refer to the section on Geology for further details, and
the intending traveller would do well to take a few lessons before he
leaves, so as to be able to recognise the most common and useful minerals
and the conditions under which they usually occur; he will thus save much
time and trouble.

VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.—The directions for observation and collection given
under the Botanical section should be attended to; and it is important
that the traveller should be able to recognise the chief classes of
plants, so that specialists may be able to pronounce generally on their
utility.

_Character of Surface._—The general character of the surface of a
country, so far as its vegetation is concerned, should be clearly
grasped. What proportion, or, if possible, what area is under forest?
what under grass? what desert, or mountain, or marsh, or uncultivable?
what under cultivation?

_Forests._—If of a generally forest or thickly-wooded character, are
the forests extensive and dense, with much undergrowth, as in tropical
South America? or easily penetrable, as the forests of Europe and North
America? Or are the trees scattered, either in clumps, or singly, as in a
great part of Central Africa? Do they prevail over the country generally,
or are the river-banks only lined with dense tree vegetation? Are the
forests only found in the low country, or do they cover the hills and
extend up the mountains?

_Timber._—Ascertain the leading characteristics of the trees of the
forests. What are the prevailing families, and, if possible, genera and
species? What uses, if any, do the natives make of the woods? Which
do they use for their houses, their furniture, their canoes, their
weapons, their ornaments? How do the woods seem to stand tear and wear,
the climate, the attack of destructive insects, immersion in water? Are
there any woods that would do for such purposes as railway-sleepers or
telegraph-poles in the conditions which prevail in the country? Any
ornamental woods suitable for cabinet purposes?

_Fibres, Fruits, Chemicals, etc._—Are there any plants the fibres
of which could be turned to account? Any fruits adapted to human
consumption, and are they found in any quantity, or could they be
cultivated?

Are there any trees or other plants suitable for drugs or chemicals—bark,
leaves, juices, roots? What medicines, narcotics, or stimulants are used
by the natives? how are they obtained and how prepared?

Are there any species of useful plants growing wild—coffee, sugar,
cotton, vanilla, spices, etc.? Any trees producing gums that might be
of commercial value, like gum arabic, gutta-percha, or caoutchouc? Or
any whose fruits yield oil, like the cocoa-nut and the olive? Do the
natives make use of these juices? What are the processes of extraction
and preparation?

_Other Vegetation._—When there is an undergrowth, its character should be
noticed, and the diseases, if any, to which trees are subject.

Note what other vegetation exists besides that of trees. Are there any
plants like the turnip, the potato, the batata, which are useful as
foods, or for other purposes? Specimens of any herbs likely to be useful
should be obtained, especially if they are used by the natives for
medicine, for dyeing, for poison, or other useful purposes.

Sometimes, as in Central and Western Australia, what arboraceous
vegetation exists consists mainly of shrubs, the character of which
should be noted. Do they hinder locomotion? Are their shoots useful for
forage? Are they injurious to horses and cattle?

When there is herbaceous vegetation of any extent, what is its character?
Is it tall and coarse and reedy, like much of the African grass? Or such
as is found on the prairies and pampas? Or of a troublesome spinifex
character, as in Australia? Or of a turf-like character, like the grasses
of Europe? What are the components of this kind of vegetation, and how
far is it likely to prove useful as fodder? What uses do the natives put
it to, either for their animals or for manufactures? Do they use it for
making mats or cloth? Are there any plants mixed with it injurious to
animals? What is the condition of the grass at different seasons of the
year? When is it at its best, its strongest, its densest? Is it liable
to be parched up at any season? To what extent is its condition affected
by the climate, by rainfall, by irrigation, natural or artificial? Is it
easily removed, in order to make way for other cultures? Does it spread
into the forest region, and has it any special characteristics there? How
does it, as well as other useful vegetation, vary with altitude or other
local conditions? Do the products change under different agricultural
conditions? e.g., some are poisonous under certain conditions, not others?

_Marshes, Deserts, Irrigation._—Note if marshes or peat-bogs, or other
special features of the surface exist to any extent, and whether the
drainage of marshes is practicable.

Where deserts exist, note their character. Are they sandy, gravelly,
rocky, salt? What is the prevailing rock? If the desert character of the
land (as is generally the case) seems due to want of water, is there any
artificial means likely to be available for supplying that want? Is there
any storage of water and irrigation among the natives? and, if so, how is
it accomplished? and what are the results? Are there any sources within
reach, either above or underground, from whence a supply of water for
irrigation purposes could be obtained? Indicate any exceptional defects
of quality in the supply of water.

Note if any part of the country is liable to periodical inundations.
At what periods of the year do they occur? Are these inundations
destructive, or are they utilised for agricultural purposes? Would it be
possible to regulate these inundations?

AGRICULTURE.—The general outcome of all these observations is the
suitability of a country for agricultural development. What articles
do the natives cultivate, if any? Has the cultivated land any special
character, or is it simply the ordinary land cleared of trees or grass,
or other wild growth? Note the methods and implements of culture used by
the natives; the seasons of sowing and reaping, and preparing the crops
for use. Do they depend for water on rainfall or irrigation? To what
altitudes is cultivation carried, and what are the crops that prosper at
these altitudes?

From the point of view of colonisation and agriculture, precise
information as to the nature of the soil is desirable. The proportion or
extent of a country suitable for agriculture might be noted. Observe,
as precisely as practicable, the nature and depth of the upper layer
of soil. The depth—it may be a few inches, or it may be two or three
feet—can easily be ascertained. A general idea may also be given of its
nature. Is it mostly vegetable mould, as it is likely to be in old forest
or grass countries? or peaty? or marshy? If possible, also, ascertain the
depth of the subsoil down to the rock or clay, or other permanent basis
on which it rests. In a general way it might be observed whether the soil
is sandy, gravelly, stony, calcareous, marly, clayey. Also is it compact,
tenacious, or loose, and, above all, is it permeable or impermeable to
water? Is the soil very dry or very moist? or what is its intermediate
stage?

If the natives carry on cultivation, ascertain, if possible, the yield
per acre of what they cultivate. Do they cultivate only for their own
wants? If not, where and what is the nature of the market to which they
send the surplus?

Does the country seem suitable for other cultures besides those carried
on by the natives?

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.—If there are wild animals in the country, observe
whether the natives hunt them for what they yield in the way of food or
other useful products. Are there any ivory-yielding animals, or animals
whose skins can be turned to profitable account? Could a sufficient
supply for mercantile purposes be obtained by means of native hunters,
if properly encouraged; or how would it be best to work such resources?
Are there any laws or customs enforced by the natives in hunting wild
animals? Are there any noxious wild animals, and to what extent do they
affect human comfort and human life?

_Domestic Animals._—It is important to know what domestic animals the
natives possess, how they are reared and fed, and what uses they are
put to. Also whether the country is good for horses, cattle, sheep,
and poultry, and approximately what is the extent, situation, and
accessibility of the grazing-lands. Are the pastures perennial? To what
extent do they depend on rainfall, or irrigation, or on intermittent
streams? During what months of the year are they available? Are there any
plants among the pastures injurious to animals? Are there any insects
(like the _tsetse_) or other animals injurious to cattle or horses? Do
horses or asses exist among the natives, and what uses are they put to?
If not, would they be likely to flourish, if introduced?

_Fisheries._—Information concerning fish and fisheries is desirable;
and among fish, from the practical standpoint, are included shell-fish
(especially pearl shells), sponges, corals, and animals of the whale and
seal kind. If the natives practise fishing, either in lakes, rivers, or
the sea, ascertain the kinds of fish they capture, their methods and
implements, and the particular seasons at which fishing is practised.
Are the fisheries, whether worked by the natives or not, likely to be of
commercial value?

TRADE.—Much of the information suggested above will be of service
from the special commercial point of view, especially with
reference to export. Information should be obtained concerning any
manufactures carried on by the natives besides what has been suggested
above—manufactures in metal, in wood, in clay, or stone; in materials
derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, what they are, what
uses they are put to, what processes are used, and to what extent, if
any, they form articles of trade. With regard to the import market,
what generally are the wants of the natives and what new wants might
be created. If possible, some approximate estimate of the value of the
leading classes of imports, if there are any, should be obtained.

Ascertain if any goods are brought into the country from the outside;
if so, what they are, where they come from, and as accurate an estimate
as possible of quantity, or value, or both. In the case of imports from
civilised countries, are those of any particular country preferred, and,
if so, why? Is it owing to anything special in quality, or pattern, or
cost, means of communication, or in quantity available? Is there any
special tribe of middlemen who prevent the inland people from coming
into direct relation with traders? Probably a market could be created
for outside manufactures which have not as yet been introduced into the
country; or such manufactures might easily obtain a market in preference
to those of native make. Note especially the patterns of articles of
native make, as these are probably adapted to the conditions of the
country, and should therefore be imitated or improved upon in the case
of imported goods, the quality of the latter being better, and the cost,
if possible, lower. British traders, especially, often incur serious
losses by not ascertaining in advance what particular articles and what
special patterns are in demand among natives. Note also whether European
methods might not be introduced with advantage for the manufacture of
native goods. Native usages as to credit ought to be ascertained, what
safeguards are binding, what is the medium of exchange, etc. It would be
useful to discover beforehand whether the importation of machinery and
explosives is likely to be unimpeded.

CLIMATE.—This is an essential item, so far as the exploitation of
tropical and semi-tropical countries by Europeans is concerned. Its
main elements are determined by temperature, latitude, altitude, and
rainfall; the character of the surface should also be taken into account.
Under Meteorology, the main directions on the subject are given. The
temperature at different seasons and at different times of the day (say
9 A.M., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M.) should be ascertained, and that at various
altitudes. Rainfall observations are not of much service unless they can
be obtained over a continuous series of years. Ascertain the distribution
of rainfall over the year, and the limits of the rainy period of the
year, when such period exists, and, if possible, the quantity which
falls in the different months of the period; how does the rainfall differ
with altitude and other topographical variations? If a country is subject
to droughts, it is important to ascertain if there is any periodicity
in these droughts, and how they affect the resources and prospects of
the country, and the condition of the rivers. Would it be possible, by
storage of water or other means, to counteract to any extent the bad
effects of drought?

What effect has the rainy period and the drought period on the native
inhabitants, and especially on Europeans? As far as possible, ascertain
the birth and death rate per annum.

FACILITIES AND HINDRANCES TO COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT.—Under this head
the first consideration is Accessibility or Means of Communication.
Generally, the quickest, cheapest, and safest routes to a satisfactory
market should be ascertained.

_Water Communication._—Observe what natural means of communication exist,
what is the nature of communication between the country and the outside
world. If communication by sea is of importance, how is the interior to
be reached from the sea? Are there any deep inlets? Is there practicable
river communication? For what sort of vessels is it adapted? Are there
any obstructions in the river, and, if so, what is their nature, and how
could they be surmounted? What is the width of the river, the depth of
the water, and the force of the current, at various distances from the
mouth, and at the periods of the year when the river is at its lowest and
highest? Are there any lakes that could be utilised for communication?

_Roads._—If there are native roads, state precisely what is their
nature under various conditions of weather; their width; what sort of
vehicles, if any, they are suited for, and where they lead to. If the
country is mountainous, ascertain the principal passes, what places they
connect, their exact heights at the highest point (not the heights of
the mountains), for what animals or vehicles they are practicable, or if
only for porters, and what is their condition at various seasons of the
year. If the natives have any vehicles, or vessels, or other means of
transport, describe them.

_Railway Routes._—Observe, as far as possible, suitable routes for
railway or canal communication, as well as for good roads, and whether
any materials for railway construction are obtainable in the country.
Possibly the country, if an inland one, could be connected by road or
rail with some existing railway system. What are the nearest telegraph
stations?

_Labour._—Another important consideration under this head is that of
labour—labour for the varied enterprises connected with the development
of a country’s resources. Is labour obtainable within the country itself?
If so, to what extent, and on what terms? Are the natives industrious,
and are they likely to labour under foreign superintendence? Does slavery
or forced labour in any form exist? If not obtainable in the country, how
may labour be most easily and cheaply obtained? Is the country suited to
manual labour by whites? If there are only certain kinds of labour in
which whites may engage, state what they are.

To what extent could machinery be used with advantage? Is there any water
power available? or any animal power?

_Currency, Tariffs, etc._—Under this head also questions relating to
currency should be included, or whatever other medium of exchange exists.

Another important consideration here is the question of tariffs,
which, in one shape or another, exist in nearly all uncivilised and
semi-civilised countries, from the hongo of Central Africa to the Customs
duties of Eastern countries. Precise information concerning these, both
as to exports and imports, is important.

Note, also, as precisely as practicable, the cost of living for Europeans
settling down for a time, and the expenses involved in travelling through
a country.

_Inhabitants._—Is there anything in the character of the
natives—physical, mental, or moral—likely to affect commercial
intercourse or the industrial development of the country? Any prejudices
or superstitions that should be attended to? Anything in the attitude
of natives to traders and settlers deserving consideration? Is the
population nomadic or settled? What material, if any, do they use
for smoking, and what is the nature of their intoxicating drinks, if
they have any? Estimate, as nearly as possible, the population, the
density per square mile, both for the country as a whole and for the
chief centres of population. Ascertain the nature of any political or
social organisation which exists. What are the terms on which land can
be acquired? What are the prevalent crimes? Under the Anthropological
section directions are given for ascertaining the leading racial
characteristics of the people.




VII.

ARCHÆOLOGY.

_By D. G. HOGARTH, C.M.G., M.A., D.LITT._


This section is intended, not for experts, but for those travellers
without special interest or experience in archæological work, who,
finding themselves in districts where unpublished antiquities exist, feel
it incumbent to record or rescue them. General hints, therefore, are
subjoined on methods of recording, cleaning, temporarily conserving, and
conveying monuments and objects of antiquity.


A.—RECORDING.

There are three ways of obtaining a record of a monument, all of which
should be used if possible in cases of importance:—

1. Mechanical reproduction by photography, moulding, or rubbing.

2. Reproduction by planning, drawing, or otherwise copying.

3. Literary memoranda of characteristics, _e.g._, dimensions, subject,
etc.


1. _Mechanical Reproduction._

_(a) Photography._—This subject has already been dealt with in Part II.,
and it is only necessary here to add a few hints, peculiarly applicable
to the photography of objects of antiquity.

_Of inscriptions_ photography does not, as a rule, supply a useful
reproduction, and unless time or other opportunity be wanting, it should
not be the only mechanical process applied. If an inscription is at
all worn, or the material on which it is engraved contains superficial
faults, do not rely on a photograph; but if one is taken, try to dispose
the object so that light falls on it from one side, with a slight
obliquity from above. In the case of rock inscriptions or others still
in their place on walls, etc., a photograph should be secured to show
relative position and surroundings. An inscription on dark material will
often need preparation with white chalk before being photographed to any
good purpose; but the traveller who has opportunity to do that, will
probably have equal opportunity to employ the better process of moulding.

For _sculpture_, photography will often be the only method of
reproduction possible to the traveller. When that is the case he may be
advised (1) to take his photographs on the largest possible scale; (2)
to take the object from all possible points of view; (3) to do what he
can to improve the light and relief of the subject. Small objects gain
enormously by reflected lights carefully arranged to bring out their
contours; if sufficient mirrors are not obtainable, strips of tin or
even white paper will serve as reflectors. Backgrounds may be chalked or
blacked as the case may be, but in the case of a relief this should only
be done when the outlines are very clear. If a sculpture on rock or other
material is much broken or worn, a good mechanical method of improving
relief, which Professor Petrie recommends, can be used; this consists in
dusting the face with powdery sand and then fanning it. The result, if
carefully done, is to leave hollows and background in strong contrast to
the surface of the relief. Highly polished or lucent surfaces should be
dulled before photographing. Metal objects do not, as a rule, photograph
very satisfactorily; and of coins it is much better to take a cast and
photograph that. Perhaps it is not superfluous to remind the photographer
to make notes of all colouring before leaving his subject. On preparing
sculpture, etc., for photography there are valuable practical hints in
Professor Petrie’s ‘_Methods and Aims in Archæology_,’ Chapter VII.

For _small objects of antiquity_, photography is not of much service
unless a camera with very long extension can be used. If it be possible,
the best way is to lay the objects on a sheet of glass raised about a
foot from the ground on a frame, and arrange the camera above, so as
to photograph downwards. This process obviates all ground shadows, and
all pins or other supports for the objects, which appear sharply on the
negative as if suspended in air.

For _buildings_ photography is, of course, the only method of mechanical
reproduction possible.

(_b_) _Moulding._—This in almost all cases will have to be done by
impressing _paper_. Only in the case of small objects will a traveller
ordinarily be able to use either _plaster of Paris_ (if he can procure
it) or _sealing wax_. As to the latter he may be reminded never to heat
his wax by putting it in direct contact with a flame, or the impression
will come out so parti-coloured or black as to be of little use; a card
should be held over a candle or lamp, or, better, a spirit burner, and
the wax rubbed upon the gradually heating upper surface till enough
has melted on to the card without boiling. A useful impression may be
obtained of coins, gems, etc., by pressing ordinary tin foil upon the
surface; but great care must be taken afterwards that the impression
does not get flattened out in transport. Mr. Petrie recommends floating
impressed foil on water face downwards, and dropping hot wax upon it, as
a solidifying agent.

As to the use of plaster of Paris it may be remembered that (1) the
proper mixture is just as much plaster as will absorb the water, leaving
none standing on the top; (2) the object must be well cleaned and soaped
before being moulded; (3) the plaster must be applied _very rapidly_, in
a thin coating all over the object at once: it can be backed with more
plaster afterwards; (4) a surface of any size should either be moulded in
sections, or, if done all at once, the plaster will probably have to be
cut into sections afterwards for transport. To cut it, it is best to lay
strings upon the object before moulding, which, later, can be pulled up
through the plaster while still viscous.

_Paper moulding_ or ‘_squeezing_’ is, however, the ordinary process
employed. Any fairly strong _unsized_ paper will serve more or less
well, but a special ‘squeeze’ paper is procurable in most large cities
where there are archæological museums (_e.g._, in London, from Nutt’s,
57 to 59, Long Acre, W.C.; in Paris, from Moreau’s, 11, Passage du Pont
Neuf; in Berlin, from Ebers Brothers. It can also be got direct from
the maker, Papierhändler Dorr, Spiesgasse, Strassburg.) Mr. Maudslay
recommended in a previous edition a hand-made paper, used for packing
oranges in Spain, and to be obtained of Messrs. Batalla, of Cacagente,
near Valencia, through the agency of Messrs. H. King & Co., Cornhill.
Failing these, the paper on which the commoner news-sheets are printed
will do. The other implements needed are a sponge, and close-bristled,
not very hard, brushes of two or three sizes, _e.g._, an ordinary
clothes-brush, a nail-brush, and a tooth-brush, if no others are at hand,
but special brushes with hand-straps on the back, or curved handles to
keep the knuckles of the beater away from the stone, are preferable. In
the case of an ordinary inscription, of not specially rough or uneven
surface, brush and clean the stone thoroughly, and pick all accumulation
out of the letters; then wet it thoroughly all over; lay the dry paper,
cut to size, as flat on the surface as possible, and dab it down with a
very wet sponge till thoroughly soaked; take the largest brush and pound
the paper rather gently all over, till it partially adheres; then take
smaller brushes and work the paper into all depressions with the maximum
pressure you can exert; finally, hammer it with the large brush again,
working systematically from top to bottom or side to side, not minding
the surface becoming mashed, and driving the air-bubbles, which collect
under the paper, before you and out at the farthest point. If the stone
was thoroughly wetted before the paper was laid on, these ought not
to be numerous or troublesome. Then, if the surface of the stone has
penetrated through the paper at any point, lay a second sheet and, if
necessary, a third, or more, and treat as the first was treated. Leave
the sheets, if possible, to dry on the stone, and all will come off as
one with a perfect reverse impression of the stone’s surface. Some soak
the paper before laying on the stone, but if that is done and there be
any wind, the paper, become very tender, will be apt to tear with its own
weight while being laid on, and will be difficult to lay flat. If for
any reason, _e.g._, overhanging of the stone’s face, it is difficult to
make the paper adhere, the task will prove easier with small pieces. But
whenever a surface is squeezed by sections, the operator must be careful
to make the edges of his sheets overlap, so that later all can be gummed
together as one sheet; to number the sheets according to a key-plan,
recorded in his note-book, and to mark on the sheets themselves the lines
of junction. All superfluous edges should be peeled off, as they are apt
to lift in the wind and cause all or a part of the impression to become
detached before it is well set, and weights should, if possible, be laid
on the drying paper. If for any reason the paper cannot be left to dry in
position, peel off carefully and lay out to dry reverse side uppermost.
The impression, so taken, will be hardly less good. When dry, roll the
squeeze inside a tin cylinder, and only very rough usage will harm it.

Squeezing sculptures is a more difficult matter. Mr. A. P. Maudslay gave
very full directions in an earlier edition of these “Hints” which may be
repeated here. After stating that all moulds of sculpture have to be made
of many thicknesses of paper, with a good coating of paste between every
few sheets (not only because of the great inequalities of surface, which
break through the paper, but also in order that the mould, when dry, may
be stout enough to keep its shape), he said:—

‘Paper can only properly be applied for the purpose of moulding when
the carving is free from large contours and deep undercutting; but it
is wonderful what accurate results can be obtained even when large
curves and some undercutting have to be contended against. Where worn
or splintered parts of a wood-carving, or fissures in a stone, or deep
undercutting which is not essential to the design, occur, it is often of
advantage to fill them up with clay or paper, to which a smooth surface
can be given, so that the mould will come away free from them when it is
dry; and careful notes and measurements will often enable one to restore
the contour to a mould which has suffered some pressure in transport. In
a properly-made mould the detail of carving is never lost, unless the
paper itself is destroyed.

‘A shallow tin bath (or two made to fit inside one another), large enough
to hold an open sheet of paper, is useful for soaking the paper in.[17]
Twenty sheets or more may be placed in the water at once, and left there
without harm for an hour or more; but a few minutes’ soaking is quite
enough.

‘I have several times had to mould, in America, the whole of a monolithic
monument—one as much as 25 feet in height—covered with carving and
hieroglyphic inscription, and have been perfectly successful in
reproducing it in plaster in England. Each face would be marked out into
three or more sections, and each section would be moulded separately,
great care being taken that each mould should considerably overlap the
margin of the other, so that when each section is cast in plaster the
edges of the cast can be cut away until the joint is perfect. And each
section should also overlap at the top and sides in No. 1, and at the
sides in No. 2, &c., for the same reason; and it is necessary to pay
careful attention to the beating in of the paper near the sides and
edges, as it is there that the layers are most likely to come apart when
dry. These edges can be trimmed down afterwards, if found too bulky in
packing.

‘The first sheets of paper should always be put on singly, and well
beaten in. If the carving presents many sharp angles, the paper will
again and again be broken away over them, and small scraps of paper may
be used for covering them up, until the whole section is covered at least
three papers deep in the thinnest place. The coat of paste should then
be given. If the paste is laid on when the mould is too thin, it will
penetrate to the stone, and prevent the mould coming off when dry. The
paste may be put on warm, but if too hot it draws the paper from the
stone (if it is a stone sculpture); air gets underneath the paper, and it
is very difficult to get rid of it again. Avoid, in putting on the first
papers, doubled edges or creases, and beat in well, so that the paper may
work into the grain of the stone or wood. It is easy to spoil a mould by
scamping the work in it, but not easy to spoil it by overbeating. After
giving a coat of paste with a brush, it is advisable to work in the paste
with the fingers, so as to be sure, from the smooth feeling, that it
penetrates the paper over the whole surface.

‘After the first coat of paste has been applied, a good deal of time
may be saved by employing an assistant to beat out the paper for the
further thickening of the mould, for when thus beaten out, two or three
thicknesses of paper can be laid on at the same time. Take about six
sheets together from the water, fold them, and then double them twice,
and slightly tear the wet doubled edges, so that when the sheets are laid
open again there are a number of small slits in the paper; then lay them
out together on any flat surface, and beat them out with a brush for a
few minutes. It is easy to separate them again into the required number
of sheets in thickness.

‘Another method which is equally good, if not better than the last, is,
after making the tears in the doubled sheets as before, to unfold them,
and then to roll them together and twist them up like a rope, and rub
them well between the hands; then unroll them and beat them out for
a moment, separating as many sheets as are required. Either of these
processes loosens the fibre of the paper, whilst the slits prevent it
stretching unevenly. After this treatment it feels to the touch more like
wet leather than paper.

‘As the mould grows thicker the pulpy paper will, from the continual
beating, find its way into, and fill up, the deeper cutting; but it
should be most carefully watched that the mould is not left too thin over
the more prominent parts of the surface, and, with a little practice,
the thickness is easily judged by the touch. It is always well to use the
fingers frequently both in pressing the paper into its place and working
in the paste.

‘It is difficult to lay down any rule as to the thickness of a mould and
the number of coatings of paste necessary. If the mould is of large size,
and the carving presents prominent angles or large curves, it may need an
average of thirty sheets in thickness to preserve its shape, and three
or four coatings of paste; but if the carving is in low-relief on a flat
surface, less than half the thickness will suffice.

‘In hot weather, out of doors, a mould will take about twenty-four hours
to dry; but it should be covered up at night from the dew. In damp
forests or in bad weather I have dried most of my moulds by building up
large wood fires at the distance of a few feet from the sculpture.

‘It is best to take off a mould when it is cool—in the morning or
evening. _Don’t be in a hurry about it._

‘If the mould is torn or broken in taking it off the carving, mend it
with paste _at once_.

‘When a mould is taken off, lay it to dry in the sun on a flat surface,
as there is usually some moisture left in it. If the mould is not flat in
shape, support it carefully, so as to preserve the contours.

‘When the mould is quite dry, it is advisable, but not necessary, to
give it, both back and front, one or more coats of boiled linseed oil.
Heat this oil before applying it, and it will then soak in well, and
use either a soft brush, and be careful, in oiling the surface of the
mould, not to rub too hard. As the paper easily absorbs moisture, the
moulds need to be carefully packed.’ Plaster casts can be taken very
successfully from paper moulds. See directions for casting above.

(_c_) _Rubbing_ can only be practised on a fairly smooth surface, and has
nothing to recommend it except the ease and celerity with which it can be
done. The traveller may as well carry a little heel-ball in his kit. Any
thin, tough paper will do.


2. _Other Reproductions._

_Planning_ and _drawing_ are dealt with in Vol. I. of these ‘Hints.’
_Copying_, as distinct from either, applies to inscriptions. A hand-copy
of an inscription as well as a mechanical reproduction should always be
made, partly because it has the better chance of surviving the accidents
of travel, partly because, if a stone surface is at all perished, anyone
with a keen eye and power of concentration ought to see more lettering
on its worn parts than will appear on a photograph or ‘squeeze.’ The
copy should be as near a facsimile on a reduced scale as time and other
considerations will allow. It should be made on ruled paper, if possible
on paper ruled in squares (_en quadrille_), and the relative position
of the letters to one another must be kept as far as possible. All
broken parts of letters are to be scrupulously copied (they can often be
distinguished from stone-flaws by feeling along the bottom of the groove
with a knife-blade; if that finds an even line, the groove is probably
part of a letter), and all intervals where letters have perished beyond
the copyist’s power to recover them should be measured, and by comparison
of equal intervals containing decipherable letters in other parts of
the inscription, the number of lost letters can be estimated. These
should be indicated by dots in a shaded patch. Letters, about which the
copyist is not quite certain, must be dotted or drawn in faint line. If
a stone be imperfect at the sides, and there be any means of estimating
its original breadth, the line of its true centre should be marked on
the copy. Such an observation will be invaluable to the restorer of the
text. All letters that have peculiar forms should be carefully drawn at
least once, as specimens. If the text is grouped about, among, or in any
relation to, sculptures, such relation should be indicated, even if the
whole sculpture be not drawn. Marks of punctuation or division, ligatures
of one letter with another, and ornate initials and finials, should be
looked out for and noted. On beginning a copy it is well to transcribe
first the most obviously easy parts of the inscription: they will give an
inkling of the character of the text, teach the forms of lettering used,
and accustom the eye to the inscribed surface. On finishing a copy, if
there be time, read it over, try to translate it, and in the light of the
probable translation, attack again the harder parts of the inscription.
In the case of stones with two or more texts inscribed one over the other
(as frequently happens on Roman milestones, which may be geographical
documents of great importance), a ‘squeeze’ must be got at all costs, for
an untrained copyist will make little or nothing of them, and find it
very difficult to draw an accurate hand facsimile.


3. _Literary Memoranda._

It is impossible to make too many notes of a monument, and quite easy
to make too few. The nature of the great majority of such notes must be
left to the discretion of the traveller; but concerning all antiquities,
from buildings to beads, it may be said that, at any rate, material,
colour, dimensions, condition of preservation, arrangement of parts and
character of ornament must be jotted down in the ever ready note-book.
In the case of buildings, notes giving all dimensions are especially
important, since the camera can seldom be brought to bear on all parts
and details, and there is often not opportunity to draw out a plan on
the spot. Of inscriptions certain facts must be recorded, viz., form of
the stone; condition of its surface; the material and colour; on what
sides complete, and on what not; actual dimensions; height of lettering;
general character of lettering; whether well or ill cut, plain or ornate.
Epigraphists’ notebooks are procurable in Germany and Austria containing
divisions for the notes on all these points, together with a ruled
space for the actual inscription. In the case of coins, the material,
the ancient value, the weight (if possible), the state of preservation,
and the images and superscriptions should be noted; of sculpture, the
material, the dimensions, the degree of finish, and a minute analysis
of the subject, the dress of the figure or figures, their gestures,
attributes, and so forth.


B.—CLEANING AND CONSERVATION.

The traveller will not have occasion to render more than ‘First Aid’
to objects of antiquity, _i.e._ to clean them so that their true
character may appear, and to consolidate them with a view to safe
transport. He should do the least that is absolutely necessary, leaving
all elaborate treatment to experts at home. The hints here given are
therefore elementary, and concerned mainly with portable objects. In this
connection these are best classified by the materials of which they are
made.

(_a_) _Gold._—Gold requires no immediate treatment, unless it be laid
over a core of other metal, _e.g._ copper or bronze, which has oxidised
out through cracks. This oxide can usually be removed by picking or by
sharp scaling blows with a small hammer and chisel. If it is obstinate,
use dilute hydrochloric acid laid on with a brush. The proportion of pure
acid should not be more than one part to ten of water.

(_b_) _Silver._—If in very much corroded condition, technically known as
‘dead,’ silver should be left alone. If there is only slight superficial
corrosion, soak in a solution of common salt or lemon juice, or strong
ammonia, and polish after a few hours. If there is a good deal of
chloride on the surface, but the body of the metal seems sound, put zinc
or iron in the solvent and the chlorine will pass over, leaving a powdery
surface which can be brushed clean. Silver should never be packed in a
tin box, even if wrapped up, or it will be found on arrival at home to
be stained with a brown rust, very difficult to remove. Pack in wood or
cardboard.

(_c_) _Copper and Bronze._—Both copper and bronze objects are best
cleaned, if possible, with hammer and burin. Bronze, however, which
the traveller will meet with most often, is frequently covered with
a corrosion which cannot be scaled off at once, and calls for an
acid solvent. Diluted hydrochloric (1:10) will act most quickly and
effectually, but it leaves a white oxy-chloride coat, not easily got
rid of either from the metal or the fingers of the operator, which it
stains deeply. On the whole, we recommend that (1) if the bronze be badly
cracked it be left alone; (2) if not cracked, but covered with very hard
corrosion, soaking in a weak solvent like lemon-juice be tried; and (3)
after that (or before, if the corrosion will yield to a tool at all)
every effort be made to pick or flake off the corrosion, after which the
object should be rubbed well with oil in the palms of the hands.

(_d_) _Lead and Iron_, after oiling, are both best left alone by the
traveller.

(_e_) _Stone._—The traveller will seldom or never be under the necessity
to treat stone surfaces, except in the case of inscribed marbles on
which carbonate of lime has formed, or small objects attacked by salt.
The former can be cleaned with strong acid; the latter must be soaked
in water for long periods, and when drying laid with the most important
surface downwards, so that evaporation into the air may take place
through the less important surfaces.

(_f_) _Pottery and Terra-cotta._—The same enemies, carbonate of lime and
salt, attack pottery and terra-cotta, and are met in the same way as in
the case of stone; but the hydrochloric or other acid solvent should be
weaker, and where there is colour be very cautiously used, if at all.
In packing vases, it should be remembered that if many are put into one
case without partitions, and one collapses, this will probably entail the
breaking of the lot. Large vases should be filled with tightly rammed
packing. Nothing of heavier or more solid material, _e.g._, stone, should
be put in a case with pottery.

(_g_) _Wood, Ivory, and Bone._—These materials are generally found
flaked, split, or scaly, and need consolidation before packing. The
methods most likely to be open to the traveller are: (1) if the objects
are not excessively tender, to dip them in melted vaseline, let this
set, wrap in tissue paper and pack carefully in cotton wool; (2) if the
objects are very tender or rotten with salt, to make a stiff jelly, drop
them in before it sets, and convey them home in aspic. On the way the
jelly will absorb the salt. In addition to either process, it is often
well to bind the object in every direction and part with fine thread
to keep it from splitting, or prevent the sections, if already split,
falling apart and splintering or warping in different directions. If
there is crystalline carbonate of lime on the surface of bone or ivory,
it had better not be touched except by experts.

(_h_) _Papyrus._—Papyrus needs damping and flattening out as far as
possible without breaking its fibre. Lay it between two damp towels,
and after flattening, pack it between sheets of paper in close tin
boxes, filling each box up tightly. But the traveller will be wise not
to try too much. As soon as the edges of his roll or fragment cease to
be brittle to the touch he had best leave the papyrus as it is without
further unrolling, and pack very carefully away.

(_j_) _Glass, Glazed Objects, Pastes, Amber, Various Compositions._—None
of these should the traveller try to treat. Glass must be left wholly
alone if in a flaking state; other objects, if flaky or powdery, will, at
least, be no worse for having been dipped in melted vaseline than they
would be in any case, after transport.

No general hints can be usefully given about either the methods of
discovering antiquities or those of detecting forgeries. It is not
supposed that the travellers here addressed will undertake regular
excavations. Should they propose to do so, they will need special
training and much more elaborate instruction. Mr. Petrie’s ‘Methods and
Aims’ will supply much of the latter, but the tyro excavator will not
have Mr. Petrie’s success without serving a long apprenticeship.

The above hints will serve for the traveller who takes antiquities by the
way and in the day’s work, having other objects more in view. For him the
following list of necessities will suffice:—

1. Long extension camera and all photographic requisites, including, if
possible, a stand and frame for overhead photography (_v._ p. 52).

2. ‘Squeeze’ paper, brushes with hand-straps or curved handles, and tin
cylinders for carrying the paper and moulds; heel-ball, sealing-wax,
tin-foil, beeswax.

3. Planning and drawing outfit.

4. Notebooks ruled _en quadrille_, magnifying-glass and hand-mirror.

5. Small hammer and chisels for metal work, hydrochloric acid, ammonia,
emery-paper, tissue paper, burin, plate brushes, sheet zinc, vaseline,
cotton-wool (_not_ raw cotton-waste with hard seeds in it).




VIII.

MEDICAL HINTS.

_By the late WILLIAM HENRY CROSSE, M.D._

Revised and brought up to date by ANDREW BALFOUR, C.B., C.M.G., M.D.


The following hints, which were compiled by the late Dr. W. H. Crosse,
formerly the experienced medical adviser of the Royal Niger Company,
based upon previous editions of this work, have been edited so as to
bring them up to date. A good deal remains as Dr. Crosse wrote it, but
several sections have been almost entirely re-written, in order to bring
them into line with modern views. New sections have been introduced and
there have been numerous additions and corrections.


INTRODUCTION.

In the following pages the chief emphasis has been laid upon the care of
the health in the tropics; but it must be remembered, that whilst by far
the greater proportion of travellers go to the tropics, most of these
hints for the preservation of health apply equally well for all climates.

Though many subjects have been briefly dealt with, certain matters have
been rather more fully written up, such as the treatment of wounds. It
is, in the author’s opinion, so important that the traveller should
thoroughly understand what is meant by ‘surgical cleanliness’ that the
usual methods observed by surgeons to ensure it have been plainly set
forth. The author, of course, understands that in many cases it would be
quite impossible to carry out the instructions in every detail, but it is
hoped that a thorough knowledge of the principles underlying the correct
treatment of wounds will assist the traveller in doing the best possible
for his patient in any emergency, and under even the most unfavourable
circumstances.

It is hardly necessary to observe that travellers in remote regions, and
especially in tropical climates, are much more exposed to physical ills
and diseases than most residents at home, and that they are more likely
to be placed beyond the reach of skilled medical and surgical aid when
it is most required. It is chiefly for the use of the non-professional
traveller that the following pages have been written, and with this aim
in view the symptoms and general treatment of the diseases and injuries
with which he is most likely to be brought in contact are dealt with in
simple, non-technical language.

Every traveller should supply himself with either Bernard Myer’s ‘Atlas
of First Aid Treatment’ or Hastings Young’s ‘First Aid to the Sick,’
books of general utility. Travellers visiting countries with hot
climates will find Garry’s ‘Some Factors Influencing Health in Tropical
and Sub-tropical Climates’ a useful book, despite a few errors, while
the small ‘Primer of Tropical Hygiene’ by Colonel R. J. Blackham, is a
valuable guide to things hygienic as is Professor Simpson’s ‘Maintenance
of Health in the Tropics.’

A few books may be mentioned as specially suitable for those travelling
in the countries with which they deal, such as ‘Hints for Residents and
Travellers in Persia’ by A. R. Neligan, ‘Health Preservation in West
Africa’ by J. C. Ryan, ‘Hygiene and Disease in Palestine’ by Masterman,
and ‘The Epidemics of Mauritius’ by Anderson.

Those who read German will find the ‘Gesundheitlicher Ratgeber für
Auswanderer,’ issued under the auspices of the Institut für Schiffs- und
Tropenkrankheiten in Hamburg, of considerable service, and if they intend
visiting South America it is worth noting that from the same source a
series of small books to guide the traveller in different parts of that
continent will soon be forthcoming. This series will also include works
on Mexico, Angola and Siberia. These German guides are obtainable from L.
Friederichsen & Co., Hamburg.

Persons who intend to travel should undergo a thorough medical
examination, in order to ascertain if they are likely to be able to stand
the fatigues, exposures and privations to which they will probably be
subjected.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM SHOWING SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF
THE BODY, AND THE COURSE OF THE MAIN BLOOD-VESSELS.]

Most people of good constitutions and regular temperate habits can, with
care, maintain a good state of health in the tropics, and many of those
who have been by no means strong at home are able with some extra caution
to do well even in the hottest climates.

The intending traveller should attend a course of ambulance lectures in
order to prepare himself for the responsibilities which he will have to
undertake. As much time as possible should be devoted to discussing with
some professional friend the uses, correct doses, and proper methods of
prescribing and combining the drugs which are to be taken on the journey,
and in becoming familiar with the position of the principal bones,
vessels and other important structures of the human body.

A traveller should understand how to use the clinical thermometer, how to
twist or tie a bleeding vessel, how to use the hypodermic syringe and the
syphon stomach tube. He should learn how to cleanse a wound, how to treat
a case of snake-bite, and should know the best way in which to set a
broken limb. Such things are not easily learnt from books, and experience
alone will give the necessary skill and confidence. Many valuable lives
have been saved by travellers who have fairly mastered the rudiments of
medical and surgical treatment, and who have been able in an emergency
to give the necessary drugs, administer an antidote, or to stop severe
bleeding.

The ideal traveller is a temperate man, with a sound constitution, a
digestion like an ostrich, a good temper, and no race prejudices. He is
capable of looking after details, _e.g._, seeing that drinking water has
_really_ been boiled, and is willing to take advice from those who have
made journeys in countries similar to the one in which he is about to
travel.

A traveller should be supplied with suitable housing, food and clothing,
and should have a proper supply of medicines, dressings, and medical
comforts.

In selecting the drugs with which the traveller should be provided before
leaving home care should be taken to see that only reliable products be
purchased. In the tropics, and in exploration generally, the medical
outfit is subjected to very severe tests, and it is a mistaken policy to
economise on medicines. The latter should be as portable as possible and
be properly packed.


_Risks to Health in a Tropical Climate._

Seeing that these hints will be chiefly required by travellers in
tropical or sub-tropical climates, it may be well to indicate some of
the chief risks which are to be met with in warm climates, and the best
methods of meeting them.

It will be noted that any detailed reference to questions of outfit, such
as the supply of proper food or clothing, is omitted, as these matters
have been fully dealt with in ‘Hints on Outfit,’ published by the Royal
Geographical Society uniformly with this ‘Hints to Travellers,’ and it is
understood that this work will be consulted by all who read these hints.

_Chill._—The most prominent feature of a tropical climate is undoubtedly
heat, and yet the greatest risk arises not so much from excessive
high temperature as from a risk of chill, which is due mainly to the
excessive perspiration which takes place. This must be guarded against
by the use of proper clothing, the most important point being that
the underclothing should be partly of absorbent material. For general
use cotton is best, and the vest or undershirt should in the tropics
be of the Aertex Cellular type. It is a mistake to wear wool next the
skin in hot countries, for it soon gets sodden with perspiration and
is irritating. A light flannel shirt worn over the open cotton mesh is
probably the best arrangement though a mixture of wool and cotton may be
employed for the shirting. This question is fully dealt with in ‘Hints
on Outfit.’ It is particularly important to avoid sudden changes of
temperature, and if exposed to the cooling sea breeze, special care must
be taken as to proper clothing. Parke laid great stress on the importance
of avoiding chills, draughts, or wettings. He remarked “In crossing
Equatorial Africa the Relief Expedition found that every wetting meant
an attack of fever.” The sea breeze, which is so refreshing and cool, by
checking the perspiration, frequently acts as the exciting cause of an
attack of fever. There is special liability to chill and subsequent fever
when ascending an eminence, as the exertion causes profuse perspiration,
and the cool breeze encountered on arrival at the top is very likely to
produce ill effects.

On completing a day’s journey, the underclothing, at least, should be
changed without delay, and the skin should be well dried by the free use
of a rough towel. If at all possible a warm bath should be taken.

The cummerbund is a useful article of clothing, especially for men in the
evening. It does away with the need for a waistcoat, which often proves
hot and uncomfortable, and yet provides the necessary safeguard against
chill to the abdominal organs.

A word as to the use of a flannel cholera belt, about which opinions
differ. Experience in many tropical countries leads the writer to
recommend its use at night, and at night only. Even so, it is unnecessary
and uncomfortable in places where the nights are invariably hot and
steamy, and is chiefly of value in dry, desert climates where there is a
great difference between the day and night temperatures.

_Effects of the Sun._—It is difficult to overestimate the importance of
the protection of the head from the direct rays of the sun. It is best,
where possible, to avoid going out in the heat of the day, but where this
is necessary the head should be protected by a suitable helmet, which
should be light in weight and colour, which should be ventilated, and
which should have a good protection for the back of the head. A large
green leaf inside the helmet might be an additional protection, and a
sun umbrella should also be used wherever practicable. A helmet should
as a rule be worn when going out during the day-time in the tropics.
Sometimes, however, the helmet is found very troublesome, as, for
example, by the sportsman in the bush. He may then have recourse to a
double Terai hat, or even to an ordinary wide-brimmed felt hat provided
he inserts a crumpled-up handkerchief in its crown. This will usually
afford a reasonable protection.

_Errors of Diet._—The lassitude which is often so much felt by Europeans
resident in the tropics too frequently tempts them to the abuse of
alcoholic stimulants and highly-spiced foods. The habit is a most
pernicious one, for such indulgence is one of the most fruitful causes
of the permanent ill-health so often wrongly attributed to the mere
residence in a hot climate. There is no doubt that food should be taken
with greater moderation in hot than in cold climates; heat-producing
articles of diet, such as fat, should be taken in far smaller quantity,
but an ample supply of vegetables is essential. The meals should never be
heavy, especially during the heat of the day, and intervals of about four
hours should always separate consecutive meals.

Cooking should always be conducted with great care in the tropics, for
the stomach and liver are less able to bear any extra strain, such as
would be induced by the attempt to digest imperfectly-cooked food.
Parasites are often introduced into the system by insufficiently cooked
food.

Natural milk must be boiled; condensed milk should be mixed with boiled
water.

Excess in the use of alcoholic stimulants is one of the most fatal errors
into which the tropical resident can fall, and their habitual use as
beverages is totally unnecessary, tea, coffee and cocoa being the best
beverages for ordinary use. A small supply of brandy, champagne, and port
wine may be of service in certain cases of illness, but they are better
regarded as belonging strictly to the medical equipment.

Avoid native drinks, as they will probably have been diluted with dirty
water, or prepared in unclean vessels.

Great moderation in the use of alcohol is quite as necessary in arctic as
in tropical climates. In the latter no alcohol should be taken till the
sun has set, and even then the quantity should be strictly limited. There
is no reason why a glass of light beer, a whisky and soda, or a little
light wine should not be drunk with the evening meal. Alcohol taken at
this time often promotes appetite and aids digestion, but alcohol between
meals is bad, chiefly perhaps because the habit of exceeding the daily
allowance is thereby apt to be engendered. It is largely a question of
self-control, and it must be remembered that in the tropics self-control,
so far as drinks are concerned, is very apt to weaken. Apart from the
question of its habitual use alcohol is often of great service as a
restorative, as, for example, after a fatiguing march, and especially if
one has got wet and chilled. Champagne is possibly the best form to take
on such occasions and it should be used as an apéritif or drunk along
with food.

_Risks due to Drinking Water._—The use of water for drinking purposes
must be attended with great care in all tropical climates. As the water
of the lakes, streams and pools of these countries usually contains
a large proportion of impurities, and the germs or parasites of many
diseases, it should be strained and subsequently boiled before being used.

As, however, it is not always possible or convenient to incur the delay
of boiling the drinking water and allowing it to cool, it is advisable
that a _reliable_ filter should be taken.

Most filters—charcoal or otherwise—are merely death-traps, as the
accumulation of germs and injurious matter within the filtering substance
soon renders the water more dangerous than if unfiltered. There are,
however, a few filters which, with ordinary care in cleansing, are in
themselves efficient safeguards. The most highly recommended of these
are the Pasteur Chamberland and the Doulton filters. In any case, spare
filtering candles should be taken, and these should be cleaned and boiled
at least every three days. It is recommended that the filter-makers
should be consulted immediately the probable requirements of any
expedition are known. It should be remembered that no filter combines
rapid delivery of water with efficient sterilization. A mistake commonly
made is to boil water and then filter it. This should never be done.

The drinking of very cold water, to which there is great temptation when
one is exhausted by prolonged heat and copious perspiration, should
be carefully avoided; thirst often induces tropical residents to have
recourse to iced water, which is always apt to be dangerous if taken
when one is heated. The drinking of copious draughts of water is also a
habit to be deprecated; it certainly weakens the muscular energy, and as
the water is rapidly lost by perspiration, the feeling of exhaustion is
increased. Hot or cold weak tea, without milk or sugar, is one of the
least injurious of all beverages.


_Precautions on the Voyage._

The traveller should endeavour to land in a perfectly healthy condition,
and to this end he should on the voyage out take plenty of exercise,
drink little or no alcohol, be moderate as to diet, and avoid much meat
and rich dishes. Neglect of these obvious rules frequently ends in the
traveller arriving in a flabby, bilious condition, in which state he is
predisposed to attacks of malaria, dysentery, and other diseases.

Constipation is frequent at sea, and a seidlitz powder, a dose of fruit
salt, or one or two cascara tabloids may be necessary. If constipation is
severe, then one or two four-grain blue pills should be taken at bedtime,
followed in the early morning by a seidlitz powder or some other saline
aperient.

In order to avoid chill the traveller should be properly clothed during
the evening or when there is a cool breeze, and should not stand in
draughty doorways and passages on board. If he is proceeding to a country
where there is endemic malaria he should begin his course of prophylactic
quinine on ship-board, because even a single night spent ashore in
a malarious locality may result in his acquiring infection. It is
therefore advisable to begin taking quinine in the manner described on p.
207 at least two days before arrival at the place of disembarkation.

What is true of the journey out is of even greater importance on the
voyage home. There is a serious danger of illness owing to chills
contracted on board ship when leaving a hot climate. Quinine should be
systematically taken as recommended on p. 208.


GENERAL HINTS.

_Never take a cold bath in the Tropics unless ordered to do so by a
doctor._—In the case of persons who have already suffered from many
attacks of fever, dysentery, or any disease of the liver or other
important organs, warm bathing should alone be used. Bathing should
never be resorted to during the period of digestion, _i.e._, three to
four hours after meals. Wear warm clothes at night. Avoid the direct
rays of the sun. Do not take too much animal food. Never begin work on
an empty stomach. Never neglect a slight attack of fever or diarrhœa.
Keep the bowels gently opened—once a day is quite enough—but avoid strong
purgatives.


_Vaccination._

It is essential that all the members of an expedition should be
re-vaccinated if they have not suffered from small-pox or been vaccinated
within two years. A proper supply of vaccine should be carried on the
journey. Heat and bright sunlight are very detrimental to vaccine lymph.
Hence the proper transport of such lymph in hot climates is a matter of
great importance and by no means always easy to arrange. Where a thermos
flask is available it may be used for storing and carrying the capillary
tubes, or they may be wrapped up in green leaves and inserted into a
hollow bamboo, the ends of which are closed with cotton wool.


_Inoculation._

Owing to the prevalence of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers in hot
countries it is essential that all persons, and more especially young
adults, proceeding to tropical countries should undergo preventive
inoculation. Two injections of the so-called triple vaccine, at ten days’
interval, are necessary, and both should be given shortly before leaving
or, if arrangements can be made, one or both may be given on ship-board.


_Isolation._

On the outbreak of an infectious complaint, such as small-pox (which is
very common amongst negro carriers), the sufferer should be promptly
isolated, and one or more attendants should take charge of the case and
not be allowed to come to camp. It is wise to select as attendants those
who have either had the disease, or who are protected (as by vaccination)
against it.

In Nigeria it was found most convenient to build grass huts, which were
burnt to the ground, together with the clothing and bedding of the
patient and attendants, on the termination of the outbreak.

All vessels which are not destroyed must be boiled thoroughly. The
motions, etc., of patients suffering from typhoid fever, cholera and
dysentery should be disinfected, preferably by boiling, or, better still,
destroyed by fire.


_Transmission of Infection._

The traveller should remember that of late years the rôle of the healthy
human “carrier” in the transmission of many communicable diseases has
been established. This is true of such diseases as enteric fever and
cholera, and when engaging servants, porters, and camp followers it is
important to inquire into their previous history and, if necessary, to
make certain that they do not harbour the specific organisms of such
diseases.


DISEASES AND THEIR PREVENTION AND TREATMENT.

In the tropics, as elsewhere, the diseases to which the traveller is
liable are due to widely differing causes, but in hot countries climatic
conditions and parasites play a predominant part. Insects are very
frequently to blame for the transference of the latter from the sick
to the sound, both insects which are not themselves parasitic on man,
_e.g._, the mosquito and the tsetse fly, and those which make man their
host, _e.g._, lice and fleas.

It is useful for the traveller to bear diseases in mind from the
standpoint of their etiology, as in this way he can more readily grasp
the measures necessary for their prevention.

Accordingly, the following classification is given, merely as a guide,
together with a few examples. The diseases themselves, for the sake
of convenience of reference, are grouped alphabetically and are not
classified in any way.


_Table of Diseases Classed according to Etiology._


A.—_Parasitic._

(i.) Due to “contact” either direct or through the agency of clothes,
bedding, etc. Also due to direct inoculation through the skin or mucous
membrane.

_Examples_: Many skin diseases, venereal diseases, small-pox, tetanus,
and blood-poisoning (septicæmia).

(ii.) Due to “mouth to mouth” infection, through the agency of so-called
“droplet” infection, expectoration, coughing, sneezing, etc.

_Examples_: Influenza, pneumonia, and pneumonic plague.

(iii.) Due to “droplet” infection, as above, or to infected scales from
the skin, or to infected discharges from the nose, throat, or ear.

_Examples_: Measles, scarlet fever, small-pox, chicken-pox, diphtheria.

(iv.) Due to excremental infection through the agency of water, food,
flies, fingers, dust, and soil.

_Examples_: Enteric (typhoid) fever, dysentery, diarrhœa, cholera, worm
infections of many kinds.

(v.) Due to inoculation through the bites of insects, or the entry
through skin abrasions of the infected excreta or infected crushed
tissues of insects rubbed or scratched into these lesions.

_Examples_: Malaria, yellow fever, tick fever, sleeping sickness,
filariasis, relapsing fever, typhus fever, bubonic plague.

(vi.) Due to invasion of the body by insects in their adult or larval
stages.

_Examples_: Chigger, myiasis of various kinds.


B.—_Non-Parasitic._

(i.) Due to climatic conditions.

_Examples_: Heat stroke, diarrhœa in some instances, constipation in many
cases, rheumatism, prickly heat, chilblains.

(ii.) Due to errors in diet.

_Examples_: Diarrhœa, beri-beri, scurvy, sprue(?).

(iii.) Due to poisons.

_Examples_: Scorpion sting, snake-bite, vegetable poisons.

(iv.) Miscellaneous.

_Examples_: Bed-sores, epilepsy, apoplexy, concussion of the brain, hay
fever, and other conditions into the cause of which a mechanical element
frequently enters.

It will be seen that some of these diseases, such as small-pox and
diarrhœa, come under more than one heading, but this does not detract
from the general utility of the above classification.


_Bed-sore._

When a patient is confined to his bed for a long time it is necessary
to support the lower part of the back on something soft, such as a pad
of wool, or an extra pillow, in order to prevent the formation of a
bed-sore; pillows should also be placed under the hips and heels.

To harden the skin it is well to rub it with alcohol or to treat it with
oil or white of an egg three parts, and spirits one part; zinc ointment
is also useful for this purpose.

Besides pressure, the most frequent cause of bed-sores is constant
moisture from the passage of urine and motions and consequent damping of
the sheets. Great care must be taken to thoroughly dry the back after any
evacuation; the lower part of the back should be dusted with a powder of
boric acid and zinc oxide.

If a bed-sore is present the patient should lie on a circular pad with a
hole in the middle, to take pressure off the bed-sore. The sore should
be thoroughly cleaned twice a day with some antiseptic lotion, such as
chinosol or permanganate, and subsequently dressed with zinc ointment or
vaseline.

If the bed-sore is on the back, the patient should lie if possible on
each side alternately, to relieve the pressure.


_Beri-beri._

In most cases this is a disease due to some deficiency in the dietary,
which leads to a form of what is called peripheral neuritis. The name is
possibly derived from a Cingalese word signifying “I cannot.”

_Symptoms._—Weakness of the legs and digestive troubles, abnormal
sensations in the legs, frequently associated with swelling. The gait
alters, and the arms and fingers may be affected. The condition is one of
spreading paralysis, and in bad cases the heart is affected. In so-called
wet beri-beri the patient becomes bloated as in dropsy, while in dry
beri-beri he wastes away until he is little better than a skeleton. There
is a “squatting test” which may enable one to recognize the disease at
an early stage. The patient, with his hands on the top of his head, is
unable to assume a squatting position and to rise from it unaided. If he
is squatting and has to rise he accomplishes the act by climbing, as it
were, up his own legs.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid overcrowding, as this seems in some cases to
predispose to the disease. Give the yeast extract known as “Marmite,”
which is supplied in small cubes one-quarter ounce in weight. One
should be taken twice a week, either alone or with bread or biscuit, or
dissolved in warm water in the form of a soup. Lentils, other legumes,
and oatmeal are useful. Eggs and fresh meat, when obtainable, are very
valuable.

_Treatment._—This is chiefly dietetic. Give yeast, two ounces daily,
along with milk and sugar, or marmite in one-cube doses twice a day. Eggs
are specially useful, while fresh milk, legumes, and nourishing soups are
all indicated. Only small quantities of food should be given at a time.
Rest in bed is very important, and the patient must be careful when he
is allowed to get up owing to the danger of heart failure. Tonics are
required during convalescence.


_Blackwater Fever._

Blackwater fever is probably a pernicious complication of malarial
fever, and derives its name from the colour of the urine. It must be
remembered that dark-coloured urine is usual in all fevers; it is scanty
during the height of the fever, especially if there is much sweating.
If, however, it is obviously “bloody,” the case is more grave, but as a
rule it is only men broken down in health, and those who have resided in
blackwater countries, _e.g._, Tropical Africa, parts of India, the West
Indies, etc., for at least a year, especially those who have taken their
prophylactic quinine irregularly, who suffer from this complication.

The reason for the occurrence of this condition is not fully known. Some
have ascribed the symptoms entirely to the taking of quinine, but as the
fever often occurs where no quinine has been given this is impossible. At
the same time it appears likely that in certain cases of malaria, owing
perhaps to some idiosyncrasy, quinine may help to bring on the symptoms.
It is possible that chill occurring during the course of a fever may lead
to the production of blackwater fever. Those who have had one attack are
particularly liable to a recurrence, and after two consecutive attacks
return to a temperate climate is required.

_Symptoms._—In addition to the ordinary symptoms of malarial fever, the
urine is dark, blood-like, and eventually porter-coloured; it is often
scanty, and may become entirely suppressed. The skin is yellow, often
a bright orange, there is frequent vomiting, often hiccough, and the
vomited matter is usually of a green colour.

_Prophylaxis._—With our present knowledge all that can be said is that
malaria prophylaxis is also the method to prevent blackwater. Such
prophylaxis, so far as quinine is concerned, must be properly carried
out. Those who take quinine regularly, and in sufficient doses, do not
contract blackwater fever. Chill and excesses of all kinds must be
avoided.

_Treatment._—Much the same treatment should be adopted as that fully
described later for malaria. It is especially important to give an
aperient at the beginning, and perhaps five grains of calomel is the best
form. In every case, no matter how slight, it is essential to ensure,
wherever possible, absolute rest in bed and skilled and careful nursing.
If it can possibly be avoided a blackwater patient should never be moved
from the place where he is taken ill. So long as he has a bed to lie on,
a roof to cover him, and some sensible person to look after him who will
carry out the doctor’s orders, he should be treated on the spot. It is
better, when it can be arranged, for the nurse to go to the patient than
for the patient to come to the nurse.

The chief aim should be to support the strength by fluid nourishment, and
to secure free action of the kidneys. The former should be maintained
by fluid nourishment given in small quantities at frequent intervals,
such as milk, Plasmon, Benger’s food, Allenbury’s foods, invalid Bovril,
Brand’s fever food, or Brand’s essence, Maggi’s consommé. A little
Plasmon added to any of the meat preparations would be useful, while
raisin tea is a valuable preparation.

In order to maintain free action of the kidneys, plenty of fluid should
be given, such as barley-water made from Robinson’s prepared barley,
flavoured slightly with lime-juice or lemons. Weak tea is useful.

Diuretics which stimulate the kidneys must be avoided. The most effective
method of flushing the kidneys is by giving saline injections by the
bowel, but these, as a rule, can be administered only by a medical man
or by a trained nurse under a doctor’s supervision. It may, however, be
stated that the amount usually given is six ounces of physiological salt
solution (seven and a half grains of sodium chloride to the ounce of warm
water). This is administered every hour, or even oftener, if necessary,
in bad cases. In mild cases enemata every four or six hours will suffice.
Other measures are the application of poultices or hot fomentations to
the loins when suppression threatens, or when there is severe lumbar
pain. Diaphoretics, so long as they do not depress the heart, are useful,
and so is frequent sponging. Cold applications to the head and especially
behind the ears alleviate headache.

The question of giving or of withholding quinine is an important one, but
recent work on the subject indicates that in the absence of a medical man
who can carry out blood examinations, it is advisable to give quinine as
in the case of malaria.

Vomiting is often a serious complication, and the directions for its
treatment, given under the head of malaria, should be carefully followed.
If it cannot be speedily checked, feeding by the bowel must be carried
out. _See_ Nutrient Enema, p. 259.

So long as plenty of urine is passed and sufficient nourishment is taken
there is little cause for anxiety, though wherever possible skilled
assistance should be obtained at the earliest opportunity.

After an attack the patient is very weak and anæmic. He requires careful
feeding and tonics, especially iron and arsenic. It is advisable that he
should be invalided out of the endemic area, and he should be specially
warned as to the danger of getting chilled or wet.


_Bronchitis, or Inflammation of the Branches of the Windpipe._

_Symptoms._—When bronchitis exists, there is a good deal of coughing—at
first dry, but afterwards accompanied by frothy expectoration—with a
sensation of rawness and tenderness at the upper part of the breastbone.

_Treatment._—In the early stages of this condition, opium in some form or
other will be found beneficial, and will often cut short an attack; for
this purpose, ten grains of Dover’s powder, or fifteen to twenty minims
of chlorodyne, may be given every eight hours for twenty-four hours, and
then be gradually diminished.

If the breathing is difficult, poultices should be applied to the chest
and ipecacuanha, half to two grains, and ammonia, should be given three
times a day. Later, stimulating expectorants, such as ammonium carbonate,
should be administered.

Inhalation of steam often gives great relief; and the effect is much
improved if thirty drops of Friar’s balsam are added to a pint of hot
water.

In tropical climates even an ordinary feverish cold very often tends to
become malarial in character, therefore the use of quinine, in addition
to the other treatment, is usually desirable, and five grains may be
given thrice a day.


_Burns and Scalds._

Where an extensive burn or scald has occurred, the clothing of the
injured part should be removed by cutting, so as to cause as little
irritation as possible. If the burn is only slight, the surface may be
covered over with lint smeared with zinc or boric ointment, or oil. If
there is much blistering, or the surface is charred, the skin should
be cleaned up as well as possible with boric acid lotion, and hot
fomentations of the same applied for twenty-four hours. After this, the
burn may be dressed twice a day with boric ointment spread on lint. Great
cleanliness is an important factor in the successful treatment of burns.
In a severe burn, stimulants must be given, and the patient put to bed
with hot-water bottles, and active treatment of the burn should be left
till the patient has somewhat recovered from the shock.

When there is great pain, chlorodyne or laudanum in full doses will be
required.


_Cerebro-Spinal Fever._

This disease, also known as “spotted fever,” is of special importance at
the present time to the traveller in Central Africa, where it is very
prevalent amongst the natives, especially in Uganda. It may, however,
be encountered in all parts of the world, and in the tropics is very
frequently a malady of the dusty months.

_Causes._—The disease is very often transmitted from some carrier of
the causative organism, which occurs in the throat and nose, and is
distributed by coughing, spitting, or sneezing. Infected material, such
as handkerchiefs, may play a part, and the spread of the disease is
greatly favoured by overcrowding, especially of sleeping quarters.

_Symptoms._—In very acute cases the onset may be very sudden, the patient
rapidly losing consciousness. As a rule the disease begins with headache,
stiffness of the neck and chilly sensations. There may be vomiting, and
the temperature is raised. The mind is often confused, and the patient
may be delirious. The skin eruption, which occurs especially on the back
and about the joints, and which is responsible for the name “spotted
fever,” is not very frequently seen, and can hardly ever be detected
on a dark skin. In very bad cases there is violent delirium, laboured
breathing, and a purulent discharge from the nostrils. One of the most
characteristic features is retraction of the head, while a dislike to
light is common.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid unnecessary fatigue and guard against overcrowding,
faulty conditions of ventilation and those which tend to cause
naso-pharyngeal catarrh. Persons who have been in contact with cases of
the disease are probably well advised to wash out their noses with a
dilute solution of permanganate of potash 1 in 1,000.

_Treatment._—In the absence of a medical man this can merely be
symptomatic. Hot baths relieve pain and restlessness. Ice to the head,
antipyrin, caffeine or aspirin relieve headache, and sedatives may be
given for the insomnia and delirium. The patient’s mouth is foul, and
should be carefully swabbed and kept clean.


_Chicken-Pox._

In the tropics this disease is very largely one of adults.

Incubation period, a fortnight to three weeks. Rash appears first day.

_Rash._—Pink spots, upon which blebs form after twelve to twenty-four
hours. The blebs are at first transparent, but subsequently become
yellowish, and after two to three days shrivel and separate, leaving a
pink scar.

The symptoms are usually very mild, perhaps only slight fever, and
possibly headache. The appearance of the rash is often the first symptom.

_Treatment._—Isolation, and light diet. Bed may not be necessary.


_Chilblains and Frostbite._

Chilblains are usually found on the fingers or toes—after exposure
to severe cold—especially when tight gloves or boots have been worn.
Certainly the best way to promote the formation of chilblains is to
toast the semi-frozen fingers or toes at a fire or stove, before the
circulation has been re-established.

When chilblains are threatened, the part should be well rubbed with snow,
or with camphorated spirit. Sponging with hot vinegar is very effective.
Chilblains are checked in the early stages by painting with tincture
of iodine. Once they have developed a preparation containing carbolic
acid is useful in allaying pain and causing them to disappear. Ulcerated
chilblains should be dressed with boric ointment spread on lint.

Prolonged exposure to intense cold leads to development of frostbite. If
the case is a bad one, or injudiciously treated, gangrene or death of the
part always follows; if this is extensive, amputation may be necessary.

Frostbite should be treated first by vigorous friction with snow or
pounded ice. The affected parts should then be well wrapped with cloths
wet with cold water. It is extremely dangerous to bring them near a fire.
Afterwards, the part should be wrapped in cotton-wool.


_Cholera._

Cholera is a serious acute disease, characterised by frequent watery
motions, vomiting, cramp and collapse.

_Cause._—It is often contracted by drinking contaminated water.

Research has shown the importance of the cholera “carrier,” that is to
say the person, usually a native, who harbours in his bowel the specific
organism of the disease. He may be perfectly healthy and yet be able to
transmit cholera to other people by infecting water or food. The rôle of
flies, infected clothes and rags, and faulty conservancy methods must be
kept in mind.

_Symptoms._—Giddiness, faintness, persistent vomiting and diarrhœa, great
prostration, feeble pulse, cold perspiration, colic, intense thirst, and
constant desire to pass urine. The vomit and motions rapidly become like
rice-water in appearance, and the urine is more or less suppressed. There
are severe cramps in the legs, belly, and other parts of the body. If
then the pulse becomes weak, the temperature low, and the countenance
dusky, the patient will probably sink. On the other hand, reaction may
set in, all the symptoms abating, and the pulse, temperature, and colour
becoming natural; the water is passed more freely, vomiting is less
frequent, and the motions become more natural in colour.

_Prophylaxis._—Anti-choleraic inoculations are now practised. They not
only afford a considerable degree of protection but lessen the risk of
a fatal issue in the inoculated. Hence it is advisable to be vaccinated
against cholera whenever there is risk of infection. The inoculation
must be repeated after the lapse of four months if the epidemic still
persists, as the protection afforded is only temporary. Persons
travelling in regions where cholera is present in an endemic form should
take a little lactic acid in tea, or add a little vinegar or thirty drops
of dilute hydrochloric acid to every ounce of drinking water.

At times of epidemic prevalence it is essential that all water should be
boiled. The practice of hand-shaking should be discouraged, indigestible
diet should be avoided, and raw fruit, raw vegetables, and meat jellies
should not be eaten. Lettuces and celery, being moist and eaten uncooked,
are specially dangerous. Patients and contact cases must be isolated,
and the former should be protected from flies. It is very necessary to
maintain a strict supervision of cooks and cooking arrangements. All
kitchen cloths should be washed in permanganate solution or boiled. Milk
should always be boiled.

Cholera stools may be disinfected by adding a five per cent. cresol
solution to them and allowing it to remain in contact with the stool for
at least one hour. Quicklime is excellent as a disinfectant. Add together
equal parts of fresh quicklime and water, dilute with three times as much
water as previously used, add a quantity of this slaked lime equal to the
amount of stool to be disinfected and allow it to remain in contact with
the stool for one hour. When the ground has been fouled by dejecta or
vomit, disinfect with cresol, or rake hot ashes over it or pour kerosene
oil upon it and set the latter alight. Cholera-soiled clothing, bed
linen and blankets should be soaked in a two and a half per cent. cresol
solution.

_Treatment._—Isolate the patient, keep him warm, and give ice to suck.
Apply hot bottle to the feet, and mustard leaves to the pit of the
stomach.

It is advisable to clear the bowel of irritating material at the outset
by giving half an ounce of castor oil with a teaspoonful of brandy. Drugs
are of little use in cholera, but some like to give one drop of carbolic
acid, together with twenty drops of spirit of camphor (or peppermint,
or a little brandy), five grains of bismuth, and ten grains of soda,
suspended in one ounce of gum water, every four hours. Chlorodyne may be
given to allay severe pain.

Even in the mildest cases absolute rest in bed is essential, and a warm
bed-pan should be provided.

In the early stages no food at all should be given, but plenty of
fluid should be allowed, though it must be administered only in sips.
Stimulants may be necessary. Later on fluid food such as milk should be
given carefully, and the quantity gradually increased.

The special treatment for cholera can only be carried out by a medical
man, and recourse should be had to his help at the earliest possible
moment, as everything depends upon immediate treatment. If, after the
acute symptoms subside, diarrhœa continues a dose of bismuth is often
useful.


_Colic._

This is the name given to the well-known severe twisting or griping pains
in the belly, usually due to excessive flatulence, and resulting from
constipation, or some error of diet.

_Treatment._—Hot fomentations should be applied to the belly, or better
still, the Instra, which is the best means of applying continuous heat
to any part of the body. A turpentine enema (a tablespoonful to a pint
of warm water) will nearly always cut short the symptoms; in the absence
of turpentine, give warm water alone. A full dose of opium (20 minims)
should also be given if the pain is severe, preferably in a tablespoonful
of castor oil.

Bicarbonate of soda, carbonate of ammonia and ginger should be freely
given in full doses, and the bowels should be well opened as soon as the
severe pain has passed off.


_Concussion of the Brain._

This term is applied to the partial suspension of the functions of the
brain, produced by the severe shaking of its substance by a fall or blow.

_Symptoms._—At first the patient lies in an unconscious condition,
skin cold and clammy, pulse and breathing very feeble, and temperature
extremely low; he can be slightly roused by shouting; he cries out if he
is moved, or when painful applications are made, but quickly relapses
into insensibility. The stage of unconsciousness may pass off almost at
once, it may be prolonged for hours or days, or the patient may never
recover from it. The second stage—that of reaction—is marked by returning
consciousness and frequently by vomiting, the skin becomes warm, and
gradually the patient recovers; on the other hand, inflammation of the
brain may set in, or he may again become unconscious and die.

_Treatment._—Keep the patient perfectly quiet in bed, in a darkened
room, give a milk diet, and if he is much excited, apply cold cloths or
an ice-bag to the head. If there is much prostration apply a hot-water
bottle, and restore the circulation by rubbing the limbs. When reaction
sets in, give five grains of calomel.

Stimulants should be avoided in cases of concussion of the brain,
unless the collapse is very alarming (when ammonia should be given),
as they tend to cause too violent reaction, which might be followed by
inflammation of the brain and its coverings.


_Constipation._

This condition is very frequent in tropical climates, where it is
associated with sluggishness of the liver. One of the best remedies is
the two-grain tablet of cascara, of which one may be taken three times
a day. Rhubarb is also a very useful drug. In addition to this, an
occasional dose of a saline purge should be used, or a large enema of
soap and water may be given. Five grains of blue pill or three grains of
calomel will be found to act as a very efficient aperient, especially if
followed in about six hours by a saline such as fruit salt. Castor oil
is a valuable remedy, but it must be remembered that in the tropics its
effects are sometimes rather severely felt, and hence it is well to give
it in somewhat smaller doses than those usually employed in temperate
climates. Three-quarters of an ounce may be given where an ounce would
otherwise be employed.

As a rule, the general health of people suffering from simple
constipation is not seriously affected.

In cases of chronic constipation one of the anti-constipation products,
otherwise known as the Aloin Co., given three times a day and gradually
reduced, will be found useful.

In most acute diseases, such as malaria, pneumonia, etc., if constipation
is present, it should be treated at once by means of suitable aperients.

_Note._—In peritonitis, _i.e._, inflammation of the bowels, hernia, and
in some cases of typhoid, constipation is a leading symptom, and is
accompanied by severe pain in the belly. On no account should an aperient
be given by the mouth in these cases. If it is necessary to clear the
bowels, this should be done by means of an enema.


_Coryza, or Cold in the Head._

When a cold is confined to the head it can usually be cut short by
retiring to bed early, taking a ten-grain dose of Dover’s powder,
followed by hot drinks to encourage the perspiration which the action
of this drug produces, together with the use of as many additional
bed-clothes as can be borne. Care must be taken to avoid chill on the
following morning. Once it is established the condition is difficult to
cure, but marked relief will often be afforded by washing out the nose
with a solution made from naso-pharyngeal products. In fact, a simple
nasal glass douche should form part of the traveller’s outfit, at least,
if he is liable to bad colds in the head. In tropical regions five grains
of quinine should be added to the dose of Dover’s powder. When there
is a liability to colds in the head the use of preventive vaccines is
recommended, but these should not be employed without the advice of a
medical man.


_Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder._

_Causes._—Injury or the result of operations, extension of inflammations
such as gonorrhœa, retention and decomposition of urine; debilitated or
gouty persons are especially liable to this affection.

_Symptoms._—Intense pain in the lower part of the belly, and in the
crutch, continual desire to pass water, with frequent passage of small
quantities. The urine is scanty, high-coloured, foul-smelling, and
occasionally blood-stained, and there may be some fever.

_Treatment._—Hot baths, leeches, or fomentations to the crutch, and
a sedative, such as opium (preferably given by the bowel), will be
required. If the disease continues the bladder should be washed out
through a catheter with weak boric acid solution, five grains to the
ounce, or chinosol (1 in 2000), twice a day. Urotropin, ten grains, and
copaiba or sandal-wood oil in ten-drop doses.

The diet should be restricted to milk.


_Dengue._

This disease, also known as dandy fever and break-bone fever, occurs in
many parts of the world, and it is most common along littorals, probably
because the Stegomyia mosquito which carries the infection is usually
numerous in sea-coast places.

_Cause._—The organism of dengue fever is unknown, but the infection has
been proved to be carried by at least one species of mosquito.

_Symptoms._—The incubation period varies from about five to ten days. The
onset is very sudden, the temperature rising rapidly. Within an hour or
two an initial rash appears, which varies in appearance and is transient.
The patient suffers from severe headache and pain in the joints and back.
Indeed, the condition closely resembles a sharp attack of influenza, but,
as a rule, there are no signs of coryza. The eyes are very painful and
insomnia is present. The high temperature lasts for three or four days,
then drops, continues low from twelve hours to three days and rises again
sharply. During the interval the patient feels better but the symptoms
start again when the temperature rises for the second time. In the second
stage the true rash of dengue appears, which is rather like that of
measles, and it is followed by desquamation of the skin. The disease,
though often causing great weakness, is very rarely fatal.

_Prophylaxis._—Protect against mosquito bites by using a proper mosquito
net or by employing mosquito repellents such as “sketofax.”

_Treatment._—Light diet, rest in bed, phenacetin and aspirin for the
relief of pain and headache. Cold sponging helps the febrile condition
and the insomnia. During convalescence there is often much depression,
and the patient benefits by being ordered tonics and a sound wine.


_Diarrhœa._

Diarrhœa, or looseness of the bowels, is one of the most common and
one of the most serious ailments of the tropics, and should never be
neglected. In many cases it is a sign of enteric fever, dysentery,
cholera, or sprue, the symptoms of which are given below. Ordinary
attacks are usually due to the presence of some irritant in the bowels,
such as irritating sand, bad food, unripe fruit, or other poisonous
material. Amongst African and other natives diarrhœa is often due to a
faulty or ill-cooked dietary. The importance of flies in fouling food
should not be overlooked.

_Treatment._—Begin the treatment by administering castor oil, fruit salt,
cascara, or other mild aperient, to clear out the cause of the diarrhœa.
If castor oil is used the following note as to its administration is
likely to be of service. Place an ounce of brandy in a glass or cup.
Carefully pour the oil into the centre of the brandy and then add one
ounce of water. The mass of oil will then resemble the yolk of an
egg enclosed in the white. Lime juice may be used instead of brandy.
Failing these, black coffee helps to cover the taste and “feel” of the
oil. Sometimes three grains of calomel with fifteen grains of sodium
bicarbonate act better than castor oil. A warm-water enema of about a
pint is useful.

If the diarrhœa continues, give chlorodyne (20 minims) and tincture of
ginger (10 minims) in an ounce of water two or three times a day.

This treatment should not be persisted in for more than two days.

If the diarrhœa is persistent, an astringent is needed: five grains of
tannin, or two or three grains of sulphate of iron may be given three
times a day. Ten grains of quinine should be given each day.

All food should be semi-solid and tepid; milk diet, as recommended below
for enteric fever, is the safest food, but soup thickened with rice or
arrowroot is good. The patient should keep in bed and wear a flannel band
round the belly. Sometimes in the tropics, as the result of excessive
purgation, diarrhœa is very acute and may be alarming. In such cases a
hot bath, stimulants and the administration of astringents are indicated.

If the trouble continues for more than a few days it is probably due to
dysentery, or typhoid.


_Diphtheria._

Diphtheria is an acute infectious disease, the essential feature of which
is a peculiar inflammation of the lining membrane of the mouth, nose,
throat, and windpipe, characterised by the formation of a membrane upon
the inflamed surface. Diphtheria occurs in the tropics but happily does
not spread much in hot countries.

_Causes._—It may be contracted from some person suffering from the
disease, from a healthy “carrier” harbouring the specific micro-organism
(_Bacillus diphtheriæ_) in his throat or nose, or from infected milk, etc.

As the disease is a very grave one, and skilled treatment is often an
absolute necessity, measures should be immediately taken to summon
medical assistance on the first appearance of diphtheria, or the patient
should be sent as speedily as possible to a place where medical aid is
likely to be obtained; for if the breathing becomes so difficult that the
patient gets blue in the face, an operation for opening the windpipe will
be necessary.

Incubation period, two to six days or even longer.

_Symptoms._—Headache, discomfort, loss of appetite, sore throat, and
sickness, with swelling of the glands at the angle of the jaw. On
examination the palate and tonsils are seen to be swollen, with a white
deposit of membrane upon the surface. The membrane may be thick and
tough, and if stripped off will leave numerous small bleeding points.

The temperature may run up, and is irregular in type. The pulse is rapid
and feeble, and the bodily strength is quickly lost.

If the nose be affected there is copious discharge from the nostrils,
with difficulty of breathing and much discomfort. If the windpipe is
affected the voice will become hoarse or absent, and there will be
greater difficulty in breathing, accompanied by a loud crowing noise.

Diphtheria may be accompanied by cough and pneumonia.

_Treatment._—Isolation. Bed. If diphtheria anti-toxin is obtainable, it
should be administered at the earliest opportunity, but this should only
be carried out by a doctor.

Nourishing foods and stimulants should be given frequently in small
quantities. The throat should be thoroughly and frequently washed out
with chinosol (1 in 1000) or other antiseptic lotion. If the difficulty
in breathing is marked, warm baths should be given at intervals of about
four hours. A steam kettle should be placed near the bed. The expulsion
of the membrane may often be aided and great relief afforded by the
administration of emetics, such as ipecacuanha, but these must be given
with care owing to the risk of heart failure.

_Complications._—Diphtheria may be followed by paralysis of the windpipe
with loss of voice, or paralysis of other parts of the body, therefore
great care should be taken not to allow convalescents to get up too soon,
no matter how well they may appear.


_Dysentery._

This disease, which is due to an inflammatory condition limited as a rule
to the lower or large bowel, may be the result of a variety of causes,
but there are two chief types which must be clearly distinguished: (1)
Amœbic dysentery, due to a protozoon or animal organism, (2) Bacillary
dysentery, caused by certain micro-organisms belonging to the vegetable
world.

Amœbic dysentery is much more of a tropical complaint than is bacillary
dysentery, but the latter is also common both in tropical and temperate
climates. Both forms are transmitted in much the same way and their
symptoms are very similar. Hence from the layman’s point of view no good
purpose is served by considering them separately, at least so far as
methods of transmission and symptoms go. The treatment of the two forms,
however, differs, and to carry out such treatment effectively medical
skill is required.

_Causes._—Dysentery is conveyed by impure drinking water, contaminated
food, infected flies, and possibly also by infected dust. In both forms,
but especially in the amœbic variety, the so-called “carrier” plays an
important part, because in the latter case the organism produces cysts
which are passed by the bowel, and these cysts are frequently found in
the dejecta of persons who have suffered from amœbic dysentery and who
are either convalescent or possibly in quite good health. If these cysts
find their way into food or water and are then swallowed they are capable
of developing in the human intestine and producing dysentery. Carriers
are also met with in the bacillary form of the disease. Dysentery may be
provoked by chills, general debility and exhausting conditions, such as
chronic malaria.

_Symptoms._—Diarrhœa with pains in the belly, straining and frequent
desire to go to stool. The motions soon become small in amount, slimy,
lose their natural colour, and contain more or less blood; when there
is ulceration of the coats of the bowel, the motions are extremely
offensive, and bleeding may be very free. There is heat, tenderness, and
bearing down about the outlet of the bowel, with considerable prostration
and probably some fever; there is frequently a constant desire to pass
water. All these symptoms may be due to severe ordinary diarrhœa; but
in the tropics it is best to treat them as if they were dysenteric.
Some guide may be obtained as to the form of dysentery from which the
patient is suffering by taking his temperature. As a rule there is little
or no fever associated with the amœbic form, while in the case of the
bacillary type the temperature is always raised and in severe cases may
be considerably elevated. It is in this form that the small intestine is
apt to become involved and then the condition is more serious.

One help in diagnosis, though not a very reliable one, is the character
of the stool. In amœbic dysentery the blood is apt to be mixed with the
dejecta and to be dark in colour, while the whole mass looks brown or
greyish green. The stool of bacillary dysentery, on the other hand, has
a whitish appearance, the blood in it is bright coloured and is often in
the form of streaks or spots. The amœbic form is apt, if not promptly and
efficiently treated, to be followed by inflammation of the liver, which
may go on to liver abscess.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid chill and debilitating causes of all kinds. In
countries where there is a great difference between the day and the night
temperature wear a cholera belt. Carefully protect food and water from
contamination of any kind, and especially from flies. Doubtful water
should be boiled or rendered sterile by some chemical method. All milk
should be boiled. Care should be taken not to employ as cooks natives who
have recently suffered from dysentery, and scrupulous cleanliness should
be observed in the preparation of food. Unripe fruit and other materials
apt to cause diarrhœa should be avoided. Camp conservancy methods
should be carried out on approved sanitary principles which prevent the
access of flies to human excrement and prevent the latter from being
disseminated by wind or in any other way. All dysenteric stools should be
carefully disinfected or burnt.

_Treatment._—The general treatment is common to both forms, the
essentials being rest, warmth and suitable food. Put the patient to bed,
apply a cholera belt and get the bowels open by an initial dose of castor
oil. If there is much pain ten drops of tincture of opium may be added
to the oil. The usual dose of the oil is an ounce, but if the patient is
feeble or exhausted half an ounce will be sufficient.

As regards diet do not give any milk at first, and indeed if the case is
recognized as being one of bacillary dysentery milk should not be given
at all as it tends to favour putrefaction. Albumin water, rice water,
chicken broth are required during the first twenty-four hours. Thereafter
in the amœbic form milk diluted with barley water or with citrate of
soda (three grains to the ounce) can be given. Soups are often useful,
and at a later period custard, arrowroot and jellies are indicated. In
the bacillary type arrowroot, meat and fruit jellies and beef-tea can be
given from the outset. In both types the food should be given in small
quantities frequently, and it should be neither too hot nor too cold.
Alcohol is deleterious.

Fortunately we now have a specific drug for treating amœbic dysentery
and that is emetine, which is the active principle of ipecacuanha. It is
best given in the form of emetine bismuthous iodide, which is supplied
in capsules and the dose of which is three grains per day for twelve
consecutive days. The dose is best given in the evening along with a cup
of hot tea on a full stomach when the patient is in bed. If it causes
much vomiting it is well to give ten or fifteen drops of tincture of
opium before administering the emetine. The latter can also be given
by subcutaneous injection, but this method of treatment should only be
carried out by a physician. Where emetine is not available ipecacuanha
itself may be used and is given as follows:—

_Treatment by Ipecacuanha._—When the bowels have been opened, give twenty
grains of ipecacuanha, either solid or mixed with a wineglass of water,
or less; arrowroot, starch, or gum-water, which will help to suspend the
drug. Of course, ipecacuanha will act more quickly if it can be taken
suspended in a liquid, instead of in the solid form. To prevent vomiting,
put a mustard leaf to the pit of the stomach. Absolute quiet must now
be observed; darken the room, and allow no moving in bed or talking.
Withhold food and liquid for at least two hours if possible, but if there
is much thirst, teaspoonful doses of water may be given.

If there is no vomiting for an hour, probably a good part of the
ipecacuanha has been digested; if it has been vomited, wait for
half-an-hour, and then give another full dose. If vomited again, wait for
two hours, and give twenty drops of chlorodyne, followed by twenty grains
of ipecacuanha; the chlorodyne is to quiet the stomach, enabling it to
retain the ipecacuanha. In about twelve hours from the first dose, repeat
it in exactly the same way. If thirty grains are too much at a time,
give twenty, three times a day, for not less than sixty grains should be
given in twenty-four hours. The drug is not a dangerous one, and, if the
patient can take it, too much can hardly be given. Between the doses feed
the patient, giving but little at a time. If the ipecacuanha is going
to do good, marked improvement should be apparent in four or five days;
failure of the drug is often due to its not being given or retained in
sufficiently large quantities.

In addition to the emetine or ipecacuanha treatment it is well, save in
mild or trivial cases, to give a saline mixture once a day, for example
one ounce of sodium or magnesium sulphate. Other methods which are
helpful are enemata of warm water, hot hip baths, or a soothing injection
made by soaking an ounce of linseed for several hours in two pints of
warm water. Sedatives, such as laudanum or chlorodyne, should be used
only in cases where there is severe pain, sickness and great distress.
The full dose in ordinary cases is twenty drops three times a day, but if
less is sufficient so much the better, and it is advisable to avoid these
remedies wherever possible.

The object of treatment is not to block up the bowel—as might be done by
giving large doses of opium or tannin—it is to cure the disease of which
the looseness is only one symptom. The most favourable sign during an
attack is a return of the colouring matter to the motions; this shows
that the liver is again acting, and that the treatment is doing good.
With the return of colour (which at first may be intermittent), the other
symptoms, such as pain and bloody discharge, will abate, and the motions
will become more solid and healthy.

In dysentery, as in severe diarrhœa, the patient should _not_ be allowed
to get up to stool. A box cut across obliquely will make a rough slipper
bed-pan; put sand in it, and pad the edges.

In bacillary dysentery emetine is nearly or quite useless, and recourse
should be had to a saline treatment. A mixture containing sixty grains
of sodium or magnesium sulphate, fifteen drops of dilute sulphuric acid,
and five drops of tincture of ginger can be given in half an ounce of
peppermint water, if necessary, every two hours at first, and then every
four or six hours, until the stools are watery and bile-stained. An
alternative method of treatment, but one which is not so satisfactory, is
to give half-grain doses of calomel every hour for twelve hours on three
successive days. The patient must, however, be watched for such symptoms
as tenderness of the gums, salivation (_i.e._, great increase of the
saliva), and a metallic taste in the mouth. Should such symptoms arise
the doses must be reduced or the drug discontinued.

The general treatment is the same as that for amœbic dysentery. As colic
is often very severe, turpentine stupes or poultices to the abdomen are
often indicated.

A specific anti-dysenteric serum is now employed in cases of bacillary
dysentery, but its administration requires medical skill.

When the acute dysenteric attack is over, bismuth may be given, and
various astringent enemata may be tried, but these should not be
administered in the absence of a physician. A simple form of enema,
however, is one containing a teaspoonful of alum or ten grains of
sulphate of iron to the pint.


_Enteric or Typhoid Fever, including the Paratyphoid Fevers._

It is impossible to give a full account of the enteric fevers here, and
moreover the presence of a medical man, still more of a good nurse,
is absolutely necessary for their proper treatment. The chief early
symptoms, however, will be given, and a few hints as to their treatment.
For all practical purposes paratyphoid fever may be considered as a mild
variety of typhoid.

The disease is characterised by ulceration of the small bowel, with
continued high fever, and is usually accompanied by diarrhœa.

_Causes._—It is generally caused by the drinking of impure water, but
may also be transmitted by all the causes operative in the case of
dysentery (_see_ p. 185).

The incubation period is from ten to fifteen days.

_Symptoms._—The early symptoms of the disease are often so slight that
the patient will not believe he is really ill; he may just feel out of
sorts, or complain of headache, but still go about his work. There may
be diarrhœa, or occasionally constipation. After five or six days the
patient is generally compelled to give up and go to bed, headache or
diarrhœa, or both, being the chief complaint. The temperature goes up
in a characteristic manner, rising a little more every evening till it
eventually reaches 103° or 104° F. There may be some cough, and often
this symptom is a very troublesome one.

The belly is usually distended and slightly tender, and there may or may
not be the characteristic typhoid rash, consisting of rose-pink circular,
slightly raised spots, about the size of a large pin’s head. They occur
chiefly on the chest and abdomen, and come out on successive days, often
only three or four at a time. These spots are frequently absent, and then
one must be guided by the presence of other symptoms. They are difficult
to be seen upon a dark skin.

_The possibility of enteric fever should always be remembered in cases
where there is constant fever, unaccompanied by any definite symptoms,
such as the recurrent shiverings of malaria, or the spitting of blood in
pneumonia._

_Prophylaxis._—As for dysentery (_see_ p. 186). Preventive inoculation
is very important and confers immunity for a considerable period (_see_
“Inoculation,” p. 168).

_Treatment._—Absolute quiet in bed. If constipated, bowels should be kept
open by soap and water enema only.

Milk only (three to four pints daily) should be given during the whole
course of the illness and till ten days after the temperature has
descended to, and remained, normal. Stimulants, if pulse is feeble and
rapid; opium only if there is much pain. If bleeding occurs from the
bowel, an ice poultice or cold-water cloths should be applied to the
belly; ice may be given to suck; opium and an astringent, such as tannin,
administered by the mouth, or an opium enema be given. Milk should be
given in small quantities only, and to each half-pint five grains of
bicarbonate of soda should be added.

The motions must be burned, or carefully disinfected.


_Epilepsy._

_Symptoms._—This is the most common form of fits. There are three stages.
_1st stage_—The patient falls down completely unconscious and without
warning, the face is pale, the limbs become stiff and rigid, and the
breathing ceases. _2nd stage_—Convulsive movements take place, the
tongue being often bitten, the breathing becomes heavy and laboured, and
the motions may be passed unconsciously. _3rd stage_—A confused mental
condition, sometimes acute mania, usually sleepy for some time. In some
cases the fit may only last a few minutes. They almost always recur.

_Treatment._—During the attack nothing can be done beyond loosening all
tight clothing, and gently preventing the sufferer from injuring himself
in his struggles. It is especially important to keep the teeth apart with
a piece of cork or rubber to prevent the tongue from being bitten.

Bromide of potassium (ten to twenty grains) may be given three times a
day as a preventive.


_Faintness._

Bending the head firmly down between the knees is the best and most rapid
way of dealing with an attack. Another method is to lay the patient on
a couch, loosen any clothing which is round the neck, bathe his face
and arms with cold water, and fan him vigorously. Give three grains of
carbonate of ammonia in an ounce of water. Alcohol may be given if the
pulse is very weak, but sal volatile or carbonate of ammonia is more
efficacious.


_Filariasis._

This term connotes several pathogenic conditions, but the most important
form of filariasis in man is that due to a small blood-worm which is
conveyed by the bite of one or other species of mosquito. The most
important symptom of filariasis is the condition known as elephantiasis,
but the presence of filaria in the blood also causes a febrile state and
various other symptoms which need not be detailed.

_Prophylaxis._—Protect from the bites of mosquitoes, especially those
which breed in the vicinity of human habitations. The most effective
method of doing this is the careful use of a mosquito net.


_Gonorrhœa._

Gonorrhœa, or clap, is an acute inflammation of the urethra or pipe,
attended with a discharge of more or less matter. It is nearly always due
to direct contagion.

_Symptoms._—At first there is some itching about the end of the pipe,
which is followed by a yellowish-white discharge. This lasts from three
to five days. Then great pain is noticed on passing water, and the
discharge becomes thick and yellowish-green in colour, with redness and
swelling about the lips of the opening of the pipe. After a time the pain
on making water disappears, and the discharge becomes thin and watery, a
condition known as “gleet.”

_Treatment._—Forbid alcohol in any form. Give large quantities of
liquid—water, weak tea, or milk—to thoroughly flush the system. Light
diet and as complete rest as possible. Keep bowels well open with saline
and other purges. Give sandal-wood oil or copaiba, twenty drops three
times a day, and urotropin, ten grains twice a day.

If there is much pain in the acute stage, a mixture containing fifteen
grains of bicarbonate of soda, and five drops of chlorodyne or laudanum,
in an ounce of water, may be given twice a day. Except in very acute
cases the pipe should be syringed out with a very weak solution of
permanganate of potash, or better, a solution of protargol (quarter to
two per cent.); later on, a lotion containing four grains of sulphate of
zinc to one ounce of water may be used as an injection.

If the glands in the groin become tender and inflamed, they should be
painted with tincture of iodine. If, in spite of this, the pain and
swelling increase, they should be poulticed frequently, and treated as
ordinary abscesses.


_Hay Fever._

This is a very severe catarrh which attacks certain individuals yearly,
when grasses and other plants are flowering. It is most probably due to
the irritation of the nose by pollen grains in the air.

_Treatment._—Exposure to the irritating substances which are known to
provoke an attack should be avoided.

The nose may be syringed out with a lotion containing boric acid and
bicarbonate of soda (five grains of each in four ounces of water), or
one containing bicarbonate of soda and salt (five grains of each in four
ounces of water), to which has been added two to four drops of carbolic
acid. The interior of the nostrils may be anointed with vaseline. Menthol
snuff is of great value. A substance called “Pollantin” has a specific
action in many cases, but it should be employed only under medical
supervision.


_Influenza._

Influenza has been introduced into many tropical countries, in which it
has spread rapidly and caused in many instances a very heavy mortality.
The actual cause of the disease is still a matter of dispute, but there
can be no doubt that it is chiefly spread by personal contact.

_Symptoms._—What may be called the respiratory type is pretty well known
to everyone, but it should not be forgotten that sometimes the main
stress of the disease falls either on the alimentary or the nervous
system, while there is also a type of what is known as febrile influenza
in which the heat-regulating centre is greatly upset. In this latter form
the temperature may be intermittent and it is then apt to be mistaken for
malaria.

The respiratory type is the most important. Its incubation period is
short, one or two days. The onset is sudden and is characterized by
shivering, pains in the back and limbs, severe headache and a feeling
of malaise. The patient may be giddy and suddenly collapse, his throat
is often dry and sore and he has an irritating cough. His temperature
rises and runs up to 102° to 104° F. His face becomes flushed, his eyes
reddened and his tongue is furred. Constipation is common. Uncomplicated
influenza, if promptly attended to, is not a very serious disease,
and improvement usually sets in about the third day. The most serious
complication of influenza is bronchial pneumonia, and in some forms of
the disease the heart is very apt to be affected.

_Prophylaxis._—Isolation of cases; free ventilation; treat patients
as much as possible in the open air. Nurses and those attending the
sick should be careful about contracting infection from the patient’s
invisible mouth spray. Indeed in some epidemics the use of face masks has
been recommended.

_Treatment._—Rest in bed as soon as possible; free purgation at the
outset; an early dose of twenty to thirty drops of laudanum (Tinct.
opii) is often very beneficial but the drug must be administered with
care. Aspirin in ten-grain doses thrice daily frequently relieves the
more urgent symptoms. In cases where there is vomiting and collapse with
high temperature a dose of fifteen grains of aspirin with half to one
ounce of brandy and three drachms of liquor ammon. acetat. may act like
a charm. According to our present knowledge, however, it would seem that
drugs are of little use in influenza, and that the important thing is to
ensure good nursing and to keep up the patient’s strength. Quinine in
effervescing form is very useful for convalescent cases.


_Insect Pests._

(_See also Myiasis and Skin Diseases._)

These are best divided into the Winged and Wingless forms. Of the winged
pests _Mosquitoes_ are undoubtedly the most important in the tropics, as
they are known to transmit such diseases as malaria, yellow fever, dengue
fever and filariasis. The anopheline mosquitoes are those responsible for
transmitting malaria, and they can easily be recognized by the facts that
their wings are usually spotted and that they appear as it were to stand
on their heads when resting on any flat surface. The culicine mosquitoes,
which include _Stegomyia fasciata_, the carrier of yellow fever, do not
as a rule have spotted wings and they rest parallel to the surface on
which they alight. There are also marked differences in the water stages
of these insects which cannot, however, be here considered.

The best way of protecting oneself against mosquitoes is the proper use
of an effective mosquito net, the mesh of which should contain at least
sixteen holes to the linear inch. Mosquito boots or buskins are also
useful, and in certain places hoods for the face and neck, such as the
“Mosquinette” variety, will be found of value.

Repellent substances applied to the skin may also be employed. Cassia
oil, with brown oil of camphor in vaseline, is useful. Vermijelli,
containing a little citronella oil, is fairly effective but is not
so pleasant to use. The irritating effect of mosquito bites may be
diminished by the application of tincture of iodine. The same measures
are effective in the case of some of the biting midges.

The insects generally known as _Sand-flies_ are really owl midges or
moth flies, tiny and hairy insects which have been proved to transmit
sand-fly fever (_see_ page 221). These flies breed in damp places where
there is rotting vegetation, dark and damp cellars, cracks and fissures
in the soil, tunnels, etc., and they are often very troublesome. The
repellents mentioned above may be used to drive them away, as may
eucalyptus oil, camphor and tobacco smoke. The ordinary mosquito net is
useless against their attacks, and one containing twenty-two holes to the
linear inch is required.

_Buffalo gnats_, which are often called sand-flies, are insects which
breed in running water and amongst cataracts and rapids. They are
formidable biters although they are not known to cause any disease. The
same protective measures are indicated in their case as in that of owl
midges.

_House Flies._—There are several species of these. They are definitely
known to distribute certain harmful bacteria and protozoa and to
contaminate food by carrying the organisms on their bodies, wings and
legs, or depositing them by regurgitation or in their droppings. Hence it
is very important to protect all food and drink from flies and to destroy
these insects wherever possible. The subject of their destruction is too
large a question to be dealt with here, so all that need be said is that
the traveller should provide himself with wire mesh fly covers to screen
food and also with pieces of mesh or calico weighted with beads, which
can be utilized for covering vessels containing milk or other liquids. It
is worth noting that ordinary fish netting hung over a tent door or used
to screen the windows or doors of a house will effectively exclude flies,
despite its large mesh.

_Tsetse Flies._—These are considered under Sleeping Sickness (_see_ page
234).

_The Congo Floor-maggot Fly._—It is the maggot or larva of this fly which
is important, as in many parts of Africa it infests the floors of native
huts and it is a blood-sucker feeding at night. So far as is known it
does not convey any disease but it is an unpleasant visitor, and if its
numbers are great they may extract comparatively large quantities of
blood from their unconscious victims.

_Prophylaxis._—General cleanliness and enforcement of sanitary measures,
the use of high beds, the scrutiny of sleeping mats and blankets in which
eggs or larvæ may be concealed. Infected huts can be rendered habitable
by firing the ground or by removing the surface soil, which can then be
disinfected.

_Wingless Pests._—_Lice._—These are known to transmit typhus fever.
Further, they often cause great cutaneous irritation and are loathsome
companions. It is no easy matter to get rid of lice when infection is on
a large scale, but very often this is not the case and it is possible
to detect their presence only by careful examination. There is no real
difference between head lice and body lice; they are simply varieties
of the same insect. The presence of head lice may be recognized by
the discovery of their eggs, which are known as nits and are minute,
yellowish-white, goblet-shaped bodies about the size of a full-stop on
this page. Examination for head lice is much facilitated by the use of
a fine tooth comb. Persons suspected of harbouring body lice should be
examined first for the actual bites of the insect on the skin. Their
clothes, and especially their under-garments, should then be carefully
examined, attention being more particularly directed to the seams and
folds where the eggs, if present, are most likely to be found.

The best preventive measure against lice is strict personal cleanliness.
Clothes should be frequently changed, and as frequently washed. The hair
should be kept cropped short, especially at the sides and back of the
head, and in the tropics it is very advisable to shave all hairy parts of
the body.

Space does not permit a full account of how to deal with verminous
persons and verminous clothing, but it may be said that the only reliable
methods of destroying lice are by hot air, steam, boiling water, or
hydrocyanic acid gas. At the same time it should be noted that the heads
of those infested with head lice should be thoroughly combed and treated
with paraffin, petrol, or white precipitate ointment, and then well
washed with carbolic soap. The nits may be loosened by treatment with
warm vinegar or acetic acid. In the case of body lice possibly the most
satisfactory grease for application to the underclothing is one composed
of crude unwhizzed naphthalene from the coke oven, four parts, and soft
soap, one part. It is important that the proper type of naphthalene be
used.

A useful palliative method is the ironing of clothing, especially along
the seams, with heavy hot irons.

_Fleas._—Bubonic plague is known to be transmitted by fleas, and it is
possible that they play a part in the transmission of that form of
leishmaniasis which is known as kala-azar (_see_ p. 202). Fleas dislike
powdered naphthalene and pyrethrum powder, and either of these may be
applied to the clothes to ward them off.

A note on the troublesome _Chigger flea_ or _Jigger_ will be found under
“Skin Diseases” (_see_ p. 228).

_Bed-Bugs._—The traveller sleeping in hotels or inns abroad is very apt
to be attacked by bed-bugs, which harbour in wooden beds and bedding,
crevices in walls, floors and ceilings, and other places which are dark
and sheltered. Fortunately, so far as is known, the bed-bug does not
carry any disease, but its bites are annoying, and its presence is a sign
of insanitary conditions. It is difficult to protect oneself against
bed-bugs without instituting a campaign against their hiding-places and
breeding-places, but a skin ointment like vermijelli is useful, and
powdered naphthalene or Keating’s powder may deter the insects to some
extent.

_Note._—Keating’s powder, which contains pyrethrum, is slow in its
effects, and therefore, if possible, should be shaken over the sleeping
bag or blankets some hours before bedtime. If not, the pests will
struggle through it and find renewed vigour on the sleeper. It is best
in very bad quarters to rub the powder on the skin as well as to dust it
over the bed. It will not kill a full-grown bug under an hour, but it is
extraordinarily effective with fleas. It is important to obtain a good
pyrethrum powder, as such preparations are frequently adulterated.

The _Itch Insect_ is the cause of the skin disease known as scabies. It
is a mite, the female of which burrows under the skin to lay her eggs.
The favourite site for her operations is between the fingers, but other
parts of the body may be affected, and the rash produced may assume
various forms, so that it is well in the case of any skin eruption in the
tropics to remember the possibility of scabies.

_Treatment._—Its effective treatment is by no means easy, and would take
much too long to detail here. All that can be said is that the skin
should be washed well with soap and hot water, and that thereafter a
liberal quantity of sulphur ointment should be thoroughly rubbed into the
skin twice daily for three days. On the fourth day recourse should be
had again to soap and hot water, if possible in the form of a hot bath.
Meanwhile, clothing and bedding should be boiled or destroyed.

_Ticks._—The most important tick from the traveller’s point of view,
at least, in Africa, is the species responsible for the transmission
of tick fever (_see_ p. 242). It would seem that the fowl tick may
occasionally attack man, and some believe that it may spread the
infection of certain kinds of relapsing fever (_see_ p. 218). The larval
stages of certain ticks are often very troublesome in many parts of the
world, owing to their habit of burrowing into the skin of persons coming
into contact with them.

_Treatment._—When a larval tick is found half buried in the skin, force
should not be used in an attempt to remove it, because either the
surrounding skin is unnecessarily damaged or, as is most probable, the
head of the tick is ruptured, its rostrum or beak remaining buried in the
skin. The result is severe irritation which may lead to septic infection.
The best way, therefore, of dealing with a tick larva lodged in the skin
is to dip a small camel’s hair brush in turpentine, benzene, petrol or
paraffin, and apply it between the skin and the under surface of the
tick. In a short time the tick will let go its hold and may be swept from
the skin with the brush. Vaseline is also effective if smeared over the
tick. To remove a rostrum which remains in the skin after a tick has been
forcibly ejected, cocaine should be applied to the spot, and the rostrum
extracted with needle forceps, iodine being thereafter applied. A special
form of tick-case devised for dealing with this condition is upon the
market, and is a useful addition to the traveller’s outfit.

_Ants._—These are often very troublesome owing to their depredations on
foodstuffs, and it must be remembered that experimentally ants have been
shown capable of carrying the organisms of typhoid fever and cholera,
though under ordinary conditions they are not likely to be very dangerous
in this respect. Some form of pyrethrum powder, such as Keating’s, will
be found useful in checking the depredations of ants, or they can be
prevented from getting at food on tables by tying paraffin-soaked rags
round the legs of the latter. Powdered borax or paraffin are useful in
dealing with so-called “ant-routes” into tents or houses.


_Iritis, or Inflammation of the Eyeball Itself._

_Symptoms._—In this there is pain, the vision is dimmed, and the
transparent part of the eye is found to be cloudy. Skilled assistance is
necessary.

_Treatment._—Apply hot fomentations and boric acid lotion; leeches
or a blister to the temples are of service, and the pupil, which is
contracted, should be dilated by dropping two or three drops of a one
per cent. solution of atropine on to the eye twice a day or oftener
till it is well dilated; only enough drops should be applied afterwards
to prevent the pupil from contracting. Dark glasses may be worn with
advantage. The bowels should be kept well open, and one grain of calomel
may be given three times a day for a week, or longer if it does not cause
a coppery taste in the mouth, with tenderness of the gums and excessive
flow of the saliva. As the inflammation subsides a shade may be adopted.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

_Night blindness and snow blindness_ are due to exposure to the glare
either of the sun or of the snow. To avoid these complaints tinted
glasses should be worn. Travellers in snowy regions should be provided
with smoked glasses; if these get broken or lost, some opaque substance
may be smeared over the surface of an ordinary pair, leaving a narrow
horizontal slit of clear glass—in the Esquimaux fashion, as shown in
the accompanying illustration. On snow it must be remembered that the
perforated wire gauze sides are essential for protection from the
reflected rays of the sun. Elastic may be substituted with advantage for
the ordinary metallic attachments, between the glasses as well as around
the head.


_Jaundice._

Jaundice, which is a condition in which the skin and mucous membranes
assume a yellow colour, may be due to various causes. One of the
commonest forms is that known as catarrhal jaundice, which is induced
by chill, exposure, dietetic disturbances, etc. It should be treated
by calomel and salines. Violent purges are to be avoided. Bismuth and
bicarbonate of soda should be given, and the diet should be regulated
and should consist of simple and bland articles of food, free, as far as
possible, from fats.

There is a form of jaundice associated with infective conditions, such as
the enteric fevers, dysentery, malaria, relapsing fever and yellow fever.
In these cases the jaundice is to be treated like the catarrhal form, and
the accompanying condition requires attention.

In addition to the above there is a camp or infectious jaundice, the
nature of which is somewhat obscure, but which is associated with a
considerable degree of illness.

_Symptoms._—The condition commonly begins with shivering, a rise of
temperature, headache, giddiness, general malaise, sleeplessness, loss of
appetite, nausea, and it may be vomiting. The tongue is coated, and there
may be pains in the back and legs. The jaundice usually lasts from seven
to nine days, and about the fifth day the temperature falls, though there
may be a secondary fever.

_Prophylaxis._—So far as we know at present this is a question of
enforcing good sanitary surroundings, and paying special attention to the
hygiene of food and drinks, which should be guarded from the access of
flies.

_Treatment._—This is entirely symptomatic and should be that of any
ordinary febrile attack, together with the measures employed in catarrhal
jaundice. There is a severe form of jaundice of an infective nature
which is associated with the presence of a parasite in the blood, very
like that of yellow fever, and which apparently is derived from infected
rats. This form of jaundice is, however, not very common and need not be
further considered, especially as it requires skilled medical attendance.


_Laryngitis, or Inflammation of the Upper Part of the Windpipe._

The organ of the voice is called the “larynx.”

When the windpipe is affected it is somewhat tender on pressure, there is
hoarseness, cough, and pain in swallowing. Treatment similar to that for
cold in the head may be adopted; in addition, the upper part of the front
of the throat should be kept well poulticed for a day or two, and then
wrapped up in cotton wool for some days longer. A piece of mustard leaf
covered with six layers of a handkerchief and secured by a bandage, can
usually be borne for a considerable time, and is often more efficacious
than the poultice; when the smarting is great the mustard leaf should be
removed and the tender part smeared with oil or vaseline.

Inhalations of steam are of use in promoting expectoration. Carbonate of
ammonia, three grains, or bicarbonate of potash, five grains, with half
to two grains of ipecacuanha, will help to promote secretion from the
affected part. A teaspoonful of Friar’s balsam in a pint of hot water
makes a good inhalation.


_Leeches._

Persons travelling in India, Ceylon, the Far East generally, and the
Philippine Islands, are likely to make the acquaintance of the Asiatic
leech, which is a very troublesome and indeed dangerous species of
vermin. It is very small, only about an inch long, and of the thickness
of a knitting-needle. It is able to penetrate through the interstices in
clothing, and when in vast numbers it is a foe difficult to combat. The
bites of these leeches are painless and much blood may be lost before
their presence is discovered. It is very difficult to obtain any kind of
boot or puttee which will keep these creatures at bay, and the traveller
in these countries should be provided with a solution of salt or weak
acid which, on application, causes the leeches to loose their hold.
It is a mistake to try and drag them off the skin, as parts of their
biting apparatus are apt to be left behind and set up inflammation and
suppuration. Tincture of iodine should be applied to the site of a leech
bite. In forest regions where these leeches abound protective measures
must be taken at night, the best being the use of a properly adjusted
mosquito net of very fine mesh.

The tropical water leech is found in the Azores, the Canary Islands,
Africa, Palestine, Syria, Armenia and Turkestan. It may reach a length of
four inches, and if swallowed with drinking water usually fastens on the
mucous membrane of the mouth or throat. As a preventive measure drinking
water should be passed through a piece of muslin or similar form of
sieve.


_Leishmaniasis._

This condition is named after Sir William Leishman, who discovered the
parasite producing it. There is a general and febrile form of the disease
and also a form attacking the skin and mucous membrane of the mouth and
nose, which is considered under Skin Diseases.

The systemic form of the disease is commonly known as kala-azar, which
signifies “black sickness.” It is common in certain parts of India,
notably Assam, but is found also throughout the Far East, and it occurs
in Arabia, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and in the Mediterranean area. A
case has also been described in South America, in parts of which it is
possibly more common than is generally supposed.

_Cause._—The parasite, which lives in the blood and tissues, is known,
but its exact method of transmission to man is still in the realm of
uncertainty.

_Symptoms._—The disease begins in an indefinite manner and then assumes
the form of a continued fever, associated with enlargement of the spleen
and liver and progressive emaciation. Bleeding from the nose is not
uncommon, and in Europeans the peculiar earthy-grey colour of the skin is
very striking. The disease lasts for months and even years and is very
frequently fatal.

_Prophylaxis._—As we do not know how the disease is spread it is not
easy to recommend preventive measures, and all that can be said is that
every care should be taken to isolate the sick, to live under healthy
conditions and to avoid contact with vermin of all kinds. As dogs may
possibly be carriers of the disease they should be destroyed if proved
infected.

_Treatment._—Antimony is the best and indeed the sole remedy, but it can
be given only by a medical man, so that nothing further need be said here
regarding it.


_Liver, Congestion of_:—

The _Liver_, which is mainly on the right side, lies below the right
lung, and is protected by the lower ribs. In health it extends vertically
from one-and-a-half inches below the right nipple to the lower edge of
the ribs; in certain diseases it is enlarged, and its edge can be felt
well below the ribs.

Congestion of the liver is frequent in the tropics, and is often due to
malaria or dysentery. Very frequently it is caused by abuse of alcohol,
over-indulgence in food, and the excessive use of hot condiments, or
by constipation and want of exercise. In the tropics the liver is more
easily affected by excesses than in temperate climates.

_Symptoms._—A furred tongue, sallowness of the face, headache, lassitude,
disinclination for work, loss of appetite, tendency to vomit, occasional
slight jaundice, and a sense of oppression about the region of the liver.

_Treatment._—Light diet, abstinence from alcohol and spices, and the
use of calomel or other aperient will usually effect a cure. Ammonium
chloride, five to ten grains, three times a day, should be given.


_Liver, Acute Inflammation of_:—

In this complaint there is severe pain, some fever, and frequently
jaundice. The complaint is serious, as abscess of the liver frequently
follows it, at least if it is due to amœbic dysentery.

_Treatment._—The patient should be put to bed, hot fomentations applied
to the seat of pain, and the bowels well relieved. Emetine should be at
once administered as for dysentery, or ten grains of ipecacuanha should
be given three times a day. Ammonium chloride in full doses (twenty
grains three times a day) often does good, and can be retained when
ipecacuanha cannot, but it is unpleasant to take, so the dose should
be given in one or two ounces of water. The wisest course for one who
has had a severe inflammation of the liver is to get away to a healthy
climate.


_Liver Abscess._

It is extremely difficult for the traveller to decide if abscess of
the liver is present; it may be suspected if a patient, convalescent
from dysentery, still remains feeble and ill, or if he has an irregular
temperature, a muddy complexion, night sweats, wasting, and pain or
uneasiness in the right shoulder. Sometimes a definite swelling can be
made out. A dry cough is not uncommon.

_Treatment._—Emetine is the specific treatment for the prevention of
liver abscess, and it would seem in some cases actually able to bring
about a cure even when the abscess has formed. It should be given as
for amœbic dysentery (p. 187), and it is essential that a patient with
liver abscess should as soon as possible come under medical control, as
it may be necessary to give emetine by the needle subcutaneously or even
to inject it into the abscess cavity. Ammonium chloride may be given;
the patient’s strength must be supported, and he should be as quickly as
possible placed under the care of a surgeon, who will probably decide
to operate. If this cannot be done, then the patient should not be
interfered with surgically, for he will have a better chance of recovery
if the abscess is allowed to burst naturally than he would if the
traveller attempted to operate.


_Malaria._

Of all diseases in the tropics malaria is the one which is most likely
to trouble the traveller. Hence it is essential that he should be well
posted regarding it. In addition to the books which have already been
indicated he will find the recently published ‘Malaria at Home and
Abroad,’ by Colonel S. P. James, a work of much value and interest.
It is true it is more especially intended for the medical man, but
any intelligent layman can study it with interest and profit, and the
chapters dealing with prophylaxis and treatment are specially valuable
and well up to date. Here it is possible to give only a mere outline of
the chief facts concerning the disease.

1. Malarial fever is caused by a small animal parasite which lives
chiefly in the blood of patients attacked by it. 2. Under ordinary
conditions in nature it can be conveyed only from one person to another
by the bite of a mosquito which has previously sucked the blood of an
infected person. 3. The parasite undergoes a series of changes in the
mosquito’s body and eventually finds its way to the salivary glands
of the insect whence it is injected through the mosquito’s proboscis
into another victim. 4. There are only certain species of mosquitoes,
belonging to the family Anophelinæ (from a Greek word signifying
“harmful”), which can carry malaria, and it is only the females of these
species which are affected as the males are not blood-suckers. Anopheline
mosquitoes breed in shallow puddles and in almost all collections of
stagnant or gently flowing water. It is therefore very dangerous to pitch
camps close to stagnant pools, sluggish reed-grown streams or marshy
places. 5. In the tropics one of the chief reservoirs of infection is the
native, and more especially the native child, who frequently harbours the
malarial parasite in the form which is adapted for life and reproduction
in the mosquito and hence is a distinct source of danger. It is therefore
inadvisable to camp in the vicinity of native villages or to spend a
night in the neighbourhood of native habitations unless efficiently
protected from the bites of mosquitoes.

_Symptoms._—Malarial fever presents itself under two chief forms,
though it should be noted that malaria is one of the most protean of
all diseases and may simulate any malady. (1) _Intermittent_ fever. In
this disease the temperature may rise high, but returns each day to
normal or lower; hence there is, after each attack, a period of complete
freedom from fever. An intermittent fever or ague is usually less serious
than a remittent fever, but it is harder to cure in the long run. (2)
_Remittent_ fever. In this the temperature, though it varies, keeps
constantly above the normal, and the higher the fever, and the slighter
the difference between the extremes of temperature, the more serious
is the condition of the patient. Where the temperature is remittent,
and appears to be unaffected by quinine, the disease is probably not
malarial, but may be a case of enteric fever, and should be treated as
advised below under that heading.

The attack may be sudden, but it is usually preceded by a feeling of
languor, yawning, and general discomfort; this is followed by the _cold
stage_, which, in the tropics, is usually short, and in the more ordinary
attacks is ushered in by a violent shivering fit or rigor, though this
is not common in Central Africa. The sensation of cold is entirely
subjective, for though the patient feels chilly and piles clothes upon
himself his temperature will be found elevated. At this period violent
vomiting is not infrequent. Then comes the _hot stage_, often of long
duration, followed by the _sweating stage_, during which the perspiration
pours from the patient and soaks everything on and about him. After this
there is a period of remission, or intermission of the feverish symptoms
with corresponding relief to the patient. Usually, after some hours, the
attack comes on again, beginning with the cold stage, but if the fever is
treated very early, the disease may now pass off. The whole attack lasts
as a rule from six to ten hours, say one hour for the cold stage, three
or four for the hot period, and two to four for that of defervescence.
There is sometimes a feeling of pain and discomfort in the right side
owing to the congestion of the spleen, which enlarges during the rigor.

There are three distinct species of malarial parasite, and each causes
a different type of fever. According to the type with which the patient
has become infected, the fever recurs after one, two, or three days. At
the same time all kinds of febrile irregularities are met with, so that
it is often impossible to diagnose the disease in the absence of blood
examination for the detection of the parasite.

Anæmia is a constant feature of the malarial attack, as is but natural,
considering the great destruction of red blood cells brought about by the
parasites which have infected them.

_Prophylaxis._—Only those preventive measures which can be put into
operation by the individual will be here considered. This may be called
_personal prophylaxis_. By far the most important means of avoiding
malaria is the proper use of an efficient mosquito net. The oblong
type is best, and it should contain sixteen meshes to the linear inch.
Round the foot of it should be sewn a stout layer of calico 2 feet in
depth. This will permit of a foot of the material being tucked under the
mattress while the upper foot remains in the form of a belt or zone round
the bed. It is necessary, because in its absence the sleeper is very
liable to be bitten through the mosquito-net mesh, with which his arms
or legs are apt to come in contact. Care must be taken to see that the
net is kept in good repair—a most important matter—and in very malarious
countries it is advisable to provide every member of an expedition,
native or otherwise, with a good mosquito net. In what may be called the
dry tropics, the top of the net may be of mesh; in the moist tropics, it
is best made of calico in order to keep off the heavy dews. The traveller
often sleeps out on the deck of river steamers, and then it is certainly
advantageous to have the roof of the net composed of stout calico, as
sparks from the funnel are very apt to alight upon it, and naturally
holes will be burnt much more readily in mesh than in thick cotton. It is
foolish to sleep even for one night in a malarious locality unprotected
by a net.

The net is for use during the period of sleep, but one is very apt to be
bitten by infected mosquitoes just after sunset, and hence it is well to
make use of some form of mosquito canopy. A good type is the so-called
mosquito umbrella tent. Such a canopy may be arranged so that the evening
meal can be taken in it. One servant will be inside the canopy and
receive the dishes through a guarded opening from the attendant outside.

Other methods of protection exist in the shape of mosquito boots or
buskins. The best type of mosquito boot is the form which reaches right
up the thigh. They may be made of untanned leather or of stout khaki
cloth. All mosquito boots and buskins should be provided with soles to
protect the feet from wet and damp. In the absence of boots it is well to
know that a mosquito will not bite through two pairs of stockings, one
super-imposed over the other. This is a way in which women can protect
their legs and ankles, or they can employ the buskin, leggings, gaiters,
or puttees.

Mosquito veils have been mentioned, the best type being the “Mosquinette”
hood.

Mosquitoes are apt to bite through chairs with cane seats or with
perforated seats, and these should be guarded by a layer of brown paper,
newspaper, or a cushion.

Repellent substances may be used, smeared on the skin. They contain
essential oils, such as oil of cassia or eucalyptus oil. These repellents
are effective only for a short time, but lessen in some degree the
liability to infection.

The prophylactic use of quinine has recently fallen somewhat into
disrepute, owing to its comparative failure in many of the war areas,
but there can be no doubt that under conditions of civil life it is a
valuable auxiliary method, if properly employed. One of the troubles
about it is that quinine is rapidly excreted from the body, and hence
after a dose it remains in the blood only a comparatively short time; for
example, if the dose be taken at 6 p.m. it is very doubtful if enough
quinine will be left in the blood at 2 o’clock in the morning to kill any
malarial spores which may be introduced into it by an infected mosquito.
The ideal method of taking quinine prophylactically would be to take a
dose of 5 or 6 grains with the evening meal shortly before sunset. This
will protect until it is time to get under the mosquito net. If for any
reason it is impossible to employ the latter, then a second dose of
quinine should be taken at midnight. This is difficult to accomplish,
and hence something may be gained by taking a larger dose of quinine
at night on the chance that some of it may remain in the blood for a
longer period than would the smaller quantity. As much as 10 grains may
therefore be taken under these conditions. Some persons, however, cannot
stand 10 grains of quinine daily for a long period of time.

It is clear from what has been said that prophylactic quinine should
never be taken in the morning, and also that it is merely an auxiliary
method, and does not do away with the necessity of using the mosquito
net. Sugar-coated tablets should be avoided, and care must be taken to
see that the products or tablets which may be used are readily soluble.
It is a good plan to crack the products before swallowing them. A good
salt of quinine is the bisulphate, which is soluble and comparatively
cheap. When the drug is given in powder, tablet, or pill form, it should
be followed by a wine-glassful of water, and it is advisable to acidify
the latter by a few drops of hydrochloric acid. There is no doubt that
as a general rule quinine is best taken in solution, but in the case
of persons travelling about this is not always easy to arrange, and if
the above precautions be taken the solid form will generally be found
effective. It is better to take prophylactic quinine in daily doses,
because if an interval is allowed to elapse between doses one is apt to
forget to take the drug at the proper time. Hence it is well to make it
a kind of ritual to take the quinine along with the evening meal, for
it is certainly an advantage to do so on a full stomach. It should be
remembered that persons who take their quinine regularly do not suffer
from blackwater fever, while the irregular taking of quinine certainly
appears to favour the occurrence of the latter. It is better not to take
prophylactic quinine at all than to take it in a haphazard and irregular
manner.

_Treatment._—The three great principles of treatment are: (1) To open
the bowels; (2) to produce perspiration; (3) to give quinine. The
routine to be adopted is as follows. Put the patient to bed in flannel
pyjamas, and covered up well with blankets; in all cases, save where
there is diarrhœa, give an aperient, such as four grains of calomel, or
two tabloids of Cathartic Co, or two Livingstone’s Rousers, and if this
does not act, repeat the dose in about four hours. If free evacuation
is not produced, a warm-water enema should be given. A hot-water bottle
in bed is useful. Sponging with warm water often gives relief at the
beginning of a fever, and tends to shorten the cold stage. At the same
time hot drinks should be given, such as weak tea, in order to promote
perspiration and cut short the hot stage, and at this stage, _i.e._,
at the outset of the fever, 10 grains of Antipyrin, or 10 grains of
Phenacetin, may be found useful for inducing perspiration, or four
tablets of Warburg’s Tincture, which contains some quinine, may be
substituted for them. Antipyrin and Phenacetin should not be given except
in the earliest stages of the fever.

During the hot stage cold applications, such as cloths wrung out of cold
or iced water and sprinkled with eau de cologne, vinegar or spirit may
be applied to the forehead and behind the ears. The bed-clothes should
be lightened and drink freely supplied, unless it seems to promote
vomiting. If the temperature shows signs of getting above 105° F.
sponge the patient with warm water or cradle the bed-clothes, as it is
called—that is, remove them from contact with the body by some simple
means. In the sweating stage strip off the soaked pyjamas and sheets and
get the patient into warm, well-aired night-clothes and bed-clothes. If
there is any tendency to collapse a little stimulant may be given—say, a
dessertspoonful of brandy. In most cases alcohol is better avoided. If
vomiting is bad withhold all food, and give bits of ice to suck if it can
be obtained.

Whilst the above methods of treatment are important, it should be clearly
recognised that the one drug which can alone counteract the malarial
affection is quinine, and it is upon the proper administration of quinine
that successful treatment largely depends.

This proper administration necessitates at the outset rest in bed,
and it also necessitates a continuance of the drug for a sufficient
length of time. For ordinary cases the best way is to give quinine by
the mouth, and here again it is best given in solution, though it can
be administered in solid form if the precautions above indicated are
duly observed. Various doses have been advocated, but probably the best
quantity to administer is 30 grains every twenty-four hours. This is
usually given in three doses of 10 grains each, but there would appear to
be an advantage in giving four doses instead of three, and Colonel James
advocates the following times for administration, _i.e._ 12 midnight, 6
a.m., 12 noon, 6 p.m. He does so, because such a method of administration
is likely to ensure that there shall be a sufficient concentration of
quinine in the blood at the time when the youngest forms of the parasite
are present. The patient should remain in bed, if possible, for ten
days, or, if this is impossible, for at least half that period; and it is
essential that the quinine should be given as soon as possible, and quite
irrespective of the stage of the attack or the height of the fever. If
its administration is followed by vomiting, give a small teaspoonful of
bicarbonate of soda in warm water. If this is rejected repeat the dose,
and then give some form of stomach sedative, such as bismuth, and dilute
hydrocyanic acid or 20 drops of chlorodyne. A mustard leaf applied to the
pit of the stomach is often helpful. Sometimes drop doses of tincture
of iodine, well diluted, will check these troublesome symptoms. Under
ordinary conditions this 30-grain quinine treatment should be steadily
continued for at least five days, but in troublesome cases it may be
necessary to carry on with it for as long as three weeks. Thereafter what
is called the “after treatment” is begun and must be continued for a
period of three months, in order to ensure, if possible, an eradication
of the infection.

There are several ways of carrying out this after treatment, but one of
the simplest and most effective is to administer 10 grains of quinine
every day, the dose being taken an hour or two before the time at which
the fever was apt to come on during the attack.

If, despite quinine treatment, relapses occur, the patient must go to
bed and be treated as for the first attack, and the after treatment must
again be carefully carried out.

Under certain conditions quinine has to be injected by the needle, either
into the muscles or into a vein; but, as a rule, this should not be done
save by the medical attendant. It should, however, be remembered that
the drug may be given by the bowel, in which case twice the quantity of
quinine which would be administered by the mouth should be given. It is
only exceptionally that this procedure will have to be followed, but it
is sometimes useful in the case of children.

The feeding of the malaria patient is important. Between the attacks of
fever, or during the sweating stage, he should be given food in fluid
form, such as chicken broth, eggs beaten up with milk, raisin tea, etc.;
and as soon as his stomach will stand it, the diet should be increased.
Tonics, such as iron and arsenic, are required during convalescence.

In cases where there is acute malarial poisoning, with temperature 106°
F., or even higher, do not wait to undress the patient or get a bath; but
empty gallons of water over him, one boy keeping the head constantly
soused; while this is being done a bath can be procured and the patient
then undressed, or, better still, have his clothes cut off, because it
is dangerous to lift such a patient about too much. Remember that when a
patient is very ill and weak, he should not be allowed to stand or sit up
suddenly, as he may faint.

Delirium with high temperature, say 106° F. or over, is a certain sign
that the fever is doing harm, and must be reduced.

The temperature and pulse should be carefully watched when the cold water
treatment is employed.


_Malta Fever._ (See _Undulant Fever._)


_Measles._

Incubation period, ten days. Rash occurs on the fourth day.

_Rash._—Pink spots, round or irregular, slightly raised above the
surface, tending to run together in patches over the body, leaving the
unaffected skin between them clear. In the early stages often best marked
on the face and behind the ears.

_Symptoms._—Fever, catarrh, congested eyes, running from the nose,
sickness and cough.

_Treatment._—Similar to that of scarlet fever (_see_ p. 222). It is very
important to guard against chill; to ensure plenty of fresh air.

_Complications._—Measles may be followed by pneumonia.


_Mumps._

This is an infectious disease, characterised by swelling of the salivary
glands. Its chief importance to the traveller is that if once it makes
its appearance it may spread rapidly through his native attendants, and
that it is apt to be followed by inflammation of the testicle.

_Symptoms._—The invasion is accompanied by fever, which is usually
slight, but is sometimes severe. There is pain just below the ear on one
side, followed by a swelling which gradually increases, causing great
enlargement of the neck and side of the cheek. In a day or two the other
side of the face is usually affected, and sometimes the condition spreads
under the lower jaw. It persists from seven to ten days, then gradually
subsides. Inflammation of the testicle may be troublesome. It is usually
one-sided.

_Treatment._—Rest in bed during the height of the disease. Get the
bowels freely open and keep the patient on a light diet. No medicine is
required unless the fever is high. Either cold or hot applications may be
made to the swelling. If the testicle is involved it should be treated by
rest and protection with cotton wool.


_Myiasis._

This is the name applied to the condition in which the larvæ of flies are
found parasitic in the body. It may be cutaneous, nasal or intestinal.
The last named is not of great importance. Different species of flies may
be concerned; thus in Africa, one of the best known flies producing this
condition is called on the West Coast the _Tumbu fly_. The fly itself is
about the size of a small blue-bottle, and is yellowish-grey in colour.
It has a fat white larva, which burrows under the skin and produces a
small boil or wheal, in the centre of which there is an opening which,
unless blocked up by discharge, looks black owing to the presence of
excrement from the posterior end of the larva. The skin round the hole
becomes inflamed and very itchy. The commonest site is the forearm, but
in Europeans various parts of the body may be attacked.

_Treatment._—When small the larvæ can easily be squeezed out. They are,
however, best extracted with forceps, and this is more readily done if a
little chloroform is injected into the maggot before it is removed. Apply
local sedatives, such as lead and opium and, after removal of the maggot,
paint the skin with iodine. Indeed, if there is some delay in getting the
maggot removed, it is well to apply tincture of iodine to the skin to
prevent the occurrence of suppuration.

In Central and South America we meet with the so-called _Ver macaque_,
which is the larva of another species of fly, and which gets under the
skin in much the same way as does that of the Tumbu fly. It causes a
great deal of pain, especially when it is moving about. It should be
treated on the same lines as above.

The _Screw-worm_ is also met with in America, and is the maggot of a fly
which lays its eggs on the surface of wounds and in the ears and nose of
persons sleeping in the open air. The maggots burrow into the tissues and
may bring about a very serious condition if not detected at an early date
and removed.

_Treatment._—Injections of chloroform are one of the best ways of getting
rid of maggots in the ear or nose, but medical attention is required.
Wounds should be protected and kept clean. If infected they may be
treated with turpentine, a painful but effective method.


_Ophthalmia, Simple._

Simple ophthalmia, conjunctivitis, or inflammation of the membrane
covering the eye and the inner side of the eyelids, is usually due to
cold or dust.

_Symptoms._—The affected eye is bloodshot and painful, waters freely, and
cannot bear a bright light; there is a feeling of grittiness, as if the
trouble were due to something between the eye and eyelid.

_Treatment._—The eye should be carefully washed, the eyelids being
opened and clean, cold water allowed to run over them and over the eye;
any particles of dust must be removed—for this purpose a small clean
camel-hair brush will be found useful. A lotion should be made consisting
of six grains of boric acid, or two grains of sulphate of zinc, to an
ounce of water, and ten drops or more of this should be dropped on to the
eyeball six or eight times a day. To prevent the lids sticking together
during the night, they should be smeared with vaseline or a salve
containing 4 grains of calomel to an ounce of vaseline. Sometimes hot
fomentations give relief.


_Ophthalmia, Purulent._

This is a more serious inflammation, and is caused by some poison,
_e.g._, germs carried by flies, or by the fingers from unhealthy sores
and discharges. It may also result from injury, such as a septic wound.

_Symptoms._—The symptoms of simple ophthalmia are present, but are all
intensified, the eyelids are swollen and the eyeballs red, there is a
discharge of yellow matter or pus, and the patient feels ill. There is
great danger of the affected eye infecting the sound one, therefore warn
the patient not to touch the sound eye for fear of infecting it. There is
also great danger lest the attendant’s own eyes should become infected.

_Treatment._—The patient should be kept in bed and the eyes should be
shielded from bright light. Protect the sound eye (especially when the
affected one is being washed) by placing a pad of wool or lint over it,
kept in its place by strips of strapping so as effectually to close the
eye and prevent infection. Thoroughly wash out the space between the
eyelids and the eye, and remove any matter or foreign body which may be
found.

When the inflamed surfaces are clean, wash them very thoroughly with a
solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 in 5000, and finally smear a little
vaseline along the edges of the lids, to prevent them sticking together.
This treatment must be repeated as frequently as possible. Once a day
the inflamed surfaces may be brushed over with a solution of nitrate
of silver, 10 grains to the ounce, applied with a camel’s-hair brush,
followed immediately by the application of a few drops of common salt
solution.

Hot fomentations may give relief. When this is so, the eye should be
kept covered with a pad of moist lint, which must be changed frequently.
Benefit has followed the administration of very large doses of salicylate
of soda.


_Piles._

Piles are very common in the tropics, and are often due to want of
exercise, chronic constipation, dysentery, too free use of alcohol, and
over-eating. No one who suffers from piles should become a traveller till
skilled advice has been obtained.

_Internal Piles_, though not usually painful, are by their frequent
bleeding a cause of anæmia and debility; they lie inside the orifice of
the bowel, but sometimes they come down on straining, and are then nipped
by the muscle surrounding the opening, and may swell up, become very
painful, and bleed profusely.

_Treatment._—Keep the bowels freely but gently opened by taking
cascara regularly; if the piles come down they should be returned,
and an ointment of galls and opium or an injection of hazeline (one
tablespoonful mixed with seven of water) used. Tannin, five grains to the
ounce, or sulphate of iron, three to five grains to the ounce, may be
used instead of hazeline. Hazeline suppositories are often of great use
for internal piles, but ordinary suppositories do not keep well in very
hot countries; if they are taken to the tropics they should therefore be
specially made and packed. If the piles bleed profusely or cause great
pain, an operation will be necessary.

_External piles_ do not bleed, but from time to time they become inflamed
and swollen, causing great agony.

_Treatment._—The bowels should be kept well opened; the sufferer should
lie with his hips raised; hot fomentations should be frequently applied,
and the piles should be well greased. Glycerine of belladonna, smeared on
a pad of lint, is a valuable application, as is dry calomel powder.

Some sedative, such as Dover’s powder, may be necessary to procure rest
and sleep.


_Plague._

There are two chief varieties of plague, the bubonic and the pneumonic.

_Causes._—Bubonic plague, which is due to a small vegetable organism,
the _Bacillus pestis_, exists primarily as a disease in rats and other
rodents, such as the Manchurian marmot and the Californian brown
squirrel, and is transmitted from these animals to man by means of the
flea. It is the rat flea that is chiefly concerned in the spread of
plague. Both the brown and the black rat are affected and, speaking
generally, the black rat is the more dangerous, as it lives in closer
association with man. It is now known that certain forms of merchandise,
especially grain and, to a lesser extent, raw cotton, are more to be
dreaded as vehicles of the bubonic plague infection than the infected
human being.

The flea does not inoculate the bacillus by its bite. It sucks up blood
containing plague bacilli. The latter multiply in the insect to such an
extent that they block the entrance of the flea’s stomach and prevent it
from feeding. The starved flea makes violent efforts to obtain more blood
and, as a result, the contents of its gullet are discharged, together
with the plague bacilli, upon the skin of the healthy person on whom it
is trying to feed. If there is any little wound in this skin the bacilli
gain an entrance and they set up the disease. Infection may also occur
from the bacilli-containing excreta of the flea being voided on the skin
and rubbed into wounds. When rats become ill or die the fleas leave them
and attack man. It should be noted that the rat flea may remain infective
for 43 days.

Pneumonic plague, although due to the same bacillus, is quite a
different kind of disease, and is transmitted from the sick to the sound
by droplets of sputum expelled in coughing, and probably also by the
invisible spray which pneumonia patients discharge from the mouth. When
the disease is epidemic domestic animals may suffer from it and become
sources of infection.

_Symptoms._—Both forms of plague are characterised by sudden onset, sharp
fever, giddiness, great weakness, a drunken gait, appearance and speech,
and a tendency to heart failure.

In bubonic plague there is lassitude, headache and shivering, and the
face is pale and anxious. The patient looks haggard, his eyes are often
bloodshot, and his expression is frequently one of fear or horror. His
temperature runs up to 102°, 104° F., or even higher, and his face
gets hot and flushed. There is intense thirst, the tongue becomes dry
and brown, the urine is scanty, and there may be delirium. About the
second or third day the glandular swellings known as buboes make their
appearance, usually in the groin, but they may occur in the armpits,
the neck, and elsewhere. As a rule there is only one bubo, which varies
in size. There may be a good deal of pain associated with the swelling,
and sometimes it is very severe. The bubo, if not dealt with surgically,
eventually softens and bursts, discharging matter and sloughs. In cases
which are going to recover, improvement is noted about the fourth or
fifth day, and is heralded by a profuse perspiration. In fatal cases,
death usually takes place between the third and fifth days.

Pneumonic plague usually begins with shivering and vomiting. There is a
cough, accompanied by breathlessness and blueness of the face, the sputum
is profuse, watery and blood-stained, and as it is full of plague bacilli
it is exceedingly dangerous. Very few cases of pneumonic plague recover.

_Prophylaxis._—Ward off attacks of fleas. A substance called pesterine
is good for this purpose, and consists of kerosene 20 parts, soft soap
1 part, and water 5 parts. Powdered naphthalene and tricresol powder
are useful. Attendants on plague patients should be protected from
infection. They should wear puttees or gum-boots, gloves, and overalls,
and those looking after pneumonic cases must wear masks, goggles, and
overalls. There is a protective vaccine for plague, and those travelling
in districts where plague is epidemic should avail themselves of its
protective power.

_Treatment._—The only treatment which is of any value, and this only in
bubonic plague and when given early, is the administration of plague
anti-toxin, which should only be given by a medical man. The symptoms
should be treated in order to relieve the patient’s distress. Belladonna
and glycerine may be applied to the buboes, and they should be opened
and carefully dressed once suppuration is established. Morphia is often
required for the restlessness and insomnia, and cardiac stimulants are
indicated in nearly every case.


_Pleurisy, or Inflammation of the Membrane Covering the Lung._

This is more a disease of cold climates, and is usually the result of
chill following severe exertion.

_Symptoms._—Pleurisy is accompanied by less fever and general sickness
than pneumonia; its characteristic symptom is the “stitch in the side”,
which always accompanies it. There is also a short, dry cough, without
expectoration, which the patient tries to restrain, as it “catches” in
the side, and causes acute pain. For the same reason the breathing is
shallow, as any attempt to draw a deep breath causes extreme suffering.

_Treatment._—The patient suffers greatly, therefore in the early stages
treatment must be directed to the pain. If leeches are procurable,
the application of half-a-dozen to the painful region of the chest is
advisable. Mustard leaves or poultices should be applied over the part,
or it may be painted with tincture of iodine; opium may be given to
relieve the acute pain, in the form of Dover’s powder, fifteen grains
three times a day. Five grains of quinine may be given twice a day.


_Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs._

It has been definitely proved that the black races are specially
susceptible to the organism which is the cause of pneumonia, and it is a
frequent source of invaliding amongst the native attendants of travellers
in Africa and elsewhere.

_Causes._—As predisposing factors may be noted change of climate, chill,
insanitary conditions of life, fatigue, and overwork. Malaria, syphilis,
alcoholism, and excessive tobacco-smoking also play a part. The disease
is believed to be spread by personal contact, but this has not been
definitely established.

_Symptoms._—These usually begin with a severe attack of shivering; the
temperature rises rapidly, the pulse and breathing are greatly quickened,
and the patient is completely prostrated. The face is flushed, the
skin feels hot and dry, and there is a short cough, dry at first, but
afterwards accompanied by expectoration of a moderate quantity of slimy,
rust-coloured, blood-stained, and almost frothless matter. Usually there
is pain on the affected side, which in most eases is the right side of
the chest, above the liver. In African natives heart failure is very
common.

_Prophylaxis._—In order to prevent the occurrence of pneumonia amongst
native followers good food should be provided, properly cooked; and it is
important to see that they are supplied with sufficient blankets at night
if travelling through cold regions. If it can possibly be avoided natives
from hot, humid localities should not be taken to chilly, elevated and
wind-swept places, as under such conditions they are very apt to contract
pneumonia. Overcrowding in huts or tents should be avoided, and any sore
throats which develop should be promptly treated.

_Treatment._—A patient attacked with pneumonia should take to bed at
once. The affected side should be surrounded with a _large_ poultice.
Five grains of quinine should be given every eight hours. If the heart’s
action is weak, give some preparation of ammonia, as a stimulant, and
administer alcohol, up to half an ounce, every two hours. Opium should
only be given to calm the patient, as large doses do harm by checking
free expectoration; if there is much distress, then ten or fifteen grains
of Dover’s powder may be given.

An ice poultice applied to the chest will give great relief by lowering
the temperature and diminishing the pain (_see_ page 274).


_Quinsy, or Inflammation of the Tonsils._

Apply poultices to the neck. Gargle with a hot, weak solution of
permanganate of potash, or a solution of chinosol (1 in 2000), at least
every hour. Administer quinine and iron as a tonic. Keep the bowels well
open. Surgical aid is sometimes required in bad cases.


_Relapsing Fever._

This is the old “famine fever,” and it occurs in various parts of the
world.

_Causes._—It is due to a corkscrew-shaped blood parasite, which is
conveyed from the sick to the healthy by means of lice. Some hold that
certain forms of this fever in Palestine, Cilicia, and Persia are
transmitted by means of the common fowl tick, which often harbours in
the cracks in native bedsteads and in crevices in the walls of huts and
other dwelling places.

The true tick fever of Africa, which is also a relapsing fever, is
considered separately. (See _Tick Fever_, p. 241.)

_Symptoms._—These differ a little in different parts of the world.
The incubation period is usually from five to ten days. The onset is
remarkably sudden. The patient has a chill or shivering fit, becomes
giddy, develops a bad frontal headache, feels as if he had been beaten
all over, and frequently vomits. He has often a difficulty in walking,
and soon becomes seriously ill. Delirium is not infrequent. The tongue,
unlike that in typhus fever, remains moist throughout the illness.
Thirst, restlessness, and vomiting are very characteristic of the
condition, and the urine is scanty. As a general rule recovery takes
place, but sometimes the patient grows gradually worse and dies. As a
rule, however, the temperature falls very suddenly, and the patient is
better. After a week or so a relapse occurs. The temperature again shoots
up, and remains up for several days. Then there is a second crisis,
another relapse, and so on for perhaps three or four times. Most cases
recover, and once convalescence is established the patient soon gets well.

_Prophylaxis._—The disease being lice-borne, it is necessary to take all
steps to prevent contact with these insects (see _Lice_, p. 196). The
organism has been shown to be capable of passing through intact mucous
membranes and unbroken skin. Hence it is advisable to be careful when
attending a case, for the organism has been found in sweat and tears,
while the patient’s blood is, of course, infectious.

_Treatment._—Careful nursing and a light diet. Attend to the state of
the mouth and of the bowels. The arsenic preparation, known as salvarsan
(kharsivan), is a specific remedy, and can cut the disease short; but
it can be administered only by a medical man. Otherwise there is no
treatment save the symptomatic.


_Rheumatism._

This is a disease which frequently follows exposure to damp and cold, and
is on that account not uncommon in the tropics. It is often hereditary.
After one attack, rheumatism is always liable to recur in the same
individual, and on this account it is necessary that persons liable to
the disease should use special precautions.

_Acute rheumatism or Rheumatic Fever._—This is really an infectious
disease due to a specific organism, and is quite different from the
ordinary rheumatism of everyday life.

_Symptoms._—It begins by a shivering fit, with rise of temperature and
general sickness, and the joints, usually wrists, ankles, or knees,
become painful, tender, and afterwards swollen. It resembles other
feverish conditions in the rapid pulse and breathing, the constipation,
scanty and high-coloured urine, etc., but it differs from most of them in
the presence of a profuse and sour-smelling perspiration, resembling the
odour of butter-milk.

_Treatment._—The best remedy for acute rheumatism is salicylate of soda,
of which fifteen grains should be given every six hours. The joints
should, at the same time, be kept wrapped up in cotton wool, covered
with oiled silk and a flannel bandage. This treatment will nearly always
correct the acute symptoms in two or three days. If the symptoms subside
sooner, the quantity of the salicylate should be diminished; if there is
delirium, the dose must be lessened at once, for many people are very
susceptible to salicylates and are easily affected by them, the delirium
being characteristic. Dover’s powder may be given to relieve pain and to
secure sleep.

_Chronic rheumatism._—In this disease there is chronic pain and
tenderness of the joints, without fever.

_Treatment._—Bicarbonate of potash and salicylate of soda, each in
five-grain doses, should be given every eight hours. Painful joints may
be painted with tincture of iodine, rubbed with turpentine liniment, or
bathed with hot water. The bowels should be kept well open, and alcohol
and much meat avoided.


_Rupture or Hernia._

A rupture or hernia is a protrusion of some portion of the bowels under
the skin, and is usually found in the groin. It is generally reducible,
_i.e._, it can be pushed back into the belly. It reappears when the
pressure is removed, especially if the patient coughs or strains. When
reduced, a properly-fitting truss should be applied and worn during
the day. It can be taken off at night, after lying down, but should
be re-adjusted in the morning, whilst the patient is still in bed. No
patient should go abroad without having an operation for the cure of the
hernia.

The great danger of any rupture is that it may become irreducible—a
condition which is very likely to be followed by constriction or
“strangulation” and subsequent death of the ruptured part of the bowel.
If unrelieved, this constricted condition is always fatal. The existence
of strangulation is known by local pain and tenderness, development of
severe colicky pains in the belly (especially about the navel), absolute
constipation, vomiting, hiccough, and symptoms of collapse. When this
condition is observed, the patient’s hips should be raised by supporting
them with pillows, and the tumour should be only very gently kneaded
with the view of getting back the protruded bowel. The treatment is
considerably aided by immersing the patient in a warm bath, and giving
about twenty drops of laudanum or chlorodyne. Ice placed round the
swelling for half an hour or so is often very effective. If these means
fail, surgical aid is absolutely necessary. _Purgatives should not be
given._


_Sand-Fly Fever._

This disease, also known as phlebotomus fever, is very widespread and
probably occurs in most parts of the world where sand-flies are found.

_Cause._—The organism is unknown, presumably being too small to be
seen by the highest powers of the microscope, but it is known to be
transmitted by what are called sand-flies or pappataci flies, tiny and
very hairy midges which breed in such places as heaps of damp stones,
bricks, and tiles, cracks in surface soil, the walls of old cellars,
cracks and fissures in embankments. These little flies, which sally forth
upon the blood quest towards evening, are voracious blood-suckers, and
feed principally in the gloaming and at dawn. They chiefly attack the
wrists and ankles, and can easily bite through thin socks or light cotton
or linen clothing. It has been proved that the bite of one infected
fly can convey fever. During the day they hide in dark places, and may
be found in the dark corners of rooms. Their bites are painful, and
when numerous the bitten part may swell badly. An attack by many flies
effectually banishes sleep.

_Symptoms._—The fever is short and sharp—indeed, it is often called the
three-day fever. The incubation period is four to seven days, and the
attack is sudden, beginning with chilly sensations and a tired feeling.
There may be rigors, but these are never so severe as the shivering fits
of malaria. The patient becomes giddy, has a severe frontal headache
with pain at the back of the eyes and pains in the back and legs. The
condition, indeed, is very like an influenzal attack except that there
is, as a rule, no coryza. The face is flushed and the eyes may be
injected. When the latter is the case one can understand how the disease
was originally given the name of the “dog disease,” as the appearance
of the injected conjunctivæ resembles that sometimes seen in mastiffs
and bloodhounds. There may be some sore throat, and sometimes there is a
little eruption on the throat or palate. The temperature rises rapidly
and may attain 103° F. It remains up for about twenty-four hours and
then begins to fall, usually becoming normal on the third or fourth
day. Sometimes there is a secondary rise of temperature. The patient
may speedily recover or convalescence may be tedious, and the condition
is sometimes followed by mental depression and the digestion may be
upset. The fever is apparently never fatal but it is troublesome and
debilitating.

_Prophylaxis._—Protect from the bites of sand-flies. This is best done
by the use of a fine-mesh net containing twenty-two holes to the linear
inch. It should be of the same general pattern as the net recommended
under malaria (_see_ p. 206). Tobacco smoke keeps the flies away to some
extent and repellents are useful, especially vermijelli, containing some
oil of citronella, the preparation known as Sketofax, oil of cassia and
oil of eucalyptus. A lump of camphor as a bed-fellow is also useful as
the flies dislike its odour. The patient should always be placed under a
fine-mesh net to prevent his being a source of infection to others.

_Treatment._—Rest in bed, light diet, and one full dose of laudanum,
_i.e._, thirty drops, given as early as possible. Chlorodyne in the same
dose may also be used. Quinine is useless and may aggravate the symptoms,
but aspirin and the salicylates are helpful. If there is much pain in the
muscles the application of hot sand-bags may afford relief.


_Scarlet Fever, or Scarlatina._

This fever is very uncommon in hot climates.

Incubation period, three to eight days. Rash appears second day.

_Symptoms._—The rash consists of numerous minute red spots, evenly
distributed all over the surface of the body, upon a general rose-red
blush. The area immediately surrounding the mouth is not affected.
Shivering fits, sickness, high temperature, sore throat, headache, pains
in the back. The sickness is very characteristic in children. After the
rash has subsided, _peeling_ of the skin takes place, beginning on the
face as a very fine powdery deposit. The process then spreads to other
parts of the body, the last places to peel being the palms of the hands,
the soles of the feet, and between the fingers and toes. The peeling
process takes from four to six weeks, and the patient is infectious
during the whole of this period.

_Treatment._—Isolation. Bed in an airy room. Light food. If the fever
is high (104° F.), the body may be sponged with tepid water. If the
throat is very inflamed, an antiseptic gargle should be used. As the
course of infectious fevers cannot be cut short, the chief aim of
treatment should be to avert complications and the return of distressing
symptoms—over-treatment with drugs must be guarded against.

To prevent the spread of infection from the peeling surface, the body
should be rubbed over with boracic ointment, or carbolic or olive oil.

_Complications._—As scarlet fever may be followed by heart, kidney, or
ear trouble, the patient should not be allowed to get up until at least
ten days after the temperature has become normal.


_Scorpion Sting and Spider Bite._

_Scorpion sting_ is not infrequent in hot countries, but is very rarely
fatal in the case of the adult European unless several stings have been
received at one time.

_Symptoms._—The usual symptoms in the adult are a brawny swelling in the
region of the sting and more or less collapse. There is often severe pain
of a throbbing nature, and there may be sickness and vomiting.

_Treatment._—Apply a tourniquet above the sting and incise the affected
area; then apply an opium lotion. This is usually sufficient to afford
relief and prevent extension of the swelling. A serum suitable for use in
Egypt and the Sudan only, has been prepared for treating scorpion stings,
and when it is available it should be used as soon as possible, as very
favourable results have been reported from its employment. It can be
obtained in Cairo or in this country from Messrs. Allen and Hanbury.

_Spider bite_ is not so important as scorpion sting, though poisonous
spiders do exist in various parts of the world and belong to a genus
found in Southern Europe, New Zealand, and various parts of North and
South America. Many of these poisonous spiders are brightly coloured,
their abdomens being spotted with vermilion. In Peru there is a so-called
“pruning-spider,” which belongs to another genus and is also poisonous.

_Symptoms._—Locally a reddish papule appears, and there is sharp stinging
pain. The papule is followed by a spreading inflammation which sometimes
goes on to gangrene, though this is rare. The general symptoms are
those of nervous exhaustion and there is high fever, rapid pulse, rapid
breathing, and sometimes blood in the urine.

_Treatment._—Apply a ligature and suck the wound. Use permanganate of
potash locally as in the case of snake-bite. The permanganate should also
be given internally, one-quarter to one per cent. solution being given
every hour or every two hours. Diffusible stimulants such as ammonia,
caffeine, or camphor are useful as diuretics. A strict milk diet should
be enforced during treatment.


_Scurvy._

This is one of the deficiency diseases. This is not to say that mere
general starvation will produce it, but that it is due to the lack of
certain substances in the diet. These substances are known to exist in
fresh fruit and vegetables, and also to a lesser extent in fresh meat and
raw milk, but their exact nature has not yet been determined. Travellers
should remember that, apart from the actual disease, there is a scorbutic
state in which the symptoms are indefinite, and which, if not recognized
and promptly treated, will pass on to true scurvy.

_Symptoms._—Scurvy begins insidiously with progressive weakness, pallor,
loss of weight, and stiffness in the leg muscles. Later the gums become
affected, soft swellings sprouting up between the teeth. As the disease
progresses the gums become swollen and spongy, ulcerate and bleed,
while in bad cases the mouth becomes very offensive and contains large
fungating masses. Other signs of scurvy are hæmorrhages under the skin
and mucous membrane and in the muscles. Any injury is apt to be followed
by hæmorrhage. Swelling of the legs is an important symptom, especially
in the region of the ankles. If untreated, the condition becomes
worse, the appetite is impaired, mental depression sets in, there is
breathlessness on exertion, and night and day blindness. Death results
from heart failure or some complication.

_Prophylaxis._—Ensure a good dietary containing sufficient anti-scorbutic
elements. Wherever possible, fresh meat, fresh vegetables, and fresh
fruit should be supplied. Lemon juice is valuable. It should be noted
that it is four times as efficient as the lime juice which used formerly
to be employed. The ration should be one ounce daily served with sugar.
Germinating peas, beans, and other pulses contain the anti-scorbutic
elements in large quantity. It is a simple matter to carry a supply
of these pulses and to germinate them when required. The dry seeds
must be whole, retaining their original seed-coat. In order to make
them germinate they are placed in a clean sack and steeped in a vessel
containing clean water, which should be occasionally stirred. Sack and
trough should be large enough to allow for the swelling of the pulses to
about three times their original size. In a hot climate six to twelve
hours is sufficient for this soaking. Thereafter, lift the seeds out
of the water and spread them out to a depth not exceeding two or three
inches in some vessel which allows free access of air to them. Keep
them moist by covering with sacking, which is wetted at intervals. The
germination should reach the stage necessary within twenty-four hours
in a hot climate, and the pulses should be cooked and eaten as soon as
possible after germination. Care should be taken not to overcook them.
At a pinch germination may be effected by placing the seeds between wet
blankets, but this is a rough-and-ready method not to be recommended.

It is important to attend to oral hygiene, especially the regular use
of the tooth-brush. Vegetables should never be overcooked. In the case
of African native followers Kaffir beer made from germinated grain is
of great value; one pint should be given daily per head. Potatoes and
root vegetables are useful, and the onion is a valuable food in this
connexion. Fresh meat is not so effective as either fresh fruit or
vegetables.

_Treatment._—This is chiefly dietetic, and the same foods and substances
as are mentioned under prophylaxis are used also for the cure of scurvy.
In addition, scurvy patients should be kept in bed, given plenty of
fresh air, and have the affected parts massaged. Tonics and mouth-washes
are indicated, and a liberal diet with plenty of fat in it should be
provided. Where fresh fruit cannot be obtained raw meat and raw fresh
eggs in milk form a good substitute.


_Sea-Sickness._

Take a saline aperient on the day before embarking, and a light plain
meal at least three hours before going on board. A cup of good tea or
black coffee soon after starting is often of use.

Those liable to sea-sickness should go to bed directly they get on board:
the head should be kept low and the room darkened. A mustard leaf applied
to the pit of the stomach is of value in diminishing the tendency to
vomit. An abdominal belt is useful from the gentle support it gives. A
hot-water bottle may be applied to the feet.

A mixture containing fifteen grains of bromide of soda and five grains of
antipyrine to one ounce of water is often of great value. The first dose
should be given immediately the patient is in bed, and may be repeated
every six hours if required.

Whitla states that the best of all remedies is bromide of ammonium. It
should be given in twenty-grain doses for a day or two before embarking.
Morphia may be found necessary: a third of a grain may be injected under
the skin of adults, but it should on no account be given to children.

I have found that three or four drops of chloroform, dropped on to loaf
sugar and sucked, often prevents vomiting.

Those who are vomiting severely should take plenty of hot water or milk,
so as to prevent them from straining on an empty stomach.

Very often raisins or raisin tea can be taken when other nourishment is
rejected. A recent method of treatment which has sometimes been found
effective is to plug the ears firmly with cotton-wool, but this should
only be done by a medical man. It is, however, worth trying.


_Skin Diseases._

_Boils._—Boils are very common in the tropics and occur especially in
people who have been run down. They are most frequent during or after
the rains and especially in the course of hot, damp summers. In Egypt the
so-called Nile boil is quite a feature of the country. In the tropics
boils are often multiple and a very favourite site is the buttocks. Any
part, however, which is apt to be bathed in sweat is liable to infection.
A boil on the face may apparently result from the bite of a mosquito or
other blood-sucking insect.

_Prophylaxis._—Protect from insect bites and treat even the most trivial
of skin lesions with tincture of iodine. Keep the skin clean and change
the underclothing frequently. If a boil occurs cover it with a small
dressing so that other parts of the skin may not be affected. A change of
climate is often the only thing that will do good in the case of a person
afflicted with crops of boils.

_Treatment._—It is sometimes possible to abort a boil by dipping a
sharpened wooden match or a toothpick into pure carbolic acid and
thrusting it repeatedly into the heart of the swelling. If the boil has
somewhat developed hot fomentations and moist dressings should be applied
and iodine should be painted on the skin round the boil. As a rule it
is wiser not to open a boil, even when it has suppurated. It is best
to let it burst and then to dress it carefully with a boric poultice,
which should be frequently changed. Treatment with vaccines has come
into vogue and is sometimes very helpful. Sulphide of calcium pills, one
grain in each, three times a day, are often given and are said to have
a prophylactic effect, but a preparation known as stannoxyl and used in
the form of tablets is to be preferred. The usual dose is four tablets
the first day, six the second, and eight on subsequent days. The drug
is somewhat constipating. A remedy more easily obtained and which is
said to be distinctly beneficial is dilute sulphuric acid. It should be
taken in doses of twenty to thirty drops, well diluted, every four hours.
The general health requires attention and lemon juice, plenty of green
vegetables and tonics should be taken.

_Carbuncles._—A carbuncle is of the same nature as a boil, but is a more
serious complaint, and it is distinguished from a boil by the fact that
it opens by several mouths.

To promote ripening of the carbuncle and the separation of the core or
dead piece of tissue, poultices and hot fomentations should be freely
applied, and if the core can be seen it should be removed, if possible,
by a pair of forceps.

To facilitate removal of the core it is sometimes advisable to cut
through the skin separating the openings; there may be some slight
bleeding, but it will cease after a short time.

Opium may be given to relieve acute suffering. The bowels should be kept
well open. A generous diet must be given; tonics of iron, quinine and
arsenic are needed, and alcohol may prove necessary.

Carbuncles rarely appear except in people much broken down in health, and
their presence is an indication that the sufferer should return to his
own country and seek skilled advice.

_Chigger._—The chigger is not itself a disease but is a sand-flea
producing a condition known by the long name of dermatophiliasis. It is
a veritable pest in parts of South America and all over tropical Africa.
The insect is like the common flea but smaller, lives in dry sandy soil
and sucks the blood of mammals, especially pigs. After impregnation the
female burrows into the skin of a mammal or bird, and, nourished by
blood, proceeds to ovulation. Her abdomen becomes filled with ripe eggs
and enormously distended till it looks like a small pea. Eventually the
eggs escape through the opening of the skin and hatch into larvæ which in
due time become adult fleas.

_Symptoms._—In man the feet are the part most frequently affected, the
chiggers being found between the toes and under the toe nails. When
people sleep on the ground other parts of the body may become affected
and large numbers of chiggers may be present at one time. There is
itching and irritation at the place of invasion, and when the latter is
examined a little dark dot will be seen. This is the posterior end of the
female flea, which is lying head downwards in her burrow. If not removed
suppuration occurs round her distended abdomen and the skin gets much
inflamed and swollen. When the eggs have been discharged ulceration takes
place and the flea is expelled. A small sore, however, is left which is
very liable to get contaminated, and, if neglected, may lead to very
severe complications.

_Prophylaxis._—Do not camp in the neighbourhood of native villages. Clean
the camping ground thoroughly and, if necessary, fire it. As insecticides
flaked naphthalene or a strong infusion of native tobacco are useful.
The latter may be used inside boots or shoes. Walking bare-foot should
be avoided, as should sleeping unprotected on the ground. In the case
of native carriers or porters a daily foot-parade should be instituted.
Some protection is afforded by smearing the feet, especially the spaces
between and under the toes, with a preparation like phenofax or with a
mixture of five drops of lysol or cresol and an ounce of vaseline.

_Treatment._—It is usually better to get a native to remove a chigger
as long practice makes them very expert in the little operation. The
latter consists in widening the skin orifice with a sharp clean needle,
and freeing the flea from the surrounding tissues in order to get it out
whole. If it ruptures forceps must be employed, and this is much more
painful and difficult than extracting the entire insect. The infected
parts should be carefully treated antiseptically.

_Fungus Diseases._—There is a great number of tropical diseases due to
fungi but only a few can be considered here, and these only very briefly.
(1) _Dhobie Itch_ is one of the best known and is so called because it
was thought to be derived from clothes infected by the persons (dhobies)
who washed them. The parts usually attacked are the groins, the upper
part of the thighs and the armpits. The condition is due to a fungus like
that of ringworm and the skin becomes red and raised and somewhat scurfy.
Dhobie itch causes great irritation and is sometimes associated with
considerable pain.

_Treatment._—Mild cases are best treated by using an ointment containing
resorcin two drachms, salicylic acid ten grains, and vaseline and
lanoline, of each four drachms. The parts may be painted with iodine but
this is somewhat irritating. An ointment of ammoniated mercury, two to
five per cent., is often effective. Bad cases require the application
of araroba (chrysarobin) ointment, but it should not be used unless
recommended by a doctor. Goulard water or Wright’s liquor carbonis
detergens (one tablespoonful to two pints of water) are soothing
applications.

(2) There is a fungus disease of the hairs, especially of the armpits
and the pubis, which occurs in tropical climates and is often very
troublesome. The hairs assume a coated, beaded or nodular appearance and
the deposit on them varies in colour and may be black, yellow or red.
The underclothing in contact with the affected parts becomes stained
and when the disease spreads to the skin, as it often does, the latter
becomes inflamed, thickened and painful.

_Prophylaxis._—Keep the axillae shaved. It is always well to do so in a
tropical climate. Failing this, dust with a mixture of powdered sulphur
and fuller’s earth, equal parts. Change the underclothing frequently and
bathe the parts liable to infection.

_Treatment._—Apply twice daily a lotion containing one drachm of formalin
in six ounces of rectified spirit, and at night rub in a two per cent.
sulphur ointment. If these measures fail apply tincture of iodine, except
in cases where the skin is involved. In such cases bathe with cold water
and employ a dusting powder or a soothing lotion.

(3) _Ringworm_ of the head is a disease due to a fungus. The part for
some distance round the affected area should be shaved, and any stumps
of hairs pulled out. The skin should be lightly painted with tincture
of iodine or strong solution of carbolic acid (one in ten of water); or
sulphur, white precipitate, or mercurial ointment may be gently rubbed in.

_Kraw-Kraw._—This is a term commonly employed by natives of the West
Coast of Africa to indicate almost any kind of itchy, papular, or
pustular eruption. Many of these appear to be contagious, and most of
them are best treated by opening up any pustules which may be present,
removing crusts by boric poultices, and scraping ulcers. Then scrub
thoroughly with sublimate lotion 1 in 1,000, dust with boric powder and
apply a dressing of medicated vaseline. The application should not be
disturbed for a week when, as a rule, the skin will be found to have
healed up. Clothing and any other articles which have been in contact
with the affected parts should be destroyed or thoroughly disinfected.

_Prickly Heat._—This condition is very frequent, especially in the moist
tropics. It is due to free sweating, and is accompanied by intense heat
and itching. The parts closely covered by clothing are specially apt to
be affected. The skin becomes covered with numerous slightly inflamed
papules, set close together, and the eruption may remain for months at a
time, varying in intensity according to circumstances.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid long drinks, warm clothing, too much exercise, and
all conditions producing excessive perspiration. Sea-bathing should
be avoided, and soap should not be used in the bath. One should sleep
under as hygienic conditions as possible, with a well-ventilated bed and
without unnecessary clothing. A dusting powder of equal parts of boric
acid, oxide of zinc, and starch is useful.

_Treatment._—Ryan strongly recommends the so-called “Sulphaqua” bath
charge, which is sold in packets ready for use. The above-mentioned
dusting powder is helpful, as is the application of a lotion containing
salicylic acid and spirit. Some prefer oily applications. Whatever is
used, care should be taken to see that the bowels are well opened at the
beginning of an attack, preferably by a saline purge.

_Ulcers._—Ulcers are often very troublesome to the traveller, as the
healing process is frequently retarded by exposure, dirt and dust, and
the chafing of clothes. Want of sufficient animal food greatly favours
the spread of large ulcers.

A simple dressing of iodoform ointment, or ointment of boric acid, is
effective when the ulcer can be protected, and rest can be given to the
affected part. When the ulcer is deep and large it may be stimulated to
heal by the application of lint or cotton-wool, moistened with carbolic
oil, carbolic lotion, or other antiseptics.

Large, unhealthy ulcers should be well bathed with some antiseptic such
as carbolic acid, one in sixty of water, or a solution of chinosol (1 in
600); and after the sore has been cleansed it may be lightly dusted with
iodoform and then covered with a piece of lint moistened with carbolic
oil or smeared with iodoform ointment and supported by an evenly applied
bandage. Boric ointment, lano-creoline, izal ointment or other antiseptic
dressing may take the place of iodoform ointment.

In addition to the above general account, certain conditions leading to
ulceration require consideration.

_Oriental Sore._—This condition is commonly known as Baghdad Boil, Aleppo
Button, Frontier Sore, etc. It occurs in various hot countries, such
as Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, and has been met
with in Europe and Greece. A special form affecting both skin and mucous
membranes is widely distributed in South America.

_Cause._—The cause is an organism to all appearance identical with that
which produces leishmaniasis or kala-azar. Indeed, Oriental sore is a
form of cutaneous leishmaniasis. In all probability infection is conveyed
by sand-flies, but our knowledge is still defective on this point.

_Symptoms._—The incubation period varies from a fortnight to a year. The
sore may occur on any exposed part of the body, but is most common on the
forearm, hands, and face. Multiple sores are frequent. The first sign is
a small red, scaly papule, which increases in size and eventually breaks
down, forming a painless ulcer, with a hard, dry edge. Non-ulcerating
forms occur, but are not common. The condition is very chronic, but
healing usually sets in after six to twelve months. When the ulcer heals
a white or pink scar is left, which is disfiguring.

_Prophylaxis._—Sleep under a sand-fly net, containing 22 holes to the
linear inch. Warn against the danger of infection by personal contact and
the risk of re-infecting oneself by scratching. It is advisable to paint
the sites of all fly and insect bites with iodine as soon as possible.

_Treatment._—The best treatment at present known is intravenous injection
of tartar emetic. This, of course, can be carried out only by a medical
man. Good results have, however, been obtained by applying a 2 per cent.
ointment of tartarate of antimony, and this method can be carried out by
the patient himself. Local injections of emetine have been recommended,
and there are various other ways of treating Oriental sore, but they need
not be here considered.

_Tropical Ulcer._—This is a special and serious form of ulcer found in
all parts of the world, and especially amongst East African natives. It
is found chiefly in the lower third of the leg and in the region of the
foot and ankle.

_Cause._—This is somewhat obscure, but it is believed to be due to
certain organisms possibly acting in association with one another.

_Symptoms._—The condition starts as a small, tender, and often itchy
papular bleb, surrounded by a dense inflammatory zone. An ulcer results,
which is more or less painless, and one of the characteristics of which
is the way it spreads and destroys all the tissues with which it comes
in contact. It is often mistaken for a syphilitic ulcer, but it does not
usually yield to anti-syphilitic remedies.

_Treatment._—The best remedy would appear to be formalin, though the
iodoform ointment mentioned under ulcers may aid the condition. It can be
effectually treated only by a medical man.

_Veldt Sore._—This condition, which is also known as Barcoo Rot, is
frequently in evidence in countries with hot, dry climates, as, for
example, Egypt, Palestine, South Africa, Mesopotamia, etc.

_Cause._—It is due to certain bacteriological organisms, and is apt to
occur in persons who are debilitated, who are not receiving proper food,
or who are living under conditions where it is not easy to keep clean.
Some think the sores are commonest in men who have to deal with horses.

_Symptoms._—Veldt sores are most common on the hands and forearms. They
begin as itchy papules, which become blebs, then pustules, and finally
ulcers. They are usually multiple, and when they heal they leave areas of
thin, glossy skin.

_Prophylaxis._—As for boils.

_Treatment._—The spread of ulcers can be checked by removing the hairs
from their bases and round their margins. Very often the ulcer can
be started on its healing process by employing dressings soaked in a
solution of 1.5 per cent. sodium citrate and 20 per cent. common salt.
Vaccines are often successfully used in this condition, and the stannoxyl
mentioned under boils may be employed, as may a salicylic acid ointment,
20 grains to the ounce.


_Sleeping Sickness._

This is the old “Negro lethargy,” and must not be confounded with what is
now called sleeping sickness in the British Isles and on the Continent,
which is quite a different disease. True sleeping sickness is limited to
Africa, and there are two chief types: that occurring in parts of the
West Coast and the French and Belgian Congos, in Angola, in portions
of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in Uganda, and in parts of the Tanganyika
territory; and that which occurs in Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland,
Portuguese West Africa, and the region of the Rovuma River.

_Cause._—The cause is a tiny animal blood parasite conveyed from the sick
to the healthy by certain species of tsetse flies. In the tsetse fly the
parasite, which is called a trypanosome, undergoes a definite development.

The two species of tsetse fly meriting special consideration here are
_Glossina morsitans_ and _Glossina palpalis_. The former, as a rule,
occurs in thin, deciduous bush, or low, comparatively open forest, while
the latter haunts the neighbourhood of streams and lakes, and is rarely
found any great distance from the water edge. These flies are about the
size of a small blue-bottle, but are not so stoutly built and, when
closed, their wings overlap and project beyond the end of the abdomen.
_Glossina morsitans_ is brownish coloured, with bands on its abdomen.
_Glossina palpalis_ is much darker, indeed almost black-looking. They
have a quick and darting flight, and are attracted by rapidly-moving
objects, like motor-bicycles and motor-cars. Once they alight they do not
move about. As a rule they bite only during the day, but they may attack
man on bright moonlight nights.

_Symptoms._—The incubation period is probably about three weeks. The
fly bite may be painful; and causes a slight local irritation. The
disease begins insidiously, with an irregular fever, and there may be
a skin eruption. The fever comes and goes, and the patient gets weaker
and suffers from headache. The glands in his neck and possibly in other
parts of his body become enlarged and may be tender. The first stage
of the disease is called trypanosome fever, and may end in recovery.
More usually the central nervous system becomes affected, and then the
symptoms of true sleeping sickness develop, slowly or with considerable
rapidity. The patient becomes dull and drowsy. Both his speech and
movements are affected. His face gets puffy, and he shuffles when he
walks. He still has fever, continues to lose flesh, and gradually passes
into a sleepy condition, which may be associated with convulsions. Saliva
dribbles from the lips, and half-masticated food may remain in the
mouth. The patient becomes helpless and indifferent to his surroundings,
and either dies from coma or from some intercurrent disease, such as
pneumonia or dysentery.

_Prophylaxis._—Personal prophylaxis consists in avoiding being bitten by
tsetse flies. When passing through fly belts in affected areas veils and
gloves may be worn.

_Treatment._—If taken in time sleeping sickness can be readily cured by
the use of the arsenical preparation atoxyl, combined with antimony. The
course of treatment, however, extends over a considerable period, and it
must be carried out under the supervision of a medical man.


_Sleeplessness._

This is common in those broken down by malaria, dysentery or debilitating
diseases; it is also induced by the irritation caused by mosquitoes and
other pests, such as the itch parasite. It is at times due to errors of
diet, prickly heat, mental worry and exhaustion, abuse of tea and coffee,
coldness of the feet and indigestion, and as most acute diseases are
worse at night, sleeplessness is very common amongst sick people.

_Treatment._—As far as possible remove the cause; kneading the feet and
legs, or the application of a hot-water bottle to the feet, will often
be of service. A cup of hot milk or soup should be taken at bedtime, and
again on waking in the night. The bowels must be regulated and alcohol
taken very sparingly.

The taking of sedative drugs should be avoided as much as possible. The
least harmful of these is sulphonal in doses of from twenty to thirty
grains, given several hours before bedtime, or bromide of potassium in
twenty or thirty-grain doses given at bedtime. A warm bath at night often
acts more satisfactorily than any other remedy. Only very rarely should
chloral, chlorodyne, or opium be resorted to.

Regular habits and plenty of work are potent factors in the production of
that healthy condition which predisposes to natural refreshing sleep.

The unfortunate man who has no hard work to do, who is without even a
hobby to occupy him, and has no interest in life but the torpid condition
of his liver, is a constant sufferer from insomnia. He should be purged
and put on a light plain diet. Alcohol must be forbidden and plenty of
exercise must be taken. A tumblerful of hot water is to be taken the
first thing in the morning and the last thing at night.


_Small-pox._

Very prevalent in the tropics, hence the importance of revaccination
before going abroad.

Incubation period, twelve days. Rash appears third day.

_Rash._—Before the appearance of the typical rash there are occasionally
earlier rashes, viz., a diffuse blush covering the whole body, resembling
scarlet fever, or a dark purple rash of effused blood beneath the skin of
the lower part of the belly, or occasionally in the armpit. The small-pox
rash proper consists of small red raised spots which first appear on
the face, forehead, and scalp, subsequently coming out over the rest
of the body, commencing at the top and working downwards. These spots
become prominent, and have a characteristic “shotty” feeling under the
finger. On the third day after their appearance a small bleb forms in
the centre of each spot; it is transparent at first, but subsequently
becomes yellowish, from the formation of matter in its interior. The
centre becomes depressed on the sixth day, then the bleb breaks down,
and discharges matter. Two or three days later the spot begins to dry
up, and ultimately heals under a scab. During the period of most active
inflammation the face may be very swollen and sodden.

The spots and pustules are not confined to the skin, but may occur on the
roof of the mouth and in the throat.

_Prophylaxis._—This consists in efficient vaccination, and as travellers
may themselves have to carry out the technique of vaccination, it is
important they should know something about it. The usual faults in
technique are a lack of cleanliness, resulting in sepsis, the use of
too strong an antiseptic when cleaning the skin, over-heating of the
lancet, needle or scarifier when purifying it, drawing too much blood,
which washes away the lymph, exposure of the recently vaccinated area
to the hot sun, and charring of the lymph in the capillary tube when
sealing. All that is necessary is to clean the part to be vaccinated with
soap and water, using a nail-brush, then rub the skin with alcohol, and
when the latter dries proceed with the little operation. There should
be four incisions, and the total area which will eventually be occupied
by the vaccine vesicles should not be less than half a square inch. It
may be noted that the vesicle is fully ripe on the seventh day after
vaccination.

_Treatment._—Isolation, similar to that of scarlet fever. The body may be
sponged and vaseline applied if there is much itching. The eyelids and
eyes should be frequently washed with weak boric acid solution.


_Snake Bite_ (_see_ p. 281).


_Sprue._

This is a chronic form of tropical diarrhœa, often called “white
diarrhœa,” the leading symptom of which is the frequent passage of large,
frothy, and pale-coloured motions; dyspepsia, and soreness of the tongue
and mouth, are also present, and there is marked anæmia and advancing
debility. The disease may follow attacks of diarrhœa or dysentery.

_Cause._—The actual cause of sprue is unknown, but the disease usually
develops in persons who have been for some considerable time in the
tropics, and it is commoner in India, Ceylon, and the Far East than
elsewhere.

_Treatment._—Put the patient to bed, give a simple aperient such as
castor-oil, to clear out the bowels; allow only a milk diet, to which, as
the symptoms begin to abate, meat juices and jellies should be cautiously
added. If any other disease, such as scurvy, is present, it must be
treated. Drugs are not usually of much service; however, a mixture
containing bismuth, soda, and one drop of carbolic acid in an ounce of
gum-water may be given three times a day for a week. The soreness of
the mouth and tongue may be treated by the application of borax and
glycerine, or mild antiseptic mouth washes, such as a weak solution of
permanganate of potash, or a lotion of boric acid. Special symptoms,
such as pain and collapse, must be treated as they arise. As soon as the
patient is strong enough, he should be removed to a temperate climate.


_Stroke, or Apoplexy._

This disease is caused by the rupture or blocking up of one of the
blood-vessels in the brain.

_Symptoms._—The person attacked falls down suddenly, and is unable to
move one or more of his limbs. He may be quite insensible, or soon become
so, or perhaps he is unable to talk. The mouth may be drawn to one side,
and the tongue, when protruded, be pushed to the right or left. The
condition is serious.

_Treatment._—Tight clothing must be removed. Six grains of calomel powder
should be placed on the back of the tongue, and the patient kept lying
on his back with the head slightly raised. Cold should be applied to the
head and a hot-water bottle to the feet, the room darkened, and absolute
quiet observed. An enema of hot water may be given, and while the patient
is insensible the lips should be moistened only with water. Food may be
given by the bowel on the second or third day. Stimulants are absolutely
forbidden. If the patient gets over the attack he ought to be sent home.

_Note._—It must not be forgotten that many of the above symptoms might be
caused by injury or poison.


_Sun-Stroke and Heat-Stroke._

These conditions are distinct. Sun-stroke, which is comparatively rare,
is due to the direct action of the sun on the brain and spinal cord.
Heat-stroke, on the other hand, would appear to be due to the lack of
escape of heat from the body, owing to insufficient evaporation from
the skin, and to the effect of muscular fatigue. As a result, poisonous
substances accumulate and act detrimentally upon the nerve cells. There
is also a deficient supply of oxygen to the blood. High relative humidity
plays a very important part in producing attacks of heat-stroke. The
milder forms are known as Heat exhaustion and Heat prostration; the
severe form is often associated with true sun-stroke.

_Symptoms._—Heat exhaustion is really a form of faintness, and recovery
soon takes place after a rest. The symptoms of heat prostration are
giddiness, often associated with nausea. The patient is bathed in a
clammy sweat, his pulse is thready, his breathing shallow, and, it
may be, sighing. The condition may pass into unconsciousness, but the
temperature is not raised, and death rarely results.

There are two kinds of true Heat-stroke; one a form with high
temperature, the other what is called Heat cramp, which is common amongst
ships’ firemen in the tropics. An early warning sign of heat-stroke is
a desire for frequent micturition, and other premonitory symptoms are
a dry skin, giddiness, drowsiness, headache, and intolerance of light.
The pulse becomes quick and irregular, the skin is hot and dry, and
the temperature elevated. The patient may become comatose, or exhibit
delirium or convulsions. There is an asphyxial type, in which the face
becomes cyanosed and the breathing is in abeyance.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid severe exercise in a hot sun. Wear suitable
clothing, which should be loose and easy, and protect the head, and
especially the nape of the neck, from the sun’s rays. Dark or tinted
glasses are useful. Water should be taken freely, and the bowels kept
open; but alcohol must be avoided. Sniffing a mixture of water and
vinegar and damping the face are helpful measures.

_Treatment._—In the case of Heat prostration the patient should be laid
in the shade on his back, his clothes should be loosened, his limbs
massaged, and, if he is collapsed, stimulants in the form of ammonia
or camphor should be administered. The asphyxial type of heat-stroke
can only be treated by means of artificial respiration, which may have
to be continued for as long as a couple of hours. The ordinary form,
which has been called the paralytic type, must be treated promptly and
vigorously. One must aim at reducing the temperature, getting rid of the
toxic material in the body and preventing heart failure. Probably the
best way of treating the condition as an emergency is to lay the patient
naked on an inclined plane and drench him with cold water. When doing
so it is well to take the rectal temperature, and to stop this chilling
process when the thermometer registers 102° F. After the drenching wrap
the patient in blankets and apply hot bottles to the trunk and limbs. An
ice bag, if available, should be applied to the head, which in any case
should be swathed in cold cloths. It should be noted that in the absence
of ice, a sheet soaked in cold water or dilute alcohol, over which a
draught of air plays, is a useful substitute. A fan may be used to create
the air draught. Auxiliary methods of treatment can be efficiently
carried out only under medical supervision. As soon as the patient has
recovered somewhat, a dose of calomel should be given, followed by
salines.


_Syphilis._

Syphilis, or the Pox, is an infectious venereal disease, nearly always
communicated by direct contagion. The course of the disease is marked by
a primary sore, the chancre; early constitutional (secondary) symptoms,
and late constitutional (tertiary) symptoms.

In primary syphilis the disease is limited to the part or organ
originally infected, and the glands connected with that spot. After an
incubation period of from three to six weeks a small painless pimple
appears at the seat of infection; it breaks down, and forms a small ulcer
from which oozes a little watery fluid. The base of the ulcer and the
skin surrounding it are hard like gristle. The nearest glands, usually
those of the groin, enlarge and occasionally become tender. Unless badly
neglected, the original sore gradually heals and the glands resume their
normal size. Secondary symptoms now make their appearance. These are
fairly definite, and comprises (_a_) A skin rash, consisting of numerous
irregularly shaped copper-coloured spots, spread over the face, upper
part of the chest, the loins and the back of the arms. They do not itch.
(_b_) Moist lumps and warts form in the crutch, around the scrotum
(purse) and the outlet of the bowel. (_c_) Ulcerated sore throat. Large
deep ulcers form on each tonsil, having ragged undermined edges. (_d_)
Iritis or inflammation of the eye may also occur. These symptoms, even
if untreated, tend to heal, but always leave more or less marked traces
behind.

The discharge from either primary or secondary sores is infectious and
may convey the disease, so that great care needs to be taken in handling
such sores.

After an interval of apparent health, lasting perhaps only a few months,
but often for a year or two, the tertiary symptoms or “reminders” make
their appearance. These take the form of localised swellings, which soon
break down, forming deep ulcers, and if untreated, produce extensive
destruction of the part involved, with much deformity.

_Prophylaxis._—The methods available are now so well known that they
need not be discussed in a work of this kind. Mention need merely be
made of the fact that in some foreign countries, owing to unhygienic
conditions, there is a greater liability to contract the disease by what
may be called unusual methods, and therefore every care should be taken
to prevent such sources of infection, as, for example, the contaminated
seats of closets, etc.

_Treatment._—As soon as the disease is recognised, the treatment must be
commenced.

Local treatment.—Keep the sore perfectly clean by washing it with an
antiseptic solution such as chinosol (1 in 1000). Between the washings,
dress it with a piece of lint soaked in “black wash,” or dust it with
iodoform powder and cover it with a piece of lint smeared with boric
ointment.

For the sore throat, use an antiseptic gargle (_see_ Ulceration of
Throat, p. 244).

General treatment.—The patient must be put on a course of mercury at
once. Calomel, one grain twice a day, or grey powder, one grain three
times a day, must be administered, and continued until skilled advice
can be obtained. The effect of the mercury must be carefully watched,
and if the patient complains of soreness of the gums, a coppery taste in
the mouth and excessive flow of saliva, the dose must be reduced or the
administration of the drug stopped until these symptoms have disappeared.
If the calomel or grey powder causes looseness of the bowels, five grains
of Dover’s powder may be added to each dose.

In some cases, the addition of three grains of the iodide of potash to
each grain of calomel does good from the very first.

For the later symptoms, continue the mercurial treatment, and give at
least five grains of the iodide of potassium three times a day.

Since the above was written the whole treatment of syphilis has been
revolutionized by the introduction of certain organic arsenic compounds
as therapeutic agents. Of these the best known is the German salvarsan,
represented in this country by kharsivan, the so-called “606.” Treatment
with arsenic has now largely replaced the old method with mercury; but it
cannot be carried out except by one having medical training, and so need
not be further considered.


_Tick Fever._

One of the diseases which may be produced by the bites of insects is a
form of fever, conveyed by the bite of a tick, which is common in many
parts of Africa. This produces a series of symptoms which are similar to
those found in the disease known as relapsing fever, which has been known
to occur even in the United Kingdom, and which used to be called “famine
fever” (_see_ p. 218).

_Cause._—The cause is a corkscrew-shaped organism found in the blood,
and its vector is the tick above mentioned, which in its adult state and
unfed is roughly about the length of a finger-nail, that is, four-tenths
of an inch. It is of a greenish brown colour, and is covered by a
leathery integument, which looks as if it was spotted all over and which
is grooved in several places. When the tick is gorged, these grooves
disappear. A gorged female tick may be well over half an inch in length,
and very nearly of an equal breadth.

The tick lives in native houses and in rest houses, especially along
caravan routes. At night it sallies forth in search of blood, but during
the day it conceals itself in cracks and corners in the walls and floors,
and sometimes in cracks in native wooden bedsteads. Its bite is painful,
but the infection takes place not through the bite, but as a result of
the infected excreta of the tick contaminating the tick bite. One tick is
sufficient to cause infection.

_Symptoms._—The chief symptoms are those of a severe attack of fever,
ushered in by a shivering fit and acute symptoms such as are usually
found in cases of fever, for example, pains in the back and limbs, rapid
pulse, and sometimes severe vomiting and diarrhœa, frontal headache, and
painful bloodshot eyes are rather characteristic. The fever, which is
of the relapsing type, generally keeps up for about a week, after which
there may be an interval without fever for a few days, to be followed
later on by another attack of fever. There are usually several relapses.
As many as eleven have been noted.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid sleeping in native huts and rest houses which have
been occupied by natives. Do not sleep on the ground or on wooden native
bedsteads. If the latter have to be used, their legs should be smoothed
to prevent ticks from climbing up them. In badly infested places, it is
well to employ a hammock. A mosquito-net is useful, as it excludes the
ticks; and it is well to make use of a night-light, which also keeps
them away. Packs and blankets should be periodically inspected to see
that they do not harbour ticks. If one has to camp on an infected area,
the ground should be fired and the floors of huts dug up and thereafter
removed and buried or treated with fire, care being taken that the ticks
do not escape during the process. Wandering ticks can be kept away from a
tent to some extent by digging round it a trench and filling it with wood
ashes.

_Treatment._—This is mainly symptomatic. Careful nursing is required
together with a light diet. In some cases the arsenic preparation known
as salvarsan (kharsivan) is found of value, but the specific treatment
of this malady can only be carried out by a medical man. In many cases
digitalis or strophanthus is required, owing to the risk of heart failure.


_Typhus Fever._

This disease is not so common in the tropics, but in certain sub-tropical
countries, such as Egypt, it frequently occurs, and it is of course
closely associated with military operations in the field.

_Cause._—The exact nature of the infection is as yet unknown, but the
disease is transmitted by lice, both the head and the body louse having
been proved to be carriers of the virus.

_Symptoms._—Incubation period 5 to 14 days, as a rule 12 days. Symptoms
vary, but at first somewhat resemble those of an influenzal attack
without the cold in the head. The patient is feverish and uncomfortable,
but not until the third day do the typical symptoms of typhus make
their appearance. Then the patient’s face becomes flushed and his eyes
congested, his pulse rate increases, and very soon his temperature rises
and runs up to 103 or 104° F. The rash, which varies in type, generally
appears on the fifth day, being found first on the upper part of the
abdomen. It does not occur upon the face, but is usually very profuse on
the back. If the rash develops the patient becomes seriously ill, and all
his symptoms are intensified. He becomes dull and lethargic, his mouth is
foul, and his general aspect is somewhat like that of a drunken man. His
voice becomes husky, his hands are tremulous, and his breathing is rapid.
In the second week, in most cases, he becomes delirious or comatose, and
lies in bed more or less like a log. In cases that recover, improvement
sets in about the fourteenth day, and is usually rapid and complete.
In cases which die the temperature remains high or rises, the general
condition becomes worse, and death usually takes place from heart failure.

_Prophylaxis._—Get rid of lice according to the methods detailed on
page 196. Those attending typhus patients should be protected from lice
by wearing overalls, etc. Patients suffering from typhus should be
thoroughly cleansed, their hair cut or shaved, and completely cleared of
lice. Bedding and clothing must be disinfected.

_Treatment._—Good nursing is of more importance in this disease than the
administration of drugs. The mouth must be kept in a good condition,
and the food must be strengthening, nourishing soups being indicated.
It is important to give the patient as much fresh air as possible, and
as a rule he will require stimulants, especially heart tonics such as
digitalis or strophanthus. Other measures can be carried out only under
medical supervision.


_Ulceration of the Throat._

Gargle with a weak antiseptic solution such as permanganate of potash or
chinosol. An astringent gargle may be made by dissolving five grains or
more of tannin in two ounces of hot water. Sulphate of iron can be used
for the same purpose, two grains or more to an ounce of water. If there
is much pain, apply poultices to throat.

If due to syphilis give one grain of calomel and three grains of iodide
of potassium, twice a day, in addition to the local treatment. Kharsivan,
or similar treatment, is also indicated (_see_ p. 240).


_Undulant (Malta) Fever._

The term Undulant Fever is applied to Malta Fever partly because the
latter is not a good name, as the disease occurs in various parts of the
world, and partly because the term Undulant affords a good description of
the type of the temperature curve.

_Cause._—The organism is a small bacterium, which is found in the blood
and tissues. Although theoretically the disease can be spread like
enteric fever or dysentery, in practice it is found that it is nearly
always conveyed by infected goats’ milk. Goats are apt to harbour the
organism and excrete it in their milk. It is also found in certain milk
products, such as cream and cheeses which are not allowed to ripen. In
addition to man and goats, cows, sheep, horses, mules and dogs, are all
liable to natural infection.

_Symptoms._—Incubation period 5 to 15 days. The disease begins with
headache, malaise, anorexia, and sleeplessness. The patient is usually
constipated, and there is tenderness in the splenic region, the spleen
being enlarged at an early date. The temperature rises gradually for
three or four days in a step-like manner, and then falls by a similar
descent, reaching the normal on or about the tenth day. At this early
stage bleeding from the nose may occur, and profuse night sweats are not
uncommon. The tongue is flabby and coated. When the temperature falls
the patient feels better for a few days, but is still apt to suffer
from night sweats, and continues to lose flesh. A relapse occurs, and
is usually accompanied by joint troubles and sometimes neuralgic pains.
A series of febrile waves continues to follow each other at short
intervals, and the illness is a very wearisome one, running an average
course of 60 to 70 days. It may, however, extend for nearly a year,
and in some cases terminates fatally. The long course of the illness
results in the patient becoming anæmic, and he often suffers from mental
depression. There are irregular forms of the fever which are apt to be
puzzling, and it is always well to remember that any cases of prolonged
pyrexia from tropical or sub-tropical regions may be Malta fever.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid drinking goats’ milk and eating the local products
of such milk. If goats’ milk must be drunk it should be boiled. General
hygienic measures are also important, and it should not be forgotten that
the organism of the disease is found in urine, which should therefore be
disinfected.

_Treatment._—This is for the most part entirely symptomatic. Medical
attention and good nursing are essential. A vaccine has been introduced
and is worth trying, but vaccine treatment is best left to an expert.
It is sometimes necessary to give morphia for the joint pains and the
neuralgia, but there is a distinct risk of the patient’s acquiring the
morphia habit. Sleeplessness, which is often troublesome, should be
treated as indicated on page 235.


_Urine, Retention of._

Retention of, or inability to pass the water may be caused by stricture,
injury, shock, spasm, inflammation of some part of the passage, the
effects of drinking, or by chill.

_Symptoms._—The bladder is unable to expel its contents and it gets
fuller and fuller; it can be felt in its distended condition as a
painful, soft swelling in the lower part of the belly, below the navel,
underneath the skin and muscles. There may be fever, great pain and
constant desire to pass water, with inability to do so. When the bladder
becomes greatly distended, there is usually slight dribbling of water,
which is somewhat misleading, as the case may be considered, not one of
retention but rather of too frequent passing of urine.

_Treatment._—Give a saline purge such as Epsom salts, three or four
teaspoonfuls, and let the patient sit in a bath of hot water. If not
relieved very quickly, then pass a _clean_ catheter into the bladder, and
allow it to empty itself (_see_ Catheters, p. 272). After the bladder has
been emptied put the patient to bed and give a dose of opium or bromide
of potassium to procure rest. When he desires to pass water again let him
have another bath, and if this is not effectual, again withdraw the water
through a catheter. Patient should be careful to ward off further attacks
by avoiding chills, over-drinking, and other exciting causes. If there is
inflammation of the bladder, copaiba or sandal-wood capsules should be
used; if the urine is irritating, bicarbonate of soda must be given.


_Urine, Suppression of._

In this serious condition no urine is secreted by the kidneys, so that on
passing a catheter the bladder will be found to be empty.

_Causes._—Shock from injury, inflammation and blocking up of the kidneys.
Suppression of the urine is a common complication of severe cases of
blackwater fever.

_Treatment._—Hot baths, hot poultices to the loins, free use of
aperients, especially Epsom salts and other saline purges. Bicarbonate of
soda in full doses. Keep the skin acting freely by means of sweet nitre,
or Warburg’s tincture, or five-grain doses of antipyrine. Injections of
hot water into the lower bowel.


_Worms._

Worms are introduced into the system chiefly by means of dirty water or
imperfectly cooked food.

In the case of hook worms (ankylostomes), contaminated soil is the chief
medium of infection.

Of the worms which live in the bowels the most important are the
following:

_Tape Worms._—These worms may measure many feet in length; and their
presence in the body can only be certainly known by the appearance of
some of the segments or portions of the worm in the motions although
hunger and dyspepsia may be complained of.

_Treatment._—Administer a good aperient overnight so as to empty the
bowels; after the aperient nothing should be given by the mouth for eight
hours, then give sixty to one hundred and twenty drops of the liquid
extract of male fern in one ounce of thin gruel, milk, or gum water, and
follow this up in four hours by a good meal, and an aperient to remove
the worm, which should now be dead.

When the extract of male fern is not available, one tablespoonful of the
oil of turpentine may be used in its place.

If later on fresh segments appear in the motions, then the treatment must
be repeated.

_Round Worm._—The round worm resembles the garden worm and is several
inches in length; it may be observed in the vomit but more commonly is
seen in the motions. The symptoms are similar to those caused by the tape
worm and the treatment is the same, except that, instead of the male
fern, two to five grains of santonin should be given in a little milk;
and the treatment repeated every other day for a week.

_Threadworm._—The threadworm is a small round worm usually measuring less
than half an inch in length; it inhabits the lower end of the bowel and
causes great heat and itching about the outlet, especially at night.

_Treatment._—Wash out the lower bowel and inject into it about a third of
a pint of tea, or a similar quantity of water containing one teaspoonful
of salt, tannin, or alum; then apply a little mercurial ointment around
the outlet to diminish irritation. This should be done every third day
till the worms have disappeared from the motions.

_The Guinea Worm._—The guinea worm often measures several feet in length;
it chiefly causes trouble in the feet, ankles, and legs, where in order
to obtain an exit from the body it penetrates the skin, causing a small
ulcer at its point of exit.

Usually the presence of the guinea worm is attended with inflammation and
the formation of matter.

_Prophylaxis._—Infected persons should be kept away from water supplies,
and such sources of water supply as wells and water holes should be
protected. In areas where guinea worm occurs, all water should be
boiled. If this cannot be managed, it should be filtered through a piece
of clean cotton cloth, as this will remove from it the small crustacean
in which the larva of the guinea worm develops. Another method of
treating infected water is by means of permanganate of potash, one ounce
to every 2,000 gallons of well water. Caustic potash and quicklime are
also effective.

_Treatment._—When the worm can be seen at the base of the little ulcer,
it may be secured to a piece of match and a small portion may be wound on
to the match daily. If attempts are made to forcibly draw it out, it will
probably break and violent inflammation will result. During the time that
the worm is being wound out, the part should be kept very clean and an
antiseptic ointment applied.

There are other methods of treatment, but these can only be carried out
under medical supervision.

_The Hook Worm._—This is the American name for one or other of the
species of ankylostomes which infect man. The disease they cause is
known as ankylostomiasis, and it is common in many parts of the world,
especially in the tropics. It chiefly affects natives, owing to their
habits; but it occurs also in Europeans.

_Cause._—Hook worms are small, almost cylindrical worms, which inhabit
the human small intestine, to the wall of which they attach themselves
by means of their mouths, which are furnished with formidable hooks and
lancets. They suck blood, and the symptoms they produce are due in part
to loss of blood, in part to the destruction of the lining membrane of
the bowel, and possibly also in part to the effects of a poison which
they are believed to excrete. Their eggs are passed in the excrement, and
develop in the infected soil into larvæ, which are able to penetrate the
unbroken skin if they come in contact with it. This is the most important
route of infection, but it may occur also by means of infected drinking
water and from contaminated food.

_Symptoms._—The most marked feature of the disease is anæmia, which is
often associated with digestive troubles. Palpitation of the heart and
shortness of breath are frequently met with. In bad cases the appetite
is disordered or depraved. The patient becomes pot-bellied, and there
is swelling, chiefly about the face and ankles. The face is frequently
puffy, and the skin assumes a peculiar earthy hue. It should be noted
that a very early symptom is what is called ground itch. This is a skin
eruption, usually on the feet and legs, due to the irritation caused by
the larvæ penetrating the epidermis.

_Prophylaxis._—The chief measure consists in preventing contamination of
the soil by infected excrement. It is therefore important when camping to
make proper provision in the way of latrines. Care must also be taken to
prevent the fouling of water and food stuffs, such as vegetables, which
are eaten uncooked. It is very dangerous to go about bare-foot in regions
where the disease occurs, and camping sites should always be thoroughly
cleansed.

_Treatment._—Efficient treatment can only be carried out in association
with microscopic examination of the stools, and hence all that need
here be said is that various worm medicines are employed, of which
the most effectual are thymol and oil of chenopodium. These should be
administered only under careful medical supervision. The anæmia has to
be treated, and in the case of natives a nutritious and easily-digested
diet is indicated; for example, for native coolies the following has been
recommended: bread 1 pound, milk 2 pints, sugar 2 ounces, 2 eggs, and 4
bananas daily. Ground itch should be treated by an ointment containing
zinc oxide and salicylic acid.

_The Bilharzia Worm._—This worm, of which there are two species, produces
the disease known as Bilharziasis or Schistosomiasis, which occurs in one
or other, or both forms, in various parts of the world, but is specially
prevalent in Egypt.

_Cause._—The worms, which produce either urinary or rectal bilharziasis,
live in parts of the human vascular system, where they produce their
eggs. These eggs are furnished with spines, and hence cause irritation
when lodged in the tissues. In the urinary form the eggs have a terminal
spine, in the intestinal form the spine is lateral. These eggs are passed
either in the urine or in the excreta and reach water, where they develop
into larvæ. The larvæ enter special species of water snails, in which
they develop, producing eventually tiny forms known as cercariæ. These
cercariæ escape into the water and can penetrate the unbroken skin or
intact mucous membrane. They thus get access to the bodies of persons who
are bathing in the infected water, or who may drink it. Once in the human
body, the blood carries them to the place where they develop into the
adult worms, which eventually unite, and then the females begin producing
the spined eggs.

_Symptoms._—In the urinary form the chief symptom is the passage of
bloody urine, which usually shows itself about three months after
infection, and is often associated with a good deal of irritation of the
bladder and the pipe. The intestinal form may produce various symptoms.
Sometimes a condition resembling enteric fever occurs, sometimes one
like dysentery. Diarrhœa is common. The condition is chronic and, if
untreated, sets up all kinds of secondary effects, which need not be
discussed.

_Prophylaxis._—Carefully avoid any kind of personal contact with water
which may by any possibility be infected from urine or fæces. Bathing,
wading, washing in, or drinking any such waters, are all dangerous.
Wherever possible, water which may be infected should be boiled. If
this cannot be done, sodium bisulphate tablets may be used; two of the
16-grain water-purifying tablets in a quart water-bottle full of water
are efficient. Filtration through a Pasteur-Chamberland or Doulton candle
is efficient, as it excludes the cercariæ. Bathing water can be rendered
safe for immediate use by the addition of undiluted Army cresol in a
dilution of 1 in 10,000. If the water is kept overnight, 1 in 90,000 is
sufficient, as the storage of water tends to diminish infection.

_Treatment._—Certain forms of antimony have been found to cure the
condition, but can only be administered by a medical man. Indeed,
either form of bilharziasis can be properly treated only under medical
supervision. If this is not obtainable, some relief can be afforded by
the use of urotropin and sedative drugs.

There are many other worm diseases which afflict man, but no good object
would be served by mentioning them in detail. Most of them can be
diagnosed with certainty only by a medical man using the microscope, and
they all require scientific treatment which is beyond the scope of the
ordinary traveller.


_Yellow Fever._

This disease, the “Yellow Jack” of naval historians, occurs, so far as is
known, only in parts of the New World and on the West Coast of Africa.
One attack usually protects permanently against a second.

_Cause._—Quite recently the organism has apparently been discovered. It
is a corkscrew-shaped parasite which exists in the blood, and which is
allied to, though not identical with, the parasites of relapsing fever
and tick fever. The infection is conveyed from one patient to another by
the mosquito _Stegomyia fasciata_, which is a black and white insect,
commonly known from its striped legs as the tiger mosquito. Incubation
period two to five days.

_Symptoms._—The onset of the disease is very sudden, the highest
temperature being reached almost at once; then follows a period of
remission or calm, the pulse becomes abnormally slow, and this stage is
usually either succeeded by convalescence, or the symptoms become worse
and the patient dies. Some of the symptoms much resemble malaria, but the
rapidity of the onset, severe pain in the forehead, eyes, and loins, the
early scantiness of the urine, the marked jaundice, the bright eyes, the
narrow red tongue, and the absence of pain about the spleen are fairly
characteristic.

There is considerable thirst and vomiting, and in bad cases the vomit
becomes black, the colour being due to the presence of blood. (In
ordinary malaria the vomit is yellow, or in severe cases, such as
blackwater fever, it may be of a bright or dark-green colour.) In yellow
fever, jaundice is developed about the third day, and tends to increase,
whilst in blackwater fever it comes on very early and soon begins to
abate.

An important diagnostic sign in yellow fever is found in the fact that
the pulse does not increase in rapidity as the temperature rises.

_Prophylaxis._—Avoid being bitten by mosquitoes, employing the methods
mentioned on pages 206, 207. It must be remembered that _Stegomyia
fasciata_, unlike the anopheline mosquitoes, bites during the day, and
therefore it is more difficult to avoid its unwelcome attentions. It
usually breeds in the neighbourhood of houses, being what may be called
a domestic mosquito; and it is of the greatest importance to abolish
all potential breeding places or to protect them from the mosquito.
Practically any vessel holding water may become a nursery for Stegomyia,
and it is remarkable in what small quantities of water this mosquito will
lay her eggs. Patients suffering from the disease must be isolated and
kept under a mosquito net or in a mosquito-proof chamber, in order to
prevent them from infecting mosquitoes, which they are capable of doing
in the early part of the disease.

_Treatment._—Open the bowels well by means of calomel, six grains,
followed by a saline purge and hot-water enema. Some prefer castor oil
in large doses. Give ten grains of bicarbonate of soda three times a day.
Give cooling drinks, such as fruit salt. Make the skin act. Apply hot
fomentations to the back and mustard leaves to the pit of the stomach.

The question of feeding is very important. During the first two or three
days of the fever the patient is better without any food at all. As he
recovers his appetite returns, and great care must be exercised about
gratifying it. Only the plainest foods in very small quantities should be
permitted, the amounts being gradually increased, as otherwise relapses
may occur. Stimulants are usually required in the later stages of the
fever, but they must be carefully employed as they may tend to increase
the vomiting. It is possible that the discovery of the parasite may lead
to new and more efficient methods of treating the disease.


MEDICINES, MEDICAL APPLIANCES, ETC.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

_Solids._

                 A Grain                  Symbol  Gr.
  20 Grains      1 Scruple { weights now    ”      ℈
  60 Grains      1 Drachm  { rarely used    ”      ℨ
  437.5 Grains   1 Ounce                    ”      ℥
  16 Ounces      1 Pound                    ”      ℔

_Note._—An ounce weighs not 8 but rather under 7½ drachms.

  1 Gramme          about 15½ grains.
  1 Kilogramme        ”   2 lbs. 3¼ ozs.

_Liquids._

  1  Minim                       About 1 drop, or 0.06 c.c.  Symbol ♏
  60 Minims                      One fluid drachm              ”    ℨ
  8  Fluid drachms (480 Minims)  One fluid ounce               ”    ℥
  20 Fluid ounces                One pint                      ”    O
  1  Cubic centimetre            17 Minims.

  A teaspoonful                  About one fluid drachm.
  A dessertspoonful              About two fluid drachms.
  A tablespoonful                About half a fluid ounce.
  A wine-glassful                About two fluid ounces.
  A tumblerful                   About half a pint.
  A litre                        About a pint and three quarters.

All bottles containing drugs should be doubly labelled, and the labels
should be varnished, otherwise they will probably come off in a damp
climate. Poisons should be kept in bottles of a special shape.

Drugs in a liquid state are inconvenient for travellers. They are bulky,
and require very careful packing and handling.

As far as possible, therefore, compressed drugs should be selected. These
must be of good quality.

Tablets are often taken in the solid form, but they will act more quickly
and certainly if dissolved or suspended in about an ounce of water.

Some preparations, chiefly those used for preparing lotions, etc.,
_e.g._, of chinosol, are also made in compressed form.

In regard to drugs, I have kept well within the maximum dose, so that
there may be no trouble on that account. For instance, in certain cases a
medical man would give sixty drops of laudanum for a dose, but I advise
travellers rarely to give more than sixty drops in twenty-four hours. The
urgency of the case must be the guide as to the quantity of the drug to
be given. The smallest dose which is effective is the best.

A supply of antiseptic gauze, wool and lint is necessary. The compressed
forms are very convenient.

All antiseptic gauzes and other dressings should be very carefully
protected from the air in order that their properties may be preserved.
They should be wrapped in oiled paper or india-rubber tissue, and kept in
a tin box.

A supply of bandages will also be needed. Each bandage should be two
inches in width by six feet in length.

_Dressing case._—The traveller should provide himself with a surgical
dressing case. A suitable one should contain 1 pair of scissors, 1 pair
of Spencer Wells’ artery forceps, 1 probe, 1 scoop and grooved director,
1 knife with two blades, 1 small saw with a detachable handle, and a
packet containing silk, wire, needles, and pins.

All active poisons mentioned in the following pages are marked with an
asterisk (*).

_Aloin Co. tablets._—One taken three times a day after meals, in chronic
constipation, gradually reduced as bowels become regular.

_Alum._—Dose, five to ten grains. Is occasionally used as an internal
astringent in the treatment of diarrhœa.

A solution containing five grains to the ounce of water may be used as
a mouth wash for bleeding or inflamed gums, as a gargle for relaxed and
sore throats, or as a lotion for inflamed eyes.

Ten to twenty ounces of a solution containing five grains to the ounce is
sometimes used as an enema to check the diarrhœa in chronic dysentery.

The tablet of alum weighs ten grains.

_Ammonia._—Three preparations of ammonia, viz., Sal volatile, Carbonate
of ammonia, and Liquor ammoniæ, are extremely valuable as stimulants,
and in this respect they are to be preferred to alcohol. All three are
similar in their action, and are useful on account of their stimulating
effect upon the heart in cases of fainting, or collapse caused by
snake-bite, bullet-wound, or other injury; they relieve spasm, and
promote sweating in feverish states. They also cause free expectoration,
and are therefore useful in the later stages of bronchitis.

The chief objection to these drugs is that their strength is rapidly
lost, unless they are kept in well-stoppered bottles, and in the dark.

All preparations of ammonia should be administered in about one ounce of
water.

_Sal volatile, or aromatic spirit of ammonia._—Dose, twenty to sixty
drops for a single administration, or up to thirty drops if repeated
frequently. This is the most convenient and pleasant preparation of
ammonia, but is bulky. As a local application, it is of service in
relieving the pain caused by the bites of certain insects, _e.g._,
mosquitoes and fleas.

_Carbonate of ammonia._—Dose, three to ten grains.

_Liquor ammoniæ, or solution of ammonia._—Dose, five to twenty drops.

(_Note._—This is not the strong solution, which is always labelled “Liq.
Ammon. Fort.,” and which is three times stronger than liquor ammoniæ.)

_Ammonium chloride._—Dose, five to twenty grains. This drug is chiefly
used in congestion of the liver, especially where acute inflammation or
abscess is threatened; at times it is useful in neuralgia and chronic
bronchitis. It is also used for inflamed and relaxed sore throat, in the
form of a gargle, five to ten grains to the ounce of water.

_Antipyrine._—Dose, five to ten grains. (Uses as Phenacetin.)

* _Araroba, Chrysarobin, or Goa powder._—Is not for internal use. One
part of the powder mixed with one of acetic acid and fourteen of lard
makes what is known as araroba ointment.

_Araroba ointment_ is useful in many skin diseases, such as psoriasis;
it easily destroys the parasites in ringworm, dhobie itch, or kraw kraw.
It is a powerful drug, and should be used only in small amounts, for if
applied too freely it will cause some inflammation and pain. Care must be
taken that it is not rubbed into the eyes.

* _Aromatic chalk with opium tablets._—Ten grains three times a day in
severe cases of diarrhœa.

* _Arsenic._—Dose, one-sixtieth to one-fifteenth of a grain. Is a
powerful and poisonous drug, and should be taken with caution. It is
useful in chronic malaria, and in anæmia and debility, especially that
following an attack of fever.

It is best combined with iron in tablet form—iron and arsenic tablet—two
of which may be taken twice a day, after food, for a week. This is a good
general tonic.

_Aspirin._—Dose 5 to 15 grains. Should be taken with a drink of water.
Useful in rheumatic and febrile conditions; often relieves headache
and the feeling of discomfort associated with chill. It is apt to be
depressing in large doses, and some persons do not tolerate it well.
Speaking generally it may be used in those conditions in which salicylate
of soda is indicated.

_Bismuth carbonate._—Dose, five to twenty grains. Useful in dyspepsia,
pain in the stomach, vomiting and diarrhœa. The drug is heavy, and
therefore gum or starch water should be used to suspend it.

It is often combined with opium and bicarbonate of soda to check vomiting
and diarrhœa.

Bismuth may also be used as a dusting powder.

_Boric acid, or boracic acid._—Chiefly used in solution, for its mild
antiseptic properties, as a gargle, injection, eye lotion, or mouth wash.
On the same account, it is used for washing wounds, or syringing out
ulcers, or sore and inflamed ears. It is practically non-poisonous.

Lotions should contain from five to ten grains to the ounce. Boric
ointment is a useful dressing for sores, burns, or wounds; it may be made
by adding one part of powdered boric acid to nine of vaseline or fat.

Equal parts of finely-powdered boric acid, zinc oxide and starch makes a
good dusting powder for moist eczema, bed-sores, chafes, and perspiring
feet.

Boric lint (lint impregnated with boric acid) is useful as a dressing for
wounds, ulcers, and abrasions.

Boric wool is absorbent cotton-wool impregnated with boric acid, and is
the most generally useful antiseptic wool.

_Bromides._—The bromides generally used are those of potassium, or
ammonium. Dose in either case, five to twenty-five grains. They are
sedatives, and are used in convulsions, epilepsy, and delirium; they
relieve headache, especially if taken with sal volatile, and may be
combined with chloral (_see_ Chloral). The bromide of ammonium is less
depressing than the bromide of potassium.

_Calcium sulphide, i.e., sulphurated lime._—Dose, a quarter to one grain
three times a day. Useful for those who are suffering from boils or
carbuncles.

* _Calomel, or subchloride of mercury._—Dose, two to five grains. Calomel
may be used in almost all cases requiring an aperient; its action will be
assisted by giving fruit salt, or citrate of magnesia, four hours later.
In cases of insensibility or delirium it is specially useful, for the
powder may be placed on the back of the tongue, and it will be swallowed
unconsciously.

Four grains of calomel may usually be given with advantage, at the
beginning of a malarial attack.

In syphilis, one grain may be given two or three times a day; but its
action should be watched, and if it causes salivation, tenderness of the
gums, and a coppery taste in the mouth, it should be discontinued until
these symptoms disappear.

_Camphor._—Dose, two to five grains. Is a stimulant, and an
antispasmodic; it helps to calm the nervous system. It is used in cholera
and in fevers, and is taken for colds in the head.

Camphor is slightly soluble in water, and this solution makes a cooling
lotion, which is useful for inflamed or painful parts. A lump of camphor
is a good repellent for sand-flies.

_Spirit of camphor_ consists of one part of camphor in ten of alcohol;
the dose is ten to twenty drops.

_Camphorated oil_ consists of one ounce of camphor in four ounces of
olive oil, and makes a stimulating liniment for stiff and painful parts.
A stronger liniment may be made by adding to this an ounce of spirit, and
half to one ounce of solution of ammonia or oil of turpentine.

* _Carbolic acid, or phenol._—Dose, one or two grains may be given
internally, well diluted, for acute diarrhœa, dysentery, and cholera. Is
mostly used as an external application. Carbolic acid acts as a caustic,
and may be applied on the end of a match in the case of boils (p. 227). A
drop on a piece of cotton-wool applied to a hollow tooth quickly relieves
pain.

It is much used as an antiseptic lotion for wounds and foul sores, and
for cleansing hands and instruments before operation.

One part in twenty of water makes a strong solution for cleansing
instruments and disinfecting dysenteric and other stools.

One part in sixty may be used for sponging or syringing sores and wounds.

One part added to nineteen of olive, or other oil, makes carbolic oil,
which is a handy dressing for all kinds of wounds.

One part to nineteen parts of vaseline, or fresh lard, makes carbolic
ointment.

_Cascara sagrada, extract of._—Dose, two to six grains. Is a valuable
aperient, especially in chronic constipation. Cascara tablets, two grains
each, are convenient, and one or two should be taken at night.

_Cathartic Co. Tablets._—A useful purge in cases of fever or liver
derangement. Two or three for a dose when required.

_Castor oil._—Dose, one to three tablespoonfuls. It is a good aperient,
but is not very convenient for the traveller, as it takes up much space,
which could be better used for aperients which are not so bulky, _e.g._,
calomel or cascara. The usual dose of castor oil should be somewhat
reduced in the tropics, where it is often not so well borne as in
temperate climates.

_Note._—The seeds of the castor oil plant should not be eaten, as they
are poisonous.

_Chinosol_ is a drug which has many of the advantages of carbolic acid
without its poisonous or caustic properties. It is so generally useful
that, at any rate for explorers, it will largely replace carbolic acid.
It is antiseptic and disinfectant in its action, can be used as a
mouth wash or gargle, for sore gums and ulcerated throats; it makes a
good lotion for washing the hands, instruments, or wounds, and may be
syringed into fresh wounds or into chronic ulcers.

It is put up in the compressed form, each tablet weighing eight and
three-quarter grains, and the strength of the solutions here given are
calculated strictly from this weight.

One tablet dissolved in a pint of water makes a solution of 1 in 1000
(equal to about 1 in 40, carbolic lotion), which is the most useful
for general purposes, such as an antiseptic wash for the hands or for
disinfecting surgical instruments.

A tablet in two pints of water makes a solution of 1 in 2000. This may be
used for washing fresh wounds, burns, and suppurating surfaces, or as a
gargle for sore throat.

As a healing dusting powder, one part of chinosol may be mixed with ten
of boric acid, and used in the same manner as iodoform powder.

To disinfect typhoid or dysenteric stools, dissolve four tablets in one
pint of water and add the mixture to the vessel containing the motions.

* _Chloral._—Dose, five to twenty grains. Relieves restlessness and
delirium, and produces sleep. Larger doses than twenty grains should
not be given. In severe convulsions, due to certain poisons, _e.g._,
strychnine, twenty grains or more of bromide of potassium may be added to
the full dose of chloral, and given either by the mouth or bowel.

* _Chloroform._—Dose, one to five drops. Two to four drops can be given
with advantage with almost any drug, as a flavouring agent, and on
account of its antispasmodic action.

From two to four drops put on a piece of loaf sugar and sucked will often
stop sea-sickness or other vomiting.

_Spirits of Chloroform, or Chloric Ether_, consisting of one part of
chloroform in twenty parts of alcohol, is a convenient form in which to
administer the drug. It is useful in sea-sickness, cramps and colic, and
should be given in doses of twenty drops added to a teaspoonful of water
every quarter of an hour, until six such doses have been given.

* _Cocaine._—A one per cent. solution may be used to diminish pain in
the eye caused by injury or a piece of grit lodging under the lids. Two
drops should be applied to the eyeball, and in about two minutes the
application may be repeated; in another minute the sensibility of the
part will be diminished, and a careful examination may be made for dust
or other foreign bodies, which should of course be cautiously removed.

_Creosote._—Dose, one to two drops; is best given in a capsule. In many
cases of indigestion it gives great relief if administered immediately
after food. Creosote applied to a hollow tooth, upon a piece of
cotton-wool, will usually relieve the pain.

_Cresol._—This is a valuable disinfectant which is found on the market
under several names.

* _Croton Oil._—Dose, half to one or two drops, mixed with bread crumb or
in a pill.

Is a powerful purgative not usually given to Europeans. Native carriers
like it. Useful in the case of unconscious patients, given in butter.

_Copaiba, Balsam of._—Dose, five to twenty drops three times a day. Is
best taken in capsules. It increases the expectoration, and is therefore
useful in bronchitis; is a stimulating disinfectant to the urine, bladder
and pipe, and is used in gonorrhœa and inflammation of the bladder.
It may produce an irritating rash on the skin if taken in too large
quantities.

_Emetics._—The following are the usual emetics:—

  Common salt, two tablespoonfuls in half a pint of water.
  Mustard, one tablespoonful           ”            ”
  Ipecacuanha, thirty grains           ”            ”
  Zinc sulphate, thirty grains         ”            ”

In the absence of any of the above, give copious draughts of tepid water,
followed by tickling the back of the throat with the finger or a feather.

_Emetine._—The active principle of ipecacuanha. Of great value in amœbic
dysentery (p. 187).

_Enema._—_Nutrient enema_:

  Two eggs,
  Half teaspoonful of salt,
  A wine-glassful of milk.

Beat up the eggs, then add the salt and milk, and mix well. Raise the
hips and inject slowly through the long tube well up into the bowel.

_Nutrient enema_:

  Benger’s beef jelly, two tablespoonfuls,
  Milk, about three ounces.

_Warm-water enema._ To relieve uneasiness of lower bowel, as in
dysentery, piles, etc., half a pint or more of warm water, by the short
tube.

_Soothing enema._ Laudanum, thirty drops; warm water about two ounces. A
little thin starch water or gum may be added. Inject through the short
tube, and repeat the injection in three hours if patient is not easier.

_Quinine enema._ Quinine, twenty grains or more; warm water, about two
ounces. If the patient does not retain the injection, give a second one
within an hour. Select a soluble preparation of quinine, such as the
bisulphate or the hydrobromide.

_Aperient enema._ Lather soap in thirty ounces of warm water, using
plenty of soap to make a good solution; or use plain warm water or weak
gruel; the addition of one or two tablespoonfuls of oil is of advantage.
Inject slowly into the bowel with short tube; if it does not cause
uneasiness, inject the whole amount. The injection should be retained as
long as possible.

_Epsom salts, or sulphate of magnesia._ Dose, two teaspoonfuls or
more. Is a saline purgative, giving a copious watery motion, rapid in
its action, and useful in fevers or congestion of the liver. It also
increases the flow of urine.

Recently has been much used in dysentery (p. 189).

_Friar’s Balsam._—(Tinct. Benzoin Co.) Dose, thirty drops or more.

Internally is useful as an expectorant in bronchitis. Can also be
employed as an inhalation.

Externally, lint soaked with it is an efficient dressing for wounds and
sores. When first applied it causes a good deal of smarting, but this
soon passes off.

_Gall and opium ointment_ is a useful application for piles.

_Gauze, antiseptic._ The best dressing for wounds is some form of
antiseptic gauze. Cyanide gauze, which is impregnated with cyanide of
mercury, is the most generally used.

_Ginger, essence of._—Dose, five to twenty drops. It is useful in cases
of cramp, colic, and indigestion, especially if combined with five or ten
grains of bicarbonate of soda and two or three drops of chloroform.

If there is much pain, ten drops or more of chlorodyne or laudanum may be
added.

* _Goa powder._—_See_ Araroba.

* _Goulard water._—For external use only. Is astringent, and may be used
as a lotion for inflamed joints. Is also useful as an injection in
gonorrhœa and gleet, as a soothing lotion in herpes, shingles, eczema,
discharge from the ear, and itching and chafes of all kinds. _It should
not be used as an eye lotion._

Goulard water is made by adding one part of Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis
Fortis, or Goulard _Extract_, and one of alcohol to seventy-eight of
water.

One of the tablets of the subacetate of lead added to a quarter of a pint
of water (distilled when convenient) makes a solution similar to Goulard
water.

_Gum acacia_ is used for forming a mucilage with which to suspend such
drugs as carbonate of bismuth. One part of gum to three of water should
be made and strained before use. Starch may be used for the same purpose.

_Hazeline._—Dose, thirty to one hundred and twenty drops. It is a
powerful astringent. May be applied freely to bleeding parts, such as the
nose, gums, piles, or small wounds. One tablespoonful of hazeline to five
of water may be injected into the bowel for bleeding piles. Hazeline snow
is an elegant preparation for sunburn and other skin affections.

_Ichthyol._—An ointment containing twenty per cent. of ichthyol is
very soothing in most skin diseases, such as eczema and psoriasis. The
ointment is of service in reducing the pain and swelling of mosquito
bites.

_Iodide of potassium._—Dose, five to ten grains in the later stages of
syphilis.

* _Iodine, tincture of._—Dose, two drops in a teaspoonful of water; given
every hour, is most valuable for obstinate vomiting.

Used externally, it acts as a counter-irritant, and should not be painted
on too freely as it may cause blistering. Does good if painted over
swollen joints or enlarged glands, but should not be applied if the skin
there is broken. Tincture of iodine may be painted on the chest or over
the liver or spleen if there is pain. It is a valuable application for
all open, recent wounds, and may be painted freely over and round the raw
surface. It relieves the irritation of mosquito bites.

Is very useful in certain diseases of the skin, such as ringworm, kraw
kraw, and dhobie itch.

_Iodoform powder_ is a valuable antiseptic, and is used for all kinds
of sores, or wounds, in which it rapidly promotes healing. One part of
iodoform to eight parts of vaseline makes a good healing ointment.

  _Ipecacuanha._—Dose, expectorant, half to two grains.
                 ”    emetic, fifteen to thirty grains.
                 ”    for dysentery, twenty to forty grains or more.

In small doses, _e.g._, a quarter to half a grain, is a stomachic and may
check vomiting.

Was formerly much used in amœbic dysentery (p. 187). Its active
principle, emetine, is now employed.

By causing free expectoration, it is very useful in bronchitis, and is
then usually combined with ammonia.

Is contained in Dover’s powder, and in this form is useful in coughs and
colds, as it helps to cause sweating.

_Iron._—Iron is much used on account of its tonic and blood-forming
properties. It is especially useful in anæmia following fevers and other
exhausting diseases, and it also gives tone to the nervous system.

Most preparations of iron are astringent in their action, some such
as the sulphate and perchloride being more so than others; these are,
therefore, useful in diarrhœa and in bleeding from the gums and bowel.
Iron by its astringent action may cause constipation, and it may be
necessary to add a small amount of an aperient, such as Epsom salts, to
each dose.

The following preparations are those generally used:—

_Tincture or perchloride of iron, or tincture of steel._—Dose, five to
fifteen drops in at least an ounce of water. Good blood tonic. Is very
astringent, and is therefore useful in internal bleeding and looseness of
the bowels. It is of value in erysipelas.

_Sulphate of iron._—Dose, one to three grains. Is a powerful astringent
and blood tonic, and often does good in checking the looseness of the
bowels which remains after an attack of dysentery.

_Iron pill or Blaud’s pill._—Dose, five to fifteen grains. Is one of the
best tonic preparations of iron, as it is not very astringent. It is put
up in tablet form.

_Solution of dialysed iron._—Dose, ten to thirty drops. Is a good blood
tonic, and, unlike most preparations, is not astringent.

_Parrish’s food._—Dose, thirty to a hundred and twenty drops in water. Is
a good preparation of iron for children.

_Iron and arsenic compound tablets._—A useful tonic in convalescence from
malaria, one taken three times a day after meals.

_Mercurial ointment_ forms a useful application in certain skin diseases.
As it is rather strong, it should be diluted with two parts of vaseline.

_White precipitate, or ammoniated mercurial ointment._—Useful in the case
of head lice and several parasitic skin diseases.

_Naso-pharyngeal Tablets._—Useful in nasal catarrh and pharyngitis.

* _Opium._—Is a valuable drug, but it is also a poison, and great care
should be observed in using it. Opium is narcotic and sedative in its
action; it relieves pain of all kinds. Useful in diarrhœa, dysentery,
cramp and colic. Promotes perspiration and checks vomiting. Sometimes it
will cut short a cold or mitigate an attack of malaria.

_No preparation containing opium should be given to children without
medical advice, and the same is true as regards persons suffering from
kidney disease._

The chief preparations containing opium are:—

* _Chlorodyne._—The ordinary dose is ten to fifteen drops, but if there
is great pain, then even thirty or forty drops may be given, but a second
dose should not be administered for three or four hours; if two full
doses have been given, do not give a third within at least twelve hours
of the second dose, and do not give it at all if the patient is drowsy.

It is best not to give more than forty to sixty drops in twenty-four
hours, unless there are very special reasons for giving a larger
quantity. Is to be preferred to laudanum, as it is more palatable and
more readily stops vomiting.

* _Laudanum, or tincture of opium._—The doses and uses are precisely
similar to those of chlorodyne. Laudanum has been put up in the
compressed form, and is very convenient for transport.

* _Dover’s powder, or compound ipecacuanha powder._—Dose five to fifteen
grains. It contains opium and a small amount of ipecacuanha. Ten grains
of Dover’s powder are equal to about fifteen drops of chlorodyne or
laudanum. The tablet is an extremely handy preparation. Dover’s powder
is especially useful in coughs and colds, the ipecacuanha it contains
assisting the action of the opium. If a patient who is chilled is put to
bed at once, kept warm with blankets and hot-water bottles, and is given
ten or fifteen grains with a hot drink, he will perspire, and possibly
the cold will be cut short.

_Peppermint, spirits of._—Dose, five to twenty drops. Is a valuable
drug in cases of flatulence and dyspepsia, especially if combined with
bicarbonate of soda; it also masks the taste of unpleasant medicines. For
children, one drop of the spirit and one grain of bicarbonate of soda may
be added to one teaspoonful of water, and this dose may be frequently
repeated.

_Pepsin tablets_, a useful digestive product, taken with food when
digestion is weak, or may be used to predigest it.

* _Perchloride of mercury tablets_, for making lotions for disinfecting
wounds, etc.

_Phenacetin._—Dose, three to eight grains. Phenacetin is used for
headaches, or for reducing the temperature in malaria and other febrile
diseases, and to cause sweating. As it is very insoluble, it is best
taken in the form of a powder, or in alcohol and hot water.

_Potassium, bromide of. See_ Bromides.

* _Potassium permanganate_ in solid form is a mild caustic, and is the
active principle of Condy’s fluid, which contains about eight grains of
the drug in one ounce.

It is disinfectant, deodorant, and antiseptic.

One part of this drug is soluble in about twenty parts of water.

One grain gives a purple colour to a gallon of water. Impure water turns
the purple rapidly to a brown colour, therefore the permanganate is a
rough test for the presence of organic matter in water.

A pale purple solution is useful as a gargle or mouth wash, also as an
injection in gonorrhœa; wounds may be cleansed with a similar solution.

It is especially useful in poisoned wounds, such as snake-bites, and
should in these cases be injected hypodermically (p. 281).

Is an antidote to poisoning by opium.

Of late years it has been extensively used in the treatment and
prevention of cholera. The two-grain tablet is a convenient form for
medication.

_Purgatives_ may be divided into the following classes:—

1. Laxatives.

2. Simple purgatives.

3. Drastic purgatives or cathartics.

4. Saline purges.

1. Laxatives slightly stimulate the movements of the bowel, but cause
practically no increase of the intestinal secretion. Examples of this
class are fruit, wholemeal bread, small doses of castor oil, figs,
prunes, etc. These may be given regularly in slight cases of chronic
constipation.

2. Simple purges are more powerful than laxatives, and in addition to
stimulating the movements of the bowel increase the secretion. The result
is a soft, easy motion. Examples: rhubarb, senna, cascara sagrada.

3. Drastic purgatives or cathartics. The drugs cause a profuse flow of
the intestinal secretions, and, occasionally, of the bile, with greatly
increased bowel movements. They cause a copious watery evacuation,
accompanied by a good deal of griping. Examples: calomel, colocynth,
aloes, podophyllin, croton oil, jalap and oil of turpentine; of these,
podophyllin and aloes cause an increase in the flow of bile, with
increased intestinal movements, so they may be said to act directly upon
the liver. The result is a profuse, watery, bile-stained motion.

Calomel does not act directly upon the liver, but stimulates the upper
part of the bowel, so that its contents are hurried along before the bile
can be reabsorbed, and a loose, watery, bile-stained motion ensues.

The most useful purgative of this class is the pill containing colocynth,
calomel, and hyoscyamus, of which five to ten grains should be given when
there is a furred tongue, constipation, heaviness or weight over the
liver, and dyspepsia and loss of appetite.

4. Saline purgatives. These cause a free secretion of the intestinal
juices, and a copious motion, proportionate to the size of the dose, is
the result. The principal saline purges are Epsom salts (_i.e._, sulphate
of magnesia), Glauber’s salts (_i.e._, sulphate of soda), seidlitz
powder, the various forms of fruit salts, and the aperient mineral
waters, such as Rubinat, Hunyadi Janos, etc.

A saline purgative may be given in the morning, to assist the action of
an aperient pill administered the previous night.

Saline purgatives are useful, too, in many cases of habitual
constipation, and, if necessary, a small dose may be given every morning
in a tumbler of warm water.

_Quinine._—Quinine is chiefly used for malarial fever, and the urgency
of the case must be the guide as to the amount to be administered. It is
seldom necessary to give more than ten grains three times a day; at times
enormous doses, such as thirty grains three times a day, have been given
with advantage, but such doses are rarely necessary, and in the absence
of a medical man should never be given.

The administration of quinine sometimes causes headache, deafness,
delirium, and partial or even complete blindness. In such cases the
dose should be reduced or the drug withheld until these symptoms have
disappeared.

_It has been stated that quinine causes blackwater fever; this, I
believe, is absolutely untrue._ I have seen cases of blackwater fever,
apparently resulting from the neglect of malarious attacks, which date
the commencement of their recovery from the first administration of
quinine.

Quinine is best given in solution; the nauseous taste can be somewhat
disguised by adding chloroform water or essence of ginger or lime juice
to the solution. Many men take the drug in a little beer or spirit for
the same purpose.

Quinine pills are, as a rule, very insoluble, therefore they are not
suitable for explorers. Quinine in the form of a tablet, or in a capsule,
or wrapped in tissue paper, acts well, but even tablets should be cracked
or crushed. Sugar-coated products are inadmissible in the tropics.

Sometimes, owing to frequent vomiting or other cause, the quinine
administered by the mouth cannot be retained. It must then be given by
means of an enema or by injection into the muscles.

If the traveller decides to give an intra-muscular injection of quinine,
he should only give five grains at a time. The dose should be added to
about a teaspoonful of water which should then be boiled and allowed to
cool. The amount of water is of little importance so long as enough is
used to dissolve the drug, and keep it in solution when the water is cool
enough to be injected. The less fluid, however, injected the better.

Injections are best made deeply into the muscles of the buttock. This is
a method best left to a medical man, as there is danger of injuring the
sciatic nerve.

_The preparations of quinine._—Many preparations of quinine are made;
they are all popularly known as quinine, their uses are similar, and the
doses are as follows:—

  Dose, one to five grains, as a tonic.
    ”   five or more grains as a preventive of malaria.
    ”   five to twenty grains, in fevers.

_Sulphate of quinine._—This is the preparation most commonly used; but
it is very insoluble in water, and should be given along with a little
dilute acid.

_Acid sulphate of quinine_, sometimes called bisulphate, soluble or
neutral sulphate of quinine.

The acid sulphate is much more soluble than the sulphate, and is a more
suitable preparation for administration by the mouth or for injection
into the bowel.

_Hydrochloride of quinine._—Is a very soluble preparation, and contains a
large percentage of quinine.

_Quinine hydrobromide._—Is more soluble than the sulphate, and less
liable to cause headache and other quinine symptoms.

_Acid quinine hydrobromide._—Very soluble and non-irritating. Solubility,
one in six of water.

_Tannate of quinine._—Is a weak preparation, but suitable for children.
Solubility, one in ten of water.

_Acid quinine hydrochloride, or quinine bihydrochloride._—Is a very
soluble preparation, and is suitable for hypodermic injection, but is
somewhat expensive.

It is soluble in less than its own weight of water.

For administration by the mouth or bowel, the traveller is advised to
take either the hydrochloride or the bisulphate of quinine.

For intra-muscular administration the acid quinine hydrochloride is
generally used.

_Rhubarb_, either in form of compound rhubarb pill, one of the most
useful of ordinary aperients, two to four for a dose.

_Compound Rhubarb Powder_, otherwise known as Gregory’s Powder.

_Sandal-wood oil._—Uses and doses as for balsam of copaiba.

_Soda, bicarbonate of._—Dose, five to ten grains or more. Five to
ten grains dissolved in water may be given twice a day for acidity,
flatulence, heartburn. Useful in dysentery to allay irritation of
stomach; for this purpose five or ten grains may be given an hour before
each dose of ipecacuanha.

If the urine is acid and scalding, give twenty grains three times a day.
Bicarbonate of soda is given in cases of blackwater fever when the urine
is not sufficient in quantity; in such cases at least twenty grains
should be given every six hours.

_Soda mint tablets_, useful for relieving flatulence, one or two being
taken after meals.

_Sodium salicylate._—Dose, ten to twenty grains. Relieves pain in
rheumatic fever. Lowers temperature. Its action must be carefully
watched, as too large doses may cause headache, buzzing in the ears, and
even delirium.

_Sulphur._—An ointment containing one part of sulphur to nine of lard,
grease, or vaseline, makes a useful application for itch and other skin
diseases.

_Tannin._—Tannin is a powerful astringent, and may be used internally or
externally.

In five to ten grain doses it helps to stop diarrhœa, bleeding from
stomach, bowel, piles, and bladder. If there is continued bleeding,
increase the dose to twenty grains, and repeat it as often as necessary.

_Voice tablets_, consisting of chlorate of potash, borax and cocaine are
useful in cases of sore throat.

_Warburg’s tincture._—One tablet is equal to thirty drops of the ordinary
tincture. Stronger tablets are also available.

To produce sweating, first open the bowels, then give four to eight of
the tablets with a little hot spirit and water. If necessary, repeat
the dose in three hours, and in either case withhold if possible food
or drink till after this period has elapsed, but if the patient is very
thirsty give hot drinks of weak tea or spirit and water. Keep him covered
up and put a hot-water bottle in the bed.

Urgency of the case is a guide as to how many tablets ought to be given.

_Zinc oxide_ alone or mixed with an equal quantity of boric acid or
starch makes a useful drying dusting powder.

_Zinc ointment_ contains three parts of zinc oxide to seventeen parts of
lard or vaseline. This is a most useful application for burns, eczema,
chafes and sores.

_Sulphate of zinc._—As a prompt emetic, give twenty to thirty grains in
half a pint of warm water. If patient does not vomit give a pint or more
of warm water and tickle the back of the throat. A second dose of the
drug may be given.

Two grains to an ounce of water makes a valuable astringent lotion for
gonorrhœa, raw surfaces, ulcers, and inflamed eyes and ears. The strength
of this solution may be gradually increased to six grains to the ounce of
water.


TEMPERATURE TAKING, HYPODERMIC INJECTION, BATHS, CATHETERS, STOMACH
TUBES, ENEMAS, AND POULTICES.


_Pulse, Respiration and Temperature._

Normal pulse rate (adult) about 72 per minute.

Normal respiration rate (adult), 15 to 18 per minute.

Normal temperature, 98.4° F., but varying in health between 97.5° and 99°.


_Temperature Taking._

The temperature of the body may be taken in the armpit, the mouth, or the
lower part of the bowel.

_In the Armpit._—Dry armpit well, put the bulb of the thermometer into
it, and press the arm tightly against the body, so that the thermometer
will be in close contact with the skin on either side for at least five
minutes.

_In the Mouth._—Wash the thermometer in an antiseptic solution, dry it
and place the bulb well under the tongue and close the lips on the stem;
at least three minutes should be allowed. This is a more reliable way of
taking the temperature than in the armpit.

_In the Bowel._—If the patient is very ill and light-headed, it is not
advisable to place the thermometer in the mouth, and when a patient is
having a cool bath to reduce his temperature a reading will be needed at
least every quarter of an hour; in these cases it is best to pass the end
of the thermometer, which has been previously greased, about two inches
up the bowel, and to leave it there for at least two and a half minutes.

Do not trust in half-minute or minute thermometers, always allow the
full time given above. Before taking a patient’s temperature see that
the mercury in the thermometer is shaken down at least as low as 97° F.
After the temperature has been taken, note it down carefully, wash the
thermometer, and shake the mercury down to 97° F. If the thermometer is
washed in hot water, the expanding mercury may break it.


_Hypodermic Injection._

The best place to inject is under the skin of the back or chest. The
forearm is usually selected, but there are many objections to it. If the
injection is made into the leg or arm, the point of the needle should be
directed towards the body.

1. Surgical cleanliness must be observed. The hands of the operator and
the skin of the patient at the spot chosen for injection must be properly
cleaned with an antiseptic lotion, _e.g._, chinosol (1 in 1000) or
carbolic acid (1 in 60). The site of injection may, as an alternative, be
painted with iodine which, indeed, is the preferable method.

2. The hypodermic syringe and needle must be perfectly cleaned; if
possible they should be boiled, or an antiseptic lotion, or alcohol
(brandy or whisky) may be syringed through them.

3. The solution to be injected should be made in a clean, _i.e._, boiled,
spoon, by adding the drug to boiled water.

4. Draw solution into the syringe, hold the syringe with the needle end
pointing upwards, so as to allow any air to rise above the fluid, and
push the piston up till all air has been driven out and the solution
begins to come through the needle.

5. Pinch up the skin where the injection is to be made, push the needle
well through and then under it, keeping the point slightly away from the
skin until the needle is almost entirely covered. The point of the needle
will now lie in the loose tissue—between the skin and the muscle—into
which the fluid is to be injected.

6. Holding the needle firmly, slowly press the piston until the required
amount has been injected; withdraw the needle slowly, keep the finger
over the minute opening in the skin, so as to close it at once, and with
another finger rub for a few seconds, where the fluid has been injected,
in a direction away from the opening, to assist its absorption.

After giving an injection, wash out the syringe as before, dry needle
well, and pass a piece of thin wire through it to keep it open. The
needles are sent out with wire in them to keep the fine channel open;
of course the wire must be removed before the needle is put on to the
syringe.

As strong solutions of permanganate of potash attack the plunger of the
piston, when this drug has been injected, the syringe should be well
washed with water directly after its use.

_Hypodermic tablets._—Solutions for injection are best made from tablets
which are specially prepared for the purpose. A hypodermic tablet should
be dissolved in about ten drops of hot water, but as each contains a
definite amount of the drug, it does not matter in exactly how much water
the dose is dissolved. In injecting certain preparations of quinine,
which are not easily soluble, so much water may be required that two or
three separate injections are necessary; there is no objection to this,
the important thing is to have the quinine really dissolved.

Usually only medical men should administer hypodermic injections.
Frequently it is not necessary to give a hypodermic injection, for the
hypodermic tablet will be absorbed, and act almost as quickly if placed
under the tongue.

The traveller may be called upon to use one of the following hypodermic
injections:—

Permanganate of potassium. _See_ Snake-bite, p. 281.

Morphia. An injection of a quarter of a grain of morphia may be necessary
when there is much pain. The soothing action of opium and chlorodyne is
due to this substance.

Strychnine. _See_ Snake-bite, p. 282.


_Baths, etc._

_Cool Bath._—Lift the patient gently in a blanket into a long bath
containing water at about 90° F., add water as cold as can be obtained,
keep the water circulating and running out; one boy must pour water on to
the head all the time.

If a long bath is not at hand, put a blanket over a waterproof sheet, and
let the patient lie on it; get six or eight boys to hold up the edges,
and give patient his bath in that way.

A good plan is to dig a shallow trench in the sand and to spread a
waterproof in it; it is less difficult then to keep the edges of
waterproof up as the patient is lying in a groove. It is not necessary to
make the bath really cold if the cool water can be kept running. I have
hardly ever been able, in Africa, to get the water below 80° F.

Note the bowel temperature, and as soon as it falls to 101° F., remove
the patient from the bath and put him between warm blankets, and feed
with some hot soup. If there are any signs of faintness, ammonia, or
equal parts of strong spirit and water, must be given. Weak spirit and
water has little or no stimulating effect on the heart, therefore, in
cases of fainting, shock, exhaustion, or collapse from any cause, give a
little spirit, and give it strong.

_Wet Pack._—Slip a waterproof under patient, wring a sheet out of cold
water and pass it under him and wrap him in it, cover with three or four
blankets, and tuck him in. At first he will feel cold and chilly, but
soon the surface vessels will dilate, and he will begin to feel hot,
and very likely will sweat; keep him in the wet pack with the clothes
carefully tucked in round the neck, feet and sides for about half an
hour. Then partially dry the patient, and put him into bed between warm
blankets and with hot-water bottles, and give hot drinks to encourage
perspiration.


_Catheters._

At least six silk-webbed catheters should be taken as part of the
equipment. The most suitable sizes are, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10. They should be
packed in a separate box, and should be kept dry with French chalk or any
other dusting powder.

Before use the catheter should lie for at least a quarter of an hour in
an antiseptic solution such as chinosol (1 in 1000), and the solution
should be frequently syringed through it. The catheter should then be
lubricated with eucalyptus, vaseline, or carbolic oil, or, better, with
boric acid ointment.

Let the patient lie down, and thoroughly wash the genitals, especially
the opening of the pipe, with an antiseptic solution, the operator having
carefully cleaned his own hands. Then pass the catheter gently down the
pipe and into the bladder. The silk-web catheters are so flexible that
unless force is used they can do no harm; begin with a No. 8 size, and if
this cannot be passed, try a No. 4.

After use, wash the catheter as before, dry with a soft handkerchief,
and dust it with powder. On no account should the catheters be greased
when they are being put away. Neglect of cleanly precautions in passing
catheters may lead to inflammation of the bladder and even more serious
mischief.


_Stomach Tube._

The stomach tube consists of a piece of india-rubber tubing about three
feet long, with a funnel at one end. The method of passing it is as
follows:—The patient’s jaws should be kept apart by a gag such as a piece
of stick wrapped in lint placed between the back teeth on either side.
The left forefinger should be passed into the patient’s mouth as far as
possible and the tongue drawn forward; the rubber tube, oiled or smeared
with vaseline or glycerine, should then be passed by the side of the
finger and down the throat for about twenty inches, taking care to use no
great force. The funnel is then raised and slowly filled with water; when
all the water has run down, the funnel is lowered and the liquid in the
stomach is drawn out by the syphon action of the tube. The process should
be repeated till the water returning from the stomach is clear.

If the patient is unconscious the tube should not be passed except by a
doctor.


_Enemas._

_Enema Syringe._—This is fitted with long and short tube. To use the
long tube, slip it over the short one, which will hold it firmly. After
use hang it up to drain, dry it well, but do not oil it; carry it loose
rather than coiled up, so as to avoid risk of the rubber kinking at the
flexed portions of the tube.

To give an enema, the patient should be placed on his left side, and
brought close to the edge of the bed, with his knees slightly drawn up
towards the belly. The pipe or nozzle of the syringe should be well oiled
or smeared with vaseline, and then carefully introduced into the outlet
of the bowel, and passed gently upwards for about three inches, great
care being taken not to exert any force.

The higher up into the bowel a nutrient or medicinal injection is passed,
the more rapidly will it be absorbed; therefore the long tube is to be
preferred, and the hips should be raised on a pillow, to assist the
patient in retaining the injection.

A nutrient or medicinal enema is usually small in quantity, about two to
four ounces, in order to prevent its being rejected by the bowel, and
is administered by means of a small ball syringe provided with a long
nozzle.

Before giving a medicinal or nutrient enema, it is best to wash the lower
bowel with warm water, and always see that the mixture to be injected is
warmed to “blood heat.”


_Poultices._

_Linseed-meal poultice._—Mix four ounces of linseed meal into about
half a pint of boiling water, constantly stirring until the mixture is
smooth and even. A piece of tow, teased out to the required size, or a
piece of linen or thin cloth, is placed upon a table, and the poultice
turned out upon it; then spread evenly in a layer about three-quarters of
an inch thick, leaving a margin of tow or linen about an inch wide all
round. This margin should be folded over, and the poultice applied to the
affected part—with the meal next the body.

An _Ice poultice_ is made by mixing pounded ice and sawdust, and
enclosing the mixture in a waterproof material such as a mackintosh or
gutta-percha.


TREATMENT OF WOUNDS AND INJURIES.

_By the late WILLIAM HENRY CROSSE, M.D._

In treating wounds, whether large or small, the great essential is
absolute cleanliness, not simple cleanliness in the ordinary acceptance
of the word, but absolute surgical cleanliness.

In the first place, it is as well to lay down the axiom that all
inflammation and other complications of wounds, as suppuration and
blood-poisoning, are due to germs, and germs alone. All cleansing
operations and antiseptic processes are instituted with the sole idea of
preventing the entrance of germs into the wound, either from the hands of
the operator, the dressings, instruments, or the skin of the patient.

Antiseptics are chemical substances which have the power of killing germs
outright, or so checking their growth that the cells in the blood can
easily cope with them. The antiseptics that are mentioned in these notes
are carbolic acid, chinosol, permanganate of potash, and boric acid.

Given the antiseptic properties of the substance, it seems a simple
thing, by its application, to prevent germs either entering a wound or
multiplying there, but in actual practice the germ-free cleanliness of a
wound is a difficult thing to procure. The germs are everywhere—on the
instruments which cause the wounds, on the skin of the patient, in the
sweat glands of the skin, at the roots of the hairs, and on the hands
of the operator, especially under the nails. Again, a great obstacle to
the free action of antiseptics is grease or oil of all kinds. A fine
coating of grease enveloping a germ offers great resistance to the action
of antiseptics, and the object of the process of cleansing a wound
described below is, first, to remove all the grease, and then to apply
the antiseptic to destroy the germs. With care, a clean-cut wound should
heal kindly, without the formation of matter.


_To clean and dress a Wound._

First cover the wound itself with a small piece of cotton-wool or
lint, wrung out in an antiseptic solution; then thoroughly scrub the
surrounding skin with warm water and soap (soft soap for preference),
using a nail brush which has been previously boiled.

Shave the skin in every case, whether thickly covered with hair or not.
This shaving is most important, as it removes all fine grease-coated
hairs which might favour the growth of germs, and also scrapes off the
surface dirt and dead scales of skin.

After shaving, again scrub with soap and water, and wash the skin with an
antiseptic lotion, such as carbolic (1 in 60), or chinosol (1 in 1000).

Having cleansed the skin, now clean up the wound itself. Thoroughly wash
the wound with an antiseptic lotion, either rubbed in with lint or wool,
or injected with a _glass_ syringe.

All instruments, ligatures and needles should be boiled for at least
five minutes in water (to which a little washing-soda may be added with
advantage), and should then be dropped into an antiseptic solution. When
boiling is not possible, they should be soaked in carbolic lotion, 1 in
30, for ten minutes, and then transferred to 1 in 60.

The hands of the operator must be scrubbed for some minutes with soap
and warm water, and then in an antiseptic solution, particular attention
being paid to the nails, which should have been cut quite short.
Cleanliness of the operator’s hands is the first essential of successful
treatment of wounds.

The edges of small, clean-cut wounds may be brought together with
adhesive plaster, but larger wounds will need antiseptic silk or gut
ligatures to keep the edges applied evenly.

Large ragged wounds, with much bruising; wounds containing dirt, sand,
etc., or deep wounds such as those caused by bullets or spears, should
not be completely closed. They should be cleansed, as above, dusted with
iodoform powder, and a strip of antiseptic gauze arranged so as to reach
from the surface of the skin to the deepest part of the wound. This,
which serves as a drain for the discharges, should be renewed every day
until healing is fairly established. If necessary, a few stitches may be
inserted in the more superficial parts of the wound to bring the edges of
the skin into contact.

The wound should be dressed with strips of antiseptic gauze, slightly
moistened with whichever antiseptic solution is used, and over this
should be placed a pad of antiseptic wool, which should be kept firmly
and evenly in place by a well-applied bandage.

A wounded limb should be kept at rest, as far as possible, either by
sand-bags or a splint.

(In the absence of other antiseptics, the wound, after thorough washing,
may be dressed with carbolic oil or Friar’s balsam, or boric or iodoform
ointment applied on lint.)


_Bleeding or Hæmorrhage._

General oozing from small vessels may be stopped by means of a pad made
of a piece of antiseptic wool or gauze, firmly bandaged over the bleeding
area.

When a large vessel, whether an artery or a vein, is cut across,
profuse bleeding will take place, and immediate steps must be taken to
stop this whilst suitable instruments are being obtained. (In bleeding
from an artery, the blood spurts out in quick jerking jets; if coming
from a vein, the blood flows in a steady continuous stream.) Pressure
should therefore be applied, by means of the thumb or thumbs, or a
tourniquet,[18] in the course of the vessel, either above or below the
injury—nearer to the body than the wound if the bleeding is from an
artery (Fig. 3), and beyond the wound if the bleeding is from a vein.

It will be found that the bleeding can be controlled more effectually,
and with greater ease, if the vessel is compressed against a neighbouring
bone.

No more pressure should be exerted than is just sufficient to stop the
flow of blood.

Whilst pressure is being applied, the wound should be cleansed with some
antiseptic lotion, and a wedge-shaped pad of antiseptic gauze applied and
firmly held in position by a bandage.

Bleeding from the hand or forearm can generally be immediately arrested
by forcibly bending up the forearm at the elbow-joint.

If these measures effectually control the bleeding, the pressure should
be kept up for an hour or two, after which time it may be cautiously
relaxed. If, after the removal of the pressure, the hæmorrhage seems to
have ceased (as judged by the pad which has been kept in position not
trickling with blood), apply a large pad of wool _over_ the original
dressing, and bandage this firmly. Dress the wound very carefully on the
third day.

If, on the other hand, in spite of the treatment, the bleeding continues,
the pressure must be re-applied, and the cut ends of the bleeding vessel
looked for in the wound itself, and either twisted or tied with a silk
ligature.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.—METHOD OF COMPRESSING THE MAIN ARTERY OF THE
THIGH.]

To twist a vessel, seize the bleeding point between the blades of the
artery forceps, then, by twisting the instrument round three or four
times, the vessel will become blocked or closed, and the forceps may
be taken off in the course of ten minutes. The other method is to tie
the vessel with a silk ligature (previously boiled), making a reef or
sailor’s knot, to cut short the ends of the ligature, remove the forceps,
and let the vessel fall back into the wound. In any case cleanse the
wound, and dress in the manner previously described.

The traveller who has taken the trouble to learn something about the
treatment of wounds and severe hæmorrhage will, before his journeys are
ended, probably have opportunities of saving the life of a comrade by
his skill. Nothing can be more distressing than to see a man die from
a hæmorrhage which anyone who has studied the subject a little would
be able to control in nine cases out of ten without much difficulty. I
therefore earnestly urge all travellers to gain as practical a knowledge
of this subject as is possible, before leaving a civilised country.


_After-Treatment of Wounds._

A clean-cut wound, which has been completely closed and properly dressed,
need not be dressed again until the fourth day; and the stitches need not
be removed for seven days.

On the other hand, a ragged or dirty wound, or one in which it has been
necessary to insert a piece of gauze for the purpose of drainage, should
be syringed out and dressed daily from the first.

The important index to the state of a wound is the patient’s temperature.
If, on the third day after the wound was first dressed, the temperature
is normal, and subsequently remains so, the wound is probably healing
well; but if the patient’s temperature is up to or beyond 100° F., and
the part is painful, there is probably some inflammatory change going on
in the wound. The dressings should be taken off, and the wound examined.
If the surrounding skin is red and shiny, and the limb swollen and
tender, some of the stitches should be taken out, and the wound well
syringed with an antiseptic lotion. This, with a good purge, such as
calomel or Epsom salts, will probably remove all signs of inflammation;
but still the wound must be dressed daily. If, however, the temperature
still remains high, 100° to 101° F., or more, and the patient is restless
and light-headed, all the stitches should be taken out, the wound opened
up, and hot fomentations, prepared with an antiseptic lotion, applied
every four hours till the temperature comes down. Tonics of quinine and
iron should be given.


_Erysipelas._

Erysipelas is a diffusely-spreading inflammation of the skin, caused
by the presence and activity of germs, which enter through a wounded
surface. It is most frequently due to want of cleanliness in the
treatment of wounds. Bright’s disease and gout predispose to this
complaint.

_Symptoms._—The disease begins with a vivid red blush, usually starting
from a wound, and which has a great tendency to spread or to move from
one part of the limb to another. The edge of the blush is sharply
defined, and slightly raised above the surrounding skin; there is
stiffness and heat in the part, with fever 103°-104° F., not varying
much; rapid pulse, headache, loss of appetite, furred tongue and
constipation.

_Treatment._—Isolate the patient and administer a good purgative. Give
twenty drops of tincture of steel, with five grains of quinine in
two ounces of water. Light diet. Stimulants will be necessary. Local
treatment: flour, starch, or zinc oxide may be used to dust over the
part, or zinc ointment applied on lint. The healthy skin just beyond the
advancing edge may be painted with tincture of iodine.

_Cellulitis._—Occasionally the infection of the skin by the germs spreads
to the tissue beneath, and is then called cellulitis, or phlegmonous
erysipelas. In this condition there is more swelling than in simple
erysipelas, and the skin is very boggy or doughy, and retains the imprint
of a finger pressed upon it. The red blush is not so vivid, being darker
and more purple, and there is no well-defined edge. If left untreated,
the skin will break down and die, causing extensive destruction of the
part.

_Treatment._—General treatment the same as for erysipelas. Locally,
several incisions, each at least one inch in length, should be made into
the swollen tissue where it is most boggy, and right through the skin,
care being taken to avoid the larger blood-vessels; then hot fomentations
of boric acid (five grains to the ounce) or other antiseptic should be
applied, every two or three hours, till the swelling has subsided. The
important point in the treatment of swollen and inflamed parts following
wounds, when accompanied by continued or rising high temperature, is to
relieve tension by making free incisions. Some knowledge of the anatomy
of the parts is essential before using the knife. In any case, incisions
in the arm or leg should be made parallel to and not across the limb.


_Blood-Poisoning._

If a poisoned wound is left without thorough local treatment, the poisons
and germs contained in the tissues are taken up by the blood, and cause
_blood-poisoning_. The symptoms of this condition are high temperature,
delirium, headache, loss of appetite, vomiting, and occasionally
bronchitis and pneumonia. Severe forms of blood-poisoning may lead to the
formation of abscesses all over the body, with fatal result.

_Treatment._—The general treatment is the same as that described for
erysipelas. The local treatment is to thoroughly open up and disinfect
the poisoned part.


_Bruises._

A bruise should be treated by bathing with cold water, or the frequent
application of wet cloths. The addition of Goulard water, gin, methylated
spirits, eau de cologne, or vinegar, to the water, is beneficial.


_Sprains._

The affected joint should be raised on pillows, and treated in the
manner advised for bruises, but if seen immediately after the injury,
firm strapping with adhesive plaster and bandaging of the part is often
equally serviceable. If inflammation develops, warm fomentations will be
found soothing, leeching may be necessary, and free purgation always has
a good effect.

The troublesome stiffness which often remains is relieved by friction
and kneading with the hand. To regain the use of the joint, it should be
gently moved each day; this movement is less painful if it is performed
with the joint in hot water.


_Poisoned Wounds from Snakes, Animals, and Arrows, etc._

In cases of poisonous snake-bite, the marks of two fangs will usually be
found.

_Treatment._—Tie a piece of tape, bandage, or cord a couple of inches
above the wound, _i.e._, between the wound and the body; tie another
piece still nearer the body, say three inches from the first. Cut across
the wound or wounds to encourage free bleeding.

(If a medical man is present, he may think fit to inject anti-venomous
serum as an antidote to snake poison.)

Dissolve as much permanganate of potash as possible in about a
teaspoonful of water, stirring well to hasten its solution. Inject about
five drops of this underneath the skin, on either side of the cut, by
means of a hypodermic syringe. Some of the solution may be injected into
the wound itself, or even a crystal of the drug may be pressed into the
cut, or part of a crushed tablet of the drug.

It is best to keep a small bottle of the strong solution of permanganate
always ready.

Give spirits strong, that is, one tablespoonful to one of water; at least
four such doses in the first hour. Ammonia may also be given.

If the patient is heavy and stupid, give two tablets of strychnine
(one-hundredth of a grain in each) in half a wine-glassful of water, by
the mouth; or dissolve two in twenty drops of water, and inject well
beneath the skin into the muscles of the back. If there is no improvement
within an hour, give two more tablets; and if necessary, one or two more
in another hour.

After tying up a limb for a poisonous bite, there will be great pain if
the ligatures have been applied tightly; the parts will swell, become
very dusky, and if the ligatures are left on too long, the blood supply
will be cut off, and the parts will die. Therefore, when the ligatures
begin to cause much pain, loosen the one next the injured part for ten
seconds, then tie again at or near the same place, and loosen the other
one for a similar period, and then re-tie; repeat this about every
fifteen minutes. In the course of two hours, both tapes may be taken off.
The object of tying up is to prevent much of the poison getting into the
system at once.

_The first thing is to tie up tightly; next cut freely, and suck or
squeeze out as much blood as possible, then treat with drugs._

(It is usually safe to suck a poisoned wound unless there are any
abrasions or cracks in the mouth, tongue, gums, or lips, taking care
to spit out the poison at once; but the mouth should be washed out
immediately afterwards with a light purple solution of permanganate of
potash.)

If the wounds are on the face, neck, or other spot which cannot be tied
up, then it is best to cut out the part at once and wipe the wound well
with the strong solution of permanganate.

In the treatment of snake-bite, pure carbolic acid, ordinary caustic, a
red-hot wire, or even a burning stick may be applied to the wounds when
permanganate of potash cannot be obtained. In some cases, where no other
treatment is available, it is advisable to explode a pinch of gun-powder
over the place of injury, or even to blow the parts away with one’s gun.

If a finger or toe is bitten by a snake which is certainly poisonous, and
neither drugs nor fire are at hand, it would be best to amputate at once.

Wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows or other weapons, mad dogs, jackals,
etc., should be treated in a similar manner to those caused by poisonous
snakes.


_Drowning._

Death from drowning usually occurs in from two to three minutes after
submersion, although people have been revived after a period of five or
six minutes under water.

In treating cases of apparent death from drowning, the points to be aimed
at are:—

First and immediately, the restoration of the breathing.

Secondly, and _after breathing is restored_, the promotion of warmth and
circulation.

1. _To restore the breathing._

Roll the patient on to his face for a few seconds, placing one of his
arms under the forehead; wipe away all weeds, mud, etc., from the mouth.
(In this position water will more easily escape from the mouth, whilst at
the same time the tongue will fall forward, and leave the entrance to the
windpipe clear.)

Turn the patient on his back, on a flat surface, with the head a little
higher than the feet.

Place a small hard pillow (or a rolled-up coat) _under the
shoulder-blades_.

Draw the patient’s tongue forward, and keep it projecting beyond the lips.

Remove all tight clothing from about the patient’s neck and chest; also
braces, belt, etc.

Kneel at the patient’s head, grasp his arms just above the elbows, draw
them gently and steadily upwards above his head, and keep them stretched
in that position for two seconds (Fig. 4). (By this means air is drawn
into the lungs.)

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

Reverse the movement, and press the patient’s arms gently but firmly
against the sides of the chest, keeping them in this position for two
seconds (Fig. 5). (By this means air is pressed out of the lungs.)

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

Repeat these movements alternately and regularly, about fifteen times a
minute, until natural breathing takes place, or as long as there is any
hope of saving the patient. It may be necessary to continue the movements
for as long as an hour.

While these movements are being carried out the wet clothing may be
removed, the body gently dried, and the patient wrapped up in dry
blankets.

2. _To promote warmth and circulation._

Rub the limbs and body vigorously with dry towels and flannels, always
rubbing from the extremities towards the heart.

Apply hot-water bottles, hot flannels, or hot bricks to the feet,
armpits, the pit of the stomach, and between the thighs.

Immediately the power of swallowing returns, administer hot coffee,
spirits and warm water, etc.

Put the patient to bed between hot blankets as soon as possible.


_Fractures._

[Illustration: FIG. 6.—DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN SKELETON, GIVING THE NAMES
AND POSITIONS OF THE CHIEF BONES.]

A _simple fracture_ is one in which, though the bone or bones are broken,
the protecting skin is _not_ broken.

A _compound fracture_ is one in which the skin, etc., is broken or cut
across, so that the fracture is more or less exposed to the air. The end
of either fragment of the broken bone may protrude through the skin.

A _comminuted fracture_ is one in which the bone is broken into several
pieces; such a fracture may be either simple or compound.

In a simple fracture great gentleness should be used in handling the
parts, so as not to convert it into a compound fracture; therefore, do
not undress the part; rather cut away the clothing.

A fracture which is compound is usually serious, for dirt and germs are
liable to be carried into the wound and cause great mischief; in gunshot
wounds, dirt or pieces of clothing may be carried into the wound.

The signs of a fracture are, firstly, the patient’s own feelings, _e.g._,
the pain which is caused on handling the part, sudden loss of power, and
the sensation of grating. Secondly, on examination, most if not all of
the following signs will be observed: inability of patient to move the
part below the injury, swelling, unnatural movement below the site of
fracture, alteration in appearance of the limb.

In fractures of the upper or lower limb there is usually shortening, the
spasmodic action of the muscles causing the broken ends to ride over each
other, and the greater the obliquity of the line of fracture the greater
will be the shortening and alteration in appearance.

A sensation of grating is usually conveyed to the operator when he
attempts to move the parts; sometimes this grating can be heard, as well
as felt. Comparison of the injured with the sound limb is of the greatest
importance in detecting fractures.


_Treatment of Simple Fractures._

Directly a fracture of a limb is made out, a splint or splints of
some kind should be applied to keep the parts fairly in position, and
to prevent a broken end from being pushed through the skin. Cloths
and bandages may be applied firmly round the injured part, and then
extemporised splints, such as boards, straight sticks, umbrellas, or
bayonets, should be applied and kept in position till the patient is in
bed.

Splints suitable to the injury should be now made and well covered with
wool, lint, or cloth, special care being taken to pad them well where
they are likely to press upon bony prominences, such as the inner or
outer ankle. The limb must next be straightened, and any deformity caused
by overriding of the fragments must be remedied by steady pulling upon
the parts above and below the fracture, in opposite directions, and the
parts brought into good position by manipulating the bones at the seat
of fracture. The prepared splints, extending well below and above the
fracture, are then fitted to the limb with cotton-wool or lint, and
secured by bandages.

If there is great swelling and tenderness of a limb, then it is advisable
not to apply splints at once. Sand pillows should be made, or stockings
nearly filled with sand and their mouths tied, and applied one on either
side of the limb, to keep it absolutely still; the painful swelling may
be reduced by applying ice or evaporating lotions. When the swelling is
somewhat reduced, splints may be applied after proper manipulation.

Whilst the bandages should be firmly applied so as to keep the splints
in position, they must not be bound too tightly, otherwise swelling and
ulceration may be caused. If there is much pain and swelling after a
fracture has been set, it will be necessary to loosen the bandages.

Union of the fractured bones is generally completed in about six weeks.

_Collar-bones._—Fracture of the collar-bone should be treated by placing
a large wedge-shaped pad (about six inches long, by three in thickness at
the upper end) in the armpit, and securing it with tapes tied over the
opposite shoulder. The elbow should then be brought forward, and raised
and well supported by a broad triangular bandage or handkerchief, used as
a sling, and with the ends tied over the opposite shoulder. A flannel or
other bandage should then be wound round the chest, so as to secure the
arm from accidental movements.

_Ribs._—Fracture of the ribs may be treated by wrapping a flannel
bandage round the chest pretty tightly, so as to limit the movements
of breathing, which are very painful. The flannel should be secured by
stitching, and the upper turns should be fixed by broad tapes passed
over the shoulders and firmly stitched. Firm strapping of the side with
adhesive plaster is still better. For this purpose about six strips
of plaster one to two inches wide and eighteen inches long should be
applied evenly round the side of the chest; each piece should be overlaid
by the next piece above it for about half an inch. To secure rest for
the affected side of the chest, the strapping should not only cover the
broken bone, but should extend to about three inches above and below it,
and should reach well beyond the middle line both in front and behind.

_Upper Arm._—Fracture of the upper arm may be treated by the application
of several narrow splints reaching from the armpit to the elbow, well
padded, and supported in position by a bandage carried from the fingers
to the armpit. Care must be taken that the splints on the inner side do
not chafe the folds of the armpit. The hand and wrist should then be
supported in a sling, but the elbow must be allowed to hang free.

_Forearm._—Fractures of the forearm must be treated by two splints,
each wider than the limb. The injured limb is allowed to hang down by
the side, palm forwards. One splint reaching from the elbow to the
finger-tips is applied to the back of the limb; the other is placed on
the front, and only reaches from the bend of the elbow to the level of
the ball of the thumb. The splints are secured temporarily by a couple
of slip knots. Now bend the arm to a right angle, thumb uppermost, and
bandage securely from the tips of the fingers up to the elbow.

_Thigh._—Fractures of the thigh are serious; they require the patient to
be kept in bed till union has been effected, and they are more likely to
lead to shortening and permanent lameness if not very carefully treated,
and the assistance of a skilled surgeon is urgently needed. A long splint
is applied to the outside of the limb, reaching from the armpit to beyond
the foot, and secured above by a bandage passing round the body, whilst
the foot and leg are firmly bandaged to it below.

_Leg._—Fractures of the leg should be treated by applying a splint on
each side, long enough to reach from the knee to a little below the sole
of the foot. They should be carefully applied with bandages, keeping
the great toe in a line with the inner border of the knee-cap. When the
accident occurs in the open air, the injured limb should be tied to the
sound one, till the patient is brought to a place of security, the toes
being prevented from pointing inwards.

_Lower Jaw._—Manipulate the parts into their normal position and mould
a splint of gutta percha, or other material, as accurately as possible
to the lower jaw. If a tooth is loose and prevents the two jaws meeting
properly it should be taken out.

Apply the splint and keep it in position by a bandage, which should be
split at the chin so as to encircle the point of the jaw; the ends of
the bandage are also split as far forward as the angle of the jaw; two
ends are tied behind the neck and two over the top of the head, as in the
diagram, and these tied ends should be united by a bandage or tapes to
keep them in position (Fig. 8).

In the absence of suitable material for making a splint, this bandage
alone will have to suffice.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.]

The patient must be fed on slops through a tube passed behind the teeth,
or through a passage resulting from the loss of a tooth.

_Compound Fractures._—Clean up thoroughly as described in the treatment
of wounds. Wash out with an antiseptic solution, dust with iodoform,
apply an antiseptic pad. Set the limb in such a manner that the wound can
be dressed daily without interfering with the splints.

If the bone is protruding through the wound, it must, if possible, be got
back into position. If this cannot be done it may be necessary to saw off
the end of the bone to enable the wound to be closed.

If the wound is large, deep, or dirty, it should be stuffed with
antiseptic gauze so that free drainage may be allowed, and the gauze
should be changed each day.

_After-treatment of Fractures._—Gentle movements may be cautiously
begun, in the joints above and below the injury, in about three weeks.
While these are being carried out, the limb must be firmly supported to
avoid interfering with the healing processes going on between the ends of
the bones.


_Dislocations._

Dislocations nearly always require skilled aid to reduce them.

_Shoulder-joint._—Patient cannot raise the arm to his head or perform any
other shoulder movements freely. The shoulder is flattened, the elbow
sticks out, and the limb is usually lengthened.

_Treatment._—The patient should lie down. The operator removes his own
boot on the same side as that of the patient’s dislocation, inserts his
heel into the patient’s armpit and draws the arm steadily down, at the
same time pressing the heel in an outward direction; the dislocated
bone should slip back into its proper position. Put a pad in the armpit
and bandage the arm to the side for a week; support arm in a sling for
another week or two.

_Elbow-joint._—Dislocation of the bones of the forearm backwards at the
elbow-joint is fairly common.

_Treatment._—This dislocation can usually be reduced by placing the
knee in front of the patient’s elbow, and making firm traction on the
forearm—which is at the same time bent a little around the operator’s
knee. The patient can be kept sitting in a chair while this is done, and
the operator can get his knee into the required position by placing his
foot on the side of the chair.

_Hip-joint._—Is the most common form of dislocation. The limb is
shortened, bent at the knee and twisted inwards, the great toe of the
injured limb resting on the instep of foot of the opposite limb. The
outer side of the hip is swollen and distorted.

_Treatment._—Grasp the ankle with one hand and the knee with the other.
Lift up the leg and bend it at the hip, then carry it as a whole away
from the other limb as far as possible, rotate the toes and foot firmly
outwards, and in that position bring the limb back parallel to the sound
one.

_After-treatment of Dislocations._—After dislocations, gentle movement of
the joints should be begun in two weeks, so as to prevent them becoming
fixed.


POISONS.

It is impossible, in the small space available, to give anything like a
detailed scheme of the treatment of the various poisons, but a few hints
on the essential points must not be omitted.

I have therefore arranged a list of the commoner poisons, together with
the special treatment appropriate to each. Following this are a few hints
more especially adapted to the requirements of travellers.

Poison should be suspected (_a_) when severe and alarming symptoms of
illness suddenly attack a person apparently in good health; (_b_) if the
symptoms closely follow the taking of food, drink, or medicines; (_c_)
if several people are attacked after having partaken of the same food or
drink.

The points to be attended to in the treatment of cases of poisoning are:—

_a._ Remove as much of the poison as possible from the stomach. To do
this, it is usual to give an emetic, such as mustard and water, or zinc
sulphate, thirty grains; or to pass the soft rubber tube down the gullet,
and wash out the stomach with water.

_b._ Counteract the effect of the poison by an antidote.

_c._ Keep up the patient’s strength till the poison is removed from the
system.

_d._ Relieve pain.

Travellers may be poisoned in the following ways:—

1. By poisonous bites, arrow wounds, etc.

2. By eating food poisoned by natives.

3. By eating poisonous plants, etc.

4. By eating bad meat or fish.

The treatment of _snake-bites and arrow wounds_ has already been dealt
with.

_Poisoned food and poisonous plants._—Food is occasionally poisoned by
natives, either by adding strophanthus leaves or other poisons. The
eating of such articles may be followed by severe pain, colic, vomiting,
diarrhœa or other symptoms. The general line of treatment should consist
in giving emetics promptly, washing out the stomach by means of the
stomach tube, and administering large quantities of water, milk, or
gruel. Distressing symptoms should be treated as they arise; thus, if
convulsions occur, large doses of chloral or potassium bromide should be
given; if stupor or drowsiness comes on, the patient should be forced to
take hot coffee, stimulants, etc., and made to walk about. If collapse
supervenes, stimulants should be freely given, the patient wrapped in
blankets, and hot bottles applied to the feet.

_Poisoning by bad meat, fish, etc._—The symptoms of poisoning by bad
meat, etc., are severe pains in the belly, cramps, and shivering fits,
followed by vomiting and diarrhœa coming on soon after its consumption,
occasionally within an hour or two. The vomiting and diarrhœa are usually
alarming and very severe, causing great collapse, and unless urgent
remedies are applied, death may occur. The bodies of patients may be
covered all over with irritating blotches, red rashes or with nettle rash.

_Treatment._—Give an emetic at once. Administer a sharp purge to clear
out the bowels. Use stimulants freely. Apply hot-water bottles and
blankets. Give opium or chlorodyne, fifteen drops every four hours until
the pain is relieved. Milk and gruel or arrowroot.




CANOEING AND BOATING.

_By J. COLES._


_Canoeing._

_Choice of a Canoe._—In making choice of a canoe the traveller must bear
in mind that, in all probability, there will be rapids in the river,
which will necessitate a portage being made, and that the canoe may have
to be carried over rough ground for a considerable distance. For this
reason, it is far better to take two canoes of moderate size than one
large one, besides which, a small canoe is much more easily handled in
bad water, and even should it become necessary to carry a large load,
this can easily be done by lashing two small canoes together, at about
one yard apart, and laying a platform across them, on which to place the
stores, &c. This, however, should not be done in dangerous and rapid
rivers. The following remarks do not, therefore, apply to large canoes,
which, having nearly the stability of a boat, may be handled in the same
manner.

_Paddles._—It will generally be found that the native paddles will be
best suited for the work. The double-bladed paddle, such as is used with
the Rob Roy canoe, is quite useless on a rapid and dangerous river.

_Sail._—The sail should be made of duck, or some such light material,
fastened to a light yard at each end, and its hoist should be about
twice its breadth; its size must be in proportion to the canoe, the
hoist being about one-fourth of the canoe’s length. The mast should be
as light as possible, with a hole at the top for the halliards to pass
through freely. The end should be stepped in a chock in the bottom of
the canoe (when in use), and it should be lashed to one of the stays, or
cross-pieces of the canoe. The sail should never be used unless the wind
is steady and abaft the beam, and the halliards should be taken to the
after part of the canoe in order to stay the mast, and secured in such a
manner that it can be instantly let go, when the sail will at once fall,
and undue pressure on the canoe relieved.

_The Tow-line._—Too much attention cannot be paid to this important
article. It should be light, but of the best material (such as the rope
used by the Alpine Club), as its giving way at a critical moment in a
rapid is sure to be attended with most serious results.

_Loading the Canoe._—The packages should not exceed 50 lbs. in weight, as
they may have to be carried long distances over portages, and care must
be taken not to overload the canoe. Natives, who are all good swimmers,
and have nothing to lose by a capsize, are very apt to put more into a
canoe than is safe, so that it is a matter in which the traveller should
use his own discretion.

In ascending a rapid river, keep close to one of its banks, and endeavour
to take advantage of eddies. It will often happen that, owing to the
strength of the stream, no headway can be made with the paddles, in
which case recourse must be had to poling or tracking. In the event of
the former, the poles should be straight and tough, and as long as can
be conveniently carried in the canoe. Natives generally stand up to
pole, but this the traveller should not attempt to do, or he will in
all probability either fall overboard, or capsize the canoe, or both.
In tracking, as great a length of line as possible should be used, as a
sheer of the canoe in a rapid, with a short line, will often end in a
capsize. Only two men should remain in the canoe, one in the bow with a
pole, and the other in the stern with a paddle to steer; this man should
also have his pole handy. The line should be made fast to one of the
stays in the bow of the canoe, and _never to a towing mast_, as in a
boat; as in passing round bad corners, or places where there are snags,
and where it is necessary to give the canoe a wide sheer, the leverage
of the mast, if the line were fastened to the top of it, would pull the
canoe over. The man in the bow, however, should always have his knife
handy to cut the tow-line, should necessity arise for his doing so. In
tracking, when a river passes through sandy soil, the men on the line
should keep at some little distance from the edge of the bank, as it is
likely to give way under their weight, and precipitate them into the
river. Several men lost their lives in Fraser River, in the early days of
the gold discovery, by neglecting this precaution.

In crossing from one bank of a river to the other above a rapid, be
careful to ascend the river for a considerable distance before attempting
to do so; and then make the crew paddle as hard as they can, keeping the
head of the canoe, if anything, rather down the stream, as in the case of
a rapid river you would only lose ground by trying to fight against it.

In descending a river, the traveller should keep a look-out ahead for
snags and places where the river is narrowed in between hills, as in
such places there is nearly sure to be a rapid which may be so bad as to
render navigation impossible. In all cases before descending an unknown
rapid, he should land and inspect it throughout _its entire length_
before attempting to run it in the canoe. When descending a rapid, care
must be taken to keep steerage way on the canoe, as this will be needed
to avoid rocks, or whirlpools. These latter are very serious dangers, as
they generally do not remain fixed in one spot, but move about within a
certain distance of a centre. There are, however, in most cases, short
intervals when they break up, and that is the time to make a dash past
them. To attempt this when they are in full swing could only end in the
loss of the canoe and its occupants.


_Boating._

When a traveller has to proceed for some distance overland before
reaching a river or lake he purposes to navigate, he must of necessity
provide himself with a boat constructed in such a manner as to be easily
transported, either by being built in sections, that can be put together
and taken to pieces at pleasure, or by taking one of the collapsible
boats, such as Berthon’s. If the former, he cannot do better than to
have one built of Spanish cedar, on the same plan as that which was
constructed for Sir H. M. Stanley, by Mr. James Messenger, of Teddington,
with such modifications as may be necessary, when the means of transport,
and the nature of his journey, have been duly considered. Collapsible
boats, though very useful for ferrying across lakes or rivers, cannot,
where a boat of other construction is available, be recommended for a
continued exploration.

If the exploration is to be commenced at the mouth of the river, a
whale-boat will be found to be the best form of boat for the following
reasons. Being steered by an oar, it is more easily handled in surf or
a rapid; it is generally faster than boats of the same size of ordinary
build; it will carry a good cargo, sail well off the wind, and is the
best boat built for crossing the bars of rivers, or landing through a
surf. Such a boat can generally be purchased at foreign ports, with oars
and sail, and should be well overhauled before starting.

Boat-sailing cannot be taught by any book, and certainly not by a few
short notes of this description. The traveller, therefore, who intends
using a boat for exploration, should gather some experience before
starting, which can be done at any fishing village on the coast. This
will be the more necessary if he intends to use his boat on a lake, or
for sailing along the coast, from the mouth of one river to another, and
the following hints may, it is hoped, be useful to those who have had but
small experience in boat-sailing.

_When under sail_, never, _under any circumstances_, allow the sheet to
be made fast; a turn should be taken round a cleat, and it should be
held by one of the crew ready to let go at any moment. Do not let the
crew stand up, or sit on the gunwale. When about to round-to, remember
that you cannot carry the same canvas on a wind that you can before it.
If caught in a squall, put down the helm at once, ease the sheet, and if
the squall is a bad one, lower the sail while it is still shaking. When
approaching a danger, such as a rock, do not stand on if you are in doubt
about weathering it, but go about in time, and have an oar ready to help
the boat round if she appears likely to miss stays. Never carry too much
sail, as there is considerable danger in doing so, and a boat will often
sail faster with a reef taken in, than she will when unduly pressed. If
necessary to take in a reef when sailing _on a wind_, do not luff, but
check the sheet, lower the sail sufficiently to shift the tack, gather
the sheet aft so that the men may take in the reef without leaning over
the gunwale, shift the sheet, hoist the sail, while the sheet is slack,
and do not haul the sheet aft until the men are again in their places.

_Rowing._—This can only be acquired by practice, and though the traveller
will seldom be called on to take an oar himself, circumstances may
arise when he may have to do so, and we would, therefore, advise him
to learn how to handle an oar before leaving England. Under ordinary
circumstances, rowing on a river is sufficiently simple, and calls for
no special instructions. The case, however, is very different when a
river bar has to be crossed, or a landing made on a beach where a surf is
breaking, and in either case it will be well to remember the following
hints. On approaching the shore, a surf when seen from seaward never
looks so bad as it really is. Where possible, a landing should not be
attempted until opposite a village where the natives will be ready to
assist the moment the boat touches the beach. When the surf is heavy,
the boat should be backed in, pulling a few strokes to meet each heavy
sea, and then backing in again until the shore is reached. The great
thing to avoid is, letting the boat get broadside to the sea, as she will
then capsize; a steer-oar should always be used, as a rudder is of little
use in a surf, when backing in.

_In crossing a bar_, if there is a good, strong, fair wind, it will
generally be best to cross under sail; but if the wind is light or
variable, this should never be attempted. When rowing, the crew should be
cautioned to keep their oars out of the water when the sea breaks round
the boat, and to commence rowing again as quickly as possible afterwards.
As even in the most experienced hands a boat will often be swamped on a
bad bar, it will be well, before attempting to cross it, to prepare for a
swim by removing all superfluous clothing, and see that everything that
will float in the boat should be left free to float, while things that
will sink, such as fire-arms, &c., should be securely fastened to the
thwarts.

The remarks given on canoeing with regard to loading, to ascending and
descending rapid rivers, are equally applicable to boating under similar
circumstances, with the following exceptions. In towing, a short mast
should be used to which the line is made fast; this is stepped in the
same place as the mast, and should be stayed, so as to resist the strain
of the tow-line. Paddles will often be found useful in reedy rivers
where the oars get entangled. As a whale-boat empty will weigh about
five hundredweight, more care must be taken at portages than in the
case of a canoe, which can be lifted bodily over obstacles. The stems
of small trees, or the oars should be laid down under the boat, and,
where possible, sharp rocks must be avoided or moved out of the way. In
a rapid, two men should be in the bow with poles ready to fend off from
rocks, and the most experienced man of the crew should be in the stern
with the steer-oar.

Although in the foregoing remarks special reference has been made to
whale-boats, the hints given are equally applicable to boats of other
construction, which should, however, for river work, crossing a bar, or
landing through a surf, be fitted with a steer-oar in addition to the
rudder. Awnings should be taken, but in rapid rivers, and when under
sail, they cannot be used.




ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.

_By MAJ.-GEN. LORD EDWARD GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.
Chairman of the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names._


In 1878 the Council of the R.G.S., impressed with the necessity of
endeavouring to reduce the confusion existing in British maps with regard
to the spelling of geographical names, in consequence of the variety of
systems of orthography used by travellers and others to represent the
sound of native place-names in different parts of the world, formally
adopted the general principle which had been long used by many, and
the recognition of which had been steadily gaining ground, viz., that
in writing geographical native names vowels should have their Italian
significance, and consonants that which they have in the English language.

This broad principle required elucidation in its details, and a
system based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of
representing the principal syllabic sounds: this has long been known as
the R.G.S. system.

       *       *       *       *       *

The system thus drawn up was largely adopted by the War Office, the
Admiralty, and other Government Departments and private societies. But it
was never officially sanctioned, for India, China,[19] Egypt, and many
of our Colonies had already their own system (or want of system) for
spelling foreign words; added to this, the private firms of map-makers
had their own views on the subject, and still spelt their names in a
bewildering variety of ways.

The matter came to a head in 1919, when the Admiralty approached the
Royal Geographical Society with a request for the authoritative spelling
of names. A committee was accordingly formed, with representatives from
all Government Departments, each of which bound itself to adopt the
spelling recommended.

This “Permanent Committee on Geographical Names,” under the chairmanship
of a Member of Council, R.G.S., at once got to work and proceeded to draw
up:

1. A revised system of Rules and Alphabet, termed the R.G.S. II system,
amplifying and improving on the old R.G.S. system of 1878. (This is given
in the succeeding pages.)

2. Lists of doubtful names, with their correct spelling and other
details concerned. (These will be published periodically, in the form of
leaflets, in the ‘Geographical Journal.’)

3. Tables of Foreign Alphabets transcribed into the R.G.S. II system.
(These will be published shortly in the R.G.S. Technical Series.)

It is hoped that the above procedure will gradually result in the correct
and uniform spelling of foreign Place-Names throughout the Empire.

It must also be noted that the Government of the United States of
America, after an exhaustive enquiry, has adopted a system in close
conformity with that of the R.G.S., and has directed that the spelling
of all names in their vast territories should, in cases where the
orthography is at present doubtful, be settled authoritatively by a Board
appointed for the purpose. The two great English-speaking nations are
thus working in harmony.


RULES FOR THE SPELLING OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES FOR BRITISH OFFICIAL USE.

(_Termed the R.G.S. II system._)

1. The spelling of every place-name in an independent country or
self-governing dominion using the Latin alphabet[20] shall be that
adopted by the country or dominion, except in the case in which certain
important localities have also, in addition to the official name, another
customary name, notably different, in which case the name customary in
British use (_i.e._, “conventional”) may be adopted (_e.g._, Geneva,
Warsaw, etc., for Genève, Warszawa, etc.).

2. The spelling of such place-names in colonial possessions as belong to
languages coming under Rule (1) will be spelt in accordance with that
rule.

3. The accents and diacritical marks in official use by the above
countries will be retained. Wherever it appears desirable, the
pronunciation will be shown by giving the name as transliterated on the
system below.

4. All other place-names throughout the world will (with the exception of
“Conventional” names and some others) be spelled in general accordance
with the following system, which is based upon, and differs only slightly
from, the system long used by the Royal Geographical Society, from which
are derived the War Office system, 1906,[21] and the system of the
Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, 1917.[22]

The broad features of this system are—

    (_a_) That vowels are pronounced as in Italian and consonants
    as in English;

    (_b_) That every letter is pronounced, and no redundant letters
    are used.

The system aims at giving a close approximation to the _local_
pronunciation; but it is recognised that in some languages, notably
Russian, Greek, and Arabic, the necessity for letter-for-letter
transliteration often renders this impossible.

  TABLE OF SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION R.G.S. II.

  a     Long and short, as in _lāvă_                   Somāli, Bukhāră.[*]

  ä     As in _fat_; rare; chiefly in Teutonic
        languages.

  ai[‡] The sound of the two Italian vowels;
        frequently slurred over, almost as in
        Eng. _aisle_, _ice_                               Wadai; Shanghai.

  au    The two Italian vowels; frequently slurred,
        almost as _ou_ in _out_                             Sakau; Bauchi.

  aw    When followed by a consonant, or when
        terminal, as in _awl_, _law_                       Dawna, Saginaw.

  b     As in English.

  c     Not to be used, but always replaced by           Kandahar, Serang.
        _k_ or _s_; except in the compound _ch_,
        and in many conventionally spelt words, as      Calcutta, Celébes.

  ch    As in _church_; never _tch_ or _tsch_ for this
        sound                                                Chad, Maroch.

  d[†][‡] As in English.

  dh    Soft _th_ as in _they_: a slight _d_ sound
        preceding it in Semitic languages                   Dhuvu, Riyadh.

  e[‡]  Long as in _eh_; short as in _bet_. (For the
        _e_ sound in the French _je_, see note at
        end on the “neutral vowel”)                     Gēlo; Mafĕking.[*]

  (ee)  Used for _i_ (q.v.) only in a few
        conventional names                            Darjeeling, Keelung.

  ei[‡] The two Italian vowels, frequently slurred        Beirut, Raheita.

  (eu)  Not used as a single sound.

  f     As in English; _ph_ must not be used for
        this sound (except in Greek; see _ph_)   Mustafa, Maidan-i-Naftun.

  g     Hard, as in _get, gift_; never as in _gem, gin_   Gedáref, Gilgit.

  gh    Soft guttural, the Arabic _ghain_ غ                 Dagh, Baghdad.

  h     Used only when sounded; or in the compounds
        _ch_, _dh_, _gh_, _kh_, _sh_, _th_, _zh_           Vrh, Ahmadabad.

  i     Long as in _marine_; short as in _piano_ (not
        as in _pin_)                                     Fiji; Kibonde.[*]

  j     As in English; except in transliteration
        of Russian, Bulgarian, and Chinese,
        where it equals _zh_, or the French _j_[§]      Japan, Ujiji (Eng.
                                                        _j_); but Jitómir,
                                                         Jelezna, Jao-ping
                                                                (Fr. _j_).

  k     As in English: hard _c_ should never be
        used (except in conventionally-spelt
        words)—thus, not Corea, Cabul, but                   Korea, Kabul.

  kh    Hard aspirated guttural, as in the Scottish
        _loch_ (not as in _lock_)                            Khan, Sebkha.

  l[†]  }
  m     } As in English.
  n[†]  }

  ng    Has three separate sounds, as in _vanguard_,
        _finger_, and _singer_. If necessary to
        distinguish, a hyphen may be placed, as in
        _van-guard_, _sing-er_                          In-gássana; Bongo;
                                                           Ng-ami, Tong-a.

  o     Long as in _both_[¶]; short as in _rotund_         Angōla, Kigōma;
                                                      Angŏra, Hŏnŏlulu.[*]

  ö     As in German; equals the French _eu_ in
        _peu_; or nearly the English sound in
        _fur_                                              Gömle, Yeniköi.

  (oo)  Used for _u_ (q.v.) only in a few conventional
        names, chiefly Chinese                             Poona, Foochow.

  oi[‡] The Italian vowels: sometimes slurred as
        in _oil_. If necessary for pronunciation,
        a hyphen may be inserted as in Tro-itskoi.

  ou[‡] Dissyllabic, and not as French or English _ou_           Zlatoust.

  ow    Represents, as a diphthong, nearly the _au_
        sound (above) only in the romanisation of
        Chinese. Conventional.

  p     As in English.

  ph    As in _loophole_; not to be used for the _f_-sound,
        except in Greek or conventionally                       Chemulpho;
                                                         Paphos, Haiphong.

  q     Represents _only_ the Arabic Qaf (ق): i.e.
        a guttural _k_                                        Qena, ʿIraq.

  qu    Should never be employed to represent the
        sound of _kw_: thus, not Namaqua, Quorra, but     Namakwa, Kworra.

  r[†]  As in English; should be distinctly pronounced.

  s     As English ss in _boss_, not as in _these_ or
        _pleasure_                                      Rosario, Masikesi.

  sh    }
  t[†]  } As in English.

  th    Hard _th_ as in _thick_, not as in _this_                Tharmida.

  u[‡]  Long as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_; short
        as in _pull_                                      Zūlū; Rŭanda.[*]

  ü     Represents the French _u_, as in _tu_ (Fr.)                 Üsküb.

  v     }
  w     } As in English.
  x     }

  y     Always a consonant, as in _yard_; it should          Kikuyu, Maya.
        not be used as a terminal vowel, _e_ or _i_
        being substituted; _e.g._, not Kwaly or
        Wady, but                                             Kwale, Wadi.

  z     As in _gaze_, not as in _azure_.

  zh    As the _s_ in _treasure_, the _z_ in _azure_, or
        the French _j_ in _je_; but for the sound in
        Russian, Bulgarian, and Chinese use _j_
        (_vide_ note above under _j_)                       Zhob, Azhdaha.

  NOTES.

        The doubling of a vowel or a consonant is
        only necessary when there is a distinct
        repetition of the single sound, and
        should otherwise be avoided                   Nuulua, Loolmalasin,
                                                          Jidda, Muhammad.

        Accents should not generally be employed;
        but in order to indicate or emphasise the
        stress, an acute accent may be used              Saráwak, Qántara,
                                                       Tong-atábu, Paraná.

        A long or short mark over a vowel (_e.g._
        _ā_, _ŏ_) should only be used (and that
        sparingly) when without it there would be
        danger of mispronunciation                    Kūt, Hashīn, Angŏra.

        Hyphens will not be used except to indicate
        pronunciation, and with the Persian
        _izafat_, _-i-_                              Mus-hil; Pusht-i-Kuh.

    [*] The long and short symbols given in this column are merely
    for explanation, not for use.

    [†] See note at end on _Liquid sounds_.

    [‡] Pronounced differently in Greek: see ‘Alphabets of Foreign
    Languages transcribed into English according to the R.G.S. II
    system’ (to be published in the R.G.S. Technical Series).

    [§] This decision has been arrived at chiefly owing to the
    large number of English (and French) maps of these countries in
    which the _zh_ sound appears as _j_.

    [¶] The true Italian _ō_ is broader than this: almost as in
    _broth_.

_Inverted Comma and Apostrophe._—The inverted comma ʿ is employed only to
represent the Arabic _ʿain_, ع, and the Hebrew _ʿayin_, ע. The apostrophe
’ in foreign words indicates a liquid sound. (See below.)

_Liquid Sounds._—The occasional “liquid” or “palatalised” sound of _d_,
_l_, _n_, _r_, _t_, etc. (as in _d’you_, _lure_, _new_, _clarion_,
_tune_), is as a rule sufficiently represented by a following _y_; where,
however, owing to a following consonant, or to the letter in question
coming at the end of a word, the _y_ is inapplicable, the liquid sound
will be represented by an apostrophe, thus: _d’_, _l’_, _n’_, _r’_, _t’_,
etc.

_The “Neutral Vowel”._—The “indeterminate” or “neutral” vowel sound
(_er_), i.e. the sound of _a_ in _marine_, _e_ in _often_, _i_ in
_stir_, _io_ in _nation_, _o_ in _connect_, _ou_ in _curious_, _u_ in
_difficult_, etc., _e_ in French _je_, or the often unwritten vowel (َ
_Fat-ha_) in Arabic, etc., is represented as a rule by _a_: as in Basra,
Hawiya; but sometimes by _e_, when the sound approximates more to _e_
than to _a_: as Meshed, El Gezira.

(In any guide to pronunciation issued by the Permanent Committee on
Geographical Names, the “neutral vowel” is represented generally by the
italic _e_: occasionally also by italic _a_ or _u_.)

This sound must not be confused with _e-mute_, where the _e_ is not
sounded at all: as in Abbeville.




ON THE GIVING OF NAMES TO NEWLY-DISCOVERED PLACES.


The Council of the Royal Geographical Society would urge upon all
travellers that in giving names to any new discoveries which they may
make they should be guided by the following restrictions, which, until
comparatively recent years, were commonly observed:—

    1. That before putting forward any personal or fanciful name
    the traveller should do his best to ascertain that no local
    name exists, and where none is forthcoming should further
    consider whether one might not conveniently be derived from
    the vicinity, _e.g._, from an adjacent stream, or pasture, or
    glacier, or from some characteristic of the natural object
    itself.

    2. That no one should commemorate himself in this manner.

    3. That any new nomenclature which a traveller may desire to
    suggest should be put forward tentatively and subject to the
    approval (1) of the Administration of the region or country, if
    there is one; (2) of the Official Cartographer of the country,
    if it possesses a Survey Department, or of the State to which
    the region may belong; or (3) of the Council of the Royal
    Geographical Society.





FOOTNOTES


[1] Equivalents obtained by Mr. R. H. Curtis using Köppen’s method. See
‘Symons’s Meteorological Magazine,’ 40 (1905), p. 157.

[2] For comparison of scales see Table XXVI., Vol. I., p. 333.

To convert Centigrade readings into Fahrenheit the rule is “Multiply by
1.8 and add 32.” This can be done mentally in a moment, thus: “Multiply
by 2, subtract one-tenth of the product, and add 32.” _E.g._, to convert
10° C. to F.: 10 × 2 = 20; one-tenth of 20 = 2; 20 - 2 = 18; 18 + 32 =
50° F.

[3] Travellers in tropical countries will do wisely to poison all their
labels before using them, to preserve them from attacks of insects and
mites. Washing with a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate is an
efficient plan. A large number of labels, with the collector’s name
printed on them, may be taken, and if made of strong thin paper they
will not occupy much space. Bank-note paper is well adapted for the
purpose. Any writing should be, if possible, in ink; if not, a very hard
black pencil should be used. Some tie labels should be added, as paper
coverings soon run short.

[4] There are plenty of good works on the use of the blow-pipe. The best
are by Plattner and Scheerer, of both of which English translations have
been published. Of Von Kobell’s tables for the determination of minerals,
several translations have appeared. Brush and Penfield 1906 edition is
a practical work. A very portable outfit may be obtained from J. T.
Letcher, Truro, Cornwall.

[5] In high latitudes care must be exercised in distinguishing between
true raised beaches and ridges of beach material pushed up by the
pressure of shore ice in winter.

[6] In some valleys the lateral tributaries enter at a higher level than
the floor of the main valley, owing to the overdeepening of the latter;
this overdeepening has been attributed to four different causes:—(1)
Inequality in the hardness of the rocks, especially when the main valley
runs along the strike; (2) the presence of joints, or other lines of
weakness; (3) increased erosion of the main valley by river action owing
to the elevation of the upper end of the district, while the lateral
valleys were merely tilted sideways, or were protected by the presence of
ice or lakes; (4) erosion of the main valley by ice more rapidly than its
tributaries, owing to the ice being thicker in the former. The problem
is complicated by the fact that the upper end of the main valley is
frequently a ‘hanging’ valley. Any evidence bearing on the formation of
these ‘hanging’ valleys should be carefully noted.

[7] Travellers who intend to make collections of zoological specimens are
advised to call on the Secretary of the British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell Road, S.W. He will be happy to supply any information required.

[8] General travelling outfit can be procured from Messrs. Silver & Co.,
67 Cornhill, E.C.

[9] Ejector guns are apt to get out of order in sandy countries.

[10] The shafts of old golf-drivers, when shortened to about 2 feet 6
inches in length, make the most perfect handles for nets.

[11] All the above-mentioned articles for collecting insects may be
procured from Mr. Janson, 44 Great Russell Street, W., or from Messrs.
Watkins & Doncaster, 36 Strand, W.C., or from Miss E. M. Sharpe, 4
Barrowgate Road, Chiswick.

[12] Cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ p. 47.

[13] Cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-32.

[14] Much useful information may be found in the ‘Manual of the
Mollusca,’ by S. P. Woodward, F.G.S., one of Weale’s series; an admirable
book in a small form.

[15] More extended accounts of the departments of the Science of Man here
noticed will be found in Tylor’s ‘Anthropology: an Introduction to the
Study of Men and Civilisation’ (Macmillan and Co., New edition, 1895).

[16] Some useful training under this head can be obtained at the London
School of Economics.

[17] In the case of sculptures, owing to their deep depressions, it is
best to wet the paper _before_ laying on.—_Ed._

[18] A tourniquet is a special instrument devised for the purpose of
applying pressure to the main vessels of the limbs; in its absence, one
may be improvised by rolling a handkerchief into a narrow band, and
inserting a stone or a cork between its folds to serve as a pad; the pad
is adjusted over the spot where it is proposed to compress the vessel,
and the ends of the handkerchief knotted loosely round the limb. A stick
is now slipped between the knot and the limb, and twisted round until
sufficient pressure is exerted to arrest the bleeding.

[19] As far as British officials were concerned.

[20] Including ‘Latin’ alphabets containing extra or modified letters,
such as Česky, Croatian, Polish, Rumanian, etc. The pronunciation of
these letters is given in the ‘Alphabets of Foreign Languages,’ etc.,
mentioned below (p. 301).

[21] ‘Rules for the Transliteration of Place-names occurring on Foreign
Maps.’ Compiled in the Topographical Section, General Staff, by Alexander
Knox, B.A., Map Curator. 1906.

[22] ‘Instructions for the Spelling of Place-names in Foreign Countries.’
Naval Staff Intelligence Division. 1917.




INDEX.


  Abney, Sir W., Method of packing sensitive plates or films, 57;
    method of using camera in hand or on tripod adopted by, 54;
    reference to his work in photography, 59

  Accessibility of a country, the, 139

  Aertex Cellular clothing recommended for travellers, 164

  Africa, weather services of, list of, 42

  Agricultural development, suitability of a country for, 143

  Algeria, weather service of, 42

  Alps, Föhn of the, 5

  Amber objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158

  America, weather services of, list of, 42

  Aneroid barometer, 31

  Animal products, on obtaining information concerning, 144

  Animals, on observing habits of, 104;
    on preparation of skeletons of, 94

  Anthropology, by Dr. E. B. Tyler, 106-129;
    “Notes and Queries on Anthropology,” reference to, 106;
    Queries of Anthropology, by Sir A. W. Franks, 129-132;
    Tylor’s “Anthropology,” reference to, 127

  Anthropological Notes by Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, 132-137

  Antiquity, objects of, methods of recording, cleaning and conserving,
        148-159;
    on literary memoranda of characteristics of, 156

  Antiseptics, 275

  Ants, 198

  Apoplexy, symptoms and treatment, 237

  Apparatus and chemicals for photographic development, 58

  Archæologist’s outfit, 159

  Archæology, article on, by D. G. Hogarth, 148-159;
    Petrie’s “Methods and Aims,” reference to, 149, 158

  Argentina, weather service of, 42

  Arm, fracture of, treatment of, 288

  Arts and sciences, native, 113;
    queries on, 130

  Asia, weather services of, list of, 42

  Assmann’s aspiration psychrometer, 20

  Atmosphere, humidity of, instruments for measuring, 18

  Atmospheric conditions, ways in which a traveller may add to the
        knowledge of, 1

  Atmospheric phenomena, on recording observations of, 10

  Atolls or coral-islands, on the formation of, 77

  Australasia and Pacific, weather services of, list of, 43


  Ball, J., Preparation of dried plants, 99

  Barometer vernier, diagram showing how to read, 27

  Barometers, 25;
    aneroid barometer, 31;
    Collie portable mercurial barometer, 29;
    Fortin barometer, 26, rules for observing with, 27

  Bartholomew’s “Atlas of Physical Geography,” vol. iii., Meteorology,
        reference to, 37, 41

  Bates, H. W., and W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, article on Natural History,
        82-105

  Baths, directions for giving an invalid, 271

  Baths, cold, in Africa, dangers of, 168

  Batrachians, naturalist’s outfit for preserving, 85

  Beaufort’s scale of wind force, 4

  Bed-sore, treatment of, 171

  Beri-beri, 171

  Bilharzia worm, 249

  Birds, hints on collecting, 91;
    instruments for skinning, 84

  Blackham, “Primer of Tropical Hygiene,” 161

  Blackwater fever, symptoms and treatment, 172

  Bladder, inflammation of, 181

  Blanford, H. F., portable thermometer screen devised by, 15

  Blanford, W. T., and Prof. E. J. Garwood, article on Geology, 63-78

  Bleeding or hæmorrhage, treatment of, 277

  Blindness, night and snow, precautions against, 199

  Blood-poisoning, treatment of, 280

  Blow-pipe, reference to Plattner and Scheerer’s work on the use of, 67

  Boating and Canoeing, note by J. Coles, 293-297

  Boils, treatment of, 226

  Bonacina, “Climatic Control,” 41

  Bone objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158

  Bones of human limbs, on taking measurements of, 136

  Botanical collecting, 99

  Botanical seeds, on preserving, 102

  Botanical specimens, on the selection of, 99;
    conveyance of, to camp or station, 99;
    drying press for, 100

  Brain, concussion of the, symptoms and treatment, 179

  Brazil, weather service of, 42

  British Association manual “Notes and Queries on Anthropology,”
        reference to, 106

  British Central Africa, weather service of, 42

  Broca’s scale of colours of native races, reference to, 108

  Bronchitis, symptoms and treatment, 174

  Bronze objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 157

  Bruises, treatment of, 281

  Bubonic plague, causes, symptoms and treatment, 215

  Buchan, Dr. A., and Dr. A. J. Herbertson, “Atlas of Meteorology,”
        reference to, 37, 41

  Buffalo gnats, 195

  Bugs, protection against, 197

  Bulbs, on collecting and packing, 103

  Burns and scalds, treatment of, 175

  Burroughs and Welcome’s photographic exposure record, reference to, 56

  Buys Ballot’s law, 40


  Camera, photographic, 51;
    selection of, 51;
    hand-camera, 52

  Camera level, circular cup form, 54

  Camera-stand, 54

  Canada, weather service of, 42

  Canoeing and Boating, note by J. Coles, 293-297

  Carbuncles, treatment of, 227

  Catheters, directions for using, 272

  Cellulitis, symptoms and treatment, 280

  Centigrade thermometer readings, rule for converting into Fahrenheit,
        13

  Cerebro-spinal fever, 175

  Ceylon, weather service of, 42

  Charts, meteorological, of the N. Atlantic and Mediterranean, and N.
        Pacific, 41

  Chemicals for photographic development, 58

  Chicken-pox, rash, symptoms and treatment, 176

  Chigger, 228

  Chile, weather service of, 42

  Chill in tropical climates, risks of, 164

  Chilblains and frostbite, treatment of, 177

  China, weather service of, 42

  Chinook wind of the Rocky Mts., 5

  Cholera, cause, symptoms and treatment, 177

  Clap (_see Gonorrhœa_)

  Cleaning and conserving monuments and objects of antiquity, methods
        of, 156

  Climate, hints on recording observations concerning, 145

  Climatology, “Handbook of Climatology,” by Prof. R. de C. Ward,
        reference to, 41;
    Hann’s “Handbuch der Klimatologie,” reference to, 41;
    Meteorology and Climatology, article on, by Dr. H. R. Mill, 1-50,
        list of works on, 41

  Cloud and sunshine, on keeping record of changes of, 5

  Clouds, types of, 6;
    on photographing, 7

  Coasts, geological notes on, 71

  Cold in the head, 181

  Coles, J., his note on Canoeing and Boating, 293-297

  Colic, treatment of, 179

  Collar-bone fracture, treatment of, 287

  Collie portable mercurial barometer, description and illustration of,
        29-31

  Colour photography, Ives’ method, 62

  Colour of native races, Broca’s scale of, reference to, 108

  Commerce, Industry and, article on by Sir J. S. Keltie, 138-147

  Commercial development, on ascertaining facilities and hindrances to,
        146

  “Commission Internationale des Glaciers,” reports of the, reference
        to, 81

  Communication between countries, on observing what natural means
        exist, 146

  Concussion of the brain, symptoms and treatment, 179

  Conserving monuments and objects of antiquity, methods of, 156

  Constipation, treatment of, 180

  Continental climate, 35

  Copper and bronze objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving,
        157

  Coral-islands (_see Atolls_)

  Coryza, treatment of, 181

  Cranial measurements, on making, with illustrations, 135

  Craniological descriptions, with illustrations, 133

  Craniometer, Flower’s, 135

  Crosse, Dr. W. H., and Dr. Andrew Balfour, Medical Hints, 160-292

  Cuba, weather service of, 42

  Currency existing in a country, on obtaining information concerning,
        147

  Customs of native races, 126;
    queries on, 130

  Cyclones, description of, with diagrams, 32

  Cystitis, causes, symptoms and treatment, 181


  Daily range of temperature, 35

  Daily synoptical weather-maps, 41

  Darwin, Dr. Charles, and Prof. J. Phillips, article on geology by, in
        the “Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry,” reference to, 68

  Dengue, 182

  Deserts, geological notes on, 75;
    on observing the character of, 142

  Dew, on recording appearance and amount of, 8

  Dew-point, means of finding, 18

  Dhobie itch, symptoms and treatment, 229

  Diarrhœa, 183

  Diet in the tropics, errors of, 165

  Diphtheria, causes, symptoms and treatment, complications, 184

  Diseases, classification of, 170

  Diseases and their Treatment, 169-274

  Disfigurements, personal, of native races, queries on, 131

  Dislocations, treatment of, 290

  Dobson, Dr. G. E., his hints on preserving mammals and birds, 92

  Doldrums, 37

  Domestic animals, on obtaining information concerning, 144

  Drowning, treatment of cases of, 283

  Drugs recommended for travellers, 253

  Drying-press for botanical specimens, description of, with
        illustrations, 100-102

  Duckworth, Dr. W. L. H., his Anthropological Notes, 132-137

  Dutch East Indies, weather service of, 42

  Dwarfs, native, on the measurements of bones and skulls of, 137

  Dysentery, symptoms and treatments, 185


  Eikonogen photographic developing powder, 59

  Elbow-joint dislocation, treatment of, 290

  Emetics, list of, 259

  Enemas, 259, 273

  Enteric or typhoid fever, causes, symptoms and treatment, 189

  Epilepsy, symptoms and treatment, 191

  Erysipelas, symptoms and treatment, 279

  Exposure tables, photographic, 56

  Extra-European weather services, list of, 42

  Eyeball, inflammation of the, 198


  Fahrenheit thermometer readings, rule for converting Centigrade into,
        13

  Faintness, treatment of, 191

  Fibres, on observing the nature of, 141

  Filariasis, cause of, 191

  Filters recommended for travellers, 166

  First aid treatment, works on, 161

  Fisheries, on obtaining information concerning, 144

  Fishes, hints on collecting and preserving, 96;
    outfit for preserving, 85

  Fleas and bugs, protection against, 196

  Flies, house; tsetse; Congo floor-maggot, 195

  Flower, Sir W. H., his directions for the preparation of skeletons of
        animals, 94

  Flower’s craniometer, 135

  Focus of camera lens, 56

  Focussing cloth of camera, 54

  Fog, on recording density and duration of, 7

  Föhn of the Alps, 5

  Folk-Lore Society, Handbook, 129

  Forests, on observing the character of, 141

  Fortin barometer, 26;
    rules for observing with, 27

  Fossils, hints on collecting, 68, 104

  Fractures, 286;
    simple, treatment of, 286;
    compound, treatment of, 289

  Franks, Sir A. W., Queries of Anthropology, 129-132

  Frost, on recording appearance of, 9

  Frostbite, treatment of, 177

  Fruits, on observing the nature of, 141

  Fungus diseases, 229


  Garry, “Health in Tropical Climates,” 161

  Garwood, Prof. E. J. (_see Blanford, W. T._)

  Geographical Names, R.G.S. system of orthography of, 300

  Geography, Physical, Bartholomew’s Atlas of, vol. iii., Meteorology,
        reference to, 37, 41

  Geological collections, hints on making, 65

  Geological observations, 63

  Geologist’s outfit, 64

  Geology, article on, by W. T. Blanford and Prof. E. J. Garwood, 63-78;
    Dr. Charles Darwin and Prof. J Phillips’ article on, in the
        “Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry,” reference to, 68

  Giants, native, on the measurements of bones and skulls of, 137

  Glacial action, on the evidence of, 74

  Glacier movements, Gosset’s and Richter’s systems of measuring, 79

  Glacier observations, memorandum on, 78-81

  Glaciers, “Commission Internationale des Glaciers” reports, reference
        to, 81

  Glass objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158

  Glazed objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158

  Gleet, 192

  Gleichen, Maj.-Gen. Lord Edward, Orthography of Geographical Names,
        298

  Godwin-Austen, Lt.-Col. H. H., his notes on collecting mollusca, 97

  Gonorrhœa, symptoms and treatment, 192

  Gosset’s system of measuring glacier movements, 80

  Guatemala, weather service of, 42

  Guinea worm, treatment for, 247


  Hæmorrhage, treatment of, 277

  Hail, on recording occurrence of, 8

  Hand-camera, the, 52

  Hann’s “Handbuch der Klimatologie,” reference to, 41

  Hawaii, weather service of, 43

  Hay fever, symptoms and treatment, 192

  Haze, on recording density and duration of, 7

  Health in a tropical climate, risks to, 163

  Health in the tropics, Simpson’s “Maintenance of Health in the
        Tropics,” reference to, 168

  Heat-stroke, 238

  Helm wind of the Eden Valley, England, and of Adam’s Peak, Ceylon, 5

  Herbertson, Dr. A. J. (_see Buchan, Dr. A._)

  Hernia, 220

  Hip-joint dislocation, treatment of, 290

  Hogarth, D. G., his article on Archæology, 148-159

  Hongkong, weather service of, 42

  Hook-worm, 248

  Human body, diagram showing some of the principal organs of the, and
        the course of the main blood-vessels, 162

  Human limbs, on making measurements of bones of, 136

  Human skeleton, diagram of the, 285

  Humidity, table of relative, 44-49;
    explanation, 43

  Hut for sheltering thermometers, description of, with illustration,
        16

  Hygrometers, 18

  Hypodermic injections, directions for giving, 269;
    different injections to use, 271


  India, weather service of, 42

  Individuals of giant and dwarf stature, on the measurements of bones
        and skulls of, 137

  Industry and Commerce, article on, by Sir J. S. Keltie, 138-147

  Infectious fevers, 169

  Influenza, 193

  Inhabitants, native, on observing the character of, 147

  Injuries, treatment of, 275-292

  Inoculation, 168

  Insect pests, 194

  Insects, outfit for collecting, 86;
    hints on preserving, 99

  Instrumental meteorological observations, 11

  Iritis, symptoms and treatment, 198

  Iron objects of antiquity, on, 157

  Irrigation, on, 142

  Isobaric maps, 50, note on, 39

  Isohyets, 40

  Isolation of an infectious complaint, importance of, 169

  Isothermal maps, 50, note on, 38

  Itch, 197

  Ives’ method of natural colour photography, 62

  Ivory and wood carving of native races, queries on, 131

  Ivory objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158


  Jaundice, 199

  Jaw, lower, fracture of, treatment of, 288

  Jigger or sand-flea, prevention against and treatment, 228


  Kala-azar, 202

  Keltie, Sir. J. S., his article on Industry and Commerce, 138-147

  Kraw Kraw, symptoms and treatment, 230

  Krōmskōp photography, 62


  Labels for geological specimens, how to preserve, 65

  Labour connected with development of a country’s resources, on
        obtaining information concerning the, 147

  Lakes and tarns, geological notes on, 73

  Languages, native, on, 110;
    on recording vocabularies of, 111

  Laryngitis, symptoms and treatment, 200

  Lead and iron objects of antiquity, on, 157

  Leeches, treatment for removing, 201

  Leg fracture, treatment of, 288

  Leishmaniasis, 202

  Lenses, camera, 54

  Level, camera, 54

  Lice, treatment for destroying, 196

  Literary memoranda of characteristics of monuments and objects of
        antiquity, 156

  Liver, abscess of, treatment of, 203;
    acute inflammation of, treatment of, 203;
    congestion of, symptoms and treatment, 202

  Loess deposits, 76

  Lungs, inflammation of the (_see Pleurisy and Pneumonia_)


  Madagascar, weather service of, 42

  Malaria, 204;
    methods of prevention, 206;
    symptoms and treatment, 205

  Malta fever, 244

  Mammals, instruments for skinning, 84

  Mammals and birds, hints on collecting, 91;
    on preserving, 92

  Man, early history of, in tropical climates, notes on, 76

  Manufactures of native races, queries on, 130

  Maps, isobaric, 50, note on, 39;
    isothermal, 50, note on, 38;
    rainfall, 50, note on, 40;
    weather, daily synoptical, 41

  Maritime climate, 35

  Marett, R. R., Note on Anthropology, 129

  Marriott’s “Hints to Meteorological Observers,” reference to, 43

  Marshes, on observing special features of, 142

  Masterman, “Hygiene and Disease in Palestine,” 161

  Maudslay, A. P., directions for making squeezes of sculptures, 151

  Mauritius, weather service of, 42

  Maximum thermometers, 23

  McIntosh, J.: Hints on Photography, revised by, 51

  Measles, rash, symptoms, treatment, complications, 211

  Medical appliances, medicines, &c., 252-274

  Medical guides suitable for travellers, list of, 161

  Medical Hints, by Dr. W. H. Crosse, and Dr. A. Balfour, 160-274

  Medicines, medical appliances, &c., 252-274

  Metals of a country, hints on observing, 140

  “Meteorological Observers, Hints to,” by W. Marriott, reference to, 43

  Meteorology, Bartholomew’s Atlas of, reference to, 37, 41

  Meteorology and Climatology, article on, by Dr. H. R. Mill, 1-50;
    list of works on, 41

  “Methods and Aims in Archæology,” by Prof. Petrie, reference, 149, 158

  Mexico, weather service of, 42

  Mill, Dr. H. R., his article on Meteorology and Climatology, 1-50;
    “Realm of Nature,” reference to, 41

  Minerals, Von Kobell’s tables for determination of, reference to, 67

  Minerals and metals of a country, hints on observing the, 140

  Minimum thermometer, 20;
    care of, 21

  Mist, fog and haze, on recording density and duration of, 7

  Mode of subsistence of native races, queries on, 129

  Mollusca, S. P. Woodward’s “Manual of the Mollusca,” reference to, 97

  Mollusca, land and freshwater, hints on collecting, 97

  Money of native races, queries on, 131

  Monuments and objects of antiquity, methods of recording, cleaning
        and conserving, 148-159;
    on literary memoranda of characteristics of, 156

  Mosquito curtains, 206

  Mosquitoes, propagation of malaria by, 204;
    protection from, 206

  Mosquitoes and midges, protection against, and treatment of bites of,
        194

  Moulding, on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of,
        149

  Mountain-chains, geological notes on, 70

  Mumps, 211

  Myer, “Atlas of First Aid Treatment,” 161

  Myiasis, 212

  Mythology of native races, 124;
    queries on, 130


  Names, on the giving of, to newly-discovered places, 306

  Names, geographical, R.G.S. system of orthography of, 300

  Native races, physical character of, 106, queries on, 129;
    Broca’s scale of colours of, reference to, 108;
    language of, 110;
    arts and sciences of, 113, queries on, 130;
    social life of, 118;
    religion and mythology of, 124, queries on, 130;
    customs of, 126, queries on, 130;
    mode of subsistence of, queries on, 129;
    ivory and wood carving of, queries on, 131;
    money of, queries on, 131;
    personal ornaments, disfigurements, &c., of, queries on, 131;
    skulls of, observations on, 132-136

  Natives, wants of, hints on observing, 139

  Natural History, article on, by H. W. Bates and W. R. Ogilvie-Grant,
        82-105;
    “Handbook of Instructions for Collectors,” reference to, 87;
    where and what to collect, 89

  Natural history specimens, hints on collecting and preserving, 87;
    outfit for, 88

  Naturalist’s outfit, 82-86

  Negretti and Zambra’s maximum thermometers, 23

  Neligan, “Hints for Travellers in Persia,” 161

  New Zealand, weather service of, 43

  Night-blindness, protection against, 199

  “Notes and Queries on Anthropology,” British Association manual of,
        reference to, 106


  Ocean-Basins, on the permanence of, 76

  Ogilvie, A. C., Memorandum on glacier observations, 78

  Ogilvie-Grant, W. R., and H. W. Bates, article on Natural History,
        82-105

  Ophthalmia, simple, symptoms and treatment, 213

  Oriental sore, 231

  Organs of the human body, diagram showing some of the principal, 162

  Ornaments, personal, of native races, queries on, 131

  Orthochrome plates, 62

  Orthography of Geographical Names, R.G.S. system of, 300

  “Outfit, Hints on,” reference to, 164


  Pacific, weather service of the, 43

  Paget colour plate, 62

  Papyrus, on conserving, 158

  Parasites, diseases produced by, 170

  Paratyphoid fevers, 189

  Paste objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158

  Pasteur-Chamberland filter, 166

  Peru, weather service of, 42

  Petrie’s “Methods and Aims in Archæology,” reference to, 149, 158

  Philippine Islands, weather service of, 42

  Phillips’ maximum thermometers, 23

  Phillips, Prof. J. (_see Darwin, Dr. Charles_)

  Photographic apparatus and chemicals for development, 58

  Photographic exposure record, 56

  Photographic outfit, list of, with prices, 61-62

  Photography, article on, by J. Thomson and J. McIntosh, 51-62;
    Sir W. Abney’s work on, reference to, 59;
    W. K. Burton’s work on, reference to, 59;
    Robinson’s “Pictorial Effect in Photography,” reference to, 60;
    photography in natural colours, 61;
    photography of object of antiquity, 148

  Physical characters of natives, on observing the, 106;
    queries on, 129

  Piles, internal and external, treatment of, 214

  Plague, bubonic, causes, symptoms and treatment, 215

  Plants, living and succulent, on packing, 103

  Plattner and Scheerer’s work on the use of the blow-pipe, reference
        to, 67

  Pleurisy, symptoms and treatment, 217

  Pneumonia, symptoms and treatment, 217

  Poisons, treatment of the various, 291

  Pottery and terra-cotta objects of antiquity, on cleaning and
        conserving, 157

  Poultices, directions for making, 274

  Pox, 239

  Precautions on the voyage, 167

  Prickly heat, treatment for, 230

  Psychrometer, Assmann’s Aspiration, description of, with
        illustration, 20

  Pulse, normal rate of, 269

  Purgatives, 180, 264


  Queries of Anthropology, by Sir A. W. Franks, 129-132

  Quinine, use of, for malaria, 265

  Quinsy, treatment of, 218


  Railways, inquiry as to routes suitable for, in new country, 146

  Rain and dew, on recording prevalence of, 7

  Rainfall maps, 50, note on, 40

  Rain-gauge, 24

  Raised beaches, 72

  Ramsay, Sir A., reference to his views on the formation of
        rock-basins, 74

  “Realm of Nature,” by Dr. H. R. Mill, reference to, 41

  Recording monuments and objects of antiquity, methods of, 148-156

  Relapsing fever, 218

  Religion and mythology of native races, 124;
    queries on, 130

  Reptiles, naturalist’s outfit for preserving, 85

  Reptiles and fishes, on collecting and preserving, 96

  Resources of a country, inquiry into, 139

  Respiration, normal rate of, 269

  Rheumatism, 219

  Ribs, fracture of, treatment of, 287

  Richter’s system of measuring glacier movements, 80

  Richthofen, Baron F. von, reference to his description of loess
        formations, 76

  Ringworm, treatment of, 230

  Rivers and river-plains, geological notes on, 72

  Roads, native, on observing the nature of, 146

  Robinson’s “Pictorial Effect in Photography,” reference to, 59

  Rock-basins, on the formation of, 73;
    reference to Sir A. Ramsay’s views on, 74

  Round worm, treatment for, 247

  Royal Geographical Society, on the giving of names to
        newly-discovered places, 306;
    system of orthography of geographical names, 300

  Rubbings, on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of,
        154

  Rupture, treatment of, 220

  Ryan, “Health Preservation in West Africa,” 161


  Salvador, weather service of, 42

  Salvin, O., hints on collecting reptiles and fishes, 96

  Sand-flea (_see Jigger_)

  Sand-fly fever, 221

  Scabies, symptoms and treatment, 197

  Scalds, treatment of, 175

  Scarlet fever, or scarlatina, symptoms, treatment, complications, 222

  Scheerer (_see Plattner_)

  Sciences of native races, 113

  Scorpion sting, 223

  Screw worm, 212

  Scurvy, symptoms and treatment, 224

  Sea-sickness, treatment of, 226

  Sensitive plates or films, 57;
    Sir W. Abney’s method of packing, 57;
    how to keep dry, 58;
    slides for holding, 54

  Shaw, Sir Napier: “Forecasting Weather,” 41

  Shoulder-joint dislocation, treatment of, 290

  Simpson, Dr. W. J., “The Maintenance of Health in the Tropics,”
        reference to, 161

  Skeleton, human, diagram of the, 285

  Skeletons of animals, on the preparation of, 94

  Skin diseases, 226

  Skulls, human, observations on, 132-136

  Sleeping sickness, symptoms and treatment, 233

  Sleeplessness, treatment for, 235

  Slides for holding sensitive plates, 54

  Sling thermometer, 17

  Small-pox, rash, symptoms and treatment, 236

  Snow, on recording falls of, 9

  Snow-blindness, protection against, 199

  Social life of native races, 118

  Spectacles for preventing snow-blindness, illustration of, 199

  Spider bite, 223

  Sprains, treatment of, 281

  Sprue, symptoms and treatment, 237

  “Squeezes,” on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of,
        150

  Stevenson thermometer screen, 14

  Stomach tube, directions for using, 273

  Stone objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 157

  Stroke, 237

  Sun in the tropics, effects of the, upon the human body, 165

  Sunshine, cloud and, on keeping record of changes of, 5

  Sun-stroke, symptoms and treatment, 238

  Surface of a country, on observing the character of, 141

  Surgical cleanliness, importance of, 275

  Surgical dressing case recommended to travellers, 253

  Syphilis, symptoms and treatment, 239


  Table of relative humidity, 44-49, explanation, 43;
    showing pressure of saturated aqueous vapour in inches of mercury
        at latitude 45° for each degree Fahrenheit from -30° to 119°, 50

  Tape-worms, treatment for, 246

  Tarns, geological notes on, 73

  Tariffs existing in a country, on obtaining information concerning,
        147

  Temperature of human body, normal, 269;
    taking the, different ways of, 269

  Terra-cotta objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 157

  Thermometer corrections, 12

  Thermometer scales, 12;
    rule for converting Centigrade readings into Fahrenheit, 13

  Thermometer screens, 14;
    Blanford’s portable, 15;
    for permanent station in hot countries, form recommended by British
        Association most suitable, 15;
    Stevenson’s, 13

  Thermometers, on the care of, 13;
    boiling-point, 31;
    dry and wet bulb, table showing difference between readings of,
        44-49, explanation, 13;
    maximum, 23, Negretti and Zambra’s form, 23, Phillips’ form, 23;
    minimum, 20, care of, 21;
    sling, 17

  Thigh fracture, treatment of, 288

  Threadworm, treatment for, 247

  Thomson, J., article on Photography, 51-62

  Throat, ulceration of the, treatment of, 244

  Thunderstorms and hail, on recording the occurrence of, 8

  Tick fever, symptoms and treatment, 241

  Ticks, treatment for, 197

  Timber of a country, on ascertaining the characteristics of, 141

  Tonsils, inflammation of the (_see Quinsy_)

  Tornadoes, making record of, 5

  Tourniquet, description and use of, 277

  Trade, on obtaining information concerning, 144

  Trephine-holes in human skulls, 133

  Tropical ulcer, 232

  Tubers, on packing, 103

  Tumbu fly, 212

  Tylor, Dr. E. B., his article on Anthropology, 106-129;
    his “Anthropology: an Introduction to the Study of Men and
        Civilisation,” reference to, 127

  Tyndall’s method of ascertaining velocity of glacier movements, 81

  Typhoid fever, 189

  Typhus fever, 243


  Ulceration of the throat, treatment of, 244

  Ulcers, treatment of, 231, 232

  Underclothing recommended for tropical climates, 164

  Undulant fever, 244

  United States, weather service of, 42

  Urine, retention of, symptoms and treatment, 245;
    suppression of causes and treatment, 246

  Uruguay, weather service of, 42


  Vaccination essential to travellers, 168

  Vegetable products of a country, hints on observing, 141

  Vegetation, on observing character of, 142

  Ver macaque, 212

  Vocabularies, native, on recording, 111

  Volcanic rocks, on, 71

  Volcanoes and volcanic rocks, on, 71

  Von Kobell’s tables for determination of minerals, reference to, 67

  Voyage, precautions on the, 167


  Ward, Prof. R. de C., “Handbook of Climatology,” reference to, 41

  Water, risks due to drinking, 166

  Water communication of a country, inquiry as to, 146

  Waterspouts, on the theoretical importance to determine direction of
        the whirl about the axis of, 5

  Weather, hints on keeping a record of, 2;
    observations for forecasting the, 32-35.

  Weather-maps, daily synoptical, 41

  Weather services, extra-European, list of, 42-43

  West Indies, weather service of, 42

  Wet pack for invalid, directions for giving, 272

  Whirlwinds, usefulness of making records of, 5

  Wind, observations of direction and force of, 3;
    Beaufort’s scale of wind force, 4

  Windpipe, inflammation of the, 174, 200

  Wood, ivory, and bone objects of antiquity, on cleaning and
        conserving, 158

  Wood carving of native races, queries on, 131

  Woodward, S. P., “Manual of the Mollusca,” reference to, 97

  Worms producing disease, different kinds of, treatment, 246

  Wound, directions to clean and dress a, 275

  Wounds, after-treatment of, 279

  Wounds, poisoned, treatment of, 281

  Wounds and injuries, treatment of, 275-292


  Yellow fever, symptoms and treatment, 250

  Young, Hastings: “First Aid to the Sick,” 161


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