18) ***





[Illustration: IN THE SAURIAN AGE, WHEN THE WORLD’S INHABITANTS WERE
GIGANTIC REPTILES]




                          The Book of History

                       A History of all Nations

                FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT

                     WITH OVER 8000 ILLUSTRATIONS

                        WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
              VISCOUNT BRYCE, P.C., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.


                         CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

                  W. M. Flinders Petrie, LL.D., F.R.S
                      UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON

                        Hans F. Helmolt, Ph.D.
                 EDITOR, GERMAN “HISTORY OF THE WORLD”

                   Stanley Lane-Poole, M.A., Litt.D.
                        TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN

                          Robert Nisbet Bain
                  ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN, BRITISH MUSEUM

                         Hugo Winckler, Ph.D.
                         UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN

                  Archibald H. Sayce, D.Litt., LL.D.
                           OXFORD UNIVERSITY

                 Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D., F.R.S.
                 AUTHOR, “MAN’S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE”

                   Sir William Lee-Warner, K.C.S.I.
                      MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF INDIA

                        Holland Thompson, Ph.D.
                  THE COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK

                       W. Stewart Wallace, M.A.
                         UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

                          Maurice Maeterlinck
                      ESSAYIST, POET, PHILOSOPHER

                          Dr. Emile J. Dillon
                     UNIVERSITY OF ST. PETERSBURG

                              Arthur Mee
                    EDITOR, “THE BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE”

                 Sir Harry H. Johnston, K.C.B., D.Sc.
                     LATE COMMISSIONER FOR UGANDA

                            Johannes Ranke
                         UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH

                         K. G. Brandis, Ph.D.
                          UNIVERSITY OF JENA

                      And many other Specialists


                               Volume I

                         MAN AND THE UNIVERSE

                       The World before History
                 The Great Steps in Man’s Development
             Birth of Civilisation and the Growth of Races
             Making of Nations and the Influence of Nature


                                 JAPAN

                      The Country and the People


                  NEW YORK        THE GROLIER SOCIETY
                  LONDON     THE EDUCATIONAL BOOK CO.




EDITORIAL AND CONTRIBUTING STAFF

OF

THE BOOK OF HISTORY


Rt. Hon. Viscount Bryce, F.R.S.

Formerly British Ambassador to the United States, Author of “The
American Commonwealth”


Professor E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.

President British Association, 1906-7; Past Director of South
Kensington Museum of Natural History


Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, F.R.S.

Co-discoverer with Darwin of the Theory of Natural Selection; Author of
“Man’s Place in the Universe”


Dr. William Johnson Sollas, F.R.S.

Professor of Geology at Oxford University


Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, F.R.S.

Professor of Egyptology, University College, London; Founder of British
School of Archæology in Egypt


Professor Wm. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Professor of Geology at Victoria University, Manchester; Author of
“Early Man in Britain”


Frederic Harrison, M.A.

Hon. Fellow and formerly Tutor of Wadham College, Oxford;
Vice-President of the Royal Historical Society


Dr. Archibald H. Sayce

Professor of Assyriology at Oxford University


Sir Harry H. Johnston, K.C.B.

Doctor of Science of Cambridge University; late Commissioner and
Consul-General for Uganda


Dr. J. Holland Rose

Cambridge University Lecturer on Modern History; Author of “Development
of the European Nations”


Dr. Stanley Lane-Poole

Professor of Arabic at Trinity College, Dublin


Sir John Knox Laughton

Professor of Modern History at King’s College, London University;
Editor of Lord Nelson’s Despatches


Oscar Browning, M.A.

Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge; University Lecturer in History


Professor Ronald M. Burrows

Professor of Greek at University College of South Wales; Author of
“Discoveries in Crete”


David George Hogarth, M.A.

Director of Cretan Exploration Fund and Past Director of the British
School at Athens


Herbert Paul, M.P.

Author of “A History of Modern England”


Sir Robert K. Douglas

Professor of Chinese at King’s College, University of London; late
Keeper of Oriental Books, British Museum


Dr. Hugo Winckler

Professor of History and Oriental Languages at the University of Berlin


Sir William Lee-Warner, K.C.S.I.

Member of the Council of India; Formerly Scholar of St. John’s College,
Cambridge


Dr. E. J. Dillon

Author and Journalist; Master of Oriental Languages at the University
of St. Petersburg


William Romaine Paterson, M.A.

Author of “The Nemesis of Nations”


W. Warde Fowler, M.A.

Scholar and Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford; Author of “The
City-State of the Greeks and Romans”


Dr. H. F. Helmolt

Author of “German History” and Editor of the German “History of the
World”


Professor Konrad Haebler

Of the Imperial Library of Berlin


Professor Richard Mayr

Of the Vienna Academy of Commerce


Arthur Mee

Editor of The Book of Knowledge.


Professor Rudolf Scala

Of the Imperial University of Vienna


Professor Karl Weule

Director of the Leipzig Museum of Anthropology


Professor Wilhelm Walther

Of the University of Rostock


Arthur Christopher Benson, M.A.

Fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge; Editor of The Correspondence of
Queen Victoria


Major Martin Hume

Lecturer in Spanish History and Literature at Pembroke College,
Cambridge


Robert Nisbet Bain

Traveller and Historian; Assistant Librarian at the British Museum


Richard Whiteing

Author of “The Life of Paris”


His Excellency Max von Brandt

Ex-German Ambassador to China and Minister in Japan


Francis H. Skrine

Traveller and Explorer; late of the Indian Civil Service


Holland Thompson, Ph. D.

The College of the City of New York.


Dr. Archdall Reid, F.R.S.E.

Author of “The Principles of Heredity”


Arthur Diósy

Founder of the Japan Society; Author of “The New Far East”


Dr. K. G. Brandis

Director of the University Libraries at Jena


Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L.

Author of “A Political History of England”


Professor Joseph Kohler

Professor of Jurisprudence at Berlin University


Angus Hamilton

Traveller and Correspondent in the Far East; Author of “Afghanistan”


J. G. D. Campbell, M.A.

Late Educational Adviser to the Government of Siam


W. R. Carles, C.M.G.

Geographer; late British Consul at Tientsin, China


Professor Johannes Ranke

Professor of Anthropology, Physiology, and Natural History at Munich


W. S. Wallace, M. A.

University of Toronto.


Hon. Bernhard R. Wise

Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford; Ex-Attorney-General of New South
Wales


K. W. C. Davis, M.A.

Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford




CONTENTS OF VOLUME I


    THE SAURIAN AGE      FRONTISPIECE


    FIRST GRAND DIVISION

    MAN AND THE UNIVERSE

                                                                    PAGE

    Editorial Introduction                                             1

    Plan of the HISTORY                                                3

    Plan of First Grand Division                                       6

    A View across the Ages                                             7

    Summary of World History                                          60

    Chronology of 10,000 Years                                        61

    Time-table of the Nations                                         74

    Contemporary Figures in History                                   78

    The Beginning of the Earth                                        79

    Four Periods of the Earth’s Development                           89

    Geological Clock of the World’s Life                              90

    How Life became possible on Earth                                 91

    Scene from the Prehistoric World                     Plate facing 96

    Beginning of Life on the Earth                                    99

    How Man obtained Mastery of the Earth                            108


  THE WORLD BEFORE HISTORY

    Prehistoric Man attacking Cave Bears                Plate facing 114

    The Wonderful Story of Drift Man                                 115

    The Appearance of Man on the Earth                               127

    Life of Man in the Stone Age                                     132

    Primitive Man in the Past and Present                            145

    The Home Life of Primitive Folk                                  164

    When History was dawning                                         175


  THE GREAT STEPS IN MAN’S DEVELOPMENT

    The Material Progress of Mankind                                 185

    Beginnings of Commerce      Plate facing 192

    The Higher Progress of Mankind                                   203


  BIRTH OF CIVILISATION AND GROWTH OF RACES

    Seven Wonders of Ancient Civilisation                            225

    Rise of Civilisation in Egypt                                    233

    Rise of Civilisation in Mesopotamia                              259

    Rise of Civilisation in Europe                                   281

    The Triumph of Race                                              299

    Alphabet of the World’s Races                                    311

    Little Gallery of Races                                          313

    Types of the Chief Races of Mankind                              349

    Ethnological Chart of the Human Race                             352


  MAKING OF NATIONS AND THE INFLUENCE OF NATURE

    Birth and Growth of Nations                                      353

    Land and Water and Greatness of Peoples                          377

    Environment and the Life of Nations                              387

    The Size and Power of Nations                                    399

    The Future History of Man                                        404


    SECOND GRAND DIVISION

    THE FAR EAST

    Map of the Far East                                              406

    Plan of the Second Grand Division                                408

    Interest and Importance of the Far East                          409


    JAPAN

  COUNTRY AND PEOPLE

    Great Dates in Japan                                             416

    The Empire of the Eastern Seas                                   417

    Map of Japan                                                     432

    Qualities of the Japanese People                                 433




LIST OF SPECIAL PLATES IN THE BOOK OF HISTORY


                                                                    PAGE

    The Saurian Age                                 Frontispiece, Vol. 1

    Scene from the Prehistoric World: Early Ice Age          Facing   96

    Prehistoric Men Attacking the Great Cave Bears              “    114

    The Beginnings of Commerce                                  “    192

    Carrying Off an Emperor                         Frontispiece, Vol. 2

    Buddha, “The Light of Asia”                              Facing  562

    Four Famous Figures in Chinese History                       “   754

    The Colour of India                             Frontispiece, Vol. 3

    Gems of Indian Architecture                              Facing 1154

    Indian Temples                                              “   1196

    Nineveh in the Days of Assyria’s Ascendancy     Frontispiece, Vol. 4

    Two Indian Scenes                                        Facing 1364

    Spring Carnival at a Tibetan Monastery                      “   1436

    The Pyramids of Abusir                          Frontispiece, Vol. 5

    Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans                   Facing 1860

    Palace of an Assyrian King                                  “   1956

    The Sphinx                                                  “   1996

    Alexander, the World Conqueror                  Frontispiece, Vol. 6

    The Acropolis of Athens                                  Facing 2504

    An Arab Storyteller                             Frontispiece, Vol. 7

    Theodora, the Byzantine Empress                          Facing 2906

    Glimpse of the Life in a Turkish Harem                      “   2994

    Primitive Justice                               Frontispiece, Vol. 8

    Thaddeus Reyten at the Diet of Warsaw                    Facing 3282

    Roland                                                      “   3484

    Prince Arthur and Hubert                        Frontispiece, Vol. 9

    Venerable Bede Dictating His Translation of
      the Gospel of St. John                                 Facing 3716

    “The Vigil”: A Knight of the Middle Ages                    “   3788

    Alfred, the Hero King of England                            “   3834

    King John Granting Magna Charta                             “   3865

    Crusaders Sighting Jerusalem                   Frontispiece, Vol. 10

    Wolsey’s Last Interview with Henry VIII                  Facing 4168

    Charles I on His Way to Execution                           “   4340

    Charles II Visiting Wren                       Frontispiece, Vol. 11

    Napoleon the Great                                       Facing 4636

    “Peace with Honour”                            Frontispiece, Vol. 12

    The French Soldiers’ Unrealised Dream of Victory         Facing 5104

    Recessional                                    Frontispiece, Vol. 13

    The Conqueror’s Gift to London                           Facing 5464

    King Edward VII                                             “   5614

    Clio, “The Muse of History”                    Frontispiece, Vol. 14

    Flags that Fly in the Four Winds of Heaven               Facing 5874

    Statue of Liberty                              Frontispiece, Vol. 15

    Hope                                                    Facing Index




LIST OF MAPS APPEARING IN THE BOOK OF HISTORY


                                                                    PAGE

    The World as Known to its First Historian                          8

    Shifting of the Centre of the World’s Commerce                    28

    How the Mediterranean has Given Place to the Atlantic             29

    The First Maps                                                    51

    Modern Representation of the World                                52

    The Europeanisation of the World                                  55

    The Shaping of the Face of the Earth                              85

    How Mountain Ranges were formed                                   87

    Europe Before the British Isles were Formed                      118

    The Submerged Lands of Europe                                    119

    Europe in the Ice Age                                            155

    Egypt in Three Periods                                           243

    Babylonia                                                        260

    Sea Routes of Ancient Civilisation                               283

    Land Routes of Ancient Civilisation                              284

    How Civilisation Spread through Europe                           359

    The Expansion of White Races                                     361

    The Island that Rules the Sea                                    378

    Oceans of the World                                              383

    Effect of Climate on the Course of History                       391

    Political Expansion                                              396

    Relation of Rivers and Sea to the Civilisation of Countries      397

      South America
      Africa
      Europe

    The Far East, and Australia, Oceania and Malaysia                406

    The Island Empire of Japan                                       432

    Japan in the Fifth Century                                       457

    Siberia                                                          634

    Movement of the Peoples of Siberia                               656

    Russia’s Advance in Western Asia                                 676

    Growth of Russia in the Far East                                 677

    The Trans-Siberian Line                                          692

    The Chinese Empire                                               708

    Korea and its Surroundings                                       858

    The Malay Archipelago                                            886

    Islands of Oceania                                               947

    New Zealand                                                      986

    Australia and Tasmania                                          1010

    Britain Contrasted with Australia                               1012

    South-east Australia, Indicating Products                       1013

    Bed of the Pacific Ocean                                        1102

    The Middle East                                                 1120

    Modern India                                                    1161

    India in 1801                                                   1266

    Bed of the Indian Ocean and China Sea                           1419

    Suez Canal                                                      1434

    Mountain Systems In and Around Tibet                            1457

    The Approach of Lhasa                                           1505

    Early Empires of the Ancient Near East                          1562

    Later Empires of the Ancient Near East                          1563

    Ancient Empires of Western Asia                                 1582

    Modern Africa                                                   2001

    Races and Religions of Africa                                   2005

    Natural Products of Africa                                      2009

    Basin of the River Nile                                         2022

    Delta of the River Nile                                         2024

    Utica as it Was                                                 2188

    The Remains of Utica                                            2189

    Ancient States of Mediterranean North Africa                    2191

    Niger River and Guinea Coast                                    2229

    Great Britain in South Africa                                   2322

    Basin of the Zambesi                                            2332

    Basin of the Congo                                              2347

    General Map of Europe                                           2356

    Geographical Connection of the Mediterranean Coasts             2373

    Ancient Greece                                                  2482

    World Empire of Alexander the Great                             2561

    Italy in the First Century B.C.                                 2621

    The Roman Empire                                                2738

    Origin of the Barbaric Nations                                  2797

    Principal Countries of Eastern Europe                           2894

    World’s Great Empires Between 777 and 814 A.D.                  2934

    Turkey and Surrounding Countries in the 14th and
      17th Centuries                                                3082

    Historical Maps of Poland and Western Russia                    3220

    Western Europe in the Middle Ages                               4138

    Europe During the Revolutionary Era                             4636

    Modern Europe                                                   4788

    Britain’s Maritime Enterprise                                   5440

    The British Empire in 1702                                      5462

    The British Empire in 1909                                      5463

    The Atlantic Ocean                                              5656

    South America in the Sixteenth Century                          5915

    South America as it is To-day                                   5983

    North Pole, with routes of Explorers                            6014

    South Pole                                                      6045

    North America                                                   6431




[Illustration: THE BOOK OF HISTORY]

    This is the story of the earth from the first thing we know of it
    to the time in which we live. It is the story of man from the first
    thing we know of him to the last thought that the vision of modern
    science can suggest.


There is no need here to discuss the question how far it is possible
to write a universal history, or on what lines such a history should
proceed. These points may well be left where Lord Bryce leaves them in
his introduction to this book. Nor need we consider what history is;
the plain man may be left to make up his own mind as to that while the
philosophers are making up theirs. A word may be said, however, of the
plan and purpose of this work, especially of that distinction of it
which is at once the ground of its appeal and its justification.


A UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE

It is a commonplace to say of a great work that it is unique, and there
would at first sight seem to be peculiar presumption in making such a
claim for a History of the World. It may be claimed, however, without
any fear of contradiction, that this work has no rival in the English
language.

There have been histories of the world before; there are available in
large numbers histories of all countries well worthy of attention; but
there is not, and it may be doubted if there has ever been attempted
before, a scientific World-History. This work is, as far as it can
possibly be in the present state of knowledge, a universal history of
the universe.


SCIENCE AND HISTORY

That is a far reaching claim to make, but a mere glance through the
names of those whose services have been enlisted for the work will
make its basis clear. The contributors include some of the foremost
students of science. Many men of eminence whose names do not usually
come into historical works will be found here. Their function may be
described as holding the Lamp of Science up to History. It is for
these authorities to read the story of the earth and to tell the plain
man what they read there, as Turner read the sunset and painted what
he saw. The simile is not so unfortunate as it may appear, because,
although our canvas has not the same room for the artist’s imagination
as Turner’s had, it will probably be admitted that the imagination
of the scientist is often nearer to the truth of things than the
conventional belief.


THE LIFE-STORY OF ALL NATIONS

And the scientist will come into our History whenever and wherever
science has any light to throw upon its problems. To the creators of
this work the world is not merely an aggregation of countries under
more or less settled governments, nor is a country merely the seat of
a political system. They conceive the earth as a part of the universe,
as one world among many; and this is the story of a huge ball flying in
space, on which men and women live and move, on which mighty nations
rise and rule and pass away, on which great empires crumble into dust.
It is the entrancing book of man and the universe, the life-story of
all nations. It begins with the beginning; it regards the universe, as
modern science has taught us to regard it, as a vast unit, in which the
life of man is the ultimate consummation.

A history of the world cannot be written in a day. It is like an
institution--it must be allowed to grow. It would be a purposeless
sacrifice in an undertaking of such magnitude to reject any work of
building-up that is available, and this History has a rare privilege
in being able to utilise the result of the matchless research, the
tireless industry, the unequalled knowledge of Dr. Hans Helmolt and
the distinguished staff of scholars and investigators who have been
engaged with him for many years in preparing a history of the world on
precisely the lines laid down in this work.


THE MATERIAL FOR A WORLD HISTORY

It would be impossible to exaggerate the value of the elaborate
research made for Dr. Helmolt by such of his eminent collaborators as
Professor Johannes Ranke, Professor Ratzel, Professor Joseph Kohler,
and others whose names stand for foremost authority wherever the value
of learning is understood, and it is one of the chief claims of this
work to recognition that it has behind it all the material collected
by Dr. Helmolt’s staff, with all the judgment and skill of Dr. Helmolt
himself in co-ordinating the labour of his assistants.

A work so universal in time and place must engage many minds. Behind
it there must be the labour and thought of many lives. The materials
for a world-history cannot be amassed by one man, cannot be gathered
together in the time that it is possible for one man to devote to
them. A moment’s reflection reveals the vastness and complexity of the
arrangements for such a work, the reaching-out into far corners of the
earth, the ransacking of historical libraries and official archives;
the placing of the result of all this research into the hands of a
hundred trained historians, the analysing, sifting, and editing of each
part as if it were in itself a perfect whole.


A BOOK OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE

All this labour can hardly be measured. And if we add to our reckoning
the work of illustrating the world’s history in pictures, the task
of finding illustrations where they are rare as precious stones, or
of choosing them where their number is bewildering, the labour that
a world-history involves is, indeed, incalculable. It can only be
accomplished by the co-operation of many minds, working over a long
period, drawing upon actual experience in every part of the world.

Especially is this so in the present work. There are histories that
can be made up from books, but this is not one of them. The BOOK
OF HISTORY is not only a great book of human experience, as every
history is; it is the _product_ of experience. It could never have been
written if the men who write it had not helped to make the history that
they write.


THE MAKERS OF THE BOOK

It is a book of history by writers and makers of history; it is a book
of action by men of action; it is a book, that is, by men who know
intimately the real life of the world. When Professor Ratzel writes of
the making of nations, he writes with perhaps an unequalled knowledge
of the conditions that have made for human progress; when Dr. Flinders
Petrie writes of Egypt, when Dr. Sayce writes of Assyria, they write
with the same authority that Sir Harry Johnston has in writing of those
parts of the British Empire that he has helped to govern.

The real rulers of the world are not the princes, and among the makers
of this book are men who, though the fierce light that beats upon a
throne has not beat upon them, have borne the burden of empire and
of ruling men. It is the ideal collaboration, that of the brilliant
investigator, the scientific interpreter, and the man of affairs, and
it makes possible the achievement of a History which we have claimed to
be unique.


THE WORLD YESTERDAY, TO-DAY & TO-MORROW

We have the facts from the pens of the men who have dug them up fresh
from the earth itself or who know them from experience; we have them
treated by the men who can turn upon them the full light of modern
science; we have the world as it moves in our own time described by the
men who know it from the centre, and know it therefore best.

This is the story of the world, then, yesterday and to-day. And, as
history goes on, as to-day becomes yesterday and to-morrow becomes
to-day, we shall find in this book a vision of the things that lie
before. Out of the deeps of Time came man. Through the mists of Time he
grew. Down the ages of Time he goes. Whence he came we guess; how he
lives we know; where he goes the wisdom of History does not tell. But
the history of the world is young, and young men shall see visions.

    THE EDITORS




THE BOOK OF HISTORY

The Life-Story of the Earth and of All Nations

TOLD IN SEVEN GRAND DIVISIONS


This plan provides a general scheme for the HISTORY, but is not
intended for reference. It does not follow that the exact order of
countries here given is maintained throughout the volumes. A full index
appears at the end of the work


I--MAN AND THE UNIVERSE

THE WORLD AND ITS STORY

A View Across the Ages: Introduction

Summary of the History of the World

Chronology of 10,000 Years and Chart of Nations

MAKING OF THE EARTH AND THE COMING OF MAN

The Beginning of the Earth

How Life is Possible on the Earth

The Beginning of Life on the Earth

How Man Obtained the Mastery of the Earth

THE RISE OF MAN AND THE EVE OF HISTORY

The World Before History

The Great Steps in Man’s Development

BIRTH OF CIVILISATION & THE GROWTH OF RACES

The Beginnings of Civilisation

How Civilisation Came to Europe

The Triumph of Race

An Alphabet of the World’s Races

MAKING OF NATIONS & THE INFLUENCE OF NATURE

The Birth and Growth of Nations

Influence of Land and Water on National History

How Nations are Affected by Their Environment

The Size and Power of Nations

The Future History of Man


II--THE FAR EAST

The Interest and Importance of the Far East

Japan. Siberia. China. Korea

Malaysia

    Philippines. Malay States. Straits Settlements. Borneo. Sarawak.
    Sumatra. Java. New Guinea, and other Islands of Malay Archipelago

Australia

    New South Wales. Victoria. Queensland. South Australia. West
    Australia. Tasmania

Oceania

    New Zealand. Fiji. Pitcairn. Hawaii. Samoa. Tonga and other Islands

The Influence of the Pacific Ocean in History


III--THE MIDDLE EAST

The Importance of the Middle East

India.

Including Ceylon and the Native States

Further India.

    Siam. Annam. Burma. Tonking. Cochin China. Cambodia. Champa

The Influence of the Indian Ocean in History

Central Asia.

Afghanistan. Baluchistan. Turkestan. Thibet


IV--THE NEAR EAST

The Ancient Empires of Western Asia

    Babylonia. Assyria. Elam

Early Nations of Western Asia

    Scythia. Sarmatia. Armenia. Syria. Phœnicia. Israel

Western Asia from the Rise of Persia to Mohammed

    Persia. Asia Minor. Syria. Palestine. Arabia. Mediterranean Islands

Western Asia from the Time of Mohammed

    The Saracen Dominion. The Turkish Empire in Asia. Persia. Arabia


V--AFRICA

Legacy of Ancient Empires to the Modern World

Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan

North Africa

    Tripoli. Tunis. Morocco. Algeria and the French Territories. Sierra
    Leone. Liberia. Gold Coast. Nigeria. German West Africa. Abyssinia.
    Somaliland. Erythrea. British East Africa. Zanzibar

South Africa

    Native Races. The Portuguese and Dutch in South Africa. British
    South Africa: Cape Colony. Natal. Transvaal. Orange River Colony.
    Rhodesia. Congo Free State. Portuguese East Africa. Angola. German
    East Africa. German South-West Africa. Madagascar


VI--EUROPE

1. EUROPE TO THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Mediterranean Influence in the Making of Europe

The Ancient Spirit of Greece and Rome

Early Peoples of Europe. Ascendancy of the Greeks

The Rise of Rome and the World Empire

Social Fabric of the Ancient World: Slave States

2. EASTERN EUROPE TO FRENCH REVOLUTION

The Byzantine Empire and the Turk in Europe

The Middle Peoples

Russia, Poland, and the Baltic Provinces

The Social Fabric of the Mediæval World: The Twilight of Nations

3. WESTERN EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

A Survey of Western Mediæval Europe

The Peoples of Western Europe

The Importance of the Baltic Sea

The Emerging of the Nations

    Frankish Dominion and the Empire of Charlemagne. England. Spanish
    Peninsula. Italy. The Papacy. Scandinavia

The Development of the Nations

    The German or Holy Roman Empire. France. England. Spain and
    Portugal. Italy. The Papacy. Scandinavia

The Crusades. Industry and Commerce

4. WESTERN EUROPE FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE REVOLUTION

A Survey of Western Europe

The Reformation and Wars of Religion

The Age of Louis XIV.

    From the Peace of Westphalia to the Treaty of Utrecht

The Ending of the Old Order

    From the Treaty of Utrecht to the Revolution

The Importance of the Atlantic to the World Powers

Religion After the Reformation. Industry and Commerce

5. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era

    The Revolution. The Republic at War and the Rise of Napoleon. The
    Zenith of Napoleon and his Fall

Great Britain in the Napoleonic Era

6. THE RE-MAKING OF EUROPE

Europe After Waterloo

    The Triumph of Despotism. The Revolt Against Despotism

Europe in Revolution

    The Second French Republic and the Coup d’Etat. The Uprising of the
    Little Nations. National Movements in Germany

The Consolidation of the Powers

    Europe and the Second Empire. The Unification of Italy. The
    Unification of Germany. The Franco-German War

Great Britain to 1871. Russia and Turkey to 1871. Europe since 1871

    Great Britain. Germany. France. Austria-Hungary. Spain and
    Portugal. Italy. Russia. Turkey. Switzerland. Greece. Belgium.
    Holland. Denmark. Norway. Sweden. Bulgaria. Servia. Roumania.
    Montenegro. Luxemburg. Monaco. San Marino

7. THE EUROPEAN POWERS TO-DAY

Europe in Our Own Time

Great Britain. Germany. Austria-Hungary. France.

Italy. Russia. Turkey. Spain and Portugal

Minor States of Europe:

    Switzerland. Greece. Belgium. Holland. Denmark. Norway. Sweden.
    Bulgaria. Servia. Roumania. Montenegro. Luxemburg. Monaco. San
    Marino


VII--AMERICA

America Before Columbus

    The Primitive Races of America. The Ancient Civilisation of Central
    America. The Ancient Civilisation of South America

The European Colonisation

    The Discovery. The Spanish Conquest. The Spanish and Portuguese
    Empire in America. The Independence of South and Central America.
    The Pilgrim Fathers and the English Settlement. The Development and
    Expansion of the British Colonies

The American Nation

    The Revolt of the Thirteen Colonies. The Struggle for Independence
    and the War. The Creation of the United States. The Development of
    the American Nation. The United States in Our Own Time

British America

    Canada. Newfoundland. British West Indies. British Honduras.
    Bermudas.

Central America in the 19th and 20th Centuries

    Cuba. Haiti. Dominica. Porto Rico. Mexico. Guatemala. Honduras. San
    Salvador. Nicaragua. Costa Rica. Panama

South America in the 19th and 20th Centuries

    Colombia. Venezuela. British, French and Dutch Guiana. Brazil.
    Ecuador. Peru. Chili. Bolivia. Paraguay. Argentina. Uruguay

The World Around the Poles

    Greenland. Iceland. Arctic and Antarctic Oceans

[Illustration]




[Illustration: THE BOOK OF HISTORY]

FIRST GRAND DIVISION

MAN AND THE UNIVERSE]




[Illustration]




FIRST GRAND DIVISION

MAN AND THE UNIVERSE


There can, of course, be neither absolute finality nor entire unanimity
in the subjects of these chapters, which are designed to enable the
reader to follow the course of history with greater interest and
understanding than would be possible without some scientific knowledge
of life. They are presented as a symposium of modern thought on the
problems concerning the origin and development of the earth and mankind


PLAN


THE WORLD AND ITS STORY

A VIEW ACROSS THE AGES

    Rt. Hon. James Bryce

A SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD

    Arthur D. Innes, M.A.

CHRONOLOGY OF 10,000 YEARS AND CHART OF NATIONS


MAKING OF THE EARTH & THE COMING OF MAN

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARTH

    Dr. Wm. Johnson Sollas, F.R.S.

HOW LIFE BECAME POSSIBLE ON THE EARTH

    Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, F.R.S.

HOW MAN OBTAINED THE MASTERY OF THE EARTH

    Dr. Archdall Reid, F.R.S.E.


THE RISE OF MAN AND THE EVE OF HISTORY

THE WORLD BEFORE HISTORY

    Professor Johannes Ranke

THE GREAT STEPS IN MAN’S DEVELOPMENT

    Professor Joseph Kohler


BIRTH OF CIVILISATION & THE GROWTH OF RACES

THE BIRTH OF CIVILISATION

    Dr. Flinders Petrie, F.R.S.

HOW CIVILISATION CAME TO EUROPE

    David George Hogarth, M.A.

THE TRIUMPH OF RACE

    Dr. Archdall Reid, F.R.S.E.

ALPHABET OF THE WORLD’S RACES

    W. E. Garrett Fisher, M.A.


MAKING OF NATIONS & THE INFLUENCE OF NATURE

Professor Friedrich Ratzel

THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF NATIONS

INFLUENCE OF LAND & WATER ON NATIONAL HISTORY

EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON NATIONS

THE SIZE AND POWER OF NATIONS

THE FUTURE HISTORY OF MAN

       *       *       *       *       *

For full contents and page numbers see Index

    Mr. Kipling’s “Recessional” is quoted in a Frontispiece from “The
    Five Nations,” by permission of the Author and the Publishers,
    Messrs. Methuen

[Illustration]




[Illustration: THE WORLD AND ITS STORY]




A VIEW ACROSS THE AGES

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HISTORY

BY THE RIGHT HON. VISCOUNT BRYCE


When History, properly so called, has emerged from those tales of the
feats of kings and heroes and those brief entries in the roll of a
temple or a monastery in which we find the earliest records of the
past, the idea of composing a narrative which shall not be confined to
the fortunes of one nation soon presents itself.

[Sidenote: The First True Historian]

Herodotus--the first true historian, and a historian in his own line
never yet surpassed--took for his subject the strife between Greeks and
Barbarians which culminated in the Great Persian War of B.C.
480, and worked into his book all he could ascertain regarding most of
the great peoples of the world--Babylonians and Egyptians, Persians
and Scythians, as well as Greeks. Since his time many have essayed to
write a Universal History; and as knowledge grew, so the compass of
these treatises increased, till the outlying nations of the East were
added to those of the Mediterranean and West European world which had
formerly filled the whole canvas.

[Sidenote: Scientific History only now Possible]

None of these books, however, covered the field or presented an
adequate view of the annals of mankind as a whole. It was indeed
impossible to do this, because the data were insufficient. Till some
time way down in the nineteenth century that part of ancient history
which was preserved in written documents could be based upon the
literature of Israel, upon such notices regarding Egypt, Assyria,
Babylon, and Iran as had been preserved by Greek or Roman writers,
and upon those writers themselves. It was only for some of the Greek
cities, for the kingdoms of Alexander and his successors, and for
the city and Empire of Rome that fairly abundant materials were then
available. Of the world outside Europe and Western Asia, whether
ancient or modern, scarcely anything was known, scarcely anything even
of the earlier annals of comparatively civilised peoples, such as
those of India, China, and Japan, and still less of the rudimentary
civilisations of Mexico and Peru. Nor, indeed, had most of the students
who occupied themselves with the subject perceived how important a
part in the general progress of mankind the more backward races have
played, or how essential to a true History of the World is an account
of the semi-civilised and even of the barbarous peoples. Thus it was
not possible, until quite recent times, that the great enterprise
of preparing such a history should be attempted on a plan or with
materials suitable to its magnitude.

The last seventy or eighty years have seen a vast increase in our
materials, with a corresponding widening of the conception of what a
History of the World should be. Accordingly, the time for trying to
produce one upon a new plan and enlarged scale seems to have arrived;
not, indeed, that the years to come will not continue to add to the
historian’s resources, but that those resources have recently become
so much ampler than they have ever been before that the moment may be
deemed auspicious for a new departure.

The nineteenth century was marked by three changes of the utmost
consequence for the writing of history.

[Illustration: THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO ITS FIRST HISTORIAN

    The world as known to Herodotus is shown by the white part of
    this map, indicating the limited range of ancient geographical
    knowledge.
]

[Sidenote: New Material and New Methods]

That century, in the first place, has enormously widened our knowledge
of the times hitherto called prehistoric. The discovery of methods
for deciphering the inscriptions found in Egypt and Western Asia,
the excavations in Assyria and Egypt, in Continental Greece and in
Crete, and to a lesser extent in North Africa also, in the course of
which many inscriptions have been collected and fragments of ancient
art examined, have given us a mass of knowledge regarding the nations
who dwelt in these countries larger and more exact than was possessed
by the writers of classical antiquity who lived comparatively near
to those remote times. We possess materials for the study not only
of the political history but of the ethnology, the languages, and
the culture of the nations which were first civilised incomparably
better than were those at the disposal of the contemporaries of Vico
or Gibbon or Herder. Similar results have followed as regards the Far
East, from the opening up of Sanskrit literature and of the records
of China and Japan. To a lesser degree, the same thing has happened
as regards the semi-civilised peoples of tropical America both north
and south of the Isthmus of Panama. And while long periods of time
have thus been brought within the range of history, we have also
learnt much more about the times that may still be called prehistoric.
The investigations carried on in mounds and caves and tombs and
lake-dwellings, the collection of early stone and bronze implements,
and of human skulls and bones found along with those of other animals,
have thrown a great deal of new light upon primitive man, his way
of life, and his migrations from one region to another. As history
proper has been carried back many centuries beyond its former limit,
so has our knowledge of prehistoric times been extended centuries
above the furthest point to which history can now reach back. And this
applies not only to the countries previously little explored, but to
such well-known districts as Western Europe and the Atlantic coast of
America.

Secondly, there has been during the nineteenth century a notable
improvement in the critical method of handling historical materials.
Much more pains have been taken to examine all available documents
and records, to obtain a perfect text of each by a comparison of
manuscripts or of early printed copies, and to study each by the aid
of other contemporary matter. It is true that, with the exception of
Egyptian papyri and some manuscripts unearthed in Oriental monasteries
(besides those Indian, Chinese, and other early Eastern sacred books
to which I have already referred), not very much that is absolutely
new has been brought to light. It is also true that a few of the most
capable students in earlier days, in the ancient world as well as since
the Renaissance, have fully seen the value of original authorities
and have applied to them thoroughly critical methods. This is not a
discovery of our own times. Still, it may be claimed that there was
never before so great a zeal for collecting and investigating all
possible kinds of original texts, nor so widely diffused a knowledge of
the methods to be applied in turning them to account for the purposes
of history. Both in Europe and in America an unprecedentedly large
number of competent men have been employed upon researches of this
kind, and the result of their labours on special topics has been to
provide the writer who seeks to present a general view of history
with materials not only larger but far fitter for his use than his
predecessors ever enjoyed. Then with the improvement in critical
apparatus, there has come a more cautious and exact habit of mind in
the interpretation of facts.

[Illustration: “THE FATHER OF HISTORY”

    Herodotus, the first historian, was born between B.C. 470-480 at
    Halicarnassus, a Greek colony in Asia Minor
]

Thirdly, the progress of the sciences of Nature has powerfully
influenced history, both by providing new data and by affecting the
mental attitude of all reflective men. This has happened in several
ways. Geographical exploration has made known nearly every part of the
surface of the habitable globe. The great natural features of every
country, its mountain ranges and rivers, its forest or deserts, have
been ascertained. Its flora and fauna have been described, and thereby
its capacity for supporting human life approximately calculated. The
other physical conditions which govern the development of man, such as
temperature, rainfall, and the direction of prevalent winds have been
examined. Thus we have acquired a treasury of facts relating to the
causes and conditions which help the growth of civilisation and mould
it into diverse forms, conditions whose importance I shall presently
discuss in considering the relation of man to his natural environment.
Although a few penetrating minds had long ago seen how much the
career of each nation must have been affected by physical phenomena,
it is only in the last two generations that men have begun to study
these phenomena in their relation to history, and to appreciate their
influence in the formation of national types and in determining the
movement of races over the earth’s surface.

Not less remarkable has been the increase in our knowledge of the
more remote and backward peoples. Nearly every one of these has now
been visited by scientific travellers or missionaries, its language
written down, its customs and religious rites, sometimes its folk lore
also, recorded. Thus materials of the highest value have been secured,
not only for completing our knowledge of mankind as a whole, but for
comprehending in the early history of the now highly civilised peoples
various facts which had previously remained obscure, but which became
intelligible when compared with similar facts that can be studied in
their actuality among tribes whom we find in the same stage to-day as
were the ancestors of the civilised nations many centuries ago.

[Sidenote: Progress of the Sciences]

The progress thus achieved in the science of man regarded as a part
of Nature has powerfully contributed to influence the study of human
communities as they appear in history. The comparative method has
become the basis for a truly scientific inquiry into the development of
institutions, and the connection of religious beliefs and ceremonies
with the first beginnings of institutions both social and political has
been made clear by an accumulation of instances. Whether or no there
be such a thing as a Science of History--a question which, since it
is mainly verbal, one need not stop to discuss--there is such a thing
as a scientific method applied to history; and the more familiar men
have become with the methods of inquiry and canons of evidence used in
physical investigations, so much the more have they tended to become
exact and critical in historical investigations, and to examine the
causes and the stages by and through which historical development is
effected.

[Sidenote: Historical Knowledge in Our Time]

In noting this I do not suggest that what is popularly called the
“Doctrine of Evolution” should be deemed a thing borrowed by history
from the sciences of nature. Most of what is true or helpful in that
doctrine was known long ago, and applied long ago by historical and
political thinkers. You can find it in Aristotle, perhaps before
Aristotle. Even as regards the biological sciences, the notion of
what we call evolution is ancient; and the merit of Darwin and other
great modern naturalists has lain, not in enouncing the idea as a
general theory, but in elucidating, illustrating, and demonstrating the
processes by which evolution takes place. The influence of the natural
sciences on history is rather to be traced in the efforts we now see to
accumulate a vast mass of facts relating to the social, economic, and
political life of man, for the sake of discovering general laws running
through them, and imparting to them order and unity.

Although the most philosophic and diligent historians have always aimed
at and striven for this, still the general diffusion of the method in
our own time, and the greatly increased scale on which it is applied,
together with the higher standard of accuracy which is exacted by the
opinion of competent judges, may be, in some measure, ascribed to the
examples which those who work in the spheres of physics and biology and
natural history have so effectively set.

Finally, the progress of natural science has in our time, by
stimulating the production and exchange of commodities, drawn the
different parts of the earth much nearer to one another, and thus
brought nearly all its tribes and nations into relations with one
another far closer and far more frequent than existed before.

[Sidenote: Oneness of the Human Race]

This has been done by the inventions that have given us steam and
electricity as motive forces, making transport quicker and cheaper,
and by the application of electricity to the transmission of words. No
changes that have occurred in the past (except perhaps changes in the
sphere of religion) are comparable in their importance as factors in
history to those which have shortened the voyage from Western Europe to
America to five and a half days, and made communication with Australia
instantaneous. For the first time the human race, always essentially
one, has begun to feel itself one, and civilised man has in every part
of it become a contemporaneous observer of what passes in every other
part.

The general result of these various changes has been that while the
materials for writing a history of the world have been increased, the
conception of what such a history should be has been at the same time
both enlarged and defined. Its scope is wider; its lines are more
clearly drawn. But what do we mean by a Universal History? Briefly, a
History which shall, first, include all the races and tribes of man
within its scope; and, secondly, shall bring all these races and tribes
into a connection with one another such as to display their annals as
an organic whole.

[Sidenote: Importance of the Small Races]

Universal history has to deal not only with the great nations, but also
with the small nations; not only with the civilised, but also with the
barbarous or savage peoples; not only with the times of movement and
progress, but also with the times of silence and apparent stagnation.
Every fraction of humanity has contributed something to the common
stock, and has lived and laboured not for itself only, but for others
also, through the influence which it has perforce exercised on its
neighbours. The only exceptions we can imagine are the inhabitants of
some remote isle, “far placed amid the melancholy main.” Yet they, too,
must have once formed part of a race dwelling in the region whence they
came, even if that race had died out in its old home before civilised
man set foot on such an oceanic isle in a later age. The world would
have been different, in however small a measure, had they never
existed. As in the realm of physical science, so in that of history no
fact is devoid of significance, though the true significance may remain
long unnoticed. The history of the backward races presents exceptional
difficulties, because they have no written records, and often scarcely
any oral traditions. Sometimes it reduces itself to a description of
their usages and state of life, their arts and their superstitions, at
the time when civilised observers first visited them. Yet that history
is instructive, not only because the phenomena observable among such
races enlarge our knowledge, but also because through the study of
those which survive we are able to interpret the scanty records we
possess of the early condition of peoples now civilised, and to go
some way towards writing the history of what we have hitherto called
prehistoric man.

[Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPT’S STRANGE BOOKS AND PICTORIAL RECORDS,
MADE OF PAPYRUS

    Papyrus, a tall, graceful, sedgy plant, supplied the favourite
    writing material of the ancient world, and many priceless records
    of antiquity are preserved to us in papyri. The pith of the plant
    was pressed flat and thin and joined with others to form strips, on
    which records were written or painted. The above is a photograph
    of a piece of Egyptian papyrus, showing both hieroglyphics and
    picture-writing. The oldest piece of papyrus dates back to B.C.
    3500.
]

Thus such tribes as the aborigines of Australia, the Fuegians of
Magellan’s Straits, the Bushmen of South Africa, the Sakalavas of
Madagascar, the Lapps of Northern Europe, the Ainos of Japan, the
numerous “hill-tribes” of India, will all come within the historian’s
ken. From each of them something may be learnt; and each of them
has through contact with its more advanced neighbours affected
those neighbours themselves, sometimes in blood, sometimes through
superstitious beliefs or rites, frequently borrowed by the higher races
from the lower (as the Norsemen learnt magic from the Lapps, and the
Semites of Assyria from the Accadians), sometimes through the strife
which has arisen between the savage and the more civilised man, whereby
the institutions of the latter have been modified.

Obviously the historian cannot record everything. These lower races
are comparatively unimportant. Their contributions to progress, their
effect on the general march of events, have been but small. But they
must not be wholly omitted from the picture, for without them it would
have been different. One must never forget, in following the history of
the great nations of antiquity, that they fought and thought and built
up the fabric of their industry and art in the midst of a barbarous or
savage population surrounding them on all sides, whence they drew the
bulk of their slaves and some of their mercenary soldiers, and which
sometimes avenged itself by sudden inroads, the fear of which kept the
Greek cities, and at certain epochs even the power of Rome, watchful
and anxious. So in modern times the savages among whom European
colonies have been planted, or who have been transported as slaves to
other colonies--sometimes, as in the case of Portugal in the fifteenth
century, to

Europe itself--or those with whom Europeans have carried on trade, must
not be omitted from a view of the causes which have determined the
course of events in the civilised peoples.

[Sidenote: Great Works of Little Peoples]

To dwell on the part played by the small nations is less necessary
here, for even a superficial student must be struck by the fact that
some of them have counted for more than the larger nations to whose
annals a larger space is commonly allotted. The instance of Israel is
enough, so far as the ancient world is concerned, to show how little
the numbers of a people have to do with the influence it may exert. For
the modern world, I will take the case of Iceland.

[Sidenote: The Culture of the Icelanders]

The Icelanders are a people much smaller than even was Israel. They
have never numbered more than about seventy thousand. They live in an
isle so far remote, and so sundered from the rest of the world by an
inhospitable ocean, that their relations both with Europe, to which
ethnologically they belong, and with America, to which geographically
they belong, have been comparatively scanty. But their history, from
the first settlement of the island by Norwegian exiles in A.D. 874
to the extinction of the National Republic in A.D. 1264, is full of
interest and instruction, in some respects a perfectly unique history.
And the literature which this handful of people produced is certainly
the most striking primitive literature which any modern people has
produced, superior in literary quality to that of the Continental
Teutons, or to that of the Romance nations, or to that of the Finns or
Slavs, or even to that of the Celts. Yet most histories of Europe pass
by Iceland altogether, and few persons in Continental Europe (outside
Scandinavia) know anything about the inhabitants of this isle, who,
amid glaciers and volcanoes, have maintained themselves at a high level
of intelligence and culture for more than a thousand years.

The small peoples have no doubt been more potent in the spheres
of intellect and emotion than in those of war, politics, or
commerce. But the influences which belong to the sphere of creative
intelligence--that is to say, of literature, philosophy, religion and
art--are just those which it is peculiarly the function of a History
of the World to disengage and follow out in their far-reaching
consequence. They pass beyond the limits of the country where they
arose. They survive, it may be, the race that gave birth to them. They
pass into new forms, and through these they work in new ways upon
subsequent ages.

[Sidenote: The Wide Scope of History]

It is also the task of universal history so to trace the march of
humanity as to display the relation which each part of it bears to the
others; to fit each race and tribe and nation into the main narrative.
To do this, three things are needed--a comprehensive knowledge, a
power of selecting the salient and significant points, and a talent
for arrangement. Of these three qualifications, the first is the least
rare. Ours is an age of specialists; but the more a man buries himself
in special studies, the more risk does he incur of losing his sense of
the place which the object of his own study fills in the general scheme
of things. The highly trained historian is generally able to draw from
those who have worked in particular departments the data he needs;
while the master of one single department may be unable to carry his
vision over the whole horizon, and see each part of the landscape in
its relations to the rest.

In other words, a History of the World ought to be an account of the
human family as an organic whole, showing how each race and state
has affected other races or states, what each has brought into the
common stock, and how the interaction among them has stimulated
some, depressed or extinguished others, turned the main current this
way or that. Even when the annals of one particular country are
concerned, it needs no small measure of skill in expression as well
as of constructive art to trace their connection with those of other
countries. To take a familiar example, he who writes the history of
England must have his eye always alive to what is passing in France on
one side, and in Scotland on the other, not to speak of countries less
closely connected with England, such as Germany and Spain. He must let
the reader feel in what way the events that were happening in France
and Scotland affected men’s minds, and through men’s minds affected the
progress of events in England. Yet he cannot allow himself constantly
to interrupt his English narrative in order to tell what was passing
beyond the Channel or across the Tweed.

[Illustration: VIVID SCENES OF ANCIENT LIFE DEPICTED BY CONTEMPORARY
ARTISTS

    The walls of the tombs in Egypt form a great picture gallery of the
    vanished life of that country and are invaluable to the historian.
    This fragment from the British Museum shows how vividly the
    domestic figures were realised.
]

[Sidenote: Unity of Universal History]

Obviously, this difficulty is much increased when the canvas is widened
to include all Europe, and when the aim is to give the reader a just
impression of the general tendencies of a whole age, such an age as,
for instance, the sixteenth century, over that vast area. If for a
History of the World the old plan be adopted--that of telling the
story of each nation separately, yet on lines generally similar, cross
references and a copious use of chronological tables become helpful,
for they enable the contemporaneity of events to be seen at a glance,
and as the history of each nation is being written with a view to that
of other nations, the tendencies at work in each can be explained and
illustrated in a way which shows their parallelism, and gives to the
whole that unity of meaning and tendency which a universal history must
constantly endeavour to display. The connection between the progress
or decline of different peoples is best understood by setting forth
the various forms which similar tendencies take in each. To do this
is a hard task when the historian is dealing with the ancient world,
or with the world outside Europe even in mediæval and post-mediæval
times. For the modern European nations it is easier, because, ever
since the spread of Christianity made these nations parts of one great
ecclesiastical community, similar forces have been at work upon each of
them, and every intellectual movement which has told upon one has more
or less told upon the others also.

[Illustration: THE MASTER-KEY TO THE HIEROGLYPHICS

    The inscribed stone found at Rosetta, in the Nile delta, in
    1799, now preserved in the British Museum. It gave the key to
    the hieroglyphic writings of Egypt. It is a decree of Ptolemy
    Epiphanes, promulgated at Memphis in B.C. 196, and as it is
    inscribed in hieroglyphic and in the script of the country as
    well as in Greek, it thus solved the long standing mystery of the
    hieroglyphics of the monuments, which before its discovery had been
    quite unintelligible.
]

[Sidenote: Central Line of Human Development]

[Sidenote: The Study of Human Society]

[Sidenote: Each Race a Distinct Entity]

Such a History of the World may be written on more than one plan,
and in the light of more than one general theory of human progress.
It might find the central line of human development in the increase
of man’s knowledge, and in particular of his knowledge of Nature and
his power of dealing with her. Or that which we call culture, the
comprehensive unfolding and polishing of human faculty and of the
power of intellectual creation and appreciation, might be taken as
marking the most real and solid kind of progress, so that its growth
would best represent the advance of man from a savage to a highly
civilised condition. Or if the moral and political sphere were selected
as that in which the onward march of man as a social being, made to
live in a community, could best be studied, the idea of liberty might
be made a pivot of the scheme; for in showing how the individual
emerges from the family or the tribe, how first domestic and then
also prædial slavery slowly disappears, how institutions are framed
under which the will of one ruler or of a small group begins to be
controlled, or replaced as a governing force, by the collective will
of the members of the community, how the primordial rights of each
human creature win their way to recognition--in tracing out all these
things the history of human society is practically written, and the
significance of all political changes is made clear. Another way,
again, would be to take some concrete department of human activity,
follow it down from its earliest to its latest stages, and group
other departments round it. Thus one author might take religion, and
in making the history of religion the main thread of his narrative
might deal incidentally with the other phenomena which have influenced
it or which it has influenced. Or, similarly, another author might
take political institutions, or perhaps economic conditions--_i.e._,
wealth, labour, capital, commerce, or, again, the fundamental social
institutions, such as the family, and the relations of the ranks and
classes in a community, and build up round one or other of these
manifestations and embodiments of the creative energy of mankind the
general story of man’s movement from barbarism to civilisation. Even
art, even mechanical inventions, might be similarly handled, for both
of these stand in a significant relation to all the rest of the life of
each nation and of the world at large. Nevertheless, no one of these
suggested lines on which a universal history might be constructed
would quite meet the expectations which the name Universal History
raises, because we have become accustomed to think of history as being
primarily and pre-eminently a narrative of the growth and development
of communities, nations, and states as organised political bodies,
seeing that it is in their character as bodies so organised that they
come into relation with other nations and states. It is therefore
better to follow the familiar plan of dealing with the annals of each
race and nation as a distinct entity, while endeavouring to show
throughout the whole narrative the part which each fills in the general
drama of human effort, conflict, and progress.

A universal history may, however, while conforming to this established
method, follow it out along a special line, which shall give prominence
to some one leading idea or principle. Such a line or point of view has
been found for the present work in the relation of man to his physical
environment--that is to say, to the geographical conditions which have
always surrounded him, and always must surround him, conditions whose
power and influence he has felt ever since he appeared upon the globe.
This point of view is more comprehensive than any one of those above
enumerated. Physical environment has told upon each and every one of
the lines of human activity already enumerated that could be taken to
form a central line for the writing of a history of mankind. It has
influenced not only political institutions and economic phenomena, but
also religion, and social institutions, and art, and inventions. No
department of man’s life has been independent of it, for it works upon
man not only materially but also intellectually and morally.

[Illustration: UNEARTHING THE RUINS OF ANCIENT BABYLON IN THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY

    This photograph illustrates how present-day exploration brings
    the remains of the ancient wonder cities of Babylonia to light
    after the sleep of ages. Much valuable knowledge of Babylon has
    been acquired quite recently as a result of excavations now being
    carried on under the supervision of English, American, French, and
    German explorers.
]

As this is the idea which has governed the preparation of the present
book, as it is constructed upon a geographical rather than a purely
chronological plan (though, of course, each particular country and
nation needs to be treated chronologically), some few pages may
properly be devoted here to a consideration of the way in which
geography determines history, or, in other words, to an examination of
the relations of Nature, inorganic and organic, to the life of man.


MAN’S PLACE IN NATURE’S KINGDOM

Though we are accustomed to contrast man with Nature, and to look upon
the world outside ourselves as an object to be studied by man, the
conscious and intelligent subject, it is evident, and has been always
recognised even by those thinkers who have most exalted the place man
holds in the Cosmos, that man is also to be studied as a part of the
physical universe. He belongs to the realm of Nature in respect of his
bodily constitution, which links him with other animals, and in certain
respects with all the phenomena that lie within the sphere of biology.

All creatures on our earth, since they have bodies formed from material
constituents, are subject to the physical laws which govern matter; and
the life of all is determined, so far as their bodies are concerned,
by the physical conditions which foster, or depress, or destroy life.
Plants need soil, moisture, sunshine, and certain constituents of the
atmosphere. Their distribution over the earth’s surface depends not
only upon the greater or less extent to which these things, essential
to their existence, are present, but also upon the configuration of
the earth’s surface (continents and oceans), upon the greater or
less elevation above sea level of parts of it, upon such forces as
winds and ocean currents (occasionally also upon volcanoes), upon the
interposition of arid deserts between moister regions, or upon the flow
of great rivers. The flora of each country is the resultant (until man
appears upon the scene) of these natural conditions.

[Sidenote: Natural Conditions of Life]

We know that some plants are also affected by the presence of certain
animals, particularly insects and birds. Similarly, animals depend
upon these same conditions which regulate their distribution, partly
directly, partly indirectly, or mediately through the dependence of
the animal for food upon the plants whose presence or absence these
conditions have determined. It would seem that animals, being capable
of moving from place to place, and thus of finding conditions suitable
for their life, and to some extent of modifying their life to suit the
nature around them, are somewhat more independent than plants are,
though plants, too, possess powers of adapting themselves to climatic
surroundings; and there are some--such, for instance, as our common
brake-fern and the grass of Parnassus--which seem able to thrive
unmodified in very different parts of the globe.

[Sidenote: Man the Servant of Nature]

The primary needs of man which he shares with the other animals are an
atmosphere which he can breathe, a temperature which he can support,
water which he can drink, and food. In respect of these he is as
much the product of geographical conditions as are the other living
creatures. Presently he superadds another need, that of clothing. It
is a sign that he is becoming less dependent on external conditions,
for by means of clothing he can make his own temperature and succeed
in enduring a degree of cold, or changes from heat to cold, which
might otherwise shorten his life. The discovery of fire carries him a
long step further, for it not only puts him less at the mercy of low
temperatures, but extends the range of his food supplies, and enables
him, by procuring better tools and weapons, to obtain his food more
easily. We need not pursue his upward course, at every stage of which
he finds himself better and still better able to escape from the
thraldom of Nature, and to turn to account the forces which she puts
at his disposal. But although he becomes more and more independent,
more and more master not only of himself, but of her, he is none the
less always for many purposes the creature of the conditions with which
she surrounds him. He always needs what she gives him. He must always
have regard to the laws which he finds operating through her realm. He
always finds it the easiest course to obey, and to use rather than to
attempt to resist her.

Here let me pause to notice a remarkable contrast between the earlier
and the later stages of man’s relations to Nature. In the earlier
stages he lies helpless before her, and must take what she chooses to
bestow--food, shelter, materials for clothing, means of defence against
the wild beasts, who are in strength far more than a match for him. He
depends upon her from necessity, and is better or worse off according
as she is more or less generous.

[Sidenote: Man’s Advance in Knowledge]

But in the later stages of his progress he has, by accumulating a store
of knowledge, and by the development of his intelligence, energy, and
self-confidence, raised himself out of his old difficulties. He no
longer dreads the wild beasts. They, or such of them as remain, begin
to dread him, for he is crafty, and can kill them at a distance. He
erects dwellings which can withstand rain and tempest. He irrigates
hitherto barren lands and raises abundant crops from them. When he has
invented machinery, he produces in an hour clothing better than his
hands could formerly have produced in a week. If at any given time
he has not plenty of food, this happens only because he has allowed
his species to multiply too fast. He is able to cross the sea against
adverse winds and place himself in a more fertile soil or under more
genial skies than those of his former home. As respects all the primary
needs of his life, he has so subjected Nature to himself, that he can
make his life what he will.

[Illustration:

    Neurdein

THE FIRST WANDERERS OF THE EARTH: TRIBAL MIGRATION IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

    From the painting of “Cain” by Ferdinand Cormon
]

[Sidenote: Man the Master of Nature]

All this renders him independent. But he now also finds himself drawn
into a new kind of dependence, for he has now come to take a new view
of Nature. He perceives in her an enormous storehouse of wealth, by
using which he can multiply his resources and gratify his always
increasing desires to an extent practically unlimited. She provides
forces, such as steam and electricity, which his knowledge enables him
to employ for production and transport, so as to spare his own physical
strength, needed now not so much for effort as for the direction of
the efforts of Nature. She has in the forest, and still more beneath
her own surface in the form of minerals, the materials by which these
forces can be set in motion; and by using these forces man can, with
comparatively little trouble, procure abundance of those materials.

Thus his relation to Nature is changed. It was that of a servant, or,
indeed, rather of a beggar, needing the bounty of a sovereign. It
is now that of a master needing the labour of a servant, a servant
infinitely stronger than the master, but absolutely obedient to the
master so long as the master uses the proper spell. Thus the connection
of man with Nature, changed though his attitude be, is really as close
as ever, and far more complex. If his needs had remained what they
were in his primitive days--let us say, in those palæolithic days
which we can faintly adumbrate to ourselves by an observation of the
Australian or Fuegian aborigines now--he would have sat comparatively
lightly to Nature, getting easily what he wanted, and not caring to
trouble her for more. But his needs--that is to say, his desires, both
his physical appetites and his intellectual tastes, his ambitions and
his fondness for comfort, things that were once luxuries having become
necessaries--have so immeasurably expanded that, since he asks much
more from Nature, he is obliged to study her more closely than ever.

[Sidenote: Man’s New Relations to Nature]

Thus he enters into a new sort of dependence upon her, because it is
only by understanding her capacities and the means of using them that
he can get from her what he wants. Primitive man was satisfied if he
could find spots where the trees gave edible fruit, where the sun was
not too hot, nor the winds too cold, where the beasts easy of capture
were abundant, and no tigers or pythons made the forest terrible.
Civilised man has more complex problems to deal with, and wider fields
to search. The study of Nature is not only still essential to him, but
really more essential than ever. His life and action are conditioned
by her. His industry and his commerce are directed by her to certain
spots. That which she has to give is still, directly or indirectly,
the source of strife, and a frequent cause of war. As men fought long
ago with flint-headed arrows for a spring of water or a coconut grove,
so they fight to-day for mineral treasures imbedded in the soil. It
is mainly by Nature that the movements of emigration and the rise of
populous centres of industry are determined.

Though Nature still rules for many purposes and in many ways the
course of human affairs, the respective value of her various gifts
changes from age to age, as man’s knowledge and power of turning them
to account have changed. The things most prized by primitive man are
not those which semi-civilised man chiefly prized, still less are they
those most sought for now.

[Sidenote: Using Natural Wealth]

In primitive times the spots most attractive, because most favourable
to human life, were those in which food could be most easily and
safely obtained from fruit-bearing trees or by the chase, and where
the climate was genial enough to make clothing and shelter needless,
at least during the greater part of the year. Later, when the keeping
of cattle and tillage had come into use, good pastures and a fertile
soil in the valley of a river were the chief sources of material
well-being. Wild beasts were less terrible, because man was better
armed; but as human enemies were formidable, regions where hills and
rocks facilitated defence by furnishing natural strongholds had their
advantages.

Still later, forests came to be recognised as useful for fuel, and
for carpentry and shipbuilding. Mineral deposits, usually found in
hilly or mountainous districts, became pre-eminently important sources
of wealth; and rivers were valued as highways of commerce and as
sources of motive power by the force of their currents. To the Red
Indians of the Ohio valley the places which were the most attractive
camping-grounds were those whither the buffaloes came in vast herds to
lick the rock salt exposed in the sides of the hills. It is now not the
salt-licks, but the existence of immense deposits of coal and iron,
that have determined the growth of huge communities in those regions
whence the red man and the buffalo have both vanished. England was
once, as New Zealand is now, a great wool-growing and wool-exporting
country, whereas she is to-day a country which spins and weaves far
more wool than she produces.

[Sidenote: Ancient Harbours and Modern]

So, too, the influence of the sea on man has changed. There was a
time when towns were built upon heights some way off from the coast,
because the sea was the broad high road of pirates who swooped down
upon and pillaged the dwellings of those who lived near it. Now that
the sea is safe, trading cities spring up upon its margin, and sandy
tracts worthless for agriculture have gained an unexpected value as
health resorts, or as places for playing games, places to which the
inhabitants of inland districts flock in summer, as they do in England
and Germany, or in winter, as they do on the Mediterranean coasts of
France. The Greeks, when they began to compete with the Phœnicians in
maritime commerce, sought for small and sheltered inlets in which their
tiny vessels could lie safely--such inlets as Homer describes in the
Odyssey, or as the Old Port of Marseilles, a city originally a colony
from the Ionian Phocæa. Nowadays these pretty little rock harbours
are useless for the large ships which carry our trade. The Old Port
of Marseilles is abandoned to small coasters and fishing-boats, and
the ocean steamers lie in a new harbour which is protected, partly by
outlying islands, partly by artificial works.

[Sidenote: The World-Importance of Medicine]

So, too, river valleys, though still important as highways of traffic,
are important not so much in respect of water carriage as because they
furnish the easiest lines along which railways can be constructed. The
two banks of the Rhine, each traversed by a railroad, carry far more
traffic than the great stream itself carried a century ago; and the
same remark applies to the Hudson. All these changes are due to the
progress of invention, which may give us fresh changes in the future
not less far-reaching than those the past has seen. Mountainous regions
with a heavy rainfall, such as Western Norway or the coast of the
Pacific in Washington and British Columbia, may, by the abundance of
water power which they supply, which can be transmuted into electrical
energy, become sources of previously unlooked-for wealth, especially
if some cheap means can be devised of conveying electricity with less
wastage in transmission than is at present incurred. Within the last
few years considerable progress in this direction has been made. Should
effective and easily applicable preventives against malarial fever
be discovered, many districts now shunned, because dangerous to the
life of white men, may become the homes of flourishing communities.
The discovery of cinchona bark in the seventeenth century affected
the course of events, because it provided a remedy against a disease
that had previously baffled medical skill. If quinine had been at the
disposal of the men of the Middle Ages, not only might the lives of
many great men, as for instance of Dante, have been prolonged, but
the Teutonic emperors would have been partially relieved of one of
the chief obstacles which prevented them from establishing permanent
control over their Italian dominions. Rome and the Papal power defended
themselves against the hosts of the Franconian and Hohenstaufen
sovereigns by the fevers of the Campagna more effectively than did the
Roman people by their arms, and almost as effectively as did the Popes
by their spiritual agencies.

Bearing in mind this principle, that the gifts of Nature to man
not only increase, but also vary in their form, in proportion and
correspondence to man’s capacity to use them, and remembering also
that man is almost as much influenced by Nature when he has become her
adroit master as when she was his stern mistress, we may now go on to
examine more in detail the modes in which her influence has told and
still tells upon him.

[Sidenote: The Problem of Racial Distinctions]

It has long been recognised that Nature must have been the principal
factor in producing, that is to say, in differentiating, the various
races of mankind as we find them differentiated when our records begin.
How this happened is one of the darkest problems that history presents.
By what steps and through what causes did the races of man acquire
these diversities of physical and intellectual character which are now
so marked and seem so persistent? It has been suggested that some of
these diversities may date back to a time when man, as what is called a
distinct species, had scarcely begun to exist. Assuming the Darwinian
hypothesis of the development of man out of some pithecoid form to
be correct--and those who are not themselves scientific naturalists
can of course do no more than provisionally accept the conclusions at
which the vast majority of scientific naturalists have arrived--it
is conceivable that there may have been unconnected developments of
creatures from intermediate forms into definitely human forms in
different regions, and that some of the most marked types of humanity
may therefore have had their first rudimentary and germinal beginning
before any specifically human type had made its appearance. This,
however, is not the view of the great majority of naturalists. They
appear to hold that the passage either from some anthropoid apes, or
from some long since extinct common ancestor of man and the existing
anthropoid apes--this latter alternative representing what is now the
dominant view--did not take place through several channels (so to
speak), but through one only, and that there was a single specifically
human type which subsequently diverged into the varieties we now see.

[Illustration: TREE DWELLERS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

    We must remember that such terms as “The Stone Age,” “The Bronze
    Age,” and so forth, are only loosely applied. The ages so called
    did not close at certain periods. There are races now living in all
    the conditions of these past ages. This photograph, for example,
    shows the actual tree dwellings of the Papuans in New Guinea
    to-day--one of the most primitive forms of human habitation.
]

If this be so, it is plain that climate, and the conditions of life
which depend upon climate, soil, and the presence of vegetables and
of other animals besides man, must have been the forces which moulded
and developed those varieties. From a remote antiquity, everybody has
connected the dark colour of all, or nearly all, the races inhabiting
the torrid zone with the power of the sun; and the fairer skin of
the races of the temperate and arctic zones with the comparative
feebleness of his rays in those regions. This may be explained on
Darwinian principles by supposing that the darker varieties were
found more capable of supporting the fierce heat of the tropics. What
explanation is to be given of the other characteristics of the negro
and negroid races, of the usually frizzled hair, of the peculiar nose
and jaw, and so forth, is a question for the naturalist rather than
for the historian. Although climate and food may be the chief factors
in differentiation, the nature of the process is, as indeed is the
case with the species of animals generally, sometimes very obscure.
Take an instance from three African races which, so far as we can
tell, were formed under similar climatic conditions--the Bushmen,
the Hottentots, and the Bantu, the race including those whom we call
Kaffirs. Their physical aspect and colour are different. Their size and
the structure of their bodies are different. Their mental aptitudes
are different; and one of the oddest points of difference is this, that
whereas the Bushmen are the least advanced, intellectually, morally,
and politically, of the three races, as well as the physically weakest,
they show a talent for drawing which is not possessed by the other two.

[Illustration: THE HABITATIONS OF MAN IN ALL AGES OF THE WORLD’S HISTORY

    At first man built twig huts in trees, but becoming better matched
    with his animal foes he took to caves and underground habitations.
    Our illustration of the latter shows a section through the soil.
    Lake dwellings marked a distinct advance. Other varieties of
    primitive habitations are the leaf hut, the tents of skin, the mud
    hut, and the beehive hut of stone. Roman villas are still models
    of beauty. American “skyscrapers” are peculiar to our time; but
    all early forms of dwellings, while marking progress, have existed
    contemporaneously throughout history.
]

[Sidenote: Is the Race Mystery Insoluble?]

In this case there is, of course, a vast unknown fore-time during
which we may imagine the Bantu race, probably originally formed in a
region other than that which it now occupies (and under more favourable
conditions for progress), to have become widely differentiated
from those which are now the lower African races. We still know
comparatively little about African ethnography. Let us, therefore,
take another instance in which affinities of language give ground for
believing that three races, whose differences are now marked, have
diverged from a common stock. So far as language goes, the Celts,
the Teutons, and the Slavs, all speaking Indo-European tongues, may
be deemed to be all nearly connected in origin. They are marked by
certain slight physical dissimilarities, and by perhaps rather more
palpable dissimilarities in their respective intellectual and emotional
characters. But so far as our knowledge goes, all three have lived for
an immensely long period in the colder parts of the temperate zone,
under similar external conditions, and following very much the same
kind of pastoral and agricultural life. There is nothing in their
environment which explains the divergences we perceive; so the origin
of these divergences must apparently be sought either in admixture with
other races or in some other historical causes which are, and will for
ever remain, in the darkness of a recordless past.

[Sidenote: Mixing of the World’s Peoples]

How race admixture works, and how it forms a new definite character
out of diverse elements, is a subject which anyone may find abundant
materials for studying in the history of the last two thousand years.
Nearly every modern European people has been so formed. The French,
the Spaniards, and the English are all the products of a mixture, in
different proportions, of at least three elements--Iberian (to use
a current name), Celts, and Teutons, though the Celtic element is
probably comparatively small in Spain, and the Teutonic comparatively
small both in Spain and in Central and Southern France. No small part
of those who to-day speak German and deem themselves Germans must be
of Slavonic stock. Those who to-day speak Russian are very largely
of Finnish, to some small extent of Tartar, blood. The Italians
probably spring from an even larger number of race-sources, without
mentioning the vast number of slaves brought from the East and the
North into Italy between B.C. 100 and A.D. 300. In the cases of
Switzerland and Scotland the process of fusion is not yet complete.
The Celto-Burgundian Swiss of Neuchatel is still different from the
Allemanian Swiss of Appenzell; as the Anglo-Celt of Fife is different
from the Ibero-Celt of the Outer Hebrides. But in both these cases
there is already a strong sense of national unity, and in another three
hundred years there may have arisen a single type of character.

[Sidenote: The Unique Case of Iceland]

An interesting and almost unique case is furnished by Iceland, where
isolation under peculiar conditions of climate, food, and social life
has created a somewhat different type both of body and of mental
character from that of the Norwegians, although so far as blood goes
the two peoples are identical, Iceland having been colonised from
Western Norway a thousand years ago, and both Icelanders and Norwegians
having remained practically unmixed with any other race--save that
some slight Celtic infusion came to Iceland with those who migrated
thither from the Norse settlements in Ireland, Northern Scotland, and
the Hebrides--since the separation took place. But by far the most
remarkable instance of race admixture is that furnished in our own time
by the United States of North America, where a people of predominantly
English stock (although there were in the end of the eighteenth century
a few descendants of Dutchmen, with Germans, Swedes, and Ulster
Irishmen, in the country) has within the last sixty years received
additions of many millions of Celts, of Germans and Scandinavians, and
of various Slavonic races. At least a century must elapse before it
can be seen how far this infusion of new blood will change the type of
American character as it stood in 1840.

There are, however, two noteworthy differences between modern race
fusions and those which belong to primitive times. One is that under
modern conditions the influence of what may be called the social and
political environment is probably very much greater than it was in
early times. The American-born son of Irish parents is at forty years
of age a very different creature from his cousin on the coast of Mayo.
The other is that in modern times differences of colour retard or
forbid the fusion of two races. So far as the Teutonic peoples are
concerned, no one will intermarry with a negro; a very few with a
Hindu, a Chinese, or a Malay. In the ancient world there was but little
contact between white men and black or yellow ones, but the feeling of
race aversion was apparently less strong than it is now, just as it was
much less strong among the Spaniards and Portuguese in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries than it is among Americans or Englishmen
to-day. It is less strong even now among the so-called “Latin races;”
and as regards the Anglo-Americans, it is much less strong towards the
Red Indians than towards negroes.

[Illustration: THE REMARKABLE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON PHYSICAL
APPEARANCE

    Mr. Bryce points out that the physical features of a people are
    determined chiefly by their environment. These illustrations show
    (at top) a typical English settler in the old Colonial days of
    America, a native Red Indian (left) and a typical American of
    to-day (right). Without any intermingling of red men and white,
    the modern American, thanks to climatic conditions, resembles the
    Red Indian far more closely than he does his own ancestors of the
    Colonial days.
]

As Nature must have been the main agent in the formation of the various
races of mankind from a common stock, so also Nature has been the chief
cause of their movements from one part of the earth to another, these
movements having been in their turn a potent influence in the admixture
of the races. Some geographers have alleged climate--that is to say,
the desire of those who inhabit an inclement region to enjoy a softer
and warmer air--as a principal motive which has induced tribes of
nations to transfer themselves from one region to another.

It is no doubt true that the direction of migrations has almost always
been either from the north towards the south, or else along parallels
of latitude, men rarely seeking for themselves conditions more severe
than those under which they were born. But it is usually not so much
the wish to escape cold that has been an effective motive as the wish
to find more and better food, since this means an altogether easier
life. Scarcity of the means of subsistence, which is, of course, most
felt when population is increasing, has operated more frequently
and powerfully than any other cause in bringing on displacements
of the races of man over the globe. The movement of the primitive
Aryans into India from the plateaux of West Central Asia, probably
also the movement of the races which speak Dravidian languages from
South Central Asia into Southern India, and probably also the mighty
descent, in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D., of the Teutonic races
from the lands between the Baltic and the Alps into the Roman Empire,
had this origin.

[Sidenote: The Colonising Impulse]

In more advanced states of society a like cause leads the surplus
population of a civilised state to overflow into new lands, where there
is more space, or the soil is more fertile. Thus the inhabitants of
Southwestern Scotland, partly, no doubt, at the suggestion of their
rulers, crossed over into Ulster, where they occupied the best lands,
driving the aboriginal Celts into the rougher and higher districts,
where their descendants remain in the glens of Antrim, and in the hilly
parts of Down, Derry, and Tyrone. Thus the men of New England moved
out to the West and settled in the Mississippi Valley, while the men
of Virginia crossed the Alleghanies into Kentucky. Thus the English
have colonised Canada and Australia and New Zealand and Natal. Thus the
Russians have spread out from their ancient homes on the upper courses
of the Dnieper and the Volga all over the vast steppes that stretch
to the Black Sea and the Caucasus, as well as into the rich lands of
Southwestern Siberia. Thus the surplus peasantry of Germany has gone
not only to North America, but also to Southern Brazil and the shores
of the Rio de la Plata.

[Sidenote: The Need of Native Labour]

In another form it is the excess of population over means of
subsistence at home that has produced the remarkable outflow of the
Chinese through the Eastern Archipelago and across the Pacific into
North America, and that has carried the Japanese to the Hawaiian
Islands. And here we touch another cause of migration which is
indirectly traceable to Nature--namely, the demand in some countries
for more labour or cheaper labour than the inhabitants of the country
are able or willing to supply. Sometimes this demand is attributable to
climatic causes. The Spaniards and Portuguese and English in the New
World were unfitted by their physical constitutions for out-of-door
labour under a tropical sun. Hence they imported negroes during the
sixteenth and two following centuries in such numbers that there are
now about eight millions of coloured people in the United States alone,
and possibly (though no accurate figures exist) as many more in the
West Indies and South America. To a much smaller extent the same need
for foreign labour has recently brought Indian coolies to the shores
of the Caribbean Sea, and to the hottest parts of Natal, as it brings
Polynesians to the sugar plantations of Northern Queensland.

[Sidenote: What Determines Race Movements]

Two other causes which have been potent in bringing about displacements
and mixtures of population are the desire for conquest and plunder
and the sentiment of religion. But these belong less to the sphere of
Nature than to that of human passion and emotion, so that they scarcely
fall within this part of our inquiry, the aim of which has been to
show how Nature has determined history by inducing a shifting of races
from place to place. From this shifting there has come the contact
of diverse elements, with changes in each race due to the influence
of the other, or perhaps the absorption of one in the other, or the
development of something new out of both. In considering these race
movements we have been led from the remote periods in which they began,
and of which we know scarcely anything except from archæological and
linguistic data, to periods within the range of authentic history.
So we may go on to see how Nature has determined the spots in which
the industry of the more advanced races should build up the earliest
civilisations, and the lines along which commerce, a principal agent
in the extension of civilisation, should proceed to link one race with
another.

[Illustration: THE MERCHANT MARINERS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

    The earliest agents in the diffusion of trades and the arts were
    the Phœnicians, who from their great cities of Tyre, Sidon, and
    Carthage conducted a sea-borne traffic with lands as remote as
    England, and whose adventurous sailors, despite the smallness of
    their vessels, are believed even to have succeeded in rounding the
    Cape of Good Hope.
]

[Sidenote: Isolation of Eastern Peoples]

It was long since observed that the first homes of a dense population
and a highly developed civilisation lay in fertile river valleys,
such as those of the Lower Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, the
Ganges, the Yang-tse-kiang. All these are situate in the hotter parts
of the temperate zone; all are regions of exceptional fertility.
The soil, especially when tillage has become general, is the first
source of wealth; and it is in the midst of a prosperous agricultural
population that cities spring up where handicrafts and the arts arise
and flourish. The basins of the Lower Nile and of the Lower Euphrates
and Tigris are (as respects the West Asiatic and Mediterranean world)
the fountain-heads of material, military, and artistic civilisation.
From them it spreads over the adjacent countries and along the
coasts of Europe and Africa. On the east, Egypt and Mesopotamia are
cut off by the deserts of Arabia and Eastern Persia from the perhaps
equally ancient civilisation of India, which again is cut off by lofty
and savage mountains from the very ancient civilisation of China.
Nature forbade intercourse between these far eastern regions and the
West Asian peoples, while on the other hand Nature permitted Egypt,
Phœnicia, and Babylon to influence and become teachers of the peoples
of Asia Minor and of the Greeks on both sides of the Ægean Sea. The
isolation and consequent independent development of India and of
China is one of the most salient and significant facts of history. It
was not till the end of the fifteenth century, when the Portuguese
reached the Malabar coast, that the Indian peoples began to come into
the general movement of the world; for the expedition of Alexander
the Great left hardly any permanent result, except upon Buddhist art,
and the conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni opened no road to the East from
the Mediterranean West. Nor did China, though visited by Italian
travellers in the thirteenth century, by Portuguese traders and Jesuit
missionaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth, come into effective
contact with Europe till near our own time.

As the wastes of barren land formed an almost impassable eastern
boundary to the West Asian civilisations, so on the west the expanse
of sea brought Egypt and to a less extent Assyria (through Phœnicia)
into touch with all the peoples who dwelt on the shores of the
Mediterranean. The first agents in the diffusion of trade and the arts
were the Phœnicians, established at Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage. The next
were the Greeks. For more than two thousand years, from B.C.
700 onwards, the Mediterranean is practically the centre of the
history of the world, because it is the highway both of commerce and
of war. For seven hundred years after the end of the second century
B.C., that is to say, while the Roman Empire remained strong,
it was also the highway of civil administration. The Saracen conquests
of the seventh century cut off North Africa and Syria from Europe,
checked transmarine commerce, and created afresh the old opposition
of East and West in which a thousand years earlier Herodotus had
found the main thread of world history. But it was not till after the
discovery of America that the Mediterranean began to yield to the
Atlantic its primacy as the area of sea power and sea-borne trade.

[Sidenote: Influence of the Seas in History]

Bordered by far less fertile and climate-favoured countries, and closed
to navigation during some months of winter, the Baltic has always held
a place in history far below that of the Mediterranean. Yet it has
determined the relations of the North European states and peoples. So,
too, the North Sea has at one time exposed Britain to attack from the
Danish and Norwegian lords of the sea, and at other times protected
her from powerful continental enemies. It may indeed be said that in
surrounding Europe by the sea on three sides, Nature has drawn the main
lines which the course of events on this smallest but most important of
the continents has had to follow.

[Sidenote: Magellan and American Politics]

Of the part which the great bodies of water have played, of the
significance in the oceans of mighty currents like the Gulf Stream, the
Polar Current, the Japan Current, the Mozambique Current, it would be
impossible to speak within reasonable compass. But two remarks may be
made before leaving this part of the subject. One is that man’s action
in cutting through an isthmus may completely alter the conditions as
given by Nature. The Suez Canal has of late years immensely enhanced
the importance of the Mediterranean, already in some degree restored by
the decay of Turkish power, by the industrial revival of Italy, and by
the French conquests in North Africa. The cutting of a canal at Panama
will change the relations of the seafaring and fleet-owning nations
that are interested in the Atlantic and the Pacific. And the other
remark is that the significance of a maritime discovery, however great
at first, may become still greater with the lapse of time. Magellan,
in his ever memorable voyage, not only penetrated to and crossed the
Pacific, but discovered the Philippine Islands, and claimed them for
the monarch who had sent him forth. His appropriation of them for
the Crown of Spain, to which during these three centuries and a half
they have brought no benefit, has been the cause which has led the
republic of the United States to depart from its traditional policy of
holding to its own continent by taking them as a prize--a distant and
unexpected prize--of conquest.

[Illustration: HOW NATURE DETERMINES THE SITES OF CITIES

    Most towns and communities founded more than 300 years ago were on
    easily defensible hills, by the side of navigable rivers, or inlets
    of the sea. Our illustrations show (1) Naples, (2) Bonsuna, (3) Old
    Port and hill of Marseilles, (4) Monaco, (5) St. Cézaire, and (6)
    the Greek Monastery of St. Balaam.

    Photos. by Frith and Underwood & Underwood
]

[Illustration: THE SHIFTING OF THE CENTRE OF THE WORLD’S COMMERCE

    These two maps, which have been very carefully prepared from the
    most reliable authorities, indicate at a glance the relative
    importance of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic as highways of
    commerce in the time of Julius Cæsar, B.C. 102-44.
]

[Illustration: HOW THE MEDITERRANEAN HAS GIVEN PLACE TO THE ATLANTIC

    Here is the contrast to the opposite page. In our time the
    Atlantic has become the centre of the world’s commerce, and the
    Mediterranean has sunk in importance. It would be almost deserted
    but for the routes to India via the Suez Canal.
]

A few words may suffice as to what Nature has done towards the
formation of nations and States by the configuration of the surface
of the dry land--that is to say, by mountain chains and by river
valleys. The only natural boundaries, besides seas, are mountains and
deserts. Rivers, though convenient frontier lines for the politician
or the geographer, are not natural boundaries, but rather unite than
dissever those who dwell on their opposite banks. Thus the great
natural boundaries in Asia have been the deserts of Eastern Persia,
of Turkestan, and of Northern Arabia, with the long Himalayan chain
and the savage ranges apparently parallel to the Irawadi River, which
separate the easternmost corner of India and Burmah from South-Western
China. To a less extent the Altai and Thian Shan, and, to a still
smaller extent, the Taurus in Eastern Asia Minor, have tended to divide
peoples and States. The Caucasus, which fills the space between two
great seas, has been at all times an extremely important factor in
history, severing the nomad races of Scythia from the more civilised
and settled inhabitants of the valleys of the Phasis and the Kura.
Even to-day, when the Tsar holds sway on both sides of this chain, it
constitutes a weakness in the position of Russia, and it helps to keep
the Georgian races to the south from losing their identity in the mass
of Russian subjects.

[Sidenote: The Place of Mountains in History]

Without the Alps and the Pyrenees, the annals of Europe must have been
entirely different. The Alps, even more than the Italian climate,
proved too much for the Romano-Germanic Emperors of the Middle Ages,
who tried to rule both to the north and to the south of this wide
mountain region. The Pyrenees have not only kept in existence the
Basque people, but have repeatedly frustrated the attempts of monarchs
to dominate both France and Spain. The mass of high moorland country
which covers most of the space between the Solway Firth and the lower
course of the Tweed has had something to do with the formation of
a Scottish nation out of singularly diverse elements. The rugged
mountains of Northern and Western Scotland, and the similar though less
extensive hill country of Wales, have enabled Celtic races to retain
their language and character in both these regions.

[Sidenote: What Steam-power has Done]

On the other hand, the vast open plains of Russia have allowed the
Slavs of the districts which lie round Novgorod, Moscow, and Kiev to
spread out among and Russify the Lithuanian and Finnish, to some extent
also the Tartar, races, who originally held by far the larger part of
that area. So, too, the Ural range, which, though long, is neither
high nor difficult to pass, has opposed no serious obstacle to the
overflow of population from Russia into Siberia. That in North America
the Alleghanies have had a comparatively slight effect upon political
history, although they did for a time arrest the march of colonisation,
is due partly to the fact that they are a mass of comparatively low
parallel ranges, with fertile valleys between, partly to the already
advanced civilisation of the Anglo-Americans of the Atlantic seaboard,
who found no great difficulty in making their way across, against the
uncertain resistance of small and non-cohesive Indian tribes. A far
more formidable natural barrier is formed between the Mississippi
Valley and the Pacific slope by the Rocky Mountains, with the deserts
of Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and Idaho. But the discovery of steam power
has so much reduced the importance of this barrier that it does not
seriously threaten the maintenance of a united American republic.

In one respect the New World presents a remarkable contrast to the
Old. The earliest civilisations of the latter seem to have sprung up
in fertile river valleys. Those of the former are found not on the
banks of streams like the Nile or Euphrates, but on elevated plateaux,
where the heat of a tropical sun is mitigated by height above sea
level. It was in the lofty lake basin of Tezcuco and Mexico, and on the
comparatively level ground which lies between the parallel ranges of
the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, that American races had reached their
finest intellectual development, not in the far richer, but also hotter
and less healthy river valleys of Brazil, or (unless we are to except
Yucatan) on the scorching shores of the Caribbean Sea. Nature was in
those regions too strong for man, and held him down in savagery.

[Sidenote: How Nature fixes Sites of Cities]

In determining the courses of great rivers, Nature has determined the
first highways of trade and fixed the sites of many cities. Nearly all
the considerable towns founded more than three centuries ago owe their
origin either to their possessing good havens on the sea-coast, or to
the natural strength of their position on a defensible hill, or to
their standing close to a navigable river. Marseilles, Alexandria, New
York, Rio de Janeiro, are instances of the first; Athens, Edinburgh,
Prague, Moscow, of the second; Bordeaux, Cologne, New Orleans,
Calcutta, of the third. Rome and London, Budapest, and Lyons combine
the advantages of the second with those of the third. This function of
rivers in directing the lines of commerce and the growth of centres
of population has become much less important since the construction
of railroads, yet population tends to stay where it has been first
gathered, so that the fluviatile cities are likely to retain their
preponderance. Thus the river is as important to the historian as is
the mountain range or the sea.

[Sidenote: Climate and Commerce]

From the physical features of a country it is an easy transition to
the capacities of the soil. The character of the products of a region
determines the numbers of its inhabitants and the kind of life they
lead. A land of forests breeds hunters or lumbermen; a land of pasture,
which is too rough or too arid or too sterile for tillage, supports
shepherds or herdsmen probably more or less nomadic. Either kind of
land supports inhabitants few in proportion to its area. Fertile and
well-watered regions rear a denser, a more settled, and presumably a
more civilised population. Norway and Tyrol, Tibet and Wyoming, and the
Orange River Colony, can never become so densely peopled as Bengal or
Illinois or Lombardy, yet the fisheries of its coast and the seafaring
energy of its people have sensibly increased the population of Norway.
Thus he who knows the climate and the productive capacity of the
soil of any given country can calculate its prospects of prosperity.
Political causes may, of course, intervene. Asia Minor and the Valley
of the Euphrates, regions once populous and flourishing, are now thinly
inhabited and poverty-stricken because they are ruled by the Turks.

But these cases are exceptional. Bengal and Lombardy and Egypt have
supported large populations under all kinds of government. The products
of each country tend, moreover, to establish definite relations between
it and other countries, and do this all the more as population,
commerce, and the arts advance. When England was a great wool-growing
and wool-exporting country, her wool export brought her into close
political connection with the wool-manufacturing Flemish towns. She is
now a cotton-manufacturing country, needing cotton which she cannot
grow at all, and consuming wheat which she does not grow in sufficient
quantities. Hence she is in close commercial relations with the United
States on one side, which give her most of her cotton and much of her
wheat, and with India, from which she gets both these articles, and to
which she exports a large part of her manufactured cotton goods.

[Sidenote: Common Needs make for Peace]

So Rome, because she needed the corn of Egypt, kept Egypt under a
specially careful administration. The rest of her corn came from
Sicily and North Africa, and the Vandal conquest of North Africa dealt
a frightful blow to the declining Empire. In these cases the common
interest of sellers and buyers makes for peace, but in other cases
the competition of countries desiring to keep commerce to themselves
occasions war. The Spanish and Dutch fought over the trade to India in
the earlier part of the seventeenth century, when the Portuguese Indies
belonged to Spain, as the English and French fought in the eighteenth.
And a nation, especially an insular nation, whose arable soil is not
large enough or fertile enough to provide all the food it needs, has
a powerful inducement either to seek peace or else to be prepared for
maritime war. If such a country does not grow enough corn or meat at
home, she must have a navy strong enough to make sure that she will
always be able to get these necessaries from abroad. Attica did not
produce all the grain needed to feed the Athenians, so they depended on
the corn ships which came down from the Euxine, and were practically at
the mercy of an enemy who could stop those ships.

Of another natural source of wealth, the fisheries on the coast of
a country, no more need be said than that they have been a frequent
source of quarrels and even of war. The recognition of the right of
each state to the exclusive control and enjoyment of the sea for three
miles off its shores has reduced, but not entirely removed, the causes
of friction between the fishermen of different countries.

[Sidenote: Minerals and Civilisation]

Until recently, the surface of the soil was a far more important source
of wealth than was that which lies beneath the surface. There were
iron mines among the Chalybes on the Asiatic coast of the Euxine in
ancient times; there were silver mines here and there, the most famous
being those at Laurium, from which the Athenians drew large revenues,
gold mines in Spain and Dacia, copper mines in Elba, tin mines in the
south-west corner of Britain. But the number of persons employed in
mining and the industries connected therewith was relatively small both
in the ancient world and, indeed, down till the close of the eighteenth
century. The immense development of coal-mining and of iron-working
in connection therewith has now doubled, trebled, or quadrupled the
population of large areas in Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, and
the United States, adding vastly to the wealth of these countries
and stimulating in them the growth of many mechanical arts. This new
population is quite different in character from the agricultural
peasantry who in earlier days formed the principal substratum of
society. Its appearance has changed the internal politics of these
countries, disturbing the old balance of forces and accelerating the
progress of democratic principles.

[Illustration: THE PLACE OF MOUNTAINS IN HISTORY: NATURE’S BARRIERS TO
MAN’S EXPANSION

    Without the Alps the annals of Europe must have been entirely
    different. The mountains were too much for the emperors of the
    Middle Ages, although Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general,
    succeeded in crossing them two centuries before Christ, a
    feat which Napoleon repeated 2,000 years later. Our engraving
    illustrates Napoleon crossing the Alps.
]

Nor have minerals failed to affect the international relations of
peoples and States. It was chiefly for the precious metals that the
Spaniards explored the American Continent and conquered Mexico and
Peru. It was for the sake of capturing the ships bringing those metals
back to Europe that the English sea-rovers made their way to the
American coasts and involved England in wars with Spain. It was the
discovery in 1885 of extensive auriferous strata unexampled in the
certainty of their yield that drew a swarm of foreign immigrants into
the Transvaal, whence arose those difficulties between them and the
Dutch inhabitants previously established there which, coupled with the
action of the wealthy owners of the mines, led at last to the war of
1899 between Britain and the two South African Republics.

[Sidenote: Man’s Fight with Nature]

The productive capacity of a country is, however, in one respect very
different from those great physical features--such as temperature,
rainfall, coast configuration, surface character, geological structure,
and river system--which have been previously noted. Those features are
permanent qualities which man can affect only to a limited extent,
as when he reduces the rainfall a little by cutting down forests, or
increases it by planting them, or as when he unites an isle, like
that of Cadiz, to the mainland, cuts through an isthmus, like that
of Corinth, or clears away the bar at a river mouth, as that of the
Mississippi has been cleared.

[Sidenote: Exhausting the Mineral Wealth]

But the natural products of a country may be exhausted and even
the productive capacity of its soil diminished. Constant tillage,
especially if the same crop be raised and no manure added, will wear
out the richest soils. This has already happened in parts of Western
America. Still the earth is there; and with rest and artificial help
it will recover its strength. But timber destroyed cannot always be
induced to grow again, or at least not so as to equal the vigour
of primeval forests. Wild animals, once extirpated, are gone for
ever. The buffalo and beaver of North America, the beautiful lynxes
of South Africa and some of its large ruminants, are irrecoverably
lost for the purposes of human use, just as much as the dinornis,
though a few individuals may be kept alive as specimens. So, too, the
mineral resources of a country are not only consumable, but obviously
irreplaceable. Already some of the smaller coalfields of Europe have
been worked out, while in others it has become necessary to sink much
deeper shafts, at an increasing cost. There is not much tin left in
Cornwall, not much gold in the gravel deposits of Northern California.
The richest known goldfield of the world, that of the Transvaal
Witwatersrand, can hardly last more than thirty or forty years. Thus in
a few centuries the productive capacity of many regions may have become
quite different from what it is now, with grave consequences to their
inhabitants.

These are some of the ways in which Nature affects those economic,
social, and political conditions of the life of man the changes in
which make up history. As we have seen, that which Nature gives to
man is always the same, in so far as Nature herself is always the
same--an expression which is more popular than accurate, for Nature
herself--that is to say, not the laws of Nature, but the physical
environment of man on this planet--is in reality always changing. It is
true that this environment changes so slowly that a thousand years may
be too short a period in which man can note and record some forms of
change--such, for instance, as that by which the temperature of Europe
became colder during the approach of the glacial period and warmer
during its recession--while ten thousand years may be too short to note
any diminution in the heat which the sun pours upon the earth, or in
the store of oxygen which the earth’s atmosphere holds.

[Sidenote: Progress of Modern Invention]

[Sidenote: Man Cannot Disregard Nature]

But as we have also seen, the relation to man of Nature’s gifts
differs from age to age as man himself becomes different, and as his
power of using these gifts increases, or his need of them becomes
either less or greater. Every invention alters those relations. Water
power became less relatively valuable when steam was applied to the
generation of motive force. It has become more valuable with the new
applications of electricity. With the discovery of mineral dyes, indigo
and cochineal are now less wanted than they were. With the invention
of the pneumatic tyre for bicycles and carriages, caoutchouc is more
wanted. Mountains have become, since the making of railways, less of
an obstacle to trade than they were, and they have also become more
available as health resorts. Political circumstances may interfere
with the ordinary and normal action of natural phenomena. A race may
be attracted to or driven into a region for which it is not physically
suited, as Europeans have gone to the West Indies, and negroes were
once carried into New York and Pennsylvania. The course of trade which
Nature prescribes between different countries may be hampered or
stopped by protective tariffs; but in these cases Nature usually takes
her eventual revenges. They are instances which show, not that man can
disregard her, but that when he does so, he does so to his own loss.

It would be easy to add further illustrations, but those already given
are sufficient to indicate how multiform and pervading is the action
upon man of the physical environment, or in other words, how in all
countries, and at all times, geography is the necessary foundation
of history, so that neither the course of a nation’s growth, nor its
relations with other nations, can be grasped by one who has not come to
understand the climate, surface, and products of the country wherein
that nation dwells.

[Sidenote: There is no Unmixed Race left]

This conception of the relation of geography to history is, as has been
said, the leading idea of the present work, and has furnished the main
lines which it follows. It deals with history in the light of physical
environment. Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily geographical,
and secondarily chronological. But there is one difficulty in the way
of such a scheme, and of the use of such a ground plan, which cannot
be passed over. That difficulty is suggested by the fact already
noted--that hardly any considerable race, and possibly no great nation,
now inhabits the particular part of the earth’s surface on which it was
dwelling when a history begins. Nearly every people has either migrated
bodily from one region to another, or has received such large infusions
of immigrants from other regions as to have become practically a new
people. Hence it is rare to find any nation now living under the
physical conditions which originally moulded its character, or the
character of some at least of its component elements. And hence it
follows that when we study the qualities, aptitudes, and institutions
of a nation in connection with the land it inhabits, we must always
have regard not merely to the features of that land, but also to those
of the land which was its earlier dwelling-place. Obviously, this
brings a disturbing element into the study of the relations between
land and people, and makes the whole problem a far more complicated one
than it appeared at first sight.

[Sidenote: Nature’s Race Factory]

Where a people has migrated from a country whose physical conditions
were similar to those under which its later life is spent, or where it
had reached only a comparatively low stage of economic and political
development before the migration, the difficulties arising from this
source are not serious. The fact that the English came into Britain
from the lands round the mouth of the Elbe is not very material to
an inquiry into their relations to their new home, because climate
and soil were similar, and the emigrants were a rude, warlike race.
But when we come to the second migration of the English, from Britain
to North America, the case is altogether different. Groups of men
from a people which had already become highly civilised, had formed
a well-marked national character, and had created a body of peculiar
institutions, planted themselves in a country whose climate and
physical features are widely diverse from those of Britain.

If, for the sake of argument, we assume the Algonquin aborigines of
Atlantic North America as they were in A.D. 1600 to have been the
legitimate product of their physical environment--I say “for the
sake of argument,” because it may be alleged that other forces than
those of physical environment contributed to form them--what greater
contrast can be imagined than the contrast between the inhabitants
of New England in this present year and the inhabitants of the same
district three centuries earlier, as Nature, and Nature alone, had
turned them out of her factory? Plainly, therefore, the history of the
United States cannot, so far as Nature and geography are concerned,
be written with regard solely, or even chiefly, to the conditions of
North American nature. The physical environment in which the English
immigrants found themselves on that continent has no doubt affected
their material progress and the course of their politics during the
three centuries that have elapsed since settlements were founded in
Virginia and on Massachusetts Bay.

[Sidenote: Beginnings of Race History]

But it is not to that environment, but to earlier days, and especially
to the twelve centuries during which their ancestors lived in England,
that their character and institutions are to be traced. Thus the
history of the American people begins in the forests of Germany,
where the foundations of their polity were laid, and is continued in
England, where they set up kingdoms, embraced Christianity, became one
nation, received an influx of Celtic, Danish, and Norman-French blood,
formed for themselves that body of customs, laws, and institutions
which they transplanted to the new soil of America, and most of which,
though changed and always changing, they still retain. The same thing
is true of the Spaniards (as also of the Portuguese) in Central
and South America. The difference between the development of the
Hispano-Americans and that of their English neighbours to the north is
not wholly, or even mainly, due to the different physical conditions
under which the two sets of colonists have lived.

It is due to the different antecedent history of the two races. So a
history of America must be a history not only of America, but of the
Spaniards, Portuguese, French, and English--one ought in strictness
to add of the negroes also--before they crossed the Atlantic. The only
true Americans, the only Americans for whom American nature can be
deemed answerable, are the aboriginal red men whom we, perpetuating the
mistake of Columbus, still call Indians.

[Sidenote: Geography as a Basis of History]

This objection to the geographical scheme of history writing is no
doubt serious when a historical treatise is confined to one particular
country or continent, as in the instance I have taken of the Continent
of North America. It is, however, less formidable in a universal
history, such as the present work, because, by referring to another
volume of the series, the reader will find what he needs to know
regarding the history of the Spaniards, English, and French in those
respective European homes where they have grown to be that which they
were when, with religion, slaughter, and slavery in their train, they
descended upon the shores of America.

Accordingly the difficulty I have pointed out does not disparage the
idea and plan of writing universal history on a geographical basis.
It merely indicates a caution needed in applying that plan, and a
condition indispensable to its utility--viz., the regard that must be
had to the stage of progress at which a people has arrived when it is
subjected to an environment different from that which had in the first
instance helped to form its type.


THE GROWTH OF MODERN KNOWLEDGE

We have now considered some of the ways in which a universal history,
written with special reference to the physical phenomena of the earth
as geographical science presents them, may bring into strong relief
one large and permanent set of influences which determine the progress
or retrogression of each several branch of mankind. Upon the other
principles which preside over and direct the composition of such a
work, not much need be said. They are, of course, in the main, those
which all competent historians will follow in writing the history of
any particular people.

But a universal history which endeavours to present in a short compass
a record of the course of events in all regions and among all peoples,
since none can safely be omitted, is specially exposed to two dangers.
One is that of becoming sketchy and viewy. When a large object has to
be dealt with on a small scale, it is natural to sum up in a few broad
generalisations masses of facts which cannot be described or examined
in detail. Broad generalisations are valuable when they proceed from a
thoroughly trained mind--valuable, even if not completely verifiable,
because they excite reflection. But it is seldom possible to make them
exact. They necessarily omit most of the exceptions, and thus suggest a
greater uniformity than exists.

[Illustration:

    Neurdein

THE STONE AGE: HUNTERS RETURNING FROM THE CHASE

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon
]

[Sidenote: Need of Care in History]

The other danger is that of sacrificing brightness and charm of
presentation. When an effort is made to avoid generalisations, and
to squeeze into the narrative as many facts as the space will admit,
the narrative is apt to become dry, because compression involves
the curtailment of the personal and dramatic element. These are the
rocks between which every historian has to steer. If he has ample
space, he does well to prefer the course of giving all the salient
facts and leaving the reader to generalise for himself. If, however,
his space is limited, as must needs be the lot of those who write a
universal history, the impossibility of going into minute detail makes
generalisations inevitable, for it is through them that the result
and significance of a multitude of minor facts must be conveyed in a
condensed form.

[Sidenote: New Minds and New Facts]

All the greater, therefore, becomes the need for care and sobriety in
the forming and setting forth every summarising statement and general
conclusion or judgment. Probably the soundest guiding principle
and best safeguard against error is to be found in shunning all
preconceived hypotheses which seek to explain history by one set of
causes, or to read it in the light of one idea. The habit of magnifying
a single factor, such as the social factor, or the economic, or
the religious, has been a fertile source of weakness in historical
writing, because it has made the presentation of events one-sided,
destroying that balance and proportion which it is the highest merit
of any historian to have attained. Theory and generalisation are the
life-blood of history. They make it intelligible. They give it unity.
They convey to us the instruction which it always contains, together
with so much of practical guidance in the management of communities
as history is capable of rendering. But they need to be applied with
reserve, and not only with an impartial mind, but after a painstaking
examination of all the facts--whether or no they seem to make for the
particular theory stated--and of all the theories which any competent
predecessor has propounded.

For the historian, though he must keep himself from falling under the
dominion of any one doctrine by which it is sought to connect and
explain phenomena, must welcome all the light which any such doctrine
can throw upon facts. Even if such a doctrine be imperfect, even if it
be tainted by error, it may serve to indicate relations between facts,
or to indicate the true importance of facts, which previous writers
had failed to observe, or had passed too lightly over. It is thus
that history always needs to be re-written. History is a progressive
science, not merely because new facts are constantly being discovered,
not merely because the changes in the world give to old facts a new
significance, but also because every truly penetrating and original
mind sees in the old facts something which had not been seen before.

A universal history is fitted to correct such defects as may be
incident to that extreme specialism in historical writing which is now
in fashion. The broad and concise treatment which a history of all
times and peoples must adopt naturally leads to efforts to characterise
the dominant features and tendency of an epoch or a movement, whether
social, economic, or political.

[Sidenote: The Side Streams of History]

Yet even here there is a danger to be guarded against. No epoch, no
movement, is so simple as it looks at first sight, or as one would
gather from even the most honest contemporary writer. There is always
an eddy at the side of the stream; and the stream itself is the
resultant of a number of rivulets with different sources, whose waters,
if the metaphor may be extended, are of different tints. Let any man
study minutely a given epoch, such as that of the Reformation in
Germany, or that of the Revolutionary War in America, and he will be
surprised to find how much more complex were the forces at work than
he had at first supposed, and on how much smaller a number of persons
than he had fancied the principal forces did in fact directly operate.
Or let any one--for this is perhaps the best, if the most difficult,
method of getting at the roots of this complexity--study thoroughly
and dispassionately the phenomena of his own time. Let him observe how
many movements go on simultaneously, sometimes accelerating, sometimes
retarding, one another, and mark how, the more fully he understands
this complex interlacing, so much the less confident do his predictions
of the future become. He will then realise how hard it is to find
simple explanations and to deliver exact statements regarding critical
epochs in the past.

[Illustration:

    Mercier

THE FIRST INDUSTRIES: POTTERY

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon
]

[Illustration:

    Mercier

THE FIRST INDUSTRIES: THE FORGE

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon
]

[Sidenote: The Main Stream of History]

Nevertheless, the task of summarising and explaining is one to which
the writer of a History of the World must address himself. If he has
the disadvantage of limited space, he has the advantage of being able
to assume the reader’s knowledge of what has gone before, and to invite
the reader’s attention to what will come after. Thus he stands in a
better position than does the writer who deals with one country or one
epoch only for making each part of history illustrate other parts,
for showing how similar social tendencies, similar proclivities of
human nature, work similarly under varying conditions and are followed
by similar, though never identical, results. He is able to bring out
the essential unity of history, expunging from the reader’s mind the
conventional and often misleading distinctions that are commonly drawn
between the ancient, the mediæval, and the modern time. He can bring
the contemporaneous course of events in different countries into a
fruitful relation. And in the case of the present work, which dwells
more especially on the geographical side of history, he can illustrate
from each country in succession the influence of physical environment
on the formation of races and the progress of nations, the principles
which determine the action of such environment being everywhere
similar, though the forms which that action takes are infinitely
various.

Is there, it may be asked, any central thread in following which the
unity of history most plainly appears? Is there any process in tracing
which we can feel that we are floating down the main stream of the
world’s onward movement? If there be such a process, its study ought to
help us to realise the unity of history by connecting the development
of the numerous branches of the human family.

One such process has already been adverted to and illustrated. It is
the gradual and constant increase in man’s power over Nature, whereby
he is emancipated more and more from the conditions she imposes on
his life, yet is brought into an always closer touch with her by the
discovery of new methods of using her gifts. Two other such processes
may be briefly examined. One goes on in the sphere of time, and
consists in the accumulation from age to age of the strength, the
knowledge, and the culture of mankind as a whole. The other goes on in
space as well as in time, and may be described as the contraction of
the world, relatively to man.

[Sidenote: The Great Increase of Population]

The accumulation of physical strength is most apparent in the increase
of the human race. We have no trustworthy data for determining the
population, even of any one civilised country, more than a century
and a half ago; much less can we conjecture that of any country
in primitive or prehistoric times. It is clear, however, that in
prehistoric times--say, six or seven thousand years ago, there were
very few men on the earth’s surface. The scarcity of food alone would
be sufficient to prove that; and, indeed, all our data go to show it.
Fifty years ago the world’s population used to be roughly conjectured
at from seven to nine hundred millions, two-thirds of them in China and
India. It is now estimated at over fifteen hundred millions. That of
Europe alone must have tripled within a century, and can hardly be less
than four hundred millions. That of North America may have scarcely
exceeded four or five millions in the time of Christopher Columbus, or
at the date of the first English settlements, though we have only the
scantiest data for a guess. It may now be 130,000,000, for there are
over a hundred millions in the United States alone, about fifteen in
Mexico, and eight in Canada, besides the inhabitants of Central America.

[Sidenote: The Prolific Power of White People]

[Sidenote: Physical & Intellectual Power]

The increase has been most swift in the civilised countries, such
as Britain, Germany, Russia, and the United States; but it has
gone on in India also since India came under British rule (famines
notwithstanding), and in the regions recently colonised by Europeans,
such as Australia, Siberia, and Argentina, the disappearance of
aborigines being far more than compensated for by the prolific power
of the white immigrants. Some regions, such as Asia Minor and parts
of North Africa, are more thinly peopled now than they were under the
Roman Empire, and both China and Peru may have no larger population
than they had five, or ten, or fifteen centuries ago. But taking
the world at large, the increase is enormous, and will apparently
continue. Even after the vacant cultivable spaces which remain in
the two Americas, Northern Asia, and Australasia have been filled,
the discovery of new modes of enlarging the annually available stock
of food may maintain the increase. It is most conspicuous among the
European races, and is, of course, due to the greater production in
some regions of food, and in others of commodities wherewith food can
be purchased. It means an immense addition to the physical force of
mankind in the aggregate, and to the possibilities of intellectual
force also--a point to be considered later. And, of course, it
also means an immense and growing preponderance of the civilised
white nations, which are now probably one half of mankind, and may,
in another century, when they have risen from about five hundred
to, possibly, one thousand or fifteen hundred millions, be nearly
two-thirds.

[Sidenote: Modern Man Stronger than his Ancestors]

As respects the strength of the average individual man, the inquiry
is less simple. Palæolithic man and neolithic man were apparently
(though here and there may have been exceptions) comparatively feeble
creatures, as are the relics of the most backward tribes known to us,
such as the Veddas of Ceylon, the Bushmen, the Fuegians. Some savages,
as, for instance, the Patagonians, are men of great stature, and some
of the North American Indians possess amazing powers of endurance.
The Greeks of the fifth century B.C., and the Teutons of the time of
Julius Cæsar, had reached a high physical development. Pheidippides
is said to have traversed one hundred and fifty miles on foot in
forty-eight hours. But if we think of single feats of strength, feats
have been performed in our own day--such as Captain Webb’s swimming
across the Straits of Dover--equal to anything recorded from ancient
or mediæval times. To swim across the much narrower Hellespont was
then deemed a surprising exploit. Nor do we know of any race more to
be commended for physical power and vigour of constitution than the
American backwoodsmen of Kentucky or Oregon to-day. The swords used by
the knights of the fifteenth century have usually handles too small for
many a modern English or German hand to grasp.

[Sidenote: America’s Mingled Races]

Isolated feats do not prove very much, but there is good reason to
believe that the average European is as strong as ever he was, and
probably more healthy, at least if longevity is a test of health.
One may fairly conclude that with better and more abundant food,
the average of stature and strength has improved over the world at
large, so that in this respect also the force of mankind as a whole
has advanced. Whether this advance will continue is more doubtful. In
modern industrial communities the law of the survival of the fittest
may turn out to be reversed, for it is the poorer and lower sections
of the population that marry at an early age, and have the largest
families, while prudential considerations keep down the birth-rate
among the upper middle-class. In Transylvania, for instance, the
Saxons are dying out, because very few children are born to each pair,
while the less educated and cultured Rumans increase fast. In North
America, the Old New England stock of comparatively pure British blood
has begun to be swamped by the offspring of the recent immigrants,
mostly Irish or French Canadians; and although the sons of New England,
who have gone West, continue to be prolific, it is probable that the
phenomena of New England will recur in the Mississippi Valley, and
that the newcomers from Europe who form the less cultivated strata
of the population--Irish, Germans, Italians, Czechs, Poles, Slovaks,
Rumans--will contribute an increasing proportion of the inhabitants.
Some of these, and especially the Irish and the Germans and the
Scandinavians, are among the best elements in the American population,
and have produced men of the highest distinction. But the average
level among them of versatile aptitude and of intellectual culture is
slightly below that of the native Americans.

Now, the poorer sections are in most countries, though of course not
always to the same extent, somewhat inferior in physical as well as in
mental quality, and more prone to suffer from that greatest hindrance
to physical improvement, the abuse of alcoholic drinks.

We come next to another form of the increase of human resources, the
accumulation of knowledge, and of what may be called intellectual
culture and capacity, for it is convenient to distinguish these two
latter from knowledge.

[Illustration: PIONEERS OF MODERN CIVILISATION

    The discovery of precious metals is a great factor in progress.
    Seekers after gold are chief among the pioneers who help to carry
    civilisation into new lands.
]

[Sidenote: Inventions Mean Progress]

In knowledge there has been an advance, not merely a tolerably
steady and constant advance, but one which has gone on with a sort
of geometrical progression, moving the faster the nearer we come to
our own time. Whatever may have befallen in the prehistoric darkness,
history knows of only one notable arrest or setback in the onward
march--that which marks the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries of
the Christian era. Even this set-back was practically confined to
Southern and Western Europe, and affected only certain departments
of knowledge. It did not, save, perhaps, as regards a few artistic
processes, extinguish that extremely important part of the previously
accumulated resources of mankind which consisted in the knowledge of
inventions. It is in respect of inventions, especially mechanical and
physical or chemical inventions, that the accumulation of knowledge has
been most noteworthy and most easy to appreciate.

A history of inventions is a history of the progress of mankind, of a
progress to which every race may have contributed in primitive times,
though all the later contributions have come from a few of the most
civilised. Every great invention marks one onward step, as one may see
by enumerating a few, such as the use of fire, cooking, metal working,
the domestication of wild animals, the tillage of the ground, the use
of plough and mattock and harrow and fan, the discovery of plants
or trees useful for food or for medicine, the cart, the wheel, the
water-mill (overshot, undershot, and turbine), the windmill, the
distaff (followed long, long after by the spinning-wheel), the loom,
dyestuffs, the needle, the potter’s wheel, the hydraulic press, the
axe-handle, the spear, the bow, the shield, the war-chariot, the
sling, the cross-bow, the boat, the paddle, the oar, the helm, the
sail, the mariner’s compass, the clock, picture-writing, the alphabet,
parchment, paper, printing, photography, the sliding keel, the
sounding-lead, the log, the brick, mortar, the column, the arch, the
dome, till we come down to explosives, the microscope, the cantilever,
and the Röntgen rays.

[Illustration: THE FIRST SETTLEMENT OF A NEW CITY

    Many flourishing cities in South Africa, Australia, and America
    have grown up around the sites where the first gold-seekers pegged
    out their claims in unexploited territories and began digging for
    the precious metal.
]

The history of the successive discovery, commixture, and applications
of the metals, from copper and bronze down to manganese, platinum, and
aluminium, or of the successive discovery and utilisation of sources of
power--the natural sources, such as water and wind, the artificially
procured, such as steam, gas, and electricity--or of the production and
manufacture of materials available for clothing, wool, hair, linen,
silk, cotton, would show how every step becomes the basis for another
step, and how inventions in one department suggest or facilitate
inventions in another. Recent discoveries in surgery and medicine, such
as the use of antiseptics, tend to improve health and to prolong life;
and in doing so, they increase the chances of further discoveries being
made.

[Sidenote: The Prolonging of Life]

Who can tell what the world may have lost by the early death of many a
man of genius? One peculiar line of discovery which at first seemed to
have nothing to do with practice has proved to be of signal service;
the working out of mathematical methods of calculation by means of
which the mechanical and physical sciences have in recent times made a
progress in their practical application undreamt of by those who laid
the foundations of geometry and algebra many centuries ago. It may,
indeed, be said that all the sciences need one another, and that none
has been without its utilities for practice, since even that which
deals with the heavenly bodies has been used for the computation of
time, was used by the agriculturist before he had any calendars to
guide him, and has been of supreme value to the navigator. It has also
been suggested that an observation of sun spots may enable the advent
of specially hot seasons, involving droughts, to be predicted.

Another kind of knowledge also grows by the joint efforts of many
peoples, that which records the condition of men in the past and the
present, including history, economics, statistics, and the other
so-called social sciences. This kind also is useful for practice, and
has led to improvements by which nearly all nations have profited,
such as an undebased currency, banking and insurance, better systems
of taxation, corporations, and joint stock companies. With this we may
couple the invention of improved political institutions.

The accumulation of knowledge, especially of scientific knowledge
applied to the exploitation of the resources of Nature, means the
accumulation of wealth--that is to say, of all the things which
men need or use. The total wealth of the world must have at least
quadrupled or quintupled within the last hundred years. Nearly all of
it is in the hands or under the control of the civilised nations of
European stock, among whom the United States stands foremost, both
in rate of economic growth and in the absolute quantity of values
possessed.

[Sidenote: Knowledge Means Wealth]

Two further observations belong to this part of the subject. One is
that this stock of useful knowledge, the accumulation of which is the
central fact of the material progress as well as of the intellectual
history of mankind, now belongs to (practically) all races and states
alike. Some, as we shall note presently, are more able to use it than
others, but all have access to it. This is a new fact. It is true
that most races have contributed something to the common stock; and
that even among the civilised peoples, no one or two or three (except
possibly the Greeks as respects ancient times) can claim to have
contributed much more than the others. But in earlier ages there were
peoples or groups of peoples who were for a time the sole possessors
of inventions which gave them great advantages, especially for war.
Superior weapons as well as superior drill enabled Alexander the Great,
and afterward the Romans, to conquer most of the civilised world.
Horses and firearms, with courage and discipline, enabled two Spanish
adventurers to seize two ancient American empires with very scanty
forces, as they enabled a handful of Dutch Boers to overcome the hosts
of Mosilikatze and Dingaan. So there were formerly industrial arts
known to or practised by a few peoples only. But now all inventions,
even those relating to war, are available even to the more backward
races, if they can learn how to use them or can hire white men to do
so for them. The facilities of communication are so great, the means
of publicity so abundant, that everything becomes speedily known
everywhere.

[Sidenote: Inventions are now Universal]

The other observation is that there is now no risk that any valuable
piece of knowledge will be lost. Every public event that happens, as
well as every fact of scientific consequence, is put on record, and
that not on a single stone or in a few manuscripts, but in books, of
which so many copies exist that even the perishable nature of the
material will not involve the loss of the contents, since, if these
contents are valuable, they will be transferred to and issued in other
books, and so _ad infinitum_. Thus every process of manufacture is
known to so many persons that while it continues to be serviceable it
is sure to be familiar and transmitted from generation to generation
by practice as well as by description. We must imagine a world totally
different from the world we know in order to imagine the possibility of
any diminution, indeed of any discontinuance of the increase, of this
stock of knowledge which the world has been acquiring, and which is not
only knowledge but potential wealth.

When one passes from knowledge considered as a body of facts
ascertained and available for use to the thing we call intellectual
aptitude or culture--namely, the power of turning knowledge to
account and of producing results in spheres other than material--and
when we inquire whether mankind has made a parallel advance in this
direction, it becomes necessary to distinguish three different kinds of
intellectual capacity.

The first may be called the power of using scientific methods for
investigating phenomena, whether physical or social.

[Sidenote: No Decrease of Knowledge is now Likely]

The second is the power of speculation, applied to matters which
have not hitherto been found capable of examination by the methods
of science, whether observational, experimental, or mathematical.
The third is the power of intellectual creation, whether literary or
artistic.

The methods of scientific inquiry may almost be classed with the
ascertained facts of science or with inventions, as being parts of
the stock of accumulated knowledge built up by the labour of many
generations. They are known to everybody who cares to study them, and
can be learnt and applied by everybody who will give due diligence.
Just as every man can be taught to fire a gun, or steer a ship, or
write a letter, though guns, helms, and letters are the result of
discoveries made by exceptionally gifted men, so every graduate in
science of a university can use the methods of induction, can observe
and experiment with a correctness which a few centuries ago even the
most vigorous minds could scarcely have reached.

[Sidenote: Original Thinkers are still Rare]

Because the methods have been so fully explained and illustrated as to
have grown familiar, a vast host of investigators, very few of whom
possess scientific genius, are at work to-day extending our scientific
knowledge. So the methods of historical criticism--so the methods
of using statistics--are to-day profitably applied by many men with
no such original gift as would have made them competent critics or
statisticians had not the paths been cut by a few great men and trodden
since by hundreds of feet. All that is needed is imitation--intelligent
and careful imitation. Nevertheless, there remains this sharp contrast
between knowledge of the facts of applied science and knowledge of
the methods, that whereas there is no radical difference between the
ability of one man and that of another to use a mechanical invention,
such as a steam plough or an electric motor-car, there is all the
difference in the world between the power of one intellect and another
to use a method for the purposes of fresh discovery. Knowledge
fossilised in a concrete invention or even in a mathematical formula is
a sort of tool ready to every hand. But a method, though serviceable
to everybody, becomes eminently fruitful only when wielded by the same
kind of original genius as that which made discoveries by the less
perfect methods of older days. This is apparent even in inquiries which
seem to reside chiefly in collection and computation. Everybody tries
nowadays to use statistics. Many people do use them profitably. But the
people who by means of statistics can throw really fresh and brilliant
light on a problem are as few as ever they were.

[Sidenote: Advantage of Modern over Old Thinkers]

When we turn to the exercise of speculative thought on subjects not
amenable to strictly scientific--that is to say, to exact--methods,
the gain which has come to mankind by the labour of past ages is of
a different order. Metaphysics, ethics, and theology, to take the
most obvious examples, are all of them the richer for the thoughts of
philosophers in the past. A number of distinctions have been drawn,
and a number of classifications made, a number of confusions, often
verbal, have been cleared up, a number of fallacies detected, a number
of technical terms invented, whereby the modern speculator enjoys a
great advantage over his predecessor. His mind has been clarified, and
many new aspects of the old problems have been presented, so that he is
better able to see all round the old problems.

[Sidenote: The Living Thought of Past Ages]

None of the great thinkers, from Pythagoras down to Hegel, has
left metaphysics where he found it. Yet none can be said to have
built on the foundations of his predecessors in the same way as the
mathematicians and physicists and chemists have added to the edifice
they found. What the philosophers have done is to accumulate materials
for the study of man’s faculties and modes of thinking, and of his
ideas regarding his relations to the universe, while also indicating
various methods by which the study may be pursued. Each great product
of speculative thought is itself a part of these materials, and for
that reason never becomes obsolete, as the treatises of the old
physicists and chemists have mostly become. Aristotle, for instance,
has left us books on natural history, on metaphysics and ethics, and
on politics. Those on natural history are mere curiosities, and no
modern biologist or zoologist needs them. Those on metaphysics and
ethics still deserve the attention of the student of philosophy,
though he may in a certain sense be said to have got beyond them. The
treatise on politics still keeps its place beside Montesquieu, Burke,
and Tocqueville. Or, to take a thinker who like Aristotle seems very
far removed from us, though fifteen hundred years later in date, St.
Thomas of Aquinum discusses questions from many of which the modern
world has moved away, and discusses them by methods which many do not
now use, starting from premises which many do not accept. But he marks
a remarkable stage in the history of human thought, and as a part of
that history, and as an example of extraordinary dialectical ingenuity
and subtlety, he remains an object of interest to those least in
agreement with his conclusions.

[Sidenote: Every Great Thinker Affects Others]

Every great thinker affects other thinkers, and propagates the impulse
he has received, though perhaps in a quite different direction.
The teaching of Socrates was the starting point for nearly all
the subsequent schools of Greek philosophy. Hume became the point
of departure for Kant, who desired to lay a deeper foundation for
philosophy than that which Hume seemed to have overturned. All these
great ones have not only enriched us, but are still capable of
stimulating us. But they have not improved our capacity for original
thinking. The accumulation of scientific knowledge has, as already
observed, put all mankind in a better position for solving further
physical problems and establishing a more complete dominion over
Nature. The accumulation of philosophic thought has had no similar
effect. In the former case each man stands, so to speak, on the
shoulders of his predecessors. In the latter he stands on his own feet.
The value of future contributions to philosophy will depend on the
original power of the minds that make them, and only to a small extent
(except by way of stimulus) on what such minds may have drawn from
those into whose labours they have entered.

[Sidenote: Ebb-Tides of Intellectual Culture]

When we come to the products of literary and artistic capacity, we
find an even vaster accumulation of intellectual treasure available
for enjoyment, but a still more marked absence of connection between
the amount of treasures possessed and the power of adding fresh
treasures to them. Since writing came into use, and, indeed, even in
the days when memory alone preserved lays and tales, every age and
many races have contributed to the stock. There have been ebbs and
flows both in quantity and quality. The centuries between A.D.
600 and A.D. 1100 have left us very little of high merit in
literature, though something in architecture; and the best of that
little in literature did not come from the seats of Roman civilisation
in Italy, France, Spain, and the East Roman Empire.

Some periods have seen an eclipse of poetry, others an eclipse of art
or a sterility in music. Literature and the arts have not always
flourished together, and musical genius in particular seems to have
little to do with the contemporaneous development of other forms of
intellectual power. The quantity of production bears no relation to
the quality, not even an inverse relation; for the pessimistic notion
that the larger the output the smaller is the part which possesses
brilliant excellence, has not been proved. Still less does the amount
of good work produced in any given area depend upon the number of
persons living in that area. Florence, between A.D. 1250 and A.D. 1500
gave birth to more men of first-rate poetical and artistic genius than
London has produced since 1250; yet Florence had in those two and
a half centuries a population of probably only from forty to sixty
thousand. And Florence herself has since A.D. 1500 given birth to
scarcely any distinguished poets or artists, though her population has
been larger than it was in the fifteenth century.

[Illustration:

    Mansell

THE MIND OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

    Aristotle (B.C. 384-322) whose influence is greater in some lines
    than that of St. Thomas of Aquinum, who represents mediæval
    thought, 1500 years later.
]

The increase in the world’s stock of intellectual wealth is one of the
most remarkable facts in history, for it represents a constant increase
in the means of enjoyment. Such losses as there have been nearly all
occurred during the Dark Ages; but there is now little risk that
anything of high literary or musical value will perish, though, of
course, works of art, and especially buildings and carvings, suffer or
vanish.

The increase does not, however, tend to any strengthening of the
creative faculty. There is a greater abundance of models of excellence,
models of which form the taste, afford a stimulus to sensitive minds,
and establish a sort of technique with well-known rules. The principles
of criticism are more fully investigated. The power of analysis grows,
and the appreciation both of literature and of art is more widely
diffused. Their influence on the whole community becomes greater, but
the creative imagination which is needed for the production of original
work becomes no more abundant and no more powerful. It may, indeed, be
urged, though our data are probably insufficient for a final judgment,
that the finer qualities of poetry and of pictorial and plastic art
tend rather to decline under the more analytic habit of mind which
belongs to the modern world. Simplicity, freshness, spontaneity come
less naturally to those who have fallen under the pervasive influence
of this habit.

[Illustration:

    Mansell

THE MIND OF THE MEDIÆVAL WORLD

    St. Thomas of Aquinum, 1500 years later than Aristotle, represents
    mediæval thought. St. Thomas, however, influences the life and
    thought of many thousands to-day.
]

[Sidenote: Effect of Thought on Mankind]

There remains one other way in which the incessant play of thought
may be said to have increased or improved the resources of mankind.
Certain principles or ideas belonging to the moral and social
sphere--to the moral sphere by their origin, to the social sphere by
their results--make their way to a more or less general acceptance, and
exert a potent influence upon human life and action. They are absent
in the earliest communities of which we know, or are present only in
germ. They emerge, sometimes in the form of customs gradually built
up in one or more peoples, sometimes in the utterances of one gifted
mind. Sometimes they spread impalpably; sometimes they become matter
for controversy, and are made the battle-cries of parties. Sometimes
they end by being universally received, though not necessarily put into
practice. Sometimes, on the other hand, they continue to be rejected
in one country, or by one set of persons in a country, as vehemently
as they are asserted by another. As instances of these principles or
ideas or doctrines, whatever one is to call them, the following may be
taken: The condemnation of piracy, of slavery, and of treaty-breaking,
of outrages on the bodies of dead enemies, of cruelty to the lower
animals, of the slaughter of prisoners in cold blood, of polygamy,
of torture to witnesses or criminals; the recognition of the duty of
citizens to obey the laws, and of the moral responsibility of rulers
for the exercise of their power, of the right of each man to hold
his own religious opinion and to worship accordingly, of the civil
(though not necessarily of the political) equality of all citizens;
the disapproval of intoxication, the value set upon female chastity,
the acceptance of the social and civil (to which some would add the
political) equality of women.

[Sidenote: Men who Contributed to Progress]

[Sidenote: Slavery was Destroyed by Sentiment]

All these dogmas or ideas or opinions--some have become dogmas in
all civilised peoples, others are rather to be described as opinions
whose truth or worth is denied or only partially admitted--are the
slow product of many generations. Most of them are due to what we may
call the intelligence and sentiment of mankind at large, rather than
to their advocacy by any prominent individual thinkers. The teachings
of such thinkers have, of course, done much to advance them. Everybody
would name Socrates and Confucius as among the men who have contributed
to their progress; some would add such names as those of Mohammed and
St. Francis of Assisi. Christianity has, of course, made the largest
contributions. How much is due to moral feeling, how much to a sense
of common utility, cannot be exactly estimated. Economic reasonings
and practical experience would have probably in the long run destroyed
slavery, but it was sentiment that did in fact destroy it in the
civilised States where it had longest survived.

How much these doctrines, even in the partial and imperfect application
which most of them have secured, have done for humanity may be
perceived by anyone who will imagine what the world would be if they
were unknown. They form one of the most substantial additions made to
what may be called the intellectual and moral capital with which man
has to work this planet and improve his own life upon it. And the most
interesting and significant crises in history are those which have
turned upon the recognition or application of principles of this kind.
The Reformation of the sixteenth century, the French Revolution, the
War of Secession in the United States, are familiar modern examples.

[Sidenote: Intellect Mightier than Population]

Putting all these forms of human achievement together--the extension
of the scientific knowledge of Nature with consequent mastery over
her, the scientific knowledge of social phenomena in the past and
the present, the records of philosophic speculation, the mass of
literary and artistic products, the establishment, however partial and
imperfect, of regulative moral and political principles--it will be
seen that the accumulation of this vast stock of intellectual wealth
has been an even more important factor than the increase of population
in giving man strength and dignity over against Nature, and in opening
up to him an endless variety of modes of enjoying life--that is to say,
of making it yield to him the most which its shortness and his own
physical infirmities permit. The process by which this accumulation has
been carried along is the central thread of history. The main aim of a
history of the world must be to show what and how each race or people
has contributed to the general stock. To this aim political history,
ecclesiastical history, economic history, the history of philosophy,
and the history of science, are each of them subordinate, though it is
only through them that the process can be explained.

In these last few pages intellectual progress has been considered apart
from the area in which it has gone on, and apart from the conditions
imposed on it by the natural features of that area. A few words are,
however, needed regarding its relation to the surface of the earth. The
movement of civilisation must be considered from the side of space as
well as from that of time.

[Sidenote: Contraction of the World]

Space is a material element in the inquiry because it has divided
the families of mankind from one another. Some families, such as the
Chinese and the Peruvians, have developed independently, some, such as
the South and West European peoples, in connection with, or perhaps
in dependence on, the development of other races or peoples. Hence
that which each achieved was in some cases achieved for itself only,
in other cases for its neighbours as well. The contributions made by
different races have--at any rate during the last four thousand years,
and probably in earlier days also--been very unequal; yet none can
have failed to contribute something if only by way of influencing the
others. Inequality in progress would seem to have become more marked
in the later than in the earlier periods. Indeed, some races, such as
those of Australia, appear during many centuries, possibly owing to
their isolation, to have made no progress at all. They may even have
receded.

When we regard the evolution and development of man from the side of
his relations to space, three facts stand out--the contraction of the
world, the overflow of the more advanced races, and the consequent
diffusion all over the world of what is called civilisation.

By the contraction of the world, I mean the greater swiftness, ease,
and safety with which men can pass from one part of it to another, or
communicate with one another across great intervening spaces. This has
the effect of making the world smaller for most practical purposes,
while the absolute distance in latitude and longitude remains the same.
The progress of discovery is worth tracing, for it shows how much
larger the small earth, which was known to the early nations, must have
seemed to them than the whole earth, which we know, seems to us.


[Illustration]


THE ARTISTIC GENIUS OF TWO CITIES

A COMPARISON OF THE NATIVE POETS & ARTISTS OF FLORENCE & LONDON

    “The quantity of production,” says Mr. Bryce, “bears no relation
    to the quality. Still less does the amount of good work produced
    in any given area depend upon the number of persons living in
    that area. Florence between A.D. 1250 and A.D. 1500 gave birth to
    more men of first-rate poetical and artistic genius than London
    has produced since 1250; yet Florence had in those two and a
    half centuries a population of probably only from forty to sixty
    thousand. And Florence herself has since A.D. 1500 given birth to
    scarcely any distinguished poets or artists, though her population
    has been larger than it was in the fifteenth century.”

THE GENIUS OF THE GOLDEN AGE OF FLORENCE, 1250 TO 1500, FAR EXCEEDED
THAT OF LONDON FROM 1250 TO THE PRESENT DAY

Poets and Artists Born in Florence from 1250-1500

    Alberti, Leon Battista, 1404-1472, architect, painter
    Albertinelli, Mariotto, 1474-1515, painter
    Andrea del Sarto, 1487-1531, painter
    Angelico da Fiesole, Fra Giovanni, 1387-1455, painter
    Botticelli, Alessandro, 1447-1510, painter
    Cavalcanti, Guido, 1255-1300, poet, philosopher
    Cimabue, Giovanni, 1240-1302, painter
    Credi, Lorenzo di, 1459-1537, painter
    Dante, Alighieri, 1265-1321, poet
    Donatello, 1386-1466, sculptor and painter
    Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 1378-1455, sculptor
    Ghirlandajo, Domenico, 1449-1494, painter
    Gozzoli, Benozzo, 1420-1498, painter
    Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519, painter, sculptor
    Lippi, Fra Filippo, 1412-1469, painter
    Lippi, Filippino, 1459-1504, painter
    Lorenzo, Don, 1370-1425, painter
    Medici, Lorenzo de, 1448-1492, poet
    Orcagnia, Andrea di Cione, 1329-1368? sculptor, painter
    Perugino, Vannucci Pietro, 1446-1524, painter
    Pesellino, Francesco di, 1422-1457, painter
    Pesello, Giuliano, 1367-1446, painter, sculptor
    Pollajuolo, Antonio, 1429-1498, sculptor, painter
    Pollajuolo, Piero, 1443-1496, sculptor, painter
    Robbia, Andrea della, 1437-1528, sculptor
    Robbia, Luca della, 1399-1482, sculptor
    Rossi, Giovanni Battista de, 1494-1541, sculptor, painter
    Ruccellai, Giovanni, 1475-1525, poet
    Spinello, Aretino, 1334-1410, painter
    Ucello, Paolo, 1397-1475, painter
    Verocchio, Andrea, 1435-1488, sculptor, painter

THE LAST FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF FLORENTINE CULTURE HAVE BEEN LESS
PRODUCTIVE THAN THE PRECEDING TWO AND A HALF CENTURIES

Poets and Artists Born in Florence since 1500

    Allori, Christofano, 1577-1621, painter
    Bronzino, Angelo, 1502-1572, painter
    Cellini, Benvenuto, 1500-1571, sculptor
    Cigoli, Luigi Cardi da, 1559-1613, painter
    Cortona, Pietro da, 1596-1669, architect, painter
    Dolci, Carlo, 1616-1686, painter
    Doni, Antonio Francesco, 1513-1574, author
    Furini, Francesco, 1604-1646, painter
    Ligozzi, Jacobino, 1543-1627, painter
    Poccetti, Bernardino, 1542-1612, painter
    Salviati, Francesco, 1510-1563, painter
    San Giovanni, Giovanni da, 1599-1636, painter
    Santi di Tito, 1538-1603, painter
    Tacco, Pietro, 1580-1640, sculptor
    Venusti, Marcello, 1515-1579, painter

The Only Great Poet Born in London from 1250-1500

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 1328-1400

Poets and Artists Born in London since 1500

    Blake, William, 1757-1827, poet and painter
    Browning, Robert, 1812-1889, poet
    Byron, Geo. Gordon Noel, Lord, 1788-1824, poet
    Defoe, Daniel, 1659-1731, author
    Ford, Edward Onslow, 1852-1901, sculptor
    Gilbert, Alfred, R.A., 1854- --, sculptor
    Gray, Thomas, 1716-1771, poet
    Hogarth, William, 1697-1764, painter
    Hood, Thomas, 1799-1845, poet
    Hunt, William Holman, 1827-1910, painter
    Jonson, Ben, 1573-1637, poet and dramatist
    Keats, John, 1795-1821, poet
    Lamb, Charles, 1775-1834, essayist
    Linnell, John, 1792-1882, painter
    Lucas, John Seymour, 1849- --, painter
    Milton, John, 1608-1674, poet
    Morland, George, 1763-1804, painter
    Pope, Alexander, 1688-1744, poet
    Richmond, Sir William Blake, 1843- --, painter
    Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 1828-1882, poet, painter
    Ruskin, John, 1819-1900, author and art critic
    Spenser, Edmund, 1552-1599, poet
    Stothard, Thomas, 1755-1834, painter, illustrator
    Swinburne, Algernon, 1837-1909, poet
    Walker, Frederick, 1840-1875, painter
    Watts, George F., 1817-1904, painter, sculptor

[Illustration]

[Sidenote: The Small World of the Ancients]

The most ancient records we possess from Assyria, Egypt, Palestine,
and from the Homeric poems, show how very limited was the range of
geographical knowledge possessed by that small civilised world from
which our own civilisation has descended. Speaking roughly, that
knowledge seems in the tenth century B.C. to have extended about one
thousand miles in each direction from the Isthmus of Suez. However,
the best point of departure for the peoples of antiquity is the era
of Herodotus, who travelled and wrote B.C. 460-440. The limits of
the world as he knew it were Cadiz and the Straits of Gibraltar on
the west, the Danube and the Caspian on the north, the deserts of
Eastern Persia on the east, and the Sahara on the south, with vague
tales regarding peoples who lived beyond, such as Indians far beyond
Persia, and pygmies beyond the Sahara. He reports, however, not without
hesitation, a circumnavigation of Africa by Phœnicians in the service
of Pharaoh Necho.

[Illustration: THE FIRST KNOWN MAP OF THE WORLD

    This Babylonian map is probably of the eighth century B.C. The
    two circles are supposed to represent the ocean, while the River
    Euphrates and Babylon are shown inside them. The upper part of the
    tablet is a cuneiform inscription.
]

Discovery advanced very slowly for many centuries, though the march
of Alexander opened up part of the East, while the Roman conquests
brought the Far North-West, including Britain, within the range of
civilisation; and occasional voyages, such as that of Hanno along the
coast of West Africa, that of Nearchus through the Arabian Sea, and
that of Pythias to the Baltic, added something to knowledge. Procopius
in A.D. 540 can tell us little more regarding the regions beyond Roman
influence than Strabo does five and a half centuries earlier. The
journeys of Marco Polo and Rubruquis throw only a passing light on
the Far East. It is with the Spanish occupation of the Canary Isles,
beginning in 1602, and with the Portuguese voyages of the fifteenth
century, that the era of modern discovery opens. The re-discovery of
America in 1492, for it had been already visited by the Northmen of
Greenland and Iceland in the eleventh century, and the opening of the
Cape route to India in 1497-1498, were hardly equal to the exploit
of Magellan, whose circumnavigation of the globe in 1519-1520 marks
the close of this striking period. Thereafter discovery proceeds
more slowly. Some of the isles of the central and southern Pacific
were not visited till the middle of the eighteenth century, and the
north-west coast of America as well as the north-east Coast of Asia,
remained little known till an even later date. Those explorations
of the interior of North America, of the interior of Africa, of the
interior of Australia, and of East Central Asia, which have completed
our knowledge of the earth, belong to the nineteenth century. The first
crossing of the North American Continent north of latitude 40° was not
effected till A.D. 1806.

[Sidenote: The Thirst for New Territories]

The desire for new territory, for the propagation of religion, and,
above all, for the precious metals, were the chief motives which
prompted the voyages of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. These
motives have remained operative; and to them has been added in more
recent times the spirit of pure adventure and the interest in science,
together with, increasing measure, the effort to secure trade. But the
extension of trade followed slowly in the wake of discovery. China and
Japan remained almost closed. The policy of Spain sought to restrict
her American waters to her own ships, and the commerce they carried
was scanty. Communication remained slow and dangerous across the oceans
till the introduction of steam vessels (1825-1830).

[Illustration: The Hereford Map: about 1307

Note Paradise at the top, and Jerusalem in the centre


The Fra Mauro Map: about 1457

Babylon is shown in the centre of the map


The World as Known on the Eve of Discovery of America (Drawn by Martin
Behaim in 1492)

The World as known in 150 A.D. From a map by Ptolemy, who appears to
have had knowledge of the sources of the Nile

THE FIRST MAPS: SOME EARLY GEOGRAPHERS’ IDEAS OF THE WORLD]

[Illustration: THE MODERN REPRESENTATION OF THE WORLD: SHOWN ON THREE
DIFFERENT PROJECTIONS

    In each case the British Empire is shaded
]

[Sidenote: Round the World in 40 Days!]

Land transport, though it had steadily increased in Europe, remained
costly as well as slow till the era of railway construction began in
1829. The application of steam as a motive power and of electricity as
a means of communicating thought has been by far the greatest factor
in this long process of reducing the dimensions of the world, which
dates back as far as the domestication of beasts of burden, and the
invention, first of paddles and oars, and then of sails. The North
American Continent can now be crossed in five days, the South American
(from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres) in under two, the Transandine tunnel
having now been pierced. The Continent which stretches from the Baltic
to the North Pacific can now be traversed in twelve days. By means of
the Trans-Siberian line and its steamship connection with the ports
of Japan, it is now possible to go round the globe in less than fifty
days. Indeed, the journey has recently been done in forty days. Nor
is this acceleration of transit more remarkable than its practical
immunity, as compared with earlier times, not only from the dangers
for which Nature is answerable, but from those also which man formerly
interposed.

The increase of trade which has followed in the track first of
discovery and latterly (with immensely larger volume) of the
improvement of means of transport, has been accompanied not only by the
seizure of transoceanic territories by the greater civilised States,
but also by an outflow of population from those States into the more
backward or more thinly-peopled parts of the earth. Sometimes, as
in the case of North America, Siberia, and Australia, the emigrants
extinguish or absorb the aboriginal population.

[Sidenote: Europeanisation of the World]

Sometimes, as in the case of India, Africa, and some parts of
South America, they neither extinguish nor blend with the previous
inhabitants, but rule them and spread what is called civilisation
among them--this civilisation consisting chiefly in a knowledge
of the mechanical arts and of deathful weapons accompanied by the
destruction, more or less gradual, of their pre-existing beliefs
and usages. Sometimes, again, as in the case of China, and to some
extent also of the Mussulman East, though political dominion is not
established, the process of substituting a new civilisation for the old
one goes on despite the occasional efforts of the backward people to
resist the process. The broad result is everywhere similar. The modern
European type of civilisation is being diffused over the whole earth,
superseding, or essentially modifying, the older local types. Thus,
in a still more important sense than even that of communications, the
world is contracted and becomes far more one than it has ever been
before. The European who speaks three or four languages can travel over
nearly all of it, and he can find on most of its habitable coasts, and
in many parts of the lately-discovered interior, the appliances which
are to him necessaries of life. The world is, in fact, becoming an
enlarged Europe, so far as the externals of life and the material side
of civilisation are concerned. The dissociative forces of Nature have
been overcome.

[Sidenote: Triumph of Natural Science]

Putting together the two processes, the process in time and the
process in space, which we have been reviewing, it will be seen that
the main line of the development of mankind may be described as the
transmission and the expansion of culture--that is to say, of knowledge
and intellectual capacity. The stock of knowledge available for use and
enjoyment has been steadily increased, and what each people accumulated
has been made available for all. With this there has come assimilation,
the destruction of weaker types of civilisation, the modification by
constant interaction of the stronger types, the creation of a common
type tending to absorb all the rest. Assimilation has been most
complete in the sphere ruled by natural science--that is to say, in
the material sphere, less complete in that ruled by the human sciences
(including the sphere of political and social institutions), still
less complete in the sphere of religious, moral, and social ideas, and
as respects the products of literature and art. Or, in other words,
where certainty of knowledge is attainable and utility in practice
is incontestable, the process of assimilation has moved fastest and
furthest.

[Sidenote: Nature & the Unity of Mankind]

The process has been a long one, for its beginnings reach back beyond
our historical knowledge. So far as it lies within the range of
history, it falls into two periods, the earlier of which supplies an
instructive illustration of the later one which we know better. The
effort which Nature--that is to say, the natural tendencies of man as a
social being--has been making towards the unification of mankind during
the last few centuries, is her second great effort. The first was in
progress from the time when the most ancient records begin down to the
sixth and seventh centuries of the Christian era.

[Illustration: THE FIRST TRAVELLER ROUND THE GLOBE

    The great exploit of Ferdinand Magellan, who circumnavigated the
    globe in 1519-1520, ranks among the events of world importance, and
    was the culminating achievement of the greatest period of discovery
    in the world’s history.
]

Greek civilisation, which itself had drawn much from Egypt, as well
as from Assyria, Phœnicia, and the peoples of Asia Minor, permeated
the minds and institutions (except the legal institutions), of the
Mediterranean and West European countries, and was propagated by the
governing energy of the Romans. In its Romanised form it transformed
or absorbed and superseded the less advanced civilisations of all
those countries, creating one new type for the whole Roman world. With
some local diversities, that type prevailed from the Northumbrian
Wall of Hadrian to the Caucasus and the deserts of Arabia. The still
independent races on the northern frontier of the Empire received a
tincture of it, and would doubtless have been more deeply imbued had
the Roman Empire stood longer.

Christianity, becoming dominant at a time when the Empire was already
tottering, gave a new sense of unity to all whom the Greco-Roman type
had formed, extended the influence of that type still further, and
enabled much that belonged to it (especially its religious, its legal,
and its literary elements) to survive the political dominion of the
Emperors and to perpetuate itself among practically independent States
which were springing up. The authority of Papal Rome helped to carry
this sense of unity among civilised men through a period of ignorance,
confusion, and semi-barbarism which might otherwise have extinguished
it. Nevertheless, we may say, broadly speaking, that the first effort
towards the establishment of a common type of civilisation was, if not
closed, yet arrested by the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the
West. Close thereupon came the rise of Islam, tearing away the Eastern
provinces, and creating a rival type of civilisation--though a type
largely influenced by the Greco-Roman--which held its ground for some
centuries, and has only recently shown that it is destined to vanish.

[Sidenote: Conquest and Civilisation]

The beginnings of the second effort toward the unification of civilised
mankind may be observed as far back as the eleventh and twelfth
centuries. Its effective and decisive action may, however, be assigned
to the fifteenth, when the spread of literary and philosophic culture,
and the swift extension of maritime discovery, ushered in the modern
phase wherein we have marked its irresistible advance. This phase
differs from the earlier one both in its range--for it embraces the
whole earth and not merely the Mediterranean lands--and in its basis,
for it rests not so much upon conquest and religion as upon scientific
knowledge, formative ideas, and commerce. Yet even here a parallelism
may be noted between the ancient and the modern phase. Knowledge and
ideas had brought about a marked assimilation of various parts of the
ancient world to each other before Roman conquest completed the work,
and what conquest did was done chiefly among the ruder races. So now,
while it is knowledge and ideas that have worked for the creation of
a common type among the peoples of European stock, conquest has been a
potent means of spreading this type in the outlying countries and among
the more backward races whose territories the European nations have
seized.

[Illustration: THE EUROPEANISATION OF THE WORLD

    European civilisation is being diffused all over the earth,
    superseding or essentially modifying the older local types.
    The solid black portions of this map represent territory under
    Anglo-Saxon control; the shaded parts are under other European
    control, and the dotted parts under Asiatic and African control.
]

[Sidenote: Language a Unifying Influence]

The diffusion of a few forms of speech has played a great part in both
phases. Greek was spoken over the eastern half of the Roman world
in the second century A.D., though not to the extinction of such
tongues as Syriac and Egyptian. Latin was similarly spoken over the
western half, though not to the extinction of the tongues we now call
Basque and Breton and Welsh; and Latin continued to be the language
of religion, of law, of philosophy, and of serious prose literature
in general till the sixteenth century. So now, several of the leading
European tongues are spoken far beyond the limits of their birthplace,
and their wide range has become a powerful influence in diffusing
European culture. German, English, Russian, Spanish, and French are
available for the purposes of commerce, and for those who read books
over nineteen-twentieths of the earth’s surface. The languages of the
smaller non-European peoples are disappearing in those places where
they have to compete with these greater European tongues, except in
so far as they are a medium of domestic intercourse. Arabic, Chinese,
and in less degree Persian are the only non-European languages
which retain a world importance. English, German, and Spanish are
pre-eminently the three leading commercial languages. They gain ground
on the rest, and it is English that gains ground most swiftly. The
German merchant is no doubt even more ubiquitous (if the expression be
permitted) than is the English; but the German more frequently speaks
English than the Englishman or American speaks German.

[Sidenote: Linking the Nations Together]

It has already been observed that assimilation has advanced least
in the sphere of institutions, ideas, and literature. The question
might, indeed, be raised whether the types of thought, of national
character, and of literary activity represented by the five or six
leading nations are not rather tending to become more accentuated.
The self-consciousness of each nation, taking the form of pride or
vanity, leads it to exalt its own type and to dwell with satisfaction
on whatever differentiates it from other types. Nevertheless there are
influences at work in the domain of practice as well as of thought,
which, in creating a common body of opinion and a sense of common
interest among large classes belonging to these leading nations, tend
to link the nations themselves together. Religious sympathy, or a
common attachment to certain doctrines, such as, for instance, those
of Collectivism, works in this direction among the masses, as the
love of science or of art does among sections of the more educated
class. As regards the peoples not of European stock, who are, broadly
speaking, the more backward, it is not yet possible to say what will be
the influence of the European type of culture upon their intellectual
development.

The material side of their civilisation will after a time conform to
the European type, though, perhaps, to forms that are not the most
progressive; and even such faiths as Buddhism and Islam may lose their
hold on those who come most into contact with Europeans. But whether
these peoples will produce any new types of thought or art under the
stimulus of Europe, as the Teutons and Slavs did after they had been
for centuries in contact with the relics of Greco-Roman culture, or
whether they will be overborne by and merely imitate and reproduce what
Europeans teach them--this is a question for conjecture only, since the
data for predictions are wanting.

It is a question of special interest as regards the Japanese, the
one non-European race which, having an old civilisation of its own,
highly developed on the artistic side, has shown an amazing aptitude
for appropriating European institutions and ideas. Already a Japanese
physiologist has taken high rank among men of science by being one of
the discoverers of the bacillus of the Oriental plague.


DOES HISTORY MAKE FOR PROGRESS?

One of the questions which both the writers and the readers of a
History of the World must frequently ask themselves is whether the
course of history establishes a general law of progress. Some thinkers
have gone so far as to say that this must be the moral of history
regarded as a whole, and a few have even suggested that without the
recognition of such a principle and of a sort of general guidance of
human affairs towards this goal, history would be unintelligible, and
the doings of mankind would seem little better than the sport of chance.

[Sidenote: What is the Test of Progress?]

[Sidenote: What Mankind has Achieved]

Whatever may be thought of these propositions as matters of theory,
the doctrine of a general and steady law of progress is one to which
no historian ought to commit himself. His business is to set forth and
explain the facts exactly as they are; and if he writes in the light
of a theory he is pretty certain to be unconsciously seduced into
giving undue prominence to those facts which make for it. Moreover,
the question is in itself a far more complex one than the simple word
“progress” at first sight conveys. What is the test of progress? In
what form of human advance is it to be deemed to consist? Which of
these forms is of the highest value? There can be no doubt of the
advance made by man in certain directions. There may be great doubt
as to his advance in other directions. There may possibly be no
advance but even retrogression, or at least signs of an approaching
retrogression, in some few directions. The view to be taken of the
relative importance of these lines of movement is a matter not so much
for the historian as for the philosopher, and its discussion would
carry us away into fields of thought not fitted for a book like the
present. Although, therefore, it is true that one chief interest of
history resides in its capacity for throwing light on this question,
all that need here be said may be expressed as follows:

    There has been a marvellous advance in man’s knowledge of the laws
    of Nature and of his consequent mastery over Nature.

    There has been therewith a great increase in population, and, on
    the whole, in the physical vigour of the average individual man.

    There has been, as a further consequence, an immense increase in
    the material comfort and well-being of the bulk of mankind, so that
    to most men necessaries have become easier of attainment, and many
    things which were once luxuries have become necessaries.

Against this is to be set the fact that some of the natural resources
of the world are being rapidly exhausted. This would at one time have
excited alarm; but scientific discoveries have so greatly extended
man’s capacity to utilise other sources of natural energy, that people
are disposed to assume that the loss of the resources aforesaid will be
compensated by further discoveries.

[Sidenote: The Gain and the Loss]

As to progress other than material--that is to say, progress in
intellectual capacity, in taste, in the power of enjoyment, in virtue,
and generally in what is called happiness--every man’s view must
depend on the ideal which he sets before himself of what constitutes
happiness, and of the relative importance to happiness of the ethical
and the non-ethical elements which enter into the conception. Until
there is more agreement than now exists or has ever existed on these
points, there is no use in trying to form conclusions regarding the
progress man has made. Moreover, it is admitted that nearly every
gain man makes is accompanied by some corresponding loss--perhaps a
slight loss, yet a loss. When we attempt to estimate the comparative
importance of these gains and losses, questions of great difficulty,
both ethical and non-ethical, emerge; and in many cases our experience
is not yet sufficient to determine the quantum of loss. There is room
both for the optimist and for the pessimist, and in arguing such
questions nearly everybody becomes an optimist or a pessimist. The
historian has no business to be either.

There is another temptation besides that of delivering his opinion on
these high matters, of which the historian does well to be aware--I
mean the temptation to prophesy. The study of history as a whole,
more inevitably than that of the history of any particular country
or people, suggests forecasts of the future, because the broader the
field which we survey the more do we learn to appreciate the great and
wide-working forces that are guiding mankind, and the more therefore
are we led to speculate on the results which these forces, some of them
likely to be permanent, will tend to bring about.

[Sidenote: Modern Mastery of Nature]

This temptation can seldom have been stronger than it is now, when we
see all mankind brought into closer relations than ever before, and
more obviously dominated by forces which are essentially the same,
though varying in their form. Yet it will appear, when the problem is
closely examined, that the very novelty of the present situation of
the world--the fact that our mastery of Nature has been so rapidly
extended within the last century, and that the phenomena of the
subjugation of the earth by Europeans and of the ubiquitous contact
of the advanced and the backward races are so unexampled in respect
of the area they cover--that all predictions must be uttered with the
greatest caution, and due allowance made for elements which may disturb
even the most careful calculations. It may, indeed, be doubted whether
any predictions of a definitely positive kind--predictions that such
and such things will happen--can be safely made, save the obvious ones
which are based on the assumption that existing natural conditions
remain for some time operative.

[Sidenote: A Glimpse into the Future]

Taking this assumption to be a legitimate one, it maybe predicted that
population will continue to increase, at least till the now waste but
habitable parts of the earth have been turned to account; that races,
except where there is a marked colour line, will continue to become
intermingled; that the small and weak races, and especially the lower
set of savages, will be absorbed or die out; that fewer and fewer
languages will be spoken; that communications will become even swifter,
easier, and cheaper than they are at present; and that commerce and
wealth will continue to grow, subject, perhaps, to occasional checks
from political disturbance.

There are also some negative predictions on which one may venture,
and with a little more confidence. No new race can appear, except
possibly from a fusion of two or more existing races, or from the
differentiation of a branch of an existing race under new conditions,
as the Americans have been to some slight extent differentiated from
the English, and the Brazilians from the Portuguese (there having been
in the latter case a certain admixture of negro blood), and as the
Siberians of the future may be a different sort of Russians. Neither
is any new language likely to appear, except, mere trade jargons (like
Chinook or pigeon English), because the existing languages of the
great peoples are firmly established, and the process of change within
each of these languages has, owing to the abundance of printed matter,
become now extremely slow. Conditions can hardly be imagined under
which such a phenomenon as the development of the Romance languages out
of Latin, or of Danish and Swedish out of the common Northern tongue of
the eleventh century, could recur.

[Illustration: THE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD AT PEACE

    From the statuary groups on the Albert Memorial.
]

It may seem natural to add the further prediction that the great States
and the great religions will continue to grow and to absorb the small
ones. But when we touch topics into which human opinion or emotion
enters, we touch a new kind of matter, where the influences now at work
may be too much affected by new influences to permit of any forecast.
Conditions might conceivably come into action which would split up some
or most of the present great States, and bring the world back to an age
of small political communities.

So, too, though the lower forms of paganism are fast vanishing, and
the four or five great religions are extending their sway, it is
conceivable that new prophets may arise, founding new faiths, or that
the existing religions may be split up into new sects widely diverse
from one another. Even the supremacy of the European races, well
assured as it now appears, may be reduced by a variety of causes,
physiological or moral, when some centuries have passed.

[Illustration: THE PEOPLES OF THE WORLD AT PEACE

    From the statuary groups on the Albert Memorial.
]

Whoever examines the predictions made by the most observant and
profound thinkers of the past will see reason to distrust almost all
the predictions, especially those of a positive order, which shape
themselves in our minds to-day.

    JAMES BRYCE




[Illustration: SUMMARY OF WORLD HISTORY

WITH

A CHRONOLOGY OF TEN THOUSAND YEARS

By Arthur D. Innes, M.A.]


Within the memory of living men, the most advanced peoples of the world
believed that the world itself had been created not 6,000 years ago. We
have all learned now that the globe itself, that life--and long later
mankind--came into being thousands, hundreds of thousands--it may be
millions--of years ago.

How long precisely, none can tell. What we do know with certainty is
that before the continents finally emerged in their present shape there
was an Ice Age, immediately preceded by what is called the Drift Age,
and that as early as the Drift Age man, the maker of implements, lived,
and did battle with the cave bear and other monsters. Where man first
came into being, how he spread over the globe, how the great races
acquired their characteristics, we can only conjecture.

[Sidenote: The Birth of the Nations]

Wherever and whenever man appeared, the earliest traces show him
to have been a sociable animal living in communities. The earliest
unmistakable traces of civilisation, order, polity, are found in the
basins of the Nile and the Euphrates, dating probably as far back as
ten thousand years ago. The people who built the Pyramids had already
advanced far in the knowledge which gives man the mastery over Nature;
and the Pyramids were built certainly 3,000, and probably nearer 5,000,
years before the Christian era. And while those pristine civilisations
rose and fell in Egypt, civilisations were rising and passing away in
Mesopotamia also.

In the fourth millennium there appears first a people with new
characteristics--the Semitic race, gradually dominating the
Mesopotamian civilisation, spreading westward in successive waves to
the Mediterranean, surging into Egypt and out again; creating the
Empires of Babylonia and of Assyria, and the Phœnician and Canaanite
nations. And while the Semite Empires rose and fell, and Egypt held
upon her ancient way, still mightier nations were coming to birth.
The great Aryan or Indo-European migrations began, the Celt, the
Latin, and the Hellene rolling westward by the Euxine and the Northern
Mediterranean; while another group passed southward, to the East of
the Semites, spreading the Aryan conquest over the greater part of the
Indian peninsula.

[Sidenote: Conflicts of Ancient Peoples]

Of the doings of the great Semitic Powers in the second millennium B.C.
we have some knowledge from the Hebrew records; and year by year fresh
light is thrown on those records by inscriptions and tablets newly
discovered or newly deciphered, Egyptian, Assyrian, or Hittite. Of the
Hittite or early Syrian dominion we know little enough, except that it
successfully defied the invading armies of Assyrian kings and Egyptian
Pharaohs. Before 1500 the Semite conquerors of Egypt, the Hyksos, were
driven out--an event associated by some authorities with the Hebrew
Exodus. From this time the ebb and flow of Egyptian and Assyrian
dynasties are more definitely recorded. In the closing centuries the
prosperity of Tyre and Sidon reached its height, and the theocratic
Hebrew nationality formed a kingdom. We become aware of Hellenic or
kindred Powers in Asia Minor, at Troy, in Crete, at Mycenæ; of Achæans
and Danaans in Egypt.

[Sidenote: The First Formation of States]

Before another five hundred years had passed, throughout the
coasts and islands of the Ægean Sea, Æolians, Ionians, Dorians
established themselves in cities, and every city rapidly grew into a
highly-organised State. Over the Mediterranean, to Southern Italy, to
Sicily, to Marseilles, the new Greek civilisation carried its commerce
and its culture. In Italy the Latin races were in like manner forming
themselves into city-states, developing conceptions of Government
undreamed of by Oriental minds. Rome was founded, and acquired a
leadership. Throughout the Hellenic and the Latin world the idea of
civic freedom took root; the primitive monarchical systems disappeared,
and, through revolutions and temporary despotisms, sometimes peaceful
and sometimes violent, the States took on for the most part a
Republican form.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |             TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: B.C. 8000 to 500              |
  |                                                                    |
  | This Chronology, prepared as a companion to the Summary of the     |
  | World’s History, sets forth in tabular form for ready reference    |
  | the events dealt with in the narrative on opposite pages           |
  +-----+-------------------------------------------------------+------+
  |B.C. | Early civilisation of the Nile Basin. Egypt before    | B.C. |
  |8000 | the Pyramids.                                         | 8000 |
  |7000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 7000 |
  |     | Asiatic invasion of Egypt                             |      |
  |     | Pre-Semitic civilisations of the Euphrates Basin.     |      |
  |     |   Susa founded.                                       |      |
  |6000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 6000 |
  |     | Invasion of Egypt by dynastic race, 5800. Mena rules  |      |
  |     |   all Egypt. First dynasty, 5500.                     |      |
  |     | Babylonian kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. Ea founds     |      |
  |     |   Eridu and civilises Babylonia.                      |      |
  |5000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 5000 |
  |     | Egypt. The Pyramid builders. Great Pyramid built by   |      |
  |     | Khufu (Cheops), 4700.                                 |      |
  |     | Earliest monuments to kings in Babylonia, 4700.       |      |
  |4000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 4000 |
  |     | Egypt invaded from the north. First, or Babylonian,   |      |
  |     | Semitic wave in the Euphrates Valley. Rise of         |      |
  |     |   Babylonian kingdoms. Sargon and Naram-Sin, Semitic  |      |
  |     |   rulers of Akkad. Middle kingdom of Egypt. Revival   |      |
  |     |   of art. Twelfth dynasty (3400).                     |      |
  |     | Gudea’s rule in Babylon. Development of commerce,     |      |
  |     |  3300.                                                |      |
  |3000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 3000 |
  |     | Egypt invaded by the Hyksos, nomadic Semitic          |      |
  |     |   conquerors, the “Shepherd Kings.” Fifteenth Dynasty |      |
  |     |   (2500). Second Hyksos movement (2250).              |      |
  |     | Conquest of Babylon by Elamites. Rule of Hammurabi    |      |
  |     |   (Amraphel of Gen. xiv.), 2129.                      |      |
  |     | Second, or Canaanite, Semitic wave, extending to the  |      |
  |     |   Mediterranean.                                      |      |
  |     | First Aryan migration westward over Europe, and       |      |
  |     |   southward; conquest of Hindostan.                   |      |
  |2000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 2000 |
  |     | The Hyksos dominate Egypt. New kingdom. Eighteenth    |      |
  |     |   dynasty, 1580.                                      |      |
  |     | Expulsion of the Hyksos, about 1560.                  |      |
  |     | Rise of Assyria.                                      |      |
  |     | The Kassite dynasty in Babylon, about 1750-1130.      |      |
  |     | Hittite Empire in Syria.                              |      |
  |     | Latin and Hellenic entry into Europe and Asia Minor.  |      |
  |     | Third (Aramæan) Semitic wave, dominating W. Asia, but |      |
  |     |   absorbed in existing states.                        |      |
  |1500 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 1500 |
  |     | FAR EAST: Beginning of definite Chinese history, with |      |
  |     |   the Chau dynasty.                                   |      |
  |     | EGYPT: Nineteenth dynasty, Sethos and the Ramesides;  |      |
  |     |   struggle with Hittite Empire.                       |      |
  |     | WESTERN ASIA: Burnaburiash, 1380. Pashe dynasty in    |      |
  |     |   Babylon, 1130-1000.                                 |      |
  |     |   Period of Phœnician prosperity.                     |      |
  |     |   Rise of the United Kingdom of the Hebrews.          |      |
  |     |   Crete, Troy, and Mycenæ. The Ionic and Doric        |      |
  |     |     migrations.                                       |      |
  |1000 +-------------------------------------------------------+ 1000 |
  |     | WESTERN ASIA: The Hebrew kingdom divided into Judah   |      |
  |     |   and Israel or Samaria.                              |      |
  |     |   Rise of Aramæan kingdom of Syria. Chaldean          |      |
  |     |     domination in Babylon.                            |      |
  |     |   Assyrian Middle Empire.                             |      |
  |     | EGYPT: Twenty-second dynasty (“Shishak” king of       |      |
  |     |   Egypt).                                             |      |
  | 900 +-------------------------------------------------------+  900 |
  |     | EUROPE: Early monarchical governments replaced        |      |
  |     |   usually by aristocracies.                           |      |
  |     |   Probable period of the Homeric poems.               |      |
  |     | WESTERN ASIA: Successful resistance of Syria to       |      |
  |     |   Assyria.                                            |      |
  |     |   Appearance of the (Aryan) Medes in the East.        |      |
  |     | AFRICA: Founding of Carthage.                         |      |
  | 800 +-------------------------------------------------------+  800 |
  |     | EGYPT: Domination of Ethiopians or Cushites.          |      |
  |     | WESTERN ASIA: Assyrian New Empire; conquest of Syria, |      |
  |     |   Samaria, and Babylon.                               |      |
  |     |   Lydian and Phrygian kingdoms in Asia Minor.         |      |
  |     | EUROPE: Development of city states in Greece and      |      |
  |     |   Italy. Lycurgan legislation of Sparta, about 800.   |      |
  |     |   Rome founded as a monarchy, 753.                    |      |
  |     |   Spread of Greek colonies along Mediterranean        |      |
  |     |     coasts and islands.                               |      |
  | 700 +-------------------------------------------------------+  700 |
  |     | WESTERN ASIA: Extension of Lydian kingdom in Asia     |      |
  |     |   Minor 687-546.                                      |      |
  |     |   Irruption of Cimmerians from the North.             |      |
  |     |   Repulse of Sennacherib before Jerusalem. Decline of |      |
  |     |     Assyria.                                          |      |
  |     | EGYPT: Invasion by Esarhaddon. Expulsion of Cushites. |      |
  |     |   The Saitic dynasty.                                 |      |
  |     | EUROPE: Between 700 and 500, sporadic displacement of |      |
  |     |   aristocracies by “tyrannies,” followed either by an |      |
  |     |   oligarchical restoration or by democracies.         |      |
  |     |   Rome becomes head of the League of Latin cities.    |      |
  |     | FAR EAST: Japanese history begins.                    |      |
  | 600 +-------------------------------------------------------+  600 |
  |     | WESTERN ASIA: Narbonaid, King of Babylon (556-538).   |      |
  |     |   Overthrow of Assyrian by New Babylonian Empire; the |      |
  |     |   Babylonish captivity.                               |      |
  |     |   Rise of Media, of which Cyrus, the Persian, makes   |      |
  |     |     himself master.                                   |      |
  |     |   Persian Empire: Overthrow of Lydia, New Babylonia,  |      |
  |     |   and Egypt. Aahmes (Amasis), 570-526.                |      |
  |     | FAR EAST: Confucius and Lao-Tse in China, and Buddha  |      |
  |     |   in India.                                           |      |
  |     | EUROPE: Greek states consolidated. Athens: Solon 594. |      |
  |     |   Pisistratidæ expelled, 510.                         |      |
  |     | ROME: Expulsion of the kings, about 510. The          |      |
  |     |   Commonwealth. Administration aristocratic: Army and |      |
  | 500 |   legislative assembly on basis of land-ownership.    |  500 |
  | B.C.|   Etruscan--pre-Latin--domination in Italy.           |  B.C.|
  +-------------------------------------------------------------+------+

In the East an Aryan Power overthrew the last of the
Assyrian-Babylonian dynasties; but these Persian conquerors became
assimilated to the conquered nations. Fundamentally their empire was of
the same type as its predecessors. The Persian sway, however, extended
not only into Egypt but over the partly Hellenised Asia Minor; and the
Ionic revolt, in the first year of the fifth century B.C. brought the
spirit of the East and the spirit of the West into fierce collision.
The great king hurled his hosts against defiant Hellas; at Marathon and
at Salamis, Athens shattered his army and his fleets. Thenceforth, for
a thousand years, the West was the aggressor.

[Sidenote: Athens and the Greek Immortals]

But the rolling back of the “barbarian” tide was not the only glory
that fell to Athens; in that same century the little state bore sons
whose names stand in the front rank of the immortals for all time:
Æschylus and Sophocles, Phidias, Pericles, Socrates, and Plato; in the
next half century, Demosthenes; with others almost if not quite, on the
same plane. The character of Athens, idealised, no doubt, is epitomised
by Thucydides in the speech of Pericles. She was the sum of all that
was best and noblest in Hellenism--its love of freedom, of beauty, of
energy, of harmony, and its public spirit. Politically, the story of
the period which followed Salamis is mainly one of the rivalry between
Athens and Sparta; until the rise of Macedon, when King Philip made
himself master of all Hellas.

[Sidenote: The Coming-up of Alexander]

Then, with the beginning of the last quarter of the fourth century,
Alexander the Great blazed upon the world, toppled the empires of
Western Asia before him, conquered Egypt, and swept over the great
mountain-barriers into India, where Buddhism had already begun to
displace the ancient Brahmanism of the first Aryans. The Greek
influences did not long linger in the far East after the great
conqueror’s death. His empire broke up. Asia west of the Euphrates
remained, indeed, under the dominion mainly of one Grecian dynasty, the
Seleucidæ; Egypt under that of another, the Ptolemies. Yet Alexander’s
attempts to blend East and West failed. Orientalism abode, unconquered,
ineradicable; Hellenism prevailed almost after the fashion of British
domination in India to-day, in the land, but not of it.

Meanwhile, the struggle between Aryans and non-Aryans had been running
a partly separate course in the West. The Phœnicians of Carthage and
the pre-Aryan Etruscans, the dominant power in Italy, made a joint
assault on the Greeks of Sicily and the Latins of the mainland at
the beginning of the fifth century. They were beaten back, but for a
century the struggle continued between Rome and Veii. The great Celtic
incursion of the Gauls threatened destruction to Rome, but completed
the destruction of Etruria. In the fourth century and the first half
of the third century B.C. Rome was chiefly engaged in the double task
of achieving supremacy, passing into actual dominion among the Latin
states, and of establishing the great Senatorial oligarchy, against
whose stubborn resolution the Epirote Pyrrhus hurled himself in vain.

Just sixty years after Alexander’s death began the sixty years’
struggle between Rome and Carthage, in the latter years of which the
genius of Hannibal was pitted against the grim persistence of the Roman
oligarchy. Carthage fell; Rome triumphed, and with her triumph entered
on her career of extended conquest.

[Sidenote: The Triumph of Rome]

The organisation which had ruled the city-state itself not ill, and
raised it to an immense pre-eminence, sufficed also to maintain its
powers of conquest, but not its political virtue. Rome’s armies subdued
the divided and disorganised realms which more or less recognised the
over-lordship of Macedon; they made the Ptolemies and the Seleucidæ
acknowledge their supremacy; they shattered the new barbarian hordes,
which began to pour across the Alpine passes, and the African tribes of
Numidia. But the lofty public spirit was gone which had made Rome so
great when she was battling for life. Reformers arose, only to prove
that there was no power in the constitution strong enough to enforce
reform. Victorious generals with their legions behind them began to
dictate legislation; Marius and Sulla, democrats or reactionaries,
signalised their political successes by slaughtering hecatombs of their
opponents.

At last, statesmanship and generalship found their supreme incarnation
in one person, Julius Cæsar. For many years one of the two foremost
men in the Republic, he finally crushed his rival Pompeius and
became acknowledged head of the state. Before he could complete the
work of reconstruction, Cæsar fell beneath the daggers of Republican
enthusiasts; but ere many years had passed his adopted son Octavian
triumphed over all rivals, and established the Principate or Empire,
the absolute dominion of one ruler over the whole Roman world--although
that dominion was still maintained under the Republican forms.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |               TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: B.C. 500 to 1               |
  |                                                                    |
  |  Collision of East and West. The Glory of Greece. Alexander and    |
     His Conquests. The Rise of Rome. Overthrow of Carthage and the    |
  |  Establishment of the Roman Empire                                 |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+
  | B.C.|   The East and Africa    |            Europe           | B.C.|
  | 500 | GREECE: Revolt of Ionian | GREECE: Repulse of Persia   | 500 |
  |     |   Greeks from Persia,    |   at Marathon (490),        |     |
  |     |   499.                   |   Salamis (480) and Plataea |     |
  |     | Liberation from Persia   |   (479) and of Carthage by  |     |
  |     |   of Greek States in     |   Syracuse at Himera (480). |     |
  |     |   Asia Minor.            |                             |     |
  |     |                          | ROME: Increase of political |     |
  |     | Revolt of Egypt from     |   power of Plebeians.       |     |
  |     |   Persia: re-conquest.   |   Tribunes. First Roman     |     |
  |     |                          |   Legal Code (the XII.      |     |
  |     |                          |   Tables).                  |     |
  | 450 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 450 |
  |     |                          | GREECE: Age of Pericles,    |     |
  |     |                          |  the great Athenian         |     |
  |     | Egypt again independent  |    dramatists, and Phidias. |     |
  |     |   of Persia.             |  Struggle for supremacy     |     |
  |     |                          |    between Athens and       |     |
  |     |                          |    Sparta.                  |     |
  |     |                          | ROME: Decadence of Etruscan |     |
  |     |                          |   power.                    |     |
  |     |                          |  Progress of Plebeians in   |     |
  |     |                          |    obtaining administrative |     |
  |     |                          |    power.                   |     |
  | 400 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 400 |
  |     |                          | GREECE: Socrates and Plato. |     |
  |     |                          |  Spartan and Theban         |     |
  |     |                          |    supremacies.             |     |
  |     |                          | ROME: Invasion by the Gauls.|     |
  |     |                          |  The land question: the     |     |
  |     |                          |    Licinian Laws.           |     |
  |     |                          |  Establishment of new       |     |
  |     |                          |    “Senatorial” oligarchy.  |     |
  |     | Revival of Persian       |  Extension of Roman         |     |
  |     |   energy under           |    military settlements     |     |
  |     |   Artaxerxes Ochus.      |    or colonies.             |     |
  | 350 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 350 |
  |     | Overthrow of Persia by   | GREECE: Philip of Macedon.  |     |
  |     |   Alexander; India       |   Demosthenes at Athens.    |     |
  |     |   invaded.               |   Aristotle.                |     |
  |     | Partition of Alexander’s |  Conquests of Alexander     |     |
  |     |   Empire. The Ptolemies  |    the Great, 334-322.      |     |
  |     |   in Egypt, and the      | ROME: Second Roman treaty   |     |
  |     |   Seleucidæ in Asia.     |   with Carthage.            |     |
  |     | Friendly relations       |  Dissolution of Latin       |     |
  |     |   between Seleucus and   |  League. Supremacy of       |     |
  |     |   Chandragupta of        |  Rome in Italy. Samnite     |     |
  |     |   Hindostan.             |  wars.                      |     |
  | 300 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 300 |
  |     |                          | ROME: Legislative power of  |     |
  |     |                          |  Plebeian Comitia. Tributa  |     |
  |     |                          |  established.               |     |
  |     |                          |    Pyrrhus in Italy and     |     |
  |     |                          |      Sicily.                |     |
  |     | Contests between Syria   |    Treaty between Rome and  |     |
  |     | (Seleucidæ) and Egypt    |      Egypt.                 |     |
  |     | (the Ptolemaic dynasty). |    Senatorial supremacy at  |     |
  |     |                          |      Rome.                  |     |
  |     |                          |    First Punic War          |     |
  |     |                          |      (264-241).             |     |
  |     |                          | GREECE: Rise of the Achæan  |     |
  |     |                          |  League.                    |     |
  | 250 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 250 |
  |     | Asoka, king of Maghada   | Carthaginian power          |     |
  |     |   (Hindostan), Buddhist. |   established in Spain.     |     |
  |     | Extension of the Seleucid| ROME: Second Punic War,     |     |
  |     |   dominion under         |   218-201. Hannibal in      |     |
  |     |  Antiochus the Great.    |   Italy, 218-203. Scipio    |     |
  |     | Rise of the Parthian     |   in Spain, 211-206.        |     |
  |     |  dominion of the         |   Zama, 202.                |     |
  |     |  Arsacidæ.               | Extension of Roman dominion |     |
  |     | Fall of Carthage, 202.   |    over Spain and North     |     |
  |     |                          |    Africa.                  |     |
  | 200 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 200 |
  |     | Wars between Parthia and | Organisation of provinces   |     |
  |     |   the Seleucidæ.         |   subject to the Imperial   |     |
  |     |                          |   Republic.                 |     |
  |     | Maccabean revolt of      | History of Europe merges in |     |
  |     |   Judæa.                 |   that of ROME.             |     |
  |     |                          | Collision of Rome with (1)  |     |
  |     | Antiochus Epiphanes      |   Macedon; (2) the Syrian   |     |
  |     |   conquers Egypt, but    |   kingdom of the Seleucidæ. |     |
  |     |   retires.               |                             |     |
  |     |                          | Macedon becomes a Roman     |     |
  |     | Egypt and Syria become   |   province.                 |     |
  |     |   Roman protectorates.   | Rome assumes protectorate   |     |
  |     |                          |    of Egypt and Syria.      |     |
  | 150 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 150 |
  |     |                          | Third Punic War, and        |     |
  |     | Nabatæan State in Arabia.|   destruction of Carthage,  |     |
  |     |                          |   146.                      |     |
  |     |                          | Greek States absorbed into  |     |
  |     |  A Tartar kingdom        | province of Macedonia.      |     |
  |     |    established in east   | Development of political    |     |
  |     |    of Parthia.           |   power of (1) demagogues;  |     |
  |     |                          |   (2) soldiers.             |     |
  |     |                          | The Gracchi, 133-121.       |     |
  |     | Jugurthan War in Africa. | Conquest of South Gaul:     |     |
  |     |                          |   defeat of Teutones and    |     |
  |     |                          |   Cimbri by Marius.         |     |
  | 100 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 100 |
  |     |                          | Social war. Marius and      |     |
  |     | Mithradatic wars, 88-63. |   Sulla. The Proscriptions. |     |
  |     |                          | The Sullan Constitution, 81.|     |
  |     | The East, to the         | Pompey. Rise of Julius      |     |
  |     |   Euphrates, brought     |   Cæsar.                    |     |
  |     |   under Roman dominion.  | The East brought under      |     |
  |     |                          |   Roman dominion.           |     |
  |     | Judæa: fall of the       | Cæsar conquers Gaul;        |     |
  |     |   Maccabees.             |   lands in Britain.         |     |
  |  50 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+  50 |
  |     | Scythian or Tartar       | Overthrow of Pompey: Cæsar  |     |
  |     |   incursion into India,  |   virtual emperor.          |     |
  |     |   and admixture with     | Murder of Cæsar, 44.        |     |
  |     |   Punjab races.          | Rivalry of Antony and       |     |
                                       Octavian, 43-30.          |     |
  |     |                          | The Principate, or Empire,  |     |
  |     | Egypt becomes a Roman    |   established under Augustus|     |
  |     |   province, 30.          |   (Octavian) in virtue of   |     |
  |     |                          |   the Imperium Proconsulare |     |
  |     |                          |   (27) and Tribunicia       |     |
  |     |                          |   Potestas (23). The Empire |     |
  |   1 |                          |   organised.                |   1 |
  | B.C.|                          | Cicero, Virgil Livy, Horace.| B.C.|
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+

[Sidenote: The Birth of Christ]

A tremendous event in itself, the reign of Augustus also witnessed
one which has had a great influence on the history of the world--the
birth of Christ. His ministry, to which perhaps the term event should
be applied, was during the reign of the second Emperor, Tiberius. The
new faith born on the soil of Judæa was to modify profoundly all the
ideals, social and political as well as theological and personal, of
the entire Western world; but for many years its adherents remained
nothing more than a persecuted yet steadily growing sect; suspected and
hated as anarchists rather than as misbelievers, in a world where the
rankest and wildest superstitions lived side by side with a general
intellectual scepticism.

For four centuries the Imperial city ruled over nearly the whole known
world. Beyond the Euphrates on the east, beyond the Rhine and the
Danube, she could maintain no permanent footing; within her own borders
it seemed as though her sway became a part of the natural order--so
much so that when her power had passed away her very conquerors did her
homage and took upon themselves titles as her officers.

[Sidenote: Rome in her Decline]

But the overthrow was yet a long way off. The reconstruction organised
by Augustus and his Ministers was developed by able rulers--Tiberius,
Trajan, Hadrian, the Antonines--during some two hundred years, in spite
of intervals when a murderous tyranny or a feeble incompetence occupied
the throne of the Cæsars. From the Pillars of Hercules to the river
of Mesopotamia, northward as far as Britain, southward to the deserts
of Africa, Roman civilisation, Roman law and justice, Roman military
discipline, and Roman roads maintained the Roman peace.

[Sidenote: Fall of Rome and Rise of Goths]

Then came an era when the Imperial purple became the prize of
successful generals acclaimed by their legions; and the frontier
armies, themselves largely formed out of Teutonic or other
semi-“barbarian” tribes, found themselves face to face with new
barbarian hordes which for another century and a half they held in
check. But the tremendous external pressure on frontiers so vast made
it imperative that the Government should be somewhat decentralised. At
the end of the third century Diocletian parted the empire into four
great divisions. The new system could not endure; Constantine the
Great again became sole emperor. Under him Christianity was at length
adopted as the state religion; the Church herself became a fundamental
factor in the political system; and the political centre of gravity was
transferred from Rome to Byzantium.

[Sidenote: Beginning of Byzantium]

Again the empire was partitioned, and then, for a brief while before
the end of the fourth century, united again under Theodosius. But the
end was at hand. For a few years the great general Stilicho held the
Teutonic Goths at bay in Italy, while Vandals and Sueves poured through
Gaul into Spain. Then, early in the fifth century, Stilicho died.
Alaric led his conquering hordes to the gates of Rome, and sacked the
Eternal City. His successor, Ataulf, took his Goths away, to drive the
Vandals out of Spain into Africa, and set up a great western kingdom
on their own account. But after the Goths, fresh barbarians swarmed
in--Tartar Huns under Attila, who wrought huge devastation and then
vanished for ever; then fresh Teutonic armies, which took possession
of Italy, though in the East the Empire still held its own. And in
Gaul the (German) Franks under their king, Clovis (Chlodwig, Ludwig),
established the dominion which was to give its name to France when
the Frankish element had almost passed out of the country. Far-away
Britain had already been abandoned, and was falling a prey to the
Saxons and the Angles, the “English” who were driving the earlier
Celtic inhabitants before them into the mountain fastnesses of the
west and north. Again, in the East, in the sixth century, the empire
centred at Byzantium asserted its power. Justinian is memorable for
that great codification of Roman Law on which the legal systems of
half the jurists in Europe have been based. His reign is famous also
for the exploits of his brilliant general, Belisarius, who destroyed
the Vandal kingdom in Africa, restored the Imperial rule in Italy, and
recovered provinces in Asia which had been in danger of falling into
the grip of the now aggressive rulers of Persia. But in the West, the
success was only temporary. Under pressure of Tartar or Slavonic hosts
from the East, a fresh Teutonic swarm, the Lombards, entered Italy and
mastered the North. The significance of Rome now lay in the supremacy
of her pontificate, unacknowledged in the East.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |               TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: A.D. 1 to 500               |
  |                                                                    |
  | Organisation of the Roman Empire. The Rise of Christianity.        |
  | Partition of the Empire. The Barbarian Invasion and Fall of the    |
  | Western Empire. Rise of the Franks                                 |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+
  |A.D. |   The East and Africa    |          Europe             |A.D. |
  |   1 |                          | Beginning of the Christian  |   1 |
  |     |                          |   Era.                      |     |
  |     |                          | Imperial system completed   |     |
  |     |                          |   under Tiberius.           |     |
  |     |                          | Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates|     |
  |     |                          |   form frontiers of the     |     |
  |     |                          |   Empire.                   |     |
  |     |                          | Caligula and Claudius       |     |
  |     |                          |   emperors.                 |     |
  |     |                          | BRITAIN: Roman occupation.  |     |
  |     |                          | Spread of Christianity.     |     |
  |  50 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+  50 |
  |     |                          | Nero emperor: Galba, Otho,  |     |
  |     |                          |   Vitellius.                |     |
  |     | Destruction of Jerusalem | Vespasian: the “Flavian”    |     |
  |     |   by Titus, 70.          |   emperors.                 |     |
  |     |                          | Nerva chosen by Senate in   |     |
  |     |                          |   succession to Domitian.   |     |
  |     |                          | The “Five good Emperors,”   |     |
  |     |                          |   96-180.                   |     |
  |     |                          | Succession of Trajan, 98.   |     |
  | 100 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 100 |
  |     | Arabia designated as a   | Trajan’s campaigns in Dacia.|     |
  |     |   Roman province.        | Administration organised    |     |
  |     | Trajan’s expedition to   |   under Hadrian.            |     |
  |     |   the Persian Gulf       | Roman law systematised by   |     |
  |     |   unsuccessful. Eastward |   Salvius Julianus.         |     |
  |     |   expansion of Rome      | Antoninus Pius.             |     |
  |     |   checked.               |                             |     |
  | 150 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 150 |
  |     | Establishment of Roman   | Development of Roman        |     |
            supremacy in Armenia.  |   civilisation in Gaul      |     |
  |     |                          |   and Spain.                |     |
  |     |                          | Campaigns of Marcus Aurelius|     |
  |     |                          |   in Pannonia.              |     |
  |     |                          | The legions in Illyria,     |     |
  |     |                          |   largely composed of       |     |
  |     |                          |   “barbarians,” acquire     |     |
  |     |                          |   power.                    |     |
  |     |                          | After Commodus, series of   |     |
  |     |                          |   emperors by military      |     |
  |     |                          |   selection.                |     |
  |     | Successful campaigns of  | Severus temporarily assigns |     |
            Severus against        |   the West to Clodius       |     |
  |     |   Parthians.             |   Albinus.                  |     |
  | 200 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 200 |
  |     | Persian kingdom of the   | Further systematising of    |     |
  |     |   Sassanides displaces   |   Roman law by the _juris   |     |
  |     |   the Parthian Empire.   |   consulti_, Ulpian, etc.   |     |
  |     |                          | Increasing pressure of      |     |
  |     |                          |   Teutonic tribes on the    |     |
  |     |                          |   frontier. Campaigns of    |     |
  |     |                          |   Maximinus.                |     |
  |     |                          | Decius emperor: official    |     |
  |     |                          |   persecution of            |     |
  |     |                          | Christianity.               |     |
  | 250 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 250 |
  |     | Overthrow of Emperor     | Advance of the Goths and    |     |
  |     |   Valerian in the East by|   Alemanni checked          |     |
  |     |   the Persians.          |   by Claudius and Aurelian. |     |
  |     | Destruction of Palmyra   | Diocletian emperor. Division|     |
  |     |   in the reign of        |   of the Empire under a     |     |
  |     |  Zenobia.                |   subordinate “Augustus” and|     |
  |     |                          |   two subordinate “Cæsars”. |     |
  | 300 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 300 |
  |     | Extension of Buddhism    | Last persecution of         |     |
  |     |   in China.              |   Christians under          |     |
  |     |                          |   Diocletian.               |     |
  |     |                          | Constantine the Great.      |     |
  |     |                          | Constantinople (New Rome,   |     |
  |     |                          |   Byzantium) is  made the   |     |
  |     |                          |   centre of the Empire.     |     |
  |     |                          | Christianity established as |     |
  |     |                          |   the State religion        |     |
  |     |                          |  Council of Nicæa.          |     |
  | 350 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 350 |
  |     | Unsuccessful Roman      | Temporary revival of Paganism|     |
  |     |   campaign against      |   under Julian the           |     |
  |     |   Persia.               |   Apostate.                  |     |
  |     |                         | Advance of the Goths checked |     |
  |     |                         |   by Theodosius.             |     |
  |     |                         | Empire separated into East   |     |
  |     |                         |   and West, 396.             |     |
  |     |                         | Alaric the Visigoth held in  |     |
  |     |                         |   check in the Western Empire|     |
  |     |                         |   by Stilicho.               |     |
  |     |                         | Westward movement of Vandals |     |
  |     |                         |   through Gaul to Spain.     |     |
  | 400 +-------------------------+------------------------------+ 400 |
  |     |                         | Sack of Rome by Alaric, after|     |
  |     |                         |   death of Stilicho.         |     |
  |     |                         | End of the Roman occupation  |     |
  |     |                         |   of Britain.                |     |
  |     |                         | The Goths withdraw westwards.|     |
  |     |                         |   Establishment of the       |     |
  |     |                         |   Visigothic kingdom of      |     |
  |     |                         |   Theoderic in Spain and     |     |
  |     | Vandals, expelled from  |   Aquitania.                 |     |
  |     |   Spain, established in | Irruption of the Huns under  |     |
  |     |   Africa.               |   Attila.                    |     |
  | 450 +-------------------------+------------------------------+ 450 |
  |     |                         | BRITAIN: The coming of the   |     |
  |     |                         |   Saxons.                    |     |
  |     |                         | Barbarian “Patricians” set up|     |
  |     |                         |   and depose Western         |     |
  |     |                         |   Emperors.                  |     |
  |     |                         | Odoacer, “King” in Italy,    |     |
  |     |                         |   recognises supremacy of the|     |
  |     |                         |   Eastern Emperor Zeno.      |     |
  |     |                         | Theoderic the Ostrogoth      |     |
  |     |                         |   founds a Teutonic State in |     |
  |     |                         |   Italy.                     |     |
  | 500 |                         | Rise of the Franks in Gaul,  | 500 |
  |A.D. |                         |   under Clovis.              |A.D. |
  +-----+-------------------------+------------------------------+-----+

In Spain, the Gothic supremacy gave promise of an orderly and just
government. In the wide realms of the Franks anarchy and bloodshed were
almost ceaseless. In neither did the dominant Teutons drive out the
older Iberian and Celtic populations, as the English were doing in the
open lands of the northern island. In both, the German institutions
were developing into that feudal system which was utterly incompatible
with the maintenance of a strong central rule, since it enabled a
powerful vassal to bid defiance to his nominal suzerain. Throughout the
sixth and seventh centuries progress was stayed in ancient Gaul; in
Spain it was to be revolutionised by a new invader.

[Sidenote: Islam in Being]

Eastward, at the end of the sixth century, the Slavonic wave was
surging upon the empire’s northern frontier; in Asia, Persia was
again forcing her way towards the Mediterranean. Both were checked by
the Emperor Heraclius early in the seventh century. But, meantime, a
new Power had come into being. Mohammed had arisen. Inspired by the
fanatical fervour of Islam, the warriors of Arabia, soon to be known as
the Saracens, swept all before them. They did not at first make Europe
their objective; the Caliphs carried their conquering arms over Western
Asia, into Egypt, and along the southern coasts of the Mediterranean.
Then they began to beat against the empire itself. The eighth century
had hardly opened when they poured into Spain; dissensions among the
Gothic chiefs gave them prompt victory. They swept up to the Pyrenees;
but their advance was stayed by Charles Martel, the virtual lord of the
Frankish kingdom. On the East their armies assailed Constantinople, but
were disastrously repulsed by the Emperor Leo the Isaurian.

Now, for the first time, Papal sanction was demanded and obtained for a
change of dynasty. The last Merovingian king of the Franks was deposed
in favour of Pepin, the son of Charles Martel. He was succeeded by his
son, Karl, a German of the Germans, despite the French form of his
popular title Charlemagne.

[Sidenote: Charlemagne and His Empire]

During his long reign the Moors in Spain were driven back beyond the
Ebro; the Saxon tribes across the Rhine were forced to submit and to
accept Christianity; the Lombard oppressors of Italy were vanquished;
and on the Pope’s initiative, Charlemagne himself was acclaimed and
crowned at Rome as emperor and successor of the Cæsars. All of the West
that remained to Byzantium was Southern Italy. The revived empire came
into being on Christmas Day, A.D. 800.

The great dominion and the organisation constructed by Charlemagne fell
into divisions after his death. The lands east of the Rhine remained
German; on the west, the Teutonic forces yielded to the Latinised
Celtic spirit. Slowly France and Germany emerged. In England the
supremacy among the rival peoples passed from the Angles of Northumbria
or of the Midlands to the Saxon house of Wessex. Hungary was held
by the Mongolian Avars, presently to be displaced by their Magyar
kinsmen; otherwise Eastern Europe, Illyria, as well as the Trans-Danube
districts, was being gradually possessed by the Slavonic races. Their
westward movement was decisively stayed in the tenth century by Henry
the Fowler and Otto the Great, who, for the second time, revived the
“Holy Roman Empire” in the West in a form which effectively translated
it into the “German Empire.” Meanwhile, the Vikings from the north
first ravaged the western coasts, then wrung great provinces from the
kings of England, and of “Francia,” preparing for the day when the
Norman spirit should set the tone of Western Europe.

[Sidenote: Birth of Feudalism in Europe]

In the Eastern Mohammedan world the Saracen dominion was passing to
Tartar races--to the Seljuk Turks or the Ghaznavid Turks, and later
to the Ottomans; the genuine Saracens had seen their greatest days in
the times of Harun-al-Raschid, when the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne
was being dismembered. Europe in the eleventh century had passed, or
was passing, into what is distinctively known as the Feudal Period,
or later Middle Ages. Everywhere it became the object of the great
rulers to establish a strong central government, and of the Papacy to
establish a supremacy over all governments. Feudalism and the Papacy
were the rivals of the centralising tendency.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |             TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: A.D. 500 to 1000              |
  |                                                                    |
  | Teutonic Races Dominate the West. Rise of Mohammed: extension of   |
  | Mohammedan Rule from Cordova to Kabul. Western Empire Revived      |
  | by Charlemagne and again by Otto                                   |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+
  |A.D. | The East and Africa      |           Europe            |A.D. |
  | 500 |                          | Franks predominant on Rhine | 500 |
  |     |                          |   and in Gaul.              |     |
  |     |                          | Justinian emperor at        |     |
  |     |                          |   Constantinople.           |     |
  |     | Overthrow of the African | Roman Law codified in the   |     |
  |     |   Vandal kingdom by      |   Institutes.               |     |
  |     |   Belisarius, general of | Overthrow of Gothic kingdom |     |
  |     |   Justinian.             |   in Italy by Belisarius.   |     |
  |     |                          | Advance of Saxons (South)   |     |
  |     |                          |   and Angles (East) in      |     |
  |     |                          |   England.                  |     |
  | 550 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 550 |
  |     | Buddhism introduced in   | Lombard conquest of North   |     |
  |     |   Japan.                 |   Italy.                    |     |
  |     |                          | Spread of Celtic            |     |
  |     |                          |   Christianity in Britain by|     |
  |     |                          |   St. Columba.              |     |
  |     | Advance of Persia against| Pontificate of Gregory the  |     |
  |     |   the Eastern Empire.    |   Great.                    |     |
  |     |                          | Latin Christianity          |     |
  |     |                          |   introduced into Kent by   |     |
  |     |                          |   St. Augustine, 597.       |     |
  | 600 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 600 |
  |     | Overthrow of Persia by   | ENGLAND: Supremacy of       |     |
  |     |   Emperor Heraclius.     |   Northumbria.              |     |
  |     | MOHAMMED. The Hegira     |                             |     |
  |     |   (622).                 | ITALY: North under Lombard  |     |
  |     |                          |   dominion; South attached  |     |
  |     | Conquest of Egypt and    |   to the Eastern Empire.    |     |
  |     |   Syria by the Caliphs   |                             |     |
  |     |   Abu-bekr and Omar.     | Avar dominion in Hungary.   |     |
  |     | Conquest of Persia, and  |                             |     |
  |     |   extension of Caliphate | Slavonic settlement in      |     |
  |     |   over West Asia.        |   Servia.                   |     |
  | 650 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 650 |
  |     | Saracens (Caliphate)     | ENGLAND: Final overthrow of |     |
  |     |   attack the Empire in   |   Paganism.                 |     |
  |     |   the East and in Africa.| Triumph of Roman over Celtic|     |
  |     |                          |   Christianity.             |     |
  |     | Rise of the Shiite sect  | FRANKS: Dukes of Austrasia  |     |
  |     |   of Mohammedans.        |   (East Franks) dominate the|     |
  |     |                          |   Merovingian kings.        |     |
  | 700 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 700 |
  |     | Revival in India of      | Saracens (or Moors)         |     |
  |     |   Brahmanism, gradually  |   overrun Spain.            |     |
  |     |   developing into modern | Saracen advance checked by  |     |
  |     |   Hinduism.              |   Emperor Leo the Isaurian  |     |
  |     |                          |   at Constantinople, and by |     |
  |     |                          |   Charles Martel at Tours.  |     |
  |     |                          | Beginning of the            |     |
  |     |                          |   Iconoclastic controversy. |     |
  |     |                          | Discussions between Papacy  |     |
  |     |                          |   and Eastern Church.       |     |
  | 750 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 750 |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Supremacy of       |     |
  |     |                          |   Mercia.                   |     |
  |     | Division of the Caliphate| FRANKS: Fall of the         |     |
  |     |   into Eastern (Abassid) |   Merovingian dynasty.      |     |
  |     |   at Bagdad and Western  | Pepin the Short founds the  |     |
  |     |   (Ommeiad) at Cordova.  |   Karling or Carolingian    |     |
  |     |                          |   Dynasty.                  |     |
  |     | Rise of the Turks in the | Empress Irene at            |     |
  |     |   Caliphate armies.      |   Constantinople.           |     |
  |     |                          | FRANKS: Karl the Great      |     |
  |     | Harun-al-Raschid Caliph  |   (Charlemagne) succeeds    |     |
  |     |   at Bagdad.             |   Pepin as king of the      |     |
  |     |                          |   Franks. He drives the     |     |
  |     |                          |   Moors beyond the Ebro,    |     |
  |     |                          |   conquers the Lombards, and|     |
  |     |                          |   is crowned as Roman       |     |
  |     |                          |   Emperor by the Pope.      |     |
  |     |                          |   (800).                    |     |
  | 800 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 800 |
  |     |                          | Subjugation of the Saxons   |     |
  |     |                          |   by Charlemagne.           |     |
  |     | Increasing power of the  | Division of Charlemagne’s   |     |
  |     |    Western Caliphate.    |   dominion among his        |     |
  |     |                          |   grandsons.                |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Supremacy of       |     |
  |     |                          |   Wessex under Egbert.      |     |
  |     |                          | The Danes, or Northmen,     |     |
  |     |                          |   harry the coasts of       |     |
  |     |                          |   Europe.                   |     |
  | 850 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 850 |
  |     | Fatemide Mohammedan      | Carolingian dominion divided|     |
  |     |   dynasty established in |   into West (Francia), East |     |
  |     |   Egypt.                 |   (Franconia, Germany),     |     |
  |     | Decline of the Abassid   |  Central (Burgundy) and     |     |
  |     |   Caliphs.               |    Italy.                   |     |
  |     |                          | Pressure of Slavonic peoples|     |
  |     |                          |   on East Germany.          |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Alfred the Great.  |     |
  |     |                          |   Settlement of the Danes   |     |
  |     |                          |   in the Danelagh.          |     |
  |     |                          |   Organisation of           |     |
  |     |                          |   Government, Law, etc.     |     |
  |     |                          | Advance of Magyars in       |     |
  |     |                          |   Hungary.                  |     |
  |     |                          | Iceland colonised, 874-950. |     |
  | 900 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 900 |
  |     |                          | FRANCE: Duchy of Normandy   |     |
  |     |                          |   ceded to Rollo.           |     |
  |     |                          | NORWAY united under Harold  |     |
  |     |                          |   Haarfager.                |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: House of Wessex    |     |
  |     |                          |   kings of all England.     |     |
  |     |                          | GERMANY: Henry the Fowler,  |     |
  |     |                          |   Saxon King of Germany,    |     |
  |     |                          |   and his son Otto the      |     |
  |     |                          |   Great, check the Magyar   |     |
  |     |                          |   advance.                  |     |
  |     |                          | Pressure of Slavs on        |     |
  |     |                          |    Eastern Empire.          |     |
  | 950 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ 950 |
  |     | Recovery of Eastern      | EMPIRE: Otto becomes King   |     |
  |     |   Provinces from the     |   of Italy and Roman        |     |
  |     |   Saracens by the        |   Emperor. The Holy Roman   |     |
  |     |   Byzantine Empire.      |   Empire is from this time  |     |
  |     |                          |   definitely German.        |     |
  |     |                          | FRANCE: The Capet dynasty   |     |
  |     |                          |   replaces the Carolingian. |     |
  |     |                          | Slavs driven back by Eastern|     |
  |     |                          |   Emperors. Russians        |     |
  |     |                          |   Christianised. Slav       |     |
  |1000 |                          |   dominion established in   |1000 |
  |A.D. |                          |   Poland.                   |A.D. |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+

[Sidenote: England and France]

In England, where a Norman dynasty and Norman aristocracy established
themselves, the unifying process was astonishingly rapid. The country
was comparatively shielded from Papal interposition by distance. A
series of vigorous and able monarchs prevented pure feudalism from
ever getting developed; it resulted that in the thirteenth century
baronage and people made common cause in imposing not feudalism, but
constitutional control over the kings. In France, the victory of the
crown over feudalism was far slower; the feudatories were too powerful,
and among them were the kings of England, as dukes or counts of great
territories within France. The Hundred Years’ War was, in fact, not so
much a contest for the French crown as a struggle between the French
kings and their mightiest vassals. It was not till the English had
been finally expelled that Louis XI. was enabled to make the crown
supreme in France. There, as in England, the monarchy never submitted
to the Papacy; it was so far victorious in that struggle that in the
fourteenth century the seat of the Roman pontificate was transferred
to Avignon, and the Pontiff himself became literally the creature of
France.

[Sidenote: Christendom and the Crusades]

Spain and Byzantium alike remained for the most part outside the
general European current. They were the buffers between Christendom and
Islam. In the Spanish Peninsula the Moors were held more or less at
bay, but the land was not freed from their dominion till the close of
the fifteenth century. Byzantium held the Turks at bay till the middle
of the same century; then she fell for ever. Between the eleventh
and thirteenth centuries, Christendom carried on against Islam the
long contest of the Crusades; but the warriors who took part in those
wars neither fought nor organised as though themselves forming an
organic body; the Christian hosts in Palestine were mere miscellaneous
gatherings, united only in the temporary fits of enthusiasm. The Holy
Sepulchre was gained, but within a century it was lost again; the
crusading cause was one to which not states, but individuals only,
devoted themselves. Conquest would have been possible only if the
Crusaders had gone forth prepared to make their own homes in Asia. The
East could not be held by garrisons with no abiding interest there.

Islam, then, held, and more than held, its own against the West; while
during these same centuries it swept east and south through the passes
of the Punjab into India, establishing Turk and Afghan kingdoms over
most of the great peninsula; though the vast bulk of the population
there held to the Hinduism which, born of the earlier Brahmanism, had
almost expelled the Buddhist religion, which, however, had established
itself permanently in Further India and China.

[Sidenote: Empire, Feudalism, & Papacy]

The might of Islam could have been overthrown only by a united
Christendom, and for that the disintegrating forces were too great.
England and, more slowly, France freed themselves from feudalism. But
Christendom required one head. If the Papacy had stood by the empire,
feudalism might have been broken down, and the emperor have become
that head. But the Papacy aimed at supremacy for itself--the spiritual
power was at war with the temporal. Anti-imperial factions claimed
the support of the Church; the efforts at consolidation of the great
Hohenstaufen Emperors, Barbarossa and Frederick II., were unsuccessful.
The empire itself became only a congeries of kingdoms and dukedoms,
counties, bishoprics, free cities, and leagues of cities, under the
Austrian house of Hapsburg; while Rome, mighty from the days of Gregory
VII. to Innocent III., lost its prestige in the captivity at Avignon
and by the Great Schism which followed. In England Wycliffe’s voice
was raised; on the south-east of the empire the Hussite wars raged,
premonitory of the Reformation.

[Sidenote: End of the Middle Ages]

In 1453 Constantinople fell, and the Turk was permanently established
in the east of Europe. As a counterstroke, in the west, not forty years
later, the Moorish dominion in Spain was wiped out, Spain emerging as
a united Christian kingdom. Before the end of the century Columbus and
Gama had discovered America, and virtually rediscovered India. Across
the ocean a new, almost unlimited field for expansion, for enterprise,
for rivalry had been opened to the European peoples. Already in
the realms of intellect old forgotten knowledge had been gradually
recovered by the Renascence, the revival of learning and letters; with
the intellectual expansion and the invention of the printing press
paths to new knowledge were being opened. Men were shaking themselves
free from the shackles of authority and tradition. Hence, the sixteenth
century witnessed that revolt of half Western Christendom from Rome
which we call the Reformation; in its essence, though by no means in
its form at the first, a revolt against the interposition of any human
authority between the individual man and his Maker. With that revolt
political and national divisions were inextricably blended, while the
whole was complicated by the new conditions of political supremacy
created by the New World.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |            TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: A.D. 1000 to 1500              |
  |                                                                    |
  | Development of Feudalism. The Rise and Decadence of the Papacy.    |
  | The Crusades. Holy Roman Empire. The Organisation of England,      |
  | France, and Spain. The Renaissance                                 |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+
  |A.D. | The Non-Christian World  |         Christendom         |A.D. |
  |1000 |                          |                             |1000 |
  |     | Mahmud of Ghazni.        | Scandinavian power: Canute, |     |
  |     |   Beginning of           |   King of Norway, Sweden,   |     |
  |     |   Mohammedan invasions   |   Denmark, and England.     |     |
  |     |   of India.              | Franconian line of emperors;|     |
  |     |                          |   Burgundy reunited to      |     |
  |     |                          |   Empire.                   |     |
  |     |                          | Dynasty of Hugh Capet in    |     |
  |     |                          |   France.                   |     |
  |1050 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1050 |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: The Norman         |     |
  |     |                          |   conquest, 1066.           |     |
  |     |                          | Norman conquests in Sicily  |     |
  |     |                          |   and S. Italy.             |     |
  |     | Power of the Seljuk      | Power of the Empire under   |     |
  |     |   Turkish Dynasty.       |   Henry III.                |     |
  |     |                          | Pontificate of Gregory VII. |     |
  |     |                          |   (Hildebrand). Beginning   |     |
  |     |                          |   of the struggle between   |     |
  |     |                          |   Papacy and Empire (Henry  |     |
  |     |                          |   IV.)                      |     |
  |     |                          | First Crusade.              |     |
  |1100 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1100 |
  |     |                          | Development of Papal power. |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Organisation of    |     |
  |     |                          |   central government under  |     |
  |     |                          |   Henry I. checked under    |     |
  |     |                          |   Stephen.                  |     |
  |     |                          | Norman kingdom of Sicily.   |     |
  |     |                          | Conrad, first Hohenstaufen  |     |
  |     |                          |   emperor. Beginning of     |     |
  |     |                          |   Guelphs (Papal) and       |     |
  |     |                          |   Ghibellines (Imperial).   |     |
  |1150 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1150 |
  |     |                          | The Angevin dominion of     |     |
  |     |                          |   II., comprising half      |     |
  |     |                          |   France.                   |     |
  |     | Establishment of         | ENGLAND: End of feudal      |     |
  |     |   Mohammedan (Ghori)     |   anarchy. Maximum power of |     |
  |     |   dynasty at Delhi.      |   Crown. Henry worsted in   |     |
  |     |                          |   the struggle with the     |     |
  |     |                          |   Church.                   |     |
  |     | Conquests of the Saracens| Chivalry typified in Richard|     |
  |     |   under the Seljuk       |   Cœur-de-Lion.             |     |
  |     |   Saladin.               | Frederick Barbarossa        |     |
  |     |                          |   emperor, 1155-1190.       |     |
  |     | Third Crusade            | City development. Lombard   |     |
  |     |    (Cœur-de-Lion).       |   League; and German Free   |     |
  |     |                          |   Cities.                   |     |
  |     |                          | Advance of Moors in Spain.  |     |
  |1200 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1200 |
  |     | Genghis Khan: Tartar     | Highest power of Papacy,    |     |
  |     |   conquests in Asia and  |   under Innocent III.       |     |
  |     |   irruption into Europe. | Francis of Assisi:          |     |
  |     | Buddhism obsolescent in  |   institution of Mendicant  |     |
  |     |   India.                 |   Friars.                   |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Magna Charta;      |     |
  |     |                          |   contest of Crown and      |     |
  |     |                          |   Barons. Loss of Angevin   |     |
  |     |                          |   dominion.                 |     |
  |     |                          | FRANCE: Development of      |     |
  |     |                          |   central power under Louis |     |
  |     |                          |   VIII. and IX.             |     |
  |     |                          | Institution of the Teutonic |     |
  |     |                          |   knights.                  |     |
  |     |                          | Break up of the Eastern     |     |
  |     |                          |   Empire. Venice.           |     |
  |1250 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1250 |
  |     |                          | Decadence of Imperial power.|     |
  |     |                          |  First Habsburg emperor.    |     |
  |     |                          | End of the Crusading period.|     |
  |     | Rise of the Ottoman      | ITALY: Rise of Florence.    |     |
  |     |   (Othman) Turks.        |   Dante. Giotto.            |     |
  |     | Khublai Khan in Eastern  | ENGLAND: Establishment of   |     |
  |     |   Asia.                  |   Parliament (Montfort and  |     |
  |     |                          |   Edward I.). Organisation  |     |
  |     |                          |   of the English nation.    |     |
  |1300 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1300 |
  |     |                          | The Papacy “in captivity”   |     |
  |     |                          |   at Avignon.               |     |
  |     | Mameluke Sultans in      | Independence of Scotland.   |     |
  |     |   Egypt.                 | Independence of Switzerland.|     |
  |     |                          | Ottoman Turks establish a   |     |
  |     |                          |   footing in Europe.        |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND AND FRANCE:         |     |
  |     |                          |   Beginning of the 100      |     |
  |     |                          |   Years’ War.               |     |
  |1350 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1350 |
  |     | Rise of the Ming dynasty | The Jacquerie in France.    |     |
  |     |   in China: expulsion of | The Great Schism: period    |     |
  |     |   Mongols.               |   of dual Papacy.           |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Peasant revolt.    |     |
  |     | Conquests of Timur the   |   Failure of Richard II.’s  |     |
  |     |  Tartar (Tamerlane)      |   attempt at absolutism.    |     |
  |     |                          |   Wycliffe.                 |     |
  |     |                          | Union of Lithuania with     |     |
  |     |                          |   Poland.                   |     |
  |1400 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1400 |
  |     | Empires of Mexico and    | End of Great Schism.        |     |
  |     |   Peru.                  |   Hussite wars.             |     |
  |     |                          | English conquest of France, |     |
  |     |                          |   and subsequent expulsion. |     |
  |     |                          |   Increasing powers of      |     |
  |     |                          |   Parliament.               |     |
  |     |                          | Invention of printing press.|     |
  |1450 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1450 |
  |     |                          | Turks capture               |     |
  |     |                          |   Constantinople.           |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Wars of the Roses, |     |
  |     |                          |   1455-1485.                |     |
  |     |                          | Maritime greatness of       |     |
  |     |                          |   PORTUGAL.                 |     |
  |     |                          | SPAIN consolidated under    |     |
  |     |                          |   Ferdinand and Isabella.   |     |
  |     | Discovery of America by  | FRANCE consolidated under   |     |
  |     |   Christopher Columbus;  |   Louis XI.                 |     |
  |     |   and of Cape route to   | ENGLAND consolidated under  |     |
  |     |   India by Vasco da Gama.|   Henry VII. Establishment  |     |
  |     |                          |   of absolutism under       |     |
  |     |                          |   constitutional forms.     |     |
  |1500 |                          | Revival of learning.        | 1500|
  |A.D. |                          |   Humanists. Savonarola.    |A.D. |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+

[Sidenote: Growth of Modern Nations]

The next two centuries, then, saw France, already a consolidated state,
develop into the first military Power under the most absolute monarch
in Europe--through a stage of prolonged religious strife which ended
by establishing the tolerationist Bourbon, Henry IV., on the throne,
through the rule of the two great cardinals, Richelieu and Mazarin, to
the intolerant autocracy of Louis XIV., with a close aristocracy no
longer in opposition to the crown but allied to it.

In England the development was on different lines. There we find an
absolutist movement, the outcome of the Wars of the Roses. But however
autocratic the Tudors were, they held by constitutional forms, and
preserved the intense loyalty of their people. On Elizabeth’s death,
a century-old matrimonial alliance placed the sceptres of England and
Scotland in a single hand.

Then, on the theory of Divine right, the Crown attempted to override
the constitution; the Civil War gave the power neither to king nor
parliament, but to a military dictator. On his death the country
reverted to a compromise between Crown and Parliament; the Stuarts,
again, with the aid of their cousin, the autocrat of France,
attempted to recover absolutism. They were driven from the country,
and constitutionalism--in effect, government by an oligarchy of
landowners--was decisively established. The religious problem had found
a decisively Protestant solution at an early stage; but Anglicanism
and Puritanism soon grew mutually intolerant; it was only with the
Revolution of 1688 that toleration and constitutionalism definitely
triumphed together.

[Sidenote: Europe in Development]

Meanwhile, in the reign of Elizabeth, England had asserted her
intellectual eminence by giving birth to Shakespeare and to Bacon; and
had decisively displaced Spain from the rulership of the seas. In
the next century her colonisation of North America counterbalanced the
Spanish dominion in the south and centre of the Western Hemisphere,
though it was not unchallenged by France. In the East a great
commercial rivalry had grown up between English, Dutch, and French--a
rivalry still to be fought out.

[Sidenote: Collision of the Dynasties]

In the early years of the sixteenth century matrimonial alliances had
joined Spain, the Low Countries, and the empire under a single ruler,
a Hapsburg of the (Austrian) Imperial house. The vast dominion was
extended by the acquisition of the golden territories of the American
continent. The Empire passed to one Hapsburg branch, Spain and her
dependencies to another. In the empire, a temporary _modus vivendi_
was established between Roman Catholics and Protestants; but Spain,
the colossus which threatened to dominate Europe, was split by the
revolt of the Netherlands, and her power shaken to its foundations
by the collision with England. In the sixteenth century, Germany was
devastated by the religious Thirty Years’ War; Austria emerged only as
the chief among a number of German states, and Holland won a naval and
commercial position second only to that of England. The Ottoman Turks,
still aggressive, were still held in check. In India, a Turkish dynasty
known as the Moguls (Mughàls, Mongols) extended its sway from Kabul to
the mouth of the Ganges, and almost to Cape Comorin.

At the opening of the eighteenth century the aggressive Continental
policy of Louis XIV. involved Europe in the “War of the Spanish
Succession.” The French king’s armies were shattered by repeated blows
at the hands of Marlborough and Eugene, but he finally obtained his
primary object, the recognition of his grandson as king of Spain. The
threat of a Hapsburg domination passed into the threat of a Bourbon
domination. In the east of Europe a final limit was set to the Ottoman
aggression. In Britain, the incorporation of Scotland was completed,
formally by the Union of 1707, effectively by the suppression of
Jacobitism in 1746.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |            TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: A.D. 1500 to 1700              |
  |                                                                    |
  | New World Entered, and East Re-entered. The Reformation.           |
  | Organisation of European Nations under Absolute Monarchies.        |
  | Constitutional Struggle in England. English Naval Supremacy        |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+
  |A.D. |     Asia and Africa      |     Europe and America      |A.D. |
  |1500 |                          |                             |1500 |
  |     | The New World bestowed   | Raphael, Michael Angelo,    |     |
  |     |   on Spain and Portugal  |   and Titian.               |     |
  |     |   by the Bull of Pope    | Rivalry of Henry VIII.      |     |
  |     |   Alexander VI.          |   (1509-47), Francis I.     |     |
  |     | Portuguese dominion      |   (1515-47), and Charles V. |     |
  |     |   established in the     |   (1519-56), who combines   |     |
  |     |   Indian seas by         |   Spain, Burgundy, and the  |     |
  |     |   Albuquerque.           |   Empire.                   |     |
  |     | Conquest of Egypt by     | Luther challenges the       |     |
  |     |   Ottoman Turks.         |   Papacy, 1517-20.          |     |
  |     | Safid dynasty in Persia  | The Reformation era opens.  |     |
  |     |   (“The Sofy”).          |                             |     |
  |1520 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1520 |
  |     | First circumnavigation   | Turkish advance under       |     |
  |     |   completed, 1522.       |   Solyman the Magnificent.  |     |
  |     | Invasion of Hindostan    | Gustavus Vasa in Sweden,    |     |
  |     |   (Northern India) by    |   1523-60.                  |     |
  |     |   Baber, the first       | Spain conquers Mexico (1520)|     |
  |     |   “Mogul” emperor, 1526. |   Peru (1533).              |     |
  |     | Expulsion of Moguls:     | REFORMATION: Subjection     |     |
  |     |   dynasty of Sher Shah   |   of Church to Crown        |     |
  |     |   at Delhi, 1540.        |   (England). Confession of  |     |
  |     |                          |   Augsburg: Protestant      |     |
  |     |                          |   League. Calvin creates    |     |
  |     |                          |   Presbyterianism.          |     |
  |1540 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1540 |
  |     |                          | RUSSIA: Ivan the Terrible.  |     |
  |     |                          | Order of Jesuits formally   |     |
  |     |                          |   established.              |     |
  |     | François Xavier in       | GERMANY: Contest between    |     |
  |     |   Japan.                 |   Charles V. and Protestant |     |
  |     |                          |   princes of Germany ended  |     |
  |     |                          |   by compromise at Peace of |     |
  |     |                          |   Augsburg.                 |     |
  |     |  Restoration of Moguls,  | ENGLAND: Protestant         |     |
  |     |    1556.                 |   Revolution (Edward VI.)   |     |
  |     |                          |   followed by Romanist      |     |
  |     |                          |   reaction (Mary), and      |     |
  |     |                          |   final establishment of    |     |
  |     |                          |   Protestantism (Elizabeth) |     |
  |     |                          |   in England and Scotland.  |     |
  |1560 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1560 |
  |     | Rule of Akbar, 1556-1605.| SPAIN: Philip II. and the   |     |
  |     | Toleration of Hinduism.  |   Inquisition.              |     |
  |     |                          | Council of Trent defines    |     |
  |     |                          |   limits of Roman           |     |
  |     |                          |   Catholicism.              |     |
  |     |                          | FRANCE: Series of civil     |     |
  |     |                          |   wars of religion,         |     |
  |     |                          |   1562-95.                  |     |
  |     |                          | Revolt of Netherlands from  |     |
  |     |                          |   Spain.                    |     |
  |     |                          | Turkish advance checked at  |     |
  |     |                          |   Lepanto, 1571.            |     |
  |     |                          | PORTUGAL absorbed by Spain. |     |
  |1580 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1580 |
  |     | Mogul dominion           | Gradual success of the      |     |
  |     |   established and        |   Netherlands revolt.       |     |
  |     |   organised throughout   | English naval supremacy     |     |
  |     |   Northern India.        |   proved by the Armada 1588.|     |
  |     |                          | Decadence of Spain.         |     |
  |     |                          | FRANCE: Toleration secured  |     |
  |     |                          |   by Henri IV.              |     |
  |     |                          | Spenser, Marlowe, and       |     |
  |     |                          |   Shakespeare.              |     |
  |1600 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1600 |
  |     | Development of Japanese  | Galileo and Bacon.          |     |
  |     |   Feudalism.             | Union of English and        |     |
  |     | Reign of Jehan Gir in    |   Scottish Crowns, 1603.    |     |
  |     |   Hindostan, 1605-27.    | Dutch and English commerce  |     |
  |     | First English factory at |   in the East Indies.       |     |
  |     |   Surat, 1611.           | Virginia, first successful  |     |
  |     | First English Embassy to |   British colony in North   |     |
  |     |   Delhi, 1615.           |   America, 1606.            |     |
  |     |                          | HOLLAND: Independence       |     |
  |     |                          |   established, 1609.        |     |
  |     |                          | GERMANY: Thirty Years’ War  |     |
  |     |                          |   begins, 1618-48.          |     |
  |1620 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1620 |
  |     | Reign of Shah Jehan,     | Gustavus Adolphus.          |     |
  |     |   1627-58.               | FRANCE: Richelieu organises |     |
  |     | The Taj Mahal built.     |   absolutism.               |     |
  |     | End of the Portuguese    | ENGLAND: Constitutional     |     |
  |     |   power in the East.     |   struggle between Charles  |     |
  |     | Extension of the Mogul   |   I. and Parliament. The    |     |
  |     |   dominion into the      |   Petition of Right, 1628.  |     |
  |     |   Deccan.                | PORTUGAL recovers           |     |
  |     |                          |   independence.             |     |
  |1640 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1640 |
  |     | Rise of the Manchu       | FRANCE: Rule of Mazarin:    |     |
  |     |   (Tartar) dynasty in    |   absolutism established.   |     |
  |     |   China.                 | ENGLAND: Civil War,         |     |
  |     |                          |   resulting in military     |     |
  |     |                          |   protectorate.             |     |
  |     | Reign of Aurangzib,      | Thirty Years’ War ended by  |     |
  |     |   1658-1707.             |   Peace of Westphalia.      |     |
  |     | Rise of the Mahrattas    | Commercial and naval rivalry|     |
  |     |   under Sivaji.          |   of English and Dutch.     |     |
  |     |                          | Development of France into  |     |
  |     |                          |   the leading military      |     |
  |     |                          |   power.                    |     |
  |1660 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1660 |
  |     | France enters the field  | FRANCE: Louis XIV. initiates|     |
  |     |   in India.              |   policy of aggression.     |     |
  |     | Revival of intolerant    | ENGLAND: Charles II.        |     |
  |     |   Mohammedanism by       |   undermines supremacy of   |     |
  |     |   Aurangzib.             |   Parliament. Repression of |     |
  |     | Expansion of the Mogul   |   Nonconformity by          |     |
  |     |   Empire over Southern   |   Parliament.               |     |
  |     |   India.                 | Louis XIV. attacks Holland, |     |
  |     |                          |   with occasional support   |     |
  |     |                          |   from Charles II.          |     |
  |     |                          | ENGLAND: Attack on Romanism.|     |
  |1680 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1680 |
  |     |                          | Aggressive movement of      |     |
  |     |                          |   Turkey.                   |     |
  |     |                          | FRANCE: Louis XIV. revokes  |     |
  |     |                          |   Edict of Nantes, 1685.    |     |
  |     |                          | Constitutionalism           |     |
  |     |                          |   established in England    |     |
  |     |                          |   by the revolution of 1688.|     |
  |     |                          | Wars of England and Holland |     |
  |     |                          |   against France.           |     |
  |1700 |                          | RUSSIA: Peter the Great.    | 1700|
  |A.D. |                          | Newton and Leibnitz.        |A.D. |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+

[Sidenote: Settling Down of the Powers]

From 1739 to 1763 Europe was again plunged into wars, with an eight
years’ interval. The motives of those wars, and of the combinations
of states on either side, were complicated; the results were simple.
Prussia, under Frederick the Great, emerged as a first-class Power;
France lost her North American Colonies to Great Britain; the British
East India Company defeated the attempt of the French to establish a
paramount influence with the native princes, the Mogul Empire having
broken up into a congeries of practically independent satrapies; and
the British themselves became established as a territorial Power by
the conquest of Bengal. Russia also, organised at the beginning of the
century by Peter the Great, had taken her place definitely among the
great Powers.

During the next twenty years (1763-1783) Poland was absorbed by her
neighbours. The British Empire was sundered by the revolt of the older
American Colonies, which were established as the United States of
America; while Canada remained loyal. By this time the whole of Europe
was practically governed by absolute monarchies; but a cataclysm was
at hand. France became the scene of a tremendous revolution. Crown and
aristocracy were toppled into the abyss.

[Sidenote: Napoleon and the Revolution]

France proclaimed herself the liberator of the peoples; the monarchs
of Europe combined to suppress the proletariat. During the last decade
of the century one revolutionary constitution after another was set
up in Paris, while the revolutionary armies shattered monarchical
armies, and turned the “liberated” peoples into subject dependencies
of the Republic. On the seas, however, Britain successfully asserted
her supremacy. Of the commanders of the Republic, the most brilliant
was the Corsican Bonaparte. He dreamed of making Egypt the basis for
achieving an Asiatic empire, and thence overwhelming Europe; but
the dream was shattered when he found himself isolated by Nelson’s
destruction of the French fleet at Aboukir in the Battle of the Nile.
Returning to Paris, he transformed the republic into an empire; he set
up his brothers or his generals as rulers over half the kingdoms in
Europe; he dictated terms to every government except Britain. Britain
annihilated his fleets, and fought and beat his generals in the Spanish
Peninsula. He conquered the kings, but the nations rose against him,
and overthrew him; his last effort was crushed at Waterloo.

Absolutism was reinstated, but the proletariats had learnt to demand
freedom. Steam-power and steam-traction so changed the conditions
of production as to revolutionise the relations between labour and
capital, and between the landed and the manufacturing interests.
In Great Britain political power passed from the landowners to the
manufacturers with the great Reform Bill of 1832, and from the wealthy
to the labouring classes with the Franchise Bills of 1867 and 1884.
Every monarchy has been compelled to submit to limitations of its own
powers more or less copied from Britain.

[Sidenote: The World as it is]

Britain herself, not untaught by the breach with America, has learned
to establish responsible government in her Colonies, making them
virtually free states; and among those states the idea of federation
has taken root and is bearing fruit. In India, challenged by one native
race after another, she has extended her sway over the whole peninsula,
and has abolished the anomaly of governing her great dependency through
a trading company. In the West her kinsmen have raised the United
States into a mighty nation.

In Europe France has passed through monarchy and republic and second
empire into a stable republic; Italy has revolted against foreign
rulers, and become a united nation; the small peoples of the Balkan
Peninsula have now achieved by arms their liberty from Turkish rule.
Prussia has won the hegemony of the German states, and established
a new German Empire. Russia, the bogey of the West, and of Britain
in particular, has shown her weakness in collision with the sudden
development of Japan.

Finally, the Dark Continent has been explored and partitioned: in the
south, after a sharp conflict, British and Dutch are on the way to
become a united people; in the north, Egypt has been reorganised under
British administration. We end, as we began, with the land of the
Pyramids.

    ARTHUR D. INNES.


  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |            TIME-TABLE OF THE WORLD: A.D. 1700 to 1914              |
  |                                                                    |
  | Struggle for Colonial Supremacy. French Revolution and Napoleonic  |
  | Wars. Growth of Democracy and Consolidation of European States.    |
  | Colonial Extension of Responsible Government                       |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+
  |A.D. |    Asia, Africa, and     |     Europe and America      |A.D. |
  |1700 |       Australasia        |                             |1700 |
  |     |                          |                             |     |
  |     |                          | War of Spanish Succession,  |     |
  |     |                          |   1702-13. Bourbons         |     |
  |     |                          |   established in Spain.     |     |
  |     |                          | Career of Charles XII. of   |     |
  |     |                          |   Sweden, 1697-1718.        |     |
  |     |                          | GREAT BRITAIN: Incorporating|     |
  |     |                          |   union of England and      |     |
  |     |                          |   Scotland, 1707.           |     |
  |     |                          | Turkish advance decisively  |     |
  |     |                          |   stopped by Eugene, 1717.  |     |
  |     |                          | Alliance of France and      |     |
  |     |                          |   Great Britain.            |     |
  |1720 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1720 |
  |     |                          | Anglo-Spanish War, combined |     |
  |     |                          |   with War of the Austrian  |     |
  |     |                          |   Succession, 1739-48.      |     |
  |     |                          | Development of Prussian     |     |
  |     |                          |   military power under      |     |
  |     |                          |   Frederick William.        |     |
  |1740 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1740 |
  |     | Struggle between British | GREAT BRITAIN: End of       |     |
  |     |   and French in Southern |   Jacobitism (the           |     |
  |     |   India, 1746-61.        |   Forty-five) consolidates  |     |
  |     |                          |   the union.                |     |
  |     |                          | Seven Years’ War (1756-63): |     |
  |     |                          |   Prussia and Great Britain |     |
  |     |                          |   against France, Austria,  |     |
  |     | Clive conquers Bengal;   |   and Russia. Achievements  |     |
  |     |   beginning of British   |   of Frederick. Overthrow of|     |
  |     |   territorial power in   |   France at sea, and in     |     |
  |     |   India, 1757.           |   Canada and India.         |     |
  |1760 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1760 |
  |     | British dominion receives| Treaties of Paris and       |     |
  |     |   Mogul’s sanction.      |   Hubertsburg exclude France|     |
  |     |                          |   from America and India,   |     |
  |     |                          |   and confirm the position  |     |
  |     |                          |   of Prussia.               |     |
  |     | Haidar Ali in Mysore.    | Partition of Poland.        |     |
  |     | Governor-Generalship of  | GREAT BRITAIN: Quarrel      |     |
  |     |   Warren Hastings        |   with Colonies; leading to |     |
  |     |   (1774-85), establishes |   War of American           |     |
  |     |   the British power.     |   Independence, 1775-83.    |     |
  |1780 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1780 |
  |     | Dual control in India by | British recovery of naval   |     |
  |     |   East India Company and |   predominance.             |     |
  |     |   Parliamentary Board of | UNITED STATES: Independence |     |
  |     |   Control set up by      |   established 1783.         |     |
  |     |   Pitt’s India Act.      | FRANCE: French Revolution,  |     |
  |     |                          |   1789.                     |     |
  |     | Administration of British| War between European        |     |
  |     |   India systematised.    |   Coalitions and French     |     |
  |     |                          |   Republic, 1792-1802. Rise |     |
  |     |                          |   of Bonaparte. Triumphs of |     |
  |     |                          |   French Army and British   |     |
  |     | Overthrow of Mysore, and |   Navy.                     |     |
  |     |   and institution of     | GREAT BRITAIN: Legislative  |     |
  |     |   subsidiary alliances by|   Union with Ireland.       |     |
  |     |   Lord Wellesley.        | Kant and Goethe.            |     |
  |1800 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1800 |
  |     | Overthrow of Mahratta    | War renewed (1803) between  |     |
  |     |   power by Lord Hastings |   European Coalitions and   |     |
  |     |   (1819): extensive      |   Emperor Napoleon (1804).  |     |
  |     |   annexations.           |   Trafalgar and Austerlitz, |     |
  |     | Acquisition of Cape      |   1805. Peninsula War,      |     |
  |     |   Colony from Holland by |   1808-13. Moscow Campaign, |     |
  |     |   Great Britain.         |   1812. Waterloo Campaign,  |     |
  |     | Gradual planting of      |   1815.                     |     |
  |     |   Australasian Colonies. | European reconstruction.    |     |
  |     |                          |   Absolutist reaction: the  |     |
  |     |                          |   Holy alliance.            |     |
  |1820 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1820 |
  |     |                          | Independence of South and   |     |
  |     |                          |   Central American States.  |     |
  |     |                          | Greek War of Independence,  |     |
  |     |                          |   1822-29.                  |     |
  |     | Aggressive Eastward      | FRANCE: Constitutional      |     |
  |     |   movement of Persia     |   Monarchy under Louis      |     |
  |     |   checked at Herat.      |   Philippe, 1830-48.        |     |
  |     | First Afghan Wars,       | GREAT BRITAIN: Parliamentary|     |
  |     |   1839-42.               |   Reform and manufacturing  |     |
  |     | CHINA: First collision   |   development. Railways.    |     |
  |     |   with Europe.           |                             |     |
  |1840 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1840 |
  |     | Sikh Wars, 1845-49.      | Charles Darwin.             |     |
  |     | Annexations under        | Revolutionary movements in  |     |
  |     |   Dalhousie.             |   Europe.                   |     |
  |     | Indian Mutiny, 1857.     | FRANCE: Republic (1849)     |     |
  |     |   Transfer of Indian     |   passing to Empire of      |     |
  |     |   Government to British  |   Napoleon III. (1852).     |     |
  |     |   Crown, 1858.           | Crimean War, 1854-56.       |     |
  |     | JAPAN: Admission of      | Establishment of responsible|     |
  |     |   foreign traders.       |   government in British     |     |
  |     |                          |   Colonies.                 |     |
  |1860 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1860 |
  |     | JAPAN: Revived power of  | American Civil War,         |     |
  |     |   the Mikado.            |   1861-65. Abolition of     |     |
  |     |                          |   Slavery.                  |     |
  |     | Advance of Russia in     | Independence of United Italy|     |
  |     |   Central Asia towards   |   under Victor Emmanuel.    |     |
  |     |   India.                 | Prussia acquires leadership |     |
  |     |                          |   of German States 1866.    |     |
  |     | Second Afghan War,       | Franco-Prussian War,        |     |
  |     |   1878-80.               |   1870-71. New German       |     |
  |     |                          |   Empire, and new French    |     |
  |     |                          |   Republic.                 |     |
  |     |                          | Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. |     |
  |1880 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1880 |
  |     | Mahdism in the Eastern   | British control established |     |
  |     |   Sudan; ended at        |   in Egypt.                 |     |
  |     |   Omdurman in 1898.      | Repeated disturbances in the|     |
  |     |   British control        |   Balkan States established |     |
  |     |   established.           |   by the Russo-Turkish War. |     |
  |     | Partition of Africa into | First Peace Conference of   |     |
  |     |   “Spheres of Influence.”|   European powers at the    |     |
  |     | War between China and    |   Hague, 1899.              |     |
  |     |   Japan.                 | Norway separates from       |     |
  |     | Annexation of Philippines|   Sweden and elects King    |     |
  |     |   by United States.      |   Haakon, 1905.             |     |
  |     | South African War        | Second Peace Conference at  |     |
  |     |   (1899-1902) and        |   the Hague, 1907.          |     |
  |     |   incorporation of Dutch |                             |     |
  |     |   States into British    |                             |     |
  |     |   Empire.                |                             |     |
  |     | Federation of Australian |                             |     |
  |     |   Colonies, 1901.        |                             |     |
  |     | War between Russia and   |                             |     |
  |     |   Japan, 1904-5.         |                             |     |
  |1910 +--------------------------+-----------------------------+1910 |
  |     | CHINA: Revolution: Manchu| Allied Balkan States defeat |     |
  |     |   dynasty displaced by   |   Turkey, 1912.             |     |
  |     |   Republic, 1912.        | Creation of Albania as      |     |
  |     | Tripoli annexed by Italy |   independent state, 1914.  |     |
  |     |   from Ottoman Empire,   | Revolution in Mexico,       |     |
  |A.D. |   1912.                  |   1913-14.                  |A.D. |
  +-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+-----+


A TIME-TABLE OF THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD

FROM THE BEGINNING OF HISTORY TO THE PRESENT DAY

Showing at a glance the fate of all nations, their rise, their sway,
their decline, and their successors

    On this double-page are shown the empires of the ancient world to
    the rise of Rome, and on the succeeding double-page the ruling
    powers from Rome until the present day. The chronology is in
    divisions of a hundred years, except the first four, which, for
    convenience of space, are shown in longer periods

[Illustration:

    NOTABLE EVENTS                                                 B. C.
                                                                    8000

  The earliest civilisation known is that of Egypt, traces of
  which have been found dating back to 7,000 or 8,000 B.C.
  Equally early civilisations were probably established in the
  Euphrates Valley.                                                 4000

  In the fifth millennium Khufu built the Great Pyramids; in
  the fourth a Semitic migration, spreading westward from Asia,
  peopled Babylonia, Assyria, Canaan, and Phœnicia afresh,
  establishing new nations and kingdoms.                            3000

  The third millennium saw the Aryan invasion of India; the
  beginning of Chinese history; and Aryan and Semitic waves of
  migration towards Europe.                                         2000
  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos, a Semitic nomadic race.        1500

  Hittite Empire established in Syria.

  During the next three hundred years, of which the history
  is obscure, the dynasty of the Ramesides was established in
  Egypt, which waged wars with the Hittite Empire. Rameses          1400
  II. is popularly identified with the Pharaoh of the Exodus,
  an event which is also identified with the expulsion of the
  Hyksos. The supremacy in the Mesopotamian regions alternates      1300
  between Assyrian and Babylonian dynasties.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------  1200

  Rise of a Hebrew nation.

  Age of Phœnician prosperity; commercial importance of Sidon
  and Tyre.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------  1100

  Ionic and Doric migrations.

  Predominance of Phrygia among kingdoms of Asia Minor.

  1048 B.C. David captures Jerusalem and becomes King over all
  Israel.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------  1000
]

[Illustration:

    JAPAN

    CHINESE
    EMPIRE

    INDIA

    PARTHIAN
    EMPIRE

    ARABIA

    ROMAN EMPIRE

    BRITAIN
]


  ----------------------------------------------------------------  1000

  975 B.C. Division of the Hebrew kingdom into Judah and Israel
  after the death of Solomon.

  Growth of the Hellenic States.

  The age of Homer.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   900

  850 B.C. Foundation of Carthage.

  Beginnings of the Latin and Etruscan peoples.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   800

  Assyrian conquest of Babylon, Syria, and Israel.

  753 B.C. The foundation of Rome.

  Rapid spread of the Greek Colonies.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   700

  Beginnings of the Macedonian kingdom.

  Rise of Media.

  Beginnings of Japanese history.

  Decline of Assyria, fall of Nineveh, and establishment of new
  Babylonian Empire.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   600

  Cyrus, King of Persia, conquers Media, establishes his empire
  over Lydia, Assyria, and Babylonia (538 B.C.). His son
  Cambyses conquers Egypt, 525 B.C.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   500

  The Greek States revolt against Persia and are triumphant.

  Egypt regains independence.

  Steady growth of Roman ascendancy in Italy.

  Struggle between Athens and Sparta.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   400

  Conquests of Alexander the Great (334-322 B.C.). He conquers
  Persia, masters Egypt, and invades India. At his death his
  empire is divided: Egypt falls under the Ptolemies, Syria
  under the Seleucidæ.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   300

  Babylon absorbed by Parthian Empire.

  Carthage dominates Spain.

  Wars between Rome and Carthage. Overthrow of Carthage (202
  B.C.).

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   200

  Judea attains independence under the Maccabees.

  Growing power of Rome. Macedon a Roman province; Egypt and
  Syria made Roman protectorates. The Greek States are absorbed
  into province of Macedon.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------   100

  Cæsar conquers Gaul and lands in Britain.

  Egypt becomes a Roman province.

  Augustus Cæsar. Establishment of the Roman Empire.                B.C.


[Illustration: FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT
DAY

    JAPAN

    CHINESE EMPIRE

    INDIA

    PARTHIAN EMPIRE

    ARABIA

    ROMAN EMPIRE

    BRITAIN]


  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  NOTABLE EVENTS

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  For the first four centuries of the Christian era the Roman
  Empire absorbed the “known” world, bounded in Europe by
  the ocean, the Rhine, and the Danube, and in Asia by the
  Euphrates, and including the Mediterranean districts of
  Africa. Germanic tribes bore with ever-increasing pressure
  upon her European borders, and the Parthians defied her in
  the East. At the close of the third century the centre of
  political gravity was passing from Rome itself to Byzantium,
  preparing for the scission of the Empire, into Eastern and
  Western, which was practically at the close of the fourth
  century, when it was becoming increasingly clear that Rome
  could not stand against the Barbarian invaders, notably the
  Goths under Alaric.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  In the fifth century the Empire, long weakened by corruption
  and the tyranny of the army, was overwhelmed by the
  Barbarians. Vandals, Western Goths, and Suevi poured into
  Spain; Franks and Alemanni spread over Gaul; Ostro-Goths and
  Lombards settled in North Italy; Huns and Avars attacked
  Thrace.

  Britain was invaded by Saxons, Jutes, and Angles.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  The seventh and eighth centuries were marked by the rapid
  rise of Mohammedanism in Arabia; the conquests of the
  Saracens in Egypt, Africa, and West Asia; the establishment
  of the Caliphate at Bagdad; and their invasion of Spain. Here
  they were checked by the Franks.

  Charlemagne, son of Pippin, King of the Franks in Germany and
  Gaul, was crowned in 768, conquered Lombardy in 774, calling
  himself “King of the Franks and Lombards and Patrician of
  the Romans.” His empire was divided after his death; from
  it emerged modern France and Germany. His coronation by the
  Pope at Rome (A.D. 800) originated the idea of the Holy Roman
  Empire.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

[Illustration]

    JAPAN

    CHINESE
    EMPIRE

    {BRITISH
    {INDIAN
    {EMPIRE

    AFGHANISTAN

    PERSIA

    ARABIA

    EGYPT

    TURKEY
    {BALKAN
    {STATES

    GREECE

    RUSSIAN
    EMPIRE

    ITALY

    AUSTRO-HUNGARY

    GERMAN
    EMPIRE

    BELGIUM

    HOLLAND

    SWITZERLAND

    FRANCE

    PORTUGAL

    {SOUTH
    {AMERICAN
    {STATES

    SPAIN

    MEXICO

    MOROCCO

    GREAT
    BRITAIN
    &
    IRELAND

    UNITED
    STATES

    DENMARK

    NORWAY

    SWEDEN

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Disintegration of the Empire of the Caliphs, and rise in Asia
  Minor of the Seljuk Turks, making war against the Byzantine
  Empire and the Crusaders, and conquering Egypt.

  India is invaded by Mohammedan Afghan rulers, who eventually
  establish a dynasty at Delhi.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  The Kingdoms of Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland, converted to
  Christianity in the tenth century, come into increasing
  prominence.

  The Kings of Castile, Navarre, Aragon and Portugal war
  against the Moors, who (A.D. 1248) are restricted to Granada.

  The Mamelukes (Slave kings) conquer Egypt (1252).

  Switzerland attains independence.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Failure of England to absorb Scotland, or to conquer France.
  The Hundred Years’ War.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  The Turks capture Constantinople (1453).

  The Netherlands (Burgundy) united to the House of Hapsburg.
  (1477).

  Spain united; overthrow of the Moorish dominion.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria. Spain and Portugal
  take possession of the New World. Mogul Empire established in
  Hindostan. The Reformation leads to revolt of the Netherlands
  from Spain; Spain absorbs Portugal.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Union of English and Scottish crowns (1603); followed by
  legislative union (1707). Disruption of Germany in the Thirty
  Years’ War. Establishment of English Colonies in America.
  Portugal recovers independence.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Spain becomes a Bourbon Power. Rise of Russia and Prussia.
  Partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
  Further disintegration of German Empire. British dominion in
  India and North America. Independence of United States.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  France predominant under Napoleon. Rise of South American
  States. Establishment of British India. Italy independent.
  Egypt, Greece, and Balkan States freed from Turkey.
  Foundation of German Empire.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  Independence of Norway (1905).

  ----------------------------------------------------------------


    +-------------------------------------------+
    |      CONTEMPORARY FIGURES IN HISTORY      |
    +------+------------------------------------+
    | TIME |                                    |
    | B.C. |                                    |
    +------+--------------+---------------------+
    |  500 |India         |Buddha               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |China         |Confucious           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Persia        |Darius               |
    |      |              |Xerxes               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Greece        |Æschylus             |
    |      |              |Themistocles         |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome          |Tarquin the Proud    |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Judah         |Haggai               |
    |      |              |Zechariah            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  450 |Persia        |Artaxerxes           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Greece        |Socrates             |
    |      |              |Plato                |
    |      |              |Pericles             |
    |      |              |Herodotus            |
    |      |              |Thucydides           |
    |      |              |Sophocles            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Judah         |Nehemiah             |
    |      |              |Ezra                 |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  400 |Greece        |Euripides            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  350 |Greece        |Aristotle            |
    |      |              |Demosthenes          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Macedon       |Philip               |
    |      |              |Alexander            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  200 |Rome          |Hannibal             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Judah         |Judas Maccabæus      |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |   50 |Rome          |Julius Cæsar         |
    |      |              |Cicero               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Egypt         |Cleopatra            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |Jesus |Rome          |Augustus             |
    |Christ|              |Tiberius             |
    |      |              |Horace               |
    |      |              |Virgil, Livy         |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Judah         |John the Baptist     |
    +------+--------------+---------------------+
    +------+------------------------------------+
    | A.D. |                                    |
    +------+--------------+---------------------+
    |   50 |Britain       |Boadicea             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Seneca               |
    |      |              |St. Paul             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Josephus             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  300 |Rome, Italy   |Constantine          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Athanasius           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  400 |Rome, Italy   |Alaric               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Augustine            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  600 |France        |Chas Matel           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  700 |Britain       |Bede                 |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |  800 |Britain       |Alfred               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Charlemagne          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Haroun-al-Raschid    |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1100 |Spain         |The Cid              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Omar Khayyam (Persia)|
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1200 |Rome, Italy   |St. Francis          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1300 |Britain       |Chaucer              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Switzerland   |William Tell         |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Aquinas              |
    |      |              |Dante                |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Tamerlane            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1350 |Britain       |Wycliffe             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Froissant            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Switzerland   |Arnold von Winkelried|
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Petrarch             |
    |      |              |Boccaccio            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Africa & East |Hafiz (Persia)       |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1450 |Britain       |Caxton               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Da Vinci             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1500 |Britain       |Knox                 |
    |      |              |Latimer              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Rabelais             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Luther               |
    |      |              |Copernicus           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Switzerland   |Calvin               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Columbus             |
    |      |              |Savonarola           |
    |      |              |Machiavelli          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Spain         |Ignatius Loyola      |
    |      |              |St. Theresa          |
    |      |              |Ferdnd. & Isabella   |
    |      |              |Cortez               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1550 |Britain       |Philip Sidney        |
    |      |              |Spenser              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Montaigne            |
    |      |              |Scaliger             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Cellini              |
    |      |              |Tasso                |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Spain         |Alva                 |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Netherlands   |William the Silent   |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Russia        |Ivan the Terrible    |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1600 |Britain       |Shakespeare          |
    |      |              |Raleigh              |
    |      |              |Bacon                |
    |      |              |Jonson               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Corneille            |
    |      |              |Richelieu            |
    |      |              |Descartes            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Kepler               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Galileo              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Spain         |Cervantes            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Scandinavia   |Gustavus Adolphus    |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Netherlands   |Rubens               |
    |      |              |Van Dyck             |
    |      |              |Grotius              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1650 |Britain       |Cromwell             |
    |      |              |Milton               |
    |      |              |Bunyan               |
    |      |              |Dryden               |
    |      |              |Locke                |
    |      |              |Hobbes               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Pascal               |
    |      |              |Racine               |
    |      |              |Molière              |
    |      |              |Fénélon              |
    |      |              |Rochefoucauld        |
    |      |              |Louis XIV.           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Leibnitz             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Netherlands   |Spinoza              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Russia        |Peter the Gt. &      |
    |      |              |  Catherine          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1700 |Britain       |Swift                |
    |      |              |Steele               |
    |      |              |Addison              |
    |      |              |Walpole              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Handel               |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Scandinavia   |Holberg              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1750 |Britain       |Chatham              |
    |      |              |Burke                |
    |      |              |Pitt and Fox         |
    |      |              |Wesley               |
    |      |              |Burns                |
    |      |              |Goldsmith            |
    |      |              |Sheridan             |
    |      |              |Dr. Johnson          |
    |      |              |Coleridge            |
    |      |              |Flaxman              |
    |      |              |Reynolds             |
    |      |              |Gainsboro’gh         |
    |      |              |Nelson               |
    |      |              |Wellington           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Voltaire             |
    |      |              |Lavoisier            |
    |      |              |Napoleon             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Fredk the Gt         |
    |      |              |Goethe               |
    |      |              |Schiller             |
    |      |              |Haydn                |
    |      |              |Mozart               |
    |      |              |Kant                 |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Switzerland   |Rousseau             |
    |      |              |Gessner              |
    |      |              |Pestalozzi           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |America       |Franklin             |
    |      |              |Washington           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1800 |Britain       |Faraday              |
    |      |              |Scott                |
    |      |              |Byron                |
    |      |              |Keats                |
    |      |              |Shelley              |
    |      |              |Wordsworth           |
    |      |              |Lamb                 |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Hegel                |
    |      |              |Beethoven            |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Scandinavia   |Tegner               |
    |      |              |Thorwaldsen          |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1825 |Britain       |Gladstone            |
    |      |              |Macauley             |
    |      |              |Disraeli             |
    |      |              |Landseer             |
    |      |              |Mill                 |
    |      |              |Livingstone          |
    |      |              |Ruskin               |
    |      |              |Dickens              |
    |      |              |Carlyle              |
    |      |              |Thackeray            |
    |      |              |Browning             |
    |      |              |Tennyson             |
    |      |              |Darwin               |
    |      |              |Huxley               |
    |      |              |Spencer              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |France        |Balzac               |
    |      |              |Dumas                |
    |      |              |Victor Hugo          |
    |      |              |Georges Sand         |
    |      |              |Lesseps              |
    |      |              |Napoleon 3           |
    |      |              |Gambetta             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Germany       |Wagner               |
    |      |              |Heine                |
    |      |              |Bismarck             |
    |      |              |Moltke               |
    |      |              |William I.           |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Rome, Italy   |Garibaldi            |
    |      |              |Mazzini              |
    |      |              |Cavour               |
    |      |              |Victor Emmanuel      |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |Scandinavia   |Hans Andersen        |
    |      |              |Runeberg             |
    |      |              |Wergeland            |
    |      |              |Welhaven             |
    |      |              |Ibsen                |
    |      |              |Bjornson             |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      |America       |Irving               |
    |      |              |Emerson              |
    |      |              |Longfellow           |
    |      |              |Whittier             |
    |      |              |Lowell               |
    |      |              |Holmes               |
    |      |              |Lincoln              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      | Russia       |Turgenieff           |
    |      |              |Tolstoy              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    |      | Hungary      |Kossuth              |
    |      +--------------+---------------------+
    | 1900 |              |                     |
    +------+--------------+---------------------+




[Illustration: MAKING OF THE EARTH AND THE COMING OF MAN]




THE BEGINNING OF THE EARTH

BY PROFESSOR SOLLAS


The origin of our planet is a problem which has appealed to the
intellect of thoughtful men from the most remote times, and the
earliest recorded speculations concerning it--those of the Mosaic
cosmogony--possess a peculiar interest, since they embody the views of
the ancient Chaldeans, who were not only systematic observers of the
heavens, but made practical use of their results.

[Sidenote: Beginning of a Famous Theory]

The Mosaic cosmogony is not unworthy of the great people among whom
it took its rise; it recognises the fact that the earth had a history
antecedent to the advent of man, and its account of the order of
events in this history is not only remarkable as a feat of _a priori_
reasoning, but accords in some respects with the results achieved after
much labour by modern science.

It was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that the reign
of evolution began, and attempts were made to trace the history of
a planetary system from its source in a primeval nebula on purely
mechanical grounds. Swedenborg (1735) was the pioneer in this
direction, then came Thomas Wright (1750) of Durham, whose work
furnished inspiration to Emanuel Kant (1755), and led him to construct
a consistent scheme of the Universe. The last of this group of cosmic
philosophers is Laplace (1796), whose admirable description of the
evolution of the solar system was arrived at independently, and without
knowledge of the previous work of Kant.

Laplace assumed as his starting-point the existence of a nebula formed
of incandescent gas, and extending beyond the limits of the outermost
planet of our system. It was in rotation about a central axis, and
possessed in consequence a disc-like or lenticular form. Radiating
its heat away in all directions through surrounding space, it grew
continually colder, and in cooling diminished in bulk. As a consequence
of this contraction its rate of rotation increased, till at length the
centrifugal force of the outermost part became so great that this could
no longer continue to follow the contracting mass within, and thus
remained behind as a great rotating ring. The continued contraction
of the internal mass, and the resulting increase in the velocity of
rotation, again brought about the same condition of things, and a fresh
ring was left behind.

[Sidenote: Cooling of the Nebula]

This process was repeated time after time, till as many rings were
formed as there are planets in the solar system; the central mass
which survived within the innermost ring condensed to form the sun.
The rings were highly unstable--that is to say, a slight disturbing
force was sufficient to destroy their continuity; they broke across and
rolled up into great nebulous globes, which revolved round the sun in
the same direction as the original nebula, and rotated on their axes
in the same direction as that in which they revolved. Most of them
repeated the behaviour of the original nebulæ, leaving behind rings
as they contracted, and these rings either rolled up to form moons or
satellites, or, in the solitary instance of Saturn’s rings, retained
their annular form. The rings are now known to consist of a multitude
of solid bodies, as proved by Clerk-Maxwell.

[Sidenote: The Temperature of the Earth]

By this hypothesis, so beautiful in its simplicity, an explanation was
afforded embracing all the more important facts of our system; the
revolution of all the planets in nearly circular orbits and in the
same direction as that in which the sun rotates, and the revolution of
their satellites, also in circular orbits and in the same direction
as their primaries; the comparatively high temperature and consequent
low density of the larger planets and the sun, as well as a variety of
other phenomena, all seem to follow naturally from it. The fundamental
assumption seems to be in harmony with a number of known facts. Thus
in the case of our own planet the volcanoes distributed around the
margins of the oceans, and the hot springs scattered irregularly over
the whole terrestrial surface, suggest that great stores of heat exist
beneath our feet, a presumption which finds confirmation in the fact
that whenever we descend towards the interior of the earth, as in
deep mines or wells, the temperature continues steadily to rise after
we have passed a depth below which seasonal and diurnal changes of
temperature cease to be felt, the rise being in some cases as much as 3
deg. for 100 ft., in others only 1 deg. for the same distance, but on
the average 1 deg. for 60 ft. or 70 ft. If this increase of temperature
continues down to great depths, and there seems to be no reason why it
should not, then a point will be reached, say, at thirty or forty miles
down, where the interior will attain a white heat.

[Sidenote: The Earth as a Star]

Thus the earth might be regarded as a white hot body surrounded with a
film of rock growing continually cooler towards the surface. But such a
hot body suspended in space must be cooling, just as all bodies which
are hotter than their surroundings. It is cooler to-day than it was
yesterday, or--what is the same thing--it was hotter yesterday than it
is to-day, and so of all previous yesterdays. And thus as we travel
backwards in time we perceive that the earth will be growing hotter,
the level of white heat will be mounting upwards towards the surface,
and will at last reach it, so that the earth, instead of being, as it
now is, a dark body shining only with the reflected light of the sun,
will be self-luminous, a tiny star of a magnitude so diminutive as to
have awakened resentment on the part of some terrestrial inhabitants,
who have regarded it as disproportionate to their dignity. But we
cannot arrest imagination at this stage; our thought still extends
its retrospective glance into the abyss of past time, and we perceive
the earth still growing hotter, till its temperature transcends
those limits at which it can exist in the solid state. It becomes
molten--nay, more, it becomes gaseous, and thus resumes the nebular
state from which it sprang. Precisely the same argument applies to
the sun; our mighty luminary is also a cooling body, and if we could
restore to it the heat which it has lost in the course of past æons
it would resume a completely gaseous state. Modified in one way or
another, this chain of reasoning seemed irrefragable in those happy
days which preceded the discovery of radium.

[Sidenote: Universe still in Evolution]

The question may be considered from another point of view. On searching
the heavens we find that many of the stages which are assumed in
Laplace’s hypothesis are still represented by actual existences. There
are, to begin with, those immense diffused nebulæ, almost incapable of
definition, which are proved, on spectroscopic examination, to emit
that kind of light which is characteristic of glowing gas; from these
we pass to others which are resolvable by the telescope into a central
and more condensed nucleus, with two mighty nebulous arms whirled round
in a spiral, and bearing more condensed masses in their midst; even
ring nebulæ are known to exist; and, finally, there are nebulous halos
which surround some of the stars. Then we come to the stars themselves,
which are suns of various degrees of magnitude, some immensely larger
than our own luminary, and these are evidently in various stages of
existence. Some are blue, and afford evidence of a higher temperature
than that of our sun; others are yellow, and make a nearer approach
to the solar temperature; while, again, others are red, and certainly
colder.

These, in conjunction with other considerations, lead to the conviction
that the universe is in a state of evolution, and that the solar
system at one time existed in a nebular state. But whether Laplace’s
description of the series of events through which the original nebula
passed is the true one or not is a very different matter; it presents
so many difficulties that scarcely any student now supports it.

[Illustration:

    In the beginning, it is supposed that the earth was part of a vast
    nebula of gaseous matter and meteorites, resembling the nebula of
    Argo, illustrated above.

    Later, as the cooling process advanced, the nebula assumed a
    rotatory movement in the form of a spiral. The nebula of Andromeda
    affords an excellent illustration of this.

    Another stage would be as in the annular nebula of Aquaris, the
    mass forming into a ball with the outer ring attached.

HOW THE HEAVENS TELL THE STORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH]

[Illustration:

    Or, like the nebula of Cygni, with the central sun well formed and
    the gaseous ring far removed, the earth would begin to shape, and
    the ring would roll up to form the moon.

    Jupiter, which is in a molten state, wreathed in thick vapour, with
    the “great red spot” indicating the beginning of the solidifying
    process, shows what the earth was like before it assumed its
    present solid condition.

    This shows the earth and the moon in their relative sizes; while
    the diagram below it illustrates the distance apart.
]

[Sidenote: Laplace’s Theory Abandoned]

A fundamental difficulty is the extreme tenuity of the gas which is
assumed to have formed the planetary rings. A second difficulty, which
has been emphasised by Professors Chamberlin and Moulton, is to be
found in the comparatively small amount of rotational energy which
the system at present possesses, for this is less than 1/200 of that
which, on the most favourable assumption, must have been contained
within the original nebula. Less fundamental, but equally fatal, is the
fact that one of the satellites of Saturn revolves round its primary
in a direction opposed to that of the rotation of the planet itself.
[Recently Mr. Stratton, following out a suggestion of Professor W. H.
Pickering, has shown that this is quite consistent, and, indeed, is a
natural deduction from Laplace’s hypothesis.] Hence for these and other
reasons we are reluctantly compelled to abandon an hypothesis which
for over a century has exercised an influence on our conception of the
cosmos not less profound, penetrating, and far-reaching than that of
the famous Darwinian doctrine of natural selection, now on its trial.

[Sidenote: What are the Nebulæ?]

At present, unanimity of opinion, even on questions of the most primary
kind, is far to seek. Philosophers are not even agreed as to the
constitution of the nebulæ. It is questioned whether even those least
resolvable and most diffused forms which give bright line spectra
really consist of masses of incandescent gas. Many observers, among
them Sir Norman Lockyer, now maintain that they are formed of swarms of
meteorites, which, moving with prodigious velocity, meet in frequent
collision, and by their impact evolve sufficient heat to become
self-luminous. Others, again, like the distinguished investigator
Arrhenius, while admitting the gaseous nature of these nebulæ, deny
that they are incandescent, and assert that their temperature is not
much above that of surrounding space. Their exterior parts consist of
the lighter gases in a highly rarefied state, and minute particles of
negative electricity, which are always careering through space, on
penetrating these gases produce a luminous discharge. A nebula composed
of swarms of meteorites would, as Sir George Darwin has shown, behave
very much in the same way as one composed of gas, and if in rotation
would rotate as a solid mass. The meteorites would stand in the same
relation to the nebula as molecules to a gas, and thus the question of
the constitution of the nebula, although of great interest in itself,
becomes of subsidiary importance in tracing its subsequent history.

[Sidenote: Shaping of the Planets]

One of the latest attempts to frame a nebular hypothesis is that of
Professor J. H. Jeans. His reasoning is of a highly mathematical
character, and his conclusions are expressed in the most general terms.
Starting with a spherical nebula of gas or meteorites endowed with a
small amount of rotation, he shows that as it cools or loses energy
the temperature of the interior will not fall continuously in precise
correspondence with the cooling of the outer parts, and this “lag” of
the interior temperature will bring about a tendency to instability.
The contraction of the nebula due to cooling will increase the velocity
of rotation, and this again will tend to instability. As a result of
the instability so produced the nebula will change its form, and become
more or less pear-shaped. The narrow end of the pear will then separate
from the body and assume an independent existence as a primitive
planet. This process will recur again and again till the nebula is
resolved into a sun with its attendant planets. The planets, existing
at first as gaseous masses or quasi-gaseous masses, will be liable
to the same kind of transformation, and may thus bud off moons or
satellites.

If the nebula were not in rapid rotation, a slight disturbing cause,
acting at the critical moment when a planet was being ejected, might
determine the inclination of the planet’s orbit, which might thus be
very oblique to the equatorial plane of the nebula. Thus the hypothesis
is not open to one of the objections which have been urged against
that of Laplace--namely, that the orbits of some of the planets in the
solar system are inclined at a large angle with the plane of the sun’s
equator.

[Illustration:

    This illustrates Laplace’s theory, which conceived of a vast nebula
    filling the whole space of the solar system and rotating around a
    central axis. The outer and thinner part had much greater movement
    than the denser central mass, finally being thrown off as a ring,
    which in turn rolled up into a ball, still following the same
    course as the ring had followed. Thus the earth broke off from the
    sun and the moon from the earth. The theory is, however, no longer
    credited by scientists.

    The pear-shaped nebula is the theory of a young English
    mathematician, Professor J. H. Jeans. Starting with a spherical
    nebula, he argues that in cooling it will assume the form
    illustrated above, and that the smaller part will separate and form
    a satellite rotating independently but within a distance influenced
    by the parent mass.

    The spiral nebula in Canes Venatici, a revolving mass of gas or
    meteorites, supplies, according to the nebular hypothesis of
    Messrs. Chamberlin and Moulton, an excellent example of how the
    earth and moon were formed. We may reasonably imagine the smaller
    spiral to represent the moon in the act of being thrown off by the
    earth.

THREE FAMOUS THEORIES OF THE BEGINNING OF THE EARTH]

[Sidenote: Heavenly Bodies in Collision]

Jeans mentions two disturbing causes in particular which might easily
arise--one the penetration of the nebula by a wandering meteorite,
which might precipitate an event already on the verge of happening,
and simultaneously determine both the birth of a planet and the
obliquity of its orbit; the second, the presence of some distant
mass, such as a star, which, by raising a quasi-tide in the nebula,
would give the final touch required to overturn its equilibrium. The
influence of a distant body, such as a passing star, has been invoked
by Moulton in another version of the nebular hypothesis. In conjunction
with Chamberlin, he calls special attention to the spiral nebulæ, which
are by far the commonest kind, as presenting the closest approach to
the conditions which obtain when planets are actually in course of
formation. Chamberlin and Moulton enter on a detailed account of the
manner in which they suppose the planets to have grown by the gradual
accretion of meteoric masses as these encountered each other while
moving in various elliptical orbits.

At present it would seem impossible to speak with certainty as to
the precise history of the solar system. Meanwhile, we may console
ourselves with the closing words of Professor Jeans’ paper, to the
effect that “no difficulty need be experienced in referring existing
planetary systems to a nebulous or meteoric origin on the ground
that the configurations of these systems are not such as could have
originated out of a rotating mass of liquid.”

An investigation by Sir George Darwin, which has furnished inspiration
to such hypotheses as that of Jeans, brings us nearer the immediate
subject of this essay, since it treats of one of the last acts in the
great drama of planetary existence, and attempts to derive the earth
and moon from a common origin in a single rotating sphere.

[Sidenote: Why the Day is Growing Longer]

It is well known that, owing to the frictional effects produced by the
tides, the earth is being gradually slowed down as it rotates upon
its axis. Thus the day is constantly getting longer, so that in a few
millions of years it will have increased in length from twenty-four
to twenty-five hours. On the other hand, in past time it must have
been shorter than at present: a few millions of years ago it was only
twenty-three hours in length, and many millions of years earlier it
was still less, only some five hours or so. At that time the earth
was hotter than it is now, less rigid, more yielding, and, owing to
its rapid rotation, less stable. The action on the moon of the tides
produced in it by the earth is similar, and the rotation of the moon
has been so far diminished by them that its day has become as long as
the month--_i.e._, our satellite only turns once round on its axis in
the time that it takes to revolve once round the earth; it is for this
reason that our satellite keeps always the same face turned towards us.

[Sidenote: The Moon Was Part of Our Sphere]

The retardation of the earth in its rotation has, however, a very
remarkable effect on the revolution of the moon; it involves--by the
principle of the conservation of moment of momentum--a corresponding
acceleration of the moon in its orbit, and, as a consequence of this,
an enlargement of this orbit--that is, the moon is pushed away from us,
as it were, and thus becomes more remote. But if so, the moon must have
been nearer to us in times past. It is possible to trace the approach
of the moon to the earth as we go backwards in time till the distance
between them was only two and a half terrestrial radii instead of the
sixty radii which now separate them. Mathematics do not take us farther
back than this. But it is difficult to resist the suggestion that in
the immediately preceding stage of development the earth and moon
formed together a single sphere.

If we may adopt this view, then we must regard the sphere as subject to
the tidal influence of the sun. It was much hotter, and therefore more
yielding, than the present earth; it was also rotating much faster,
probably once in about four or five hours. It would be contracting as a
consequence of cooling, and the contraction would lead to instability
(gravitational instability); its rapid rotation would also tend toward
instability (rotational instability). It is difficult to say which
of these two, gravitational or rotational instability, would be the
most effective; but the combined result would be to give a pear-shaped
form to the rotating mass, and eventually to deepen the constriction
between the narrow and the broad end, till the smaller protuberance
became completely dissevered from the larger mass, and so entered on
an independent existence as the moon. This final step in the process
would probably depend on the tide-producing power of the sun; the
larger mass remained behind as the earth, whose individual existence
may be said to date from this event.

[Sidenote: How the Moon Broke Away]

The young earth would be subject to very much the same conditions after
as before the ejection of the moon, and might very possibly again pass
into a pear-shaped form, but without proceeding further through those
subsequent changes, which would have led to the formation of another
satellite; and while possessing some such form as this, she might
very well have consolidated. With advancing years she would lose, as
we have seen, the activity of her youth, the drag of the tides would
cause her to spin ever more slowly on her axis, till the day would
become prolonged to the twenty-four hours of the present. With this
diminished rate of spin, the earth, if free to yield, would lose the
pear-shaped form and become an oblate spheroid, and the oblateness of
this spheroid would continually diminish, so that it would continually
approach towards a true sphere. Suppose, however, that the earth as it
cooled lost its power of readily yielding--and at present it is more
rigid than a globe of steel--then it would pass from form to form,
not by a flowing movement, but by a series of ruptures, and its form
at any moment might be a little in arrear of that which it would have
possessed if it had been in the fluid state.

Thus it might indeed be possible still to discover some trace of an
old-fashioned form in the existing planet; and a careful examination
of the distribution of land and sea as represented on a terrestrial
globe does, in fact, reveal a remarkable symmetry, in which we seem
to recognise a surviving vestige of its early state. The great
continent of Africa projects like the narrow end of a pear; around it
are oceans--the Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea,
which was once of far greater extent; then comes a great dismembered
ring of land, the two Americas, the Antarctic continent, Australia,
Asia, and Europe. Within these, on the side opposite to Africa, is the
great Pacific Ocean, which covers over the broad end of the pear.

[Sidenote: Earth’s Unknown Changes]

[Illustration: THE SHAPING OF THE FACE OF THE EARTH

    Soon after the earth had cooled down, so that the oceans were
    formed, the shaping of the great continents began. The action of
    moving water in the making of new land is well illustrated by the
    vast delta of the Mississippi, where an area larger than Wales has
    been formed by debris deposited by the river.
]

A line drawn from somewhere in Central Africa to its antipodes in the
Pacific, through the centre of the earth, would correspond to the long
axis of the pear; a second, at right angles to this, would correspond
to its breadth; and a third, at right angles to both, would correspond
to the axis on which it rotates. A diameter of the earth taken through
the equator is almost 8,000 miles in length, the Polar diameter is
about sixteen miles shorter, and this slight difference measures the
oblateness of the spheroid, or the departure of the form of the earth
from a true sphere. Further, it would appear that the diameter drawn
through Africa is about half a mile longer than the equatorial diameter
taken at right angles to it, and this insignificant quantity measures
the departure of the form of the earth from that of an oblate spheroid
to that of a pear, so nearly complete is the adjustment of its form to
existing conditions. Before this nice adjustment was reached, the earth
must have suffered many changes, passed through many times of stress
and storm, and witnessed many geological revolutions.

[Sidenote: An Age of Red-hot Rain!]

If, at the beginning of her career, the earth was molten, or at a
very high temperature, she must have been surrounded by a very deep
and dense atmosphere, for all the waters which now rest on her
surface--oceans, lakes, and rivers--would have contributed to it in the
state of steam; and not till the temperature of the ground had fallen
to 380 deg. C. could liquid water have begun to accumulate. Then a
steady downpour of almost red-hot rain would have set in, filling up
the neck of the pear and extending far and wide over its broad end.

The temperature would now fall somewhat rapidly, and in a short space
of time the surface of the earth would have become as cool as it is at
the present day. Directly the waters of the firmament had collected
into the oceans, leaving behind an atmosphere like that which now
exists, geological agencies of the kind we are now familiar with would
begin their sway. Air and rain would exert their insidious power upon
the rocks, sapping their strength, converting the hardest granite into
soft sand and clay, which would be washed away by the rain through
brooks and rivulets into the channels of many rivers, all hastening
with their burden of sediment, to deposit it finally in the sea. Here
it would accumulate, layer after layer, building up those mighty masses
of strata which now form the greater part of the visible land. While
this general action was everywhere in progress, wearing down continents
and islands towards the level of the sea, more specialised activities
were assisting to the same end.

[Illustration: TWO STAGES IN THE LIFE OF THE EARTH

    This illustrates in striking manner, based on the calculations
    of the best authorities, the comparative sizes of the earth,
    first as a gaseous mass, and, second, after it had cooled down
    and solidified into the planet on which we live. The small dot
    represents 8,000 miles, the earth’s diameter.
]

The waves which fall upon our coasts are now constantly undermining
the cliffs and extending the margin of the sea at the expense of the
land, and rivers not only serve to transport sediment, but cut down
their channels deep into the rock, and so carve out the most varied
landscapes of hill and valley from monotonous tableland.

[Sidenote: Action of Winds and Tides]

When we enter into calculations we are astonished at the rapidity
with which these agents perform their work even at the present day;
but as we proceed farther back into the past, when the earth was full
of youthful energy, their power must have been greatly enhanced. We
might almost take the measure of the day as the measure of their
work, for they probably accomplished as much during the eight hours’
day which once existed as they do now in twenty-four hours. A little
consideration will make this clear. It is the winds which, blowing
over the surface of the ocean, produce the sea waves, and it is these
falling on our coasts that perform the work of marine denudation. But
the winds are due in the first place to the heat of the sun, and the
difference of temperature established at the equator and the poles;
and, in the next place, to the rotation of the earth. Thus, with the
increased rapidity of rotation which we know to have existed, and
with increased radiation from the sun, a very probable contingency,
the winds would increase in strength and more powerfully erode our
coasts. Again, with the moon in greater proximity, and with a more
rapid rotation of the earth, the tides would be much higher and more
frequent, and these, raising and lowering the cutting edge of the sea,
greatly assist it in its work of destruction. The winds and the tides
produce various marine currents, and these help to distribute the
sediment which the rivers deliver into the sea, so that when stronger
currents flowed as a result of more powerful tides and more violent
winds, the sediments would be strewn over wider areas; hence, the more
ancient strata of our planet are far more widely distributed than are
those of later time.

[Illustration: THREE VIEWS OF THE GLOBE SHOWING HOW THE GREAT MOUNTAIN
RANGES WERE FORMED

    In the days when the earth’s crust had formed but was still
    unstable, the process of cooling not having gone far enough,
    there would not be the mountains which now characterise it. These
    came when the earth contracted and crumpled up along certain
    well defined lines, which are now represented by the three great
    mountain chains of the world.
]

[Sidenote: Building Up the Earth]

Finally, a heavier rainfall would result from a more active atmospheric
circulation, creating larger rivers, and thus, at the beginning, all
those denuding agents which are engaged in wearing the land down into
the sea would be working at a more rapid pace. Correspondingly, all
the agents which are occupied in building up deposits of sediments
would have extended their operations over a wider area, laying down a
foundation broad and deep.

On the other hand, the contraction of the earth, due to the loss of
its energy of rotation as well as of its internal heat, would also
have proceeded more rapidly, new land would have emerged from the sea,
old lands would have been submerged beneath it far less slowly than at
the present day; ruptures of the crust, accompanied by earthquakes and
volcanic action, would have been more frequent and thus, by the more
rapid loss of its intrinsic energy, the renovation of the earth would
have kept pace with its accelerated destruction.

One effect of the contraction of the earth which has manifested itself
in even late geological times is the crumpling up of the terrestrial
crust into the sharp folds of mountain chains; but at the beginning
this crumpling must have been far more universal and energetic. In this
connection it is interesting to observe that the most ancient rocks
known to us--the Archæan--never present themselves under any other form
than as intensely plicated masses. They originally consisted of lava
flows and volcanic ashes, of ancient sediments and limestones, into
which subterranean masses of granite and other molten, deep-seated
rocks have been injected; but under the intense pressures to which
they were subjected after their formation they and the invading
granite have entirely lost their original character, and have been
metamorphosed into gneisses, schists, and marble, all sharply and
closely folded together. In any given district the direction of their
folding is maintained with wonderful constancy over great distances.
There is no succeeding system of rocks that has been so completely
transformed, so universally plicated, as this ancient Archæan complex.

In later times we can pass from stratum to stratum of the sedimentary
series and read their history almost as we turn over the pages of a
book; in the Archæan all are kneaded together into a state of such
desperate entanglement as to defy the powers of human ingenuity to
unravel them. Thus the line of demarcation between the Archæan and
subsequent sedimentary systems is the sharpest and most absolute that
is known to us in the history of the earth. It marks the close of our
planet’s infancy, the several events of which have passed into oblivion
as profound as that of our own forgetfulness of our earliest days.
Later events, on the other hand, are recorded in the stratified series
with a faithfulness which increases as we approach existing times.

[Sidenote: How We Know These Wonders]

[Sidenote: The Ocean 100 million Years old!]

[Sidenote: The Part Radium may play]

A history without dates must seem very unsatisfactory to a historian,
and the question will naturally arise whether we can assign any
definite time to the various critical events recorded in the
evolution of the earth. At present we can only make more or less
plausible estimates. Thus, from a consideration of the thickness of
the sedimentary crust, and the rate at which sediments are now being
deposited, it has been asserted that the interval which separates
us from the close of the Archæan era may amount to about twenty-six
millions of years. Professor Joly, basing his argument on the undoubted
fact that the ocean derives the greater part of its salt from the
dissolved material contributed to it by rivers, comes to the conclusion
that the ocean first came into existence about one hundred millions
of years ago. As regards the birth of the moon, Sir George Darwin has
given a minimum limit of fifty-four millions of years, but he adds that
it may have taken place many hundreds of millions of years before this.
Lord Kelvin has attempted to determine the time which has elapsed since
the earth first acquired a solid crust. If we only knew the rate at
which the earth is cooling we might calculate back to this time with
some assurance of certainty, always, however, on the assumption that
the earth is simply a hot body cooling like any other hot body--such,
say, as a red-hot cannonball. But a few years ago it began to be
seriously suspected that this assumption was a very doubtful one, for
a new element--radium--was discovered in 1898, which possesses the
remarkable property of spontaneously liberating heat, and this not in
small quantities, but at an astonishing rate. One gramme of radium, for
example, gives out enough heat in one hour to raise the temperature of
one gramme of water to boiling point; hour after hour, year in, year
out, this wonderful substance is setting free the energy it contains,
and will continue to do so until, some thousands of years hence,
it has exhausted its store. If this element should happen to exist
in sufficient quantity within the earth, then the earth could not be
said to be cooling just like a piece of hot iron, and the increase of
temperature we experience as we descend towards the interior of the
earth might possibly be due to the heat set free from radium. Indeed,
the argument is not confined to the earth; it may apply also to the
sun, and much of the heat we derive from that luminary may be provided
by bursting atoms of radium. This was pointed out by Sir George Darwin
and Professor Joly in 1903.

It became obviously a question of the first importance to discover
what proportion of the earth’s crust consists of radium, and an
investigation was undertaken for this purpose by the Hon. R. J.
Strutt, who finds that the rocks composing the earth’s crust contain
a superabundance of radium--sufficient, if this element is uniformly
distributed through the whole earth in the same proportion as it occurs
at the surface, not only to make good the heat which is radiated away
into space, but actually to raise the temperature of our planet, which,
on this evidence, should, therefore, be growing not colder, but hotter.

This is a result as disconcerting at first sight as it is astonishing,
and its effects are very wide-reaching. Of course, it completely
destroys the validity of Lord Kelvin’s argument, but it also deprives
the nebular hypothesis of one of its cherished lines of evidence--a
loss which the force of the general argument enables us to bear with
equanimity.

[Sidenote: On the Eve of great Events]

In any case, the vast body of facts bearing on the history of the earth
suffices to show that its temperature cannot be rising. Mr. Strutt
has, therefore, imagined that the radium is not uniformly distributed
throughout the mass of the planet, and supposes that it is restricted
to an external zone forty-five miles in thickness; this would suffice
to maintain the earth at its existing temperature. If, however, we
admit a restriction of this kind, we are in no way bound to fix the
limit at forty-five miles. All we can say is that we do not know how
far downwards the radium reaches--for aught we know five miles, or even
less, is as likely a limit as forty-five miles. Professor Joly, indeed,
maintains that the radium we meet with is not proper to the earth at
all, but comes from the sun.

Radium is a short-lived element, its existence being limited to a
few thousand years; but as fast as it decays it is reproduced at the
expense of another element--uranium--the lifetime of which is measured
by hundreds of millions of years.

The last quarter of a century has proved fertile in great
discoveries--more so than any corresponding period in the past. As a
result, the whole world of scientific thought has been thrown into
commotion; old-established theories, and even the most fundamental
notions, seem to be in a state of flux. Under the stimulus of new ideas
great questions, such as the constitution of matter, the origin of
species, and the birth of worlds are being re-investigated with renewed
energy, and we seem to be on the eve of great events.

    WILLIAM JOHNSON SOLLAS




FOUR PERIODS OF THE EARTH’S DEVELOPMENT

    A Postscript to Professor Sollas’s Chapter on the Wonderful Story
    of the World’s Birth, beginning on page 79


The earth was once “a fluid haze of light.” The whole solar system
once formed a vast nebula, consisting of glowing gas, or a swarm of
meteoroids. Our planet was slowly shaped into a globe out of this
primitive nebula.

This globe was at first intensely hot, and probably liquid. A solid
crust formed on the surface as heat was lost by radiation, and this
crust consisted of the oldest rocks of igneous formation like the
granites and gneisses. During this Archæan or Eozoic Period, the earth
acquired its atmosphere and its oceans, and it is probable that the
mysterious origin of life took place.

The later history of the earth since the stratified rocks began to
appear, and life existed, is divided into four main periods, of which
the first is known as Primary, or Palæozoic.


The First Period of the Earth

CAMBRIAN SYSTEM. The rocks formed in the Cambrian Age are
mainly grits, quartzites, and conglomerates, with shales, schists, and
limestones. The earth was then mostly covered by seas, and the first
well-defined forms of life were of marine origin.

SILURIAN SYSTEM. The Silurian rocks are mostly sandstones,
shales, and slates deposited in the seas. The first vertebrates made
their appearance as fishes, whilst insects began to flutter in the air,
and occasionally to alight on the emerging land.

DEVONIAN SYSTEM. This was the age of the old red sandstone.
Fishes reached a high state of development, whilst the first traces
appeared of land vegetation, ferns and lycopods.

CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. This system is exceptionally important,
because its chief rock is coal, the fossilised remains of the luxuriant
vegetation which grew in tropical swamps. The first terrestrial
animals, true air breathers, now appeared.

PERMIAN SYSTEM. The last of the primary systems gave us the
new red sandstone, distinguished from the old by lying above the coal
measures. The Permian Age was apparently unfavourable to life, and is
only notable for the first appearance of the land reptiles into which
the amphibians developed.


The Second Period of the Earth

The Secondary Period marks the emergence of the dry land into
importance greater than that of the sea.

TRIASSIC SYSTEM. The Triassic rocks chiefly consist of
sandstones and hardened clays laid down in shallow sea basins. Land
vegetation now first began to assume a modern type, with conifers and
cycads. The seas were still richly peopled, and the land first gave a
home to huge reptiles, or dinosaurs.

JURASSIC SYSTEM. This system is marked by a great variety
of limestones, the product of dead sea creatures. It is essentially
the age of reptiles. The ichthyosaurus disputed the seas with the
plesiosaurus; the pterodactyl ruled the air; whilst on land, huge
monsters like the brontosaur and diplodocus browsed on tropical
vegetation. From these reptiles the birds were developing, whilst small
marsupials, the oldest of the great mammalian race, skipped under the
branches.

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. This was the age of the great chalk
deposits. The birds, now emerging from their reptilian ancestry,
dominated its life, and the first modern plants appeared on the land.


The Third Period of the Earth

The Tertiary Period marks the true beginning of modern geological
history, when the great outlines of geography were laid down, and
the first representatives of modern plants and animals made their
appearance.

EOCENE SYSTEM. The Eocene rocks are mainly limestones, with
sandstone and hardened clays. We owe them to the sea and its organisms.
Modern evergreen trees now first appeared. The mammals come to the
front, with the tapir-like palæotherium and the first recognisable
ancestor of the horse.

MIOCENE SYSTEM. The Miocene Age was a mountain-building
period, when the great chain which runs from the Alps into Central
Asia received its final uplift. Deciduous trees, like the beech and
elm, now made their appearance. The giant mastodon and the formidable
sabre-toothed tiger roamed the Miocene forest, and true apes--man’s
first forerunners--mopped and mowed in the boughs.

PLIOCENE SYSTEM. The last of the Tertiary ages set the final
stamp on the geological moulding of the earth’s crust. Its plants were
transitional to the flora of modern Europe. Great herds of herbivora
now appeared.


The Fourth Period of the Earth

The Quaternary Period is that in which we are still living. Its
outstanding feature is the appearance of man.

PLEISTOCENE OR GLACIAL SYSTEM. Its essential feature was the
appearance of glacial conditions over most of the northern hemisphere,
when great ice sheets rubbed our land into shape. The vegetation was
Arctic, and only animals like the reindeer and the hairy mammoth could
endure the cold.

HUMAN OR RECENT SYSTEM. The precise antiquity of man is still
uncertain, but it was only after the close of the Glacial Period that
he made his home in Europe, where he shared a precarious existence
with mammoth, cave-bear, and rhinoceros. Man developed through the
_Palæolithic_ and _Neolithic_ ages of stone implements to the _Bronze_
and _Iron_ ages, when metal was first worked. In the last of these we
live.




GEOLOGICAL CLOCK OF THE WORLD’S LIFE


This page is an effort, based on Professor Lester Ward’s calculations
in “Pure Sociology,” to show the comparative length of each geological
period, and the thin white line between Tertiary and Archæan indicates
the period of human history. Thin as this line is--and we could not
show it thinner--it is too thick, and out of proportion to the rest
of the clock. If we assume that from the beginning of the world--from
its first forming into a solid sphere--to the present, time may be
represented by a day of twenty-four hours, the time occupied by human
history does not exceed twelve seconds. This is reckoning human history
as ten thousand years. There is, of course, no possibility of obtaining
more than relative figures for such a scheme as this, which should be
regarded in connection with the previous page and the chart of the
Beginnings of Life, facing page 96

[Illustration: The thin white line between the Tertiary and the Archæan
periods represents the duration of human history]


TABLE SHOWING PROPORTIONS OF YEARS AND HOURS

    Geological Periods      |   Years     | Hours
    ------------------------+-------------+---------
    Archæan                 | 18,000,000  |   6
    Laurentian              | 18,000,000  |   6
    Cambrian                |  6,000,000  |   2
    Silurian                |  6,000,000  |   2
    Devonian                |  6,000,000  |   2
    Carboniferous           |  6,000,000  |   2
    Triassic                |  3,000,000  |   1
    Jurassic                |  3,000,000  |   1
    Cretaceous              |  3,000,000  |   1
    Tertiary and Quaternary |  3,000,000  |   1
    ------------------------+-------------+---------
    The Quaternary Period   | 72,000,000  =  24
    is that in which we live|

TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY PERIODS

At a rough guess, three million years may be allowed for the Tertiary
and Quaternary periods

    --------------------+-----------+------+------+------
    Geological Periods  |   Years   | Hrs. | Min. | Sec.
    --------------------+-----------+------+------+------
    Tertiary            | 2,600,000 |  --  |  52  | --
    Pleistocene         |   300,000 |  --  |   6  | --
    Human               |   100,000 |  --  |   2  | --
                        +-----------+------+------+------
    Total               | 3,000,000 |   1  |  --  | --
    --------------------+-----------+------+------+------
    Human History       |    10,000    ==     ==    12




HOW LIFE BECAME POSSIBLE ON THE EARTH

BY DR. ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE


Early writers on the relation of man and animated nature to the
material universe not only assumed that the latter existed for the
former, but that both alike were the results of special acts of
creation.

Furthermore, they usually took it for granted that all things were
created very much in the condition in which we now see them, and that
any changes that have since taken place are but slight superficial
modifications of a permanent and unchanging whole. Not only were the
sun and moon and stars created as appanages of the earth, but the earth
itself in all its details of sea and land, hills and valleys, mountains
and precipices, swamps and deserts, was made and fashioned just as we
now see it, and every feature of its surface was supposed to have some
purpose in connection with man.

[Sidenote: The Old Ideas of Creation]

These purposes we could, in some cases, understand, while in others
they seemed wholly unintelligible, and much ingenuity was bestowed
by the natural theologian and others to explain more and more of the
observed facts from this point of view. The same opinions prevailed in
regard to the infinite variety of animals and plants, each individual
species being supposed to have been an independent creation, and all to
have some definite and preordained purpose in relation to mankind.

These views, however absurd they seem to most people now, were almost
universally held so recently as during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, and were thus coincident with one of the most brilliant
epochs of our literature and our dawning science. It was only towards
the beginning of the nineteenth century, when geology became widely
studied and its results were fully appreciated, that the more rational
conception of a very slow development of the earth’s surface during
countless ages began to be generally accepted.

[Sidenote: Changing Conditions of the Earth]

The grand nebular hypothesis of Laplace came to reinforce the views of
the geologists, by showing how the earth itself may have originated
as a gaseous or molten globe; and its slow process of cooling, with
the reaction of the interior and exterior on each other, served to
elucidate the facts of the heated interior, as shown by hot springs and
volcanoes, as well as many of the phenomena presented by the distorted
and metamorphosed strata which formed its crust. Hence it gradually
came to be perceived that the condition of the earth, with all its
endless variations of surface, of continents and oceans, of seas and
islands, of vast plateaux and lofty mountain ranges and extensive low
plains, with their ravines and cataracts, their great lakes and stately
rivers, was subject to perpetual change from that remote epoch when it
seems to have been actually the case that “the earth was without form
and void,” and that owing to the greater density of the vapour-laden
atmosphere, “darkness was upon the face of the deep.”

[Sidenote: Changing Forms of Life]

Another field of geological research forced us to the conclusion that
the same continued process of change had affected the forms of life
upon the earth. When carefully investigated, the crust was found
to abound in the fossilised remains of animals and plants. Careful
study of these showed that the oldest of all were of comparatively
simple structure, and that the higher forms only appeared in more
recent epochs; while the highest of all were probably very little
older than man himself. It is only during the last half century that
the theory of Evolution has been elaborated and has become generally
accepted as applicable to the whole of the vast cosmic process--from
the development of the nebulæ into stars and suns and systems, with a
corresponding development of planets from an early condition of intense
heat, through a more or less lengthy period of cooling and contraction,
to an ultimate state of refrigeration, the earlier and later stages
being alike unsuited to the existence of life.

[Sidenote: Theory of Natural Selection]

More important still, the discovery of the theory of Natural Selection
by Darwin--and at a later period by myself--has led to a satisfactory
explanation of the successive appearance of higher and more complex
forms of life, and also of that wonderfully minute and complex
_adaptation_ of every species to its conditions of existence and to
its organic as well as its inorganic environment, which all other
theories--even the most recent--have failed to grapple with.

[Sidenote: Wonderful Complexity of the Universe]

The logical completeness as well as the extreme simplicity of this
explanation of organic evolution has led great numbers of thoughtful
but ill-informed persons to reject it, because it seems to render
unnecessary the existence of a primary intelligent cause; while
another equally large but, as I think, equally ill-informed class--the
so-called monists--use it to demonstrate the non-existence, or, at all
events, the needlessness, of any such cause. Both alike err, because
they fail to take cognisance of the fact that every form of evolution,
and pre-eminently that of the organic world, is an explanation of a
process of change, a law of development, not in any sense or by any
possibility an explanation of fundamental laws, causes, or origins.
It presupposes the existence not only of matter--itself a thing whose
nature is becoming more and more mysterious and unthinkable with the
advance of physical science--but of all the vast complex of laws
and forces which act upon it--mechanical, physical, chemical, and
electrical laws and forces--all more or less dependent on the still
more mysterious, all-pervading ether. Thus, the universe in its purely
physical and inorganic aspect is now seen to be such an overwhelmingly
complex organism as to suggest to most minds some vast intelligent
power pervading and sustaining it.

Persons to whom this seems a logical necessity will not be much
disturbed by the dilemma of the agnostics--that, however wonderful the
material universe may be, a being who could bring it into existence
must be more wonderful, and that they prefer to hold the lesser
marvel to be self-existent rather than the greater. When, however,
we pass from the inorganic to the organic world, governed by a new
set of laws, and apparently by some regulating and controlling forces
altogether distinct from those at work in inorganic nature; and when,
further, we see that these organisms originated at some definite epoch
when the earth had become adapted to sustain them, and thereafter
developed into two great branches of non-sentient and sentient
life, the latter gradually acquiring higher and higher senses and
faculties till it culminated in man--a being whose higher intellectual
and moral nature seems adapted for, even to call for, indefinite
development--this logical necessity for some higher intelligence to
which he himself owes his existence, and which alone rendered the
origin of sentient life possible, will seem still more irresistible.

[Sidenote: Mind Behind the World]

The preceding remarks are intended to suggest that the theory of
evolution, combined with the quite recent and very startling advances
in physical science, so far from making the universe around us more
intelligible as a self-sustaining and self-existent whole, has really
rendered it less so, by showing that it is infinitely more complex
than we had formerly supposed; and further, that matter itself,
instead of being, as was once believed, a comparatively simple thing,
eternal and indestructible, is in all its various forms subject to
decay and disintegration. We now see that the only thing known to us
that we can conceive as having unending existence is mind itself; and,
just as Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection has opened up to us an
infinite field of study and admiration in the forms and colours and
mutual relations of the various species of animals and plants, so does
modern science open up to us new and unfathomable depths in the inner
structure of matter and of the cosmos, and thus compels us more and
more to recognise a mental rather than a mere physical substratum to
account for its existence.

There is, however, another set of relations which have been hitherto
very little studied--those between the organic and the inorganic
worlds in their broader aspects. These are now found to be very much
more complex and more remarkable than is usually supposed, and they
also have an important bearing upon the great problem of the origin
and destiny of man. This is a subject which opens up a variety of
considerations of extreme interest, showing that the exact adaptations
of our earth--and presumably of any other planets--to enable it to
sustain organic life, from its first appearance and through its long
course of development, is as varied and complex and as much beyond
the possibilities of chance coincidences as are any of the individual
adaptations of animals and plants to their immediate environment. Most
of these latter adaptations have been made known to us by Darwin and
his followers, and they have excited the admiration and astonishment
of all lovers of Nature. When the antecedent and grander relations of
planet to life are studied with equal care, these also will, I believe,
excite deeper admiration, still more profound astonishment, because
any secondary laws that could have brought them about are less easy to
discover, or even to imagine.

[Sidenote: Essential Conditions of Life]

Before we can form any adequate idea of the nature of a world which
shall be able to support and develop organic life, we must consider
what are the special conditions that alone render such life possible.
We, of course, refer to the whole of the organic world, from the lowest
to the highest, not to the few exceptional cases in which life may be
possible under conditions that would be fatal to the higher as well as
to most of the lower forms.

[Sidenote: The Miracle of Human Life]

The one striking speciality of the higher animals--and to a less
degree of the higher plants--is that of continuous, all-pervading
motion, every portion of their substance being in a state of flux:
each particle itself moving, growing, living and dying, and being
replaced by other particles of the same nature and fulfilling the
same functions. To keep up this growth, and to enable every part of
the structure to be continually renewed, food is required. This is
taken into the stomach of animals in the solid or liquid form, is
then decomposed and recomposed, that which is useless or superfluous
being thrown off by the intestines, while what is needed for growth
is transformed into blood and by a wonderfully intricate system of
branching tubes is carried to every part of the body, furnishing
nourishment and repair alike to bone and muscle, to all the internal
organs and all the outward integuments, and to that marvellously
complex nervous system which also permeates every part of the body and
is essential to the higher manifestations of life--to the exertion of
force, voluntary motion, and, apparently, to thought itself. Add to
this the constant influx of air, which at once purifies the blood and
supplies animal heat, and is so important that its cessation for a
few minutes is usually fatal, and we have a machine so complex in its
structure and mode of action that the most elaborate of human machines
is but as a grain of sand to a world in comparison.

[Sidenote: Basis of Physical Life]

Now the very possibility of such a material organism as this depends
upon a highly complex form of matter termed protoplasm, which is at
once extremely plastic and of extreme instability, and is yet capable
of secreting or building up its atoms into such solid and apparently
durable forms as bone, horn, and hair, besides the various liquids and
semi-solids which build up the organism. This fundamental organic
substance consists of only four chemical elements--nitrogen, hydrogen,
oxygen and carbon, and almost all animal and vegetable structures and
products have the same elemental constitution, though with such widely
different characteristics. Four other elements--sulphur, lime, silicon,
and phosphorus--also occur in small quantities in organic tissues,
to supply special needs; but these are not essential to all forms of
life, and are only taken up and utilised by the living protoplasm when
required. Protoplasm is undoubtedly the basis of physical life, yet
it only exists in, and is produced by, living organisms. The moment
such an organism dies, disorganisation and decay set in, and the whole
mass becomes gradually changed into more stable compounds, or into its
constituent elements. It appears, therefore, that some agency--usually
termed “vital force”--must be at work, first to produce this wonderful
compound, then to form it into “cells”--the physiological units of
all organisms--and afterwards to direct the energies supplied by heat
and light so as to build up the excessively complex structures, with
all their wonderful powers and potentialities, which we term animals
and plants. All this seems to imply not “a force” only, but very many
forces, all of which must have some kind of mind in or behind them,
to direct these forces to such infinitely varied yet perfectly defined
ends.

[Sidenote: A Marvel of Every Day]

Consider for a moment one of the simplest of these cases. Let us take
the minute seed of one of the great tropical fig-trees, and another
seed of a strawberry, or of garden cress. Both will be about the same
size and shape, and the most acute microscopist would not find any
difference in the internal structure that could intelligibly account
for the different results when these little grains of protoplasm are
exposed to identical conditions. For, even if planted near each other,
and exposed to the same amount of heat and moisture, to the very same
atmosphere, and the same kind of water, as well as identically the
same soil, yet invariably the one will grow into a large tree, the
other into a small herb, and in the course of time, still with no
change whatever of the physical conditions to which both are exposed,
each will produce its peculiar foliage, and flowers, and fruit, very
different in all their characters from those of the other. Were this
result not so common as to seem to us “natural,” we should call it
a miracle; and it is really and essentially as inexplicable as many
things which are termed miracles only because they are unfamiliar and
inexplicable.

Now, this wonderful substance, the physical base of all life--and as
it is the only base that exists, or has ever existed, on the earth, we
may fairly assume that no other is possible--can only maintain itself
and perform its functions under certain very definite conditions, which
conditions are now maintained on our earth’s surface, and must have
been maintained throughout the long geological periods during which
life has been slowly developing. What these conditions are we will now
proceed to show.

[Sidenote: The First Essential for Life]

The first essential for organic life is a certain very limited range of
temperature. We are so accustomed to consider the change of temperature
from winter to summer, from day to night, and that which occurs when we
pass from the tropics to the Polar regions as being very great, that we
do not realise what a small proportion such changes bear to the whole
range of temperature that exists in the known universe. The absolute
zero of temperature is calculated to be minus 461° F., while the heat
of the sun has been determined to be over 10,000° F., and many of the
stars are known to be much hotter than the sun. The actual range of
temperature is therefore enormous; but any development of organic life
is possible only within the very narrow limits of the freezing and
boiling points of water, since within those temperatures only is the
existence of liquid water possible. But a much less range than this
is really required, because albumen, one of the commonest forms of
protoplasm, is coagulated or solidified at a temperature of about 160°
F. Now, if, as is generally believed, the earth has been once a liquid
or even a gaseous mass and has since cooled to its present temperature
on the surface, and the sun is undergoing a similar process of cooling,
we are able to understand that the very limited range of temperature
within which life development is possible implies an equally limited
period of time as compared with that occupied by the whole process of
solar and planetary development.

[Sidenote: We Live by the Heat of the Sun]

It must be understood, however, that the present temperature of the
earth’s surface is due entirely to sun-heat, and that if that were
withdrawn or greatly diminished the whole surface of the globe would
be permanently far below the freezing point and all the oceans be
frozen for a considerable depth; so that all organic life would become
extinct. Under such conditions no renewed development of life would be
possible; and it is therefore quite certain that the sun has actually
maintained the uniform moderate temperature required, and must continue
to maintain it for whatever future period man is destined to continue
his existence upon the earth.

But it is not only a certain amount of heat that is required, but also
a sufficient quantity of light; and this implies a further restriction
of conditions, because light is due to vibrations of a limited range of
wave-length, and without these particular rays plants cannot take the
carbon from the carbonic acid in the atmosphere, and by its means build
up the wonderful series of carbon compounds, including protoplasm,
which are essential for the life of animals. What is commonly termed
dark heat, therefore, would not be sufficient for the development
of any but the lowest forms of life, even though it produced the
necessary temperature during a sufficient period of time.

All organisms, from the lowest to the highest, whether plant or animal,
consist very largely of water, and its constant presence either in the
liquid or gaseous form is essential for organic life. On our earth
oceans and seas occupy the greater part of the surface, while their
average depth is so great that the quantity of water is sufficient to
cover the whole of the globe free from inequalities two miles deep.
It is this enormous amount of water that supplies the air with ample
moisture, such as renders the life of the tropics so luxuriant. Yet
even now the inequality of water-supply is such that large areas in all
parts of the earth are what we term deserts, only supporting a very few
forms of life that have become specially adapted to them, and certainly
unfitted for the continuous development of life from lower to higher
forms.

[Sidenote: Water and the Atmosphere]

Water is also of immense importance as an equaliser of temperature, the
currents of the ocean conveying the warmth of the tropics to ameliorate
the severity of temperate and Polar regions, while the amount of
water-vapour in the atmosphere acts as a retainer of heat during the
night, without which it is probable that the surface of the earth would
freeze every night even in the tropics. When we consider that water
consists of two gases--oxygen and hydrogen--in definite proportions,
and that without their presence in these proportions and in the
necessary quantity the development of organic life would have been
impossible, we find that we have here a remarkable and very complex set
of conditions which must be fulfilled in any planet to enable it to
develop life.

But this is not all. The atmosphere is so intimately associated with
water in its life-relations, and is itself so absolutely essential to
the existence from moment to moment of the higher animals, that the two
require to be duly proportioned to each other and to the globe of which
they form a part.

[Sidenote: How Water Protects Earth by Night]

In the first place the atmosphere must be of a sufficient density,
this being needed in order that it may be an adequate storer up of
solar heat, and also in order that it may be able to supply sufficient
oxygen, water-vapour, and carbonic-acid gas for the requirements of
both vegetable and animal life. We have a striking example of the use
of air as a storer-up and distributor of heat and moisture in the
very different character of our south-west and north-east winds. The
effect of the density of the air is equally well shown when we ascend
lofty mountains where we find perpetual snow and ice, due simply to
the fact that the air is not dense enough to retain the heat of the
sun--which is actually greater than at low levels--so that at night
the temperature regularly falls below the freezing point. On the other
hand a very much denser atmosphere would absorb so much water vapour as
probably to shut out the light of the sun, and thus have a prejudicial
effect on vegetable life.

Again, there is good reason to believe that the proportions of the
various gases in the atmosphere are, within certain narrow limits, such
as are most favourable not only for the life that actually exists, but
for any life that could be developed from the elements that constitute
the universe. Oxygen has properties which seem absolutely essential to
organic life; but nitrogen, though only serving to dilute the oxygen
so far as the higher animals are directly concerned, is yet indirectly
essential for them, since it is in vegetables a constituent of that
protoplasm which is the very substance of their bodies.

[Sidenote: Use of Thunderstorms]

[Sidenote: The Wonder of the Atmosphere]

Now, plants obtain their nitrogen mainly from the minute proportion
of ammonia that exists in the atmosphere, and this ammonia is formed
by the union of the nitrogen of the air with the hydrogen of the
water-vapour under the influence of electric discharges--that is,
of thunderstorms. It is evident, then, that the required amount of
this essential compound will depend upon a due adjustment of the
quantities of nitrogen and aqueous vapour always present; while the
electric discharges seem to be due to the friction of various strata
of air with each other and with the earth’s surface, due to the winds
and storms; and winds are due to highly complex causes, involving
the rate of the earth’s rotation, the rise and fall of the tide, the
density of the atmosphere, the quantity of its aqueous vapour, and the
amount of solar heat which it receives. Unless all these very diverse
factors existed in their due proportion, some of the results might be
highly prejudicial if not quite inimical to the development of life.
To these various adaptations of our gaseous envelope we must add one
other. Carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere is absolutely essential
to vegetable life, while it is directly antagonistic to that of the
higher animals. Its quantity must, therefore, be strictly proportionate
to the needs of both; and that beneficial proportion must have been
preserved throughout the whole period of the existence of the higher
air-breathing animals.

These various considerations show us that our atmosphere, consisting
as it does mainly of two common gases mixed together, and therefore
seeming to most people one of the simplest things possible, is really a
wonderfully complex arrangement which is adapted to serve the purposes
of living organisms in a great variety of ways. But this by no means
exhausts the subject of its adaptation to support and develop organic
life, because its very existence on the earth in a suitable quantity
and composed of the essential elements can be shown to depend on other
and deeper relations which will now be pointed out.

The older writers on the subject of the habitability of the planets
took no account whatever of the importance of size, distance from the
sun, period of rotation, and obliquity of the ecliptic as determining
the possibility of organic life, but simply assumed that, because the
earth possessed an abundant life-development, all the other planets
must also possess it. But we know that the above-mentioned factors are
of very high importance, as we will proceed briefly to point out.

[Sidenote: Earth’s Envelope of Gas]

It is now believed that the amount of atmosphere possessed by a
planet is due mainly, perhaps entirely, to the planet’s mass, and its
consequent gravitative power. Spectrum-analysis has shown that vast
masses of gaseous matter exist in the universe, and it is probable
that, in a state of extreme tenuity, these are very widely diffused.
Just as meteoric dust is constantly attracted to the earth, and
periodically in larger quantities, so are gases, and supposing the
aggregations of free gaseous matter to have been distributed with some
approach to uniformity, then, as planets grew in size, they would also
tend to secure a larger amount of the diffused gases, thus forming
deeper atmospheres. The observed facts agree with this view. The
largest planets, Jupiter and Saturn, have such a depth of atmosphere as
permanently to obscure any solid interior they may possess. The only
planet closely approaching the earth in size and density--Venus--has
an atmosphere which appears to be loftier than ours, but it may be
composed of different gases. Mars, which has only one-ninth the mass
of the earth, has a lofty but very tenuous atmosphere, and probably no
water, the Polar snows being due probably to the freezing of some dense
gas. The climate and physical condition of Mars is, however, still a
subject of much controversy, which I hope to discuss in a separate work
dealing with the arguments of Professor Lowell [see page 105]. In that
volume the reader will find, fully set forth my reasons, on scientific
grounds, against the supposed habitability of Mars.

[Sidenote: The Earth Selects and Uses Gas]

But, besides attracting cosmic masses of gaseous matter to form its
atmosphere, there is another equally important function of the mass of
a planet--its selective power on the kind of gases it can permanently
retain in a free state. The molecules of gases are in a condition of
rapid motion in all directions, which explains the elastic force they
exhibit. The speed of this motion has been determined for all the chief
gases, and also the gravitative force necessary to prevent them from
continually escaping into space from the upper limit of the atmosphere.
Thus the moon, which has a mass only one-eightieth that of the earth,
can retain no free gas whatever on its surface. Mars can retain only
the very heavy gases, but neither hydrogen nor water-vapour. The earth,
however, has force enough to retain all the gases except hydrogen,
which is just beyond its limit; and this may explain why it is that
there is no free hydrogen in the atmosphere, although this gas is
continually produced in small quantities by submarine volcanoes, is
emitted sometimes from fissures in volcanic regions, and is a product
of decaying vegetation. Once united with oxygen to form water, it
becomes amenable to gravity in the form of invisible aqueous vapour,
and is thenceforth a permanent possession for us in its most valuable
form.

[Illustration: EARLY ICE AGE, WHEN MAMMOTHS ROAMED THE EARTH AND MAN
WAS ARISING]

The very accurate adjustments that render our earth suitable for
the production and long-continued development of organic life,
culminating in man, may be well shown by another consideration. If our
earth had been 9,600 miles instead of 8,000 miles in diameter--a very
small increase in view of the immense range of planetary magnitudes
from Mercury to Jupiter--with a slight proportionate increase in
density, due to its greater force of gravitative compression, its
mass would have been about double what it is now. This would probably
have led to its having attracted and retained double the amount of
gases, in which case the water produced would have been double what
it is--perhaps even more, because hydrogen gas would not then escape
into space as it does now. But the surface of the globe would have
been only one-half greater than at present; so that, unless the ocean
cavities were twice as deep as they actually are, the whole surface of
the earth--except, perhaps, a few tops of submarine volcanoes--would
have been covered several miles deep in water, and all terrestrial life
would have been impossible.

[Sidenote: The Deep Atmosphere of Venus]

From the various considerations here set forth it appears clear to me
that no other planet of the solar system makes any approach to the
conditions essential for the development of a rich and varied organic
life such as adorns our earth. One only--Venus--has a sufficient bulk
and density to give it the needful atmosphere; but as it receives
about twice as much solar heat as does the earth, it is probable that
its very deep atmosphere may be mainly due to the fact that a large
proportion of its water is held in a state of vapour, its seas and
oceans being proportionately reduced in extent. Judging from what
happens on the earth, this would probably lead to an excessive area
of deserts, and thus be inimical to life. But this planet appears to
possess one feature which renders it fundamentally unsuitable for
organic life.

[Sidenote: Why there is no Life on Venus]

Several modern observers have found that the older astronomers were
all in error in giving Venus a rotation-period almost exactly the
same as ours, an error due to the indefinite and variable markings
of its surface. They have now deduced a period about equal to that
of its revolution round the sun--a rate which has been confirmed by
spectrum-analysis, and further confirmed by the fact that this planet
has no measurable polar compression. As during transits of Venus over
the sun’s disc the conditions for the accurate measurement of the
compression, if any exist, are the best possible, and as none has been
found, this alone affords a demonstration that the rate of rotation
must be very slow, because the laws of motion _necessitate_ a definite
amount of equatorial protuberance corresponding to that rate. Half the
surface has, therefore, perpetual day and the other half perpetual
night, leading to violent contrasts of heat and cold for the two
hemispheres with, in all probability, correspondingly violent winds,
rains, and electrical disturbances--conditions so entirely opposed
to the uniformity of temperatures and stability of meteorological
phenomena during long geological epochs which are essential for the
full development of organic life, that such development is perhaps less
probable on this planet than on any other.

I think I have now shown not only that no other planet in the solar
system makes any approach to the possession of the varied and complex
adaptations which are essential for a full development of organic life,
but also that on the Earth itself the conditions are so numerous and so
nicely balanced that very moderate deviations in excess or defect of
what actually exists in the case of any one of them--and of others not
referred to here--might have rendered it equally unsuitable, so that
either no organic life at all, or only a very low type of life, could
have been developed or supported.

[Sidenote: There is Purpose in our World]

If, then, the more superficial indications of design in the relations
of animals to their environment, and of man to the universe, have been
shown by modern science to have required no _special_ interference of
a higher power to bring them about, but that they have been due to
natural laws acting in accordance with and in subordination to the
deeper laws and forces that determine the very constitution of matter
and the unknown power and principle we term “life,”--yet, on the other
hand, we find that a more careful study of the outer universe, or
cosmos, reveals a new set of adaptations not less wonderful or more
easily explicable by chance coincidence than those presented by the
organic world.

Even the very brief sketch of the subject here given suggests the
idea of _purpose_ in a world so precisely and uniquely adapted to
develop organic life, and to support that life during the countless
ages required for the completed evolution of man. But that suggestion
becomes a logical induction when the whole of the available evidence
is set forth, as I have attempted to set it forth in my work on “Man’s
Place in the Universe.” I have there shown not only that the cumulative
evidence for the earth being the only supporter of a fully-developed
organic life within the solar system is irresistible, but that there
is some direct, and much more indirect, evidence that this uniqueness
extends to the whole stellar universe; and it is certain that no
particle of _direct_ evidence for the existence of organic life
elsewhere has been, or is likely to be, adduced.

I have also shown (in an appendix to the second edition of my book)
that the purely biological argument for the uniqueness of the
development of man--as the culminating point of one line of descent
throughout the diverging ramifications of the animal kingdom--is
overwhelmingly strong; hence the logical conclusion from the whole
of the evidence is that man is the one supreme product of the whole
material universe.

My object in the present essay has been limited to showing that,
besides and beyond the special adaptations of the various kinds of
animals and plants to their special environments, there exist in the
earth as a planet, in its various physical and cosmical relations, a
whole series of adaptations of a very remarkable character which, so
far as we can judge, are essential to its function as a life-producing
world. The study of these adaptations, therefore, may be considered
to be appropriate here, as constituting a preliminary chapter in the
natural history of the Earth and of Mankind.

    ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE

[Illustration: IN THE DAYS OF THE SEA MONSTERS

    Reproduced from a plate in Hawkins’ “Book of the Great Sea
    Dragons.”
]




THE BEGINNING OF LIFE ON THE EARTH

BY DR. C. W. SALEEBY


[Sidenote: The Earth Without Life]

For some decades past we have been faced with a critical difficulty
at the most critical and important point in the history of the earth.
In the first place, it has been definitely established that in the
earlier period of its history there was no life whatever--as the word
is usually understood--upon the earth, as is abundantly shown elsewhere
in this work. None of the conditions that make life possible, as we
know it, were satisfied. As a recent French writer has said, life is
an aquatic phenomenon, absolutely incapable of existence except in the
presence of liquid water; and there was an age of vast duration in the
history of the earth when all its water must have been in the gaseous
state. Other reasons of equal cogency may be at present ignored. The
broad fact is that, however widely students of this matter may differ
on other points, there is absolute agreement upon the cardinal and
initial fact that whereas there is life upon the earth now, there was a
time when there was none.

[Sidenote: A Gap in the Philosophy of Evolution]

Now, in the ever memorable year 1859, Charles Darwin published a
volume, the main thesis of which is now universally accepted, wherein
the following is the last sentence: “There is grandeur in this view of
life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the
Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has
gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple
a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been,
and are being evolved.” “The Origin of Species” may be said, in a
word, to establish the doctrine of the evolution of living organisms
upon the earth “by laws acting around us”--to use Darwin’s own phrase.
But Darwin’s work begins with and assumes the existence of life as an
established planetary fact. There obviously remains a tremendous gap in
the evolutionary philosophy as it stands in our statement of it thus
far; and the first fact which we have to note is that the existence
and recognition of this supposed gap, so far from being a matter of
common recognition from the earliest times, so far from being an
observation made by the critics of the doctrine of evolution, is, on
the contrary, a special doctrine peculiar to scientific study and of
quite recent origin, being indeed established--as was supposed--within
the memory of many now living.

If we turn to the first chapter of Genesis, we shall see no suggestion
or recognition of the supposed difficulty involved in the beginning of
life upon the earth. In this immortal piece of ancient poetry it is
stated that after the creation of the heaven and the earth, which were
at first “without form and void,” God said, “Let the earth bring forth
grass ... and it was so”; and later God said, “Let the waters bring
forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life ... let the earth
bring forth the living creature after his kind.” Here we have suggested
to us the natural origin of living creatures in earth and sea under the
will and direction of the Creator as conceived by the poet.

[Sidenote: First Ideas on the Origin of Life]

[Sidenote: The Coming of Darwin]

Partly to the influence of Genesis, partly to the apparent facts of
observation, and partly to the views which would naturally be held by
poets and thinkers, we may attribute the belief which has been held
by man, simple and philosophic alike, since first men began to think,
until, we may say, the third quarter of the nineteenth century--the
belief that the lowest of living things arose by a natural genesis or
so-called spontaneous generation in suitable materials already provided
on the land or in the sea. It was not suggested or believed that very
large and conspicuous living creatures were thus bred, though it is
true that the ancients thought even crocodiles to be generated by the
action of the sun upon the slime of the Nile. The living creatures
supposed to arise naturally in the womb of earth--the all-mother--were
mostly small creatures, like insects and worms. The ordinary belief of
the uninstructed to-day--a belief which they share with the greatest
thinkers of antiquity and the Renaissance--is that the cheese-mite, for
instance, is evolved from the substance of the cheese. Now, it is of
particular moment to observe the vast contrast between the significance
of this belief prior to the publication of “The Origin of Species” and
its significance to-day. Before we accepted the doctrine of organic
evolution, the supposed spontaneous origin of the cheese-mite in
cheese, or of the maggot in putrid meat, was of no very great moment;
a maggot or a cheese-mite is an extremely insignificant object. So far
as the great problems of the universe are concerned, a cheese-mite, as
we say, is neither “here nor there,” and its spontaneous generation was
not regarded as a fact of any great moment.

But then there arose Darwin, who, in establishing the doctrine of
organic evolution already supported by his own grandfather, by Lamarck,
and Goethe, and Herbert Spencer, gave an entirely new importance to
the question. He demonstrated how we could conceive the evolution of
all organisms, including man, from a “few simple forms,” under the
continuous influence of natural law; and thus such forms ceased to
be insignificant, and the manner of their genesis came to be a vital
problem in more senses than one. Such organisms--the mite, the maggot,
and even the mould--could no longer be regarded as insignificant, for
they were revealed as not unlike the ancestors of man himself.

[Sidenote: Evolution a Continuous Process]

The question of the beginning of life upon the earth had only to be
satisfactorily answered for the establishment of the belief in a
continuous process of evolution by natural law, even from the very
beginning of the earth itself “without form and void,” until the
production of the highest living organisms which it displays in our
own time. And all ages, even by the mouths of their great thinkers and
closest observers, had agreed in giving an apparently satisfactory
answer to this question. It might well have been thought that Darwin
was quite entitled to ignore altogether, as he did, the question of
the origin of life. Everyone knew, so to say, that simple living
organisms were every day evolved in organic refuse and elsewhere.
Darwin himself, if we may judge from a casual remark in a letter,
regarded the question apparently as purely speculative, and of small
real moment. It is all rubbish, he says, thinking about the origin of
life; we might as well argue about the origin of matter. We must beware
of illegitimately attributing opinions to the immortal dead, but this
remark, though a casual one, does seem to suggest that Darwin regarded
these two questions as on all-fours, if not, indeed, as different forms
of the same question, and that, if he had actually formulated his
views, they would have taken the shape of the doctrine which asserts
that life is implicit and potential in matter; in other words, that
when suitable conditions arose--such, for instance, as the presence of
liquid water--matter would display the properties of life.

[Sidenote: An Abyss that could not be Bridged]

Now, the remarkable fact--one of the most striking in the history of
science--is that the time-honoured belief in spontaneous generation
should have been attacked, and attacked with apparent success, just
at the very time when it would otherwise have begun to assume real
philosophic importance. For ages it had been accepted, taken as a
matter of course, and not regarded as having any particular bearing
upon the supreme questions. Then there came the time when this belief
would have been an all-important link, without which the chain of
evolution could not be completed, a link without which we were left
to contemplate a perfect chain of inorganic evolution--the history of
the earth before life--and a perfect chain of organic evolution--the
history of life upon the earth, with an abyss between the two that
could not be bridged, for how came life where there was no life? A
series of experiments were made, experiments in which, strikingly
enough, some of the greatest evolutionists of the day took a leading
part, and these seemed to upset, just when it was most wanted by
themselves for the establishment of their new doctrine, the belief
which had gone without question for so many ages.

[Sidenote: Is Life only Self-movement?]

Now, some may be inclined to wonder how it should be that certain
pioneers of the new doctrine of evolution, such as Tyndall and Huxley,
should devote themselves with such persistence and labour and force
to the overthrow of a doctrine which was so necessary for the complete
establishment of their own case--so much so, that when they had
overthrown it, they found themselves, as regards their own doctrine
of evolution, placed in a difficulty from which they did not live to
emerge. It is my own belief that this question can be answered, and
the answer is of strict relevance to our present inquiry. I believe
that Huxley and Tyndall were largely impelled by the desire to oppose
a doctrine of the nature of life which was current in their time and
is usually called “vitalism.” We shall not begin to understand the
question of the beginning of life upon the earth, as that question may
be legitimately stated to-day, unless we fully realise in what terms
the doctrine of spontaneous generation was accepted in the past, and
an understanding of this will teach us that the present-day revival of
this doctrine presents it in a form very different from that which it
so long held. Our discussion must be somewhat philosophic in character,
but the question at issue is a highly philosophic one, and the reason
why we have made so little progress in answering it hitherto is that
men of science have too frequently discussed it without paying any
serious attention to the profound philosophic questions which really
underlie it. We have permitted ourselves to talk freely about life and
matter, whilst claiming the right to take for granted the absolute
validity of our conceptions of life and our conceptions of matter.

It was universally held by those, philosophic and simple, who also held
throughout so many centuries the belief in spontaneous generation, that
there is an overwhelming contrast between living and lifeless matter,
and it was their belief in this overwhelming contrast that led them
to give to the doctrine of spontaneous generation, as they held it, a
form which cannot possibly be defended. The great character of life was
conceived to be self-movement, this self-movement being displayed in
the matter which composed the living organisms. But it was universally
held that matter, as it was seen otherwise than in living organisms,
was obviously and notoriously inert, gross, brute, and dead.

[Sidenote: The Influence of Plato]

The great influence of Plato taught men to despise matter in this
fashion, and there was the everyday experience that a stone lies where
it is placed until something from outside moves it, being, therefore,
inert, whilst a living creature such as a bird moves freely at its own
will. The more strongly men held the natural matter of which the earth
is composed to be inert, the more necessary was it to suppose that
when life was displayed in it the difference consisted in the taking
possession of this dull clay by a vital force--a mystic and wonderful
principle of quickening--which endowed even gross, inert matter with
activity and power. From the time of Plato until the last few years of
the nineteenth century thinkers vied with one another in insisting upon
the impotence and grossness and inertness of matter, and each fresh
insistence upon this doctrine rendered more necessary a corresponding
doctrine of vital force or vitalism, which should explain the amazing
transformation undergone by, let us say, the gross and inert matter
composing food, when that food was converted by the “living principle”
into the tissue of a living creature, and then displayed self-movement.

[Sidenote: Philosophy of Dead Matter]

[Sidenote: The Great Work of Pasteur]

This doctrine of vitalism, which held sway for so long, was naturally
invoked to explain the origin of life upon the earth, when the advance
of astronomy and geology demonstrated a natural evolution for the
earth and proved that there must have been a time when no life was
possible upon it. The prevalent conception of matter came in at this
point and denied altogether any such monstrous doctrine as that the
wonderful thing called life could spontaneously arise in the despicable
thing called matter. The material of the earth, whether solid, liquid
or gaseous, consisted of eternal, unchangeable, and indestructible
atoms. These were moved as forces from outside moved them. They had
no energy or power of their own. Men simply thought of them as of
incredibly minute grains of sand of various shapes and sizes, and it
was as impossible to conceive of life being spontaneously generated
in a chance heap of inert atoms as to conceive that a heap of grains
of sand should organise themselves into a little organism. As for
spontaneous generation occurring on the earth to-day, the development
of mites from cheese and so forth, that was a very different matter,
men must have thought--in so far as they thought at all--since cheese
and flesh and so forth were themselves products of life. It is well
worth noting that the common doctrine of spontaneous generation was
always held in reference to organic materials, such as the slime of the
Nile--not the dry sand of the desert. The reader may be inclined to say
that men’s beliefs on this subject in the past generation make very
confused reading, and indeed, that is true. But the fact is that their
beliefs were most confused. The work of Darwin had staggered everybody,
and straightforward, systematic, unprejudiced thinking was very nearly
impossible in the welter of controversy. Nevertheless, something
apparently definite was done. The doctrine of the beginning of life
upon the earth was left almost undiscussed, and the accepted notion
of the nature of matter--a notion which to us who know radium seems
puerile--was left unchallenged in all its falsity. But the work of the
great French chemist Pasteur led to a close examination of the belief
that humble forms of life are daily produced from lifeless organic
materials, and the conclusion was reached that no such spontaneous
generation occurs.

[Sidenote: Every Living Thing from a Living Thing]

This conclusion is of great importance in the history of modern
thought, and it was proclaimed with much rejoicing and vigour as a
great achievement of science, whilst some of its chief advocates
seemed at times to forget the extreme awkwardness of the inferences
which had to be made from it. The doctrine may be stated in Latin in
the form of the familiar dogma, “Omne vivum ex vivo,” every living
thing from a living thing. Just as the existence of a man is quite
sufficient to prove to us the prior existence of living human parents,
just as we feel sure that every beast of the field has had living
parents and that every oak has sprung from an acorn developed in a
previous oak, so, according to the doctrine of “Omne vivum ex vivo,”
we must believe that every living creature, whether human, animal, or
vegetable, whether as big as the mammoth or as small as the smallest
microbe not one-twenty-thousandth part of an inch in diameter, has
sprung from living parents. Nature, according to this doctrine, was
divided--as Nature, being a mighty whole, can never be divided--into
two absolute categories, the living and the lifeless, or living matter
and dead matter. Dead matter was notoriously dead and impotent, and
life could not conceivably arise in it, though it could be used by life
for purposes of food. On the other hand, living matter rejoiced in the
possession of all those great attributes which lifeless matter lacked,
and, in accordance with the contrast between the two kinds of matter,
the living could never be produced from the lifeless but only from the
living: for every creature, microbe or mammoth or man, we must trace
back in imagination a series of living ancestors, differing perhaps in
various characters, but always living. This series must be traced back
and back and back until----?

[Sidenote: Life Evolved from the Lifeless]

And there the difficulty arose. For the uninhabitableness of the
primitive earth was a fact of which men of science were as certain
as if from some habitable planet they had been able to gaze upon it.
Notwithstanding the dogma of “Omne vivum ex vivo,” it was impossible to
assert that every living creature has an _endless_ series of ancestors.
How, then, did life begin?

What we may call the doctrine of the older orthodoxy--the doctrine of
special creation, of supernatural interposition for the introduction
of a new entity into the scheme of things--offered one alternative. To
accept it, however, would be to abandon the whole modern conception
of natural law and of a universe which was not created once on a day,
and has not been tinkered with subsequently, but from everlasting to
everlasting is the continuous expression to us of the Infinite and
Eternal Power which to some eyes it veils and to others it reveals.
Unless we are to abandon our philosophy, this alternative cannot be
accepted, and it is now accepted by no philosophic thinker.

[Illustration: BUFFON PLATO LAMARCK

BERTHELOT HERSCHEL CLERK MAXWELL

D^{R.} BASTIAN DARWIN TYNDALL

HUXLEY LORD KELVIN SPENCER

MASTER THINKERS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF LIFE

    Photos by Gerschel, Maull & Fox, E. Walker, London Stereoscopic,
    Barraud, and Mills
]

Thus, whether “Omne vivum ex vivo” be true or false to-day, we are
compelled to accept the only other alternative, which is that it has
not always been true, or, in other words, that life was spontaneously
evolved from the lifeless (so-called) at some remote age in the past.
Just at the present time philosophic biology is out of fashion. Minds
of the great cast which endeavour to see things in their eternal
aspect have been lacking to the science of life since the days when
Huxley and Spencer were in the plenitude of their powers. Anyone who
cares to compare the principal reviews of the last decade with those
same reviews from the year of, say, 1875 to 1890, can readily see
this fact for himself. In the absence of that deliberate thought and
discussion without which clear ideas on any subject are impossible,
what may be called the official opinion of biology at the present time
is thus most remarkable and contradictory. On the one hand, it is
strenuously asserted as a matter of dogma that at the present day no
life is produced or producible upon the earth except by the process of
reproduction of previously existing life; and on the other hand it is
asserted--when the direct question is put, though otherwise the subject
is simply ignored--that life must somehow or other have been naturally
evolved in the past, presumably once and for all. I have called this
opinion contradictory, and it is indeed far more contradictory and
unsatisfactory than it may at present appear. The obvious question that
the critic asks is, “If then, why not now?”

[Sidenote: “If then, why not now?”]

[Sidenote: Is Life Now Arising from the Lifeless?]

The answer alleged is that, of course, the experiments of Pasteur and
Tyndall, to which some reference must afterwards be made here, merely
demonstrated the impossibility of the spontaneous generation of life
in our own day or under any conditions similar to those of our own
day; but doubtless the first few simple forms of living matter arose
by natural processes at some distant epoch “when the conditions were
very different from those that obtain to-day.” Now it happens to be
true that every difference between past and present conditions which
physics and geology and chemistry can assert tends to the probability
that if spontaneous generation is impossible now, it must have been a
hundredfold more impossible a hundred million years ago. Yet for some
three decades the great majority of biologists have been content to
believe that spontaneous generation is impossible now, even though
land and sea and sky are packed with organic matter under the very
conditions which obviously favour life--as the all but omnipresence
of life abundant to-day demonstrates--but that spontaneous generation
was possible in the past when, by the hypothesis, there was no
organic matter present at all, and when life had to arise in the union
and architecture of such simple substances as inorganic carbonates!
Such biologists are like those who know that the human organism can
be developed from the microscopic germ in a few years, but find it
incredible that man can have been developed from lowly organisms in
æons of æons. Nor has any living biologist even attempted to make an
adequate answer to the question, why what is impossible now should
have been possible a hundred million years ago. On the contrary, so
soon as the matter is looked at philosophically, we see that all the
probabilities, all the analogies, all the great generalisations of
science, are in favour of the belief that life must be arising from the
lifeless now, as in the past, whenever certain conditions, such as the
assemblage of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the presence of
liquid water, are satisfied.

For the moment, however, I propose to postpone this question of the
truth of “Omne vivum ex vivo” at the present day, for I desire to
throw into the forefront of my argument two quite recent developments
of science, unreckoned with because non-existent in the controversy
of the ’seventies, and in my judgment not yet duly appraised to-day.
In the present and future discussion of the manner and causation of
that supreme event in the earth’s history, the beginning of life upon
it, we must reckon with two new orders of inquiry relating to facts
unthinkably contrasted in physical magnitude yet equally relevant to
our subject. The first series of facts with which I will deal are
_astronomic_, and the second _atomic_.

[Sidenote: The Evidence from Other Worlds]

[Sidenote: Vegetable Life on Mars]

In discussing the origin of life upon the earth, we of the twentieth
century must recognise such facts as may be obtainable in regard to
life upon other orbs than ours. Now, in the first place, there is at
least one illustrious contemporary astronomer, Professor Pickering,
the chief living student of the moon, in whose opinion there are many
evidences upon our satellite of the action of vegetation, either past
or present. This, of course, is not the place for a discussion of
that evidence; it is, however, the place to record the most highly
qualified opinion at present obtainable, and to remind ourselves of
the certainty that when the moon was first borne--or born--from the
earth, life cannot possibly have been evolved, since the conditions
of temperature alone, to name one factor, were such as life could not
sustain, no liquid water being extant. There is some reason to suppose,
then, that, whatever the present case may be, life was at one time
spontaneously evolved upon the moon.

The second piece of astronomical evidence relevant to our inquiry is
afforded by the planet Mars. This, of course, is a much controverted
question, which cannot receive any discussion here. It suffices to
note that Professor Lowell, who is admittedly the greatest living
authority on Mars, has observed and photographed, not merely to
his own satisfaction, but to that of an ever increasing number of
astronomers, signs of vegetation upon Mars. I will say nothing here
as to the existence of intelligent beings there. That fascinating and
momentous question, upon which there will doubtless be difference
of opinion for some time to come, does not now concern us. It is of
quite sufficient significance for our present purpose if the existence
of merely vegetable life, and no more, upon the planet Mars can be
demonstrated, and there are now very few astronomers indeed who
question this demonstration, however chary they may be of going any
further. I submit that the question of the beginning of life upon
the earth should not be considered without reference to the evidence
which suggests the spontaneous origin of life upon the moon, and to
the practically positive demonstration of the present existence, with
seasonal alternations, as on our own earth, of vegetable life in the
watered areas of Mars.

[Sidenote: The Earth’s Crumbling “Foundations”]

These considerations were entirely unknown to the great
controversialists of a generation ago; but there is another order of
facts, entirely unimagined by them, which are now demonstrable and
admitted. For them, or for most of them, the ancient conception of
matter which we trace to Plato was substantially true; nay, more.
The recent work of the physicists and chemists had endowed that
ancient conception of matter as gross and inert and dead with a new
concreteness and vividness. One of the greatest physicists of the age,
James Clerk-Maxwell, in his famous address to the British Association,
spoke of atoms as the “foundation stones of the visible universe, which
have existed since the creation unbroken and unworn.” The accepted
conception of an atom was that of a passive thing; it had its own
inherent shape and properties, which were impressed upon it at its
creation. It had “the stamp of the manufactured article,” as Sir John
Herschell said, and throughout its endless history it responded to and
behaved under the influence of external forces in due accordance with
its shape and size. But it was unchangeable, inert and brute, the sport
of its surroundings, like the mote in the sun-beam.

[Sidenote: Immeasurable Ocean of Energy]

But to-day we stand amazed at such conceptions. We have learnt that
within the atoms of matter there is a fund of energy so incalculably
vast that the sum total of all the energies previously recognised, and
now to be styled extra-atomic, is as nothing compared with it. This
is a change indeed, that all the energies hitherto known to us should
be merely the overflow trickling from the immeasurable ocean of the
intra-atomic energy, the very existence of which has been formally and
repeatedly denied by practically all thinkers from Plato down to our
own time. Matter is not gross and inert, brute and dead. The atom, the
so-called unchangeable foundation stone, is, on the contrary, itself
an organism, the theatre of Titanic forces about which we at present
know practically nothing except that they certainly exist, and are
powerful beyond all our previous conceptions. The atom is no atom, but
a microcosm; it is no more the unit of inorganic matter than the cell
is really the unit of living matter.

Now it is surely evident on consideration, though the significance
of the change has been ignored, that the whole discussion of the
spontaneous origin or evolution of life in matter takes an entirely
new shape when our old and widely erroneous conception of matter is
abandoned, and a true one is substituted. Life is a marvellous and
characteristic demonstration of energy. When the origin of this energy
in matter was formerly discussed, we were told that the constituent
parts of matter contain no energy at all, but now we know that a quite
overwhelming proportion of the sum total of universal energy is to be
found there, and nowhere else. This is one of the most revolutionary
advances in the whole history of thought, and its full significance has
yet to be recognised.

There must also be added an essential to any future discussion of this
question, the extraordinary achievement of synthetic chemistry, of
which Professor Berthelot was the grand master. As long ago as 1828
it was shown that there was at least one exception to the doctrine of
the vitalists, that chemical compounds characteristic of living matter
cannot be built up except by the living organism. To-day chemistry
has succeeded in building up alcohols, starches, sugars, and even the
forerunners of the proteids themselves, from the inorganic elements in
the laboratory, under the action of non-vital forces. This fact could
not be reckoned with a generation ago.

[Sidenote: Can Chemistry Build Up Life?]

We are now entitled to state very briefly the sequence of events
which may reasonably be imagined as culminating in the origin of life
upon the earth _for the first time_. Whatever we may hold as to the
present, we have to recognise that the origin of life for the first
time constituted a fact utterly different in certain essentials from
any origin of life that may be expected to be occurring to-day. The
capital fact is that in the beginning there was no organic matter
to serve as food material. If ever there was a case in which it is
the first step that costs, it is here. Nothing can be easier than
to imagine the spontaneous origin of life in organic matter to-day,
favoured with sun and water and air. The case is far different when a
primary origin in inorganic matter has to be conceived. But of some
things we are certain. We are certain, for instance, that so long as
the earth’s surface temperature was above that of boiling water, no
life was possible. It was not until the gaseous water in the atmosphere
became liquefied by the lowering of the earth’s temperature that the
production of life became possible. The first seas were seas of boiling
water, or rather water infinitesimally below the boiling point, and
we may reasonably suppose, with Buffon, that the Polar seas, being
the first to cool, must have provided the first “nest” for life upon
the earth. I assume, of course, that this essay will be read in
conjunction with that of Professor Sollas upon the formation of the
earth [page 79], and that of Dr. Wallace upon the exquisite adaptation
between life and the earth to-day [page 91].

[Sidenote: The Study of Ferments]

But how were those complex organic bodies formed, especially those
vastly complex proteids with which all life whatsoever, as we know it,
is invariably associated? Apart from the laboratories of the synthetic
chemists of to-day, these compounds are always the products of
pre-existing life, and yet without them there could be no pre-existing
life.

[Sidenote: Mystery of the Cell]

[Sidenote: Is the Cell a Product of Evolution?]

It is my belief that this most difficult question, which quite baffles
us, will seem simple and straightforward in another generation, when
science has devoted itself on a large scale to a study now in its
very infancy--I mean the study of those curious bodies which chemists
call ferments. The properties of ferments are shared both by the
familiar ferments, such as trypsin and pepsin, and also by certain
inorganic substances, such as the metal platinum. Now, though pepsin
is a product of living cells, platinum is certainly not. Altogether
apart from the living world there are substances which have powers of
fermentation; and ferments do not act exclusively, as is erroneously
supposed, in breaking down complex compounds, but also build them
up from their constituents. The powers of a ferment, moreover, are,
so far as we know, inexhaustible. All life whatever is exercised by
ferments, and it is true that life, chemically considered, is “a series
of fermentations.” Now, there is quite recent evidence already which
seems to show that certain ferments, acting in suitable material, have
the power of reproducing themselves--that is to say, of converting that
material into their like. These facts are highly suggestive, and it is
difficult to refrain from suggesting that the gap between living and
lifeless matter, which seemed so absolute to our ancestors, and which
even to us, who have a new conception of matter, seems wide enough, may
yet be bridged by the ferments. We are far too apt, I think, to assume
that when we can see no intermediate stage there were no intermediate
stages, and thus to make difficulties for ourselves. We declare that
life began as a single cell, which was the starting-point of organic
evolution. I myself believe rather that the cell constitutes the acme
of a vast epoch of evolution, which may yet be reproduced in brief in
the laboratory. Denying or declining to think of this, the biologist
who knows the amazing complexity and intricacy of the architecture of
the cell may well decline to believe that such a thing could spring
with a single jump from inorganic matter. We preach and go on preaching
that Nature does nothing by jumps, and in the same breath we declare
that life began as a simple cell. In another hundred years we may begin
to realise that a cell in its own measure and on its own scale is an
organism, as complex and mature a product of evolution as a society,
or, for the matter of that, as the atom of modern chemistry!

But the reader will legitimately declare that so long as the
spontaneous generation of life to-day in the most favourable
circumstances is a proved impossibility, he cannot be expected to
accept the doctrine of its spontaneous origin in the past. There are
signs, however, that the biologists are now beginning to listen to Dr.
Charlton Bastian, the sole survivor from the great controversy of the
’seventies, whose book, “The Evolution of Life,” was published only a
few months ago. Against Pasteur and Tyndall and Huxley, Dr. Bastian
maintained that their experiments, asserted to be conclusive, were not
conclusive--the facts observed were certainly facts, but the deductions
were unwarrantable. The experiments only proved the impossibility under
the experimental conditions. The difference is the difference between
proving what you set out to prove, and begging the whole question.
First establish conditions under which spontaneous generation is
impossible, then demonstrate its non-occurrence under those conditions,
and thence infer that it is impossible under any conditions.

[Sidenote: The Creed of the Future]

The student is right in declining to believe in the spontaneous
beginning of life upon the earth so long as the possibility of
spontaneous generation to-day is denied, but there are not a few who
think that the most conservative attitude that can be adopted is one of
suspended judgment.

The present philosophic tendency is undoubtedly in the direction of a
return to the ancient conception that matter is not without its own
degree of life, and that the distinction between the organic and the
inorganic is a distinction of degree and not radical. Nature does not
admit of being sorted into any of our puny categories. As the facts
accumulate they point more and more definitely towards the opinion that
hylozoism, or the doctrine of potential life in all matter, will be
part of the scientific creed of the future.

Controversies as to the origin of life, judged in the light of this
great conception, seem to become trivial if not puerile. Knowing,
as we now do, that Plato’s conception of matter was as false as it
possibly could be, and having had revealed to us by radio-activity the
omnipresence within the very atoms of matter, of forces incessant and
stupendous, we find the doctrine of vitalism, however stated, to be
wholly meaningless; we find that the gap between the living and the
lifeless is by no means abysmal or impassable.

[Sidenote: How Long Has Life Existed?]

And the definition of life as self-movement seems to become almost
comical, for on that definition surely the whole physical universe,
the only perpetual motion machine we know of, is itself alive. A
discussion of this question can at the utmost only be suggestive. Very
few positive assertions have been made, nor can their number be added
to, in reference to a question which is bound to be asked: How long has
life existed on the earth? The study of radium and its presence in the
earth’s crust alone suffices to abolish altogether the old estimates,
and new ones cannot yet be substituted. Only it is certain that the
past history of planetary life may be far longer than any previous
estimate has indicated. It now seems that the earth is not only not
self-cooling, but actually self-heating, and if on the older assumption
Lord Kelvin could talk of a hundred million years since, so to speak,
water first became wet, and life, as we know it, possible, who shall
say of how long periods we may speculate now? Meanwhile, the glass-eyed
stare vacantly around them and declare that the progress of science
means the destruction of the spirit of wonder and reverence. To them we
reply in the words of the Earth Spirit in Goethe’s “Faust”:

    “At the whirring loom of Time unawed,
    I weave the living garment of God.”

    C. W. SALEEBY




[Illustration:

THE MASTERY OF THE EARTH AND HOW MAN OBTAINED IT

BY DR. ARCHDALL REID]


All the world--at any rate, all that part of the world which is
acquainted with the facts--is now agreed that man is a product of
evolution, and that his remote ancestors were of different bodily make
and shape, and of different mental type and calibre, from their late
descendants. No study of human kind can be comprehensive that does not
include a survey of the mode by which the faculties that have given man
the mastery of the earth were evolved.

[Sidenote: We Know the Present by the Past]

A history of his evolution, based, like a political history, on
episodes, cannot, of course, be written. But man is a bundle of parts
and capabilities. By comparing the civilised being with the savage and
the savage with lower animals, we are able to trace, in many important
particulars at least, his natural history with a degree of certainty to
which, I think, no political history can aspire. As our comprehension
of adult man is helped by a knowledge of the development of the child,
so our understanding of our species is aided by a study of its past.
Armed with some clear conceptions of what man was, and is, we shall
be the better fitted to investigate social and political change, and
to perceive how it happens that while some nations have inherited the
earth and the fruits thereof, others have stagnated or fallen into
decay.

[Sidenote: How Man Learns by Experience]

At a certain stage in his development the caterpillar builds himself
a cocoon. His dwelling is a wonderful structure, but from our human
point of view the remarkable thing is that he does not learn to build
it. He may never have seen a cocoon before, and he constructs only
one in his life. Yet his work is perfect, or at least very excellent,
and it is as good in its beginnings as in its endings. Evidently he
owes nothing to experience, but is impelled and guided throughout by
a faculty which we term _instinct_. An instinct may be defined as an
innate, inherited impulse, an inclination to do a certain definite
act, the instinctive act, on receipt of a certain definite stimulus
or incitement to action. In the case of the caterpillar the stimulus
appears to be the sight at the proper time of a suitable spot in which
to build a cocoon. Since this particular impulse does not appear at the
beginning of conscious life, it is termed a deferred instinct. Man,
on the other hand, cannot build his house unless he first learns how
to build. He depends, not on instinct, but on experience. The faculty
by means of which experience is stored in the mind is _memory_. The
faculty by means of which we use stored experience to guide present
or future conduct is _intelligence_. When the contents of memory are
very vast, and the processes of thought by which they are utilised
comparatively difficult and complex, intelligence is termed _reason_.
Intelligence and reason depend, therefore, on memory, on ability to
learn, on capacity to profit by experience. Memory is not the whole of
intelligence, but it is the basis of it. Without memory there could be
feeling and emotion, but no thought, for the materials of thought would
be lacking.

[Sidenote: Instinct in Place of Memory]

[Sidenote: The Basis of Rational Action]

We always measure the intelligence of an animal by its power of
profiting by experience. Thus, a cat is more intelligent than a rabbit
because it can learn more; a dog, for the same reason, is still more
intelligent. A purely instinctive animal, one that has no memory, can
have no conception of its past, and therefore no idea of its future.
It lives wholly in the immediate present; feeling, but not thinking.
It acts entirely on inclination, not on reflection. It makes provision
for the future, not with any notion of providing, but simply because
it has an impulse to a certain course of action, the performance of
which gives it pleasure of the kind a child derives from playing or
eating, and with the ultimate result of which it is no more consciously
concerned than a child. If a caterpillar sheltered in a hole with the
idea, founded on past experience, of avoiding danger, his action would
be intelligent. If, appealing to a memory in which a great number of
complex experiences were stored, he took thought and designed himself
a shelter in which provision was made for all sorts of _remembered_
dangers, his action would be rational. But if, making no appeal to the
past nor taking thought for the future, he builds only because impelled
by an innate impulse, then, no matter how elaborate the edifice he
rears, his action is instinctive.

Animals low in the scale of life--for example, most insects--appear
incapable of learning. But often they are wonderfully equipped by
instinct. The details of the behaviour of a small beetle, as quoted
from Professor Lloyd Morgan, may not have been quite correctly
ascertained, but they are sufficiently accurate for our purpose.

    A certain beetle (Sitaris) lays its eggs at the entrance of the
    galleries excavated by a kind of bee (Anthophora), each gallery
    leading to a cell. The young larvæ are hatched as active little
    insects, with six legs, two long antennæ, and four eyes, very
    different from the larvæ of other beetles. They emerge from the egg
    in the autumn, and remain in a sluggish condition till the spring.
    At that time (in April) the drones of the bee emerge from the
    pupæ, and as they pass out through the gallery the Sitaris larvæ
    fasten upon them. There they remain till the nuptial flight of
    the Anthophora, when the larva passes from the male to the female
    bee. Then again they wait their chance. The moment the bee lays an
    egg, the Sitaris larva springs upon it. Even while the poor mother
    is carefully fastening up her cell, her mortal enemy is beginning
    to devour her offspring, for the egg of the Anthophora serves not
    only as a raft, but as a repast. The honey, which is enough for
    either, would be too little for both, and the Sitaris, therefore,
    at its first meal, relieves itself from its only rival. After
    eight days the egg is consumed, and on the empty shell the Sitaris
    undergoes its first transformation, and makes its appearance in a
    very different form.... It changes into a white, fleshy grub, so
    organised as to float on the surface of the honey, with the mouth
    beneath and the spiracles above the surface.... In this state
    it remains until the honey is consumed, and, after some further
    metamorphoses, develops into a perfect beetle in August.

[Sidenote: Wonderful Instinct of the Beetle]

The beetle has sense organs; therefore she feels. But we have no reason
to suppose that she remembers or thinks. Memory would be of little use
to her; therefore parsimonious Nature bestows little or none. Cast
adrift in a hostile world, she must come into existence ready armed by
instinct for the battle of life. She has no time to learn, and during
the rapid and strange changes in her career has little opportunity of
acquiring knowledge that could beneficially guide her future conduct.
Since memory and its corollary reflection are most developed in the
highest animals, and are imperceptible in the lower, they are clearly
later and higher products of evolution than instinct.

[Sidenote: Man’s Helplessness at Birth]

Family life is a product of memory, for the mate and offspring are
_re_-cognised; therefore it always implies some degree of intelligence.
The young are watched and protected, and taught by the higher animals.
Opportunities are thus afforded of learning about the world, and more
particularly of acquiring the traditions, the stored experiences,
of the race. With the opportunity to profit by experience comes the
ability to profit by it, and with the latter a gradual decay of
instinct. Intelligence is substituted, more or less, for unthinking
impulse. All the instincts are not lost, but in the higher animals we
find no such elaborate innate impulses as in the lower. “Sitaris” is
able to fend for herself from the first; but just in proportion as
animals are highly placed in the scale of life, so they are helpless
at the beginnings of consciousness, but correspondingly capable later.
A young pig can run as soon as it is born, but the acquirements of the
most learned pig are small compared to that of a dog, which, though
more helpless than the pig at birth, is so teachable that he becomes
the companion of man. Our domestic animals are all teachable, otherwise
we could not tame them.

Of living beings man is by far the most helpless at birth. He cannot
even seek the breast. In him instinct is at its minimum. For him more
than any other animal prolonged and elaborate tuition is necessary;
but so vast is his memory, and so great his power of utilising its
stored experience, that in later life he is beyond comparison the most
capable of the inhabitants of the earth. Compare what even a dull
man knows, including the words of a language and its inflections and
articulations, with what is acquired by the cleverest dog, and the
immensity of the difference is at once apparent. We may take a solitary
frog and rear him from the egg in an aquarium. If, subsequently, we
remove him to a pond, he will take his place with his fellows at
once. He has little, if anything, to learn. Instinctively he knows his
food, and how to seek it; his enemies and rivals, and how to escape or
fight them; his mate, and how to deal with her; and she knows how to
dispose of her eggs. But how forlorn and helpless would be a man reared
from infancy in a dark cell out of sight and sound of his kind, and
then turned into a world where his _experienced_ fellows struggle for
existence!

[Sidenote: Fear is the Result of Experience]

Traditional knowledge--knowledge, that is, imparted by one generation
to the next--is common enough amongst the higher of the lower animals,
and forms no inconsiderable part of their mental equipment. Thus we
may see the hen teaching her chickens how to seek food, and the cat
instructing her kitten how to ambush mice. Birds and mammals inhabiting
desert islands have none of that fear of man which in our country they
acquire from dire experience. We have a saying, “as wild as a hawk”;
but Darwin relates how he almost pushed a hawk from its perch with
his gun in the Galapagos Islands. Round our coasts the sea-birds are
exceedingly shy; in a harbor they feed from the hand. Formerly the
Arctic seals, impelled by fear of bears, inhabited the outer margin
of the floes; at the present day they have retreated from the more
dangerous neighbourhood of man to the landward edge. Antarctic seals,
harried by the great carnivora of the ocean, are watchful in the water;
on land or on the surface of the ice, where till lately they met no
danger, they may be slaughtered like sheep in a shambles. They are
capable of profiting by experience; but they are slow to learn, and
can acquire but little. Judged by our human standard, they are very
stupid. The means of escape adopted by Arctic seals, and the means of
capturing them, the ships and guns adopted by man, furnish a measure of
the intellectual difference.

[Sidenote: Slavery in the World of Insects]

When animals are social, and so have the opportunity of learning, not
only from their parents, but from other members of the species, the
power of making useful mental acquirements is correspondingly great. It
reaches a remarkable degree of development even amongst insects, some
species of which live together in great communities. Young ants, for
example, are tended with anxious care. It is said that they are led
about the nest and instructed by older individuals. They are reported
to be playful. Most significant of all is the fact that some species
have the habit of capturing slaves belonging to other species, which
they take as pupæ, never as adult ants, and to whom, as they develop,
they teach their duties. The slaves are neuter individuals, and have no
offspring, the supply being maintained by fresh captures. It follows
that the slaves must _learn_ their work, and therefore that their
performance of it is not instinctive, but intelligent.

It is a fair inference that many of the so-called instincts of ants
are really acquired habits, bits of knowledge and ways of thinking
and acting which are handed down from one generation to the next, not
by actual inheritance, but traditionally and educationally, just as
children receive from us language, or religion, or a trade. Indeed,
there is reason to believe that the power of making mental acquirements
has evolved to a greater degree in the favourable environment of the
ant-nest than among any other species except man.

[Sidenote: Man’s Essential Instincts]

The instincts of man, though comparatively few and simple, are yet
essential to his existence. He has the instinct of hunger and the
instinctive recognition of food as food, the instincts to sleep
periodically, to rest when tired, and to sport when rested, the
instincts of curiosity and imitativeness, and the deferred instincts
of sexual and parental love, and perhaps one or two others. All these
innate impulses he shares with the lower animals, but those which impel
him to store and use his vaster memory are more developed in him than
in any other type. Thus the instinct of sport urges him, not only to
develop his limbs, but, through experience, to acquire dexterity and
much besides. The little girl turns naturally to her doll, which she
handles as she will her baby. The play of a boy as naturally involves
contests, which foreshadow the grimmer battles of adult life. As he
grows older the character of his sport changes. More and more it
becomes an appeal to the wits, an appeal to wider experience and a
means of adding to it.

[Sidenote: A Child’s Play Fits it for the Future]

The higher amongst the lower animals also have their sports, which, in
every instance, are adapted to fit the members of the species for the
future business of life. Compare, for example, the ambush and pounce
of the kitten, the ardent chase and overthrow of the puppy, and the
climbing proclivities of the kid. As a general rule, in proportion as
an animal is capable of becoming intelligent, and as long as it is
so capable, it is inclined to sport. A cat loses the desire early in
life, a man retains it to the end. A child’s play, therefore, is no
indication of mere frivolity. It is the outward and visible sign of an
eager and splendidly directed mental activity. Curiosity also prompts
the child to store its memory. Imitativeness impels him to acquire
those mental traits which enabled his progenitors to survive in their
world. Parental love prompts to the care and instruction of offspring.
Very illuminating and beautiful is the instinctive delight of some dull
and careworn mother in babyish play with her infant, and her joy when
it first “takes notice,” and in its earliest beginnings of speech and
locomotion.

Every animal species is fitted by its structures and their associated
faculties to its particular place in Nature. In some cases it holds
its own largely through the evolution of some one structure or group
of structures. Thus, the bat is especially distinguished by the
great development of its fingers and of the web between them, and
the elephant by its trunk. The principal distinguishing physical
peculiarity of man is the enormous relative size in him of that upper
part of the vertebrate brain which is termed the cerebrum, and, we have
every reason to believe, constitutes the organ of memory and thought.

[Sidenote: Evolution of Man’s Powers]

Associated in a special way with his great brain are his organs of
speech and manipulation. These three structures, the brain, the vocal
apparatus, and the hand, undoubtedly underwent concurrent evolution
by the constant survival, during a period of intense competition, of
those individuals who were naturally the best capable of receiving
and storing experience, of using it for the intelligent manipulation
of objects, and of communicating it to their fellows and descendants
through the medium of speech. Even the highest of the lower animals are
able to learn from one another only by example or through such very
elementary verbal signs as calls, growls, or cries of alarm, which
express no more than simple emotions.

Their traditional knowledge, therefore, is as nothing compared with
that of man, who by means of articulated speech communicates not only
information concerning sense impressions and emotions, but complex
items of knowledge and processes of thought which have been garnered,
elaborated, and systematised during tens of thousands of years by
millions of predecessors. Without speech, or some such method of
communicating abstruse information, his great brain would be useless.
But knowledge and powers of thought are of no avail unless they can be
translated into action; and for this the hands are necessary. To set
free the fore limbs, which had hitherto been organs of locomotion, for
their new function of manipulation, man became a biped, and assumed
the erect posture--by no conscious effort, however, but solely by the
survival of the fittest in each generation.

[Sidenote: Man Paves His Way to Greatness]

Savage man, then, differs from the lower animals in that he has a
larger brain, a more capacious memory, and greater powers of utilising
and communicating its contents. Modern man differs from ancient man
because he is the heir of longer experience. Civilised man differs from
the savage chiefly in that he has invented and more or less perfected
certain artificial aids to speech, written symbols by means of which
he is able to store in an available form knowledge immensely more
abstruse and voluminous than would otherwise be possible. His books are
artificial memories and vehicles of communication of unlimited capacity
and unerring accuracy. Moreover, by means of these symbols he is able,
as in the mathematics, to perform feats of thinking quite beyond the
powers of his unaided mind; just as by means of machinery and other
mechanical contrivances he is able to perform physical feats beyond the
unaided powers of his body.

To memory, then, is due the advance of the savage beyond the lower
animal; to tradition, the child of memory, the advance of modern
man beyond ancient man; to tradition stored in books the advance of
civilised men beyond the savage. To written symbols are due also man’s
vast powers for future advance. The brute, the mammoth, the mastodon,
the whale, the elephant, and the tiger, became ever more and more
helpless in the presence of a knowledge and an ingenuity that gathered
with the rolling years, and, though accumulated for ages, were yet
relatively new things in this enormously old world.

Low animals, in proportion as they lack memory, move in a narrow,
instinctive groove. Their mental traits are all inherited, and
therefore each individual follows exactly in the footsteps of its
predecessor. Since they cannot learn, they cannot adapt themselves to
circumstances. Removed from the ancestral environment they perish. Cast
in a rigid, inexpansive mould, every individual resembles every other
of the same species, as much mentally as physically.

[Sidenote: Man can Revert to Savagery]

It is different with man. He is preeminently the educable, the
reflective, the adaptive animal. Since the experiences of no two men
are quite similar, they differ in knowledge, ideas, and aspirations,
and, therefore, none are very closely alike mentally. The child does
not follow exactly in the footsteps of the parent. So great is human
adaptability that, though the mind of the savage differs immensely in
all except instinct and power of learning from that of the civilised
man, yet, were the child of the latter trained from birth by the
former, he could not be other than a savage.

On the other hand, utter savages--for example, the Maories of New
Zealand--have passed in a single generation from barbarism to
civilisation. The average individual amongst us may be trained to fill
the rôle of a beggar or a king, a scientist or a monk, a thief or a
legislator. He is able to dwell in the Tropics or in the Arctic, in the
town or in the wild. Memory, knowledge, intelligence, adaptability, are
all links in a single chain of efficiency.

[Sidenote: Dawn of Human Life]

Memory is of two sorts, conscious and unconscious. The conscious memory
contains experiences which can be recollected, such as the words of a
language or the sights we have seen. The unconscious memory contains
impressions which cannot be recalled to mind, but which are none the
less important. Thus, we learn to use our limbs, a process which
involves a precise but quite unconscious adjustment of the actions of
numerous nerves and muscles, the very names and existences of which
are known only to the anatomist. So, also, in youth we unconsciously
imitate our fellows, adopting in great measure their mental tones and
attitudes without knowing how or when we were influenced. Much, too,
that was once capable of being recalled is added to that hidden store,
and, though apparently lost, remains potent for good or evil. Our
minds are like floating icebergs, of which the visible part is but a
fraction of the whole, and are moved by deep currents in a seemingly
unaccountable way. At birth the mind of a child, unlike that of a
beetle, is practically blank. Sights and sounds and the other feelings
convey no meanings to it. But soon the messages sent by the sensation
are understood. In a few weeks the child evolves order out of chaos,
and comprehends to a wonderful degree the world around it. It learns to
move its muscles in a purposeful way, and in a year or two is able to
walk and speak a language, and do a vast deal more besides. In these
early years, the period of man’s greatest mental activity, are made
his most valuable and indispensable acquirements. But as he becomes
more and more completely equipped for the battle of life, his powers
of adding to the store slowly decline. In adult life the gains are
balanced by the losses. In old age the losses exceed the gains. Compare
the perfection with which the young acquire the manners of society,
and every accent, inflection, and intonation of a language, with the
imperfections displayed when learning is undertaken later.

[Sidenote: Habits are Imitation Instincts]

We learn to do new things, acquire new knowledge, and think new
thoughts with toil. But practice brings facility. In the end we perform
with ease that which was acquired with difficulty. We cannot, however,
unlearn as we learnt, by an act of will. The facility lingers, and,
as a consequence, our actions and thoughts, our mental attitudes, our
whole outlook on life becomes more or less automatic and stereotyped.
In other words, our acquirements come at last to resemble instincts,
and are often so misnamed, as when a boy who has learned to dodge is
said to avoid a blow instinctively. A being from another planet who
for the first time saw a man walking or cycling could not distinguish
the nature of these acquirements from such instinctive movements as
the running or flying of an insect. The patriotism of a Spartan or a
Japanese differs from that of a bee only in its mode of origin. In
brief, the low animal is a creature of instincts, the man is a creature
of habits, which are nothing other than imitation instincts.

[Sidenote: Mankind’s Substitutes for Instinct]

A principal function, then, of our faculty of making mental
acquirements, of our conscious and unconscious memories, is to supply
us with those automatic ways of thinking and acting which are our
substitutes for instincts. Our conscious memories supply us with our
stereotyped mental attitudes--desires, beliefs, aspirations, habitual
way of thinking, and so forth. Our unconscious memories supply our
stereotyped ways of acting--the automatic ways of acting we have just
considered. It is a principal business of our lives to acquire them;
but, though a great advantage is thus gained, one almost as great is
lost. We act and think more quickly in familiar situations, but in
proportion as we grow older we lose our splendid human capacity for
learning. Beyond the verge of our imitation instincts spreads a domain,
very wide in the infant, but narrowing as we pass towards old age,
which is the real realm of the active intellect. Here, where thoughts
and actions are not yet stereotyped, memory gathers fresh harvests,
imagination plays, and reason ponders. Here man is a rational being in
the strict sense of the word.

[Sidenote: Mind and Memory]

A little thought renders it evident that a feeble-minded person, an
idiot, or an imbecile, is always one with a defective memory. He is
unable to profit like the normal individual from experience. The truth
that the higher faculties are more often absent in the feeble-minded
than the lower is due entirely to the fact that they can be acquired
only by people whose receptive powers are well developed. In effect
and in fact the feeble-minded person is an instance of reversion to a
prehuman mental state. Judged by the human standard, every monkey is
an idiot. But the reversion is not complete, for, though the imbecile
loses some part of his power of profiting by experience, he regains no
part of the lost power of being guided by instinct. Therefore he is
correspondingly helpless as compared with a lower animal.

Owing to the constitution of the human mind, some decay of the faculty
of profiting by experience accompanies advancing age. But it need
seldom be so great as it usually is, and never so great as it often
is. Certain mental attitudes, certain systems of education, certain
environments, leave the mind of the man almost as open as that of a
little child; others inflict on it premature senility. An Aristotle or
a Darwin learns to the last year of his long life; a Mohammedan or a
Tibetan ecclesiastic is old before he has ceased to be young. Convinced
that pestilence is due directly to the wrath of God, he scorns the
notion that sanitation can be right or useful; believing that the earth
is flat, no evidence will convince him that it is round; holding his
sacred religion with a steadfast faith, he will murder the heretic
rather than think out his propositions.

[Sidenote: How the Minds of Men Differ]

But habits of stupidity are not confined to particular regions of
thought. Becoming almost as incapable of mental change as a beetle,
a man may undergo an arrest of mental development which differs from
that of the idiot only because it occurs later in life, is less
complete, and is acquired, not innate. In his ordinary surroundings he
appears a normal person; but placed among people of more open mind,
his brute-like inability to learn suggests sharply the resemblance
to the feeble-minded child. Let us sum up. Man has conquered the
earth because he is pre-eminently the educable, the adaptive animal.
His educability--indeed, his whole thinking capacity--depends
on his memory. He has few instincts, a fact which increases his
mental ductility; but one of the most important of his instincts is
imitativeness, which impels him to copy not only such obvious things as
the speech of his predecessors, but their mental attitudes as well. In
this way not only the actual knowledge and beliefs but also the habits
of thought of one generation are handed on to the next. Apart from a
few instincts which are more active in the child than in the adult, and
two or three others whose appearance is deferred till later life, the
whole mental difference between the child and the adult lies in the
fact that the former has a great memory in the sense that it is very
capable of storing experience, whereas the latter has a great memory
in the sense that it has already stored much experience. As parent to
child, so one racial generation hands on its acquirements to the next,
but with greater certainty; for the parent is not the only influence
in the life of the child, who imitates many other people, sometimes
more closely than the parent; whereas, since few individuals travel
during youth, the young are seldom influenced by others than by members
of their own race. Except in times of great change, therefore, racial
generations resemble one another even more closely than parents and
children.

Like individuals, races differ in their mental characteristics. The
English have one set of characters, the Japanese another, and the
Russians a third. The problem of the extent to which these characters
are inborn or acquired is very important to the student of history.
Accordingly as we believe they are the one or the other we are driven
to accept one or other of two very different readings of the past.

[Sidenote: Influences in a Child’s Life]

Are races, then, brave or cowardly, energetic or slothful, enlightened
or savage, and so forth, by nature or by training? Are the qualities
that have enabled some races to flourish, while others are decadent,
transmitted as instincts or handed on, as knowledge is? The reader
has now materials of a kind not usually found in historical works on
which to found a judgment. He must bear in mind that, while an American
infant reared by cannibals would retain the bodily characteristics
of his race mentally, he could not be other than a savage. He must
remember also that some races have altered their mental characteristics
very rapidly. Thus, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
immediately after the long Dark Ages, the British and several other
European races suddenly became intellectually active and socially
progressive. The Japanese supply a more modern, the Greeks and Romans
more ancient, instances. The latter quite as suddenly sank into abysmal
degradation. Innate mental characters, such as the instincts, usually
change so slowly that not merely historical but geological time elapses
before the alteration is perceptible. Again, the reader must note that,
while the _opinion_ that racial traits are inborn is nearly universal,
most men _act_ as if they knew them to be acquired; for nearly all men
are careful in training their children, especially with respect to
those traits that contribute to the formation of character.

[Sidenote: Great Facts to Remember]

Doubtless, races of men differ innately in mind as they do in body, but
these differences can occur only within narrow limits. The instincts
of all races are, of course, very similar, for all the instincts
are essential to the preservation of life. But races may differ in
strength of instinct, and more especially in powers of memory. Thus
it is possible, or probable, that the English, for example, are more
capable of profiting by experience than Australian blacks. Certainly,
their brains are larger. On the other hand, the brain grows under the
stimulus of use, and therefore the larger size of the English brain may
be due to more arduous labour.

[Sidenote: The Real Value of History]

Lastly, the reader must ask himself the question: What mental effects
have centuries of freedom or slavery, or of civilisation, or of
barbarism, on races? Do they produce innate changes, or do they merely
render certain acquirements so nearly universal that their perpetuation
by imitation is insured? If he supposes that the changes are innate,
he must ask himself the additional question whether they arose through
the transmission of parental acquirements to offspring, or through the
actual and constant destruction in certain environments of certain
definite types of individuals who were thus prevented from leaving
offspring and so perpetuating their like. The former hypothesis is now
generally repudiated by science. The latter may be true, but as yet
has not been supported by evidence; or at any rate is supported only
by such evidence as that which Mill and Buckle denounced. In either
case, though history may furnish him with intellectual occupation,
it will supply few lessons of practical value. If, on the other
hand, he has perceived the greatness of the part played in the human
mind by acquirement, if he has noted that man is man, a thinking and
rational being, the conqueror of the earth, only because he is the
most impressionable and therefore the most adaptable of living types,
the reader will learn from the racial see-saw of the past what kinds
of mental training have conduced to success and happiness and what to
ruin, and so perhaps he may find himself in a position to help the
fortunes of his people and his children. The real value of history,
as in the last analysis of all experience, lies in its educational
applications.

    G. ARCHDALL REID

[Illustration: PREHISTORIC MEN ATTACKING THE GREAT CAVE BEARS]




[Illustration: THE RISE OF MAN AND THE EVE OF HISTORY]




THE WORLD BEFORE HISTORY

By Professor Johannes Ranke


THE WONDERFUL STORY OF DRIFT MAN


[Sidenote: Nature’s Great Book of History]

The history of the world is the history of the human mind. The oldest
documents affording us knowledge of it lie buried in those most mighty
and comprehensive historical archives, the geological strata of our
planet. Natural philosophy has learned to read these stained, crumpled,
and much-torn pages that record the habitation of the earth by living
beings; but only a few sections of this book of the universe have yet
been perused, and these appear but fragmentary in comparison with the
whole task. The passages that relate to the human race are small in
number and often even ambiguous, and it is only the last pages that can
give an account of it.

The oldest undisputed traces of the presence of man on the earth that
have hitherto been discovered are met with in the strata of the Drift
Epoch, and it is only during the last generation that the existence of
“Drift Man” has been palæontologically proved beyond dispute. The late
Sir J. Prestwick believed, however--and his results have been confirmed
by later discoveries--in the existence of evidence of the presence of
man in Western Europe before the present river system of our land was
established, long before the age of the “Drift” relics. The evidence
consists of rudely shaped pieces of flint, apparently artificially
chipped along one or more edges. These supposed implements are termed
“Eoliths.” They were first discovered by Mr. Benjamin Harrison in the
high-level plateau, probably of the Upper Pliocene Age, in Kent, and
their significance is now widely accepted.

Up to the middle of last century research appeared to have established
as a positive fact that man could not be traced back to the older
geological strata; remains of man were said to be found only in the
newest stratum of the earth’s formation--in the alluvial, or “recent”
stratum. The bones of man were accordingly claimed to be sure guides
to the geological formations of the present time, as the bones of the
mammoth and cave-bear were to the strata of the Drift. Where traces of
man were found it was considered as proved by natural science that the
particular stratum in which they occurred was to be allotted to the
most recent system, which we see forming and being transformed under
our eyes at the present day.

[Illustration: A PAGE FROM NATURE’S HISTORY BOOK

    It is in the successive layers of the earth’s strata with their
    human and animal remains that we read the story of the past.
    Embedded in the earth itself we have the existence of “Drift Man”
    established. Our illustration is that of a section of the famous
    Kent’s Cavern, near Torquay, which is rich in prehistoric remains.
]

[Sidenote: The Theory of Natural Catastrophes]

While it was declared that man belonged to the alluvial stratum, it
was at the same time stated, according to the doctrine of Cuvier,
which had the weight of a dogma, that man could not have belonged to
an older geological stratum or era, and therefore not even to the next
older one, the Drift. The beginning and the end of geological eras are
marked by mighty transformations which have caused a local interruption
in the formation of the strata of the earth’s surface. In many cases
we can point to volcanic eruptions as the chief causes, but more
especially to a change in the distribution of land and water. Cuvier
had conceived these changes involving the transformation to have been
violent terrestrial revolutions, the collapse of all existing things,
in which all living beings belonging to the past epoch must have been
annihilated. It appeared impossible that a living thing could have
survived this hypothetical battle of the elements, and passed from an
older epoch into the next one; and the new epoch was supposed to have
received plants and animals by re-creation. All this had to be applied
to man also; he was supposed to have come into existence only in the
alluvial period. Not without consideration for the Mosaic account of
the Creation, which, like the creation legends of numerous peoples
scattered far and wide over all the continents of the earth, tells of
a great deluge at the beginning of the present age, the Pleistocene
Epoch of the earth’s formation preceding the present period had been
termed the Flood Epoch, or Diluvium. In its stratifications it was
thought that the effects of great deluges could largely be recognised;
but the human eye could not have beheld these, for, according to the
catastrophe theory, it appeared out of the question that man could have
been “witness of the Flood.”

[Sidenote: What Actually Happened]

Here modern research in the primeval history or palæontology of mankind
begins, starting from the complete transformation of the doctrine of
the geological epochs brought about by Lyell and his school. Proofs
of terrestrial revolutions, as local phenomena and epoch marks, are
doubtless to be found, imposing enough to make the views of the older
school appear intelligible; but, generally speaking, a complete
interruption of the existing conditions did not take place between the
periods. Everything tends to prove that even in the earlier eras the
transformation of the earth’s surface went on in practically the same
way as we see it going on before our eyes to-day in a degree that is
slight only to appearance. The effects of volcanic action; the rising
and sinking of continents and islands, and the alteration in the
distribution of sea and land caused thereby; the inroads of the sea
and its work in the destruction of coasts; the formation of deltas and
the overflowing of rivers; the action of glaciers and torrents in the
mountains, and so forth, are constantly working, more or less, at the
transformation of the earth’s surface.

[Sidenote: Nature’s Unbroken Chain]

As we see these newest alluvial deposits being formed, so in principle
have the strata of the earlier eras also been formed, and their
miles of thickness prove, not the violence of extreme and sudden
catastrophes, but only the length of time that was necessary to remove
such mighty masses here and pile them up there. It was not sudden
general revolutions of great violence, but the slowly working forces,
small only to appearance, well known from our present-day surroundings,
which destroy in one place and build up again in another with the
material obtained from the destruction--it was these which were the
causes of the gradual transformation of the earth in all periods of its
history comparable to the present. According to this new conception of
geological processes, a general destruction of plants and animals at
the end of eras, and a new creation at the beginning of the following
ones, was no longer a postulate of science as it had been. The living
creatures of the earliest eras could now be claimed as ancestors of
those living to-day; the chain seems nowhere completely broken. The
ancestors of the human race were also to be sought in the strata of the
earlier geological periods.

[Illustration: This indicates a vast stretch of the lost land of
England, looking towards the Scilly Isles from Land’s End. All between
the broken lines was once land as far as Scilly, thirty miles away and
fifty miles thence to Lizard Point.]

[Illustration: In old maps Bavent was formerly the most easterly point
of England; now that is Lowestoft.]

[Illustration: The coast of England is being slowly worn away by the
sea. In many places houses have been swallowed up. Here we see the
disintegrating process going on at Holderness, where the sea front
presented this appearance after a gale.]

[Illustration: SLOW INFLUENCES THAT DESTROY IN ONE PLACE AND BUILD UP
IN ANOTHER

    The coming of the sea over the land is so slow as to be almost
    imperceptible, but these pictures illustrate its progress. The
    pictures in the upper half of the page show how the sea is
    encroaching on the coast; the opposite result is shown in the
    bottom view from Reigate Hill, where we see an ancient arm of the
    sea now a rich and populous valley.
]

Among the forces which we find attended by a transformation of the
fauna and flora of the earth’s eras, the influences of climatic changes
in particular are clearly and surely shown. In that primeval period in
which the coal group was formed the climate in widely different parts
of the earth was comparatively equable, little divided into zones, and
of a moist warmth; this is proved by the really gigantic masses of
plant growth implied by the formation of many coal strata, in which the
remains of a luxuriant cryptogamic flora are everywhere embedded. In
Greenland, in the strata belonging to the chalk period, and even in the
deposits of the Tertiary Period, which immediately precedes the Drift
Era, the remains of higher dicotyledonous plants of tropical character
are found. The occurrence of palæozoic coral reefs in high latitudes
also goes to prove that the temperature of the sea water there was
higher at that time: in fact, that a tropical climate existed in the
farthest north--an extreme contrast to the present ice-sheet on its
land and the icebergs of its seas.

[Illustration: EUROPE BEFORE THE BRITISH ISLES WERE FORMED

    This map and section illustrate the coast line of Prehistoric
    Europe when the British Isles were part of the Continent and the
    North Sea did not exist. The black parts of the section were all
    above the level of the Atlantic.
]

[Illustration: THE SUBMERGED LANDS OF EUROPE

    This map and section show how the Continental shelf of Europe runs
    out to the Atlantic, and how enormous is the area now submerged in
    the comparatively shallow water of the North Sea, the Irish Sea,
    and the Channel.
]

In Central Europe the climatic conditions can have been only slightly
different. During the middle Tertiary Period palms grew in Switzerland;
and even at the end of the Tertiary Period, as it was slowly passing
into the Drift Era, the climate in Central Europe was still warmer than
now, being much like that of Northern Italy, and its protected west
coast the Riviera. There was also a rich flora, partly evergreen,
and a fauna adapted to such mild surroundings. Even in the oldest
(Preglacial) strata, and again in the middle (Interglacial) strata of
the Central European drift, there was still an abundant plant-growth
requiring a temperate climate, at any rate not more severe than Central
Europe possesses at the present day. Our chief forest trees grew even
then--the pine, fir, larch, and yew, and also the oak, maple, birch,
hazel, etc. On the other hand, Northern and Alpine forms are absent
among the plants. The same holds good of the animal world, which was
certainly much farther removed than the plant world from the conditions
prevailing now. The gigantic forms--the elephant, rhinoceros, and
hippopotamus--appear particularly strange to us, as also the large
beasts of prey--the hyena, lion, etc. But besides these, and the giant
deer with its powerful antlers, and two large bovine species--the bison
and the urus--there were also the majority of the present wild animals
of Central and Northern Europe that were originally natives--as the
horse, stag, roe, wild boar, and beaver, with the smaller rodents and
insectivora, and the wolf, fox, lynx, and bears, of which last the
cave-bear was far larger than the present brown bear, and even than the
Polar and grizzly bears.

We have sure proofs that through a decrease in the yearly temperature
a glacial period set in over Europe, North Asia, and North America,
burying vast areas under a sheet of ice, of the effect and extent of
which Northern Greenland, with its ground-relief veiled in inland ice,
can give us an idea.

The immediate consequence of this total climatic change was an
essential change in the fauna. Forms that were not suited to the
deteriorated climate, that could neither stand it nor adapt themselves
to it, were first compelled to retire, and then were exterminated.
This fate befell the hippopotamuses, and also one of the two elephant
species, _Elephas antiquus_, with its dwarf breeds in Sicily and Malta,
probably thus developed by this retreat; then the rhinoceros-like
_Elasmotherium_, a species of beaver; the _Trogontherium_, and the
powerful cat _Machairodus_ or _Trucifelis_, which still lived in
England, France, and Liguria during the Drift Period. Other animals,
like the lion and hyena, withdrew to more southerly regions, not
affected by the increasing cold and more remote from its effects.

[Sidenote: The Older Drift Animals]

On the other hand, according to Von Zittel’s description, an
immigration of cold-loving land animals took place, which at the
present day live either in the Far North or on the wild Asiatic
steppes, or in the high mountain ranges. These new immigrants mixed
with the surviving forms of the older drift fauna. The latter lived,
as we have seen, by no means in a warm climate, but only in a temperate
“northerly” one, even in the warmer periods of the epoch. So we can
understand that many of this older animal community were well able
to adapt themselves to colder climatic conditions, and among them
two of the large Drift pachydermata, the elephant and rhinoceros,
whose kin we now find only in the warmest climes. But a thick
woolly coat made these two Drift animals well fitted to defy a raw
climate--namely, the woolly-haired mammoth, _Elephas primigenius_, one
of the two Drift species of elephants of Europe, and the woolly-haired
rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros antiquitatis_. A second species of rhinoceros,
_Rhinoceros merckii_, was also preserved, and maintained its region of
distribution. The horse was now more largely distributed, and inhabited
the plains in herds; but, above all, the reindeer immigrated along
with other animals that now belong only to Far Northern and Arctic
regions, and pastured in large herds at the edges of the glaciers.
With the reindeer, although less frequent, was the musk-ox of the Far
North, besides many other cold-loving species, such as the lemming,
snow-mouse, glutton, ermine, and Arctic fox. Many of the animal
forms that were very frequent then, in the Drift Period, appear now
in Central Europe only as Alpine dwellers, living on the borders of
eternal snow, such as the ibex, chamois, marmot, and Alpine hare.

[Sidenote: The Animal Invasion of Europe]

[Sidenote: The Change of the Ice Age Climate]

Of special importance for our main question is the great invasion of
Europe by Central Asiatic animals; immigrants direct from the Asiatic
steppes pushed westward “as in a migration of nations,” among them the
wild ass, saiga antelope, bobac, Asiatic porcupine, zizel, jumping
mouse, whistling hare, and musk shrew-mouse. According as the glaciers
and inland ice grew or shrank, the animals of the glacial period
advanced more or less far to the North or retired more to the South,
extending or reducing their range of distribution. The Glacial Period
was no invariable climatic phenomenon. It is perfectly certain that a
first Glacial Period with a low yearly temperature, under the influence
of which the ice-masses, with their moraines, advanced a long way
from the North and from the high mountains, so that in Germany, for
instance, only a comparatively narrow strip remained free and habitable
for higher forms of life between the two opposing rivers of ice--was
succeeded by at least one period of warmer climate, and that certainly
not a short one. The mean yearly temperature had increased so much
that the ice-masses melted to a considerable extent, and had to retire
far to the North and into the high valleys of the Alps. In this warmer
Interglacial Period, as it is called, the Drift animals advanced far
to the North, especially the mammoth, which, with the exception of
the greater part of Scandinavia and Finland (districts which remained
covered with ice during the Interglacial Period), is distributed
throughout the drift strata of the whole of Europe and North Africa,
and as far as Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea in Northern Asia. Even
the older Drift fauna, so far as it had not yet died out or retired,
returned to its old habitats, so that the Interglacial fauna of Central
Europe appear very similar to the Preglacial fauna. A long-sustained
decrease of temperature led once more to the growth of the ice, which
in this second Glacial Period almost reconquered the territory it had
won at first.

In consequence of these oscillations in the climatic conditions of the
Drift Era as a whole, we have to distinguish the Preglacial Era and
the Interglacial Era, as warmer sub-periods of the Drift, from the
real Glacial Periods. The latter appear as a first, or earlier, and a
second, or later Glacial Period, as remains of which the zone of the
older moraines and the zone of the later ones clearly mark the limits
of the former glaciation.

[Illustration: Alpine Hares

The Chamois

The Ibex

    The Marmot     Dando

TYPES OF ANIMALS SURVIVING IN CENTRAL EUROPE FROM THE DRIFT PERIOD

    Many of the animal forms that were very frequent in the Drift
    Period appear now in Central Europe only as Alpine dwellers, living
    on the borders of eternal snow. Such are the ibex, chamois, marmot,
    and Alpine hare.
]

[Sidenote: Breaking up of the Earth]

It was this second deterioration of the climate, with the fresh
advances made by the glaciers and masses of inland ice, which
definitely did away with the older Drift fauna that was not equal to
the sudden climatic change. Nor did the woolly-haired rhinoceros, the
_Rhinoceros merckii_, and the cave-bear survive the climax of the new
Glacial Period. Even the woolly-haired mammoth succumbed. It and the
woolly-haired rhinoceros, accompanied by the musk-ox and bison, had
made their way into the Far North of Asia. But while the two last
species bore the inclemencies of the climate, the rhinoceroses and
elephants met their end here. And yet they had long preserved their
lives on the borders of eternal ice. Whole carcases, both of the
woolly-haired and Merckian rhinoceroses, and also of the woolly-haired
mammoth, the bison, and the musk-ox, with skin and hair and
well-preserved soft parts, have been discovered in the ice and frozen
ground between the Yenisei and Lena, and on the New Siberian Islands
at the mouth of the Lena. The carcases of the mammoth and rhinoceros
found imbedded in the ice were covered with a coat of thick woolly hair
and reddish-brown bristles ten inches long; about thirty pounds of hair
from such a mammoth were placed in the St. Petersburg Natural History
Museum. A mane hung from the animal’s neck almost to its knees, and on
its head was soft hair a yard long. The animals were therefore in this
respect well equipped for enduring a cold climate. As regards their
food they were also adapted to a cold climate, traces of coniferæ and
willows--that is, “Northern plants”--having been found in the hollows
of the molar teeth of mammoths and rhinoceroses. The mammoth proves to
have had greater resisting power, and to have been more fit for further
migrations, than the rhinoceros. The latter’s range of distribution
extended over the whole of Northern and Temperate Europe, China and
Central Asia, and Northern Asia and Siberia. But, as we have seen, the
mammoth penetrated not only into North Africa, but, what is of the
highest importance for the proper understanding of the settling of the
New World, even into North America.

[Sidenote: Companions of the Mammoth]

[Sidenote: Mammoth’s Arrival in Europe]

The connection which in earlier geological periods had united
Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America in the greatest homogeneous
zoogeographical kingdom, the Arctogæa, was broken during the Tertiary
and Drift Periods, so that several zoogeographical provinces were
formed. The connection with North America was the first to be broken,
so that even in the last two divisions of the Tertiary Period, the
Miocene and Pliocene Epochs, the Old and the New Worlds stood in the
relation of independent zoogeographical provinces to one another.
Now, it is of the greatest importance to note that during the Drift
Period North America again received some Northern immigrants from
the Old World, according to Von Zittel “probably viâ Eastern Asia.”
Consequently, during the Drift Period communication existed, at least
temporarily, between Asia and North America in the region of Bering
Strait, sufficient to allow the mammoth and some companions to migrate
from the one continent to the other. In Kotzebue Sound mammoth remains
are found in the “ground-ice formation,” together with those of the
horse, elk, reindeer, musk-ox and bison. Mammoth remains are also known
to have been found in the Bering Islands, St. George in the Pribylov
group, and Unalaska, one of the Aleutian Islands. In that period the
mammoth arrived in the New World as a colonist driven from the Old.
It spread widely over British North America, Alaska, and Canada; it
has also been found in Kentucky. A relatively recent union of the
circumpolar regions of the Northern Hemisphere--of Europe, Asia, and
North America--is also proved by the occurrence of animals that we
recognise as companions of the mammoth, but which, surviving the
Glacial Period, are still distributed over the whole region, such as
the reindeer, elk, and bison. The absence in Asia of several animals
specially characteristic of the European Drift (the hippopotamus, ibex,
chamois, fallow-dear, wildcat, and cave-bear) explains also their
absence in the North American Drift fauna. It is particularly strange
that the cave-bear did not reach Northern Asia. It is otherwise the
most frequent beast of prey of the Drift Period, and hundreds of its
carcases often lie buried in the caves and clefts it once inhabited.
In Southern Russia numerous remains of it are found, whereas in the
English caves it is rarer, the cave-hyena predominating here. Apart
from the exceptions just mentioned, J. F. Brandt considers North
Asia and the high Northern latitudes to be the region in which the
European, North Asiatic, and North American land fauna had concentrated
during the Tertiary and Drift Periods, and whence their migrations and
advances took place according as it grew older. As the northern fauna
spread over more southern latitudes during the Drift Period, they
took possession of the habitats of the species there belonging to the
Tertiary Period, drove them back into tropical and subtropical regions,
and formed the real stock of the Drift fauna, as described by Von
Zittel in his “Palæozoology.”

[Illustration: AN ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPH OF THE PREHISTORIC MAMMOTH

    This stuffed carcase of a mammoth is the rarest treasure of St.
    Petersburg Academy. Skeletons of these creatures exist in plenty,
    but actual carcases are very rare. This was found embedded in
    the ice on the New Siberian Islands. One carcase so embedded was
    discovered five years before it could be freed from the ice.
]

One thing is certain--namely, that the northern borders of Siberia
were not the real home of the mammoth and its companions; the
original habitat of these animals points to the far interior of Asia,
particularly to the wild table-lands, where they so far steeled
themselves in enduring the climate that in the course of the Glacial
Period half the world became accessible to them. As far as is known
to-day, the mammoth arrived in Europe earlier than on the northern
borders of Asia, where, protected by climatic conditions, its remains
are most numerous and best preserved. The number of these gigantic
animals must have been very considerable in this Far Northern region
for a time, judging from the abundance of bones found there. In Central
Europe only a few places are known--such as Kannstatt, Predmost in
Moravia, etc.--where the mammoth is found with similar frequency. The
mammoth attained its widest distribution in the Interglacial Period.
In that period it crossed the Alps, and arrived on the other side, in
North Asia, at the border of the “stone-ice” masses of inland ice that
were still preserved from the first Glacial Period. The vegetation
there was richer then than it is to-day; now only the vegetation of
the tundra can exist. Animals found coniferæ, willows, and alders in
sufficient quantity to enable them to keep in herds. All the same, we
have not to imagine the climate on the borders of the ice to have been
“genial,” for from that period originate the mammoth carcases that are
found frozen entire in crevasses of the ice-fields. When the new period
of cold--the second Glacial Period--began, these Far Northern regions
must have become unsuitable for the mammoth owing to the want of food.
Von Toll, who has examined the fossil ice-beds and, their relation to
the mammoth carcases particularly on New Siberian Islands, says:

    The mammoths and their contemporaries lived where their remains
    are found; they died out gradually in consequence of physical
    geographical changes in the region they inhabited, and through no
    catastrophe; their carcases were deposited during low temperatures,
    partly on the river-terraces, and partly on the banks of lakes or
    on glaciers (inland ice), and covered with mud; like the ice-masses
    that formed the foundation of their graves, their mummies were
    preserved to the present day, thanks to the persistent or
    increasing cold.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF A MAMMOTH

    in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
]

The woolly-haired mammoth did not survive the second Glacial Period
anywhere; in the post-Glacial Period its traces have disappeared.

The Drift series of strata are nowhere so clearly exemplified as in
the New Siberian Islands, where the Drift stone-ice still forms very
extensive high “ice-cliffs,” always covered with a layer of loam, sand,
and peat, and having precipices often of great height--in one place
seventy-two feet.

Embedded in these cliffs of stone-ice have been found the mammoth
carcases, which formerly sank into crevices in the ice. These crevices
are partly filled up with snow, which has turned into “firn” and
finally into ice, but partly also with loam or sand, which are merged
above immediately into the strata overlying the stone-ice. In the year
1860 Bojavski, the mammoth-hunter, found a mammoth, with all its soft
parts preserved, sticking upright in a crevice in the ice filled with
loam; in 1863 it was thrown down, together with the coast-wall that
sheltered it, and washed away by the sea.

[Illustration: A SURVIVOR OF THE DRIFT PERIOD

    Only one representative of the great Drift fauna, the musk-ox, has
    been able to preserve its life to the present day on the larger
    remnants of its former vast home, such as Greenland and Grinnell
    Land.
]

The Tunguse Schumachow had been more fortunate as early as 1799.
During his boating expeditions along the coast, on the look-out for
mammoth-tusks, he observed one day, between blocks of ice, a shapeless
block which was not at all like the masses of driftwood that are
generally found there. In the following year the block had melted a
little, but it was only at the end of the third summer that the whole
side and one of the tusks of a mammoth appeared plainly out of the ice;
the animal, however, still remained sunk in the ice-masses. At last,
towards the end of the fifth year, the ice between the ground and the
mammoth melted more quickly than the rest, the base began to slope, and
the enormous mass, impelled by its own weight, glided down on to the
sand of the coast. Here Adams found the carcase in 1806, or as much as
the dogs and wild animals had left of it. The whole skeleton, with a
portion of the flesh, skin, and hair, has since formed one of the chief
ornaments of the collection in the Academy at St. Petersburg. According
to Von Toll, who personally visited the site of Bojavski’s discovery,
the following profile presented itself there: first the tundra stratum;
then an alternation of thin strata of loam and ice; under these a
peat-like layer of grass, leaves, and other vegetation, that had been
washed together; then a fine layer of sand, with remains of _Salix_,
etc., and finally stone-ice. At another place, in Gulf Anabar, in 73°
north latitude, Von Toll also found the ground-moraine under a fossil
ice-bed, which appears to prove his theory of a Drift region of inland
ice, of which the stone-ice beds of New Siberia and Eschscholtz Bay are
remains.

Of these strata the frozen loam deposits over the stone-ice, containing
the willow and the alder, are doubtless Interglacial. Some of the
remains of the alder are in such wonderful preservation that there are
still leaves and whole clusters of catkins on the branches.

The land-mass to which the present New Siberian Islands belong was
only dismembered at the end of the Interglacial Period, when colder
sea-currents procured an entrance, and the accumulation of snow-masses
diminished simultaneously with the sinking of the land, whereas the
cold increased. The flora died off, says Von Toll, and the animal world
was deprived of the possibility of roaming freely over vast areas. Only
one representative of the great Drift fauna, the musk-ox, has been able
to preserve its life to the present day on the larger remnants of its
former vast home, such as Greenland and Grinnell Land.

[Sidenote: Remains of the Ice Age]

As we have said, the geological and climatic conditions in all regions
of the earth affected by the Glacial Period were closely similar to
those just described. In other places the Drift stone-ice has long
disappeared, but the ground-moraines of the former inland ice-masses,
and the surface-moraines (terminal and lateral) of the former gigantic
glaciers, constitute its unobliterated traces. On the moraines of the
earlier Glacial Period we find the strata of the Interglacial Period
deposited, and on the later moraines of the second (last) Glacial
Period lie the remains of the post-Glacial Period, in the course of
which a continual increase in the yearly temperature--probably only
a few degrees of the thermometer--caused the glaciers to melt and
retreat, and opened the way for the return of plants and animals to
what had been deserts of snow and ice. The place formerly occupied by
the Interglacial and Glacial fauna is then taken by the post-Glacial
fauna, which proves considerably different.

A number of the most characteristic species of the former sections
of the Drift Period are already absent in the earliest post-Glacial
deposits; the fauna approaches nearer and nearer in its composition to
that of the present day. The inland ice-masses and gigantic glaciers
began to melt away, and gradually retired to the present limits of the
glaciation that forms the remains of the Glacial Period of the Drift.
The animal forms of the beginning of the post-Glacial Period are still
living, and the plants characterising this final stage of the Drift
Period are still growing on the borders of the ice at the present day.
In the post-Glacial Period a few Northern forms--such as the reindeer,
lemming, ringed lemming, glutton, zizel, whistling hare, and jumping
mouse--still retained for a time their habitats in Central Europe.
Part of the Drift fauna--as the horse, wild ass, saiga antelope, and
Asiatic porcupine--concentrated again in the Asiatic steppes, from
which they had formerly won their territory of the Drift Period;
the specific Glacial forms--the reindeer and his above-mentioned
companions--followed the retreating ice-masses into the Far North, and
even into Polar regions. Another part--the specially Alpine forms, such
as the ibex, chamois, marmot, and Alpine hare--migrated with the Alpine
glaciers into the high valleys of the Alps, where they could continue
the life they had led in the lowlands during the Glacial Period. The
mammoth, woolly-haired rhinoceros, and cave-bear are extinct.

The present-day mammalian fauna of Europe and North Asia accordingly
bears a comparatively young character; during the Drift, and
especially in consequence of the Glacial Period, it underwent the most
considerable transformations.

[Sidenote: Coming of Man upon the Scene]

It is in the middle of this great drama of a gigantic animal world
struggling and fighting for its existence with the superior powers of
Nature, during the Interglacial period of the Drift, that man suddenly
appears upon the scene in Europe like a _deus ex machina_.

Whence he came we do not know.

Did he make his entrance into Europe in company with the Drift fauna
that immigrated from Central Asia, or have we to seek his original home
in the New World?

[Illustration]


[Illustration: THE FIRST TENANTS OF THE WORLD: CREATURES THAT LIVED
BEFORE MAN

    This page represents the most typical of the giant creatures that
    inhabited the world before man. With possibly one exception, they
    had disappeared before man came and, through long centuries, slowly
    won dominion over the earth.
]




[Illustration:

    THE WORLD
    BEFORE
    HISTORY--II

    Professor
    JOHANNES
    RANKE
]




THE APPEARANCE OF MAN ON THE EARTH


[Sidenote: The Mystery of a Human Skull]

The remains of the Drift fauna are usually found mixed up and washed
together in caves and rock-crevices. From the investigation of the
caves in Thuringia, Franconia, and elsewhere practically proceeded
the first knowledge of the Drift fauna of Central Europe. Here,
right among the bones of primeval animals, were also found bones and
skulls of man. The strata in which they were discovered appeared
undisturbed; that they came into the old burial-places of the Drift
fauna subsequently--perhaps by an intentional burial of relatively
recent times--was thought to be out of the question. The discovery
that became most famous was Esper’s, in one of the richest caves of
“Franconian Switzerland,” the Gaillenreuth cave. There, in 1774, Esper
found a man’s lower jaw and shoulder-blade at a perfectly untouched
spot protected by a stone projection in the cave wall, in the same loam
as bones of the cave-bear and other Drift animals. Later, a human skull
with some rude potsherds of clay came to light in another place. Esper
argued thus:

    As the human bones (lower jaw and shoulder-blade) lay among the
    skeletons of animals, of which the Gaillenreuth caves are full,
    and as they were found in what is in all probability the original
    stratum, I presume, and I think not without sufficient reason, that
    these human limbs are of equal age with the other animal fossils.

The Cuvier catastrophe theory could not allow this inference; according
to that theory it was a “scientific postulate” that man could not have
appeared on the earth until the alluvial period, and therefore after
the Drift fauna had become extinct. Therefore, in spite of appearances,
the human bones must have been more recent; and it was indeed
absolutely proved that the skull that Esper had found in the cave with
the rude clay potsherds originated from a burial in the floor of the
cave. As this was full of remains of Drift animals, the corpse, which
had been covered with the earth that had been thrown up in digging the
grave, was necessarily surrounded by these remains, and even appeared
embedded in them.

[Sidenote: The Story of the Caves]

It was ascertained that in very early times, but yet long after the
Drift Period, the dwellers near by had had a predilection for using
the caves as burial-places, so that the fact of human bones coming
together with bones of Drift animals in the floor of the same cave is
easily explained. Moreover, it was found that from the earliest times
down to the present day the caves had been used by hunters, herdsmen,
and others as places of shelter in bad weather, as cooking-places,
and sometimes even--especially in very early times--as regular
dwelling-places for longer periods, so that refuse of all kinds, and
often of all ages and forms of civilisation that the land has seen
from the Drift Period down to modern times, must have got into the
floors of the caves. If these were damp and soft, the remains of every
century were trodden in and got to lie deeper and deeper, so that, for
instance, the fragments of a cast-iron saucepan were actually found
right among the bones of regular Drift animals in a cave in Upper
Franconia.

[Sidenote: The Caves do not Prove Drift Man]

The discoveries of human remains in caves appeared discredited by
this, and to be of no value as proofs of the co-existence of man with
the Drift fauna. And indeed this position must practically be still
taken at the present day: all cave-finds are to be judged with the
greatest caution. They in themselves would never have been sufficient
to establish the existence of Drift Man, although, according to the
general change in scientific thought that led to the overthrow of
Cuvier’s theory, Drift Man is now just as much a postulate of science
as was formerly the case for the opposite assumption.

[Sidenote: Finding the First Drift Man]

The first sure proofs were adduced in France by Boucher de Perthes,
in the Drift beds of the Somme valley, near Abbeville, at the end of
the third decade of the nineteenth century. Fully recognising the
inadequacy of proof given by cave-finds, he had sought for the relics
of man in the undisturbed Drift beds of gravel and coarse sand that
contains the bones of Drift animals, which by their covering and depth
precluded all suspicion of having been subsequently dug over. And he
was successful. He had argued in exactly the same manner as Esper
had formerly done, but with better right. In the stratified Drift
formations every period is sharply defined by the layers of differently
coloured and differently composed strata horizontally overlying one
another. Here the proofs begin. They are irrefutable if it is shown
that the relics of man have been there since the deposit. Being no less
immovable than this stratum in which they lie, as they came with it,
they were likewise preserved with it; and as they have contributed to
its formation, they existed before it.

[Sidenote: The Overthrow of Cuvier’s Famous Theory]

That is the line of thought according to which Boucher de Perthes was
able, in 1839, to lay before the leading experts in Paris--at their
head Cuvier himself--his discoveries proving the former existence of
Drift man. But his demonstrations were not then sufficient to break
the old ban of prejudices that were apparently founded on such good
scientific bases; his proofs of the presence of man in the Somme
valley at the time of the Drift, contemporaneously with the extinct
Drift animals, were ridiculed. It was twenty years before these
long-neglected discoveries in the Somme valley concerning the early
history of man were recognised by the scientific world. This was only
made possible by Lyell, whose authority as a geologist had risen
above Cuvier’s, placing the whole weight of it on Boucher’s side,
after having personally travelled over the Somme valley three times
in the year 1859, and having himself examined all the chief places
where relics of Drift Man had been discovered. According to Lyell’s
description, the Somme valley lies in a district of white chalk, which
forms elevations of several hundred feet in height. If we ascend to
this height we find ourselves on an extensive tableland, showing only
moderate elevations and depressions, and covered uninterruptedly for
miles with loam and brick earth about five feet thick and quite devoid
of fossils. Here and there on the chalk may be noticed outlying
patches of Tertiary sand and clay, the remains of a once extensive
formation, the denudation of which has chiefly furnished the Drift
gravel material in which the relics of man and the bones of extinct
animals lie buried. The Drift alluvial deposit of the Somme valley
exhibits nothing extraordinary in its stratification or outward
appearance, nor in its composition or organic contents. The stratum
in which the bones of the Drift fauna are found intermingled with the
relics of man is partly a marine and partly a fluviatile deposit. The
human relics in particular are mostly buried deep in the gravel; almost
everywhere one has to pass down through a mass of overlying loam with
land shells, or a fine sand with fresh-water molluscs, before coming to
beds of gravel, in which the relics of Drift Man are found.

[Sidenote: Animals of the Ice Age]

Everything shows that the relics of man are here in a secondary
_situs_, deposited in the same way as the bones of extinct animals
and the whole geological material in which everything is embedded.
That is the reason why the finds cannot be more exactly dated. They
doubtless belong to the general drift, but whether to the Postglacial
Period, or the warmer Interglacial Period, cannot be decided. The fauna
admits of no absolute limitation, owing to its being mixed from both
periods. The mammalia most frequently found in the strata in question
are the mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, ure-ox, giant
fallow-deer, cave-lion, and cave-hyena. In very similar Drift deposits
of the Somme near Amiens traces of man were found beside the bones of
the hippopotamus and the elephant.

These animals were chiefly prevalent in France and Germany in the
Preglacial and Interglacial Periods of the Drift. Part of the animal
remains found near Abbeville, particularly those of the cave-lion
and cave-hyena, also point to the warmer Interglacial Period; on the
other hand, the mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, and especially the
reindeer, appear to indicate with all certainty the second Glacial and
Postglacial Periods. The bones of the older Drift animals may have been
washed out of other primary _situs_; the reindeer had certainly already
taken possession of those parts of France when the relics of man were
embedded.

[Illustration: Lyell

Cuvier

Boucher De Perthes

THE OVERTHROW OF A FAMOUS THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH AND MAN

    When Cuvier was supreme among geologists his theory that the great
    geological ages ended with sudden catastrophes which annihilated
    all life, and that all life was then created afresh, was
    universally accepted. One result of this theory was the disbelief
    in the existence of man before the Glacial Age. Boucher de Perthes
    sought to establish the former existence of Drift Man on finding
    human relics in the Somme Valley; but not until Sir Charles Lyell
    threw his influence on the side of De Perthes was the Preglacial
    existence of man admitted, and the long-accepted theory of Cuvier
    overthrown.
]

In spite of the most eager search for similar relic-beds affording sure
evidence of Drift Man, only a very few have as yet been discovered
that can be placed by the side of those in the Somme valley. Two are
in Germany, and are the more valuable as a more exact date can be
given to them within the Drift Period. One is near Taubach (Weimar),
the other at the source of the Schussen. The one at Taubach belongs
to the Interglacial Period, that at the source of the Schussen to
the Postglacial Period. The former lies on the moraines of the first
Glacial Period, which was followed by the Interglacial Period; the
latter on the moraines of the second Glacial Period, which slowly
passed into the Postglacial Period.

[Sidenote: The Climate of the Ice Age]

The Drift relic-bed in the calc-tufa near Taubach lies, as we have
said, over the remains of the first Glacial Period, and according to
Penck, one of the best authorities on the Drift, belongs to the warmer
intermediate epoch between the two great periods of glaciation. The
proofs given by the plant and animal remains agree entirely with the
proofs given by the conditions of stratification. In the rich fauna
found there, animals indicating a cold climate are entirely absent, and
a comparison of the whole of the finds proves that at the time when
man was present there no kind of arctic conditions can have prevailed.
There is no reindeer, no lemming. The roe, stag, wolf, brown bear,
beaver, wild boar, and aurochs were at that time inhabitants of these
regions, and the only inference they allow is that of a temperate
climate. The mollusc fauna, in which also all Glacial forms are absent,
also leads to the same conclusion; all that occur are familiar to us
from those of the present day in the same district. The fauna would
really appear quite modern were it not that a very ancient stamp is
imparted to it by several extinct types. With the modern animals
enumerated are associated the cave-lion, cave-hyena, ure-elephant, and
Merckian rhinoceros, characterising the whole deposit as a distinctly
Drift one, which is still further proved stratigraphically by the
covering of “loess.” The Taubach relic-bed is a typical illustration
of the climatic and biological conditions of the warmer Interglacial
Period; the regions of Central Europe, which had been covered with
masses of ice in the first Glacial Period, had, after the ice melted,
become once more accessible to the banished plants and animals of
the Preglacial Period, until they were annihilated, or at least
driven definitely from their old habitats by the second Glacial
Period. The celebrated relic-bed at the source of the Schussen, near
Schussenried, at a little distance from Ulm, brings us--in strong
contrast to Taubach--into quite glacial surroundings. It was on the
glacier-moraines of the last great glaciation, and belongs, therefore,
to that period which must still be reckoned as part of the Drift--the
Postglacial Period, which gradually passed into the warmer present
period. Under the tufa and peat at the source of the Schussen we find
the type of a purely northern climate, with exclusively northern flora
and fauna; everything corresponds to climatic conditions such as
prevail nowadays on the borders of eternal snow and ice, or begin at
70° north latitude.

[Sidenote: Flora and Fauna of the Ice Age]

Schimper, one of the best authorities on mosses at the present day,
found among the plant-remains under the tufa at the source of the
Schussen only mosses of northern or high Alpine forms. Among them was a
moss brought from Lapland by Wahlenberg, which, according to Schimper,
occurs in Norway near the chalets on the Dovrefjeld, on the borders of
eternal snow, and also in Greenland, Labrador, and Canada, and on the
highest summits of the Tyrolese Alps and the Sudetic Mountains. It has
a special preference for the pools in which the water of the snow and
glaciers flows off with its fine sand. There were also found mosses
which have now emigrated to cold regions, to Greenland and the Alps.
The most numerous animals were the reindeer, and yellow and Arctic
foxes, as distinctly Arctic forms; and there were also the brown bear
and wolf, a small ox, the hare, the large-headed wild horse--which
always occurs in the Drift as the companion of the reindeer--and,
lastly, the whistling swan, which now breeds in Spitzbergen or Lapland.
There is an absence of all the present animal forms of Upper Swabia, as
well as of the extinct Drift animals, either of which would indicate a
warmer climate.

More decided climatic or biological contrasts than those afforded by
the relic-beds at Taubach and the source of the Schussen could not be
imagined; here we have with certainty two perfectly different periods
before us, but both belonging to the general Drift Era.

Although almost all the other places where Drift Man has been found
exhibit peculiarities, Taubach and the source of the Schussen seem the
best representatives of the two chief types in Europe. Places giving
better proof have not yet come to light anywhere in the Old World.

[Illustration: REVEALING THE UNKNOWN LIFE OF THE PREHISTORIC PAST

    A section of the earth, representing excavators in the act of
    discovering the remains of mammals in a cave in the South of
    England. Our illustration is reproduced from Buckland’s “Reliquiæ
    Diluvianæ,” London, 1822.
]

[Sidenote: Evidence from South America]

At first sight the palæontological strata of South America, in which
the presence of man has been proved by Ameghino, appear to give a very
different picture. The animal forms occurring here contemporaneously
with man deviate to such an extent from those familiar to us in
the Drift of the Old World that it required the keen eye and the
complete grasp of the whole palæontological material of the world that
characterise Von Zittel to recognise and establish the connections
here, while the discoverer himself thought that he must date his
discoveries of man back to the Tertiary Period. The strata in which
the earliest traces of man as yet appear to be proved in South America
are the extensive “loess-like” loam deposits of the so-called “pampas”
formation in Argentina and Uruguay, with their almost incomparable
wealth of animal remains, particularly conspicuous among which are
gigantic representatives of edentates that now occur only in small
species in South America: Glyptodontia (with the gigantic _Glyptodon
reticulatum_) and dasypoda; also of the gravigrada, the giant sloth
(_Megatherium americanum_). The toxodontia were also large animals, now
extinct. But besides the specifically South American forms, numerous
“North American immigrants” also appear in the pampas formation. It was
only at the close of the Tertiary Period that the southern and northern
halves of America grew together into one continent, and the faunæ of
North and South America, so characteristically different, then began to
intermingle with one another. The South American autochthons migrate
northward; on the other hand, North American types--as the horse, deer,
tapir, mastodon, _Felis_, _Canis_, etc.--use the newly-opened passage
to extend their range of distribution. The northern animal forms are
very conspicuous among the animal world of South America, hitherto
cut off from North America and characterised by the above-mentioned
wonderful and, in part, gigantic edentates, marsupials, platyrhine
apes, etc. Of the great elephantine animals of North America only
the mastodon crossed over to South America. In the middle and latest
Tertiary formations the genus mastodon is widely distributed over
Europe, North Africa, and South Asia. In North America the oldest
species of the mastodon appear in the Middle Tertiary (Upper Miocene),
but the most species are found in the latest Tertiary (Pliocene) and
the Drift (Pleistocene); in South America the mastodon is limited to
the time of the pampas formation. Its tusks are long and straight, or
slightly curved upward; its lower jaw also possesses two tusks, which
project in a straight direction, but are considerably less than the
upper tusks in size. From the results of Ameghino’s investigations man
appears to have come to South America with these northern immigrants,
especially with the mastodon. In Ameghino’s lists of the animals of
the pampas formation Von Zittel describes man, like the animal forms
enumerated above, as an immigrant from North America, and as a northern
type.

According to Von Zittel’s statements there is no longer any doubt that
the pampas formation, and with it early man, of South America, is to be
assigned to the Drift Era; he sums up the case in these words:

    In South Asia and South America the Tertiary Period is followed
    by Drift faunæ, which in the main are composed of species still
    existing at the present day, but yet show somewhat closer relations
    to their Tertiary predecessors.




[Illustration:

    THE WORLD
    BEFORE
    HISTORY--III

    Professor
    JOHANNES
    RANKE
]




THE LIFE OF MAN IN THE STONE AGE


[Sidenote: Man a Witness of the Flood]

The oldest remains affording us knowledge of man are not parts of his
body--not the skeleton from which, in the case of primeval animals, we
have learned to reconstruct their frame--but evidences of the human
mind. Until the discoveries of Boucher de Perthes turned the scale,
search had been made in vain among the bones of the fossil fauna for
remains of the skeleton of fossil man of undoubtedly the same age; it
was not bones, but tools, by which the Abbeville antiquary proved that
man had been a “witness of the Flood” in Europe; tools which taught
irrefutably that the mental powers of fossil man of the Drift were
similar in kind to, if possibly less in degree than, those of living
members of mankind. The Drift tools prove that, even in that early
epoch to which we have learned from Boucher to trace him back, man was
distinctively man.

Boucher de Perthes was an expert archæologist, and he knew that in
Europe, in a very early period of civilisation, men had made their
tools and weapons of stone, as many tribes and races in a backward
state of civilisation--for example in South America, the South Sea
Islands, and many other places--do at the present day. These stone
implements are practically indestructible, and from ancient times
manifold superstitions have attached to the curious articles that the
peasant turns up out of the earth in ploughing. Such stone weapons were
called lightning-stones by the Romans, as they are by country-folk at
the present day. Scientific archæology occupied itself with them at an
early date. In 1778 Buffon declared the so-called lightning-stones, or
thunder-stones, to be the oldest art-productions of primeval man, and
as early as 1734, Mahudel and Mercati had pronounced them to be the
weapons of antediluvian man. Such views determined the line of thought
in Boucher’s researches. From the very beginning he sought, in the
undisturbed Drift beds of his home, not so much for the bones of Drift
Man as for his tools, which he suspected to be of the form of the
lightning-stones, although he knew that, so far as was hitherto known,
these belonged to a very much later epoch--that is, specially to the
Alluvial or “Recent” Period.

His expectations were crowned with success. Deep below the mass of
overlying loam and sand, right in the strata of gravel and coarse sand,
he found stone tools, which without the slightest doubt had been worked
by the hand of man for definite and easily recognisable purposes as
implements and weapons. Although to a certain extent ruder, they are
practically the same forms as the tools, weapons, and implements of
stone that we see in use among so-called “savages” of the present day.
It is the tool artificially prepared for a certain purpose that raises
man above the animal world to-day, as it did in the time of the Drift.

[Sidenote: Drift Man’s Three Kinds of Tools]

[Sidenote: The Chief Forms of Tools]

Upon his first visit to the relic-beds near Abbeville in the spring
of 1859, Lyell had obtained seventy specimens of these stone tools
from the chief of them. The tools were all of flint, which occurs in
abundance in the chalk of the district, and is still obtained and
worked for technical purposes at the present day. The worked stones
that Boucher found were termed flint or silex tools, according to the
material of which they were made. They occurred in the particular beds,
as Lyell expressed it, in wonderful quantities. The famous geologist
distinguished three chief forms. The first is the spear-head form, and
varies in length from six to eight inches. The second is the oval form,
not unlike many stone implements and weapons that are still used as
axes and tomahawks at the present day--for instance, by the aborigines
of Australia. The only difference is that the edge of the Australian
stone axes, like that of the European implements of later periods of
civilisation known as thunderbolts or lightning-stones, is mostly
produced by grinding, whereas on the stone axes from the drift of the
Somme valley it has always been obtained by simply chipping the stone,
and by repeated, skilfully directed blows. According to Tylor the stone
implements of the old Tasmanians were entirely of Drift form and make,
all without traces of grinding, being simply angular stones whose
cutting-edge had been sharpened by being worked with a second stone.
Some of these stone implements of Drift Man may have been simply used
in the hand when the natural form of the stone offered a convenient
end, but the majority were certainly fastened in a handle in some way
or other, to serve as weapons--spear-heads or daggers--both for war and
the chase. Lyell’s second chief form would have been used as an axe for
such purposes as digging up roots, felling trees, and hollowing out
canoes, or to cut holes in the ice for fishing and for getting drinking
water in the winter. In the hand of the hunter and warrior the stone
axe also became a weapon. As the third form of stone implements Lyell
distinguished knife-shaped flakes, some pointed, others of oval form
or trimmed evenly at one end, obviously intended partly as knives and
arrow-heads, and partly as scrapers for technical purposes.

[Illustration: HOW PREHISTORIC MANKIND IS REVEALED

Most of our knowledge of the earliest life of man has been revealed
by the excavator. When at a certain depth below the earth’s surface
the skeleton of a man is found, surrounded with rude stone weapons,
ornaments, and the remains of domestic animals, a whole chapter in the
life of Prehistoric Man stands revealed at one glance. Our photograph
shows an actual skeleton and grave of the Stone Age, as discovered in
the year 1875 near Mentone.]

Although there are many variations between the first two chief forms,
yet the typical difference indicating the different purpose of their
use is always easily recognised in well-finished examples. A large
number of very rude specimens have also been found, of which many
may have been thrown away as spoiled in the making, and others may
have been only rubbish produced in the working. Evans has practically
proved that it is possible to produce such stone implements in their
remarkable agreement of form without the use of metal hammers. He made
a stone hammer by fastening a flint in a wooden handle, and worked
another piece of flint with this until it had assumed the shape of the
axe form--the second, oval form--of the Drift implements.

[Sidenote: Lyell’s Find in the Somme Valley]

Lyell draws attention to the fact that, in spite of the relatively
great frequency of stone implements, it would be a great mistake to
rely on finding a single specimen, even if one occupied himself for
weeks together in examining the Somme valley. Only a few lay on the
surface, the rest not coming to light until after removing enormous
masses of sand, loam, and gravel. As we may presume with Lyell that the
larger number of the Drift stone implements of Abbeville and Amiens
were brought into their position by the action of the river, this
sufficiently explains why so many were found at great depths below the
surface; for they must naturally have been buried in the gravel with
the other stones in places where the stream had still sufficient force
or rapidity to wash stones away. They can, therefore, not be found in
deposits from still water, in fine sediment and overflow mud.

Bones of Drift Man are absent from the deposits of the Somme valley,
in spite of the wonderful abundance of stone implements. The “lower
jaw from Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville,” had been fraudulently placed
there by workmen. But proof of the existence of man is undeniably
assured by the objects, so unpretentious in themselves, that have been
recognised as the work of his hands.

When once the recognition of Drift Man, founded on the authority of
Lyell, was achieved, search for further relic-beds was made in England
and France with success. Yet scarcely one of the newly discovered
stations was to be compared to those of the Somme valley as regards
purity of stratification and conditions of discovery. The relics of the
“earliest Stone Age” or “Palæolithic Period,” as the period of Drift
Man was called, frequently came from caves and grottos, whose primary
conclusiveness Boucher had rightly doubted.

Under these circumstances it was of the greatest importance that in
Germany Drift Man was discovered in two places, where not only was the
geological stratification just as clear as at Abbeville and Amiens,
but where also the relics of Drift Man were found, not in a secondary
_situs_, as they were then, but in a primary one. In addition to this
the two German relic-beds may be safely assigned to the last two great
divisions of the Drift Period, to the warmer Interglacial Period, and
to the cold Glacial Period proper, with its Postglacial Period; and
their climatic conditions were made clear from the remains of plants
and animals found in them.

[Illustration:

    Mercier

A WORKER IN THE STONE AGE

    Making an axehead of flint, like that photographed on the opposite
    page. From the painting by F. Cormon.
]

From the occurrence, in the deposits of the Somme, of reindeer that
contain the stone implements of Drift Man, we can not, as we saw,
exactly settle in what part of the Drift Era man lived there, whether
in the Interglacial Period, to which numerous animal remains found
there doubtless belong, or not until the “Reindeer” Period, as the last
Glacial and early Postglacial Periods were called, when the reindeer
was most largely distributed over France and Central Europe. One is
inclined to date man’s habitation of the Somme valley back to the
Interglacial Period; but it is certain that the relic-bed near Taubach
is the first, and, as far as I can see, the only one hitherto, that
has given sure proof of Interglacial Man in Europe. There the oldest
vestiges of man in Europe were found that have yet been absolutely
proved. We have not hitherto succeeded in Europe in tracing man farther
back than the Interglacial Period. Relics of him are hitherto as absent
in the older Drift as they are in the Tertiary.

[Illustration: A WORKMAN’S TOOL IN THE STONE AGE

    Flint implement found in Gray’s Inn, London; now in British Museum.
]

The Taubach relic-bed also furnished no bones of Drift Man among all
the parts of skeletons of Drift animals that we have mentioned. Here,
too, as in the Somme valley, the proof of the presence of man is
based on the works of his hand and mind. Here, too, stone implements
and stone weapons are the chief things to be mentioned. But whereas,
in the chalk district of France, flints of every size were to be had
in the greatest abundance for the preparation of weapons and tools,
corresponding stones are not exactly wanting at the two standard
German places, though they occur in limited number and size. It is
due to this that the larger forms of flint implements, which are
most in evidence in the Somme valley, are absent at Taubach. On the
other hand, smaller “knives and flakes”--Lyell’s third form of Drift
flint implements--occur here with comparative frequency and variety
of form. Next to the usual lancet-shaped knife, worked flint flakes,
of triangular prismatic form, with sharp corners, are most numerous
at Taubach, and scrapers, chisels, awls, and the chipping-stones with
which the stone implements were produced may also be distinguished
among other things. The material for the implements was supplied by
the older Drift débris of the valley--namely, flint, flinty slate, and
quartz porphyry.

Besides the stone implements which alone were observed in the Somme
valley, still further important relics were found here in their primary
_situs_. Above all, numerous finds of charcoal and burnt bones prove
that the Drift Men of Taubach not only knew how to kindle fire, but
were also accustomed to roast the flesh of the animals they killed
in the chase. Stones and pieces of shell limestone also occur which
have become reddish and hard from the action of heat. These are to be
regarded as the floors and side-walls of the fireplaces on which the
food was then and there prepared. The animal bones, especially those
that were taken up from around the fireplace, appear in most cases to
be remains of meals. This is shown at once by the fact that bones of
young representatives of the large beasts of the chase--such as the
rhinoceros, elephant, and bear--are very frequent as compared with the
rare occurrence of full-grown animals.

[Sidenote: Hunters of the Stone Age]

[Sidenote: How Drift Man Killed the Great Animals]

It appears that in the hunting and capture of animals the young
ones were most easily killed, and therefore served chiefly as food.
Whenever a large animal was killed, it was probably cut up on the spot
by the fortunate hunters, who consumed at once part of its flesh;
the trunk was then left at the scene of the killing, while the head,
neck, and fore and hind legs, on which was the most muscular flesh,
and which were at the same time easier to carry away, were taken to
the settlement. This may explain why, among the many large bones of
the rhinoceros that have hitherto been found, the ribs and the dorsal
and lumbar vertebræ are almost entirely absent. Some of the bones of
the beasts of the chase bear the unmistakable traces of man. They
are broken in the manner characteristic of “savages” of all ages and
climes--for the sake of the marrow, one of the greatest dainties of men
living chiefly on animal fare. The broken-off heads of the metatarsal
bones of the bison still show particularly clearly the method of
breaking. They are broken off transversely exactly where the marrow
canal ends, and on all these bones there is a roundish depression,
or hole, at the same place--namely, in the middle of their front or
back surface, and just where the end of the marrow canal is, therefore
about in the centre of the break of the broken-off piece. The hole is
a “blow-mark” of one inch in diameter, evidently driven in by force
from without, as several well-preserved specimens still show the edges
and splinters of bone pressed inward. These splinters and all the
breaks are old, and have on the surface the same greasy coating, full
of the sand in which they lay, as the bones themselves. The instrument
used for breaking the bones in this way might very well have been the
lower jaw of a bear with its large canine tooth, as Oscar Fraas has
ascertained to have been the case in other places where Drift Man has
been found. Such lower jaws were found at Taubach, and the nature and
size of the hole and its edges agree with this assumption. The long
bones of the elephant and rhinoceros were whole. Drift Man did not
succeed in breaking these huge pieces, and where such bones are found
broken they are accidental fractures. On the other hand, almost all
bones of the bear and bison are intentionally split--in almost all
cases transversely, and seldom lengthways.

[Sidenote: Drift Man at his Meals]

In the Somme valley we have only the flint implements--which, although
rude, are very regularly and uniformly made for different recognisable
purposes--to tell us of the life and state of Drift Man; but the finds
at Taubach afford us a rather closer insight into the conditions of
his life and culture. What we had suspected from the first finds is
confirmed here. During the Interglacial Period we see near Taubach, on
the old watercourse of the Ilm, which had there at that time become
dammed up into a kind of pond, a human settlement. This was occupied
for a long period, as is proved by the large number of bones, evidently
remains of meals, and by the quantity of charcoal. Immediately on the
bank were the fireplaces--rude hearths built of the stones obtained
without trouble in the neighbourhood. Here the flesh of the beasts
of the chase, the bison and the bear, and also the elephant and
rhinoceros, was broiled in a crude manner in the hot ashes, as is still
done by savages on the level of the Fuegians and primitive tribes of
Central Brazil at the present day. For this no utensils are required,
a sharpened rod or thin pointed stick being sufficient for turning
and taking out the pieces of meat. The ashes that the gravy causes to
adhere supply the place of salt and other seasoning. The meat was cut
up with the stone knives, and many traces of cuts on the bones may also
be attributable to these instruments. For cutting out larger portions a
powerful and very suitable instrument was at hand, in the lower jaw of
the bear, with its strong canine tooth, which also served for breaking
bones to obtain the marrow. In spite of the apparent meanness of the
weapons, remains of which we have found, the Drift Men of Taubach were
yet able, as their kitchen refuse proves, not only to kill the bison
and bear, but also the gigantic elephant and rhinoceros, both young and
full grown.

[Illustration: REINDEER HUNTING IN THE LATER ICE AGE. After a picture
by W. Kranz

    The reindeer was the most familiar animal of the Later Ice Age, its
    body supplying food, clothing, and implements for Glacial Man.
]

[Illustration: WEAPONS OF THE CHASE USED BY PREHISTORIC MAN

    A collection of neolithic lance and arrow heads found in Ireland,
    now to be seen in the British Museum.
]

[Sidenote: Drift Man after the Hunt]

This shows man to have been then, as he is to-day, master even of
the gigantic animal forms which so far surpass him in mechanical
strength. It is the mind of man that shows itself superior to the
most powerful brute force, even where we meet him for the first time.
From the finds in the Somme valley it appears that Drift Man already
possessed spear, dagger, and axe, besides the knife, as weapons. There
the blades were of stone. The relatively small blades of the Taubach
stone implements are, it is true, of the same character as the stone
implements of Abbeville and Amiens, but they are chiefly, as we have
said, merely knife-like articles, very suitable as blades for knives,
scrapers, and daggers, and as arrow-heads, but not strong enough as
hunting-weapons for such big game. The hunt must, therefore, have
been more a matter of capture in pits and traps, as practised at the
present day where similar large types of animals are hunted by tribes
armed only with defective weapons. The kitchen refuse also proves
that the settlement by the Ilm pond, near Taubach, was a permanent
one, to which the hunters returned after their expeditions, bringing
their game and trophies so far as they were easily transportable. But
there is no trace of domestic animals. They could not have completely
disappeared, any more than remains of clay vessels, which are still
less destructible than bones, and in this respect may be compared to
stone implements. There was no trace of potsherds either.

[Sidenote: The Best “Find” of the Ice Age]

The finds in the Somme valley and near Taubach are of incalculable
importance as sure, indisputable proofs of Drift Man in Europe; but as
regards the wealth of information to be derived from them respecting
man’s psychical condition in that first period in which we can prove
his existence, they are far and away surpassed by the find at the
source of the Schussen, which Oscar Fraas, the celebrated geologist,
has personally inventoried and described. Fraas has rightly given to
his description of this find of Glacial Man--the most important and
best examined hitherto--the title “Contributions to the History of
Civilisation During the Glacial Period.”

The geognostic stratification of the relic-bed on one of the farthest
advanced moraines of the Upper Swabian plateau proves that it
belongs to the Glacial Period, and that this had already pushed its
glacier-moraines to the farthest limit ever reached. In point of time
the finds are, therefore, to be placed at the end of the Glacial
Period, as it was passing into the Postglacial Period; everything still
points to Far Northern conditions of life. The finds at the source of
the Schussen are thus decidedly more recent, geologically, than those
made at Taubach. They are a typical, or, better, _the_ typical example
of the so-called “Reindeer Period” of the end of the Drift.

[Illustration: IMPLEMENTS OF THE STONE AGE AND THEIR MAKING

    The methods of holding a hammer-stone and of making a flint by
    pressure are illustrated at the top, those of using a chopping tool
    at the bottom, of this plate. The other objects are spear-heads,
    axes, and hammers of stone and flint, and javelin-heads of horn,
    the latter being smooth and barbed. The method of tying a flint
    chisel to a wooden handle is shown at the right (×). Most of these
    objects are to be seen in the British Museum.
]

From Fraas’s description there seems to be no doubt whatever that the
relic-bed, with its remains of civilisation, was perfectly undisturbed,
and its palæontological contents plainly show its great geological
age. It was perfectly protected by Nature. On the top lies peat, the
same that covers the lowlands of the whole neighbourhood for miles,
and forms the extensive moorlands of Upper Swabia, on which no other
formations are to be seen than the gravel drift-walls thrown up by
glaciers of the Drift Period. Under the peat lies a layer of calc-tufa,
four to five feet thick, a fresh-water formation from the water-courses
that now unite with the source of the Schussen. Under this protecting
cover of tufa were the remains of the Glacial Period and Glacial Man.
The tufa covered a bed of moss of a dark brown colour, inclining to
green, the moss still splendidly preserved. Under this bed of moss was
the glacier drift. The moss was dripping full of and intermingled with
moist sand. In it were the relics of Glacial Man--all lying in heaps as
fresh and firm as if they had been only recently collected. A sticky,
dark-brown mud filled the moss and sand and the smallest hollow spaces
of antlers and bones, and emitted a musty smell.

[Illustration: EARLY DRINKING VESSEL

    Reindeer’s skull used as drinking vessel by men of the Stone Age.
    British Museum collection.
]

[Illustration: TREASURE-STORES OF PRIMEVAL KNOWLEDGE

    Such to-day are the mounds of prehistoric rubbish accumulated by
    the people of the Stone Age. These Danish “kitchen middens” have
    vastly enriched our knowledge of the remote past.
]

Glacial Man had used the place as a refuse-pit. Among the bones and
splinters of bone of animals that had been slaughtered and consumed by
man, among ashes and charred remains, among smoke-stained hearthstones
and the traces of fire, there lay here, one upon the other, numerous
knives, arrow-heads, and lance-heads of flint, and the most varied
kinds of hand-made articles of reindeer horn. All this was in a shallow
pit about seven hundred square yards in extent, and only four to
five feet deep in the purest glacier drift, clearly showing that the
excellent preservation of the bones and bone implements was solely due
to the water having remained in the moss and sand. The bank of moss was
like a saturated sponge; it closed up its contents hermetically from
the air, and preserved in its ever-damp bosom what had been entrusted
to it thousands of years before.

Under the peat and tufa at the source of the Schussen we find only the
type of a purely Northern climate, with Northern flora and Northern
fauna. There are no remains of domestic animals--not even of the
dog, nor any bones of the stag, roe, chamois, or ibex. Everything
corresponds to a Northern climate, such as begins to-day at 70° north
latitude. We see Upper Swabia traversed by moraines and melting
glaciers, whose waters wash the glacier-sand into moss-grown pools. We
find a Greenland moss covering the wet sands in thick banks; between
the moraines of the glaciers we have to imagine wide green pastures,
rich enough to support herds of reindeer, which roved about there as
they do in Greenland, or on the forest borders of Norway and Siberia,
at the present day. Here, also, are the regions of the carnivora
dangerous to the reindeer--the glutton and the wolf, and, in the second
rank, the bear and Arctic fox.

[Illustration: A FAMILY GROUP IN THE STONE AGE

    It was thus that the Danish kitchen middens illustrated on the
    opposite page were created. Each family group cast its refuse,
    in the shape of shells, bones, wood, etc., on the midden near at
    hand, and these heaps of rubbish in process of time became valuable
    records of the people’s life, in which the archæologist can read
    for us the story of the past.
]

[Sidenote: History in a Rubbish Heap]

According to Fraas, it is on this scene that man of the Glacial Period
appears; in all probability, a hunter, invited by the presence of the
reindeer to spend some time--probably only the better portion of the
year--on the borders of ice and snow. It is true that the relic-bed
that tells of his life and doings is only a refuse-pit, which contains
nothing good in the way of art productions, but only broken or spoiled
articles and refuse from the manufacture of implements. The bulk of the
material consists of kitchen refuse, such as, besides charcoal and
ashes, opened marrow-bones and broken skulls of game. Not one of the
bones found here shows a trace of any other instrument than a stone. It
was on a stone that the bone was laid, and it was with a stone that the
blow was struck. Such breaking-stones came to light in large numbers.
They were merely field stones collected on the spot, particular
preference being given to finely rolled quartz boulders of about the
size of a man’s fist. Others were rather rudely formed into the shape
of a club, with a kind of handle, such as is produced half accidentally
and half intentionally in splitting large pieces. Larger stones were
also found--gneiss slabs, from one to two feet square, slaty Alpine
limes, and rough blocks of one stone or another, which had probably
represented slaughtering-blocks, or done duty as hearthstones, as on
many of them traces of fire were visible. Where these stones had stood
near the fire they were scaled, and all were more or less blackened
by charcoal. Smaller pieces of slate and slabs of sandstone blackened
by fire may have supplied the place of clay pottery in many respects;
for, with all the blackened stones, not a fragment of a clay vessel was
found in the layers of charcoal and ashes of the relic-bed.

[Sidenote: Making Drift Man’s Tools]

The flint implements are of the form familiar to us from Taubach and
the Somme valley, being simply chipped, not ground or polished. At
the source of the Schussen, also, only comparatively small pieces of
the precious raw material were found for the manufacture of stone
implements. So that here, too, as at Taubach, Lyell’s third form, the
knife or flake, was practically the only one represented. They fall
into two groups--pointed lancet-shaped knives and blunt saw-shaped
stones. The former served as knife-blades and dagger-blades, and
lance-heads and arrow-heads; the latter represented the blades of the
tools required for working reindeer horn. The larger implements are
between one and a quarter and one and a half inches broad and three
to three and a half inches long; but the majority of them are far
smaller, being about one and a half inches long and only three-eighths
of an inch broad. The various flint blades appear to have been used
in handles and hafts of reindeer horn. Numerous pieces occur which
can only be explained as such handles, either ready or in course of
manufacture.

Moreover, owing to the want of larger flints, numerous weapons,
instruments, and implements were carved from reindeer horn and bone
for use in the chase and in daily life. Fraas has ascertained exactly
the technical process employed in producing articles of reindeer horn,
and we see with wonder how the Glacial men of Swabia handled their
defective carving-knives and saws on the very principle of modern
technics. They are principally weapons--for example, long pointed
bone daggers, otherwise mostly punchers, awls, plaiting-needles (of
wood), and arrow-heads with notched grooves. These may possibly be
poison-grooves; other transverse grooves may have served partly for
fastening the arrow-head by means of some thread-like binding material,
probably twisted from reindeer sinews, as is done by the Reindeer Lapps
at the present day; other scratches occur as ornaments.

[Sidenote: The Skilled Workman of the Drift]

The forms of the bone implements show generally a decided sense
of symmetry and a certain taste. For instance, a dagger, with a
perforated knob for suspension, and a large carefully-carved fish-hook.
Groove-like or hollow spoon-shaped pieces of horn were explained by
Fraas to be cooking and eating utensils; probably they also served
for certain technical purposes--as for dressing skins for clothing
and tents, like the stone scrapers found in the Somme valley. A
doubly perforated piece of a young reindeer’s antler appears to be an
arrow-stretching apparatus, like those generally finely ornamented,
used by the Esquimaux for the same purpose. A branch of a reindeer’s
antlers, with deep notches filed in, is declared by the discoverer to
be a “tally.” The notches are partly simple strokes filed in to the
depth of a twelfth of an inch, and partly two main strokes connected by
finer ones. “The strokes,” says Fraas, “are plainly numerical signs--a
kind of note, probably, of reindeer or bears killed, or some other
memento.” Among the objects found were also pieces of red paint of the
size of a nut--clearly fabrications of clayey ironstone, ground and
washed, and probably mixed with reindeer fat and kneaded into a paste.
The paint crumbled between the fingers, felt greasy, and coloured the
skin an intense red. It may have been used in the first instance for
painting the body. The Glacial men at the source of the Schussen were,
according to the results of these finds, fishermen and hunters, without
dogs or domestic animals and without any knowledge of agriculture and
pottery. But they understood how to kindle fire, which they used for
cooking their food. They knew how to kill the wild reindeer, bear,
and other animals of the district they hunted over; their arrows hit
the swan, and their fish-hooks drew fish from the deep. They were
artists in the chipping of flint into tools and weapons; with the
former they worked reindeer horn in the most skilful manner. Traces of
binding material indicate the use of threads, probably prepared from
reindeer sinews; the plaiting-needle may have been employed for making
fishing-lines. Threads and finely-pointed pricking instruments indicate
the art of sewing; clothing probably consisted of the skins of the
animals killed.

[Illustration:

    Mercier

HUNTING FOR FOOD IN THE LATER ICE AGE

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon
]

To this material concerning Drift Man, scientifically vouched for,
coming from Drift strata that have certainly never been disturbed,
other countries have hitherto made no equal contributions really
enlarging our view. Yet the numerous places where palæolithic--that
is, only rudely chipped--implements of flint, such as were doubtless
used by Drift Man, have been found must not remain unmentioned here. We
know of them in Northern, Central, and Southern France, in the South of
England, in the loess at Thiede, near Brunswick, and in Lower Austria,
Moravia, Hungary, Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, North Africa, and
Russia.

[Illustration: IMPLEMENTS OF THE STONE AGE

    The upper illustrations show handles of celt or stone-cutting
    instruments and method of hafting; the lower picture is that of a
    handmill of sandstone.
]

[Illustration: A HUT-CIRCLE OF THE BRONZE AGE

    One of the earliest forms of habitation in Britain. From the
    British Museum “Guide to the Bronze Age.”
]

It is of special importance to note that similar flint tools have also
been found along with extinct land mammalia in the stratified drift
of the Nerbudda valley, in South India, as the supposition more than
suggests itself that Drift Man came to our continent with the Drift
fauna that immigrated from Asia. The possibility that man also got
from North Asia to North America with the mammoth during the Drift
Period can no longer be dismissed after the results of palæontological
research. It explains at once the close connection between the build of
the American and the great Asiatic (Mongolian) races.

[Illustration: REMAINS OF A STONE AGE MANSION

    These remains of a large pile hut discovered in Germany show that
    Stone Age Man had made good progress in building. The lower diagram
    shows a transverse section.
]

[Illustration: THE EARLIEST EFFORTS AT BOAT-BUILDING

    The dug-out canoe, hollowed from a single trunk, was the far-off
    parent of the ocean-going ship. The upper picture represents a
    prehistoric canoe found in Sussex and the lower example is taken
    from a German specimen.
]

Stone implements of palæolithic form have been found in Drift strata
in North America, and the same applies also, as we have seen, to South
America. The best finds there were those made by Ameghino in the
pampas formation of Argentina. Here marrow-bones, split, worked, and
burnt, and jaws of the stag, glyptodon, mastodon, and toxodon have
been repeatedly found along with flint tools of palæolithic stamp;
and Santiago Roth, who took part in these researches, supposes that
fossil man in South America occasionally used the coats of mail of
the gigantic armadillos as dwellings. But the civilisation of South
American man is doubtless identical with that of European fossil
man--tools and weapons of the stone types familiar in Europe, the
working of bones, the use of fire for cooking, and animal food, with
the consequent special fondness for fat and marrow.




[Illustration:

    THE WORLD
    BEFORE
    HISTORY--IV

    Professor
    JOHANNES
    RANKE
]




PRIMITIVE MAN IN THE PAST & THE PRESENT


To the picture of Drift Man that has been drawn for us by the
discoveries of human activity in deposits of uniform character and
sharply defined age, the much richer but far less reliable finds in the
bone caves add scarcely any entirely new touches. Von Zittel says:

    The evidence of the caves is unfortunately shaken by the
    uncertainty that, as a rule, prevails with regard to the manner in
    which their contents were washed into them or otherwise introduced,
    and also with regard to the beginning and duration of their
    occupation; moreover, later inhabitants have frequently mixed up
    their relics with the heritage of previous occupants.

[Sidenote: First Dwellers in Caves]

This doubt strikes us particularly forcibly as regards man’s
co-existence with the extinct animals of the earlier periods of the
Drift, the Preglacial and Interglacial Periods. On the other hand, the
habitation of the caves by man during the Reindeer Period appears in
many cases to be perfectly established, and, according to Von Zittel,
the oldest human dwellings in caves, rock-niches, and river-plains in
Europe belong for the most part to the Reindeer Period--that is, the
second Glacial and, in particular, the Postglacial Period.

In the caves there is also no domestic animal, and no pottery or
trace of potsherds, in the best-defined strata where Drift Man has
been found. In the Hohlefels cave, in the Ach valley in Swabia, a new
utensil was found in the form of a cup for drinking purposes or for
drawing water, made out of the back part of a reindeer’s skull. Also
a new tool in the form of a fine sewing-needle with eye, from the
long bone of a swan, such as have also been found in the caves of the
Périgord. Teeth of the wild horse and lower jaws of the wildcat, which
are found in the caves, perforated for suspending either as ornaments
or amulets, are also hitherto unknown, it appears, in the stratified
Drift. As both animals are at a later period connected with the deity
and with witchcraft, one could imagine that similar primitive religious
ideas existed among the old cave-dwellers. In the stratum of the
Reindeer Period at the Schweizerbild, near Schaffhausen, Nüesch found a
musical instrument, “a reindeer whistle,” and shells pierced for use as
ornaments.

[Sidenote: Drift Man’s Working Materials]

The finds in the French cave districts prove that man was able to
develop certain higher refinements of life, even during the Drift in
the real flint districts--where a very suitable material was at man’s
disposal in the flint that lay about everywhere or was easily dug up;
which was worked with comparative ease into much more perfect and
efficient weapons and implements than those supplied by the wilder
stretches of moor and fen of Germany, with their scarcity of flint.

If we compare the small, often tiny, knives and flint flakes from the
German places with the powerful axes and lance-heads of those regions,
it is self-evident how much more laborious life must have been for the
man who used the former. What labour he must have expended in carving
weapons and implements out of bone and horn, while flint supplied the
others with much better and more lasting ones with less expenditure
of time and trouble! In this light a wealth of flint was a civilising
factor of that period which is not to be under-estimated. In the flint
districts not only are the stone implements better worked, answering in
a higher degree the purpose of the weapon and the tool, but delight in
ornament and decoration is also more prominent.

[Sidenote: The Life in the Caves]

[Sidenote: Drift Man as Artist]

Life in the caves and grottos and under the rock shelters in the
neighbourhood of rivers was by no means quite wretched. The remains
left in the caves by their former inhabitants give almost as clear an
idea of the life of man in those primeval times as the buried cities of
Herculaneum and Pompeii do of the manners and customs of the Italians
in the first century of the Christian era. The floors of these caves
in which men formerly lived appear to consist entirely of broken bones
of animals killed in the chase, intermixed with rude implements and
weapons of bone and unpolished stone, and also charcoal and large burnt
stones, indicating the position of fireplaces. Flints and chips without
number, rough masses of stone, awls, lance-heads, hammers, and saws of
flint and chert lie in motley confusion beside bone needles, carved
reindeer antlers, arrow-heads and harpoons, and pointed pieces of horn
and bone; in addition to which are also the broken bones of the animals
that served as food, such as reindeer, bison, horse, ibex, saiga
antelope, and musk-ox. The reindeer supplied by far the greater part of
the food, and must at that time have lived in Central France in large
herds and in a wild state, all trace of the dog being absent.

[Sidenote: Pictures from the Drift World]

Among these abundant remains of culture archæologists were surprised
to find real objects of art from the hand of Drift Man, proving that
thinking about his surroundings had developed into the ability to
reproduce what he saw in drawing and modelling. The first objects of
this kind were found in the caves of the Périgord. They are, on the one
hand, drawings scratched on stones, reindeer bones, or pieces of horn,
mostly very naïve, but sometimes really lifelike, chiefly representing
animals, but also men; on the other hand imitations plastically carved
out of pieces of reindeer horn, bones, or teeth. Such engravings also
occurred on pieces of ivory, and plastic representations in this
material have been preserved. On a cylindrical piece of reindeer horn
from the cave excavations in the Dordogne is the representation of
a fish, and on the shovel-piece of a reindeer’s horn are the head
and breast of an animal resembling the ibex. Illustrations of horses
give faithful reproductions of the flowing mane, unkempt tail, and
disproportionately large head of the large-headed wild horse of
the Drift. The most important among these representations are such
as endeavour to reproduce an historical event. An illustration of
this kind represents a group consisting of two horses’ heads and an
apparently naked male figure; the latter bears a long staff or spear
in his right hand, and stands beside a tree, which is bent down almost
in coils in order to accommodate itself to the limited space, and
whose boughs, indicated by parallel lines, show it to be a pine or
fir. Connected with the tree is a system of vertical and horizontal
lines, apparently representing a kind of hurdlework. On the other
side of the same cylindrical piece are two bisons’ heads. Doubtless
this picture tells a tale; it is picture-writing in exactly the same
sense as that of the North American Indians. Our picture already
shows the transition to abbreviated picture-writing, as, instead of
the whole animals--horses and bisons--only the heads are given. The
message-sticks of the Australians bear certain resemblances; Bastian
has rightly described them as the beginnings of writing.

If we have interpreted them aright, the finds that have been made, with
the tally from the source of the Schussen and the message-stick from
the caves of the Dordogne, place the art of counting, the beginnings of
writing, the first artistic impulses, and other elements of primitive
culture right back in the Drift period.

[Sidenote: The Emerging of the Human Mind]

“None of the animals whose remains lie in the Drift strata,” says
Oscar Fraas, “were tamed for the service of man.” On the contrary, man
stood in hostile relation to all of them and only knew how to kill
them, in order to support himself with their flesh and blood and the
marrow of their bones. It was not so much his physical strength which
helped man in his fight for existence, for with few exceptions the
animals he killed were infinitely superior to him in strength; indeed
it is not easy, even with the help of powder and lead, to kill the
elephant, rhinoceros, grizzly bear, and bison, or to hunt down the
swift horse and reindeer. It was a question of finding out, with his
mental superiority, the beast’s unguarded moments, and of surprising it
or bringing it down in pits and snares. All the more wonderful does the
savage of the European Drift Period appear to us, “for we see that he
belongs to the first who exercised the human mind in the hard battle of
life, and thereby laid the foundation of all later developments in the
sense of progress in culture.” And yet, in the midst of this poor life,
a sense of the little pleasures and refinements of existence already
began to develop, as proved by the elegantly carved and decorated
weapons and implements, and there were even growing a sense of the
beauty of Nature and the power of copying it. The bone needles with
eyes and the fine awls are evidences of the art of sewing, and the
numerous scrapers of flint and bone teach us that Drift Man knew how to
dress skins for clothing purposes, and did it according to the method
still used among the Esquimaux and most northern Indians at the present
day. Spinning does not seem to have been known. On the other hand Drift
Man knew how to twist cords, impressions and indentations of which are
conspicuous on the bone and horn implements; on which also thread-marks
were imitated as a primitive ornament. Pottery was unknown to Drift
Man. Indeed, even to-day the production of pottery is not a commonly
felt want of mankind. The leather bottle, made of the skin of some
small animal stripped off whole without a seam, turned inside out as
it were, takes the place of the majority of the larger vessels; on the
other hand, liquids can also be kept for some time in a tightly-made
wicker basket.

[Illustration:

    Mercier

PRIMITIVE NATURE FOLK ENGAGED IN FISHING

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon.
]

The art of plaiting was known to Drift Man. This is shown by the
ornaments on weapons and implements, the plaiting-needle from the find
at the source of the Schussen, and the hurdlework represented on the
message-stick mentioned above, which may be either a hurdle made of
boughs and branches or a summer dwelling house. To these acquirements,
based chiefly on an acquaintance with serviceable weapons and
implements, is added the art of representing natural objects by drawing
and carving. This results in the attempt to retain historical _momenta_
in the form of abridged illustrations for the purpose of communicating
them to others--incipient picture-writing. The tally shows the method
of representing numbers--generally only one stroke each, but also
two strokes connected by a line to form a higher unit. Of the art of
building not a trace is left to us apart from the laying together of
rough stones for fireplaces; nor have tombs of that period of ancient
times been discovered.

[Illustration:

    Mercier

EARLY AGRICULTURISTS, WITH IMPLEMENTS OF BONE, STONE, AND BRONZE

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon.
]

The civilisation of Drift Man and his whole manner of life do not
confront the present human race as something strange, but fit perfectly
into the picture exhibited by mankind at the present day. Drift
Man nowhere steps out of this frame. If a European traveller were
nowadays to come upon a body of Drift men on the borders of eternal
ice, towards the north or south pole of our globe, nothing would
appear extraordinary and without analogy to him; indeed it would be
possible for him to come to an understanding with them by means of
picture-writing, and to do business with them by means of the tally.

[Illustration:

    Mercier

AN EMIGRATION OF THE GAULS IN THE BRONZE AGE

    From the painting by Ferdinand Cormon.
]

The manner of life led by man beyond the borders of higher
civilisation, especially under extreme climatic conditions, depends
almost exclusively on his outward surroundings and the possibility of
obtaining food. The Esquimaux, who, like Drift Man of Central Europe
in former times, live on the borders of eternal ice with the Drift
animals that emigrated thither,--the reindeer, musk-ox, bear, Arctic
fox, etc.--are restricted, like him, to hunting and fishing, and to
a diet consisting almost entirely of flesh and fat; corn-growing and
the keeping of herds of domestic animals being self-prohibitive. Their
kitchen refuse exactly resembles that from the Drift. Before their
acquaintance with the civilisation of modern Europe they used stone
and bone besides driftwood for making their weapons and implements,
as they still do to a certain extent at the present day, either
from preference or from superstitious ideas. Their binding material
consisted of threads twisted from reindeer sinews, with which they
sewed their clothes and fastened their harpoons and arrows, the latter
resembling in form those of Drift Man. They knew no more than he the
arts of spinning and weaving, their clothes being made from the skins
of the animals they hunted; pots were unknown and unnecessary to them.

[Illustration: PRIMITIVE ART OF OUR OWN DAY

    The picture-writing of the American Indians in our own day offers
    an interesting parallel to that of the primitive peoples of the
    remotest past. The Pawnees decorate their buffalo robes with such
    drawings as these, representing a procession of medicine men, the
    foremost giving freedom to his favourite horse as a sacrifice to
    the Great Spirit.
]

It has often been thought that we should have a definite criterion of
the period if it could be proved that fresh mammoth ivory was employed
at the particular time for making implements and weapons, or ornaments,
carvings, and drawings. There can be no doubt that when Drift Man
succeeded in killing a mammoth he used the tusks for his purposes.
But on the borders of eternal ice, where alone we could now expect to
find a frozen Drift Man, no conclusion could be drawn from objects
of mammoth ivory being in the possession of a corpse to determine
the great age of the latter. For the many mammoth tusks which have
been found and used from time immemorial in North Siberia, on the New
Siberian Islands, and in other places, are absolutely fresh, and are
even employed in the arts of civilised countries in exactly the same
way as fresh ivory. Under the name of “mammoth ivory” the fossil tusks
dug up by ivory-seekers, or mammoth-hunters, form an important article
of commerce.

The same conditions as many parts of Northern Siberia still exhibit
at the present day prevailed over the whole of Central Europe at
the end of the Glacial Period and the beginning of the Postglacial
Period. Here man lived on frozen ground on the borders of ice-fields
with the reindeer and its companions, as he does to-day in Northern
Asia, and here, too--as he does there to-day--he must have found the
woolly-haired mammoth preserved by the cold in the ice and frozen
ground. The Drift reindeer-men of Central Europe presumably searched
for mammoth tusks just as much as the present reindeer-men in North
Asia. The great field of mammoth carrion at Predmost was, therefore, a
very powerful attraction, not only for the beasts of prey--chief among
them wolves--but also for man.

[Illustration: THE EARLIEST ART: MANKIND’S FIRST EFFORTS IN
PICTURE-MAKING

    These illustrations are of engravings on stone and bone and
    scratchings on rocks made by prehistoric man, chiefly in France.
    The figures of the reindeer and those of the mammoth and the bison,
    the two latter found at Dordogne, are astonishingly good, and
    indicate genuine power of draughtsmanship at a remote period of
    human life.
]

[Sidenote: Drift Man Compared with Modern Man]

In France especially many primitive works of art of the “Ivory Epoch”
have been found, and even the nude figure of woman is not wanting;
but no proof is given that these carvings belong to the time when the
mammoth still lived. Much sensation has been caused by an engraving
on a piece of mammoth ivory representing a hairy mammoth with its
mane and strongly-curved tusks. This illustration has been taken as
unexceptionable proof that the artist of the Drift Period who did it
saw and portrayed the mammoth alive. But could the mammoth hunter
Schumachow--the Tunguse who, in 1799, discovered, in the ice of the
peninsula of Tumys Bykow at the mouth of the Lena, the mammoth now
erected in the collection at the St. Petersburg Academy [see page
123]--have pictured the animal otherwise when it was freshly melted out
of the ice? And the Madelaine cave in the Périgord, where the piece
of ivory with the picture of the mammoth was found, certainly belongs
to the Reindeer Period. Had we not independent proofs that Drift
Man lived in Central Europe--for instance, at Taubach--with the great
extinct pachydermata, neither the finds in the “loess” near Predmost,
nor the articles of ivory, nor the illustration of the mammoth itself,
could prove it. They furnish absolute proof of the existence of Drift
Man only back to the Reindeer Period. To decide whether a corpse
frozen in the stone-ice belonged to a Drift Man, the examination of
the corpse itself, its skull, bones, and soft parts, would no more
suffice than clothing, implements, and ornament. For at least so much
is confidently asserted by many palæontologists, that all the skulls
and bones hitherto known to have been ascribed to Drift Man by the
most eminent palæontologists, geologists, and anthropologists, cannot
be distinguished from those of men of the present day. Von Zittel, the
foremost scholar in the field of palæontology in Germany, says:

    The only remains of Drift Man of reliable age are a skull from
    Olmo, near Chiana, in Tuscany; a skull from Egisheim, in Alsace;
    a lower jaw from the Naulette cave near Furfooz, in Belgium; and
    a fragment of jaw from the Schipka cave in Moravia. This material
    is not sufficient for determining race, but all human remains of
    reliable age from the drift of Europe, and all the skulls found in
    caves, agree in size, form, and capacity with _Homo sapiens_, and
    are well formed throughout. In no way do they fill the gap between
    man and ape.

[Illustration: PRIMITIVE PEOPLE OF TO-DAY

    Until they came in touch with European travellers the Esquimaux
    were in precisely the same condition as Drift Man: they were living
    in the Ice Age. They are but little more advanced now, and the
    difference between them and prehistoric men is slight. This is a
    group of young Esquimau women.
]

“On the other hand,” writes Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, “a large majority
of modern anatomists and palæontologists accept the antiquity of such
skulls as the Neanderthal specimen, and agree that these point to the
existence of a human race inferior to any now existing. This race
comprised powerfully-built individuals, with low foreheads, prominent,
bony ridges above the eyes, and retreating chins. The radius and ulna
were unusually divergent, so that the forearms must have been heavy and
clumsy. The thigh-bones were bent and the shin-bones short, so that the
race must have been bow-legged and clumsy in gait.”

[Sidenote: A Type Between Man and Ape?]

“The intermediate position of these primitive types has received
extraordinary confirmation by the discovery of what may truly be called
the link, no longer missing, between man and the apes. In 1894, Dr.
Eugene Dubois discovered in the Island of Java in a bed of volcanic
ashes containing the remains of Pliocene animals the roof of a small
skull, two grinding-teeth, and a diseased femur. These remains indicate
an animal which, when erect, stood not less than 5 ft. 6 in. high.
The teeth and thigh-bones were very human, and the skull, although
very human, had prominent eyebrow ridges like those of the Neanderthal
type, and a capacity of about 1,000 cubic centimetres--that is to
say, much greater than that of the largest living apes, and falling
short by about 100 cubic centimetres of the largest skull capacities
of existing normal human beings. This creature, regarded at first by
some anatomists as a degenerate man, by others as a high ape, has now
been definitely accepted as a new type of being, intermediate between
man and the apes and designated as _Pithecanthropus erectus_.” There
is no doubt that Asia, Europe, North Africa, and North America, so
far as their ice-covering allowed of their being inhabited, form one
continuous region for the distribution of Palæolithic Man, in which
all discoveries give similar results. In this vast region the lowest
and oldest prehistoric stratum that serves as the basis of historical
civilisation is the homogeneous Palæolithic stratum. In the Drift
Period, Palæolithic Man penetrated into South America, as into a new
region, with northern Drift animals. In Central and South Africa and
Australia, Palæolithic Man does not yet seem to be known. All the more
important is it that in Tasmania Palæolithic conditions of civilisation
existed until the middle of the last century.

[Illustration: THE HOMES OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLE OF THE PRESENT DAY

    There are people still living in dwelling-places of prehistoric
    type. This photograph of Esquimau stone and turf huts, in
    Greenland, shows exactly the kind of dwellings used by prehistoric
    men in the Ice Age.
]

[Illustration: THE GRADUAL EXTINCTION OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

    The Yukaghirs, natives of Siberia, a division of the Mongolic
    family, were formerly a wide-spread race, and, according to their
    national tradition, were so numerous that “the birds flying over
    their camp fires became blackened with smoke.” The Jesup Expedition
    found them reduced to 700 in number. Hunger had forced some of
    them to cannibalism and suicide. They are a primitive people, but
    considerably superior to the Esquimaux.
]

[Illustration: A CREATURE BETWEEN APE AND MAN

    The skull of the Fossil Ape-man found in 1894, in the island of
    Java; restored by Dr. Eugene Dubois.
]

[Sidenote: Backward Races of Europe]

The palæontology of man has hitherto obtained good geological
information of the oldest Palæolithic culture-stratum of the Drift in
only a few parts of the earth, and only in Tasmania does this oldest
stratum appear to have cropped out free, and still uncovered by other
culture strata, down to our own times. Otherwise it is everywhere
overlaid by a second, later culture-stratum of much greater thickness,
which, although opened up in almost innumerable places, is not spread
over the whole earth as is the Palæolithic stratum. As opposed to
the earliest Stone Age of the Drift, which we have come to know as
the Palæolithic Period, this has been called the Later Stone Age or
Neolithic Period.

The Neolithic Period is also ignorant of the working of metals; for
weapons and implements, stone is the exclusive hard material of which
the blades are made. But geologically and palæontologically the two
culture-strata are widely and sharply separated.

As regards Europe, and a large part of the other continents, the second
stratum of the culture of the human race still lies at prehistoric
depth. But in other extensive parts of the earth the stratum of
Neolithic culture was not covered by other culture-strata until far
into the period of written history. Even a large part of Europe was
still inhabited by history-less tribes of the later Stone Age at the
time when the old civilised lands of Asia and of Africa, and the
coasts of the Mediterranean, had everywhere--on the basis of the
same Neolithic elements, with the increasing use of metals--already
risen to that higher stage of civilisation which, with the historical
written records of Egypt and Babylonia, forms the basis of our present
chronology.

When these civilised nations came into direct contact with the more
remote nations of the Old World, they found them, as we have said,
still, to a certain extent, at the Neolithic stage of civilisation,
just as, when Europeans settled in America, the great majority of the
aborigines had not yet passed the Neolithic stage, at which, indeed,
the lowest primitive tribes of Central Brazil still remain. Australia,
and a large part of the island world of the South Sea, had not yet
risen above the Neolithic stage (Tasmania, probably, not even above
the Palæolithic) when they were discovered. There the Stone Age, to a
certain extent, comes down to modern times; likewise in the far north
of Asia, in Greenland, in the most northern parts of America, and at
the south point of the New Continent among the Fuegians.

The men of the later Stone Age are the ancestors of the civilised men
of to-day. Classical antiquity among Greeks and Romans had still a
consciousness of this, at least partly; it was not entirely forgotten
that the oldest weapons of men did not consist of metal, but of stone,
and even inferior material. The worked stones which the people then,
as now, designated as weapons of the deity, as lightning-stones or
thunderbolts, were recognised by keener-sighted men as weapons of
primeval inhabitants of the land.

[Sidenote: What the Kitchen Middens Tell Us]

The “kitchen middens” on the Danish coasts mark places of more or less
permanent settlement, consisting of more or less numerous individual
dwellings. From these middens a rich inventory of finds has been made,
affording a glimpse of the life and doings of those ancient times.
The heaps consist principally of thousands upon thousands of opened
shells of oysters, cockles, and other shellfish still eaten at the
present day, mingled with the bones of the roe, stag, aurochs, wild
boar, beaver, seal, etc. Bones of fishes and birds were also made
out, among the latter being the bones of the wild swan and of the now
extinct great auk, and, what is specially important in determining
the geological age of these remains, large numbers of the bones of
the capercailzie. Domestic animals are absent with the exception of
the dog, whose bones, however, are broken, burnt, gnawed in the same
way as those of the beasts of the chase. Everything proves that on
the sites of these middens there formerly lived a race of fishers and
hunters, whose chief food consisted of shellfish, the shells of which
accumulated in mounds around their dwellings. Proofs of agriculture and
cattle-rearing there are none; the dog alone was frequently bred not
only as a companion in the chase, but also for its flesh.

The state of civilisation of the old Danish shellfish-eaters was not
quite a low one in spite of its primitive colouring, and in essential
points was superior to that of Palæolithic Man. Not only had they tamed
a really domestic animal, the dog, but they made and used clay vessels
for cooking and storing purposes. The cooking was done on fireplaces.
They could work deer-horn and bone well. Of the former hammer-axes
with round holes were made, and of animal bones arrow-heads, awls, and
needles, with the points carefully smoothed. Small bone combs appeared
to have served not so much for toilet purposes as for dividing animal
sinews for making threads, or for dressing the threads in weaving.

[Illustration: EUROPE IN THE ICE AGE

    The map illustrates the extent of the Ice Age in Europe. It will
    be noticed that in England the ice-cap did not extend south of the
    position of London though it occurred much further south in the
    mountain regions of the Pyrenees, the Alps, Tyrol, the Carpathians
    and the Caucasus. The dark portions of the map represent the extent
    of the ice.
]

[Sidenote: Drift Man and His Adversaries]

In the way of ornaments there were perforated animal teeth. The fish
remains found in the middens belong to the plaice, cod, herring, and
eel. To catch these deep-sea fish the fishermen must have gone out
to sea, which implies the possession of boats of some kind. Nor was
only small game hunted, but also large game. Ninety per cent. of the
animal bones occurring in the shell-mounds consist of those of large
animals, especially the deer, roe, and wild boar. Even such dangerous
adversaries as the aurochs, bear, wolf, and lynx were killed, likewise
the beaver, wildcat, seal, otter, marten, and fox. The very numerous
fragments of clay vessels belong partly to large pot-like vessels
without handles and with pointed or flat bottoms, and partly to small
oval bowls with round bottoms. All vessels were made with the free
hand of coarse clay, into which small fragments of granitic stone were
kneaded; as ornament they have in a few cases incisions or impressions,
mostly made with the finger itself on the upper edge.

The great importance of the Danish middens in the general history of
mankind is due to the fact that their age is geologically established,
so that they can serve as a starting-point for chronology. It is
to Japetus Steenstrup that the early history of our race owes this
chronological fixing of an initial date.

[Sidenote: The First Elements of Civilisation]

The earliest inhabitants of the North of Europe during the Stone
Age, as recorded by these kitchen-middens of the Danish period, were
scarcely superior to Palæolithic Man in civilisation, judging from
outward appearances. But a closer investigation taught us that,
in spite of the poverty of their remains, a higher development of
civilisation is unmistakable. And this superiority of the Neolithic
over the Palæolithic Epoch becomes far more evident if we take as our
standard of comparison, not the poor fisher population, who probably
first reached the Danish shores as pioneers, but the Neolithic
civilisation that had been fully developed in sunnier lands and
followed closely upon these trappers or squatters. Next to hunting
and fishing, cattle-breeding and agriculture are noticeable as the
first elements of Neolithic civilisation, and in connection with
them the preparation of flour and cooking; and as technical arts,
chiefly carving and the fine working of stone, of which weapons and
the most various kinds of tools were made; with the latter wood,
bone, deer-horn, etc., could be worked. The blades are no longer
sharpened merely by chipping, but by grinding, and are made in various
technically perfect forms. Special importance was attached to providing
them with suitable handles, for fixing which the stone implement or
weapon was either provided with a hole, or, as in America especially,
with notches or grooves.

[Sidenote: The Mental Life of Ancient Days]

In addition to these, there are the primitive arts of man--the ceramic
art, spinning, and weaving. In the former, especially, an appreciation
of artistic form and decoration by ornament is developed. The ornament
becomes a kind of symbolical written language, the eventual deciphering
of which appears possible in view of the latest discoveries concerning
the ornamental symbolism of the primitive races of the present day.
Discoveries of dwellings prove an advanced knowledge of primitive
architecture; entrenchments and tumuli acquaint us with the principles
of their earthworks; and the giant chambers, built of colossal blocks
of stone piled upon one another, prove that the builders of those
times were not far behind the much-admired Egyptian builders in
transporting and piling masses of stone. The burials, whose ceremonies
are revealed by opened graves, afford a glimpse of the mental life
of that period. From the skulls and skeletons that have been taken
from the Neolithic graves, science has been able to reconstruct the
physical frame of Neolithic Man, which has in no way to fear comparison
with that of modern man. Of the ornaments of the Stone Age the most
important and characteristic are perforated teeth of dogs, wolves,
horses, oxen, bears, boars, and smaller beasts of prey. How much in
favour such ornaments were is proved by the fact that even imitations
or counterfeits of them were worn. Numerous articles of ornament,
carved from bone and deer-horn, were universal: ornamental plates and
spherical, basket-shaped, square, shuttle-like, or chisel-shaped beads
were made of these materials and formed into chains.

[Illustration: THE ICE AGE IN THE PRESENT DAY: AN ESQUIMAU WATCHING A
SEAL HOLE]

In the Swiss lake-dwellings of the Stone Age have been found skilfully
carved ear-drops, needles with eyes, neat little combs of boxwood, and
hairpins, some with heads and others with pierced side protuberances.
Remains of textile fabrics, even finely twilled tissue, and also
leather, were yielded by the excavations of the lake-dwellings of
that period, so that we have to imagine the inhabitants adorned with
clothes of various kinds.

[Sidenote: Man’s First and Oldest Animal Friend]

What raises man of the later Stone Age so far above Palæolithic Man is
the possession of domestic animals and the knowledge of agriculture.
As domestic animals of the later Stone Age we have proof of the dog,
cow, horse, sheep, goat, and pig. Among the animals that have attached
themselves to man as domestic, the first and oldest is undoubtedly the
dog. It is found distributed over the whole earth, being absent from
only a few small islands. Among many races the dog was, and is still,
the only domestic animal in the proper sense of the word. This applies
to all Esquimau tribes, to the majority of the Indians of North and
South America, and to the continent of Australia.

We have no certain proofs that Palæolithic Man possessed the dog as a
domestic animal. In the Somme valley, at Taubach, and at the source
of the Schussen, bones of the domestic dog are absent. And yet, among
Drift fauna in caves remains of dogs have been repeatedly met with,
which have been claimed to be the direct ancestors of the domestic dog.
The dog’s attachment to man may have taken place at different times
in different parts. Man and dog immigrate to South America with the
foreign Northern fauna simultaneously--in a geological sense--during
the Drift. In Australia, man and dog (dingo), as the most intimate
animal beings, are opposed to an animal world that is otherwise
anomalous and, to the Old World, quite antiquated; probably man and dog
also came to Australia together. We know of fossil remains of the dingo
from the Drift, but no reliable finds have yet proved the presence of
man during that period.

[Sidenote: The Dog in the Stone Age]

In the later Stone Age the dog already occurs as the companion of
man wherever it occurs in historic times. In Europe its remains have
been found in the Danish kitchen-middens, in the northern Neolithic
finds, in the lake-dwellings of Switzerland, in innumerable caves of
the Neolithic Period, in the terramare of Upper Italy, etc. It was
partly a comparatively small breed, according to Rütimeyer similar to
the “wachtelhund” (setter) in size and build. Rütimeyer calls this
breed the lake-dwelling dog, after the lake-dwellings, one of the
chief places where it has been found. Like all breeds of animals of
primitive domestication, the dog at this period, according to Nehring,
is small--stunted, as it were. With the progress of civilisation the
dog also grows larger.

[Sidenote: Great Value of the Dog to Man]

In the later prehistoric epochs, beginning with the so-called “Bronze”
Period, we find throughout almost the whole of Europe a rather
larger and more powerful breed with a more pointed snout--the Bronze
dog--whose nearest relative seems to be the sheep-dog. At the present
day the domestic dog is mostly employed for guarding settlements and
herds and for hunting. In the Arctic regions the Esquimaux also use
their dogs, which are like the sheep-dog, for personal protection and
hunting; they do particularly good service against the musk-ox, while
the wild reindeer is too fast for them. But the Esquimau dog is chiefly
used for drawing the sledge, and, where the sledge cannot be used,
as a beast of burden, since it is able to carry fairly heavy loads.
In China and elsewhere, as formerly in the old civilised countries
of South America, the dog is still fattened and killed for meat. So
that the domestic dog serves every possible purpose to which domestic
animals can be put, except, it seems, for milking, although this would
not be out of the question either. The dog was also eaten by man in
the later Stone Age, as is proved by the finds in his kitchen refuse.
The reindeer is now restricted to the Polar regions of the Northern
Hemisphere--Scandinavia, North Asia, and North America, whereas in the
Palæolithic Period it was very numerous throughout Russia, Siberia,
and temperate Europe down to the Alps and Pyrenees. It does not seem
ever to have been definitely proved that the reindeer existed in the
Neolithic Period of Central and Northern Europe, although according to
Von Zittel it lived in Scotland down to the eleventh century and in
the Hercynian forest until the time of Cæsar. The earliest definite
information we appear to have of the tamed reindeer, which at the
present day is a herd animal with the Lapps in Europe, and with the
Samoyedes and Reindeer Tunguses in Asia, is found in Ælian, who speaks
of the Scythians having tame deer.

Oxen at present exist nowhere in the wild state, while the tame ox
is distributed as a domestic animal over the whole earth, and has
formed the most various breeds. In the European Drift a wild ox, the
urus, distinguished by its size and the size of its horns, was widely
distributed, and it still lived during the later Stone Age with the
domestic ox. In the later prehistoric ages, and even in historic times,
the urus still occurs as a beast of the forest.

[Sidenote: The Taming of the Wild Horse]

In the later Stone Age the horse, too, is no longer merely a beast of
the chase, but occurs also in the tame state. During the Drift the
horse lived in herds all over Europe, North Asia, and North Africa.
From this Drift horse comes the domestic horse now found all over the
earth. Even the wild horses of the Drift exhibit such considerable
differences from one another that, according to Nehring’s studies,
these are to be regarded as the beginning of the formation of local
breeds. The taming and domestication of the wild horse of the Drift,
which began in the Stone Age, led to the domestic horse being split up
later into numerous breeds. The old wild horse was comparatively small,
with a large head; a similar form is still found here and there on the
extensive barren moors of South Germany in the moss-horse, or, as the
common people call it, the moss-cat. At the present day the genus of
the domestic horse falls, like the ox, into two chief breeds--a smaller
and more graceful Oriental breed, and a more powerful and somewhat
larger Western breed with the facial bones more strongly developed.
The horse of the later Stone Age of Europe exhibits only comparatively
slight differences from the wild horse; it is generally a small,
half-pony-like form with a large head, evidently also a stunted product
of primitive breeding under comparatively unfavourable conditions.
Two species extant in the Stone Age still live wild on the steppes of
Central Asia at the present day; one of them also occurs as a fossil in
the European Drift, although only rarely. That the ass occurred in the
European Drift is probable, but not proved. It has not yet been found
in the Neolithic Period of Europe.

[Sidenote: Did the Horse come from Asia?]

A survey of the palæontology of the domestic animals shows that they
come from wild Drift species which--at any rate, as regards the ox,
horse, and dog--are now extinct, so that these most important domestic
animals now exist only in the tame state. Some of the domestic animals
came from Asia, and, according to Von Zittel, were imported into Europe
from there; this applies to the peat-ox and the domestic goat and pig.
The Asiatic origin of the domestic horse and sheep is probable, but not
proved; the sheep is found wild in South Europe as well as in Asia.
The tarpan, a breed of horse very similar to the wild horse, lives in
herds independent of man on the steppes of Central Asia. This has been
indicated as being probably the parent breed of the domestic horse, and
the origin of the latter has accordingly also been traced to Asia.

One thing is certain: a considerable number of animal forms that
co-exist with man in Europe at the present day--for instance, almost
all the forms of our poultry and the fine kinds of pigs and sheep--have
originally come from Asia. Our investigations show a similar state of
things even in the Neolithic Period.

In the North of Europe, which has furnished us with our standard
information regarding the Neolithic culture-stratum, the certain proofs
that have hitherto been found of agriculture and the cultivation of
useful plants having been practised at that time (to which civilisation
owes no less than to the breeding of useful tame animals) consist not
so much of plant remains themselves as of stone hand-mills and spinning
and weaving implements, which indicate the cultivation of corn and flax.

[Sidenote: History in the Lake Dwellings]

Our chief knowledge of Neolithic agriculture and plant culture has been
furnished by the lake-dwellings, especially those of Switzerland, which
have preserved the picture of the Neolithic civilisation of Central
Europe, sketched for us, as it were, in the North, in its finest lines.
So far we can prove the cultivation of the following useful plants
in the later Stone Age; their remains were chiefly found, as we have
said, well preserved in the Stone Age lake-dwellings of Switzerland,
which have been described in classical manner by Oswald Heer. Of
cereal grasses Heer determined, in the rich Stone Age lake-dwellings
of Wangen, on Lake Constance, and Robenhausen, in Lake Pfäffikon,
three sorts of wheat and two varieties of barley--the six-rowed and
two-rowed. Flax was also grown by Neolithic Man. This was, it seems, a
rather different variety from our present flax, being narrow-leaved,
and still occurs wild, or probably merely uncultivated, in Macedonia
and Thracia. Flax has also been found growing wild in Northern India,
on the Altai Mountains, and at the foot of the Caucasus.

[Illustration: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HORSE

The horse which was common in the Stone Age was a wild ancestor of our
own domestic horse, but not quite so large or so strong as the average
well-bred creature familiar in our modern life. Its remotest ancestor
was the Hyracotherium, or Orohippus, while an intermediary stage was
that of the Hypparion, or Protohippus, in which, as shown in the
diagram, the change from the foot to the hoof had advanced to a very
great extent.]

The common wheat occurring in the lake-dwellings of the Stone Age is a
small-grained but mealy variety; but the so-called Egyptian wheat with
large grains also occurs.

[Sidenote: Gardening in the Stone Age]

Traces of regular gardening and vegetable culture are altogether
wanting. Some finds, however, seem to indicate primitive arboriculture,
apples and pears having been found dried in slices in the
lake-dwellings of the Stone Age; there even appears to be an improved
kind of apple besides the wild-growing crab. But although they are
chiefly wild unimproved fruit-trees of whose fruit remains have been
found, we can imagine that these fruit-trees were planted near the
settlements, and the great nutritious and health-giving properties
of the fruit, as a supplement to a meat fare, must have been all the
more appreciated owing to the lack of green vegetables. The various
wild cherries, plums, and sloes were eaten, as also raspberries,
blackberries, and strawberries. Beechnut and hazelnut appear as wild
food-plants.

The original home of the most important cereals--wheat, spelt, and
barley--is not known with absolute certainty; probably they came from
Central Asia, where they are said to be found wild in the region of
the Euphrates. The real millet came from India; peas and the other
primeval leguminous plants of Europe, such as lentils and beans,
came likewise from the East, partly from India. So that, apart from
flax, which probably has a more northern home, the regular cultivated
plants of the Stone Age of Central Europe--cereal grasses, millet, and
lentils--indicate Asia as their original home. We have therefore a
state of things similar to that observed in the case of the domestic
animals.

[Sidenote: Beginning of the Potter’s Art]

The potter’s art was probably entirely unknown to Palæolithic Man, for
in none of the pure Drift finds have fragments of clay vessels been
found. So where clay vessels or fragments of them occur, they appear
as the proof of a post-Drift period. On the other hand, pottery was
quite general in the Neolithic Age of Europe. Still, the need of clay
vessels is not general among all races of the earth even at the present
day; up to modern times there were, and still are, races and tribes
without pots. From their practices it is evident that the European
Stone men of the Drift could also manage to prepare their food, chiefly
meat, by fire without cooking vessels. The Fuegians lay the piece of
meat to be roasted on the glowing embers of a dying wood fire, and turn
it with a pointed forked branch so as to keep it from burning. Meat
thus prepared is very tasty, as it retains all the juice and only gets
a rind on the top, and the ashes that adhere to it serve as seasoning
in lieu of salt. On a coal fire not only can fish be grilled, stuck on
wooden rods, but whole sheep can be roasted on wooden spits, precisely
as people have the dainty of roast mutton in the East. To these may be
added a large number of other methods of roasting, and even boiling,
without earthen or metal vessels, which are partly vouched for by
ethnography and partly by archæology, and some of which, like the
so-called “stone-boiling,” are still practised at the present day.

[Sidenote: No Perfect Pottery in the Stone Age]

Although, according to this, pottery is not an absolute necessary
of life for man, yet it is certain that even those poorly equipped
pioneers who first settled in Denmark in the Pine Period, in spite of
their having an almost or quite exclusive meat fare, had clay pottery
in general use for preparing their food, and probably also for storing
their provisions. As we have already shown, the remains that have been
preserved in the kitchen-middens are the oldest that have been found
in Denmark. Simple and rude as the numerous potsherds that occur may
appear, they are of the highest importance on account of the proof of
their great age. Unfortunately, as we have already seen, not a single
perfect vessel has come to light. The fragments are very thick, of
rough clay with bits of granite worked in, and are all made by hand
without the use of the potter’s wheel. The pieces partly indicate
large vessels, some with flat bottoms, and others with the special
characteristic of pointed bottoms, so that the vessel could not be
stood up as it was. Smaller bowls, frequently of an oval form, also
occurred with rounded bottoms, so that they also could not stand by
themselves. It is very important to note that on these fragments of
pottery we find only extraordinarily scanty and exceedingly simple
ornamental decorations, consisting merely of incisions, or impressions
made with the fingers, on the upper edge.

[Illustration: MAN’S FIGHT WITH THE GIANT ANIMALS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

    From the painting, “The Slaughter of a Mammoth,” by V. M.
    Vasnetsov, now in the Russian Historical Museum at Moscow.
]

We shall see how far this oldest pottery of the Stone Age
is distinguished by its want of decoration from that of the
fully-developed Stone Age. But it is very important to notice that
this rudest mode of making clay vessels, which we here see forming the
beginning of a whole series that rises to the highest pitch of artistic
perfection, remained in vogue not only during the whole Stone Age, but
even in much later times.

[Sidenote: Stone Age Potter’s Handwork]

It is true that in the fully developed neolithic Stone Age of Europe
the clay pottery is also all made by hand, without the potter’s wheel,
the oldest and rudest forms still occurring everywhere, as we have
said; but besides these a great variety is exhibited in the size, form,
and mode of production of the pottery. The clay is often finer, and
even quite finely worked and smoothed, and the vessels have thin sides
and are burnt right through. The thick fragments are generally only
burnt outside, frequently only on one side, and so much that the clay
has acquired a bright red colour, whereas the inside, although hard,
has remained only a greyish black. We have numerous perfectly preserved
vessels of the later Neolithic Age. They are frequently distinguished
by an artistic finish and beauty of form, and on their surfaces we find
ornaments incised or imprinted, but rarely moulded on them, which,
although the style is only geometrical, cannot be denied a keen sense
of beauty and symmetry. The clay vessels also show the beginning of
coloured decoration. The incised strokes, dots, etc., are often filled
out with white substance (chalk or plaster), which brings the patterns
out into bold ornamental relief from the black or red ground of the
surface.

After that it is no wonder that pottery advanced to the real coloured
painting of the vessels during the Neolithic Period, at least in some
places.

[Sidenote: Growth of Artistic Taste]

On these vessels the handle now appears, in its simplest form as a
wart-like or flatter projection from the side of the vessel, pierced
either vertically or horizontally with a narrow opening just large
enough to admit of a cord being passed through. Other handles, just
like those in use at the present day, are bowed out broad, wide, and
high for holding with the hand. These generally begin quite at the top,
at the rim of the vessel, and are continued from there down to its
belly, whereas the first-mentioned are placed lower, frequently around
the greatest circumference of the vessel.

There is no doubt whatever that in the main these clay vessels were
made on the spot where we find their remains at the present day. This
easily explains the local peculiarity that we recognise in various
finds, by which certain groups may be defined as more or less connected
with one another. Different styles may be clearly distinguished by
place and group. But, this notwithstanding, wherever we meet with
neolithic ceramics, they cannot conceal their homogeneous character. In
spite of all peculiarities this general uniform style of the ceramics
of the Stone Age, which we can easily distinguish and determine even
under its various disguises, goes over the whole of Europe.

[Sidenote: The Proofs of Man’s Mental Development]

In finds that lie nearer to the old Asiatic centres of civilisation and
to the coasts of the Mediterranean--as, for instance, at Butmir--the
vessels are in part better worked, and the ornaments are richer and
more elegant, and the spirals more frequent and more regular, and
are sometimes moulded on, and sometimes, as we have mentioned, even
painted in colour. But the general character remains unmistakably
Neolithic, and may be found not only on the European coasts of the
Mediterranean and the islands of the Ægean Sea, but in certain respects
also in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The oldest Trojan pottery also exhibits
unmistakable points of agreement with it.

Not only the stone weapons and implements, but, as far as we can see,
even the remains of the oldest ceramics, show that uniform development
of the culture of the Neolithic Period which proves a like course of
mental development in mankind.




[Illustration: THE WORLD BEFORE HISTORY--V

Professor JOHANNES RANKE]




THE HOME LIFE OF PRIMITIVE FOLK


[Sidenote: What the Lake Dwellings Tell]

A picture, of unequalled clearness of delineation, of the general
conditions of the life and culture of Central European Man during the
Neolithic Period, was given, according to the results of the celebrated
researches of Ferdinand Keller and his school of Swiss archæologists,
by the lake-dwellings in the Alpine lowlands. Whereas in cave districts
the caves and grottos often served the men of the later Stone Age as
temporary and even as permanent winter dwellings, in the watery valleys
of Switzerland the Neolithic population built its huts on foundations
of piles in lakes and bogs. In that period we have to imagine the
Alpine lowlands still extensively covered with woods and full of wild
beasts; at that time the huts standing on piles in the water must have
afforded their inhabitants a security such as scarcely any other place
could have given. The first founders and inhabitants of settlements of
pile-dwellings in Switzerland belong to the pure Stone Period. In spite
of their lake-dwellings the old Neolithic men of Switzerland appear
to have possessed almost all the important domestic animals, but they
also knew and practised agriculture. They lived by cattle-rearing,
agriculture, hunting, and fishing, and on wild fruit and all that the
plant world freely offered in the way of eatables. Their clothing
consisted partly of skins, but partly also of stuffs, the majority of
which seem to have been prepared from flax.

[Sidenote: Beginnings of a Social Order]

The endeavour of the settlers to live together in lasting homes
protected from surprises, and in large numbers, is an unmistakable
proof that they were aware of the advantages of a settled mode of life,
and that we have not to imagine the inhabitants of the pile-dwellings
as nomadic herdsmen, and still less as a regular race of hunters and
fishermen. The permanent concentration of a large number of individuals
at the same point, and of hundreds of families in neighbouring inlets
of the lakes, could not have taken place if there had not been through
all the seasons a regular supply of provisions derived principally
from cattle-rearing and agriculture, and if there had not existed the
elements of social order. Even the establishment of the lake-settlement
itself is not possible for the individual man; a large community must
have here worked with a common plan and purpose. Herodotus describes
a pile-village in Lake Prosias, in Thracia, which was inhabited by
Pæones, who defended it successfully against the Persian general
Megabazos. The scaffold on which the huts were built stood on high
piles in the middle of the lake; it was connected with the bank only by
a single, easily removable bridge. Herodotus says:

    The piles on which the scaffolds rest were erected in olden times
    by the citizens in a body; the enlargement of the lake-settlement
    took place later, according as it was necessitated by the formation
    of new families.

[Sidenote: The Lake Dweller At Home]

According to the large number of lake-dwellings of the Stone Age in
the Alpine lowlands, and according to the large quantity of products
of primitive industry that have been found there, centuries must have
elapsed between the moment when the first settlers rammed in the piles
on which to build their dwellings and the end of the Stone Period.

The huts of the settlements of the Stone Age were partly round and
partly quadrangular, and, like the pile-hut discovered by Frank near
Schussenried, were divided into two compartments--one for the cattle,
and the other, with a hearth built of stones, for the dwelling of man.
The floor of the hut was made of round timber with a mud foundation,
and perhaps also with a mud flooring; in Frank’s hut the walls were
formed of split tree-trunks, standing vertically with the split sides
turned inward, firmly put together between corner posts. The round huts
had walls of roughly intertwined branches, covered with clay inside and
out; of this clay-plaster numerous pieces have been preserved, hardened
by fire, with the marks of the branches. The pile huts of the lakes
were connected with the water by block or rung ladders. Victor Cross
found such a ladder in one of the oldest stations; it consisted of a
long oak pole provided at fairly regular intervals with holes in which
the rungs were inserted.

[Sidenote: First Traces of Textiles]

[Sidenote: In a Stone Age Kitchen]

Of special importance in estimating the degree of civilisation attained
by the lake-dwellers of the Stone Age are the remains of spinning and
weaving implements and of webs and textile fabrics, plaited work,
etc. Flax has been found wound on the implements made of ribs, that
we mentioned above as flax combs; we have also mentioned the fixing
of blades with flax, or threads made of it, and the numerous wide and
narrow nets made of threads. For spinning the thread, spindles were
used just like those of the present day, a spindle-stick of wood being
fastened into a spinning-whorl made of stone, deer-horn, or clay. The
distaff was probably not yet known; a loom has not yet been found,
either; but numerous weaver’s weights, which served for spinning
the threads, have been. Excellent webs, some of them twilled, were
produced, of which we have many fragments. Remains of mats and baskets
prove that those were manufactured from the materials still employed
at the present day. Corn was baked into a kind of bread consisting of
coarsely ground grains. The millstones that were used for grinding the
corn are found in large numbers. They are rather worn, hollowed slabs
of stone, and smaller flat stones rounded on the top, with which the
grains of corn were crushed on the larger slabs. Some of the kitchen
utensils we find already much improved. Large and small pots for
storing purposes, earthen cooking pots, and dishes, and large wooden
spoons and twirling-sticks--the latter probably for churning--have been
preserved. Vessels like strainers served for making cheese; they are
pots in whose sides and bottoms a number of small holes were made for
pouring off the whey from the cheese.

Here, in the fully developed Neolithic Period we find the early
inhabitants of Switzerland to be a settled agricultural and farming
population. Although hunting and fishing still furnished an important
part of their food, so that in some places even more deer bones have
been found among the cooking remains than bones of the ox, yet the
milk, cheese, and butter of the cows, sheep, and goats, the flesh of
these and of the hog, and bread and fruit, already formed the basis of
their subsistence.

[Illustration: A PRIMITIVE STYLE OF DWELLING STILL WIDESPREAD IN SAVAGE
LANDS

    The lake dwellings still in use in New Guinea, illustrated in
    this reproduction from an old work, D’Urville’s “Voyage of the
    Astrolabe,” are exactly like the lake dwellings of prehistoric
    Europe.
]

[Sidenote: Man Learning the Art of Living]

The results of cave research are almost as rich and varied as the
results yielded by the study of the lake-dwellings in their bearing on
the Neolithic stratum. Where there is a Drift stratum in the cave-earth
the confusion of Palæolithic and Neolithic objects can, as we have
said, scarcely be avoided. But there are numerous grottos and small
caves in which the Neolithic stratum is the oldest, so that mistakes
are out of the question. In a large number of such places in the cave
district of the Franconian-Bavarian Jura the conditions under which
finds have been made in the Neolithic stratum have proved almost as
pure and unmixed as in the lake-dwellings.

The cave-dwellers of the later Stone Age in the Franconian Jura were,
like the Swiss lake-dwellers of the Stone Age, mainly a pastoral race.
They possessed all the important domestic animals that the latter
possessed--dog, cow, horse, sheep, goat, pig--and likewise practised
agriculture, or, at any rate, flax-growing; at the same time hunting
and fishing formed a considerable part of their means of subsistence.
So that, not only on artificial pile-works on the shores of lakes, but
also on the banks of South German rivers, there formerly lived a race
which, although still mainly restricted to hunting and fishing, and
using no metal, but exclusively stone and bone tools, already practised
cattle-breeding and primitive agriculture, and was able to increase
the means of existence afforded it by Nature by the first technical
arts--by the chipping and grinding of stone instruments, bone carving,
and, above all, pottery-making, tanning, and the arts of sowing,
weaving and plaiting.

[Sidenote: Beginning of Weaving and Knitting]

Of most importance, as showing the state of civilisation of the
Neolithic rock-dwellers, are the numerous articles carved from bone
that must be looked upon as instruments for weaving and net-knitting.
For the latter purpose there were large, finely-smoothed bone
crochet-needles, some of them carved from the rib of a large ruminant.
The handle-end is smoothed by use, and the end with the hook is rounded
from the same cause. The end is frequently perforated, so that it might
be hung up. Still more numerous were shuttles of various forms.

According to the numerous finds of perforated clay weaver’s weights,
the loom, like that of the lake-dwellers, must have been like the
ancient implement that, according to Montelius, was in use on the
Faröe Islands a comparatively short time ago. Spinning-whorls are very
numerous, being partly flat, round discs of bone pierced in the centre,
and partly thick bone rings or large beads of bone and deer-horn and
flat burr-pieces of deer-antlers.

It was formerly thought that the Neolithic Europeans did not possess
the arts of engraving and carving animals and human figures which
the Palæolithic Men had understood in such conspicuous manner. The
progress of research has now produced more and more proof that in the
later Stone Age the arts of carving and engraving had not died out.
We have the celebrated amber carvings of the later Stone Age from
the Kurisches Haff, near Schwarzort, some of which probably served a
religious purpose; those of ivory, bone, stalactite, etc., from the
caves of France and the Polish Jura; the figures from Butmir, and other
evidences.

[Sidenote: Fortified Settlements in Stone Age]

In Italy, in Lombardy, and Emilia, another group of settlements of
the Stone Age has been found, which again exhibit the civilization
and all other signs of the later Stone Age, and in many respects more
closely resemble the lake-dwellings than do the cave-dwellings. These
are the “terramare,” whose inhabitants, however, had already to some
extent advanced to the use of bronze. A sharp division of strata into
habitation of the pure Stone Age and habitation of the Metal Age has
not yet been made. The huts stood on pile-work on dry land, the piles
being six to ten feet high; the whole settlement was fortified with
trench and rampart, generally with palisades, and was of an oblong
or oval plan. Besides many natural and artificial caves in Italy the
dwelling-pits, which may formerly have borne the superstructure of a
hut, also belong to the pure Stone Age.

[Illustration: LAKE-DWELLERS RETURNING FROM THE HUNT IN THEIR DUG-OUT
CANOES

    From a painting by Hippolyte Coutau, in the Geneva Museum.
]

[Sidenote: Strange Homes of Early Man]

Such dwelling-pits of the Stone Age seem to have been distributed all
over Europe. Burnt wall-plaster with impressions of interwoven twigs,
has frequently been found near or in the pits, doubtless indicating
hut-building. In Mecklenburg, where the dwelling-pits were first
carefully examined by Liesch, they have a circular outline of ten
to fifteen yards, and are five to six and a half feet deep. At the
bottom of the pit lie burnt and blackened stones, hearthstones,
charcoal, potsherds, broken bones of animals, and a few stone
implements, the latter being mostly found in larger numbers in the
vicinity of the dwellings. The same circular dwelling-pits of the Stone
Age are found in France. Smaller hearth-pits were recently found in
very large numbers in the Spessart, in Bavaria, with hundreds of stone
hatchets and perforated axe-hammers, some of the former being very
finely made of jadeite.

[Sidenote: America before History]

During the Neolithic Period dwellings were frequently made on heights,
and it seems that even at that time they were to a certain extent
walled round and fortified. Such settlements are numerous all over
Southern and Central Germany, in Austria-Hungary, especially in the
coast-country, and in Italy and France. Many of these stations belong
purely to the Stone Age; indeed, the majority were inhabited already
during the Stone Age, and furnish the typical Neolithic relics familiar
from the foregoing. On the other hand, they continue to be inhabited
even in the later metal periods, and in some cases right down to modern
times. The rock near Clausen, in the Eisack valley, in the Tyrol, on
which the large Säben monastery now stands, was a mediæval castle, and
during the times of the Romans a fortified settlement called Sobona
stood there; and when excavations were made in 1895, for adding new
buildings to the monastery, a well-ground stone hatchet of the later
Stone Age came to light. On many hills in Central Germany are found
traces of the ancient presence of men who lived on them or assembled
on them for sacrificial feasts; the earth is coloured black by charred
remains and organic influences, and this “black earth on heights and
hills” contains frequently, as we have said, the traces of Neolithic
men. In Italy, many finds on such heights--for instance, those made
on the small castle-hill near Imola--seem to exhibit that stage of
the Stone Age that is missing in the terramare, and that precedes the
beginning of the Metal Age of the terramare, but corresponds to it in
every essential except in the possession of metal.

But the view that is opened up is still wider. The prehistoric times
of the New World also exhibit a Neolithic stage, corresponding to
that of Europe, as the basis of the further development of the ancient
civilised lands of America. And where a higher civilisation did not
develop autochthonously in America, European discoverers found the
Neolithic civilisation still in active existence, as they did in the
whole Australian world. Accordingly in these vast regions, which
have never risen above the Stone Age of themselves, the same stage
of civilisation which in the old civilised lands belongs to a grey,
immemorial, prehistoric period, here stands in the broad light of
historic times. The study of modern tribes in an age of stone throws
many a ray of light on the conditions of the prehistoric Stone Age; and
this study, on the other hand, shows us that the primitive conditions
of civilisation of those tribes stand for a general stage of transition
in the development of all mankind.

[Sidenote: The Foundations of Society]

The lake-dwelling stations, and the land settlements resembling them,
prove of themselves how far the culture of the early inhabitants of
Europe was advanced even in that ancient period which was formerly
imagined to be scarcely raised above half-animal conditions. Such
structures could not be erected unless men combined into large social
communities, which is indeed indicated by the very fact of the number
of dwellings that were crowded into a comparatively small space. For
the first ramming-in of the pile-works a large number of men working
together on a common plan was absolutely necessary. The same applies
to the construction of the artificial islands, protected by pile-works
and partly resting on piles, termed “crannoges” by Irish archæologists,
and to the Italian villages called “terramare,” which likewise once
rested on piles and were protected by ditches. From the extent of
the pile-works we are able to estimate the number of the former
inhabitants of the settlements supported by them. Quite as clear an
idea of the number of the former inhabitants is also given by the early
circumvallations on the tops of hills and shoulders of rock, which were
likewise made and inhabited during the Stone Age.

The co-operation of a large number of men for a common purpose is
also shown in the often huge stone structures to which, on account
of the size of the stones employed in their construction, the name
“megalithic” structures, or gigantic stone structures, has been
given. In Northern Europe they, too, belong to the Stone Age proper.
The majority of these gigantic structures were originally tombs; the
principle on which they are built is often repeated even in far less
imposing tombs.

[Illustration: THE FAMOUS GIANT CHAMBER NEAR ROSKILDE IN DENMARK

    That the men of the later Stone Age had developed a considerable
    degree of culture is proved by such remains as these. The erection
    of these giant chambers must have called for a vast amount of
    co-operation, skill, and ingenuity. The means whereby the massive
    stones were placed into position, and so fixed to withstand the
    shocks of thousands of years, have not yet been satisfactorily
    explained by archæology.
]

The stone blocks of which these gigantic structures are piled now
often lie bare. Large stones placed crosswise, which represent, as
it were, the side-walls of a room, support a roof of one or several
“covering-stones” of occasionally colossal size. For the erection of
these in their present position without the technical resources at the
disposal of modern builders, human strength appears inadequate; in
popular opinion only giants could have made such structures. Some of
the stones are really so large, and the covering-stones especially so
enormous, that these buildings have defied destruction, for thousands
of years, by their very weight.

In the time of their construction these giants’ graves were mostly
buried under mounds. They were the inner structures of large tumuli,
in which the reverence of the men of the Stone Age once buried its
heroes. One of the finest “giant’s chambers” is probably that near Öm,
in the neighbourhood of Roskilde, in Denmark. The building material
consists merely of erratic stone blocks of enormous size. The rough
blocks were mostly set up by the side of one another, without any
further working, so as to support one another as far as possible; at
the same time all of them, as Sophus Müller observes, are slightly
inclined inward, so that they are kept more firmly in position by their
own weight. The stones thus erected, forming the parallel side-walls
of the whole structure, stand so far apart that a huge erratic block,
reaching from one wall to the other, could be placed on them as a roof.
The distance between the side-walls of the giant’s chambers attains
a maximum of eight to nine feet; the covering-stones placed on them
are some ten to eleven feet long. The pressure of the covering-stones
from above helps considerably to hold the whole structure together.
In order to distribute the pressure of the covering-stones regularly,
smaller stones were carefully inserted under the wall-stones where they
had to stand on the ground. How exactly these proportions of weight
were judged is proved by the fact that these structures of heavy and
irregular stones, resting on their natural, differently shaped sides
and edges, have held together until the present day. The inner walls
of the chambers were made as carefully as possible. Where, as on the
outside, the rough and irregular form of the stone block projects,
either the naturally smooth side was turned inward or the roughness was
chipped off.

[Illustration: THE MARVELLOUS MEMORIALS OF THE STONE AGE AT CARNAC IN
BRITTANY

    On the plain near the little town of Carnac, in Brittany, stand
    eleven thousand immense monoliths in eleven rows, erected probably
    for religious purposes in the Stone Age.
]

These are the beginnings of a real architecture, seen also in the
regular wedging with small stones of the spaces left between the
wall-stones and covering-stones and between the wall-stones themselves.
These small stones were frequently built in, in regular wall-like
layers. Sandstone was often used for the purpose, being more easily
split into regular pieces, which gave this masonry a still more
pleasing appearance. The number of stone blocks used for the wall-sides
varies according to the size of the giant’s chambers, as does also
the number of covering-stones. For smaller chambers, with six to nine
wall-stones, two or three covering-stones were required. But far larger
stone chambers occur, as many as seventeen wall-stones having been
counted. Such large chambers require a whole row of covering-stones
beside one another. The door-opening often shows a special regard for
architectonics. The two door-post stones are rather lower than the
other wall-stones; on them a stone was laid horizontally, which kept
them apart and distributed the pressure of the covering-stone equally
on both posts.

Very often there was also a stone as a threshold. Leading to the door
is a low passage, made in similar manner to the chamber, but of far
smaller stones. The passage is only high enough to allow one to creep
through, whereas the chamber itself is about as high as a man, so that
one could stand upright in most of them. Larger stone chambers are
rarely without this passage, and from it such grave-structures have
been named “passage-graves.” Besides the building-in of small stones,
the holes still remaining between the stones were also coated over on
the outside with mud to keep the rain-water from soaking in; mud was
also frequently used for making a rough plaster floor for the chamber
if the natural floor could not be made level enough. On the floor is
frequently found a compact layer of small flints, or a regular pavement
of flat stones, often rough-hewn, or roundish stones fitting one
another as nearly as possible, which were then probably also covered
with a thick layer of mud.

[Illustration: “THE MERCHANTS’ TABLE”: AN IMMENSE DOLMEN ERECTED IN THE
STONE AGE

    Archæologists are not entirely agreed as to the purpose of these
    dolmens. They were more likely graves, or chambers associated with
    religious rites, than residences. This example is at Locmariaquer,
    near Carnac, in Brittany.
]

So that in these giant’s chambers we have real buildings, which imply
high technical accomplishments and have preserved for us the usual
form of the dwellings of those early times. In what manner the huge
covering-stones were placed on the side-walls of the giant’s chambers
is a problem still unsolved. Doubtless many hands were occupied on
such structures; and the history of building teaches us that with the
proper use of human strength--as, for instance, in ancient Egypt--great
weights can be raised and placed in position with very simple
tools--round pieces of wood as rollers, ropes, and handspikes.

[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE “MERCHANTS’ TABLE”
This is the interior of the above dolmen. It will be seen that the
earth has slowly risen a great height since it was erected, nearly
covering the dolmen, thus indicating immense age. The principal
supporting stone is covered with sculpture.]

Some of these giant’s chambers, which were originally enclosed in
mounds or barrows, are still preserved at the present day, and
splendidly too. Very often the chamber was quite covered with earth
outside; it then formed the centre of what was generally a circular
barrow, often regular small hills ten to fifteen feet high and
frequently over ninety feet in circumference.

[Illustration: A PALACE UNDER A CLIFF: A REMARKABLE MONUMENT OF THE
STONE AGE IN CLIFF PALACE CAÑON, COLORADO

    This is perhaps the most noteworthy of all the remains of the cliff
    dwellers, and indicates how considerable was the culture of those
    early people in America.
]

The corpses were buried, not cremated. They were frequently in a
crouching attitude, or that of a sleeper lying sideways with the
legs drawn up to the body. The smaller graves often represent single
interments; the larger or largest ones are mostly family tombs, in
which numerous corpses were interred one after the other at different
times. But this repeated use of the graves is found also with smaller
ones, and even with stone cists. Only the last corpse then lies in a
normal position, while, through the repeated opening of the grave and
the later interments, the skeletons belonging to previously interred
corpses appear more or less disturbed or intentionally put aside.
The skulls of the corpses interred in the Neolithic graves are well
formed, their size indicating a very considerable brain development.
The corpses were no bigger than the present inhabitants of the same
districts, and the form of the head corresponds partly with that of the
present population of those countries. Nor do the skeletons otherwise
differ from those of modern men.

In America, also, gigantic structures were erected by the aborigines
who lived in the Stone Age, to commemorate and to protect their dead.
They consist partly of large mounds of stones and earth, which are
likewise often regular small hills, and partly of stone structures
reminding one of the giants’ chambers. The majority of the mounds were
doubtless mainly sepulchral; others may have been temple-hills or
sacrificial mounds, defensive works or observatories.

The objects buried with the occupants belong mostly to the Neolithic
Period, and consist chiefly of stone weapons and tools, some rude, but
others finely worked and polished. Some are of pure natural copper,
which was beaten into shape cold with stone hammers. Besides these,
and ornaments and pottery, an American specialty is found in the form
of tobacco-pipes carved from stone, some of which give interesting
representations of men and animals; this seems to prove that tobacco
also played a part in the American funeral rites of those times.

The graves of the Neolithic Period not only indicate that mankind
generally was endowed with the same gifts as regards the first
principles of the art of building, but they also afford us a glimpse
of the mental life of that period of civilisation which at a more
or less distant period was spread over the whole earth. What is so
characteristic is the affectionate care for the corpse, for whose
protection no amount of labour and trouble appeared too great. We
can have no doubt that this reverence was based on a belief in the
immortality of the soul--a belief which we find also at the present day
among the most backward and abandoned “savages.” That the prehistoric
men of the Stone Age held this belief is proved by the ornaments,
weapons, implements, and food placed with the dead for use in the next
world. Their burial customs certainly express a kind of worship of
departed souls which has played and still plays so important a part in
the religious ideas of all primitive peoples, and is one of the oldest
fundamental notions common to mankind.

[Illustration:

    G. Nordenskiöld

HOW STONE AGE MAN WAS BURIED

    Photograph of an actual skeleton, in position of burial, taken from
    a prehistoric mound grave in North America.
]

[Illustration: THE STRANGE RELIGION OF THE STONE AGE: A DRUID CEREMONY
AT STONEHENGE

    A vivid illustration, from an old print, of the purposes of the
    mysterious stone circles common in Celtic countries
]




[Illustration: THE WORLD BEFORE HISTORY--VI

Professor JOHANNES RANKE]




WHEN HISTORY WAS DAWNING


The discovery of Drift Man, his distinction from man of the later
Stone Age, the investigation of the Palæolithic and Neolithic strata
of culture of Europe and of the whole earth, and the scientific
reconstruction of the earliest forms of civilisation based on these,
are due solely to the natural-science method of research.

It was only when the exact methods of palæontology and geology had been
brought to bear with all their rigour on the study of ancient man by
savants schooled in natural science that solid results were obtained.
On this sure foundation the science of history now continues building,
and uses, even for the later periods, so far as recorded information is
not available, and to supplement it, the same methods of palæontology
and natural science which were applied so successfully to the earliest
stages of the evolution of mankind.

[Sidenote: Time-Table of Prehistoric Periods]

The first point is to collect the relics of the periods of the
evolution of culture which follow on the later Stone Age, and to
separate them according to geological strata, uninfluenced by those
older pseudo-historic fancies by which the deepening of our historical
knowledge has so long been hindered. By carefully separating and
tracing the earth’s strata till we come to those that furnish remains
of times recorded in history, it has been possible to establish first
a relative chronology of the so-called later prehistoric periods of
Central Europe, whose offshoots pass immediately into recorded history.

By digging, after the same method of palæontological science,
through stratum after stratum in the oldest centres of culture,
especially in the Mediterranean countries, and by arranging the
products by strata--uninfluenced by historical hypotheses--after
the same natural-science method of research which has produced such
remarkable results in Central Europe, the most surprising conformity
in the evolution of culture in widely remote regions has been shown.
It was found that in the Mediterranean countries, and also in Egypt
and Babylonia, forms of culture already belong to the time of real
history which were first recognised in Central Europe as preliminary
prehistoric stages of historical strata; so that it was possible also
to establish an absolute historical chronology for those instead of the
relative prehistoric one.

[Sidenote: Europe’s Prehistoric Night]

Thus times which, as regards Central Europe, were hitherto wrapped in
prehistoric night are enlightened by history. Although, as regards
Central and Northern Europe, we cannot name the peoples who were the
bearers of those forms of culture, and although we disdain to give them
a premature nomenclature of hypothetical names, yet their conditions of
life and culture and the progressive development of these, in manifold
contact and intercourse with neighbouring and even far remote historic
peoples and periods, have risen from the darkness of thousands of
years; and their relation in time to the latter has been recognised.

Thus prehistoric times have themselves become history. The historical
account of every single region has henceforth to begin with the
description of the oldest antiquities of the soil that tell of man’s
habitation, in order thereby to obtain the chronological connection
with the evolution of the history of mankind generally. That is the
palæontological method of historical research.

[Sidenote: Landmarks of Early Culture]

The palæontology of man has proved the Stone Age to be a general
primary stage of culture for the whole human race. All further general
progress in culture was affected by the discovery of the art of
metal-working--the extraction of the metals from their ores and the
casting and forging of them. The later and latest eras of culture are
the Metal Ages, as opposed to the Stone Ages. It is not the use of
metal in itself, but the above-mentioned metallurgical arts, that form
the criterion of the advance of culture beyond the bounds of the Stone
Age. Where, as in some parts of America, native copper was found in
abundance, this red malleable mineral could probably be worked in the
same way as stone, without any further progress necessarily developing
therefrom. The same may apply to meteor-iron, which is said to have
been used for arrows, together with stone points, by American tribes
who were otherwise in the age of stone and but poorly civilised.

[Illustration: From stone to metallic form

Growth of the stop-ridge

Growth of the wings

THE TRANSITION FROM STONE TO IRON

    This series of diagrams, reproduced from specimens in the British
    Museum, by permission of the Trustees, shows how the stone axehead
    was used as the model for the metal axe or celt, and how that in
    turn was modified as workers gained experience in the use of the
    metal
]

In civilised lands it is chiefly metal casting and the forging of the
heated metal which have made it possible to produce better weapons and
tools and more valuable ornaments. The worked metals are first copper,
then the alloy of copper and tin that bears the name of classical
bronze, and to these are soon added gold and--especially in districts
rich in the metal, as in Spain--silver. Later on the extraction of iron
from its ores and the forging of that metal are discovered.

According to this course of metallurgical progress the first metal
period is distinguished as the Bronze Period, which is begun by a
Copper Period lasting more or less long in different places. The second
or later metal period is the Iron Period, in which we are living at the
present day. In the course of time, by gradually displacing bronze and
copper from the rank of metals worked for weapons and tools, this Iron
Age has developed to its present stage.

In Central Europe the pile-dwellings in the lakes of Western
Switzerland again present us with specially clear and uninterrupted
series of illustrations of the progress of culture from the Stone
Age to the Iron Age. Ending the Stone Age, we find first a period
of transition, in which, while stone continued to be principally
employed, a few ornaments, weapons, and tools of metal began to be
used. This metal is at first almost exclusively copper, with only
very little bronze; iron is quite absent. Copper objects have been
found in Western Switzerland by Victor Gross, most extensively in
Fenel’s lake-dwelling station, which otherwise still belongs to the
Stone Age. The majority of these are small daggers, formed after the
pattern of the flint daggers; some already possess rivetings for
fastening the blade to a handle. There are also chisels and small awls
in bone handles, beads, and small ornamental leaves, and hatchets
of the form of the simplest stone hatchets, with the edge hammered
out and broadened. Much has proved the existence of a Copper Period
corresponding to this description in the lake-dwelling in the Mond
See in Austria, and in Hungary the remains of a Copper Period are
particularly frequent. Parallel cases also occur in many other parts of
Europe, particularly, as Virchow has proved, in the Spanish Peninsula,
and in the Stone Age graves of Cujavia in Prussian Poland. These are
the more important as they are most closely related to the conditions
of culture discovered in the ancient strata of Hissarlik-Troy. Further
unmistakable analogies occur with very ancient finds in Cyprus, and
probably even with the oldest remains of Babylonian culture hitherto
known. Here, too, we may include the finds of copper in the Stone Age
of America.

[Sidenote: The Passing of the Stone Age]

So that in the normal and complete evolution of culture there seems to
be first a stratum of copper as the connecting link between the Stone
and Metal Ages; and this must be missing in those regions in which
progress from the stone to the metal culture was only brought about at
a relatively later period by external influences. This applies not only
to all modern races in an age of stone, who obtained metal in recent
times only through contact with European nations who had been living in
the Iron Period for thousands of years, but, curiously enough, also to
the greater part of Africa, where the use of iron was prevalent at a
prehistoric period.

Just as the modern Stone races passed straight from the Stone Age
into the most highly-developed Iron Age of the most advanced culture,
so also the stone stratum of Central and South Africa is immediately
overlaid by a stratum of iron culture, which was brought there in
ancient times, probably direct from Egypt. As there is in Egypt and
throughout North Africa a regular development from the Copper-bronze
Period to the complete iron culture, corresponding to the progress
of the metal cultures of Europe and Asia, the point of time is thus
chronologically fixed at which this important element of culture was
transmitted from Europe to the blacks of Central and South Africa.

[Illustration: WEAPONS USED BY MAN IN THE PERIODS OF DAWNING HISTORY

    Reproduced chiefly from specimens in the British Museum.
]

[Sidenote: Advancing Civilisation in Bronze Age]

In Western Switzerland the transition period of copper is followed
without a gap in the development by the Bronze Period proper. With the
introduction of bronze all the conditions of life were more highly
developed in the sense of increased culture. With better tools the
stations of the Bronze Age could be erected at a greater distance from
the bank, often two hundred to three hundred yards; the space they
take up is also much greater. The piles are not only better preserved,
according as the time of their being driven in more nearly approaches
our own, but they are also better worked, are often square, and the
points that are rammed into the lake-bottom are better cut. The
settlements of the Bronze Age often cover an area of several hundred
square yards, and are no longer comparatively mean villages, as in the
Stone Age; the pile settlements of the Bronze Age are well-organised
market towns and even flourishing small cities, where a certain luxury
already prevails. The products of their industry are graced by that
beauty and elegance of form that only an advanced civilisation can
create. As in the Stone Age, so also in the Bronze Age of Central
and Northern Europe, the most important working-implement, which
was, however, also used as a weapon, was the axe, or celt. The most
primitive forms of axes, like the above-mentioned copper axes, still
resemble the simple stone axes: like these, they have no special
contrivance for fastening the handle. In more developed forms of axes
such contrivances for fastening the handle appear first in the form of
slight flanges, which become wider and wider; finally they develop into
regular wings, which, by curving towards one another, develop into two
almost closed lateral semi-canals on the upper side of the celt. In the
hollow celts a simple socket for the handle was cast in the making; an
additional means of fastening the handle was provided in a loop, which
also occurs on winged celts. Besides the celt, or axe-blade, broad
and narrow chisels of bronze occur in various forms for working wood.
A second chief type of instrument is the one-edged bronze knife with
elegantly curved back and a handle tongue.

[Illustration: THE HILL OF TROY, IN WHICH IS RECORDED A WONDERFUL STORY
OF MAN’S PROGRESS

    Seven towns of Troy were built upon this hill, one above the ruins
    of the other, the earliest dating from 3000 B.C.; and the brilliant
    excavations of Dr. Henry Schliemann, which have won him immortal
    fame, have contributed more to our knowledge of the history of
    mankind than any other excavations in our time, as on this site is
    concentrated a continuous record of man’s progress from the late
    Stone Age to the height of Greek civilisation.
]

The manner in which iron was found in the lake-dwellings, as mentioned
above, shows the gradual development of a period of transition between
a Bronze and an Iron Age. In spite of the difference in the material
which the lake-dwellers used for making their weapons and tools in the
periods of transition, they still imitate the old forms received from
their forefathers. Just as the first metal axes of copper are copies
of the stone axes, so also, when iron first became known, were weapons
made of this metal which corresponded in form to the bronze weapons
that had hitherto been used.

The Bronze Period was first proved to have been a complete form of
culture in the North of Europe--in North Germany and Scandinavia. We
have now succeeded in establishing the fact that it was a preliminary
stage of the Iron Age, in locally original development, in all ancient
centres of culture. It is very remarkable that the civilised states
of the New World also employed only copper and bronze as working
metals. Thus the Peruvians did not know iron any more than the other
American peoples until they came in contact with European influences.
Besides copper and bronze they had tin and lead, gold and silver. The
Peruvian bronzes contain silver to the extent of five to ten per cent.
There are axes or celts of bronze similar to the rudest of the first
European beginnings in metal corresponding in form to the simple stone
axe. Many of the other forms of weapons and implements familiar in the
Bronze Age of the Old World were also made of bronze or copper in
America; semi-lunar knives with a handle in the middle, lance-heads
and arrow-heads, swords, war-clubs like morning stars, etc. At the same
time weapons and implements of stone still remained in use.

In the Old World progress beyond bronze is everywhere due to iron.

[Illustration: EXCAVATIONS IN THE TEMPLE OF ATHENA AT TROY

    Dr. Schliemann’s discoveries in the ruins of this temple and the
    ruins of older buildings beneath it were among the richest in the
    entire annals of archæological research.
]

One place has been found and most completely investigated after the
method of palæontological research, with all the help afforded by
archæological and historical science, where, in overlying geological
strata, the evidences have been found of a progressive development
of culture from the end of the Stone Age down to the brilliant days
of Græco-Roman history. There the chronological connection has been
obtained, not only for the metal periods, but also for the end of the
Neolithic Period. This most important place is Troy, the citadel-hill
of Hissarlik, by the excavation of which Henry Schliemann has won
immortal fame. Schliemann’s excavations, supplemented and completed
in decisive manner by Dörpfeld, have brought about the most important
advancement of the history of mankind that our age can show.

[Illustration: A WINE MERCHANT’S CELLAR IN ANCIENT TROY

    Nine colossal earthen jars were discovered by Dr. Schliemann in the
    depths of the Temple of Athena. They had evidently belonged to some
    wine merchant’s cellar in the pre-Hellenic period.
]

Virchow’s name is inseparably associated with Schliemann’s.
Furtwängler, in his account, based on personal observation, of the
results of the excavations at Troy, has accomplished the great service
of exactly determining the chronological connections of the prehistoric
with the historic eras, and thereby linking the former to history.

On the spot on which tradition placed Homeric Troy (says Furtwängler)
there really has stood a stately citadel, which was contemporaneous
with the golden age of Mycenæ, the epoch of the Agamemnon of legend,
was intimately related to Mycenæan culture, and at the same time
corresponds most exactly to the idea of Troy underlying the old epic.

[Sidenote: Seven Towns on One Hill]

The citadel-hill of Troy terminates a ridge of heights stretching
westward from Mount Ida, almost parallel to the Hellespont, and
slopes steeply into the Trojan plain or the valley of the Scamander.
The natural hill itself is not very high, but it was overlaid by
enormous layers of ruins of buildings and walls, whereby it has been
considerably increased not only in height, but also in breadth. Stratum
after stratum lies one upon the other like the leaves of a bud, so that
the history of the habitation of this venerable place from the most
ancient times can be read from these strata which have been opened up
by Schliemann and Dörpfeld, as from the leaves of a book. The original
ground of the hill-plateau now lies some sixty feet above the plain,
but the latter may have been raised something like sixteen to twenty
feet by alluvial deposits since the Trojan War. The whole stratum
of ruins lying on the original ground of the hill, which Schliemann
opened up, amounts to about fifty-two and a half feet. Schliemann
distinguished seven or eight different layers or strata, corresponding
to as many towns which were successively built on this hill, one on the
ruins of the other.

The lowest stratum, lying immediately on the original ground, belongs
accordingly to the oldest, or first town, on the citadel-hill of Troy.
Furtwängler says:

[Sidenote: The First Town of Troy]

    By moderate computation this settlement must belong to the first
    half of the third millennium before Christ, but it may very well
    date back even to the fourth millennium. The inhabitants already
    used copper implements in addition to stone ones. Their whole
    culture is most closely connected with that which prevailed in
    Central Europe during the Copper Period. Clay vessels of the Copper
    Period from Lake Mond, in Austria, agree completely with those of
    the first Trojan town. Troy represents only an offshoot of Central
    European culture, and its inhabitants were in all probability of
    European origin.

We have already learned that the Copper Period is the end of the
Neolithic Period and the beginning of the Metal Age. In the first
Trojan town there is still extraordinarily little metal used, the
axes, hatchets, knives, and saws still being of stone, of the familiar
Central European types, and of the same materials, among which nephrite
is particularly frequent. Other materials are serpentine, diorite,
porphyry, hematite, flint, etc.

[Sidenote: The First Period of Troy’s Glory]

The forms of these implements correspond entirely to those of the later
Stone Age of Europe. The character of the ceramics also conforms in
many respects, according to Virchow, to that of the European Stone
Age; and the Stone Age finds at Butmir, in Bosnia, and similar ones
in Transylvania seem especially to offer close analogies. It would be
a highly important step toward connecting history with the Neolithic
Period if the first town could be even more closely investigated,
and perhaps more sharply divided from that second stratum which lies
between it and the stratum described by Schliemann as the second or
burnt city, and which Schliemann afterward separated into two strata,
corresponding to two towns. Perhaps the metal comes only from the
second or higher stratum under the burnt city. In that case the oldest
would belong purely to the Stone Age. The ceramics would seem to
contradict this. Furtwängler continues:

    High above the first town, a deep layer of débris, is the level
    surface of the second town, which must at least be dated back to
    the second half of the third millennium before Christ. It was the
    first period of Troy’s glory. Mighty walls protected the citadel.
    Three different building periods may be distinguished. The walls
    were brought out a long way and strengthened, and magnificent new
    gates were built. During the third period of this second city a
    prince, fond of splendour, had the old narrow gateway replaced by
    magnificent propylæa and a large hall-erection with a vestibule.
    A great conflagration destroyed his citadel. A treasure was found
    by Schliemann--he called it Priam’s treasure--in the upper part of
    the citadel wall, which was made of straw bricks. The tools of the
    second city are still partly of stone, but also partly of bronze,
    so that they already belong to the Bronze Age.

[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS AT TROY: REVEALING THE WALL OF THE
ACROPOLIS

    A view of the great substruction wall of the acropolis of the
    second city of Troy, on the west side, close to the south-west
    gate: (a) is the paved road, which leads from the S.W. gate down
    to the plain; (b) is the continuation of the great acropolis-wall
    of the second city on the west side of the S.W. gate; (c) is
    the foundation of the paved road and the quadrangular pier to
    strengthen it; (d) marks the masonry added by the third settlers.
]

[Sidenote: The Early Culture of Troy]

The general character of culture is, according to Furtwängler, still
essentially Central European. And yet many an individuality has
developed, and the influence of Babylonian culture is everywhere
apparent, although it does not go very deep. To this influence our
authority chiefly attributes the occurrence of a few pots turned on the
wheel, especially flat dishes; for the potter’s wheel was still quite
unknown at that time in Europe, and even at a post so far advanced
toward the East as Cyprus, while in Egypt and Babylonia it had been in
use from the earliest times. In this period also Troy inclines more to
Central Europe as its centre of gravity, but remains far behind the
peculiar development that bronze work attained there; in the metal
tools no advance is made on the forms of the Copper Period. Into any
close relation with Cyprus it does not come; only the basis of their
culture is common to both. But this basis had a wide range, relics from
German districts being often more closely related to the Trojan ones
than are those from Cyprus.

[Illustration: TROY: THE GREAT TOWER OF ILIUM

    The top of the tower is 26 ft. below the surface of the hill. The
    foundation is on the rock 46 ft. deep; the height of the tower is
    20 ft.
]

    The brilliant period of the second city is followed by a long
    period of decline for Troy. Ruins are piled upon ruins, walls
    rise upon walls, but each poorer than the others; no new citadel
    walls, no gates, no palaces belong to this period, in which three
    strata--the third, fourth, and fifth towns--are distinguished. The
    first half of the second millennium before Christ must at least be
    regarded as the time of this deposit. The inhabitants evidently
    remained the same, and their culture is that of the second city.
    But no progress was made; nothing but stagnation; the same forms of
    vessels continue to be made, the same decorated whorls. Naturally,
    no active intercourse with abroad could develop in this period.
    And yet this was the time when an active civilised life began to
    develop on the islands of the Ægean Sea and on the east coast of
    Greece, which was to bloom in all its splendour in the following
    period. To this time the finds at Thera belong, where the pottery,
    all turned on the wheel, is already painted with a so-called
    varnish colour which shines like metal, and in which plants,
    flowers, and animals are treated in quite a new and promising
    naturalistic style hitherto unheard of in Europe. In Cyprus, too,
    the decoration of pottery developed exceedingly in wealth and
    variety in this period of the Bronze Age. Troy, on the other hand,
    is poor and degenerate.

    But a new period of prosperity arrived for Troy, too; this is the
    sixth town. Rich and powerful princes again ruled in this citadel.
    They enlarged it far beyond its former compass. They built strong
    new walls--the old ones had long since sunk in ruins--not of small
    stones and straw bricks as before, but of large, smooth blocks, and
    gates and turrets. They did not have the sloping mound of ruins
    levelled, as the lords of the second city had done; they let the
    new buildings rise in terraces, on the ruins of the old; stately
    mansions with wide, deep halls, covered the acropolis. Constant
    intercourse existed with the princes of Greece, who at that
    time--the second half of the second millennium before Christ--built
    their citadels with cyclopean walls. The Trojans employed the same
    peculiar, constantly-recurring small projections in their walls
    that we find in a Mycenæan town on Lake Copaïs in Bœotia.

    And, above all, the Trojans now provided themselves with those
    beautiful vessels painted with shining colour that characterise
    Mycenæan culture in Greece, and whose natural style had so
    wonderfully developed there on the basis of the attempts that
    we found at Thera. In Troy these things caused some imitation,
    but the results remained far behind the originals. The living,
    imaginative conception of the natural was closed to the Trojan; the
    home-made pottery kept, on the whole, to its unpainted vessels,
    although these were now almost entirely made on the wheel.

[Illustration: THE TREASURE OF PRIAM, KING OF TROY: A COLLECTION
REVEALED BY THE EXCAVATIONS

    This remarkable collection of regal treasure comprises the key of
    the treasure-house (at top of picture in centre); and, under and
    about the key, a number of golden diadems, fillets, earrings, and
    smaller jewels. On the shelf below there are a number of silver
    talents and vessels of silver and gold; while below them is a
    series of silver vases and a curious plate of copper. A variety
    of weapons and helmet crests of copper and bronze are displayed
    beneath, and on the floor are a vessel, a cauldron and a shield,
    all made of copper.
]

    Yet what chiefly interests us is the historical. The sixth town,
    too, was suddenly given up, destroyed, and burnt. What follows it
    are again only poor settlements. Its destruction must have taken
    place about the end of the Mycenæan epoch of culture. The seventh
    town, which is built immediately on the ruins of the sixth, shows,
    already, other and later culture. It had long been suspected that
    a historical kernel was concealed in the legend of Troy--now we
    have the monumental confirmation. There really was a Troy, which
    was strong and great at the same time as the rulers of Mycenæ,
    rich in gold and treasure, held way in Greece. And that Troy was
    destroyed--we may now safely affirm, from this agreement between
    relics and legend--by Greek princes of the Mycenæan epoch, whom the
    legend calls Agamemnon and his men.

The seventh and eighth towns, built soon after the destruction of the
sixth, show an interruption in the intercourse with Greece. There the
Mycenæan period was broken by the displacement of peoples known as
the Doric migration, and that rich civilised life was replaced by a
relapse into the semi-barbaric conditions of the North. In Troy, too,
we perceive a period of decline, “a relapse into a stage long since
past; black hand-made vessels, which in their form and decoration are
strikingly like the home-made pots usual in Italy, especially Etruria
and Latium, in the first part of the first millennium before Christ.”
Finally, the seventh town also furnishes inferior imported Greek vases
with painting, though coming not from Greece itself, but from the coast
of Asia Minor, where Greeks had settled in connection with the Doric
migration. “The Æolic colonisation of Troas brought Ilium no fresh
prosperity. Other places rose, Troy remained a miserable village.
In the Hellenistic period the sky clears over Troy. What Alexander
intended, Lysimachus carried out; he restores Ilium to the place of a
real city with new walls, and erects a magnificent temple to Athene
on the top of the acropolis.... Yet artistic creation came to no real
perfection. It was only when the great men of Rome, mindful of their
Trojan ancestors, began to interest themselves in the place, that new
life bloomed on Troy’s ruins.”

       *       *       *       *       *

Thus the geological-archæological method relates history, merely
relying upon the monuments of the soil, without requiring written
evidences. Pre-history has here attained its end; it has become history.

    JOHANNES RANKE

[Illustration: A VIEW SHOWING THE REMARKABLE CHARACTER OF THE
EXCAVATIONS AT TROY

    Some idea of the enormous work involved in unearthing ancient Troy
    will be gathered from the fact, made clear in this view, that
    the ground-level before excavating was above the height of these
    buildings. A deep trench was cut, as shown in the illustration,
    through the whole hill of Hissarlik, the citadel town.
]




THE GREAT STEPS IN MAN’S DEVELOPMENT

BY PROFESSOR JOSEPH KOHLER




THE MATERIAL PROGRESS OF MANKIND


The opinion that our own circumstances and affairs are the only
standard for judging universal history has long been obsolete. Our day,
with its conceptions, beliefs, hopes, and endeavours, is but a tiny
portion of the past; for thousands of years peoples have existed who
have lived in other intellectual spheres than ours, who have pursued
other ideals.

The study of history does not consist in an examination of the past
projected, as it were, into the present; it is the study of the past
considered as a part of the constant coming and going of men. And in
order to become qualified as historians we must first of all attain
a point of view from which we may, independently of time, behold
history with all its great events file by; as though we were men who
had ascended to some elevation in the universe from which they could
look down upon the whole earth lying as a unity before them. This
is rendered possible through the power of abstraction gained from a
study of history; it enables us, on the one hand, to adapt ourselves
to strange times and beliefs, and, on the other, to look upon our own
day--all time to its contemporary men--objectively, as a mere hour
of the ages of human development. We must learn to escape from the
present, to withdraw ourselves from that which we may call the tyranny
of our own time.

[Illustration: THE PRIMITIVE ART OF WEAVING

    The art of weaving arose from plaiting, and soon developed to
    perfection, the American Indians and most primitive peoples of our
    own day being skilled weavers.
]

From universal history we obtain a picture of the development of
humanity--that is, the development of the various active germs or
principles inherent in man. By these are meant the active principles
innate in mankind in the aggregate, in contradistinction to those which
may exist in single individuals or in single races.

The result of development is called “civilisation”--the state of
intellectual being, and of outward, material life, attained by a
people through evolution. Although spiritual and material culture flow
into each other, they may be separated to this extent: as a physical
being endowed with senses, man endeavours to obtain satisfaction of
his needs, and strives for a position in relation to his environment
corresponding with the efforts he has made to obtain welfare; as
a feeling, inquiring, spiritual being he contains within him an
ever-present desire to fuse the multitude of separate impressions he
receives into unity, and to struggle forward until he arrives at a
conception of the world and of life.

[Illustration:

  B.C. 5000 -| EGYPTO-BABYLONIAN |-
            -|       OR          |-
            -|    ANCIENT ERA    |-
            -|                   |- Building of the Pyramids.
            -|                   |- Earliest monuments to kings
  B.C. 4500 -|                   |-  in Babylonia.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
  B.C. 4000 -|                   |- Rise of Semitic Babylonian
            -|                   |- kingdoms.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
  B.C. 3500 -|                   |- Chaldæan Astronomy.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
  B.C. 3000 -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
  B.C. 2500 -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |- Khammurabai.
            -|                   |- Assyrian records.
  B.C. 2000 -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
  B.C. 1500 -|                   |- Hebraic Monotheism.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |- Zoroaster.
            -|                   |- Ægean Culture.
            -|  GRECO-ROMAN OR   |-
  B.C. 1000 -|  CLASSICAL ERA    |- Hellenic Culture.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |- Thales.
   B.C. 500 -|                   |- Buddha. Confucius.
            -|                   |- Socrates.
            -|                   |- Plato. Aristotle.
            -|                   |- Stoics and Epicureans.
            -|                   |-
     A.D. 1 -|                   |-
            -|                   |- Christianity.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |- Neo-platonists.
            -|                   |-
   A.D. 500 -|                   |- St. Augustine.
            -|      DARK         |-
            -|      AGES         |- Mohammed.
            -|                   |-
            -|                   |- Johannes Scotus.
  A.D. 1000 -|                   |- Avicenna.
            -|                   |- Scholasticism.
            -|  MEDIÆVAL OR      |- Anselm. Abelard.
            -|  SCHOLASTIC ERA   |- Aquinas. R. Bacon.
            -|                   |- Wiclif.
  A.D. 1500 -|      MODERN       |- Copernicus. Luther.
            -|    SCIENTIFIC     |- Francis Bacon. Newton.
            -|       ERA         |-
            -|                   |- Kant. Steam.
  A.D. 1900 -|                   |- Darwin. Electricity.

OUR OWN DAY COMPARED WITH THE HISTORIC PAST

    Our day, with its conceptions, beliefs, hopes, and endeavours, is
    but a tiny portion of the past; for thousands of years peoples have
    existed who have lived in other intellectual spheres than ours, who
    have pursued other ideals.
]

“Material civilisation” is the mode of life through which the obstacles
opposed to humanity may be overcome. By the surmounting of obstacles is
meant the conquering of enemies, particularly of hostile animals, the
obtaining of means for the preservation of existence, and the employing
of these means for the increase of bodily welfare. In respect of
material civilisation man passes through stages that differ widely from
one another, that vary according to the manner in which the necessities
for existence are obtained, and according to the way in which enemies
are withstood for the safeguarding of life, welfare, and acquisitions
already gained. Races are spoken of as supporting themselves by the
chase and fishing, or by cattle-breeding and farming, according to
whether they are accustomed to derive subsistence directly from “nature
unadorned,” or by means of the cultivation and utilisation of natural
products.

No sharp line of distinction, however, may be drawn. It is inadmissible
to speak of races as supporting themselves solely by hunting and
fishing, for the very same peoples feed on products of the soil
wherever they are found and recognised as means of subsistence. They
live, it is true, upon flesh and fish, but also upon roots and the
fruit of wild trees. While in this state of civilisation, man avails
himself only of that which Nature places before him; he neither adapts
Nature to his desire, to his needs, or to his manner of living, nor
understands how to do it. He can make no further use of Nature than
to acquire a knowledge of the sources of supply, of how to seize time
and opportunity, and to overcome the obstacles of life in his own
territory. He ascertains the haunts of game, discovers how to obtain
fish, explores for wild honey or edible roots, learns to climb the
tallest trees and to let himself down into the deepest caves; but
he lacks the ability to cultivate Nature, to cause her to produce
according to his will.

Gradually the one phase amalgamates with the other. It is not seldom
that hunting tribes have small tracts of land on which they raise a few
edible plants. Observation of Nature teaches them that germs develop
from fallen seeds, and leads of itself to the idea that it is not best
to allow plants to grow up wild, and that it would be expedient to
clear the surrounding ground for their better growth. And when this
stage is reached, the next step--not to allow seeds to spring up by
chance, but to place them in the soil one’s self--is not very far off;
and thus the mere acquisition of Nature’s raw vegetable products gives
place to agriculture. Often enough we observe instances of the men of
a group carrying on hunting operations, while the women are not only
occupied with their domestic employments, but also till the soil; thus
the men are hunters and fishers, and the women are agriculturists.
Domestic work led the latter to take up the cultivation of plants,
even as it led them to the other light feminine handicrafts; while
the repairing of weapons and of contrivances used for the capture of
animals lay within the province of the men.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

[Illustration: MANKIND’S PROGRESS IN HABITS OF DRESS

    This series of typical pictures is intended roughly to illustrate
    the upward progress of man from the almost nude savage to
    the neatly and conveniently dressed gentleman of to-day. The
    Elizabethan dandy is, of course, as fully dressed as man can be,
    and is introduced only as indicating the great change of sartorial
    ideas in modern times.
]

The discovery of how to produce fire by artificial means, independently
effected in all parts of the world--as was also the discovery of the
art of navigation--was of the greatest importance for the entire
future. Fire was first a result of chance.

When lightning set a portion of the forest in flames, and caused a
multitude of animals or fruits to be roasted, men put it to practical
use. They recognised the advantage that fire gave them and sought to
preserve it. The retention of the fire which had been sent down from
heaven became one of the most weighty and significant of functions. Man
learned how to keep wood-fibres smouldering, and how to blow them into
flame at will; he also learned that it was possible to convey fire, or
the potentiality of fire, along with him in his wanderings. But even
then success was uncertain until a lucky chance led him to discover
how to produce flames at will, by rubbing two sticks together or by
twirling one against the other. These actions were originally performed
for other purposes--to bore holes in a piece of wood, or to rub it into
fibres; finally, one or the other was carried out with such vigour that
a filament began to burn, and the discovery was made. Sparks from flint
must have suggested a second method of kindling a fire; certainly
the art of igniting soft filaments of wood by means of a spark--thus
enabling the very smallest source of combustion to be used for human
purposes--was known to man in the earliest times. The obvious results
of the use of fire are means of obtaining warmth and of cooking food.

[Illustration: ESQUIMAU MAKING FIRE BY FRICTION]

[Illustration: AN INGENIOUS INDIAN FIRE DRILL]

[Illustration: THE GAUCHO’S WAY OF GETTING A LIGHT]

Self-defence had already led to the use of weapons, and, at the same
time, the contrivances for hunting and fishing must have become
more and more perfect. A very low degree of civilisation is that of
races unacquainted with the bow and arrow, and familiar with club or
boomerang only--who know how to make use merely of the weight of a
substance, or, as in the case of the boomerang, of a peculiar means of
imparting motion.

The time previous to the discovery of the art of working in metal was
the Age of Stone. It was a natural transition period during which men
began to learn to make use of the malleable metals, which could be
hammered and beaten into various shapes, and finally discovered how
to work in iron. Iron, by being placed in the fire, brought to a white
heat, and smelted, was rendered capable of being put to such uses as
were impossible in the case of brittle materials--bone or stone, for
example. Many races never acquired the art of working even in the
softer metals, and procured metallic implements from other peoples.
The great importance of metal-working is borne out by the fact that
the position of the smith, even in legendary times, has been of the
utmost significance. The Ages of Stone and of Metal belong to the most
important stages of civilisation.

Having made himself weapons, man did not employ them in fights with
animals only; he also used them on his fellow-men, and at the same time
arose the necessity for protective coverings--that is, the need for a
means of neutralising the effect of weapons on the body. Thus followed
the invention of the shield as a portable shelter, of the coat of mail
and of the helmet, and of armour in general in all its different forms
and varieties.

Together with weapons, utensils are characteristic of material culture.
Utensils are implements used in the arts of peace, domestic and
industrial; they are instruments which enable us to increase power
over Nature. Some utensils have undergone the same transformations as
have weapons; others have their own independent history. Just as the
edges of shells served as patterns for knife-blades, so did hollow
stones, the shells of crustaceans or of tortoises, become models for
dishes and basins. From the discovery of the imperviousness of dried
earth, the potter’s art developed; it became possible to mould clay
into desired shapes while moist, and then, when dry, to employ it in
its new form as a vessel for holding liquids; for that which has always
been of the greatest importance in the making of utensils has been
the taking advantage of two opposite characteristics displayed by a
material during the different stages of its manufacture--plasticity,
which admits of its first being moulded into various forms, and another
quality, which causes it afterward to stiffen into solidity and
strength.

[Illustration:

    Mansell

THE MAN WITH THE HOE

    From the painting by Millet
]

[Illustration:

    Underwood & Underwood

THE WONDERFUL ADVANCE IN AGRICULTURE

    These pictures present a striking contrast: the sullen clod with
    his primitive hoe, and the great Canadian reaper drawn by thirty
    horses, both in use to-day.
]

[Sidenote: Growth of the Textile Arts]

A further acquisition was the art of braiding and plaiting, the joining
together of flexible materials in such a way that they held together
by force of friction alone. Thus coherent, durable fabrics may be
produced, and by joining together small parts into an aggregate it is
also possible to give a definite form to the whole and to adapt it to
various uses. The quality of adaptability is especially developed in
the products of plaiting, but the quality of imperviousness is lacking.
Wickerwork was used not only in the form of baskets, but also in other
shapes, as means for protection and shelter, as material for sails, as
well as for tying and binding. The art of weaving arises from plaiting,
and along with it come methods for spinning thread. It thus becomes
possible to make an immense number of different useful articles out of
shapeless vegetable material. Fibres are rendered more durable by being
bound together, and textures formed from threads are adapted to the
most various uses of life. This has an influence on the development of
weapons also: bow-strings, slings, and lassos presuppose a rudimentary
knowledge, at least, of the textile arts; and as knowledge increases,
so are the products improved in turn.

[Illustration: MAN’S METAL DRESS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOUR FROM
ANCIENT TO MEDIÆVAL TIMES

    The way in which man has protected himself against his foes in
    battle, and the gradual progress and decline of such methods,
    is shown in these pictures. The first is from the monuments of
    Nineveh, and shows the earliest form of chain mail. In the second
    we see the armour of the Roman legionary, while the third shows
    the heavy accoutrement of a mediæval warrior. A helmet of the same
    period is also shown.
]

Means for conveyance are also invented, that difficulties arising
from distance may be overcome. At first men carry burdens upon their
backs, heads, or shoulders, or in the hand, placing whatever they
wish to transport in a utensil--a basket or a piece of cloth--thus
producing a coherent whole; later, in order to render conveyance
still more convenient, handles are invented. Objects are dragged
along the ground, and from an effort to save them from injury the
idea of sledges develops. Things that are round enough are rolled
to their destinations; this leads to the invention of rollers and
wheels, materials of required form being brought into combination with
rudimentary agents of circular motion, and thus, through a rotary, a
horizontal movement is obtained; and so the force of gravity is made
use of, consistency of motion procured, and the hindering effect of
friction overcome to the greatest possible degree.

Means for carrying inanimate objects once invented, it is not long
before they are put to use for the conveyance of man himself; thus
methods for the transportation of human beings are discovered in the
same manner as the means for the carriage of goods.

[Sidenote: Man’s First Boats]

In primitive times transportation by water is employed to a far greater
extent than by land. Man learns how to swim in the same way as other
animals do, by discovering how to repress his struggles, transforming
them into definite, regular movements. The sight of objects afloat
must, through unconscious analysis--experience--have taught men to make
light, water-tight structures for the conveyance of goods upon water,
and, later, for the use of man himself. The pole by which the first
raft was pushed along developed into the rudder. Kayaks and canoes were
built of wood, of bark, and of hides. In this connection, moreover,
an epoch-marking invention was that of cloths in which to catch the
wind--sails; and this, too, was a result of observation and experience.
Man had known the effect of the wind upon fluttering cloth, to his
loss, long enough before he hit upon the idea of employing it to his
advantage. Finally he learned that by adjusting the sails he might make
use of winds blowing from any direction.

[Illustration: MAN’S METAL DRESS: THE GRADUAL MODIFICATION OF ARMOUR IN
MODERN TIMES

    The invention of gunpowder and firearms rendered the protection of
    armour useless, and by the sixteenth century it had been greatly
    modified. The first of these pictures shows the slight armour worn
    by James II. The second is a suit of Japanese armour, discarded
    in our own time; while the last is a portrait of a present day
    Life-guardsman, whose cuirass is more ornamental than useful.
]

[Sidenote: Man’s First Houses]

Habitations are structures built in order to facilitate and assure
the existence of man and the preservation of his goods. Indeed, the
presence of caverns caused men to recognise the protective virtue of
roof and wall, and the knowledge thus acquired gave rise in turn to
the making of artificial caves. Holes beneath overhanging banks and
precipices led to the building of houses with roofs extending beyond
the rambling walls. Perhaps the protection afforded by leafy roofs,
and the walls formed by the trunks of trees in primeval forests, may
also have turned men’s thoughts to the construction of dwellings.
Houses of various forms were built, circular and rectangular; some with
store-rooms and hearths. The use of dwellings presupposes a certain
amount of consistency in the mode of living, the presence of local
ties, and a general spirit favouring fixed and permanent residence.
Nomadic races use movable or temporary shelters only--waggons, tents,
or huts.

[Sidenote: Home and Dress]

The houses of stationary peoples become more and more firm and stable.
At first they are built of earth and wickerwork, later of stone, and
finally of bricks, as among the Babylonians. Foundations are invented,
dwellings are accurately designed as to line and angle; the curved line
is introduced, bringing with it arches both round and pointed, as may
be seen in the remains of Roman and Etruscan buildings. The structure
is adorned, and it becomes a work of art.

But man also dwelt over the water, sometimes erecting his habitations
upon rafts and floats, often upon structures that rose from beneath the
surface. Thus was he, dwelling in communities of various sizes, secure
from the attacks of land enemies. Even to-day there are uncivilised
peoples who live over water, constructing their homes upon piles.

[Sidenote: Taming of the Wild]

Clothing, however, was invented partly that in cold climates men might
survive the winter, partly for the sake of ornament. In tropical
regions man originally had no knowledge of the necessity for clothing:
garments are masks, disguises; they bear with them a charm; they
are the peculiar property of the medicine-men or of those who in
the religious dance invoke the higher powers. Modesty is a derived
feeling; it cannot exist until a high state of individualisation has
been attained, until each man desires exclusive possession of his wife,
and therefore wishes to shield her from the covetousness of other men.
With the knowledge of dress, a desire for adornment, the effort to
assist Nature in producing certain definite æsthetic effects, arises.
Less uniformity in the appearance of the body is wanted, and this
brings tattooing and the use of ornament into vogue. Later there is a
fusing of these several aims; clothing becomes protection, veil, and
ornament in one, fulfilling all three functions at the same time.

Another epoch-marking discovery, often arrived at while races are
still in the state of subsistence by hunting, is the domestication of
animals. This may have originated in the practice of provoking one
beast to attack another in order to vanquish them both the more easily.
Further development, bringing with it the idea of totemism and the
notion that the soul of an animal dwells in man, drew him nearer to his
animal neighbours; and he sought them out as comrades and attendants.
The taming of wild creatures arose from two sources--human egoism, and
the innate feeling of unity and identification with Nature common to
all savages; hence on the one hand, the subjugation of animals, and,
on the other, their domestication. Neither employment rendered it by
any means less possible for men to hold animals in reverence, or to
attribute to them virtue as ancestral spirits.

Such acquisitions of external culture accompany man during the
transition from his subsistence by the pure products of Nature
to the cultivation of natural resources, cattle-breeding and
agriculture--occupations necessitating the greatest unrest and
mobility. The simple life in Nature incites men to wander forth that
they may discover land adapted for their support; they rove about in
search of roots as well as of living prey. The breeding of domestic
animals also causes them to travel in the hope of finding ground for
pasture; nor does agriculture in its primitive form tend to establish
permanence of residence, although it contains within itself latent
possibilities of developing a settled life, one of the most important
factors in the progress of mankind.

[Illustration: PRIMITIVE DWELLINGS OF TO-DAY: HOUSE-BOATS AT CANTON

[Sidenote: Mankind “Settling Down”]

    Not only are there lake-dwellers to-day, as we have seen, but even
    large communities, as at Canton, in China, live in boats.
]

Only fixed, domestic peoples are able to create great and lasting
institutions, to store up the results of civilisation for distant
later races, and to establish a developed, well-organised commercial
and civil life. The transition from nomadism to life in permanent
residences has, therefore, been one of the greatest steps in the
development of humanity. At the time of the beginnings of agriculture,
however, man was still a periodic wanderer. According to the
field-grass system of cultivation, seed is sown in hastily-cleared
ground, which soon becomes exhausted and is then abandoned. A migration
follows and new land is cleared. This system continues until men learn
to cultivate part of the land in a district, allowing the remainder
to lie fallow for a time in order that the soil may recover; thus
they remain fixed in their chosen district. Various circumstances--for
example, the danger of enemies from without, and the difficulties
attending migration--must have led to this change, the transition to
the system of alternation of crops. The wanderings are confined to less
extensive regions, the same fields are returned to after a few years,
until finally the relation of patches under cultivation to fallow land
is reduced to a system, and the time of wandering is past.

[Illustration: THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE: PRIMITIVE PEOPLE BARTERING
IVORY TUSKS AND BULL-HIDES]

[Sidenote: The coming of the Craftsman]

With fixed residence the forms of communities alter. The group settles
in a certain district, homes are built close to one another, and the
patriarchal organisation gives place to the village, which, with
its definite boundaries, is thenceforth the nucleus of the social
aggregate. Often several village communities have fields and forests in
common, and a common ownership of dams and canals; Nature takes care
that they do not become isolated, but unite together in close contact
for common defence and protection. With agriculture is associated the
working up of raw products. These are fashioned into materials for the
support of life and for enjoyment; furniture for dwellings, clothing,
tools, utensils, and weapons are made. For, however much agriculture
favours a life of peace, so rarely does man live in friendship with
his fellows that agricultural peoples also find it necessary to arm
themselves for war.

At first manufacture is not separated from farming; the agriculturist
himself prepares the natural products, assisted by the members of
his family. Later, it is easily seen that some individuals are
more skilled than others; it is also recognised that skill may be
developed by practice and that employments must be learned. Therefore
it is requisite that special individuals of the community should
prepare themselves for particular activities in the working up of raw
products and pursue these activities in consistency with the needs
of the society--trade or craft. The craftsman at first labours for
the community; in every village the tailor, cobbler, smith, barber,
and schoolmaster is supported by society at large. The craftsman
receives his appointed income--that is, his portion of the common
supply of food; and, in addition, every one for whom he expends his
labour gives him something in compensation, or finds him food while
employed about his house, until, finally, a systematic method of
exchange is established; and with this another advance--an epoch for
civilisation--is arrived at.

[Sidenote: The First Labour Problem]

This is the division of labour. It is found advantageous not only that
the craftsman be employed as he is needed, but also that he produce a
supply of products peculiar to his trade; for the times of labour do
not in the least harmonise with the times of demand. Although during
the first periods of industrial life men sought more or less to adjust
these factors, in later times they become wholly separate from one
another. There is always, in addition, labour ready to be expended on
casual needs; in more advanced phases of civilisation this condition of
affairs is not avoided; but wherever labour can be disassociated from
fortuitous necessity, the capacity for production is greatly increased.
Commodities are manufactured during the best seasons for production
and are preserved until the times of need; thus men become independent
of the moment. Here also, as in other problems of civilisation, it is
necessary to surmount the incongruities of chance, and to render all
circumstances serviceable to our purposes.

[Sidenote: Crafts and Trades Developing]

Exchange and division of labour are the great factors of the progress
of a civilisation based upon industrialism. Crafts and trades develop
and improve; greater and greater skill is demanded, and consequently
the time of preparation necessary for the master craftsman becomes
longer and longer. The worker limits himself to a definite sphere of
production and carries his trade forward to a certain perfection. His
wares will then be more eagerly sought for than those made by another
hand; they are better, yet cheaper, for his labour is lightened by his
greater skill. His various fellow craftsmen, and the agriculturist
also, must exchange their goods for his; for the more specialised the
work of an individual, the more necessary the community is to him, in
order that he may satisfy all his various requirements. Exchange is
at first natural; that is, commodities are traded outright, each
individual giving goods directly in return for the goods he receives.
The production of the community as a whole has become far richer, far
more perfect. The labour of the organised society produces more than
the activity of separate individuals.

[Illustration: THE BEARERS OF MAN’S BURDENS: PRIMITIVE AND NATURAL
METHODS OF CARRYING

    These illustrations show a palanquin borne by horses; the Chinese
    single-wheel cart and the same assisted by a donkey and a sail;
    pack mules and camels; and a sledge drawn by Esquimau dogs.
]

[Illustration: SOME METHODS OF CONVEYANCE IN VARIOUS AGES AND COUNTRIES

    In this plate are illustrated a caravan of yaks; the elephant with
    a howdah; the African litter; reindeers as pack animals; and the
    familiar bullock waggon of France--a few of the many methods of
    carrying used by man.
]

[Illustration: PRIMITIVE MONEY: SELLING A SLAVE FOR COWRIES

    Cowries, which are small shells, are a very primitive form of
    money, still used in parts of Africa and in Siam. They were
    formerly so used in India, where $150,000 worth used to be imported
    annually. In Africa 5,000 shells are equivalent to $1.
]

Here, again, is shown the impulse of man to free himself from the
exigencies of the moment, to lift himself above the fortuitous
differences that arise between supply and demand. The more varied the
production, the more difficult it becomes to find men who are able to
offer the required commodity in exchange for what has been brought
to them. An escape from this embarrassment lies in the discovery of
a universal measure of exchange value and medium of exchange--money.
Money is the means of adjustment which renders traffic between men
independent of individual requirements.

Mediums of exchange, particularly necessary for the carrying on of
traffic between different communities, which exist in large quantities
and can be divided up into parts, make their appearance in very early
times. At first their values are more or less empirical, dependent
upon the conditions of individual cases, until gradually a medium
obtains general recognition and thus becomes money. The same need for
surmounting the lack of uniformity in individual requirements has led
the most different peoples in the world to the invention of money.
Naturally, many different things have been employed as mediums of
exchange; these vary according to geographical situations, conditions
of civilisation, and the customs of races. Pastoral tribes at first
employed cattle; but tobacco, cowries, strings of flat shells, bits of
mother-of-pearl, rings, and hides are also used. At last it is found
that metal is stable, durable, divisible, and of generally recognised
value; and finally the precious metals take precedence of all others.
Finally this form of money is adopted by all civilised races.

Division of labour originates in the development of the handicrafts, in
the distinction made between the labour of working up the raw material
and that of its production. With the help of a currency it leads to a
complete transformation, not only of economic relations, but also of
the social conditions of men.

[Illustration:

    Coin of Alexander the Great

    The earliest inscribed coin, 7th century B.C.

    Coin of Demetrius Poliorcetes, King of Macedonia

    Early British coin

    Coin of Tigranes, King of Armenia

    Early British coin

    Coin of Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus

    A Tetradrachm of the 5th century B.C.

    A Tetradrachm of the 6th century B.C.

    Gold coin of Philip II. of Macedon

    Persian Gold Daric, 5th century B.C.

    Early Roman bar money of the 4th century B.C.

    Iron bar money of South of England

THE BEGINNING OF MONEY: SOME OF THE EARLIEST KNOWN COINS IN EXISTENCE

    Of these coins, chiefly from the British Museum, the South England
    iron currency bars are perhaps most interesting. Our reproduction
    of these is one-tenth actual size. It will be noticed that the
    handles and the sizes vary.
]

[Illustration: THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING: STRADANUS’S PRINTING OFFICE
AT ANTWERP IN THE YEAR 1600

    From a very rare engraving in the British Museum
]

[Illustration: THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING: THE LARGEST PRESS IN THE
WORLD

    How great has been the progress in the art of printing is seen from
    these two pictures. The modern Hoe printing press is a marvel of
    mechanism. The first editions of this History were printed on a
    similar machine.
]

[Sidenote: Markets and Prices]

Country becomes city; centres of population which rest upon an
industrial basis arise; in many cases growth of the various
manufacturing industries is furthered by unfavourable agricultural
conditions. Such industrial centres require markets and market-places;
it is necessary for the producers of raw materials to come to market
from the country with their goods, in order that they may meet
together with the craftsmen of the city, and with other producers from
the country who offer their wares in turn. The market town is the
point of departure for further culture. Here, too, the endeavour to
harmonise individual incongruities exists. Fruit is sent to market;
each man has his choice; an exchange value is determined by means of
comparison, through analysis of the individual prices which themselves
do not furnish any rational determination of worth, and therefore
expose both buyer and seller to chance. Thus a market-price develops.
The city is the living agency promoting industry and exchange; it
brings its population into contact with the population of the country
by means of the market, and prevents men from separating into isolated,
unsympathetic, or even hostile groups.

Here industry flourishes--arts, crafts, and large manufactures. In
the latter, division of labour is developed to a maximum degree,
and production in factories derives a further impulse through the
introduction of machinery. Machines, in contrast to implements and
utensils, are inanimate but organised instruments for labour, requiring
subordinate human activity only (attendance) so that they may impart
force and motion in a manner corresponding with the designs of the
inventor. Machinery is originally of simple form, dependent on water or
wind for motive power--rude mills, and contrivances for the guiding of
water in canals or conduits belong to its primitive varieties.

[Sidenote: The Use of Natural Forces]

But man’s power of invention increases, and in the higher stage of
industrial evolution the facilities for labour are enormous. We have
but to think of steam and of electricity with all their tremendous
developments of power. Finally the discovery of the unity of force
leads men to look upon Nature as a storehouse of energy and to devise
means by which natural forces may be guided, one form of energy
converted into another and transferred from place to place; and thus
man becomes almost all-powerful. He is not able to create, it is true,
but he may at least mould and shape to his desire that which Nature
has already formed. Thus the discovery how to direct the forces of
Nature enables us again, according to the principle already cited, to
escape the disabilities of human differentiation with its attendant
incongruities.

[Sidenote: Boundless Growth of Commerce]

As already stated, division of labour leads to exchange; exchange leads
to commerce. Commerce is exchange on a large scale, organised into a
system with special regard to the production of a store, or supply. The
latter requires a certain knowledge of trade; the centres of demand
must be sought out, and the goods transported to these centres. In this
way a fruitful reciprocal action develops; and as production influences
trade, so may trade influence production, governing it according to
the fluctuations of demand, and leading to the creation of stores of
commodities for which a future market is to be expected. Thus commerce
presupposes special knowledge and special skill; it develops a special
technique through which it is enabled to execute its complicated
tasks. Men who live by trade become distinct from craftsmen; and the
mercantile class results. Merchants are men whose task is to effect
an organised exchange of natural and manufactured products. Commerce
always displays an impulse to extend itself beyond the borders of
single nations--not to remain inland only, but to become a foreign
trade also; for the products of foreign countries and climates, however
valuable they may be, would be inaccessible except for commerce.
Thus trade becomes both import and export. The first step is for the
tradesman or his representative to travel about peddling goods, or for
an owner of wares or money to offer capital to an itinerant merchant
with the object that the latter may divide the profits with him later
on. This leads to the sending of merchandise to a middleman, who
places it on the market in a distant region--commission business. The
establishment of a branch or agency in a foreign country, in order to
trade there while in immediate connection with the main business house,
follows; and, finally, merchants deal directly with foreign houses
without the intervention of middlemen, thus entering into direct export
trade. This, of course, presupposes a great familiarity with foreign
affairs and confidence in their soundness; consequently it is possible
only in a highly developed state of civilisation.

[Illustration: “THE SHIP OF THE DESERT”: THE CARAVAN IS THE OLDEST
EXISTING MEANS OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PEOPLES

    From J. F. Lewis’s picture “The Halt in the Desert,” in the South
    Kensington Museum

    (Photo, Mansell)
]

[Sidenote: Birth of New Trades and Institutions]

Foreign trade is carried on overland by means of caravans, and,
in later times, by railways; over sea, through a merchant
marine--sailing vessels and steamships. The magnitude of commerce, its
peculiar methods, and its manifold, varying phases combine to produce
new and surprising phenomena: traffic by sea leads to insurance and
to different forms of commercial associations; intercourse by caravan
gives rise to the construction of halting-stations, establishments for
refreshment and repair, that finally develop into taverns and inns. And
that which first arose from necessity is subsequently turned to use
for other purposes: insurance is one of the most fruitful ideas of the
present day; hotels are an absolute necessity.

Commerce is able to bring further contrivances and institutions into
being, here, again, overcoming individual incongruity by means of
combination. Trade cannot always be carried on directly between the
places of production and of consumption; one district requires more,
another less; it would be difficult to supply all from one centre
of distribution. Thus an intermediate carrying trade is developed,
rendering the surmounting of obstacles less difficult and increasing
the stability of the market. The demands of the middleman are
compensated for by these advantages.

[Sidenote: Commerce Brings the World Together]

Thus the world’s commerce develops, and that which is accomplished
by market traffic in lesser districts is brought about by the
concentrative influence of bourses, or exchanges, in the broadest
spheres. Here, as in the smaller markets, the tendency is for all
prices to seek a level, to become as independent as possible of
individual conditions; and so commerce between nations, and the
possibility of ordering goods from the most distant lands, bring with
them an adjustment: world prices are formed; and to establish these,
is the business of the exchanges. The exchange is a meeting together
of merchants for the transaction of business by purchase or sale. It
has acquired still more the character of a world institution since
men have been able to interchange advices by means of telegraph and
telephone; it is possible for the bourses of different countries to
transact business with one another from moment to moment, so that the
ruling prices of the world can be immediately known. It has already
been stated that commerce leads to a taking up of residence in foreign
countries; it also leads to colonisation, and it is chiefly due to
commerce that civilisation is introduced into foreign lands.

[Sidenote: Supply of Human Labour]

In earlier centuries the labour question was settled by means of the
legal subjection of certain classes of men, until complete injustice
was reached in slavery. The system was rendered still more efficient
by making slave-ownership hereditary. Slavery, originated in wars and
man-hunting, in times when there were but few domesticated animals
and no machines, when utensils, were very imperfect and a more or
less developed mode of life could only be conducted by means of the
manual labour of individuals. Therefore, in order to obtain labourers,
men resorted to force, introducing a slave population of which the
individuals were either divided among households or kept in special
slave habitations. The industry of the slave was often increased by the
promise of definite privileges or private possessions. He was often
granted a home and family life, and thus he became a bondman--burdened
and taxed and bound to the soil, it is true, but otherwise looked
upon as a man possessed of ordinary rights and privileges. Even
during the days of slavery there were instances of emancipation, and
the possibility was opened up of rising to the social position of a
slave-owner.

The evolution of a free working class, with recompense for labour,
is one of the most important chapters in the history of modern
civilisation. The chief sphere of development is that of the crafts
and trades. The power of guilds often induces legislation in their
favour; thus they become monopolies, and only such individuals as are
members of an association may adopt its particular trade or craft
as a profession. Sometimes the unity of a guild is broken, and the
individual right to form judgments enters in place of the rules laid
down by the corporation. From this results competition, which finally
leads up to free competition. Through free competition, the encumbering
rigidity of the guilds is avoided; it leads to a high development
of the individual, and is therefore a great source of progress; it
discloses the secrets of the craft, freeing men from deeply-rooted
prejudices in regard to different vocations; and it increases man’s
inventive capacity, producing new methods for carrying on trades and
new combinations and connections.

[Illustration: THE PROMISE OF PEACE: THE HAGUE CONFERENCE OF THE
NATIONS OF THE WORLD IN 1907

    Nothing could more effectively illustrate the ideal of
    international peaceful co-operation to which hopeful historians
    look forward than this photograph of the representatives of all the
    leading Powers of the world, met together at The Hague, in the year
    1907, to promote the amity of nations and the eventual abolition of
    war.
]




[Illustration: STEPS IN MAN’S DEVELOPMENT II

Professor

JOSEPH KOHLER]




THE HIGHER PROGRESS OF MANKIND


Spiritual culture may develop in the directions of knowing and of
feeling. These two forms of the manifestation of consciousness are
originally not to be separated from each other; but as time goes on,
a preponderance of one or the other becomes noticeable. Language is
the first result of spiritual culture: the communication of thoughts
by means of words (sound pictures of ideas). Language arises from the
necessities of life, from the need for communication among the members
of a social aggregate.

[Illustration: GUTENBERG, THE INVENTOR OF PRINTING

    Nothing has eclipsed the printing press as an agency of man’s
    intellectual and spiritual advancement.
]

A much later acquisition, the art of writing, or the fixation of
language in a definite, permanent form, stands in close connection with
speech. Writing develops according to two systems: the one based on
the symbolising or picturing of ideas--picture-writing, hieroglyphics;
and the other on the breaking up of the speech-sounds of a language
into a notation of syllables or letters--syllabic or letter writing.
According to the first method thoughts are directly pictured; according
to the second, sounds, not ideas, are represented by symbols--that is,
the sounds which stand for the ideas are transformed into signs. The
transition from sign to syllabic writing comes about in this manner:
if, during its development, a language uses the same sound to express
various conceptions, men represent this sound by one sign; and whenever
a foreign word is reproduced in writing it is first separated into
syllables, and the syllables are then pictured by the same signs as
are employed to represent similar sounds--but different ideas--in the
native speech. Thus symbols are employed more and more phonetically,
and less and less meaning comes to be attached to them. This process
must continue its development if the pronunciation changes as time
goes on; the old writing, with its national symbol-method, may be
retained; but with the changing of speech-sounds the new writing is
altered; syllables are now represented by signs, and combinations
of syllables are reproduced by means of a combination of their
corresponding symbols. Thus phonetic writing was not an invention, but
a gradual development. Together with the phonetic symbols, ideograms or
hieroglyphs also exist, as in Babylonian. It is especially interesting,
and indicative of the unity of the human mind, that the transition to
syllabic writing has been arrived at independently by different races;
the Aztecs, for example, exhibit a wholly independent development.

[Sidenote: The Spreading of Ideas]

Communication by writing may be either single or private, or general
and public; in the latter case plurality is attained through such
methods as the affixing of bills and placards, or by means of
transcripts or reproductions of the original copy. At first the latter
are made in accordance with the ordinary methods of writing; and in
slave-holding communities--Rome, for example--slaves who wrote to
dictation were employed as scribes. The discovery of a method by which
to obtain a plurality of copies through a single mechanical process was
epoch-making. The printing-press has performed a far greater service
to humanity than have most inventions; for, with the possibility of
producing thousands of copies of a communication, the thoughts embodied
in it become forces; they may enter the minds of many individuals who
are either convinced or actually guided by them. Ideas become active
through their suggestion on the masses of the population. This may lead
to a one-sided rule of public opinion; but a healthy race will travel
intellectually in many directions, and various beliefs supplement one
another, struggle together, conquer, and are conquered. In this manner
thoughts awaken popular movements, rousing a people to a hitherto
unknown degree, and forcing men to think and to join issues. Thus the
Press becomes a factor in civilisation of the very first importance.
The necessity for periodic communication, together with curiosity
that refuses to wait long for information, leads to the establishment
of regularly recurrent publications; and thus, in addition to the
book-press, the newspaper-press, that has learned how to hold great
centres of population under its control, appears. Naturally this method
of aiding the progress of civilisation has its disadvantages, as have
all other methods; the conception of the world becomes superficial;
individuality loses in character; not only a certain levelling of
education, but also a levelling of views of life and of modes of
thought, results. But, on the whole, knowledge is spread abroad as it
never was before.

[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF AZTEC HIEROGLYPHIC SCULPTURE AND WRITING

    The hieroglyphics and script of the Aztecs were independently
    developed. The first illustration is from a sculpture in Mexico,
    and the other is a small reproduction of a page of the Maya
    manuscript at Dresden. In both cases the symbolism is only
    imperfectly understood at present.
]

Man, as a thinking being, craves for a conception of life; and in his
inmost thoughts he seeks for an explanation of the double relationship
of Man to Nature and of Nature to Man, striving to bring all into
harmony. This he finds in religion.

[Illustration:

    Frith

THE GREAT BUDDHA AT KAMAKURA, IN JAPAN

Professor Kohler points out that in the history of the world’s
religions, although the belief in the omnipotence of God has become so
widespread, it is not thought inconsistent that a Buddha, claiming to
incarnate the Supreme Being completely within himself, should appear.]

[Sidenote: Man’s Craving for Religion]

[Sidenote: Beginnings of Nature Worship]

[Sidenote: The Realm of Shadows]

Religion is belief in God; that is, belief in spiritual forces
inseparable from and interwoven through the universe--forces that
render all things distinct and separate, yet make all coalescent and
firm, permeating all, and giving to every object its individuality.
Man is impelled by Nature to conceive of the universe as divine. This
idea exhibits itself universally among primitive folk in the form
of animism--a belief that the entire internal and external world is
animated, filled with supernatural beings that have originally no
determinate nature, but which may appear in the most varied of forms,
may vanish and may create themselves anew, as clouds arise from unseen
vapour in the air. Spirits are supposed to be not far removed from
man; families as well as individuals consider themselves to stand more
or less in connection with them; and men, too, have a share in the
invisible world when they have cast aside the garment of the body in
dream or in death. Thus, every man is thought to have his protecting
spirit, his _manitou_, that reveals itself to him through signs and
dreams. Special incarnations, objects in which supernatural beings
are inherent or with which they are in some way connected, are called
“fetiches”; hence arises fetichism, in regard to which the strangest
ideas were held in previous centuries when the science of anthropology
was unknown. Trees, rocks, rivers, bits of wood, images of one’s own
making--any of these are thought capable of containing beings of divine
nature. Naturally, the tree or the fragment of wood or of stone is not
worshipped, as men formerly thought, but the spirit that is believed
to have entered it. In many cases the belief approaches worship of
Nature, especially among agricultural peoples. Divinity is recognised
in the shape of factors essential to agriculture--sun, sky, lightning,
thunder; these being the beneficent deities, in contrast to whom are
the earth-spirits who bring pestilences, earthquakes, and other evils
to mankind. Thus the cult is refined; spirits are no longer attached
to fetiches, but men worship the heavens, and the earth also. Religion
accompanies man from birth to death. Spirits both for good and for evil
are supposed to hover about him at his very birth. The soul of some
being--perhaps an animal, perhaps an ancestor--enters into the new-born
child, and from this spirit he receives his name.

Oftentimes there is a new consecration at the time of marriage;
often when an heir-apparent succeeds to the chieftainship. At his
decease primitive folk believe that man enters the realm of shadows.
At first he hovers over the sea or river of death, and often only
after having passed through many hardships does he arrive in the new
kingdom, where he either continues to live after the manner of his
former existence, or, according to whether his life on earth has been
good or evil, inhabits a higher or a lower supernatural sphere. To
the dead are consecrated their personal possessions--horses, slaves,
wives even--that they may make use of them during the new existence;
men go head-hunting in order to send them new helpmates. On the other
hand great care is often taken that the spirits of the departed,
satisfied with their new existence, may no longer molest the world of
the living: propitiative offerings are made; men avoid mentioning the
name of the departed, that he may not be tempted to visit them with
his presence; they seek to make themselves unrecognisable during the
time immediately following his death, wear different clothes, and adopt
other dwelling-places. Sometimes the light placed near the deceased for
the purpose of guiding him back to his old home is moved further and
further away, so that his ghost, unable to find the right path, shall
never return.

Thus the belief in spirits encompasses primitive man, following him
step by step.

[Sidenote: The Belief in Many Gods]

[Sidenote: Happiness found in Religion]

From animism develops worship of heroes and polytheism, with their
attendant mythological narrations. The idea of the unity of the
supernatural world becomes lost; and the indefinite forms of spirit
become separate, independent beings, that are developed more and
more in the direction of the souls either of animals or of men.
This splitting up of the deity, which destroys the tendency toward
unity in religion, is followed by a reaction that comes about partly
through a belief in creation by a father of the gods, partly through
acceptance of a historical origin of the mythological world from a
single source (theogonic myths), and partly through direct banishment
of the plurality of gods and a new formation of the belief in a unity
according either to theistic or to pantheistic ideas. In spite of the
conception of a world permeated and pervaded by God alone, the belief
that certain persons and places are more powerful in respect to the
divinity than others is retained; and the appearance from time to time
of a Buddha who incarnates and manifests the Supreme Being directly and
completely within himself--in a special manner apart from other natural
phenomena--is also not looked upon as inconsistent.

[Illustration: A STRANGE RELIGIOUS RITE: FUNERAL SACRIFICE OF THE TODAS
IN SOUTHERN INDIA

    The elaborate and extraordinary funeral rites of the Todas
    illustrate admirably the older notions of life and death. A funeral
    endures for several days; the body is cremated; last of all the
    buffaloes of the deceased are slaughtered at the grave and thought
    to enter into mystic reunion with their master. In olden times a
    whole troop would be slaughtered, but under British influence the
    number has been limited to one for a common person and two for a
    chief.
]

Religion is a thing of the emotions, not merely in the sense of having
its origin in fear, or in the remembrance of lasting sensations derived
from visions or dreams, but emotional in so far that it satisfies
the necessity felt by men for a consistent life-conception--not an
intellectual but an emotional conception. It is not the matter-of-fact
desire for knowledge that finds its expression in religion, but the
joy of the heart in a supreme power, the call for help of the needy,
and the consciousness of our own insignificance and our mortality.
Judgment is not yet abstracted from the other psychic functions;
indeed, it really retires behind the emotions.

[Illustration: NOAH’S SACRIFICE

    From the painting by Daniel Maclise, R.A.
]

[Sidenote: The Basis of Worship]

[Sidenote: The Growth of the Priesthood]

When men thus believe in divinity, if the belief have an active
influence on the emotions, it follows that the individual must
establish some connection between himself and the object of his
worship. This is brought about through certain actions, or through the
creation of circumstances in which special conditions of consecration
are perceived, and therewith the possibility of a close relationship
with the Supreme Being. The acts through which this relationship may be
brought about, taken collectively, are embraced in the word “worship,”
and if performed according to a strict system they are called “rites.”
Sacrifice has an important place among the ceremonies observed in
accordance with ritual. It is based on a conception of the wants and
necessities of the higher beings, and, in later times, is refined
into a representation of man’s ethical feelings--unselfishness and
gratitude, which give pleasure to the Deity and thus contribute to
its happiness. But sacrifice does not retain its unselfish character
for any great length of time. Man thinks of himself first: he makes
offerings to the good spirits, but more particularly to the evil
gods, in order to pacify their fury and appease their evil desires.
Sacrifices are also offered to the dead, and from such offerings and
memorials is developed the idea of a “family” or “clan,” which outlives
the individual.

Thus, emotion is the principal active agent; but intellectual power
also must gradually lay its hold on the system of belief. The
principles discovered are formulated into a science and the cultivation
of this science becomes the special duty of the priesthood, often as
a secret art--esoteric system--in which concealment is conducive to
the maintenance of the exclusiveness and peculiar power of the priest
class. The science becomes partly mythologic-historical, partly
dogmatic, and partly ritualistic.

[Sidenote: Out of Religion Came Art]

The artistic instinct develops partly in connection with worship,
partly in the direction of its practical application to life; and
although no very sharp line of distinction is drawn between the two
tendencies, the germ at least of the difference between the fine
and the industrial arts is thus in existence from the very earliest
times. Worship gives rise to images and pictures, at first of the
very roughest form. They are not mere symbols; they are the garments
or habitations with which the spirit invests itself. The spirit
may take up its abode anywhere according to the different beliefs
of man--in a plant, an animal, a stone, above all, in a picture or
effigy that symbolically reflects its peculiarities. Therefore, the
ghosts of ancestors are embodied in ancestral images. Just as skulls
were reverenced in earlier times, in later days the images of the
dead (_korwar_) are worshipped. Such images are the oldest examples
of the art of portraiture; and the oldest dolls are the rude puppets
which according to the rites of many races--the American Indians, for
example--widows must wear about them as tokens, or as the husks or
wrappers of their husbands’ doubles.

Religion itself becomes poetry. The belief in the identity of spirits
of the departed with animals, and the myths of metamorphosis, take
the form of fables and fairy tales; the cosmogonic and theogonic
conceptions develop into mythologies; hero sagas become epics; the
myths of life in Nature become a glorification of the external world,
an expression of unity with Nature, and thus a form of lyric poetry.

[Sidenote: Artistic Expression of Life]

Everyday life, too, demands artistic expression. At first the childish
passion for the changing pictures that correspond with different ideas
of the imagination joins with the desire to impress others, and finery
in dress and ornamentation result. This has developed in every clime.
Tattooing arises not only from a religious motive, but also from the
desire for ornament. The painting of men’s bodies, the often grotesque
ideas, such as artificial deformation of the head, knocking out and
blackening of teeth, ear ornaments and mutilation of ears, pegs thrust
through the lips, and various methods of dressing the hair, may be in
part connected with religious conceptions, for here the most varied of
motives co-operate to the same end. Yet, on the other hand, there is no
doubt that they are also the outcome of a craving for variation in form
and in colour. In the same way the dance is not only an act of worship;
it is also a means of giving vent to latent animal spirits: thus,
dances are often expressions of the tempestuous sensual instincts of a
people.

[Sidenote: The Birth of the Drama]

The dance exhibits a special tendency to represent the ordinary affairs
of life in a symbolic manner; thus there are war and hunting dances,
and especially animal dances in which each of the participants believes
himself to be permeated by the spirit of some animal which throughout
the dance he endeavours to mimic. In this way dramatic representation,
which is certainly based on the idea of personification, on the notion
that a man for the time being may be possessed by the spirit of some
other creature that speaks and acts through him, originates. Thus
arose the primitive form of masques, in which men dressed themselves
up to resemble various creatures, real or imaginary, as in the case
of the animal masques of old time; for according to the popular idea
the spirit dwells in the external, visible form, and through the
imitation or adoption of its outward appearance we become identified
with the spirit whose character we assume. Among many races not only
masks proper were worn, but also the hides and hair or feathers of the
creatures personated. Dramatic representation was furthered by the
dream plays--especially popular among the American Indians--in which
the events of dreams are adapted for acting and performed. Even as men
seek illumination in dreams as to questions both divine and mundane, so
do they anticipate through dreams the dramatic representations which
shall be performed on holidays as expressions of life.

[Illustration: SAVAGE DANCES: THE FAR-OFF BEGINNINGS OF THE DRAMA

The dance is an effort to give symbolic expression to affairs and moods
of everyday life. Thus the Zulu wedding dance is self-evident in its
purpose. The second illustration depicts a strange religious dance of
the Australian natives, associated with totemism or animism. The third
picture shows dancers in Kandy endeavouring to banish evil spirits, and
the last illustrates an Australian corroboree. From such sources the
drama has been slowly evolved.]

[Sidenote: Art & Play in the Life of Man]

Play is a degeneration of the dance, and it arises less from
the instinct for beauty than from a desire to realise whatever
entertainment and excitement may be got from any incident or
occurrence. From another special inclination originate those satirical
songs of Northern peoples, written in alternating verses, in which
the national tribunal and the voice of the people are given expression
at the same time. Thus they have a truly educative character. These are
the preliminary steps to the free satire and humour that gleam through
the lives of civilised peoples, now like the flicker of a candle, now
like a purifying lightning flash, freeing men from life’s monotony, and
illuminating the night of unsolved questions. Capacity for organised
play is a characteristic that lifts man above the lower animals. The
expression of individuality without any particular object in view,
the elevation of self above the troubles of life, and free activity,
uncoerced by the necessities of existence, are characteristic both of
play and of art. Thus play, as well as art, exhibits to a pre-eminent
degree man’s consciousness of having escaped, if only temporarily,
from the coercion of environing nature; being without definite object,
it proves that he can find employment when released from the pressure
of the outer world--that is, when he is momentarily freed from his
endeavour to establish a balance between himself and the necessities
of life, with a view to overcoming the latter. Man stands in close
connection with his environment and with the immutable laws of nature;
but in play and in art he develops his own personality--a development
that neither in direction nor in object is influenced by the outer
world and its constraint.

[Sidenote: Fall of Man and Rise of the Race]

The step that leads to the overcoming of custom is the recognition
of right. “Right” is that which society strictly demands from every
individual member. Not all that is customary is exacted by right;
a multitude of the requirements of custom may be ignored without
opposition from the community as a whole, although, of course, detached
individuals may express their displeasure. The aggregate, however,
grants immunity to all who do not choose to follow the custom. In other
words, the separation of custom from right signifies the development
of a sharper line of demarcation between that which is and that which
ought to be. In primitive times “is” and “ought to be” are fairly
consonant terms; but gradually a spirit of opposition is developed;
cases arise in which custom is opposed, in which the actions of men
run counter to a previous habit. Man is conscious of the possibility
of raising himself above the unreasoning tendencies toward certain
modes of conduct, and he takes pleasure in so doing--the good man as
well as the evil. Whoever oversteps the bounds of custom, even through
sheer egotism, is also a furtherer of human development; without sin
the world would never have evolved a civilisation; the Fall of Man was
nothing more than the first step toward the historical development of
the human race.

This leads to the necessity for extracting from custom such rules
as must prove advantageous to mankind, and this collection of
axioms--which “ought to be”--becomes law.

[Sidenote: Custom, Right, and Morality]

The distinction between right and custom was an important step. The
relativity of custom was exposed with one stroke. Many, and by no means
the worst members of communities, emancipate themselves from custom. It
is the opening in the wall through which the progress of humanity may
pass. Nor do the demands of right remain unalterable and unyielding.
A change in custom brings with it a change in right; certain rules of
conduct gradually become isolated owing to the recession of custom,
and to such an extent that they lose their vitality and decay. And
as new customs arise, so are new principles of right discovered.
In this manner an alteration in the one is a cause of change in
the other--naturally, in conformity with the degree of culture and
contemporary social relations. Custom and right mutually further each
other, and render it possible for men to adapt themselves to newly
acquired conditions of civilisation.

Together with right and custom a third factor appears--morality. This
is a comparatively late acquisition. It, too, contains something of
the “ought to be,” not because of the social, but by virtue of the
divine authority or order based on philosophical conceptions. Morals
vary, therefore, as laws vary, according to peoples and to times. The
rules of morality form a second code, set above the social law, and
they embody a larger aggregate of duties. The reason for this is that
men recognise that the social system of rules for conduct is not the
only one, that it is only relative and cannot include all the duties
of human beings, and that over and beyond the laws of society ethical
principles exist.

Naturally conflicts arise between right and morals, and such struggles
lead to further development and progress.

The late appearance of ideas of morality proves that ethical
considerations were originally foreign to the god-conceptions. The
spirits, fetiches, and world-creators of different beliefs are at
first neutral so far as morals are concerned; myths and legends are
invented partly from creation theories, partly from historic data, and
partly through efforts of the imagination. In primitive beliefs there
is no trace of an attempt to conceive of deities as being good in the
highest--or even in a lower--sense; and it would not be in accordance
with scientific ethnology to appraise, or to wish to pass judgment
on, religions according to the point of view of ethics. Not until the
importance of morality in life is realised, and the profound value
of a life of moral purity recognised, do men seek in their religious
beliefs for higher beings of ethical significance, for morally perfect
personalities among the gods.

[Illustration:

    Underwood & Underwood

THE EMBLEM OF A TRIBE: ALASKAN INDIAN TOTEM

    This mysterious “totem” distinguishes a family or tribe of the old
    Hydah Indians and is erected at Wrangel in Alaska.
]

Different elements of civilisation vary greatly in their development
in different civilised districts; one race may have a greater tendency
toward intellectual, another toward material culture. No race has
approached the Hindoos in philosophic speculation, yet they are as
children in their knowledge of natural science. One people may develop
commerce to the highest extent, another poetry and music, a third the
freedom of the individual. The language of the American Indians is in
many respects richer and more elegant than English. Therefore nothing
is farther from the truth than to say that, in case one institution of
civilised life is found to exist in a hunting people, another in an
agricultural race, or the one in an otherwise higher, and the other
in an otherwise lower nation or tribe, the institution in question
must have reached a state of perfection corresponding with the general
development of the people possessing it. According to this, the
monogamic uncivilised races were further advanced than the polygamous
Aryans of India and the Mohammedans; and the Polynesians, with their
skill in the industrial arts and their dramatic dances, perhaps in a
higher state of civilisation than Europeans!

Development fulfils itself in communities of men. Except in a human
aggregate it cannot come to pass; for the germs of development which
are brought forth by the potentiated activity of the many may exist
only in a society of individuals.

It has therefore been a significant fact that from the very beginning
men have joined together in social aggregates, partly on account of an
instinctive impulse, partly because of the necessity for self-defence.
Thus it came about that primitive men lived together in wandering,
predatory hordes, or packs. The individuals were bound to one another
very closely; there was no private life; and the sex-relationships were
promiscuous. Men not only dwelt together in groups, but the groups
themselves assimilated with one another, inasmuch as marriages were
reciprocally entered into by them. So far as we are able to determine,
one of the earliest of social institutions was that of group-marriage.
Individuals did not first unite in pairs, and then join together
in groups--such would soon have fallen asunder; on the contrary,
group-marriage itself created the bond that held the community
together; the most violent instinct of mankind not only united the few
but the many, indeed, complete social aggregates.

[Illustration: THE BEGINNINGS OF MONARCHY: AFRICAN CHIEF SEATED IN
STATE AMONG HIS HEADMEN

    The tribal state has a fixed form of government. The chiefs or
    patriarchs of the various families stand at the head of affairs,
    the position of chief being either hereditary or elective. In most
    cases, however, it is determined by a combination of both methods,
    a blood descendant being chosen, provided he is able to give proof
    of his competence.
]

Group-marriage is the form of union established by the association of
two hordes, or packs, according to which the men of one group marry the
women of the other; not a marriage of individual men with individual
women, but a promiscuous relationship, each man of one group marrying
all the women of the other group--at least in theory--and vice versâ;
not a marriage of individuals, but of aggregates. Certainly with such
a sex-relationship established, sooner or later regulations develop
from within the community, through which the marital relationships of
individuals are adjusted in a consistent manner; but the principle
first followed was, as community in property, so community in marriage;
and this must of itself lead to kinships entirely different from those
with which we are familiar.

Group-marriage was closely bound up with religious conceptions; single
hordes, or packs, considered themselves the embodiment of a single
spirit. And since at that time spirits were only conceived of as things
that existed in nature, the horde felt itself to be a single class of
natural object--some animal or plant, for example; and the union of
one pack with another was analogous to the union of one animal with
another. Each group believed itself to be permeated by the spirit of
a certain species of animal, borrowed its name thence and the animal
species itself was looked upon as the protecting spirit. The ancestral
spirit was worshipped in the animal, and the putting to death or
injuring of an individual of the species was a serious offence.

Such a belief is called Totemism. “Totem”--a word borrowed from the
language of the Massachusetts Indians--is the natural object or animal
assumed as the emblem of the horde or tribe, and correspondingly the
group symbolised by the class of animal or natural object is called a
Totem-group.

This belief led to a close union of all who were partakers of the
spirit of the same animal; it also strictly determined which groups
could associate with one another. And as the totem-group mimicked the
animal in its dances, and fancied itself to be possessed by its spirit,
it also ordered the methods of partaking of food, and all marriage,
birth, and death ceremonies in accordance with this conception. It
is said that, the totem being exogamous, marriages were not possible
within the totem, but only without it. Precisely so; for the original
conception was not that individuals formed unions, but that the whole
totem entered the marriage relationship; a single marriage would have
been considered an impossibility.

To which totem the children belonged--to the mother’s, to the father’s,
or to a third totem--was a question that offered considerable
difficulty. All three possibilities presented themselves; the last
mentioned, however, only in case the child belonged to another group,
a sub-totem, and in that event its descendants could return to the
original totem.

[Sidenote: The First Ideas of Kinship]

Descent in the male or in the female line occasioned in later times
the rise of important distinctions between nations. If a child follow
the mother’s totem, we speak of “maternal kinship”; conversely, of
“paternal kinship” in case of heredity through the father. Which of
these is the more primitive, or did tribes from the very first adopt
either one or the other system, thus making them of equal antiquity, is
a much-vexed question. There is reason to believe that maternal kinship
is the more primitive form, and that races have either passed with more
or less energy and rapidity to the system of descent through males, or
have kept to the original institution of maternal succession. There
are many peoples among whom both forms of kinship exist, and in such
instances the maternal is undoubtedly the more primitive; from this it
appears very probable that development has thus taken place, the more
so since there are traces of maternal kinship to be found in races
whose established form is paternal.

[Sidenote: Growth of Marriage]

As time passed, marriage of individuals developed from group-marriage
or totemism. Such unions may be polygamous--one man having several
wives--or polyandrous--one woman having several husbands. Both forms
have been represented in mankind, and, indeed, polygamy is the general
rule among all races, excepting Occidental civilised peoples. The
form of marriage toward which civilisation is advancing is certainly
monogamy; through it a complete individual relationship is established
between man and wife; and although both individualities may have
independent expression, each is reconciled to the other through the
loftier association of both. Nearly associated with monogamy is the
belief in union after death; it arises from the religious beliefs
prevalent among many peoples. Among other races there is at least the
custom of a year of mourning, sometimes for husband, sometimes for
wife, often for both.

Marriage of individuals has developed in different ways from group
or totem marriage: sometimes it was brought about through lack of
subsistence occasioned by many men dwelling together; sometimes it
arose from other causes. One factor was the practice of wife-capture:
whoever carried off a wife freed her, as it were, from the authority
of the community, and established a separate marriage for himself.
Marriage by purchase was an outcome of marriage by capture and of the
paying of an indemnity to the relatives of the bride; men also learned
to agree beforehand as to the equivalent to be paid. The practice of
acquiring wives by purchase developed in various directions, especially
in that of trading wives and in the earning of wives by years of
service. Gradually the purchase became merely a feigned transaction;
and a union of individuals has evolved--now sacerdotal, now civil in
form--from which every trace of traffic and of exchange has disappeared.

[Sidenote: Religion Ennobles Marriage]

Thus already in early times marriage had become ennobled through
religion. It is a widespread idea that through partaking of food in
common, blood-brotherhood, or similar procedures, a mystic communion of
soul may be established; and in case of marriages brought about by the
mediation of a priesthood the priest invokes the divine consecration.
Marriage is thereby raised above the bulk of profane actions of life;
it receives a certain guarantee of permanency; indeed, in many cases,
by reason of the mystic communion of souls, it is looked upon as
absolutely indissoluble.

[Illustration: THE IDEA OF MARRIAGE: WEDDING CUSTOMS IN MANY LANDS

    In countries where women are subservient to men the idea of
    marriage by capture or by compulsion prevails. The Bedouin bride
    (2) makes a pretence of escaping and is pursued by the bridegroom
    and his kinsmen. Some Africans (4) show their love by knocking
    down their prospective brides. The Moorish bride (6) shrouded and
    seated in bed is an object of curiosity. 1, 3, and 5 represent
    respectively the marriage customs of Persians, Chinese, and
    Moslems.
]

The ownership of property also was originally communistic, and the
idea of individual possession has been a gradual development. The idea
of the ownership of land, especially when developed by agricultural
peoples, is of a communistic nature; and, from common possession,
family and individual ownership gradually comes into being. It is
brought about in various ways, chiefly through the division of land
among separate families: at first only temporary, held only until the
time for a succeeding division arrives; later, owned in perpetuity. Nor
was it a rare method of procedure to grant land to any one who desired
to cultivate it--an estate that should be his so long as he remained
upon it and cultivated the soil, but which reverted to the community,
on his leaving it. There gradually developed a constant relationship
between land and cultivator as agriculture became more extended and
lasting improvements were effected on the soil. Land became the
permanent property of the individual; it also became an article of
commerce.

Ownership of movable property even was at first of communistic
character. Clothing and weapons, enchantments effectual for the
individual alone, such as medicine-bags or amulets, were, to be sure,
assigned to individuals in very early times; but all property obtained
by labour, the products of the chase or of fishing, originally belonged
to the community, until in later days each family was allowed to claim
the fruits of its own toil, and was only pledged to share with the
others under certain conditions. Finally, individuals were permitted
to retain or to barter property which they had produced by labour; and
exchange, especially exchange between individuals, attained special
significance through the division of labour.

The individualisation of the ownership of movable property was
especially furthered by members of families performing other labour,
outside the family, in addition to their work within the family circle.
Although the fruit of all labour accomplished within the family was
shared by the members in common, the results of work done outside
became the property of the particular individual who had performed the
labour. Consequent expansion of the conception of labour led men to
one of the greatest triumphs of justice, to the idea of establishing
individual rights in ideas and in combinations of ideas, to the
recognition of intellectual or immaterial property--right of author or
inventor--one of the chief incentives to modern civilisation.

[Illustration: THE CHURCH AND MARRIAGE: A WEDDING SCENE

    In very early times marriage had assumed a religious significance
    and came to be regarded among the sacred as opposed to the secular
    functions of life.
]

On the other hand, individual rights in transactions led to conceptions
concerning obligations and debts. Exchange, either direct or on terms
of credit, brought with it duties and liabilities for which originally
the persons and lives of the individuals concerned were held in pledge,
until custody of the body--which also included possession of the corpse
of a debtor--was succeeded by public imprisonment for debt, and finally
by the mere pledging of property, imprisonment for debt having been
abolished--a course of development through which the most varied of
races have passed.

[Sidenote: Rights of Property]

The relation of the individual to his possessions led men at first to
place movable property in graves, in order that it might be of service
to the departed owner during the life beyond; hence the universal
custom of burning on funeral pyres, not only weapons and utensils, but
animals, slaves, and even wives. In later times men were satisfied with
symbolic immolations, or possessions were released from the ban of
death and put into further use. The property of the deceased reverted
to his family, and thus the right of inheritance arose. There was no
right of inheritance during the days of communism; on the death of a
member of the family a mere general consolidation of property resulted;
with individual property arose the reversion of possessions to the
family from which they had been temporarily separated. Thus property
either reverted to the family taken as a whole, or to single heirs,
certain members of the family; hence a great variety of procedure
arose. Up to the present day inheritance by all the children, or
inheritance by one alone, exists in Eastern Asia as in Western nations.

In like manner criminal responsibility was originally collective;
the family or clan was held responsible for the actions of all its
individual members except those who were renounced and made outcasts.
Such methods of collective surety still exist among many exceedingly
developed peoples; but the system is gradually dying away, the tendency
being for the entire responsibility to rest upon the individual alone.

[Sidenote: Beginning of the Community]

The state is a development of tribal, or patriarchal, society. The
tribal group is a community of intermarried families, all claiming
descent from a common ancestor. From tribal organisation the principle
is developed that participation in the community is open only to such
individuals as belong to one or other of the families of which it is
composed; and the political body thus made up of individuals related
either by blood or through marriage is called a patriarchal, or
tribal, state. This form of community was enlarged even in very early
times, advantage being taken of the possibility of adopting strangers
into the circle of related families, and of amalgamating with them.
Still, the fundamental idea that the community is composed of related
families always remains uppermost in the minds of uncivilised peoples.
The tribal state gradually develops into the territorial state. The
connection of the community with a definite region becomes closer;
strange tribes settle in the same district; they are permitted to
remain provided tribute is paid and services are performed, and are
gradually absorbed into the community, the strangers and the original
inhabitants--plebeians and patricians--united together into one
aggregate. Thus arises the conception of a state which any man may join
without his being a member of any one of the original clans or families.

[Sidenote: Growth of the Idea of a State]

In this way the idea of a state becomes distinct from that of a people
bound together by kinship, the latter being especially distinguished by
a certain unity of external appearance, custom, character, and manner
of thought. This is not intended to suggest that an amalgamation of
different race elements in a state and an assimilation of different
modes of thought and of feeling are not desirable, or that a spirit
analogous to the sense of unity in members of the same family is not
to be sought for; such a condition is most likely to be attained
if a certain tribe or clan take precedence of the others, as the
most progressive, to which the various elements of the people annex
themselves.

[Illustration: “IN THE NAME OF JUSTICE”: SOME OLD METHODS OF TORTURE

    These pictures represent: 1. Roman gaolers cutting off a
    Christian’s ears. 2. The cangue as still used in China. 3. A
    prisoner on the rack in Mediæval England. 4. Torture of the Iron
    Chair. 5. The ordeal of fire and branding.
]

[Sidenote: Tribes and their Chiefs]

The tribal state has a fixed form of government. The chiefs or
patriarchs of the various families stand at the head of affairs, the
position of chief being either hereditary or elective. In most cases,
however, it is determined by a combination of both methods, a blood
descendant being chosen provided he is able to give proof of his
competence. In addition there is often the popular assembly. In later
times many innovations are introduced. Passion for power united to a
strong personality often leads to a chieftainship in which all rights
and privileges are absorbed or united in the person of one individual;
so that he appears as the possessor of all prerogatives and titles,
those of other men being entirely secondary, and all being more or
less dependent upon his will. Religious conceptions, especially,
have had great influence in this connection. Nowhere is this so
clearly shown as in “teknonymy,” an institution formerly prevalent
in the South Pacific islands, according to which the soul of the
father is supposed to enter the body of his eldest son at the birth
of the latter, and that therefore, immediately from his birth, the
son becomes master, the father continuing the management of affairs
merely as his proxy. Other peoples have avoided such consequences
as these by supposing the child to be possessed by the soul of his
grandfather, therefore naming first-born males after their grandfathers
instead of after their fathers. Another outcome of the institution of
chieftainship is the chaotic order of affairs which rules among many
peoples on the death of the chieftain, continuing until a successor
is seated on the throne--a lawless interval of anarchy followed by a
regency.

The power of a chieftain is, however, usually limited by class rights;
that is, by the rights of sub-chieftains of especially distinguished
families, and of the popular assembly, among which elements the
division of power and of jurisdiction is exceedingly varied. These
primitive institutions are rude prototypes of future varieties of
coercive government, of kingship, either of aristocratic or of
republican form, in which the primitive idea of chieftainship as the
absorption of all private privileges is given up, and in its place the
various principles of rights and duties of government enter.

[Sidenote: Growth of Military Classes]

Class-differentiation with attendant privileges and prerogatives is
especially developed in warlike races, and in nations which must be
ever prepared to resist the attacks of enemies, by the establishment of
a militant class. The militant class occupies an intermediate position
between the governing, priest, and scholar classes on the one hand,
and the industrial class--agriculturists, craftsmen, merchants--on the
other. Employment in warfare, necessary discipline, near association
with the chieftain, and the holding of fiefs for material support give
to this class a unique position. Thus the warrior castes developed
in India, the feudal and military nobility in Japan, the nobility in
Germany, with obligations and service to feudal superiors and to the
Court. This system survives for many years, until at last feudal tenure
gradually disappears, and its attendant prerogatives are swallowed up
by all classes through a universal subjection to military service;
although even yet a distinct class of professional soldiers remains at
the head of military affairs and operations, and will continue to do
so as long as there is a possibility of internal or external warfare.
However, here too the militant class is absorbed into a general body
of officials. Officials are citizens who not only occupy the usual
position of members of the state, but to whom in addition is appointed
the execution of the life functions of the nation, as its organs; in
other words, such functions as are peculiar to the civic organisation
in contradistinction to the general functions exercised and actions
performed by individual citizens as independent units. Officialism
includes to a special degree duty to its calling and to the public
trust, and there are also special privileges granted to officials
within the sphere appointed for them.

[Sidenote: The Birth of Parliaments]

In a society governed by a chieftain, as well as in a monarchy, there
is a popular assembly or consultative body; either an unorganised
meeting of individuals, or an organised convention of estates founded
on class right. A modern development, that certainly had its prototype
in the patriarchal state, is the representative assembly, an assembly
of individuals chosen to represent the people in place of the popular
gathering. The English Government, with its representative legislative
bodies, is a typical example in modern civilisation.

One of the chief problems encountered not only in a society ruled by a
chieftain, but also in states of later development, whether governed
by a potentate or by an aristocracy, is the relation of temporal to
spiritual power. Sometimes both are united in the head of the state, as
in the cases of the Incas of Peru and of the Caliphate. Sometimes the
spiritual head is distinct and separate from the temporal; frequently
the two forces are nearly associated, a member of the imperial family
being chosen for the office of high-priest, as among the Aztecs.
Often, however, the two functions are completely independent of each
other, as among many African races, the medicine-man occupying a
position entirely independent of the chieftain. Such separation may, of
course, lead to friction and civil war; it may also become an element
furthering to civilisation, a source of new ideas, opening the way
to alliances between nations, and setting bounds to the tyranny of
individuals, as exemplified in the relation of the Papacy to the Holy
Roman Empire.

[Sidenote: State Justice a Momentous Step Forward]

The form of state in which the functions of government are exercised
by a chieftain contributes greatly to state control and enforcement
of justice. The realisation of right had been from the first a social
function; but its enforcement was incumbent on the unit group of
individuals (families or tribes bound together by friendship). The
acquisition by the state of the power to dispense justice and to make
and enforce law is one of the greatest events of the world’s history.
The idea of all right being incorporated in the chieftain (and social
classes) played an important part in bringing about this condition of
affairs; for as soon as this conception receives general acceptance,
the chieftain, and with him the state, become interested in the
preservation and enforcement of justice, even in its lower forms in
the common rights of the subjects. On the other hand, not only the
interests of chieftainship, but also those of agriculture and commerce,
are furthered by the preservation of internal peace; and internal peace
calls for state control of justice and enforcement of law.

[Illustration:

    Mansell

AN EARLY EGYPTIAN REPRESENTATION OF JUSTICE

    “The Judgment of the Dead” as illustrated by innumerable paintings
    on the walls of Egyptian temples and tombs.
]

Moreover the religious element worked to the same end. Wickedness was
held to be an injury to the deity, whose anger would be visited upon
the entire land--a conception that lasted far into the Middle Ages,
and according to which the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah was held to be
typical of the effect of the curse of God. Already in primitive times
religion led to a strange idea of justice--secret societies consecrated
by the deity took upon themselves the function of enforcing right,
instituting reigns of terror in their districts, maintaining order in
society, and claiming authorisation from the god with whose spirit
they were permeated. Later, influenced by all these causes, the social
aggregate took over the control of justice. It was already considered
to be the upholder of right, the servant of the deity, the maintainer
of public peace, the dispenser of atoning sacrifices, etc.; and so
the various elements conceived of as justice, which had previously
been distributed among the single families, tribes, associations, and
societies, were combined, and placed under state control.

[Illustration: AN EARLY CONCEPTION OF THE SPIRIT OF JUSTICE: THE
JUDGMENT OF SOLOMON

    Reproduced from the picture by the French artist, Nicolas Poussin,
    who flourished in the first half of the seventeenth century.
]

[Illustration: THE MODERN IDEAL OF JUSTICE

    From the fresco by Gerald Moira in the New Central Criminal Court,
    London. Most of the figures are studies from well-known public men
    of recent years.
]

[Sidenote: Terror & Tyranny of Religion]

[Sidenote: The Ordeal and the Curse]

Certain forms for the dispensation of justice, judging of crimes, and
determining of punishments were developed. Thus arose the different
forms of judicial procedure, which, for a long time bore a religious
character. The deity was called upon to decide as to right and
wrong--divinity in the form of natural forces. Hence the judgments
of God through trial by water, fire, poison, serpents, scales,
or--especially in Germany during the Middle Ages--combat, or decision
by the divining eye, that was closely allied to the so-called trial by
hazard. A peculiar variety of ordeal is that of the bier, according
to which the body of a murdered man is called into requisition, the
soul of the victim assisting in the discovery of the murderer.
Ordeals are undergone sometimes by one individual, sometimes by two.
An advance in progress is the curse, which takes the place of the
ordeal, the curse of God being called down upon an individual and
his family in case of wrongdoing or of perjury. The curse may be
uttered by an individual in co-operation with the members of families.
Thus arise ordeals by invocation and by oath with compurgators.
Originally a certain period of time was allowed to pass--a month, for
example--for the fulfilment of the curse. In later times, whoever
took the oath--oath of innocence--was held guiltless. Witnesses
succeeded to conjurers; divining looks were replaced by circumstantial
evidence; and, instead of a mystic, a rational method of obtaining
testimony was adopted. The development was not attained without certain
attendant abuses; and the abolition of ordeal by God was among many
peoples--notably the inhabitants of Eastern Asia, the American Indians,
and the Germans of the Middle Ages--succeeded by the introduction of
torture. In many lands torture stood in close connection with the
judgment of God; in others it originated either directly or indirectly
in slavery. According to the method of obtaining evidence by torture,
the accused was forced through physical pain to disclosures concerning
himself and his companions, and, in case he himself were considered
guilty, to a confession. However barbarous and irrational, this system
was employed in Latin and Germanic nations excepting England, until the
eighteenth century, in some instances even until the nineteenth.

[Sidenote: The Slow Building up of Law]

[Sidenote: Evolution of the Modern State]

Judgment was first pronounced in the name of God; in later times,
in the name of the people or of the ruler who appeared as the
representative of God. The principles of justice, the validity of which
at first depends upon custom, are in later times proclaimed and fixed
as commands of God. Thus systems of fixed right come into being first
in the form of sacred justice, then as commands of God, and finally
as law. Law is a conception of justice expressed in certain rules and
principles. Originally there were no laws; the standard for justice was
furnished to each individual by his own feelings; only isolated cases
were recorded. As time advanced, and great men who strove to bring
about an improvement in justice arose above the generality of mankind;
when the ruling class became differentiated from the other classes;
when it was found necessary to root out certain popular customs--then,
in addition to the original collection of precedents, there arose law
of a higher form: law that stood above precedent, that altered custom,
and opened up new roads to justice. Great codes of law have not been
compilations only; they have led justice into new paths. Originally a
law was looked upon as an inviolable command of God, as unalterable
and eternal; its interpretation alone was earthly and transitory.
As years passed, men learned to recognise that laws themselves were
transitory; and it became a principle that later enactments could alter
earlier rules. The relations of later statutes to already established
law, and how the laws of different nations influence one another, are
difficult, much-vexed questions for the solution of which special
sciences have developed--transitory and international law. Judgment and
law are intimately concerned with justice, the conception of right as
evolved from the double action of life and custom. To this development
of justice is united an endeavour of the state or government not only
to further welfare by means of the creation and administration of
law, but also to take under its control civilising institutions of
all sorts. This was originally a feature of justice itself; certain
practices inimical to civilisation were interdicted and made punishable
offences. Already in the Middle Ages systems of police played a great
part among governmental institutions, especially in the smaller states.
Subsequently the idea was developed that not only protection through
the punishment of crime, but also superintendence of and promotion of
the public weal, should be administered by law; and thus the modern
state developed with its policy of national welfare. With this arose
the necessity for a sharper distinction to be drawn between justice and
the various actions of an administration; and thus in modern times men
have come to the system--based on Montesquieu--of the separation of
powers and independence of justice.

Justice varies according to the development of civilisation, and
according to the function that it must perform in this development; in
like manner every age creates its own material and spiritual culture.
Every poet is a poet of his own time.

[Sidenote: Right Way to View History]

The notion of natural right, however unhistorical it was in itself,
characterised a period of transition in so far as it enabled men to
form a historical conception--a conception of what might be: for, by
contrasting actual with ideal justice, we are enabled to escape the
bonds of the opinions of a particular time, and to look upon such
opinions and views objectively and independently. Yet it is certainly
a foolish proceeding to consider an ideal, deduced principally from
conceptions and opinions of the present, to be a standard by which
to measure the value of historical events of all times, sitting in
judgment over the great names of the past with the air of an inspector
of morals. The office of the historian as judge of the dead is quite
differently constituted. Every age must be judged in accordance with
the relation which it bears to the totality of development; and every
historical personage is to be looked upon as a bearer of the spirit of
his day, as a servant of the ideas of his time. Thus it is quite as
wrong to pronounce moral censure on the men of history, as it is wrong
to judge an era merely according to its good or evil characteristics.
A period must be estimated according to what it has either directly or
indirectly accomplished for mankind.

[Sidenote: Conception of a United World]

There are common factors of civilisation shared by nations themselves,
through which many contradictions disappear. The religious
civilisations of Christianity, Mohammedanism, Judaism, Buddhism and
Confucianism have been the determining factors of the intellectual and
emotional life, even influencing the course of events, in vast regions.
And thus it is also comprehensible that in the judicial life of nations
there is an endeavour for a closer approach, and also the existence
of equalising tendencies. In spite of countless variations in detail,
there is a certain unity of law in the entire Mohammedan world; and
although the hope of establishing the unity of Roman canonistic law
over the whole of Christendom has not been realised none the less it
was a tremendous idea: that of a universal empire founded on the Roman
law of the imperators, and placed under the rule of the German emperor,
thus ensuring the continuance of the law of the Roman people--an idea
that swayed the intellects of the Middle Ages up to the fourteenth,
even to the fifteenth century, and according to which the emperor
would have been the head of all Europe, the other sovereigns merely
his vassals or fief-holders. This idea, once advocated by such a great
spirit as that of Dante, has, like many others, passed into oblivion;
and in its place has arisen the conception of independent laws of
nations. Yet the original idea has had great influence: it has led to
a close union of Christian peoples; it opened a way for Roman law to
become universal law, although, to be sure, English law, completely
independent of that of Rome, has grown to unparalleled proportions as a
universal system, entirely by reason of the marvellous success of the
English people as colonists. Likewise international commerce will of
itself lead to a unification of mercantile, admiralty, copyright, and
patent law.

Then the idea of an international league must develop, arising from
the idea of the unity of Christian nations. We have advanced a great
distance beyond the time when every foreigner was considered an enemy,
and when all foreign phenomena were looked upon as strange or with
antipathy. Rules for international commerce are developed; state
alliances are entered into for the furtherance of common interests and
for the preservation of peace. Many tasks which in former times would
have been executed by the empire are now undertaken by international
associations; and the time for the establishment of international
courts of arbitration for the adjustment of differences between states
is already approaching.

[Sidenote: Common Interests of Mankind]

It also seems probable that states will unite to form political
organisations, wholly or partially renouncing their separate positions.
Thus nations will be replaced by a federal state, and a multitude of
unifying ideas which would otherwise be accomplished with difficulty
will come to easy realisation. Federal states were already in existence
during the times of patriarchal communities: an especially striking
example is that of the admirably constituted federation of the Iroquois
nations.

[Sidenote: Universal Transmission of Culture]

The vision of no man may pierce through to the ultimate end of
the processes of history, and to advance hypotheses is a vain
endeavour--quite as vain as it would be to expect Plato to have
foretold the life of modern civilisation or the imperial idea of
mediæval times, or Dante to have foreseen modern industrialism or the
character of industrial peoples. To-day we are more certain than ever
that no process of development, however simple it may have been, has
ever taken place according to a fixed model; all developments have had
their own individualities according to place and to time. Thus we must
forego discussion of the future.

However, there is another point of view. Development of nations as well
as of individuals leads either to progress or to decay. No people may
hope to live eternally; and how many acquisitions already gained will
be lost in the future it is impossible to say. If a nation declines,
it either becomes extinct or is annihilated by another state; it
becomes identified with the newer nation, and disappears with its own
character; thus its civilisation may also disappear. This is a serious
possibility. It is the Medusa head of the world’s history which we must
face--and without stiffening to stone.

[Sidenote: Influence of Peoples on One Another]

There is one truth, however, the knowledge of which fills us with hope
for the future: it is the fact that the results of development and
civilisation are often transfused from one people to another, so that
a given development need not start again from the very beginning. This
is owing to the capacity which races have for absorbing or borrowing
civilisations. Absorption of culture is by no means universal; it
does not prevent the occasional disappearance of civilisation,
for every civilisation has before it at least the possibility of
death. Nevertheless the transmission and assimilation of culture is
constantly taking place. There are various ways in which it may be
brought about. A conquering nation may bring its own civilisation
with it to the conquered; culture is often forced upon the latter
by coercive measures. The conquerors may acquire culture from the
vanquished; or assimilation of culture may come about without the
subjection of a people, through the unconscious adoption of external
customs and internal modes of thought. Finally, culture may be
borrowed consciously from one nation by another, the one state becoming
convinced of the outward advantages and inner significance of the
foreign civilisation.

In this way the problem of development becomes very complicated; many
institutions of vanished races thus continue to live on. Certainly the
race that acquires a foreign civilisation must, among other things,
be so constituted in its motives and aspirations as to lose the very
nerves of its being, its very stability, in order that, intoxicated
with the joy of a new life, all traces of its past existence may be
allowed to break up and disappear. On the other hand, many a promising
germ of culture possessed by a vigorous people may come to grief, owing
to the influence of acquisitions from without. But, in return, a race
that knows how to assimilate foreign culture may obtain a civilisation
of such efficiency as it would never before have been capable of
attaining, by reason of the fact that its power is established on a
recently acquired basis, and because it has been spared a multitude of
faltering experiments.

[Sidenote: Progress Goes on For Ever]

Civilisation may be mutually obtained from reciprocal action, nations
both giving and taking. Such a relation naturally arises when states
enter into intercourse with one another, when they have become
acquainted with one another’s various institutions and are able to
recognise the great merits of foreign organisations and the defects
of their own. Especially the world’s commerce, in which every nation
wishes to remain a competitor, compels towards mutual acceptance of
custom and law; no nation desires to be left behind; and each discovers
that it will fall to the rear unless it borrow certain things from the
others. Such reciprocal action will be the more effective the more like
nations are to one another, the better they understand each other, and
the more often they succeed not only in adopting the outward forms,
but in absorbing the principles of foreign institutions into their own
beings.

Thus we may hope that even if the nations of to-day decay and
disappear, the labour of the world’s progress will not be lost; it will
constantly reappear in new communities which may rejoice in that for
which we have striven, and which we have acquired by the exertion of
our own powers.

    JOSEPH KOHLER




THE SEVEN WONDERS OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION

From the French of Victor Hugo

By HAROLD BEGBIE


=The Temple of Diana at Ephesus speaks:=

  The sun standeth in the high places of the mountains,
  Full of brightness and mirth is the dawn.
  But my loveliness is not shamed by him,
  Neither is it dimmed;
  For, behold and consider well, the sun is not more than thought.
  That which yesterday I was, to-morrow I shall be:
  I live: I wear upon my brow the moving ages and the spirit of man,
  And genius, and art:
  These things are more wonderful than the sun.

  Senseless is the stone in the earth,
  And the granite is not more than the formless night;
  The alabaster knoweth not the dayspring,
  Porphyry is blind,
  And marble is without understanding;
  But let Ctesiphon pass,
  Or Dædalus, or Chresiphon,
  And fix his eyes, full of the divine flash,
  Upon the ground where the rocks slumber,
  And lo, they awake, they tremble, they are stricken with
    understanding;
  The granite, lifting some vague and troubled eyelid,
  Struggleth to behold his master:
  The rock feeleth within himself the breathing of the unhewn statue,
  The marble stirs in the midnight of his darkness,
  Because that he is aware of the soul of a man.
  The buried alabaster desireth to rise up from the grave,
  Earth shudders, it trembleth violently,
  It feels upon it the will of a man;
  And behold, beneath the gaze of him who passeth with creation in
    his eyes,
  From the deeps of the sacred earth
  The sublime palace comes forth and mounts upward.

=When she has made an end, the Gardens of Babylon sing their laud of
Semiramis:=

  Glory to Semiramis,
  Who reared us up on the arches of the great bridges
  Whose span outraceth time.
  This great queen was wont to delight herself beneath our floating
    branches;
  In the midst of the ruin of two empires
  She laughed in our groves,
  She was happy in our green places;
  She conquered the kings of far countries,
  And when the man had humbled himself before her,
  Lo, she would go upon her way,
  She would come hither,
  She would sigh gleefully under our branches,
  Very pleasantly would she lie down on the skins of panthers.

=And after the Gardens have sung, there is heard the voice of the
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus:=

  I am the monument of a heart that knew itself infinite;
  Death is not death beneath my dome of blue,
  Beneath my dome, death is victory,
  Death is life.
  Here hath death so much of gold and of precious stone
  That he boasteth himself thereof;
  Behold, I am the burial which is a pageant,
  And the sepulchre which is a palace.

=Then, like a great thunder, the voice of Jupiter:=

  I am the Olympian,
  The lord of the muses;
  All that which hath life, or breath, or love, or thought, or growth.
  Groweth, thinketh, liveth, loveth, and breatheth in me.
  The incense of supplication which rises to my feet
  Trembles with terror and affright;
  The slope of my brow doth touch the axis of the world;
  The tempest speaketh with me before he troubles the waters;
  I endure without age;
  I exist without pang;
  Unto me one thing only is impossible--
  To die.

=After Jupiter, from the island of Pharos sounds the voice of the
great Lighthouse:=

  In the midst of the mighty waters
  I tarry for the ceasing of the centuries.
  Sostratus the Cnidian built me,
  He built me that there might be thrown
  Across the rolling waters,
  And through the darkness where lurketh destruction,
  A rebuke to the lovely vanity of the stars.

=After the Lighthouse, the Colossus at Rhodes:=

  I am the true Lighthouse.
  Rhodes lies at my threshold.
  Before the steadfast gaze of my unsleeping eyes
  Winter maketh white the mountains.
  I behold the deep waters in their cavernous mists;
  I am the sentinel whom none cometh to relieve;
  I look forth upon the coming of the night,
  And upon the coming of the dawn
  I behold the lifting of the mists,
  I behold the terror of the sea,
  With the immense dreaming of Colossus.

=And last speaks the Pyramid of Cheops:=

  The desert, spread like a table, lieth beneath my foundations.
  Lo, from some mysterious gateway of the night
  I lift unto heaven my stair of terror,
  And out of the darkness itself seemeth it that I am builded.
  The sphinxes dropped their broods in the caverns;
  The centuries went by; the winds passed sighing;
  And Cheops said again: I am eternal!

=Then, after a profound silence, the creeping worm of the sepulchre
lifteth up his voice:=

  I say unto you Buildings that ye rise, and arise still more!
  Set ye up a stone above a stone,
  Above cities lift yourselves up, O temples!
  Lift up yourselves, like Babel!
  Column above column;
  Higher and yet higher;
  Let palaces arise upon the hollow places
  And let nothingness be fastened upon the foundations of night!

  Ye are like smoke,
  Therefore exalt yourselves with the clouds!
  Set not an end to your boasting!
  Mount up, mount up, for ever!
  Lo, in the dust beneath your feet I crawl and wait.
  Small am I, O mighty ones,
  And yet I say unto you,
  From the going down of the sun to his rising up,
  From all the corners of the earth,
  Everything which hath substance and which hath being,
  The thing which is sorrowful,
  And the thing which is glad,
  Descend unto me.
  And I only have strength, and I only endure for ever,
  For behold, I am death.

[Illustration: THE HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON

    The Hanging Gardens have been attributed to Semiramis, although
    Nebuchadnezzar is also said to have built them to please one of his
    wives, who, coming from a hilly country to Babylon, in the midst
    of a vast and barren plain, sighed for some reminder of the leafy
    beauty of her old home. The gardens, built in the form of a square
    extending some 700 feet on each side, rose to a great height in
    terrace upon terrace supported by massive pillars. A remarkable
    hydraulic system kept their multitudinous plants and trees in
    almost perpetual verdure.
]

[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT

    For six thousand years the Pyramids have thrown their shadow across
    the sands of Egypt. The stone of which they are built would make a
    great wall from Cairo to New York; the white marble which covered
    them would have built more king’s palaces than Egypt has had need
    of. The building of the Great Pyramid employed 100,000 slaves for
    30 years, and the geometrical perfection of it is a marvel to this
    day. Khufu, or Cheops, who built the Great Pyramid--probably as his
    tomb--reigned about 4700 B.C., so that the pyramid is more than
    three times as old as the Roman Empire.
]

[Illustration: THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS

    This famous monument of antiquity was erected in the year 354 B.C.
    to the memory of King Mausolus of Caria by his widow Artemisia,
    at Halicarnassus, the beautiful Greek city-colony on the shores
    of the Ægean Sea. Some idea of its size will be gathered from the
    fact that it was surrounded by an esplanade which measured over
    three hundred feet on each side, while its total height was nearly
    a hundred and fifty feet. The statue existed almost intact until
    the fourth century of our own era, and was finally destroyed in the
    Middle Ages by the Turks.
]

[Illustration: THE COLOSSUS OF RHODES

    This short-lived achievement of ancient art dated from about 300
    B.C. It was the largest of a hundred statues to the sun-god raised
    in the island of Rhodes, any one of which, said Pliny, would have
    made famous the place where it stood. Dedicated to Apollo, who was
    thought to have delivered Rhodes from Demetrius Poliorcetes, it was
    made from the engines of war which that besieger left behind. One
    finger of it was larger than an ordinary statue. An earthquake in
    224 B.C. destroyed it, but even in its broken and fallen state it
    was long the wonder of Rhodes.
]

[Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF DIANA AT EPHESUS

    “Great is Diana of the Ephesians.” Her temple was burned down in
    356 B.C., and subsequent to that year the great temple famed in
    history was erected by the Ionians. It is said to have taken 220
    years to construct, and measured about 400 feet in length and 200
    feet in width, while it contained no fewer than 127 Ionic columns
    nearly 65 feet high. The temple was despoiled by Nero and destroyed
    by the Goths in 262 A.D., but some of its ruins still remain.
]

[Illustration: THE STATUE OF JUPITER ON OLYMPUS

    The world-famous statue of Jupiter was the work of the great
    sculptor Phidias. It measured 43 feet in height above the base.
    The body of the god was carved from ivory, and the drapery was of
    solid gold. No other statue of such magnitude, of such artistic
    perfection, or of such precious material, has been known to
    history. Among the ruins of the temple are still to be seen the
    remains of the black marble mosaic on which the statue stood.
]

[Illustration: THE LIGHTHOUSE OF ALEXANDRIA

    On the island of Pharos, close to Alexandria, stood the famous
    lighthouse erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus about 280 B.C.
    Constructed of white marble, in a series of vast stages of vaulted
    masonry, it reached the height of 520 feet, and in its summit
    burned night and day, an immense beacon fire of wood, which could
    be seen 30 miles at sea. The lighthouse was gradually destroyed
    by earthquakes and the action of the sea, but existed in some
    condition to the end of the 13th century.
]




[Illustration: BIRTH OF CIVILISATION AND THE GROWTH OF RACES]

THE RISE OF CIVILISATION IN EGYPT

BY PROFESSOR FLINDERS PETRIE


In looking back to the beginning of civilisation in any country, we
have to deal with the physical changes which the land has undergone,
and to consider the conditions which promoted or hindered the advance
of its inhabitants. The nature of a country largely rules the nature of
its people, both bodily and mentally; and it may even be true that, if
sufficient time be given, the same character and structure will always
be produced by equal conditions.

[Sidenote: Civilisation 10,000 Years ago]

[Sidenote: How we can Fix the Date]

From historical records, and the cemeteries that have been examined, it
appears that the beginning of a continuous civilisation in Egypt must
be set as far back as about 10,000 years ago, or 8000 B.C.
The question then is how far the condition of the country at that
age was similar to that now seen? The present state is quite new,
geographically speaking, as the deposit of mud by the Nile, providing
a suitable soil, is only a matter of a few thousand years. The
accumulation of deposit is about 5 in. in a century (4·7 at Naukratis,
5·1 at Abusir, 5·5 at Cairo); and the depth of it is not less than
26 ft., and varies in different places down to 62 ft. The lower
depths are, however, often mixed with sand beds, and do not show the
continuous mud deposit; hence the average depth of 39 ft. is too large,
and if we accept 35 ft., it will certainly be a full estimate. At the
average rate of deposit, this would be formed in 6,000 years. But, on
the other hand, the deposit may have been slower at the beginning, and
hence the age would be earlier. Also, the full depth may be greater,
owing to some borings hitting on ground which was originally above the
river. Hence the extreme limits of age of Nile deposit in different
positions are perhaps 7,000 to 15,000 years, and probably about 10,000
years may be a likely age for the beginning of continuous Nile mud
stratification. Hence it is clear that the start of the civilisation
was about contemporary with the first cultivable ground.

[Sidenote: Stone Age in Egypt]

[Sidenote: The First Dwellers in the Land]

Earlier than the Nile deposits there must have been some rainfall,
enough to keep up the volume of the river, and to prevent its
slackening, so as to deposit its burden. We must picture, then, the
country as having enough rainfall for a scanty vegetation in the
valleys, while the Nile flowed down a mighty stream, filling the whole
bed as it now does in flood, and bearing its mud out to the sea, except
in some backwaters which were shoaling up. Such a land would support a
small population of hunters, who followed the desert game and snared
hippopotami in the marshes. The Nile had been in course of recession
for a long period before it began to rise again by filling its bed.
The gravels high above the present Nile contain flints flaked by human
work; much as in Sinai such flakes are found, deep in the filling of
the valleys which belong to a pluvial period. Yet after the Nile had
retreated down to the present level, man appears to have been still
in the Palæolithic stage, as freshly flaked, unrolled flints have
been found at the lowest surface level of the desert. As the country,
while drying up, and before mud deposits were laid down, would have
only been suited for occupation by hunters, it seems probable that
Palæolithic Man had continued in Egypt until the beginning of the
Nile deposits--that is to say, till the beginning of the continuous
civilisation as discovered in the cemeteries.

BUSHMAN TYPE. On turning to the remains of the earliest
burials, we find that in many cases female figures of the Bushman--or
more precisely Koranna--type, were placed in the graves; while at
the same time long, slender figures of the European type are also
found. The inference is that the Palæolithic race of the Koranna
type was known to the earliest civilised race in Egypt, and that
they were being expelled and exterminated, as only female figures
are found--representing captive slave women--and even these soon
disappear. Thus it would seem that Egypt, as an almost desert region,
before the formation of the cultivable mud flats, was the last home
on the Mediterranean of the hunters who continued in the Palæolithic
stage. The physical type of the figures which we can attribute to this
earliest population has the Bushman characteristics of fatness of the
thighs and hips, with a deep lumbar curve; and a line of whisker covers
the jaws of the female figures, akin to the fur on the bodies of women
on the Brassempouy and Laugerie-Basse ivory carvings. This indicates
that they belonged to a cold climate, and had not been developed in
Egypt. As, however, man had certainly dwelt in the Nile valley for
long ages, this northern indication points to a comparatively recent
invasion from a colder to a warmer climate, such as has been the rule
throughout historical times.

[Sidenote: Time Without Dates]

PREHISTORIC PERIOD. The beginning of the continuous
civilisation of the country must be placed at about 8000 B.C.
The written history extends back to the first dynasty, and places that
at 5500 B.C., and this is checked at the sixth, twelfth, and
eighteenth dynasties by records of the rising of Sirius, and of the
seasons in the shifting year, which agree to this dating in general.
For the length of the prehistoric age before these written records
there is no exact dating. But, as in a given district of Egypt, where
all the desert has been searched, the prehistoric graves are about as
numerous as those made during the six thousand years of the historic
time, at least 2,000 or 3,000 years must be allowed. The amount of
change in every kind of production during this age is considerable; and
as we can trace two cycles of civilisation, which usually occupy about
1,500 years each in the later times, it is likely that 2,500 years
is too little rather than too long a period. As no definite scale of
years can be used, the dating of the graves of this age is treated as a
matter of sequence. From a careful statistical classing of the pottery,
it is practicable to put about a thousand of the fullest graves into
their original order; this series is then divided into 50 equal parts,
and these are numbered from 30 to 80. Thus, sequence date 30 is the
earliest type of graves yet found, and S.D. 80 is of the age
of Mena, the founder of the first dynasty. The sequence dates are given
below for each stage of the prehistoric times.

[Illustration: THE FIRST INHABITANTS OF EGYPT

    As female figures of the Bushman type are found in the very
    earliest Egyptian graves, it is thought that this race was native
    to the country and was gradually expelled by the first civilised
    people. The photograph illustrates one of the figures taken from a
    grave.
]

EARLIEST BURIALS. The earliest graves found are shallow
circular hollows on the desert, about 30 in. across, and a foot deep.
The body lies closely doubled up, wrapped in goat-skins. There are very
few objects placed with these burials; a single cup of pottery, red,
with black top; rarely, a slate palette for grinding face-paint; and,
in one grave, a copper pin to fasten the goat-skin. Pottery was in a
simple stage, and weaving was quite unknown. These graves are classed
as sequence date 30.

[Illustration: POTTERY OF FIRST EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION

    The pottery of the first period of Egyptian civilisation is
    characterised by raised white lines on a red body, and from the
    fact that it closely resembles the pottery of the Kabyle people,
    who live in North Africa to-day, it is thought the first Egyptian
    civilisation may have come from the west. These examples are before
    7000 B.C.
]

[Sidenote: Civilisation Emerging from the Mists]

FIRST CIVILISATION. The next period is that of the white patterns on
red (S.D. 31 to 34). This use of lines of raised white slip is the
same as on the present Kabyle pottery, and the patterns are so closely
alike on the ancient and modern that this forms a strong evidence for
a Western connection of the people. In this period the main lines
of the civilisation become clearly marked. The fine flint chipping
with delicate serrated edges; the polished red pottery, of circular
and of fancy forms; the tall round-bottomed stone vases; the slate
palettes for face-paint, of animal forms and of rhombic shape; the
use of sandals; the ivory combs with animal figures; the disc-shaped
mace-head--all of these were in use with the white cross-lined pottery,
and stamp the general type of the beginning of the civilisation. We
have before us a settled population, with strong artistic taste in
handicraft, but not in copying Nature; with patience for very long
and skilful work, and probably organised, therefore, under chiefs who
commissioned such labour; yet with sufficient general demand for fine
things to have raised hand pottery to its highest level; with strong
beliefs about a future life, as shown by the uniform detail of the
position of the body and the nature of the offerings in the grave; with
the arts of spinning and weaving; fairly clothed, as shown by the use
of sandals; fighters, with finely-made and treasured weapons; with the
use of personal marks for property--altogether much in the stage which
we now see in the highest races of the Pacific or Central Africa.

EASTERN INVASION. This civilisation had lasted for a few centuries when
we see a change come over it. On searching the types of pottery we
see many new forms arising from S.D. 38 to 43, while many older types
disappear between S.D. 40 and 44. These changes serve to stamp the
point of the change, but it is in other respects that the differences
are most visible. The black-topped pottery, red polished, and fancy
forms of pottery cease to develop after 43, whereas the decorated
pottery, with brown line patterns on buff ware, is scarcely known till
40, and the late class of pottery begins at 43. In the stone vases the
forms of tall tubular shape, with handles, cease at 40, and the barrel
forms begin at 39, and are dominant by 42. In flint work the various
new types begin from 39 to 45; the disc mace dies out about 40, and the
pear-shaped mace begins at 42. In the slate palettes old types vanish
and new ones arise from 37 to 42. The same is seen in ivories. Foreign
intercourse was increased, as silver (from Asia Minor?), lazuli (from
Persia?), serpentine and hæmatite (from Sinai?) all come into use from
38 to 40. In copying Nature, the steatopygous figures of the Bushman
type are only found before 38, and human figure amulets are known from
down to 44. Animal figure amulets begin in 45. Multiple burials in
graves are common down to 40, and continue till 43; only single burials
are known later.

[Sidenote: Invasion from the East]

[Sidenote: What Mythology Says]

The racial changes that are thus indicated by these widespread
differences can only be traced by the different products. The white
line pottery characteristic of the earliest people is closely like
that of the Kabyles, and the similarity of the skull measurements
show that there is no bar to accepting the connection with the North
African race. But the details of the new people, using animal amulets,
a face veil, wavy-handled pottery like that of early Palestine, and the
Asiatic silver and lazuli, all point to their coming in from the East.
This change may be further linked with the religious traditions. This
later mythology taught that Osiris had found the Egyptians in a brutal
existence, and he had taught them agriculture, laws, and worship; this
appears to be the tradition of the bringing in of cultivation by the
earliest civilisation at S.D. 30. His worshippers were allied with
those of Isis, who were a kindred tribe. Hence Osiris is said to have
married his sister Isis. The myth further shows that this civilisation
was attacked treacherously by the tribe who worshipped Set, in
confederacy with an Ethiopian queen, and they succeeded in suppressing
the worship of Osiris and removing his remains to Byblos in Syria. This
seems to agree to the influx of Asiatic influence, about S.D. 40, which
we have noticed above. The correction of the calendar from 360 to 365
days, is attributed to the beginning of the civilisation (at S.D. 30)
by the myth that Osiris and his cycle of gods were born on the extra
five days.

[Illustration: PREHISTORIC SHIPS: THE EARLIEST PICTURES OF EGYPTIAN
VESSELS

    The pottery of the second period of Egyptian civilisation is
    rich in representations of prehistoric ships. The vessels are
    shown with many oars, and the cabins are placed amidship with a
    gangway between. It is gathered from these crude drawings that in
    prehistoric times there was a considerable shipping trade along the
    coast of Egypt.
]

SECOND CIVILISATION. The second prehistoric civilisation, of
which we have traced the Asiatic source, is specially marked by the use
of a hard buff pottery, on which designs are often painted in brown
outline. The art of these has no connection with that of the early
white line designs; the habit of covering figures with cross lines, and
the imitation of basket-work, have entirely disappeared; and, on the
contrary, the plant, ostrich, and ship designs are quite new.

What, then, were the connections of these people? One indication
is gleaned from carvings at the close of the prehistoric age. Two
tributaries of the new king of Egypt are shown bearing stone vases
of the style of those of the second prehistoric civilisation, S.D.
45-75. They have large pointed noses, and wear pigtails, and another
tributary of the same type wears a long robe. Hence we may see that
they came from a cold region where stone vases were wrought; and that
by the form of the vase they were probably the same people as the later
prehistoric stock. Yet, on the other hand, we occasionally find pottery
vases of that people in the earlier prehistoric age, so that they must
have been in touch with Egypt throughout. The more likely source for
them was the mountainous region, where snow sometimes lies, between
Egypt and the Red Sea; and certainly this was the source of the rare
igneous rocks used for the prehistoric vases.

The general conclusion would be, then, that a people occupying the
mountainous region east of Egypt had an independent civilisation, and
were in touch with the early prehistoric people of the Nile valley.
Then about S.D. 38 they began to push down into Egypt, and fully
entered it by S.D. 44, bringing with them various different points of
their own civilisation, and expelling the Osiris worship in favour of
Set, who was their god. They probably brought in the Semitic elements
to the Egyptian language, along with the other Asiatic connections.

[Sidenote: Fleet of Prehistoric Ships]

SHIPPING. Under this new order of things we see much more foreign and
maritime connection. The introduction of silver from Asia, of lazuli
from Persia, of hæmatite from Sinai, of serpentine from the Arabian
desert--all show this. On the vases we see the starfish painted, and
one of the most usual decorations was the figure of a great galley
or ship. These ships are shown with oars on the pottery vases, and
without oars or sails on the tomb paintings. From the proportion of the
figures they appear to have been as much as 50 ft, long, and this is
confirmed by the oars, which number up to sixty. Neither indication is
exact; but the tendency would be to exaggerate the size of the figures,
and certainly not to diminish them, and so aggrandise the ship. The
shipbuilding in the early history may prepare us for the earlier rise
of such work, when we read of Senefru building sixty ships of a hundred
feet long in one year.

[Sidenote: What the Ships Were Like]

These prehistoric ships were all of one pattern. Amidships were the
large cabins, and there was no poop or forecastle structure, probably
because of the want of support fore and aft, the flotation being mainly
in the middle. The two cabins were separated by a broad gangway across
the boat, and joined above the gangway by a bridge from roof to roof.
Lesser cabins projected fore and aft from the main cabins. On the roofs
were rails at the corners, so as to secure top cargo without getting
in the way of loading it up. In a large ship there was an upper cabin
on the hinder main one, a light shelter shaded with branches. From the
back of the hinder cabin stood up a tall pole bearing a solid object as
a standard, which we shall notice below. At the stern was the steersman
seated by an upright post, to which was probably lashed the steering
oar, as in the historical boats. In the bows was a low platform, with a
rail round it, for the look-out, shaded with branches. The cabins were
narrower than the beam, and left free space for rowers on each side.

[Sidenote: Trade in Those Days]

FOREIGN IMPORTS. Vessels of this large size certainly imply a
corresponding importance of commerce. We have noted already the foreign
imports into Egypt; and others imply more distinctly a sea intercourse.
From S.D. 33 down to S.D. 68 there is found black pottery with incised
basket-work patterns [page 238] filled in with white. It is always
rare, only occurring in less than 1 per cent. of the graves, and in
only one case was there more than a solitary example. It is entirely
disconnected from the Egyptian types, but it is closely akin to pottery
found on the north of the Mediterranean, in Spain (Ciempozuelos),
in Bosnia, and in the earliest town of Troy. At the close of the
prehistoric age the black pottery of the late Neolithic city of Knossos
is found in the lowest levels of the temple at Abydos. And in the
royal tombs of the first dynasty there many vases and pieces have
been found which are clearly of the earliest age of painted Ægean
pottery. Considering that the bulk of the trade must have been for
perishable goods--oil and skins from Crete and Greece, corn and beans
from Egypt--it is not to be expected that a great amount of breakable
pottery would pass and be preserved in burials. There are, moreover,
some tallies left to us besides the northern pottery. Throughout the
later prehistoric age emery was regularly in use for all the grinding
and polishing of stone vases and of carnelian beads; and so common that
one excelsior spirit in search of a tour de force had even cut a vase
out of block emery, as being the hardest known material. This emery,
so far as we know, must have come from Smyrna. Again, the gold of the
first dynasty contains a large amount of silver. This points to its
source from the Pactolus region, where electrum was found, rather than
from Nubia, where the gold is free from silver.

CONNECTION OF THE SHIPPING. When we look at the evidence of the ships
themselves we see that it points to their having been used at sea
rather than on the Nile. It is impossible to row a ship up against the
Nile stream, which runs at three miles an hour, and sailing or towing
is the only way to go southward in Egypt. But in only one instance is a
ship with a sail represented, while there are many dozens of figures of
rowing vessels. The galley has always been the type of business ship on
the Mediterranean. All through the classical wars the rowing galley was
the mainstay of power. The Homeric catalogue of ships, the Phœnician
coinage, the Assyrian sculptures, the Greek fleets, the Carthaginian
navy and its destroyers of Rome, the pirates of Liburnia and Lycia,
down to the Venetian fleet and the French galleys of a couple of
centuries ago, all show the dominance of the oar.

[Illustration: ARTICLES ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE EARLY CIVILISATION OF EGYPT

    (1) Slate palettes on which paint for rubbing round the eyes was
    ground; (2) adze heads and harpoons, the harpoons at the sides
    being of bone, the others of copper; (3) beautifully flaked flint
    knife; (4) serpent amulet of stone; (5) maces of quartzose rock,
    very effective weapons; (6) forked lances of flint; (7) combs of
    ivory; (8) vases carved from hard stone; (9) black incised pottery,
    a foreign import into early Egypt.
]

[Sidenote: Port Ensigns Carried]

The nature of the standards upon poles carried by the ships has been
variously interpreted. We can distinguish the elephant, bird on a
crescent, and fish; the two or four pair of horns, the bush, and the
branch; the rows of two, three, four, or five hills; the crossed
arrows, and the harpoon, besides other forms which we cannot identify.
The question is, what view will account for these most completely?
Some have thought they were emblems of gods, and that the boats
were sacred to divinities; but there are many which cannot be thus
explained. Others have thought that they indicated tribes; but the
rarity of repetitions, and the absence of any duplicates together, are
against this. Marks of personal ownership have been suggested; and this
is not impossible, as they might be well dedicated to special gods. But
the prominence of the groups of hills as signs agrees best with their
being marks of the ports from which they hailed; the divine emblems
would naturally be those of the god of the port, the number of hills
would be very likely to distinguish different ports, the elephant, the
bush, or the fish might well be the mark of a port. And the parallel
in later times of such being distinctive ensigns for ports--as in
the ensign of Gades found in the Red Sea--agrees to this usage. The
carrying of a port ensign in an age of independent city-states was
equivalent to a national flag in later times; and it was essential for
showing friends or foes.

We have dwelt at length on the detail of this shipping, as it is the
most important subject for showing the extent and character of the
early civilisation. It takes two to trade as well as to quarrel; and
these large ships were not rowed about the Mediterranean unless there
was a paying trade to be done on those coasts, a people civilised
enough to produce goods that were wanted and to require foreign stuff
in exchange, and a society stable enough to enable goods to be stocked
in bulk and traded without any serious risk of fraud or force.

[Sidenote: Ingenuity of the Hunters]

[Sidenote: Mode of Ostrich Hunting]

HUNTING. The main occupation represented in the prehistoric paintings
is hunting. The bow and arrow was used. The bow was a single piece of
wood, painted red and covered with zigzag white lines; the arrow was of
reed, with a point several inches long of hard wood. The forked lance
of flint was also a favourite weapon [p. 238]; it was inserted at the
end of a wooden shaft, which was controlled by a long thong of leather
ending in alabaster knobs which kept it from entirely flying from
the fingers. Thus the lance could be thrown by a man in ambush to cut
the legs of a gazelle, while, if it missed, it was jerked back by the
elastic thong, and so saved from breaking the delicate edge of flint.
These forked lances are found throughout nearly all the prehistoric
time; and they continued in use in North Africa till the Roman Age,
when Commodus borrowed thence their use for hunting the ostrich.
This lance retained by a thong was the parallel to the favourite
harpoon used in fishing. Another mode of hunting was the trap. This
is represented as being formed of pointed splints or stakes, lashed
together like spokes of a wheel, with the points around a central
hollow. Such traps to catch the legs of animals are used now in Africa,
and an example was found at the Ramesseum, dating perhaps from the
twentieth dynasty. Sticks or clubs were used in hunting and in fighting.

[Illustration: STANDARDS OF EGYPTIAN SHIPS

    There has been much speculation as to the significance of the
    standards carried by the most ancient of the Egyptian vessels, as
    recorded on pottery and elsewhere. Some examples of these standards
    are here given. The most reasonable supposition is that these
    devices indicated the port from which the vessel sailed.
]

FIGHTING. The earliest representation of fighting is on a vase of the
white slip on red, at the beginning of the prehistoric age. On that
a man with long, wavy hair appears to be spearing another man in the
side. Later, there are the fighters on the Hierakonpolis tomb, at about
S.D. 63. On this hooked sticks are used, and the fighters are clad
with a spotted animal’s hide on the back. One man has been killed, and
another is hard pressed, fallen on one knee. To save himself from blows
he has taken off the hide and is holding it up, thus anticipating the
use of the shield. It seems likely that the Egyptian shields of hide
stretched on a frame of sticks were directly copied from this use of
the hide that was otherwise worn on the body. In another group a black
man is holding three red captives bound with a black cord, while two
red men approach him to deliver their kindred.

[Sidenote: Fighting with Maces]

The weapons mostly found are the stone maces [page 238]. These were
sharp-edged discs in the earlier age, a form which is very effective
in a mixed fight, as it cannot be turned aside like a battleaxe, but
must cut in whatever direction it falls. These maces were usually made
of porphyry and other quartzose rocks. The mace used in the later age
was of a pear shape, and this form was continued into the historic
times, and perpetuated in the conventional scene of the king striking
an enemy, even in the latest times. The handle holes in these maces are
very small, and this shows that probably the handles were dried thongs
of hide. Nothing else would be sufficiently tough and elastic. The
flint dagger was probably also used, and certainly the copper dagger.
A very fine example of this, dated to S.D. 55 or 60, is wrought with a
quadrangular blade, giving the utmost strength and lightness, a better
design than that of any daggers of the historic times.

[Illustration: THE FIRST PICTURES OF FIGHTING

    The earliest representation of fighting, at the beginning of the
    prehistoric age, shows a man with long, wavy hair, spearing another
    man in the side. Later, are fighters on the Hierakonpolis tomb,
    using hooked sticks and clad in piebald hides of animals.
]

TOOLS. Tools of metal begin with small, square chisels of copper at
S.D. 38. The intermediate examples have not been found till we reach
a fine large chisel of copper at the close of the prehistoric. Adzes
of copper [p. 238] begin at S.D. 56, or earlier, and increase in size
down to historic times; they continued to be the favourite tool of the
Egyptians for both wood and stone working until Greek times. Borers are
usually tapered, to work in soft material. Needles of copper appear as
early as S.D. 48, and the fastening pins of copper begin with the very
earliest graves of S.D. 30.

Flint working was the greatest artistic industry of the prehistoric
age. The surfaces were not merely reduced by haphazard flaking, but
the flints were ground into form, and then reflaked in a marvellously
regular manner with uniform parallel grooves [page 238]. The finishing
of the edges by deep serrations of the fineness of forty to the inch,
and the chipping out of delicate armlets of flint, show also the same
astonishing skill and perfection of hand work. The Scandinavian flint
chipping used to be regarded as the most perfect, but the Egyptian work
entirely surpasses it in regularity and boldness.

STONE VASES. Hard stones were largely employed for making vases [page
238]. In the earlier age tall, cylindrical forms were used, and in the
later age barrel forms. The earlier material was usually basalt, but
syenite, porphyry, alabaster and limestone were also used. The later
materials included slate, grey limestone, breccia, serpentine, and
diorite. The hollowing out of these vases was by grinding, but the
outside was entirely formed by chipping and polishing without rotary
motion. The perfect regularity of the forms, and the fine taste shown
in the curves of the outlines, as well as the hardness of the material,
place the vase working higher than any work of the historic times.

[Sidenote: 1,000 Forms of Pottery]

POTTERY. Pottery was greatly developed, although the wheel was not
used, and all the forms were entirely modelled by hand and eye without
mechanical guidance. The outlines are true and fine, the circularity
is astonishingly regular, although all the trimming and polish runs
vertically; and it was as easy in such a mode of building to make oval,
doubled, or square forms, all of which are found. The specially later
pottery is the decorated, with brown-red lines on a hard buff body.
The forms are clearly copied from those of the stone vases; and the
patterns are derived from the fossils and veins in the stone, or from
the cordage net in which the vases were slung for carrying. Next appear
aloes and other bushes, and figures of ships, which we have already
noticed. Rows of ostriches and of hills are also favourite designs.

Other pottery of this ware, but not decorated, has a curious type
of projecting ledge, wavy up and down, for handles. Beginning at
S.D. 40 as a globular vessel, the type narrows to an upright jar;
by S.D. 60 the handles dwindle, becoming united around it as a wavy
band of pattern; by S.D. 70 the jar at last becomes a cylinder; by
S.D. 75 the band becomes a mere line; and then after S.D. 80--in the
first dynasty--the jar dwindles to a rough tube like a thumbstall.
The contents of such jars similarly deteriorate. At first, perfumed
ointment was put in them, then it was covered with a layer of mud to
retain the scent; the mud increased until it was merely scented mud,
then only plain mud was used, and lastly they were left empty. Beside
many other forms of this hard ware there was also a long series of
types in a rough brown pottery, which passed on into the ordinary
pottery of the first dynasty. As there are over a thousand different
forms of this prehistoric pottery known, and their study has been the
key to the whole arrangement of that age, this subject is a very wide
one, which we have barely noticed here.

[Illustration: PREHISTORIC POTTERY OF EGYPT

    The later pottery of the prehistoric period is characterised by
    brown-red lines on a hard buff body. The forms and decorations have
    been copied from earlier stone vases, and from the nets in which
    they were carried.
]

[Sidenote: A Constant Personal Possession]

SLATE PALETTES. A constant personal possession was the slab of slate
upon which the green malachite or red ochre was ground for colouring
around the eyes. Usually a brown pebble crusher accompanies it; and the
dead often have a little leather bag of malachite in the hands. These
slate palettes begin with a plain rhomb form, probably derived from
the natural cleavages of the slate rock. Well-formed animal figures
were also carved as slate silhouettes; the deer, hippopotamus, and
turtle are the oldest, and the fish also comes into the earlier age.
The double bird type begins with the second age, and all the types
continuously degrade by repeated copying until their original form is
quite indistinguishable at the close of the prehistoric age [page 238].

PERSONAL OBJECTS. Ivory carving is common, mainly for long combs to
fasten up the hair. These usually have an animal on the top of them;
but they only belong to the earlier age, suggesting that the hair was
worn shorter in the second period. Decorated tusks of ivory are also
early; they were fastened on to leather work, probably to close the
openings of water skins. Ivory spoons belong only to the second period,
as likewise do the forehead pendants of shell.

Amulets of animal forms were frequent in the second period. They are
generally cut in stone, carnelian, serpentine, porphyry, and coloured
limestones. The forms are the bull’s head (which continued in use into
historic times), the hawk, serpent [p. 238], frog, fly, scorpion, claw,
vase, and spear head. The meanings attached to them are quite unknown.

Games are found, as shown by the ivory draughtsmen, the small balls
or marbles, the stone gateway and ninepins [page 242], the figures of
lions and hares, and the throwing slips for obtaining a count as with
dice.

[Sidenote: What the People Wore]

CLOTHING. The clothing of men was, at most, the kilt of linen, or an
animal’s hide put over the body. Often only a belt was worn, with
three narrow strips hanging down in front. A usual covering was a
belt with a sheath attached to it to hold up the genitals. With the
pleated kilt was also worn a belt having apparently a jackal tail hung
behind. On some figures there is merely a double rope round the waist.
These various forms may belong to different peoples and periods; but
there are hardly enough examples to prove any distinctions, as the
varying circumstance of the figures, captive and conquered, resting and
working, rich and poor, in heat and in cold, may easily have led to the
different dress that we see. Women are represented with a white linen
petticoat from the waist to the feet. Leather was a favourite material
for clothing, as well as for bags. It was painted with patterns, and
decorated with beads, reminding us of the North American work.

[Sidenote: The Oldest Capital of Egypt]

DECAY OF CIVILISATION. All of this civilisation gradually decayed;
the pottery is seen becoming coarser, good work dying out in rougher
copying, new types seldom appearing, cheaper and poorer objects being
more usual. There is ground, however, for supposing that at some time
in this age there was a central rule at Heliopolis. There are many
traditions of a principality there, which must certainly have been
before the dynasties. The sacred emblem preserved in the temple was the
shepherd’s crook, _haq_, which served for the title of “prince” in all
later times; the other sacred emblem was the whip, and these two were
the royal emblems of Osiris. The title of the nome was “the princes’
territory,” and this capital retained in later ages the reputation of
being the centre of learning and theology. And on the fragment of the
early annals known as the “Palermo Stone” there is shown a long row of
kings of Lower Egypt before the dynasties; these cannot have ruled at
Memphis, as that was a new foundation by Menes.

[Illustration: THE EARLIEST GAME OF NINEPINS

    These ninepins, the gate to play through, and the porphyry balls
    were all found in a child’s grave.
]

[Sidenote: History as Reflected in Mythology]

[Sidenote: End of Prehistoric Times]

HISTORY IN MYTHOLOGY. Of the breakup of this civilisation we may trace
some relation in the mythology. After Isis had recovered the body of
Osiris, and the worship of the Osiris and Isis tribes had revived
again from the Semitic invasion of Set worshippers, Set again attacked
the Osiris worship, and scattered the body of Osiris into fourteen
parts in different places. This refers probably to the distribution of
parts of the body to different districts, when it was cut up in the
funeral ceremonies, according to prehistoric usage. These parts of
Osiris were kept at sixteen nomes in Egypt in historic times, six in
the Nile valley and ten in the Delta, probably the original nomes of
the country. The civil discord implied in this persecution must have
weakened the land; and then came the attack by the hawk worshippers
from the south. In the legend of Horbehudti, or Horus of Edfu, we read
that the crocodiles and hippopotami (animals of Set), attacked him,
and his servants, armed with metal weapons, smote and conquered them,
slaying 381 before the city of Edfu. Then the worshippers of Horus
allied themselves with the sun worshippers, and “Horbehudti changed his
form into that of a winged sun disc,” and “took with him Nekhebt the
goddess of the South and Uazet, the goddess of the North, in the form
of two serpents, that they might destroy their enemies in the bodily
forms of crocodiles and hippopotami.” That is to say, the Horus, Ra,
and serpent goddess tribes were all allied to attack the domination of
the Set tribe. They gradually drove them back, and “Set went forth and
cried out horribly”; he was finally struck down at _Pa-rehehu_. “Thus
did Horbehudti, together with Horus, the son of Isis, who had made his
form like unto that of Horbehudti.” That is to say, the rest of the
Horus worshippers joined the Horus-Ra party.

The final battle and expulsion of Set was at Zaru on the eastern
frontier of Egypt. This, in mythological form, seems to give the
history of the driving out of the Semitic population of the later
prehistoric age, by the dynastic race descending from Upper Egypt, at
the close of the prehistoric period. An actual result of this war,
all through later times, was the multitude of towns named Samhud, or
“United to Behudti,” marking the allies of the Horus party.

HISTORICAL SLATE PALETTES. Of the period of the conquest by the
dynastic races, which closed the prehistoric age, there is an
invaluable series of monuments carved on slate. These carved slates
are the elaborated outcome of the slate palettes used for grinding
the face paints throughout the prehistoric age. A similar elaboration
of a simple article is familiar in modern times in the snuff-box. A
plain receptacle of bone or wood was decorated, plated, made of silver
and of gold, inlaid with diamonds and painted with the costliest
miniatures, and yet--it was but a snuff-box. So the plain slip of
slate was carved into animal outlines, had animals scratched on it,
then signs in relief upon it, and at last was covered with the most
elaborate carvings, and yet--it was but a paint grinder, and had always
the pan for colour carved on it, exactly of the shape of the pans on
the painters’ palettes of that age. Every stage can be shown, from a
formless slate to an artistic scene in relief. There are many stages to
be seen in the artistic development.

    A. In the prehistoric age are the scratched outlines.

    B. The well-incised elephant is as early as S.D. 33-41;
    and with it are those signs in low relief.

    C. The high relief sign is of S.D. 60-63.

    D. On the boat slate, the drawing is much more detailed than on the
    boats of the Hierakonpolis tomb of S.D. 63. We can hardly
    separate this from the work of the artistic new-comers, and it may
    well be about S.D. 70-75.

    E. The animal slate seems to be next, as the treatment of the
    lion’s hair is unlike the following.

    F. The four-dog slate, being a coarser but more elaborated design
    of the same type, may well be next.

    G. The hut slate shows for the first time the arrangement of lion’s
    mane as on the ivory lions of King Zer.

    H. The gazelle slate shows the same treatment more advanced.

    J. The towns slate shows the wiry detail of muscles, beginning to
    appear in archaic manner.

    K. The bull slate has the same style carried out fully and finely.

    L. The Narmer slate has a less forcible and smoother treatment of
    the bull, and brings us down to touch with the historic times.

The figures can be seen in Capart’s “Primitive Art in Egypt,” where
they may be identified by these letters, corresponding to the
paragraphs above: A, B, figures 61, 62; C, 63; D, 169; E, 171-2; F,
173-4; G, 170; H, 177-80; J, 175-6; K, 181-2; L, 183-4.

RACIAL TYPES. These slate carvings not only show the art of the time,
but they present the different races and the details of their life,
more fully than we find them for many centuries later. We see six
different types of physiognomy in the early remains, and learn how
complex the racial history must be at the most remote period accessible
to us.

A. The _aquiline_ type is that of the principal prehistoric race,
closely like the Libyan on the west and the Amorite on the east.
When mixed with negro it produced the exact type of a European-Negro
mulatto. Probably equal to the Libyan. [See Heads 1 to 4 on next page.]

[Illustration: EGYPT IN THREE PERIODS OF ITS CIVILISATION

    This map of Egypt shows Egypt in three of its early periods. (1)
    The earliest centres of culture were at the places where parts of
    Osiris were preserved in the prehistoric age, here named. (2) The
    second period is shown by other centres being placed in the right
    geographical order, all here numbered I to XIX, following down each
    branch of the Nile. (3) The third period is when other centres were
    inserted in the lists in the wrong order, here numbered 8 to 20.
    These three stages of Egypt’s history are all before the monarchy.
]

[Illustration: THE EARLIEST PORTRAITS OF VARIOUS RACES IN EGYPT

    Numbers 1 and 2 are the aquiline type, similar to 3, the Libyan,
    and 4 the Amorite. 5 is the curly hair type, 6 the sharp-nosed
    type, 7 the short-nosed type, 8 the forward beard type, 9-11 the
    straight-faced type of dynastic conquerors. 12 is King Khafra of
    the Pyramid age, reverting to the original type of 1 and 2.
]

B. The _sharp-nosed_ type, firstly, with the hair in a pigtail,
bringing stone vases as tribute, and sometimes dressed in long robe;
secondly, with bushy hair and armed with spear, throw-stick, mace, bow
and arrows. Probably the Arabian mountain race mixed with Libyan. See
figure 6 on this page.

C. The _curly hair_ type, with plaited beard, conquered and destroyed
by type B. Probably from North Syria, by sculptures there. See figure 5
on this page.

D. The _forward beard_ type, with close-cut hair; much like the
figures on early Naukratite vases. Probably a coast people of Libyan
connection. See figure 8 on this page.

E. The _short-nosed_ type, a variety of D, apparently belonging to the
Fayum. Fig. 7.

F. The _straight-faced_ type of the dynastic conquerors. See figures
9-11 on this page.

All of these different peoples were in continual mixture and struggle
during the few centuries before the first dynasty. Looking to the
tribal hints given by the mythology, it seems probable that:

    A represents the early Osiris and Isis worshippers; B the first
    dominance of Set; C the second irruption of Set; D and E the allied
    Osiris and Isis worshippers of the Delta and coast who helped to
    expel Set; and F the hawk Horus worshippers, who took the lead in
    driving out B and C by alliance with A, D and E.

[Sidenote: Earliest Promise of Greatness]

DYNASTIC RACE. The most essential difference between the prehistoric
and the dynastic people is in their artistic capacity. The earlier
peoples, though highly skilled in mechanical detail and handling, were
yet very crude in their copying of any natural forms. But as soon as
we reach the dynastic race we find that there is an artistic sense and
power in their work, which puts even the roughest of it far above all
that had gone before. The earliest examples of their sculpture appear
to be the colossal figures of the god Min, found at Koptos. These are
of the most primitive style possible, the limbs scarcely marked off
from the trunk, and no details of form attempted. But on the side of
each there is a patch of hammer-work outlining some figures, perhaps
a copy of embroideries on a skin pouch hung at the side. These are
figures of a deer’s head and pteroceras shells on one, swordfish,
shells, and standards of the god on another, and the same objects,
together with an ostrich, elephant, hyena, and calf on the third. All
are but roughly hammered round, yet the spirit and correct forms of
the animals are of an entirely different order from anything that had
yet appeared in Egypt. The promise of all the artistic triumphs of
thousands of years to come is clearly seen in these decorations of the
rudest statues known.

[Sidenote: Mystery of Dynastic Race]

The source of this dynastic race can only be inferred. Though marked
off from the earlier inhabitants by their artistic taste, and by their
use of hieroglyphic writing, we know so very little of the early
history of any other lands near Egypt that we cannot yet trace any
link to their original source. On looking in various directions, it
seems at least clear that they do not belong to the southern tribes, to
which they have no resemblance; nor can we suppose that the Libyans,
who appear to be one with the prehistoric people, would also supply
a race so different in face and in habits. The north and Syria seem
barred by the earliest centres being at Abydos and Hierakonpolis in the
south of Egypt, from which they conquered the north.

[Illustration: THE FIRST PROMISE OF THE ARTISTIC TRIUMPHS OF EGYPT

    These animal figures were wrought by hammering around on the
    surface of the colossal statue of the god Min, found at Koptos, and
    show the beginning of the wonderful art of Ancient Egypt. It is the
    work of the earliest dynastic people, who have passed beyond the
    stage of making rude scratches on walls and on pottery, and have
    arrived, as the figures of the ox and the hyæna prove, at a real
    conception of the methods of sculpture.
]

[Sidenote: The Way the Conquerors Came]

Lastly, no source seems open except the East, the road from which
joined the Nile at Koptos. It is there that the earliest statues have
been found, and the decoration on those comprises the swordfish and
pteroceras shell belonging to the Red Sea. Such seems to have been
the road of the dynastic race into Egypt; but the origin of that race
yet awaits research. There are undoubtedly some Babylonian elements
in their culture, and somewhere at the south end of the Red Sea lay
Punt--the “divine land” of the Egyptians. Thus we are tempted to
look to some migration from Southern Arabia, whence also may have
proceeded the kindred Sumerian culture, a few centuries later. From
this centre in Pūn, or Punt, it may have conquered and colonised Egypt,
and then later passed on up the Red Sea to the coast of the Pœni and
their later Punic colony--Phœnicia and Carthage. Such is a pleasing
co-ordination, but whether we shall ever recover the evidence to prove
or disprove it hangs upon the chance of the past and the activity of
the future.

CONQUEST OF EGYPT. The conquest of Egypt spread down from the south to
the north. The earliest centres were Abydos and Hierakonpolis. Probably
Edfu was as important, or more so; but the great Ptolemaic temple
there being still complete, the remains of the earliest kingdom are
sealed beneath its pavements. The conquest must have been a gradual
process; it is described as such in the myth, many times and in many
successive places was Set defeated and repelled. And the probability is
that tribal war of such a kind would only gradually transfer district
after district from one holder to the next. We know how in England the
conquest occupied three centuries, from the Saxon landing to the first
Saxon king of all the land. So it may well have been in Egypt.

[Sidenote: Kings Before History]

We read in Manetho of ten kings of Thinis (Abydos) who ruled for 350
years before the first dynasty of kings of all Egypt. And we know, from
the fragment of the Palermo Stone, that at least thirteen kings of
Lower Egypt were recorded before the first dynasty. It is obvious from
this, and from the probabilities of the conquest, that there were Kings
of Upper Egypt before the first dynasty; and there is no reason for not
accepting this statement of Manetho as being equally correct with his
account of the first dynasty, which we can verify. Of the actual course
of the conquest, one fragment of carved slate has preserved the record.
Seven towns are represented upon it, each attacked by one animal of
the standards of the allies. These towns may be tolerably identified
by comparing the hieroglyphics placed within them with the names known
in historic times. The upper row of four towns seem to be Mem in the
Fayum, Hipponon, Pa-rehehui, and possibly Abydos; and the lower three
towns were probably in the delta, though there are the uncertainties
of two northern similar names.

[Sidenote: Graves of Unknown Kings]

DYNASTY O. The contemporary remains that appear to belong to this age
of the Kings of Abydos (which we may call Dynasty O) are the tomb
chambers and funeral objects in the royal cemetery at Abydos. The plan
of that cemetery shows a sequence of each later tomb being placed next
to the previous tomb, and generally a receding further back into the
desert as time went on. Now, in front of the tomb of Zer, the second
king of the first dynasty, there are three large tombs alike, and four
lesser ones. As objects of Mena, the first king, were found here, the
other tombs are presumably those of six kings before the first dynasty,
by their position. The actual objects found in these tombs are all of
a more archaic style than those of Mena or any later king. The tombs
themselves are all lesser and simpler than those of Zer and later
kings. And the names of kings found here are all without the vulture
and uræus title, but with only _neb neb_, the double lordship of Egypt.
The whole of the evidence, therefore, goes to show that we have six
tombs of the Thinite kings before Menes.

The names of these earlier kings, so far as we trace them, are Ka,
Ro, Zeser, Zar, Nar, and Sma. Of these, Nar, or Narmer, has the most
important remains--part of an ebony tablet, and an alabaster jar
from his tomb, and the great slate palette, a great mace head, with
scene of a festival, and an ivory cylinder, from Hierakonpolis. The
next in importance is Zar, or the “Scorpion King,” of whom there is
a great carved mace head, and also some vases. The objects of the
carvings appear to be celebrations of the _sed_ festival; this appears
originally to have been the slaying of the king every thirty years,
making him Osiris, one with the god, while his daughter was married
to the new king. By the time of these carvings, it appears that the
king took the place of Osiris in the ceremonials, and his successor
masqueraded as the new king, and was henceforth the crown prince--the
heir to the kingdom.

[Illustration: A FESTIVAL SCENE OVER 7,000 YEARS AGO, IN THE REIGN OF
KING NARMER, 5,500 B.C.

    A record of the festival of Narmer, a king of Abydos, who reigned
    before the first dynasty of kings of all Egypt. It indicates that
    when the festival of his own death was celebrated, in accordance
    with the ancient custom of killing the king every thirty years to
    make him one with Osiris the god, no fewer than 120,000 captives,
    400,000 oxen, and 1,422,000 goats were offered. The numerical
    system is here seen to be complete up to millions.
]

[Sidenote: Planting and Building]

There were brought to the festival of Narmer 120,000 captives, 400,000
oxen, 1,422,000 goats; and the system of numeration was as complete
before Menes as it was in any later time. The other mace head of
King Zar shows part of the festival, and also the ceremony of the
king hoeing the bank of a canal, probably at the inundation. We see
the reclamation of the land, with men busy embanking the canals, and
cultivating a palm tree in an enclosure of reeds, while they lived in
reed huts with plaited dome tops, and used boats with a very high,
upright stem. The carved slate palette of Narmer shows him grasping the
chief of the Fayum, prepared to smite him, a scene which was repeated
for five thousand years in all the Egyptian triumphs. The metal
water-pot and sandals are carried behind the king by his body servant.
On the other side of the palette is the king going to a triumphal
ceremony, preceded by the scribe, _thet_, and four men of different
types bearing the standards of the army, possibly connected with the
four territorial divisions of the army found under Ramessu II. Before
them lie ten slain enemies, with their heads cut off and put between
their legs. The carving of the detail, and particularly the muscular
anatomy of the king’s figure, is extraordinarily fine and firm, and as
true as any work of later time.

WRITTEN HISTORY. Having now dealt with the history as drawn from the
remains which have come to light, we now enter from this point on the
continuous written history, which has come down from hand to hand
without a break to our own times, during over seven thousand years.
This history was compiled by the high-priest and scribe Manetho of
Sebennytos in the Delta, and only a fragment of his work has been
preserved on its full scale; but three later writers have given
epitomes of it, and it is on their lists that we have to depend. These
are Julius Africanus (221 A.D.), Eusebius (326 A.D.), and George the
Syncellus (792 A.D.).

[Sidenote: The Men Who Handed Down the Story]

[Sidenote: An Ancient Historian and His Figures]

Unfortunately, much confusion has been caused by scholars not being
content to accept Manetho as being substantially correct in the main,
though with many small corruptions and errors. Nearly every historian
has made large and arbitrary assumptions and changes, with a view to
reducing the length of time stated. But recent discoveries seem to
prove that we must accept the lists as having been correct, however
they may have suffered in detail. A favourite supposition has been that
the dynasties named were arbitrary divisions of later times; but the
earlier lists also show such divisions as far back as the eighteenth
dynasty, and kings founding a dynasty used to copy the titles of the
founder of the previous dynasty, showing that the change was recognised
at the time.

Another idea has been that the dynasties were contemporary. But, on the
contrary, in the overlapping of the tenth and eleventh and also the
twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth dynasties, we can trace that Manetho was
very careful to cut off from one dynasty all the time which he allows
to another. As regards the general character of the whole length of
time, we can show that Manetho’s version in 271 B.C. at Sebennytos
was the same as that given to Herodotus two hundred years earlier at
Memphis. Herodotus was told that from Menes to his time were 330 kings,
and the totals of Manetho are 192 + 96 + 50 to Artaxerxes = 338, so
that, in spite of corruption in detail, the totals seem to have been
correctly maintained.

In earlier times we can compare Manetho with the fragments of the
Turin papyrus, written in the eighteenth dynasty; and here, in one of
the most disputable points--the kings of the thirteenth dynasty--the
average of eleven reigns legible in the papyrus is 6½ years, and
Manetho states sixty kings in 453 years, or 7½ years’ average. The
general character of a great number of short reigns in this age is
quite supported. Then in the eighteenth dynasty there is a rising of
Sirius in the movable calendar, in the twelfth dynasty another rising
of Sirius, and some seasonal dates, and in the sixth dynasty are two
seasonal dates. [Owing to the ignoring of leap year, the Egyptian
months shifted round the seasons in 1,460 years; hence any seasonal
date can only recur once in 1,460 years, and fixes an absolute date in
that cycle.] All of these agree with Manetho; and though the seasonal
dates are vague, they at least show that there is not an error of
several centuries in the total. In the earliest times there is the
account of the first dynasty, the names and succession of which are
verified by the sculptured lists in the nineteenth dynasty and by the
actual graves of the kings. Every accurate test that we can apply shows
the general trustworthiness of Manetho, apart from minor corruptions.

[Illustration: THE EARLIEST DETAILED SCULPTURE

    This carved slate palette of King Narmer shows him grasping the
    chief of the Fayum, prepared to smite him, a scene which was
    repeated for five thousand years in all the Egyptian triumphs. The
    sculpture shows anatomical treatment for the first time in art.
]

[Sidenote: Material for History of Early Times]

It is naturally a question what sort of material existed for an
accurate history of the early times. The fragment of annals known as
the Palermo Stone was engraved in the fifth dynasty, and it recorded
the principal events of all the years back to the beginning of the
kingdom, a thousand years before, the height of the Nile for every
year, the length of every king’s reign and of interregnum to the exact
days. With such a record of the most remote times carefully maintained
we have every reason to suppose that the high-priests and sacred
scribes had adequate information as to the general course of their
history. And we can see by the Turin papyrus how in the eighteenth
dynasty there was a full historical list of all the kings, with their
length of reigns, dynasties, and summations of numbers and years
at each of the large divisions. Thus it is proved that there were
historians at various periods who compiled and edited the history, and
so provided a solid groundwork for later writers, such as Manetho.

[Illustration: A RECORD OF EVENTS IN 4750 B.C.

    A part of early annals known as the Palermo Stone. Each compartment
    contains the events of one year, with the height of the Nile in
    cubits stated below it. The lower right division records: “Building
    of a ship 170 feet long, and of 60 ships 100 feet long. Conquest
    of negroes, bringing 4,000 men, 3,000 women, and 200,000 cattle.
    Building a wall of the palaces of King Sneferu. Bringing 40 ships
    of cedar (from Syria).” The left division reads: “Making 35 hunting
    lodges and 122 tanks for cattle. Building a ship of cedar 170 feet
    long, and two other ships of 170 feet. 7th census of cattle.”
]

[Sidenote: The Witness to Early Civilisation]

The materials that we have for studying the civilisation of the early
dynasties are the royal tombs and steles, the tablets of the annals,
the sealings of officials, the inscribed stone bowls, glazed pottery,
ivory, and wood, the rock steles of Sinai, fragments of buildings of
the second dynasty and onward, the steles of private persons and their
graves.

[Sidenote: In the Kings’ Tombs]

ROYAL TOMBS. The tombs show that brickwork was familiar on a large
scale. The prehistoric houses and tomb chambers were by no means
slight. The town at Naqada has house-walls about two feet thick,
and a town wall nearly eight feet thick. The brick-lined tombs are
sometimes as large as 8 ft. by 12 ft. The kings’ tombs of Dynasty O
are about 10 ft. by 20 ft. Those of Narmer, Sma, and Mena are about
17 ft. by 26 ft., with walls 5 ft. to 7 ft. thick. Under Zer there is
a great extension; the brick pit is 39 ft. by 43 ft.; it contained a
wooden chamber 28 ft. by 34 ft., and it was surrounded by many rows
of graves--318 in all. The later tombs of the first dynasty are less
imposing. At the end of the second dynasty the tomb of Khasekhemui
consisted of fifty-eight chambers covering a ground 223 ft. long and
40 ft. wide. The sizes of bricks were between 9 in. and 10 in. long,
half as wide, and under 3 in. thick, in the prehistoric and through the
first and second dynasties. Wood was used on a large scale. The royal
tombs show beams for framing of about 10 in. wide and 7 in. deep, and
18 ft. or 20 ft. long, and these beams supported chamber sides and
floors formed of planks 2 in. or 3 in. thick. The roof was made of
similar beams, covered with boards and mats, which sustained 3 ft. or
4 ft. of sand laid over the tomb. Such was an extension of the roofs
of poles and brushwood which were laid over the prehistoric tombs, and
over the lesser tombs of the officials of the early kings. The sign for
royal architect in the earliest inscriptions is that of a carpenter,
the “two-axe man.”

The stone steles were of limestone in the first dynasty, and in the end
of the first dynasty the steles of Oa are of black quartzose stone.
Those of Perabsen in the second dynasty are of very tough syenite.
The carving of all these is in high relief, finely and boldly cut in
a simple, clear style. At the end of the second dynasty a stone-built
chamber appears for the first time; the blocks have naturally cloven
surfaces so far as possible, and the rest of the faces are dressed
with a flint adze. Of the same reign of Khasekhemui there is a granite
door-jamb with signs in high relief. Granite had already been wrought
flat for pavements in the previous dynasty, at the tomb of Den.

[Sidenote: Egypt’s Annual Record]

[Sidenote: The Honour that Kings Died for]

TABLETS OF ANNALS. The greater part of the inscriptions of this age
are on small square tablets of ebony and of ivory, which were found
in the royal tombs. These each have a hole in the top corner, and the
sign of a year--the palm stick--down the side, as there is by the side
of the entries of the events of each year on the early annals. They
thus appear to be each the record of a year, and to have been strung
together by the corner holes. There has not yet been any authoritative
study of the meaning of these earliest inscriptions, which are
very difficult to understand, owing to the transitory condition of
ideographs having not yet yielded to syllabic usage. We can, however,
glean many points about the civilisation from them. The towns were
fortified with battlemented walls. The shrines were small sanctuaries,
with a large court in front, like the temple courts of later times. At
the entrance to the court were two tall poles, apparently with flags,
which later developed into the row of masts with streamers in front of
the pylon. The great festival at the close of each thirty years was one
of the most important, already noticed here under Narmer. The sanctuary
for it had two shrines back to back, each with a flight of steps,
apparently for Upper and Lower Egypt. The dancing of the new king, or
the crown prince as king, before the old Osirified king in the shrine,
was one of the main events of the feast. The types of temple furniture
were already fixed in the forms which lasted for several thousand
years; the barks of Harakhti are shown with the same hangings at the
prow, and are double--for the E. and W.--as in the temple of Sety I.
Large bowls of electrum were offered in the temples by the king. Wild
cattle were hunted by trap nets, as was done much later in Greece. And
there is shown a long road, with resthouses and palm-trees, leading up
to the great temple in the reign of King Zer.

[Illustration: A RECORD OF A YEAR’S EVENTS: EBONY TABLET OF KING MENA,
5500 B.C.

    The greater part of the inscriptions of the first dynasty are on
    small square tablets of ebony and of ivory. These each have a hole
    in the top corner, and the sign of a year--the palm stick--down the
    side. They thus appear to be each the record of a year, and to have
    been strung together by the corner holes. They were found scattered
    in the tombs.
]

[Sidenote: Officers of the Empire]

SEALINGS. The clay sealings of officials show much of the organisation
of the country. The oldest titles, under Zer, are the “Commander of the
Inundation” and “Commander of the Cattle.” In the reign of Zet we find
a “Commander of the Elders” and “Archon,” or chief of the city; also
the temple property, or “Inheritance of the Chief God,” is named. Under
Merneit and Den there is a prince (_ha_). The vizier was “Commander of
the Centre,” probably the major domo of the Court, and also “Over-head
of the Commanders.” There are further named a “Royal Sealer of the Vat
of Neit,” the “winepress of the north,” and a “Deputy of the Treasury.”
In later reigns there is an “Over-head” of a city. And under the second
dynasty the titles are “Royal Sealer of all Deeds,” “Scribe of Accounts
of Provisions,” “Sealer of Northern Tribute,” “Collector of Lotus
Seed,” and “Chief Man Under the King.” These titles are from but a very
small part of the bureaucracy, only those whose seals were affixed to
the royal provision which was placed in the tomb; but they suffice to
show the regular organisation of the government at that age.

[Illustration: THE SEAL OF AN EGYPTIAN OFFICIAL

    Much exact knowledge of the life of ancient Egypt is derived from
    the clay seals of high officials. The oldest known titles are those
    of “Commander of the Inundation.” The seal here is that of the
    “Southern Sealer of all Documents of King Sekhem-ab,” 5100 B.C.
]

STONE VASES. The stone vases for the royal palaces were cut in many
kinds of hard rock. The rarer kinds are rock crystal, serpentine, and
basalt; limestones, porphyry and syenite were more usual; and the
commonest materials were metamorphic rocks formed from volcanic ash
verging into slate, dolomite, marble, and alabaster. These materials
were mostly selected for their beauty. The red porphyry is the rarest,
being only known in a bowl of the time of Mena, and two prehistoric
pieces. Black porphyry with very large detached white crystals belongs
only to the age of Mena. Pink granite, blue-grey volcanic ash, the
quartz crystal, and the pink limestones are all very beautiful
materials. The hardness does not seem to have been aught but an
attraction, as the finest work is always put on the best materials;
whereas the soft alabaster and slate did not seem to challenge any
great amount of care. The working of the inside was always done by
grinding with blocks, sometimes having first removed the axis by a tube
drill hole. The outside was dressed by chipping, hammer-dressing, and
hand polishing; sometimes done by circular motion on a block, but often
by crossing work by hand. The readiness with which oval forms were made
shows how little depended on circular motion.

[Illustration: TOMBS OF KING ZER OF THE FIRST DYNASTY, 5400 B.C.

    Brickwork was common in the houses and tomb-chambers of the
    prehistoric period, and in the time of the kings of Abydos the
    building of the tombs was greatly extended. Here are seen the
    brick partitions to contain offerings, around a wooden chamber
    now destroyed. Beyond this all round were 318 graves of the royal
    servants.
]

[Sidenote: Two-Colour Glazing]

The use of glazing had been already invented early in the prehistoric
age, as far back as S.D. 31; but it was only applied to beads and small
amulets. The earliest glazed pottery vase known is of Mena, and this
has his name in violet glaze inlaid in the green glazed body. Glazed
vases continued to be made throughout the first and second dynasties,
but became rarer, and they have not been found revived till much
later times. But ivory and wood were largely used for carved objects,
sometimes of elaborate design. One of the most distinguishing points
of the age of the early kings was the minute carving in imitation of
leafage and basket-work, which was mainly done in slate, but also in
wood. The fragments which remain show most elaborate patterns worked
out with minute attention to detail. Nothing of the same kind is known
in any other age.

[Sidenote: Remains of the Oldest Sculpture]

MONUMENTS. There are but few monumental remains from these early
dynasties. The great rock-cut scene of Semerkhet conquering a Bedawy
chief in Sinai is the main example. The figures are only summarily cut
in the natural face of the sandstone; but the truth of the outline is
better than in any of the more pretentious work of later times in that
region. The scene of Sanekht--early third dynasty--is much poorer, and
that of his successor, Zeser, is scarcely legible, the work is so rude
and slight. The private tablets which were put over the graves around
the royal tombs show that the fine work was limited to a small number
of royal artists in the first dynasty, and that there was no general
school of able men such as arose in later times. The figures and
hieroglyphics are rudely hammered out, and the drawing is but clumsy.
There is seldom more than just the name of the deceased. By the time of
Den many are distinguished as the _Akhu-ka_, the “glorious soul”; while
there is also a class apparently named “people of King Setui, daughter
of the captive”--_i.e._, slaves born of captives taken in his wars.

[Illustration: THE EARLIEST SCULPTURE

    There are but few monumental remains from the early dynasties. The
    great rock-cut scene of Semerkhet, of which this shows a part, is
    the main example. The figures are only summarily cut in the natural
    face of the sandstone; but the truth of the outline is better than
    in any of the more pretentious work of later times in the same
    region.
]

It appears that the use of fine materials was at its height under
Mena and Zer. Zer has the largest and best-built tomb, Zet shows the
greatest delicacy in work, and Den seems to have had the most showy
objects. The changes in about five generations here were much like
those in an equal time from Amenhotep I. to III. in the eighteenth
dynasty. Then decay markedly set in, and there was no revival until the
Pyramid kings. But some development in the use of materials went on;
and Zeser, of the third dynasty, is said to have built a stone palace;
while Khasekhemui, a generation earlier, had a limestone chamber for
his tomb, and carved granite for the door-jambs of his temple, at
about 4950 B.C. These instances are the earliest use of stone for
construction that are yet known; though as early as the middle of the
first dynasty King Den had a pavement of red granite in part of his
tomb.

[Sidenote: Age of the Pyramid Builders]

PYRAMID BUILDING. We now approach to the well-known age of the pyramid
builders, when the civilisation appears at its highest development in
most respects. We shall not deal with this in detail, as it falls into
the ordinary historical period which appears elsewhere in this work
[see Egypt]. But it may be useful to give the most essential facts of
the material civilisation, which may otherwise be lost sight of in the
mass of the history.

In stonework the accuracy reached its highest point in the fourth
dynasty, when the Pyramid of Khufu was constructed with an average
error of less than 1 in 15,000 of length, and even less in angle. The
later work fell off from this accuracy; but in the twelfth dynasty
the granite sarcophagus of Senusret II. was wrought with an average
error in straightness and parallelism of under seven-thousandths of
an inch, and an error of proportions between different parts of less
than three-hundredths of an inch. There was no attempt to reach this
high degree of accuracy in the later work. In sculpture the main
character of the work of the Pyramid kings is its dignity and grandeur,
representing individualism on the highest plane of abstraction.

[Illustration: THE BUILDING OF THE PYRAMIDS IN THE ZENITH OF EGYPTIAN
CIVILISATION

    The age of the Pyramid builders may be regarded as the height of
    Egyptian civilisation. The greatest accuracy in stonework was
    reached during the fourth dynasty, when the Pyramid of Cheops, or
    Khufu, was constructed with an average error of less than 1 in
    15,000 of length, and of even less in angle. In the twelfth dynasty
    the granite sarcophagus of Senusret II. was wrought with an average
    error in straightness and parallelism of under seven-thousandths of
    an inch.
]

[Sidenote: The Great Navy of Egypt]

Under the twelfth dynasty the personality is weaker and the style that
of a formal school, highly trained but dependent upon training. In the
eighteenth dynasty the vivacity of expression is directed to a purely
personal appeal, more of emotion than of character. After that there
is nothing but copying, good or bad. The growth of shipping at the
early date of Sneferu, the end of the third dynasty, is surprising;
and the record that we happen to have shows how much probably went on
at other times, there being built, in one year sixty ships of 100 ft.
long, in the next year two of 170 ft. long.

METALS. The use of copper is as remote as the beginning of the
continuous civilisation in the prehistoric age, about 8000 B.C. It
increased in quantity down to the eighteenth dynasty, and it was
hardened by using arsenical copper ores, and leaving oxide in it; this,
with hammering made it equal to soft steel for working purposes. Rare
instances of tin, probably derived from natural mixture in the ore, are
known from the third dynasty; but there was no regular use of it until
we find pure tin, also known about 1500 B.C. Thence bronze was the main
material until Roman times. Iron had been sporadically found in the
fourth, sixth, twelfth, and other dynasties, and was known for about
4,000 years before it came into general use in Greek times. This agrees
with its having been obtained from native masses rarely discovered, as
has been the case in North and South America. Such native iron is the
result of volcanic action on iron ore in contact with carboniferous
strata. All these conditions exist in Sinai, and hence native iron
might be found there. By about 800 B.C. iron was used for knives, but
with a handle of bronze cast upon it to save the rarer metal. The iron
tools in Egypt from the seventh to fifth century B.C. are all Assyrian
or Greek, and it is not till Ptolemaic or Roman times that bronze tools
disappear.

[Illustration: TOOLS OF ANCIENT EGYPTIANS

    The plain strip of copper used for an adze in the early prehistoric
    age became in historic times widened at the edge, and had a slight
    contraction at the top; but the straight strip was kept up for
    7,000 years without any attempt at a haft, simply lashed on to a
    bent handle. It is not till about 800 B.C. that any use of a haft
    occurs in Egypt, and then only for a hoe. The different dynasties
    are indicated in the examples here given.
]

[Sidenote: Oldest Rock Drills]

The forms of tools varied very little. The plain strip of copper, which
was used for an adze in the early prehistoric age, became in historic
times widened at the edge, and had a slight contraction at the top to
assist in binding it on; but the straight strip was kept up for 7,000
years without any attempt at a haft, simply lashed on to a bent handle.
It is not till about 800 B.C., or later, that any use of a haft occurs
in Egypt, and then only for a hoe; while in Babylonia axes cast with
a strong haft were used before 3000 B.C. Nor was a haft used for a
hammer--a smooth stone in the hand was the only beating tool; while for
striking tools a wooden mallet was used, cut out of a block. The axe
began as a plain rectangle of copper, sharp on one edge; projections
at the back were added, until they were half as long as the breadth
of the axe, but no haft was attempted. The saw was used before the
pyramid period; and also the saw and tube drill set with hard stones
for cutting granite. Drills for boring vases were usually blocks of
stone fed with sand and water, or probably emery for cutting the harder
stones. Socketted chisels were an Italian invention in the later Bronze
Age, about 900 B.C., and were copied by the Greeks, in iron, about 500
B.C.; but they were never used except under Greek influence in Egypt.
Shears are also Western, and were unknown till Greek times in Egypt.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE WORLD’S OLDEST MONUMENTS: THE GREAT STEP
PYRAMID AT SAKKARA

    This pyramid was built by King Neterkhet of the third dynasty,
    about 4900 B.C.
]

[Illustration: THE BEGINNING OF THE ALPHABET

    The signary which was used in various early ages is here shown,
    as it has been gathered from examples of over 100 signs found in
    Egypt. Closely related to these are the early alphabets of Karia
    and Spain, the latter alphabet containing over 30 signs. It is from
    this prehistoric signary that the present Roman alphabet has been
    gradually selected during past ages.
]

GLAZING AND GLASS. The very ancient art of glazing, already used
in two colours under Mena, did not take any new form till the
eighteenth dynasty, when it was greatly varied by new colours and
new applications. Large objects, five feet high, were covered with a
single fusing of glaze; minute ornaments, for stitching on garments,
blazed with the brightest red, green, blue, or yellow; while whole
inscriptions were executed in coloured glaze hieroglyphs, inlaid in the
white stone walls. Glass, however, was not made separately until about
the time of Tahutmes III., 1500 B.C. There is no earlier example of
true glass, nor any representation of working glass. All the truly
Egyptian glass was wrought pasty, and never blown.

Blown vases belong entirely to the Roman age and later times. The large
blown glass lamps of Arab age, covered with fusible enamel designs, are
highly skilled pieces of work. The uses of glass to the Egyptian were
mainly for beads, for coloured inlays in wood of shrines or coffins,
and for variegated glass vases. The beads were made by winding a thread
of glass on a wire; the vases, likewise, were made by modelling on an
infusible core, held on a mandrel, and winding coloured glass threads
on the body. The inlays were often of one colour, generally deep blue
imitating lazuli; but often mosaics were used, made of a bundle of
glass threads fused together, drawn out, and then cut off in slices.
Such are all of Greek or Roman age. An important use of glass in Roman
and Arab times was for weights, and for stamps impressed on glass
bottle measures, inscribed with the names of the ruler and the maker.

[Sidenote: Taste of the Times]

Lastly we may note the variations in the nature of the Egyptian
literature, as reflecting the civilisation. The earliest tales are
those of magical powers, belonging to the pyramid age. Next, in the
Middle Kingdom, comes the contrast between town and country, and the
tales of adventure in foreign lands. In the New Kingdom the contrasts
of character are the main interest, and, in the late tales, the
pseudo-historical romance of the great tournament of the Delta, or the
antiquarian interests of a priest. These subjects of romance varied as
much or more than the actual grammar and language.

[Illustration: THE WANDERERS OF THE DESERT, AMONG WHOM EGYPTIAN
CIVILISATION GREW UP]

[Illustration: PYRAMID OF MEIDUM: BUILT BY SENEFERU, LAST KING OF THE
THIRD DYNASTY

    This tomb was begun as a square block of masonry, and was enlarged
    by successive coats, which are here seen. Then one smooth coating
    of sloping blocks was put over all from bottom to top, and so the
    first real pyramid appeared in 4700 B.C. The pyramid coating has
    been destroyed and only the base remains under the rubbish mounds.
]

ALPHABET. One subject of great European interest should be noted here,
as Egypt has thrown much light upon it. The origin of the alphabets of
the Mediterranean has been disputed, without historical knowledge of
the examples of such signs in early ages. The Egyptian hieratic and
the archaic Babylonian signs may have, perhaps, added a few to the
Mediterranean signary, but neither source can at all account for it.
The alphabet is by no means a clean cut series of 22 signs; it is a
very complex tangle of parallel groups of signs in different lands,
more or less alike. Of these groups two of the largest are those of
Karia and Spain, comprising over 30 signs, and these have many points
of peculiarity in common. This is sufficient to show that the fuller
alphabet is the original form, from which the shorter lists have been
selected. Now, in Egypt there are found scratched on pottery and
woodwork over 100 signs, and these comprise the forms of the fuller
alphabet. Moreover, these Egyptian examples are found at about 1200
B.C., or only a few centuries before the Karian and Spanish alphabets,
again in 3000 B.C., in 5500 B.C., and before 7000 B.C. Of 41 alphabetic
signs, 19 occur in 1200-1400 B.C., 32 in 3000 B.C., 27 in 5500 B.C.,
and 31 in 7000 B.C. As we have not a very large amount of material,
the occurrence of from 19 to 32 out of 41 signs is as much as we
could expect, as all the 41 occur in one period or another. The early
date of these puts all derivation from the subsequent hieroglyphics
entirely out of the question. We can as yet only say that a large
signary of 40 or more linear forms was in continuous use from before
7000 B.C. downwards, and that these furnish all the forms of the fuller
alphabets, those of the short Phœnician and Greek list of later time.

We have now outlined the rise of civilisation in Egypt, apart from the
history of the country, which is dealt with separately; and we turn
to the other great valley of early civilisation, in Mesopotamia, to
compare the resemblances and the differences between the two lands.

    W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE


NOTABLE DATES OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION


EGYPT

  B.C.

  8000    Continuous civilisation of prehistoric age began       S.D. 30
  7000    Asiatic invasion                                       S.D. 40
  5800    Invasion of dynastic race
  5500    Mena rules all Egypt                                   S.D. 80
  4700    Khufu builds Great Pyramid

  4000    Invasion from north
  3400    Middle Kingdom, twelfth dynasty
  2500    Hyksos invasion, fifteenth dynasty
  2250    Second Hyksos movement

  1580    New Kingdom, eighteenth dynasty
  1380    Tell el Amarna letters
   701    Taharqa (Tirhakah)
   570-26 Aahmes (Amasis)


BABYLONIA

    B.C.

    Before
    6000    Susa founded

    5000    Ea founds Eridu and civilises the land
    4700    Earliest monuments of Kings
    4500    Urnina
    3800    Sargon and Naramsin, Semitic rule
    3300    Gudea

    2280    Elamites conquer Babylonia
    2129    Hammurabi
    1572    Kassite dynasty
    1380    Burnaburiash
     690    Sennacherib
     556-38 Nabonaid, fall of Babylon




    THE RISE OF CIVILISATION
    IN MESOPOTAMIA

BY PROFESSOR FLINDERS PETRIE


The first impression that strikes the reader in passing from the
Egyptian to the Mesopotamian civilisation is the lack of that unity and
conciseness which makes history in the Nile valley so intelligible, and
its problems so well defined.

[Sidenote: Disunion of Early Babylonia]

In place of the well ordered history of Manetho, with its numbered
dynasties, and totals stated throughout, there is practically nothing
stated before Nabunasir in 747 B.C. The mythological extracts from
Berosus, and the list of Ktesias, which cannot be identified with any
known facts, give no help in arranging the outlines of the history. In
place of the uniform language and writing, which develops without a
break during the whole history of Egypt, there is the entire break from
Sumerian to Semitic. In place of the continuous importance of Egyptian
capitals, there is the change from the principalities to Babylon, and
thence to Nineveh. In place of the unified kingdom of the Nile valley,
through the whole written history, the greater part of the documentary
period is filled with rival principalities, within thirty or forty
miles of each other, the tops of whose temples must have been visible
over the entire territory of their respective states.

As the general scale of Egypt is so familiar to the modern reader and
traveller, it will be well to compare Mesopotamia with that. Babylon
was twice as far from the sea as Cairo; and from Babylon to Nineveh
was the distance from Cairo to Sohag. Or in other terms, starting from
the sea, Babylon was as distant as Oxyrhynchos, Nineveh in place of
Thebes, and the highlands of Carchemish, Commagene, and Lake Van were
the equivalent of Nubia. The old land of Shumer was just the size of
the Delta, and Akkad as large as Middle Egypt. The principalities of
Eridu, Lagash, Ur, Erech, and others, were as far apart as those of the
Delta--Bubastis, Benha, Sais, or Sebennytos. Indeed, it seems as if
this were a natural unit-size of early dominions in a fertile plain.

[Sidenote: The Nile and the Euphrates]

Though the relative age of the beginning of civilisation on the Nile
and the Euphrates is yet an uncertain matter, still it is clear
that the unification of Egypt long preceded that of Babylonia. The
earliest date of the scattered Sumerian kings is about that of the
fourth dynasty; the earliest Semitic dynasty--Sargon and Naramsin--was
contemporary with the ninth dynasty, and the rise of the dynasties of
Babylon is of the later Hyksos age of the sixteenth dynasty.

[Sidenote: Sea-shore Moved 47 Miles]

EUPHRATES VALLEY. The conditions of the Euphrates valley are very
different from those of the Nile. On the Egyptian coast the river
runs into a strong current in the Mediterranean, which sweeps away
its sediment and prevents any continuous growth of the coast. But the
Mesopotamian rivers reach the sea-level at the head of a deep bay,
the Persian Gulf, and hence there has been a continuous formation of
new land at the estuary. The Mesopotamian valley and the Persian Gulf
form one long drainage valley gently sloping down to a distance about
twenty miles outside Hormuz, where the valley bottom drops suddenly
three miles into the floor of the Indian Ocean. The slope of this
valley so far as submerged, is about 1 ft. to the mile, and it is
probably even less in the Babylonian plain, where sea-shells are found
as far up as Babylon. This valley has been filled, and the sea-shore
pushed downward, 47 miles in 2,200 years, or 115 ft. yearly, since
Spasinus Charax--now Mohammerah--was founded on the shore in the time
of Alexander. The account of a sea expedition to Elam by Sennacherib
is usually interpreted as showing a more rapid growth; but in the
uncertainty how far he went down a channel before entering the Persian
Gulf, it is not decisive.

How far back the extension of land has been going on, and whether
it was continuous to above Babylon, has not yet been proved. The
appearance of the map much suggests that the original drainage bed
ended--_i.e._, the valley was submerged--at about the nearing of the
two rivers by Sippara, and that all below this is the filling up of the
estuary. Should this growth have extended uniformly back so far, it
would give limits to the possible ages of cities--5000 B.C. for Eridu,
8000 B.C. for the whole plain of Shumer, 10,000 B.C. for Nippur, and
earlier for the site of Babylon. This would bar the southern region
from being as old as Memphis, and Eridu was probably open sea when
Menes laid out his capital.

[Illustration: THE PLAIN OF BABYLONIA: ITS EXTENT AT DIFFERENT PERIODS
IN HISTORY

    This map shows how the Plain of Babylonia has been extended down
    by silting since 10,000 B.C. The dotted lines, marked 330 B.C. and
    1830 A.D., show the known positions of the coast, as it shifted
    by silting up. These give an approximate scale of dating for the
    coast-line of earlier ages, which is marked here at each thousand
    years.
]

RANGE OF CIVILISATION. In looking for the earliest movements of people
that we can trace, it seems that the Semites must have extended from
Northern Arabia into Upper Mesopotamia and Assyria. In short, Semitica
stretched up to the mountain ranges of Armenia and Media. But the
culture was barbaric, and probably they were nomads who had no fixed
centres of life or stable organisation which could resist any united
movement. At this period the Persian Gulf probably extended as far as
Babylon. On their eastern flank were the mountain tribes, in what is
known as Parthia and Media, south of the Caspian. How remote is the
beginning of civilisation in this region has been found in the last
few years. On the north-east extremity of Parthia, in the far end of
Hyrcania, stands a group of mounds, near the modern Askabad, not far
from the celebrated Turkoman stronghold of Geok Tepe. Here are 14 ft.
of town ruins with iron, 15 ft. with copper and lead, about 70 ft. of
ruins with wheel-made pottery and domesticated animals, and 45 ft. of
remains with only rude hand-made pottery. What ages these represent we
cannot judge until the full account by Prof. Pumpelly is issued. But
in any case a very long period is involved. If the accumulation is at
the rate found in Palestine, 4½ ft. per century, the periods would be
perhaps 1,500 years for the wheel pottery, and 1,000 years for the
rough pottery, before the beginning of the age of copper.

At the other side of these countries stands the great mound of Susa,
with over 80 ft. of ruins. The inscriptions show that about 26 ft.
of the height was accumulated between about 4500 and 500 B.C., or in
about 4,000 years. Yet before that there is a depth of about 50 ft.
comprising three periods. In the upper of these is elementary cuneiform
writing on tablets. Below that is a period of rather rough, thick
pottery, painted with chequer patterns and closely-crossed lines, of
the style common in early Syria and Cyprus. And at the bottom of all is
a great quantity of very fine, thin wheel-made pottery of buff tints,
with decoration of thin diagonal lines, rows of ostriches, and various
patterns all derived from basket-work.

[Sidenote: Measuring the Depths of Time]

If the scale of accumulation of the historic times were to apply here,
it would reach back to 12,000 B.C.; but if the far quicker scale found
in Palestine applied, it would hardly reach 6000 B.C. In any case we
have here evidence of a civilisation apparently much earlier than that
of Babylonia, and none of this earliest fine pottery has been found in
the great plains. The highland civilisation may have begun as early,
or earlier, than that of Egypt; but that of Babylonia started probably
later than the North African culture on the Nile. Seeing, then, that
there was a very early civilisation at Susa on the west of Media,
and that further east on the limits of Parthia we meet another early
centre, it is not surprising that the inhabitants of these regions
united to spread down into the fertile plain which was created by
the growing delta of Mesopotamia. These people belonged neither to
the Semite of Arabia nor to the Aryan of Persia and India, but used
an agglutinative language of entirely different structure from these
others, and most akin to Turkish or Finnish. Having descended from
their mountain homes, the people were known as Akkadu, probably meaning
“highlanders,” though there are other open derivations. And hence the
northern part of the Babylonian plain, next to the Semitic Assyrians,
was the land of Akkad; while the southern part, next to the sea, was
known by the native Babylonian name of Sumer, or Shumer.

[Sidenote: China’s Links with Babylon]

SUMERIANS. The civilisation of the Sumerians was more akin to that of
the Chinese than to western types, especially in its art, its picture
writing and devotion to literature, its capacity for town life, and its
religious ideas. The cognate origins of the people may well account for
this, and some more precise resemblances led Terrien de Lacouperie to
the view that Chinese civilisation was an offshoot from the Sumerian
stock in its old Parthian home.

The elements of life were well developed by the Sumerians. They were
great agriculturists, and wrote works on the main industry of man, much
as the Carthaginians wrote standard works prized later by the Romans.
They fermented the grape and corn, and had alcoholic drinks. Cattle of
all kinds were raised, and prized as stock, which was fed on grass or
grain or oilcake. The horse is mentioned first in Semitic times, Abut
2000 B.C. Dates and figs were the principal fruits grown; and, indeed,
the date palm seems to have had a far more important place in the
civilisation than it did in that of Egypt. Both wool and leather were
used for clothing, as might be expected.

[Sidenote: Materials for the Great Buildings]

BUILDING. The main structural industry of the country was that of
brickmaking and building. Immense piles of brickwork were made to
support the temples, marking clearly the custom of the highlander
Akkadi worshipping on the hilltops. The brick _ziggurat_, or
five-stepped pyramid, at Nippur was 190 ft. by 128 ft., and about a
hundred feet high. The earliest baked bricks are 8·7 in. by 5·6 in. by
2·2 in., and they were enlarged to 12 in. by 7·8 in. by 1·9 in. within
the Sumerian age. Toward the close of that time large square bricks
were used. Sargon made baked bricks 18 in. square and 3½ in. thick.
From the time of Ur-Engur (3200 B.C.) onward the baked bricks were
11 in. or 12 in. square. Beside the baked brick used for pavements,
drains, facings, and important work, the great bulk was made up of
crude brick as in Egypt. For important purposes, such as store-rooms,
the inside of chambers was lined with a coat of bitumen, rendering them
damp-proof; and such a lining was used on tanks. Pottery is abundant
in all ages, but we still need a study of the pottery such as has
been made in Egypt, so that it can be used to date excavations in
general. Stands for jars, framed of wood, were used as in Egypt; and
also the clay sealings were of the same type in both lands. Stone vases
were made to imitate pottery; and this suggests that the highlanders
were only using basket-work when they descended into the plain, and
therefore did not possess any types of stonework.

[Illustration: THE ANCIENT BABYLONIANS AND THEIR WEAPONS OF WAR

    There is a fine study of weapons on a carving of Eannatum (4400
    B.C.), where spears about 7 ft. long, with blade heads, are
    figured. Shields are shown reaching from the neck to the ankles,
    straight-sided, used edge to edge as a shield wall by a phalanx of
    soldiers. The heads of the men are covered by well-formed peaked
    helmets reaching down to the nape of the neck, with nose pieces.
]

TOOLS AND WEAPONS. The common tools were used, such as knives and
drills; and great skill was developed in seal engraving upon hard
stone cylinders. Of weapons there is a fine study on a carving of
Eannatum (4400 B.C.), where spears of about 7 ft. long, with blade
heads, are shown; also shields reaching from the neck to the ankles,
straight-sided, and used edge to edge as a shield wall by a phalanx of
soldiers; while the heads are covered by well-formed peaked helmets,
with nose pieces, and reaching down to the nape of the neck. Bows
and arrows and daggers were also used; and stone mace-heads, of the
pear shape used in Egypt, were important ceremonially, and often bear
inscriptions. Woodwork was elaborated with carving, and used for
bed-steads and stools, as seen in the seats of the gods figured on
seals and tablets.

CLOTHING. Clothing varied a good deal. A primitive custom of nudity
when offering to the gods was continued down to the close of the
Sumerian age, as shown on the tablet of Ur-en-lil. The kilt was worn
with a fringe, not reaching the knee; or it was worn from the waist to
the ankles, as by shepherds. A robe over the left shoulder reaching to
the knee was used with a deep fringe all down the front edge and round
the bottom. A long robe reaching to the ankles is shown on the figures
of Gudea. But the most characteristic dress was that of ribbed woollen
stuff, much like that of the fifth century B.C. in Greece, as on the
Running Maiden. This stuff was worn as a flounced petticoat (Urnina
4500 B.C.), or in a longer form over the left shoulder and down to the
ankles, as by Eannatum and Naram-Sin. A splendid flounced cape and long
robe of this stuff is shown as worn by Ishtar on the Anubanini rock
stele, about 3600 B.C.

SCIENCE AND ART. The system of number, weight, and measure was
peculiarly Babylonian. Some people have theorised about all later
standards having been derived in various intricate ways from those of
Babylon. But it is very unlikely that standards should not arise in
different centres, and still more unlikely that the complex derivations
should be formed when the whole object would be to maintain a system in
common.

[Sidenote: Science in Sumeria]

But there is no question of the great advance of the Sumerian in these
matters. The sexagesimal system, which is far more convenient for many
purposes than the decimal, and which we still retain for time and
for angle, was due to the Sumerian intellect, while the standards of
weight, the talent, maneh, and shekel, were also from the same source.
And we cannot doubt that the cubit was already in use by a people
living in cities and carrying on business.

The style of art was clumsy, owing to the habit of crowding together
as much as possible into the space, in order to form the record. The
human forms are thick and short, and detail is firmly and perseveringly
repeated. It entirely lacks, in its early stages, the spontaneous truth
of the early dynastic work in Egypt. At the close of the Sumerian age,
under Naramsin, there is a fine bold design in groups of figures, well
proportioned, and with good action, recalling curiously the spirit of
late Greek work from Praxiteles to the Pergamene warriors. The stages
of change cannot yet be distinguished, owing to the scarcity of the
dated examples that we have.

[Sidenote: Loss of History]

LITERATURE AND WRITINGS. It is in literature that we know the Sumerian
best. Unhappily, other branches of archæology have been neglected,
and even destroyed, in the eager search for tablets, and yet more
tablets. By the thousand they are found, and hurriedly removed, while
the architecture, crafts, and art-history are thrown aside in the
process. The hunter for tablets in Babylonia, and for papyrus in Egypt,
is a heartless wrecker, without any interests beyond his own line.
When so much has been sacrificed for the written record, we must glean
all we can from it for the history of the civilisation, as most of the
other material that might have been preserved has been sacrificed.
The Sumerian language was the sole language of civilisation, until,
at about 4000 B.C., the Semite began to conquer and to take part
in the advance of the world. Yet the older tongue was by no means
extinguished; it held its place as the official religious and literary
language, like Latin in Europe. The literature of the world was in
Sumerian, and only gradually did the new Semite intruders translate the
older works or rise to writing a literature of their own.

The Sumerian literature was for long accompanied by a Semitic
translation, like Latin and Saxon gospels; and syllabaries,
vocabularies, and grammatical lists were written to teach the Semite
the old religious language. Legal documents were drawn up in Sumerian,
and it only gradually lost its precedence from 4000 B.C. down to 1600
B.C., when it was almost extinct, being only revived as a literary
curiosity in the seventh century B.C.

[Sidenote: How the Semite Made His Notes]

The writing was a pictorial system like the Egyptian hieroglyphics. And
so long as the Sumerian used it he clung to the pictorial origin even
though obscured by the lineal style of drawing. On papyrus or parchment
it is easy to make curved forms, and such were adopted in drawing the
signs originally. But on clay, which was the all-available material in
the Babylonian plain, impressing lines is far neater than scratching
them up; and the handy tool for making impressions was a slip of wood
with a square end. Hence all the curves tended to become four or
five-sided outlines, and all the detail became built up of little lines
tapering off to one end, or “digs” with the corner of the stylus. Yet
down to the close of the Sumerian age the forms of the objects can
still be discerned, and they are still pictures rather than mere
immaterial symbols.

[Illustration:

    Mansell

THE FINEST EARLY BABYLONIAN ART: TRIUMPH OF KING NARAMSIN, 3750 B.C.

    This work, found in Susa, is curiously free and pictorial; it is
    unrivalled by any early carvings, and most resembles the action and
    spirit of late Greek sculpture. It marks the great period of the
    fusion of the Sumerian and Semite.
]

The Semite, however, changed all this. He learned merely the sound
values of certain forms, their meaning could not appeal to him, and
he built up his words out of these sounds or syllables. He found it
inconvenient to write in vertical columns, which was the constant
Sumerian habit, and turned his tablet sideways to his hand, so as to
make his signs along a horizontal line of writing. Hence these signs
became familiar to him on their sides, and as they had to him no
pictorial values, the position was indifferent. Lastly, he produced a
syllabary of signs written with combinations of four forms of impress,
a long line wider at one end, a short line, a tall triangle, and a
small equilateral triangle, written in horizontal lines; and each sign
was standing on what had originally been its side. The wedge-shaped
form of these lines has given rise to the name of wedge-writing, or
cuneiform writing for this system.

[Sidenote: The Story of a Language]

The knowledge of this writing survived Greek influence for some four
centuries after Alexander, only becoming extinct at the close of the
first century of our era. In its long history, double that of the Roman
alphabet at present, it had been used for very diverse languages. The
Sumerian inventor had handed it on to the Semitic intruder, and he had
passed it to the Syrian, the Mitannian, the Hittite, and the Vannic
peoples. Probably it had kept its hold in its first home in Elam, where
it is found in historic times, and thence it became the writing of
Persia, and even of the Parthian, before it became extinct. The variety
of languages and the extent of country which it covered is much like
the scope of the Roman alphabet in Europe to-day.

LAW AND RELIGION. In matters of law the Sumerian was well advanced. The
needs of city life which he had developed necessarily required a full
definition of rights and duties. The first law book was that of Ea,
the god of civilisation, the Oannes of the later legends of Berosus.
The decisions of judges were kept in abstract, and such case-made law
served as a body of precedent to guide decisions. The position of women
was on a level with that of men; in the Sumerian hymns the woman takes
precedence, and one of the great Sumerian divinities was Ishhtar, who
became Ashtaroth of Syria, Athtar of Arabia, and hence Hathor of Egypt.
In the Semitic system the goddess is but a feeble companion of a god;
but Ishtar was the great divinity of war, to whom the kings owed their
triumphs, as well as the queen of love, who ruled the course of nature.

[Illustration:

  _VASES_

  _FORK_   _COMB_   _HARP_   _BOW AND ARROW_   _ARROWS_

                                                        _STONE_
                                                         _CLAY_
                                                                 _EARLY_
  _FISH_   _BIRD_   _AXE_   _VASE_                                _LATE_

                                                                 _EARLY_
  _FISH_   _MAN_   _MONTH_   _REED_                               _LATE_


THE DECAY OF PICTURE-WRITING

    This illustrates the decay of pictures into signs, and shows very
    clearly how the cuneiform writing was developed from the earlier
    hieroglyphics. It will be noticed that the word originally rendered
    by a crude drawing of the object--“fish,” for example--retains even
    in its final cuneiform style some resemblance to the tail of a
    fish. The cuneiform lettering was necessary to the Babylonians, as
    clay was the most abundant material in their land and could best be
    marked upon in lines without curves.
]

The religion of the Sumerians was like that of other Turanian races.
These peoples have an aversion to the idea of a personal god, to
which the Semitic peoples cling. The Samoyede believes in a multitude
of local spirits, the Chinese have their impersonal Heaven and the
host of gnomes or earth spirits. Thus also the Sumerian thought of
all objects as having a _zi_ or spirit, good or evil, which needed to
be appeased by the weak or commanded by the sorcery of the strong.
Shamanism was the type of religion; and books of exorcisms and magic
spells were in permanent use. The importance of the principalities
naturally led to their local spirits being of general importance; and
hence the political changes brought Sin the moon god of Ur, or Utuki
the sun god of Sippar and Larsa, or Marduk of Babylon, into a leading
position, and led toward the Semitic type of deities. How far this
change was due to the beginning of Semitic influence we cannot now say.
Other native gods were less personal, such as Ana the sky, Enlila the
earth, and Ea the sea.

[Illustration: THE SUMERIAN TYPE OF BABYLONIAN

    The fact that the shaven type of face appears in all the monuments
    back to 4500 B.C. indicates that the Sumerians were shaven as they
    were the older of the two main races in Babylonia.
]

[Illustration: THE SEMITIC TYPE OF BABYLONIAN

    Men with full beards are not represented on Babylonian monuments
    until 3750 B.C.; hence it is clear that such figures represented
    people of the Semitic type. This portrait is from a sculpture of
    King Hammurabi.
]

TYPES OF RACES. The physical type of the people is shown to us by the
early monuments, though we hardly yet know enough of the early history
to understand them fully. Two main types stand out entirely apart,
the shaven and the full-haired. And when it is seen that the shaven
type is that of all the earliest human figures, dating from 4500 B.C.
and extending down to even 2100 B.C., while the full-haired type is
not found on men before 3750 B.C., it is clear that the shaven is the
Sumerian and the bearded is the Semitic type. The remarkable point is
that the gods are represented with long hair tressed up and long beards
from 4400 B.C.; and as early as we can go back there is never a figure
of a beardless god. The reason probably is that personal gods were of
Semitic origin, their worship was borrowed, and hence their forms.
If so, we must see a large Semitic influence already acting on the
earliest known Sumerian art. The variations of type may perhaps lead to
some further distinctions. The full, curly, square-ended beard and long
hair are usual for the gods, as seen under Eannatum (4400), Urenlil
(4000), Gudea (3300), and Hammurabi (2100). The same beard, but with
the hair done up into a disc (as on the Tello heads and Hammurabi), is
worn by the King Anubanini (3600). The long and rather pointed beard is
seen on Naramsin (3750), and Hammurabi (2100). The short, square beard
is seen on the god, under Eannatum (4400), and on men about Naramsin’s
age [see the seal of Ubilishtar]. The shaven type has a wide face, with
a large prominent aquiline nose, best seen in the head from Tello. This
type is that of all the human figures on the scenes of Urnina (4500),
Eannatum (4400), and Urenlil (4000); and in the figures of the Scribe
Kalhi (cylinder, 3750), Gudea (stele, 3300), the heads of the same age
from Tello, and the later head of beautiful work at Berlin. The general
conclusions may be that the beard was worn and admired by Semites, who
elaborated a very full type for the gods; and that the Semitic influx,
though ruling under Naramsin at Sippara, north of Babylon, was yet
subordinate at the later date of Gudea, in the Sumerian south.

[Illustration: THE FAMILIAR BEARDED TYPE OF ASSYRIAN GODS AND MEN

    Although the full-haired faces are later in appearing on the
    monuments of Babylonia, all figures of gods are shown as possessed
    of full beards and a wealth of hair. A familiar example is here
    reproduced. It is supposed that the Semitic race in Assyria was the
    first to personalise the deities, and hence the resemblance of the
    images to the features of the Semites.
]

SEMITIC AGE. We now turn to the later stage of the civilisation, as it
flourished under the mixed race of Sumerians and Semites, partaking of
the culture of the older race and the higher moral tone of the less
advanced people. The Sumerians, as we have noted, had pushed down
from the Median highlands into the growing plain of Babylonia, while
the earlier Semites remained to the north in Assyria, and to the
west in Naharaina and Syria. Sooner or later a fusion was inevitable;
as we have seen already, the gods were of a Semitic type at a very
early time, and gradually the union took place during three thousand
years, until in the later times the product was unified in one strong
civilisation which spread its strength far and wide to the Crimea, to
Egypt, and to the deserts of Central Asia.

BUILDING. The old skill and abilities found a wide scope in this larger
frame of life. The fundamental craft of brickwork was carried on to a
vast extent. Every city had its great pile of an artificial hill of
bricks, built in stages to support the temple of its god high above
all. Immense walls surrounded the cities; those of Babylon were some
nine miles around, and are stated to have been 85 ft. high and 340 ft.
thick, surrounded by a moat lined with burnt brick laid in bitumen.
Not only was brickwork used on this great scale in the Babylonian
plain where stone was a luxury, but the force of example was so strong
that the Assyrian, in his highland home, kept up the same scale of
brickbuilding as his teachers, and used brick for his palaces and
temples when stone would have been much more easily available.

In Babylonia, as in Egypt, the supply of material for brickmaking on
a large scale is a serious question. For the great walls of cities,
obviously a surrounding ditch was an advantage; but for the materials
of houses, temples, and ziggurats, great pits had to be dug, or older
buildings pulled down. At Nippur it was found that the later builders
had torn down a long piece of the disused city wall and dug out a great
pit below and around it. So in Egypt the outskirts of every village has
its perilous hole where the bricks are made, which, in course of time,
becomes a stagnant pond, and every ancient temple, with its fortifying
wall, was built out of a large pit at its side which became the sacred
lake of the temple.

[Illustration: A TEMPLE PLATFORM, OR ZIGGURAT, OF BABYLONIA

    This restoration of the Temple of Bel at Nippur, from the designs
    of Hilprecht and Fisher, gives a good idea of the massive character
    of Assyrian architecture. The portion marked (1) consists of a
    stage tower with a shrine at top and a long stairway leading
    thereto; (2) is the temple proper; (3) house for “honey, cream and
    wine”; (4) “place for the delight of Bur-sin”; (5) is the inner
    wall and (6) the massive outer walls.
]

A higher branch of building was the use of glazed bricks. In Egypt
the use of glazed tiles for coating walls was boldly carried out in
the earliest dynasties, before 5000 B.C.; but there was no glazing
of the bricks, because in so dry a climate the Egyptian was never
induced to burn his bricks. In the wet and damp of Babylonia, on
the contrary, burnt bricks were usual, and all the facings and main
divisions of structure were in the indissoluble material, which held
together and protected the mass of crude brickwork within it. It was,
however, mainly, or only, in the later times--from the ninth century
onwards--that bricks glazed on the outer face were used for building.
It seems that this was done not so much for utility--like our modern
use of glazed bricks--as for the artistic effect of colours and
designs. The grandest example of such work that is known is the façade
of coloured glazed brick in relief, representing the royal archers,
from Susa of the Persian age, now in Paris, restored from the fragments.

Beside baked brick, pottery was used on a large scale. Great jars
occur in the earliest times, and cylindrical drains of large size,
sufficiently wide for a man to descend in them for repair. In later
times coffins of baked pottery of the Parthian age, and glazed coffins
of slipper shape, dating from the Sassanian period, are very common on
most of the city ruins. Unfortunately, sufficient attention has not yet
been given to the pottery of any age.

[Illustration: A KING’S EMBROIDERIES

    This illustrates the richness of the decoration on the breast of an
    Assyrian king, whose complete attire is seen in the other picture
    on this page.
]

Wood was largely used in the more wealthy ages, but it was always
valuable, as large timber had to be brought from a distance. The great
halls of the palaces were all roofed with timber beams, and panels of
cedar lined the walls where stone was not used. Probably palm trunks
and palm leaves served for ordinary roofing, as in Egypt at present.

CLOTHING. Clothing became far more elaborate than in earlier ages,
and the dominance of the more northern people brought a fuller dress
into customary use. The Assyrian covered the whole body with a tunic
down to the knees, and the upper classes wore a robe to the feet.
Rich embroideries were usual among both Babylonians and Assyrians,
and the splendour of Babylonian garments was spread far in other
lands by trade. The cap was either cylindrical or conical, and the
royal head-dress in Assyria was practically the modern tarbush, which
has again been imposed on the East by the Turk. Sandals were used in
Assyria, and the boot so characteristic of the Hittite was also brought
in from the cold mountainous country. Women wore a long, thin robe
to the feet, covered sometimes by a tunic and a cape. But Ishtar is
always shown in a ribbed dress flounced from top to bottom. This is the
regular women’s dress of the western Semites; and its use, like that of
the beard for the male deities, points to the strong Semitic influence
on the appearance and character of the divinities.

[Illustration: DRESS IN ASSYRIA’S GOLDEN AGE

    Rich embroideries were usual among Babylonians and Assyrians, and
    the splendour of Babylonian garments was spread far in other lands
    by trade. The royal head-dress in Assyria was practically the
    modern tarbush, which has again been imposed on the East by the
    Turk.
]

The armour of the Assyrian was much the same as that in the early
Sumerian days. The pointed helmet became rather taller, and did not
cover the back of the head. The spear, and the bow and arrow, were
the main weapons as before. The old straight-sided shield was also
used in Assyrian times, but was partly superseded by the round shield
considerably coned. The extension of the kingdom brought in various
auxiliaries, who differed from the older Babylonians. Slingers,
northern horsemen clad in leather, and mountaineers with woodman’s
axes, all added new branches to the army.

[Sidenote: Sculpture 5,000 Years Ago]

ART. The arts were carried to great perfection by the mixed population.
Broadly speaking, the best work is that of the early age of Naramsin
(3750 B.C.), and that of the late age of Ashur-bani-pal (640 B.C.).
Though not so fine, yet probably the Hammurabi sculptures are the
highest between the early and late schools. This would give intervals
of 1,650 and 1,460 years between the successive waves of art, and about
1,450 years more to the glories of Baghdad, a period much like that
found on the Mediterranean, though not coincident with it.

The finest work of Naramsin (3750 B.C.) is his great stele from Susa,
now in Paris. It is remarkably pictorial in style, agreeing in this
with the pieces of a limestone stele representing rows of combatants
from Tello, also in Paris. The figure of the king is lithe, active,
romantic in attitude, the enemies and his soldiers are full of
animation. No Oriental sculpture has had quite the same life in it; and
it recalls the pictorial style of Crete and the later Greek sculpture.
The art of Gudea (3300 B.C.) is more cold and formal, and has not the
same fine sense of proportion; it is distinctly a period of survival
and not of artistic instinct, as seen, for instance, on the limestone
relief in Berlin. The age of Hammurabi (2100 B.C.) shows careful
portraiture, but not the spirit of the earlier age; the work is well
finished, and there was no hesitation in handling materials boldly, as
on the great black stele of the laws, now in Paris. There was a fine
sympathetic treatment in private sculpture, as shown in the beautiful
limestone head of a Sumerian in Berlin [see page 266].

[Sidenote: Fine Later Art]

The last great age was that of the Assyrian Empire. Under
Ashur-nazir-pal (885) the work is fine and severe, but without much
expression. Shalmaneser III. (860) troubled more about history than
about art, and his principal remains are the long records of the black
obelisk and the Balawat gates, which are but clumsy in the forms. Under
Sennacherib (705) there is a breadth of composition, as in the siege
of Lachish, which is worthily aided by a more pictorial style, while
under Ashur-bani-pal (668-626) the art reaches both grace and vigour,
as in the splendid natural scenes of the wild-ass hunt, in the lion
hunt, and in the garden feast with the queen.

[Illustration: GUDEA LED BY A GOD

    This shows the Babylonian art at 3300 B.C., inferior to the earlier
    style of Naramsin. The original is in Berlin Museum.
]

MECHANICS. The mechanical arts were also greatly developed. The large
size of the buildings, the great quantities of stone transported for
the sculptures, and the immense size of many blocks--the bulls weigh
nearly 50 tons each--all show that there was not only considerable
skill, but also large ideals and directive ability. Layard found that
three hundred men were wanted for drawing his cart bearing the great
bull; and the sledge used by the Assyrians for the transport must have
needed as many, or more. Long levers are represented as having been
used in a very effective manner; but the placing of such great blocks
exactly in the right position required far more ability than the mere
transport. The forms of tools were much in advance of those used by
the Egyptians. As far back as Naramsin, the copper axes were all well
hafted, generally with rings raised round the edges of the haft hole to
strengthen the band and prevent it splitting.

[Illustration: AN ARTISTIC TRIUMPH OF ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE

    Under Ashur-bani-pal (668-636 B.C.) Assyrian art reached both grace
    and vigour, as is manifest in the splendid natural scene of the
    wild-ass hunt, which is here reproduced from the original in the
    British Museum.
]

[Sidenote: Modern Tools of Ancient Workers]

The forms of the iron tools are also excellent; and iron seems to have
been common in Assyria at an earlier date than in any other country,
probably from the tenth or twelfth century B.C. Certainly the set of
Assyrian tools left at Thebes by an armourer of Esarhaddon in 670 B.C.,
show that the principles, and even the exact forms, of modern tools
had already been reached. The chisels and rasp have not been improved
since; the saw is the same as the modern Oriental pull-saw, but the
teeth have not an alternate set; the centre-bits and files anticipate
our forms, but have not reached the complete stage. The material of
most of the edge tools is steel, showing that the hardening was then
understood. The cutting of seals in hard stones was an early art, but
it was well maintained, and some of the most beautiful specimens are
the chalcedony cylinders such as that of Sennacherib in London. The
engraving of the inscriptions also shows that cutting in hard stones
was freely done on a great scale; but the writing, being entirely in
straight lines, was much easier to engrave than the figures of natural
objects of the Egyptian signs. Probably emery powder or copper was the
means used, as in Egypt.

[Sidenote: The Books of Babylonia]

The use of an official stamp of guarantee on uniform pieces of silver
was adopted by the time of Nebuchadnezzar, but as this is two centuries
later than Greek coinage it was probably copied from that. In one
respect the Mesopotamian never equalled the Egyptian. The Memphite
school of work had attained to a mechanical accuracy which we can
scarcely gauge; their errors on large pieces of work were only a
matter of thousandths of an inch. But the Mesopotamian never did a
piece of passably square or regular stonework; the inequalities and
skew angles are glaring, even in highly elaborated works of art. The
sense of accuracy was quite untrained, and neither Semite nor Sumerian
show any ability in this line. Egypt, on the contrary, started with
a prehistoric race which excelled in exquisitely true handwork and
dexterous flint flaking, and with the artistic sense of the dynastic
people added, the combination was one of the highest that the world has
seen.

LITERATURE. To give any adequate idea of the literature of Babylonia is
far beyond our scope, and only the main classes of it can be named in
this outline. These were:

    1. Theology and Omens. 2. History. 3. Despatches and
    Correspondence. 4. Language and Translation. 5. Mathematics. 6.
    Astronomy. 7. Geography and Natural History. 8. Medicine.

[Illustration: HOW THE GREAT STATUES WERE MOVED: A CONTEMPORARY RECORD
FROM THE MONUMENTS OF NINEVEH

    The large size of the buildings of Assyria, the great quantities
    of stone transported for the sculptures, and the immense size of
    many blocks--the bulls weighing nearly 50 tons each--all show
    that there was not only considerable skill, but also large ideals
    and directive ability. Layard found that 300 men were wanted for
    drawing his cart bearing the great bull; and the sledge used by the
    Assyrians for the transport must have needed as many or more. The
    tools used were much in advance of those of the Egyptians.
]

The striking omission is that of literature in the form of tales or
poetry of actual life; there seems, amid all the myriads of tablets,
to be nothing similar to the tales of the various periods of Egypt. We
look in vain for the tales of the magicians, the romances of adventure,
of love, or of history, which restore to us the living view of Egyptian
thought. The Babylonian was severely commercial or scientific, and his
poetical ideas were only developed in his theology; he seems to have
had no play of fancy or taste for the excitement of story-telling.
Similarly in the Middle Ages the “Thousand and One Nights,” though
often referring to Baghdad, are yet tales of entirely Egyptian source
and idea.

[Sidenote: Wonderful Training of Babylonians]

But for his own purposes the Babylonian was well educated from a
literary point of view, and, considering the complexity of his
writing, he was probably better trained than any modern people except
the Chinese. The hundreds of signs which he had to remember had long
lost their pictorial significance, and needed an attentive memory and
long training; yet not only in public documents, but also in private
letters, mistakes are but rarely found. Classification of the signs,
classified lists of words of Sumerian and Semitic, grammatical works,
and reading books were the apparatus used. Even the peasantry and
sometimes the slaves learned to write, and there was hardly more
need of a professional scribe than there is in England to-day. But
this general education belonged to the Sumerian stock, and was much
diminished where the Semite was in the majority, so that in Assyria
only the upper classes could write, and nail-marks of contracting
parties are common. The feeling for literature kept the names of great
writers in remembrance, and the authors of the main religious pieces,
such as the Epic of Gilgames, are still known. The Egyptian, on the
other hand, has not preserved the name of a single author; even Pentaur
was probably only a scribe. The honouring of literature led to the
Assyrian kings amassing great libraries, and to the princes becoming
librarians and secretaries. The copying of ancient tablets for the new
libraries was a large business, carefully planned; and the scribe was
required to exactly state where his original was defective and what
uncertainties existed in the reading. Even private persons sought to
obtain favour by presenting copies of works to the temple libraries.

[Sidenote: Shall We Find an Assyrian State History?]

Of the classes of writings, the religious works are noticed later; the
historical writings are mainly Assyrian, recording the constant wars
with other lands, and the tribute and booty brought from them. That
there was a complete State history is shown by the ready allusions to
the time since certain events had happened. Ashur-bani-pal recounts
1,635 years since the Elamite king had carried off an image. Nabonidus
searched for and found the tablet of Naramsin, which he says had
not been seen for 3,200 years; he recites that there were 800 years
from his time to Shagarakti-buriash, and 700 years from Burnaburiash
to Hammurabi. These references show that we may hope to recover a
complete State history from Assyria, as we may hope yet for a complete
historical papyrus from Egypt.

The despatches and correspondence give full light on detail of politics
and affairs, showing the conditions of various countries; and where
a sufficient number have been preserved together it is possible to
build up a continuous history of a period, as in the case of the
Tellal-Amarna letters. The yearly annals of a reign belong more to the
historical division, and such records of Sennacherib, Ashur-bani-pal,
and others are of the highest value. The private letters give a full
view of the current life; and the business documents, especially
receipts, are the commonest of all records, showing the trade, the law,
and the business of the country in all its fulness.

[Sidenote: Beginning of Astronomy]

The tablets dealing with the Sumerian and Semitic languages together,
and the translations from one to the other, we have noted already. The
mathematical tablets are multiplication tables, lists of multiples of
measures, tables of squares and cubes, and plans with measurements
along the sides, which show the practical use of the science. The
astronomical records were already tabulated in the time of the early
Semitic Empire, Sargon having compiled for his library a work in
seventy-two books, the title of which is rendered “The Observations
of Bel.” The purpose of this was astrological, like the great mass of
short tablets reporting observations of a later date. But the inquiries
involved a considerable familiarity with astronomical movements, and
a mass of records which became of great value to the student. The
astronomical tablets of the Seleucid period are of special value, as
they often contain valuable historical matter.

[Illustration: A KING’S LETTER OF 1400 B.C.

    A clay tablet letter from Tushratta, King of Mitani, to Amenophis
    III., King of Egypt, announcing the despatch of valuable gifts and
    begging Amenophis to send him a large quantity of gold as payment
    for expenses incurred by his grandfather in sending gifts to the
    King of Egypt, and also as a gift in return for his daughter, a
    princess of Mitani, whom Amenophis had married.
]

LAW. In the domain of law the Babylonian had early formulated a code
from the actual working of decisions. Case-made law was his basis, as
in most countries, and abstracts of important cases were carefully
preserved as precedents. No torture was used upon witnesses, and
ample investigation of the right of a case seems to have been usual,
with full cross-examination. High penalties were stipulated for the
infringement of sales or contracts. The status of women was equal to
that of men in the Sumerian, but became inferior in the Semitic law.
Slavery was rather an assignation of labour than a control of the
person, as a slave family could not be separated. Slaves could hold
property, own other slaves, give witness, and were sometimes well
educated. The family union was strong, as inherited land could not be
sold without assent of relatives, and boys and girls alike inherited
intestate property.

The detail of the laws form a long study, but we may here note the main
sections of the great code of Hammurabi, showing the scope of the laws,
and stating the number of enactments.

    Witchcraft 2
    Legal falsehood 3
    Theft 3
    Loss 5
    Child and slave stealing 7
    Robbery 5
    Royal messengers and officers 16
    Agriculture 24
    Accounts 8
    Licensed traders 6
    Marriage property 19
    Women 32
    Votaries property 7
    Adoption 10
    Assault 20
    Doctors 13
    Builders 6
    Shipping 7
    Cattle 12
    Hire 25, and
    Slaves 5
    Distraint & deposit 13

Thus the whole scope of an agricultural and commercial community was
well safeguarded, and little doubt left as to general principles and
penalties. All this must have been the product of innumerable cases and
difficulties for two or three thousand years, before such a complete
code was set up.

HISTORY IN MYTHOLOGY. The religion has usually occupied a large part of
the attention and interest given to Mesopotamia; it is comparatively
well known owing to the quantity of documents and representations. Here
we need only mention such points as bear on the general civilisation.
We have already noticed how the purely Sumerian Shamanism, or belief
in the spirit of every object, which needed to be appeased, had been
tinctured by the worship of personal deities of the Semitic neighbours,
and how this influence was shown by borrowing the Semitic beard for
the gods and flounced robe for the goddesses, and occasionally for the
gods. Thus the Semite was the missionary of theism as against animism.

[Illustration: SIR A. H. LAYARD’S EXCAVATORS LOWERING ONE OF THE GREAT
WINGED BULLS FOUND IN NINEVEH

    These bulls weighed fifty tons each. Layard found that three
    hundred men were necessary to pull the cart on which the bulls were
    placed.
]

[Illustration: A CAMP SCENE IN THE DAYS OF NINEVEH’S POWER

    The interior of a castle, indicated by a kind of ground-plan with
    towers and battlements, is divided into four compartments. In each
    is a group of figures, either engaged in domestic occupations or in
    preparations for a religious ceremony. The pavilion is supported by
    columns, probably of painted wood, and the canopy is adorned with
    a fringe of alternate flowers and buds, like the usual Egyptian
    border. Beneath the canopy is a groom cleaning a horse with a
    curry-comb. A eunuch at the entrance is receiving four prisoners.
    Above are two mummers dressed in the skins of lions, while a figure
    with a staff appears to be the keeper of these monsters.
]

On the other hand, the civilisation of Babylonia is expressly stated to
have been given by Ea, or Oannes, who rose from the sea of the Persian
Gulf; he passed the day among men, and taught letters and sciences
and arts--the building of cities and temples, and the use of laws and
geometry. Also he showed the uses of seeds and fruits, and softened
and humanised the people, who had lived in a lawless manner like wild
beasts. This full ascription of civilisation to sea immigrants shows
that it cannot be set down as an indigenous growth, or as due to the
Sumerian, or still less to the Semite. The date of this movement is
roughly indicated by Ea, belonging to the city of Eridu; and 5000 B.C.
is the earliest date at which we can suppose the ground of that city
to have been dry land. Such must be taken as the extreme limit of the
early civilisation, and what we find of the early kings of about 4700
B.C. is the first efficient rise of monumental history in the land. All
this is parallel to the early civilisation in Egypt. That also came
in apparently from the Red Sea at about 5800 B.C., as the civilising
movement which changed the prehistoric age to the dynastic. And it
came only a few centuries earlier than the mission of Ea. It may be
possible that there is one common source of a seafaring people for both
civilisations, and, if so, we might look to Hadhramot as being in the
most likely common centre. At least, it is always convenient to explain
the unknown by the unknown.

The nature gods of Apsu and Tiamat, the ocean and the chaos, described
in the first tablet of the Creation series, belong to the primitive
Sumerian. “The waters of these mingled in union, and no fields were
embanked, no islands were seen; when the gods had not come forth, not
one; when they neither had being nor destinies.” And afterward “Evil
they plotted against the great gods.” After an attempt of Anshar
(perhaps the same as the Egyptian Anher, the sky god) to subdue Tiamat
(tablet 2), Marduk, the sun god, gains the victory; and in tablets 3
and 4, the supremacy of Marduk is finally confirmed by all the gods. In
this we seem to have the echoes of a tribal history as in the Egyptian
theology. The Shamanistic worship of a confused host of warring and
malignant spirits, is at last subdued by the worshippers of personal
gods under Semitic influence, and of these the people of the sun god
take in the end the leading place. All of these changes were, however,
long before the political domination of the Semite, which began about
3800 B.C., with Sargon.

[Illustration: A CHASE IN THE DESERT, RECORDED ON THE MONUMENTS OF
NINEVEH

    The series of which this bas-relief formed a part appears to
    have recorded the conquest by the Assyrians of an Arab tribe or
    nation who made use of the camel in war as a beast of burden. This
    sculpture belongs to a later period than the bas-relief from the
    North-West Palace at Nineveh reproduced below.
]

[Illustration: ROYAL SPORT IN THE DAYS OF ANCIENT NINEVEH

    This bas-relief probably formed part of a subject representing the
    King of Nineveh in his chariot hunting the wild bull. The warrior
    rides on one horse and leads a second, richly caparisoned, for the
    use of the monarch. Numerous small marks on the body of the animal
    probably denote long and shaggy hair.
]

[Illustration: BABYLON: THE WONDER CITY OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION AT THE
HEIGHT OF ITS POWER]

[Illustration: NIMRUD: ALL THAT IS LEFT OF ONE OF THE WONDER CITIES OF
ANCIENT BABYLONIA

    A view of Birs Nimrud, the traditional site of the Tower of Babel.
    On the plain below are the silent ruins of the ancient city, once
    filled with a teeming population.
]

[Illustration: A VIEW OF HILLAH, THE MODERN BABYLON]

We have now reviewed the questions of the rise of civilisation, as
apart from the ordinary history of the countries, which is dealt with
in its proper place in this work. Though it is difficult, and rather
misleading, to look at civilisation and the political history apart,
yet, so much has come to light in recent years to clear our view of the
origins of culture that we may be allowed to focus our attention on
that view of man, apart from his better known history. We seem at last
to have reached back to a definite beginning of arts and capacities on
both the Nile and the Euphrates, and to have touched a condition of
things that seems to point in both lands to some external source of a
yet pre-existing culture, which yet has to be traced. I am happy to add
that one of our greatest Babylonian scholars, Dr. Pinches, concurs in
the view of his subject which is here presented.

    W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE

[Illustration: THE EXILES IN BABYLON

    “By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down; yea, we wept.” From
    the painting by Bendemann.
]




[Illustration: THE RISE OF CIVILISATION IN EUROPE

By DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.]


[Sidenote: “Out of the East came Light”.]

“Out of the East came Light” has been the text on which all great
historians of civilisation have preached, from the authors of the
Mosaic literature down through Greek and Roman times to our own. Hebrew
writers have looked back to Mesopotamia; Greek writers to Egypt; Roman
writers to Greece; writers of Western and Northern Europe and the
New World to Rome, Greece, and Palestine. Their belief is justified
in so far as it is based on two great facts. Man first found in the
warm, alluvial valleys of Southern Asia and North-Eastern Africa the
conditions of climate and soil most favourable to his upward progress
from the savage state; and from these regions, so soon as with increase
of numbers he was moved to migrate, his steps were turned by the
geographical conditions surrounding his early homes, in a general way,
westward. He knew not yet how to cross broad seas; deserts, sandy
steppes, high mountains and tropical forests and swamps were equally
deterrent. The Polar ice-sheet, which had extended in Pleistocene
times to the Caspian, Black Sea, and Danube basins, and still lay,
in the dawn of human civilisation, far south of its present limits,
probably rendered, with its wide fringe of impassable moraine, forest,
and tundra country, all the lands included in the present Empire of
Russia singularly inhospitable. Whoso looks at the map of the Western
Hemisphere, bearing these facts in mind, will see at once that the
line of least resistance, and, indeed, the only possible line, led
the men of the great sub-tropic river valleys towards and along the
Mediterranean coasts.

[Sidenote: Civilisation from Without]

In so far, therefore, as European civilisation is a state of things
due to influences from without, it is due to the East; but that is
very far from the whole explanation of its origin. The impulse to rise
above savagery has not always--not, indeed, usually--come to peoples
from without; and probably in primitive time, when communications
were slow and difficult to a degree which we can hardly realise, the
origin of local culture was seldom or never to be accounted for thus.
In modern days there have been obvious instances to the contrary; but
even now it remains to be seen how far civilisations originated among
absolutely barbarous peoples by contact with higher races are real and
living growths. Examples of the modification and possible elevation
of ancient indigenous societies by incoming aliens, such as have been
seen in Mexico or Peru, India or Japan, Egypt or Barbary, are not
in point; for in these cases local civilisations certainly existed
long before the foreign influence. We must look to the history of the
relations of white and negro, or other savage, races in the homes of
the latter, and the results of such inquiries are far from conclusive.
Does civilisation so originated grow and thrive? Do even the races
thus civilised themselves any longer thrive and grow? Our antipodean
colonies, and the story of the native races of North America, if there
were no other instances, would not admit a categorical affirmative.
Nay, rather, the evidence so far available tends to discount the
permanence of transferred civilisation, and to throw doubt on the
continued vitality of races so civilised.

[Sidenote: The Escape from Savagery]

[Sidenote: Conditions Essential for Civilisation]

It is necessary to raise this question at the outset of the present
essay because it has been too often assumed, both implicitly and
explicitly, by historians of our civilisation, that all the cultural
development of Central, Western, and Northern Europe has been due to
alien influence, exerted from the south and south-east, and mainly by
the agency of the Greek, Græco-Roman, and Græco-Romano-Semitic (the
Christian) systems. Maine’s famous dictum that “Nothing moves in the
world which is not Greek in origin” has long dominated our thoughts.
Yet that magnificent generalisation is contrary not only to inherent
probability, but to known fact. Escape from the savage state, as Buckle
showed, depends in the first place on the existence of such conditions
of geographical environment as favour the accumulation of wealth and
the development of a leisured class--that is, such as conduce to the
production of a good deal more than the minimum necessary for life.
It can, therefore, have taken place wherever man found comparatively
genial climate and remunerative soil, and, in process of time, made for
himself, by clearing forests or draining swamps, an arable area which
would feed him and his more abundantly than was absolutely necessary.

Where these conditions were presumably present it is unreasonable to
suppose that the beginnings of civilisation were deferred age after
age, until late in time some stimulus chanced to be imparted by an
alien race or races which had, after all, advanced towards their
own civilisation, albeit earlier, through the operation of similar
conditions elsewhere. In the European areas inhabited by the Celtic
and Germanic peoples, for instance, long before we have the slightest
reason to believe that these can have come into intimate relation with
the civilisations of the South and East, both climate and soil were
unquestionably favourable, and local civilisations cannot but have been
originated independently. As has been well said, “Man everywhere has
the same humble beginnings”; and, up to a certain point, which is found
to be, in fact, far later than the inception of some kind of culture,
he will satisfy his primitive needs and desires in very much the same
ways.

[Sidenote: Spontaneous Civilisation in Europe]

Under certain conditions, known to have arisen independently in
many different regions of the earth, articles of luxury and art,
irrefragable witnesses to incipient civilisation, begin to be produced
spontaneously. To what remote periods have not cave deposits thrown
back the history of artistic effort in the valleys of Gaul? And what
credit, in reason, can be given to Greece, or even to Rome, for the
elaborate social order of the Teutonic tribes, which was of ancient
standing when first the Romans penetrated beyond the Danube and Rhine?
So well rooted in the soil, so potent and so widely diffused were
the Teutonic and Celtic social systems, that in the history of our
actual civilisation they are factors as worthy of consideration as the
influences of Rome, Greece, or Palestine. If Græco-Roman Christianity
came greatly to modify them in the end, they had, perhaps, ere that,
modified Christianity itself hardly less; and the social superiority
of the northern and western adherents of the now dominant religion is
probably as much due to character and habits developed before ever its
creed was formulated, as the dominance of the Turkish peoples in the
Islamic system is undoubtedly due to social characteristics evolved in
the oases and steppe-lands of Central Asia far back in the “Times of
Ignorance.”

Let it, therefore, be understood that in the following pages it is not
necessarily the whole origin of European civilisation that is being set
forth, but the modification and heightening of probably pre-existent
European culture by the first influences of the Nearer East which
can be supposed to have reached it. Of these influences the effect
is to some extent a matter of inference only. We cannot always, or,
indeed, often, point with any assurance to actual results of their
action. In great part we must still be content with little more than a
demonstration that directly along certain lines of communication, or
indirectly through certain intermediaries, the civilisations of the
South could, or did, come into relation with European areas at an early
age.

[Sidenote: The Two Great Sea Routes]

The sea routes which were most likely to be used in ruder ages by
Levantine mariners, after leaving the Nile estuaries or the Syrian
ports--which, as a matter of fact, are known to have been most
used--are: that which followed the littoral of Asia Minor to Rhodes,
whence it bifurcated, to Crete on the one hand, and to the Ægean isles
and coasts on the other; or that striking across the narrow strait
to Cyprus, and thence by way of Rhodes, or directly, to Crete. In
connection with both these routes, the importance of Crete and Rhodes,
and especially the former, must be obvious. Thence the Cyrenean and
Carthaginian projections of Africa were reached with greater ease than
by way of the littoral to west of Egypt, which, for some hundreds of
miles, is desert, reef-girt, almost harbourless, and pitilessly vexed
by an on-shore wind. From Carthage, Sicily and the Italian peninsula
were readily accessible, or the Gibraltar strait and the Iberian shores
could be made after coasting a littoral much kinder to navigation than
that between Egypt and the western bight of the Syrtis.

[Illustration: THE GREAT SEA ROUTES OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION

    Along the routes marked in this map lay the course of Ægean and
    Phœnician civilisation. The importance of Crete and Rhodes in the
    spreading of civilisation is clearly seen; they may be called the
    “half-way houses” between Mesopotamian culture, with its seat in
    the valley of the Euphrates, and Egyptian culture, in the valley of
    the Nile.
]

[Sidenote: The Two Great Land Routes]

The land routes in chief were also two. The Nile valley, closed by
desert on the western side, had comparatively easy access to the great
natural road which, leading northwards through Syria, passes at first
along the Palestinian littoral, and then through the central cleft
between the Lebanons to the Orontes valley. Mesopotamian traders,
following up the Euphrates till they had left the desert part of its
course behind them, fell into this same road in the region of Aleppo
and Antioch. Thence by the easy passes which turn the southern end of
Mount Amanus, the combined caravans reached Tarsus, penetrated Taurus
by the gap of the Cilician Gates, and found themselves on the plateau
of Asia Minor with a choice of easy routes leading either to the rich
western littoral, or the north-western straits, and from any and
every point offering safe passage to South-eastern Europe. This was
the only land route for Egyptian civilisation. But the Mesopotamian
had an alternative one, leading by way of the upper Tigris valley to
the north of Taurus and the Cappadocian plateau, whence it descended
the Sangarius and debouched, like the first route, on either the
north-western or the western coast of Anatolia.

[Sidenote: The Royal Road up into Asia]

In speaking of such land routes, we do not, of course, mean to imply
the existence of any made road, nor even of a single track. When most
definite, they probably resembled the Syrian Pilgrim Way--a skein of
separate paths now spreading widely, now running into and across one
another; and doubtless the early tracks diverged far more than this,
and making great elbows, followed now one valley, now another, to meet
again only after many days. One of the great lines from Mesopotamia to
the western Anatolian coast, that described last in our enumeration,
came to be defined more strictly than the rest, perhaps by the Kings
of Nineveh and their “Hittite” rivals and allies in Cappadocia, and
was known in the Persian era to the Greeks as the Royal Road “of all
who go up into Asia.” But at the much earlier time with which we are
most concerned, the influences of the East did not rush westward
torrent-wise in one bed, but soaked slowly, finding a way now here, now
there, in one general westward direction, and sending offshoots far out
to right and left of the main streams.

[Illustration: LAND ROUTES OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION

    The great natural roads along which lay the path of Egyptian and
    Mesopotamian culture are marked in white lines on this map. A study
    of the map, with a careful reading of this chapter, will make clear
    the way in which civilisation spread in Egypt and Babylon. It is
    along these lines that there are found evidences of the influence
    exerted upon Europe by the civilisation of the valley of the Nile
    and the Euphrates.
]

[Sidenote: Half-way Houses of Civilisation]

It has been said that there is evidence of the routes just indicated
having been, in fact, those most used. It is upon these lines, and
no others, that we find certain remarkable focuses of early culture
disposed as half-way houses between the Mesopotamian and Egyptian
civilisations on the one hand, and continental Europe on the other.
These are, in relation to the sea routes, first, the prehistoric
Ægean civilisation, focused from the first in Crete, but extended
to all isles and peninsulas of South-eastern Europe from Cyprus to
Sardinia and Spain; and, secondly, the Phœnician, originated on the
Syrian coast, but focused also at a later time at a second point
much farther west--namely, on that Carthaginian projection, whence
lay easy sea-ways to Sicily and Italy and all the western seas. Hard
by the Egyptian land route lay this same Phœnician society; while
all about its point of junction with the Euphrates road, on both its
continuations north-westward, and on the northern road from Mesopotamia
so soon as this had passed Euphrates, was established the singular
but as yet little understood civilisation which we call Hittite. How
early we may assume the latter’s existence in North Syria is still
doubtful; but since the discoveries of Winckler at Boghaz Keui,
there is little question that it was focused in prehistoric time in
Northern Cappadocia, whence its influence seems to have radiated
southward to the confines of Palestine, and westward to Lydia and
almost the shore of the Ægean Sea. It is to this North Cappadocian
region that the Tigris route from Assyria and Babylonia, which was
afterwards the Persian “Royal Road,” tended. Among these civilisations
the most important for our present purpose is the Ægean, because its
geographical area touched at some point all the westward roads, whether
by sea or land; and, moreover, because it is the one which actual
evidence both dates from the remotest antiquity and most clearly proves
to have been operative on Europe, especially on the most expansive of
its early cultures, the Hellenic. The recent exploration of Crete, due
in the main to Messrs. Arthur Evans and Federico Halbherr, has enhanced
enormously the significance of the civilisation revealed to the modern
world at Hissarlik and Mycenæ by the faith and fervour of Henry
Schliemann.

[Sidenote: Far-back Evidences of Culture]

We are now assured of certain facts of much moment to our inquiry.
Firstly, that this civilisation was developed originally from its
rudest beginnings within the Ægean area itself. This is proved by
evidence of the uninterrupted evolution of fabrics and decoration,
especially in ceramic ware, produced at Cnossus from the dawn of the
historic Hellenic period right back to Neolithic time. At various
points in this long retrocession we can place the Cnossian culture
in synchronic relation with the Egyptian by the presence both of
Egyptian objects in the Ægean strata, and Ægean in the Egyptian. These
points correspond with the highest developments respectively of the
New, Middle, and Old Pharaonic Empires--moments at which we should
naturally expect to find evidence of international communication. The
earliest point indicated by these synchronisms lies possibly as far
back as the First Dynasty, if certain vases, exported apparently from
the Ægean as vehicles for colouring matter, and found by Dr. Petrie at
Abydos, are accepted as of the remote date to which their discoverer
attributed them; but in any case the contemporaneity of some part of
the Old Empire period with the Ægean civilisation is assured, and that,
moreover, when the latter was already far advanced beyond its rudest
origins, as represented by the contents of the thick strata of yellow
clay which underlie the earliest structures at Cnossus.

[Sidenote: The Ægean Civilisation is Native]

Thus is the indigenous origin of Ægean civilisation assured. So also
is the independence of its after development. The typical Cretan
pottery, known as the “Kamares” style and lineally descended from
Neolithic ware, which attained, about the acme of the Pharaonic
Middle Empire a perfection both of fabric and ornament worthy of the
highest ceramic products of any age, remained absolutely distinct.
The same independence characterises a later ceramic product of the
Ægean, a glazed ware with monochrome decoration, which went into Egypt
abundantly under the Eighteenth Dynasty, and especially when Amenhotep
IV., “Khuenaten,” was reigning in his new capital at Tell-el-Amarna.
Nor is Ægean art distinctive only in its humbler products. The
frescoes, the plaster reliefs, the chased work in precious metals,
the ivory carvings, and the gem intaglios of the Ægean area, of which
Sir Charles Newton said thirty years ago that they were not to be
confounded with products of any other glyptic art, show the development
and retention of an individual naturalistic style--a style which
reacted on the fresco paintings of Egypt itself under Khuenaten.
Finally, to clinch the proof of its independence with the strongest
possible argument, the Ægean civilisation, as soon as it became
articulate, evolved for itself, in Crete at any rate, a system of
writing, displayed to us on some thousands of surviving clay documents,
which was purely its own, and cannot be interpreted by comparison with
any other known script.

[Illustration: THESEION TEMPLE, ATHENS: DORIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE

    The perfection of the Hellenic style, derived from Ægean
    architecture. 5th century B.C.
]

[Illustration: TEMPLE OF WINGLESS VICTORY: IONIC ORDER

    The perfection of the second Hellenic style, refined from the
    Doric, probably in the first place by Asiatic Greeks. Fifth century
    B.C.
]

[Sidenote: The Contact of Early Civilisations]

Secondly, it is now known that this civilisation, of remote indigenous
origin and independent development, reached a very high point of
achievement in many respects which afford the best-known tests of
culture--namely, in its artistic products, extant examples of which
offer ample evidence of wonderfully close study of natural forms, of
mastery of decorative principles and their execution, and of a sort
of idealistic quality, which has been rightly called “a premonition
of the later Hellenic”; also, in architectural construction and
the organisation of domestic comfort, as displayed in the palaces
at Cnossus and Phæstus, with their superposed stories, their broad
stairways of many flights, their rich ornament, their arrangements
for admitting air and light, and their astonishing systems of
sanitation and drainage. The written documents found, though still
undeciphered, plainly attest an advanced knowledge of account-keeping
and correspondence. The frescoes and gem scenes, as well as many
surviving objects of luxury, attest the existence of a leisured and
pleasure-loving class; and, lastly, the tribute-tallies of Cnossus
support the inference which is legitimately drawn from the uniformity
of certain material objects all over the Ægean area at certain
periods--notably that contemporaneous with the earlier part of the
Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty--and also from the wide range of certain
place-names, that there was an extensive imperial organisation.
The centre of this empire, as well as the original focus of the
civilisation, was almost beyond question in Crete. The prejudice in
favour of other focuses raised by the priority of Ægean discoveries
elsewhere, especially those made in the Argolid, has been greatly
weakened by demonstration of the superior catholicity and quality of
Cretan culture, and by recognition of the failure of Mycenæ to offer
evidence of anything like the same antiquity. And no more need be
said here to counteract it than that, if Buckle’s statement of the
climatic and geographical conditions necessary to the first development
and upward progress of culture be sound, those conditions were never
present in plenitude anywhere in the Ægean area except in Crete. There
are found in the most conspicuous degree the combination of these
geographical features--large tracts of fertile and deep lowland soil;
mountains so situated as to cause abundant precipitation, and so high
as to store snow against the early summer; absence of both swamps and
desert areas; and a climate not prone to extremes.

[Sidenote: What Crete has Taught us]

Like all other high civilisations the Ægean both borrowed and lent.
Since its debts could be contracted only with contemporary cultures as
high as its own, they were owed mainly to Egypt and Babylonia, while
its loans went out chiefly to lower civilisations further removed
than itself from the eastern centres, those, namely, of the European
continent. As regards Egypt, something has been said already of its
intercourse with the Ægean in all ages of the latter’s prehistoric
period. The evidence of that intercourse, known even before the
exploration of Crete, was fairly abundant, though limited almost
entirely to later ages of Ægean culture, often called particularly
“Mycenæan.” The “pre-Cretan” case was set forth very concisely in a
paper read before the Royal Society of Literature in 1897 by Professor
Flinders Petrie, who enumerated the objects of Egyptian fabric or style
found on Ægean sites, notably at Mycenæ, and in Cyprus and Rhodes; and
of objects of Ægean style or fabric found in Egypt, notably at Thebes,
Memphis and Tell-el-Amarna and in the Fayum. One word of warning only
may be added--that the occurrence of such imported objects, especially
if they be of the amulet class, on a site of a certain date does not
necessarily imply exact contemporaneity with the period at which the
objects were actually produced; for they may well have been carried
hither and thither in the stream of trade for some time ere coming to
rest, and been long preserved afterwards. Some of the Cypriote and
Rhodian tombs, for example, in which scarabs and other Egyptian objects
of the Eighteenth Pharaonic Dynasty have been found, are probably
considerably later than that dynasty.

Crete has largely reinforced this evidence, not only by throwing it
back to a much earlier time than that of the Eighteenth Dynasty, but by
proving that in its later periods Ægean art had come to be considerably
modified, both in forms and in motives and treatment of decoration,
by the art of Egypt. We have then to do, not merely with mutually
imported objects, but, much more than was previously understood, with
the mutual action of influences--the strongest possible proof of close
intercourse. On the Ægean side, our sole concern at present, are now
found scenes represented in fresco-painting or metal-work--for example,
the mural scene with a river and palms at Cnossus, and the well-known
cat-hunting scene inlaid on a Mycenæan poniard--and also decorative
motives which are of obvious Egyptian parentage. Other motives proclaim
their alien origin by more or less mistaken treatment. The best
instance in point is the use made of the lotus motive in Greece and the
isles, where the flower was never domiciled.

[Illustration: PALLAS ATHENA, THE MAIDEN GODDESS OF ATHENS

    One of the chief glories of the art of ancient Greece left to the
    modern world. Athena was the goddess and protectress of Athens, and
    her statue stood at the height of the Acropolis, dominating the
    city.
]

[Illustration: THE SUPREME MONUMENT OF ANCIENT GREECE LEFT TO THE
MODERN WORLD

    The Venus of Milo, one of the noblest examples of Greek art, and
    one of the most famous statues extant. Found at Milo, in Crete,
    about 100 B.C., and now in the Louvre, Paris.
]

[Sidenote: Influence of Egypt and Mesopotamia]

For influences of the Mesopotamian civilisation we have to look in the
main to the early civilisations of Syria and Asia Minor; but evidence
is not wholly wanting on Ægean sites. A Babylonian cylinder came to
light at Cnossus; the fashion of dress, especially female, as shown in
Ægean frescoes and gems, is very like the Babylonian, from whatever
primitive garments it had been developed; and in other respects also
the intaglio class of Ægean art products shows at least as much
Mesopotamian as Egyptian influence. It has borrowed the decoration of
both cylinders and scarabs; but it proves its essential independence
all the time by never adopting the forms of either of those
characteristic alien vehicles of glyptic art.

[Sidenote: Religious Ideas of Early Times]

Lastly, in the most important of all aspects of early civilisation--the
religious--we now know that the Ægean approximated very closely to the
old civilisations to south and east of it. The main idea of its cult
was that which seems to have been the oldest and the most dominant in
such cults--namely, the worship of the reproductive force of Nature.
This idea was embodied, as soon as divinities were imagined in human
shape, in feminine form, the desired relation of divinity to humanity
being expressed by the addition of a son-consort. How far other
features of this cult, common to the south-eastern lands--such as the
descent of the son to the human race, his periodical death at the hands
of the latter, and his joyful resurrection--were present, we do not yet
know. It would probably be false to ascribe the presence of this cult
idea in Ægean civilisation to any foreign influence, for it seems to
be a necessary expression of the religious sense of many peoples, and
is as likely to have been as indigenous in the case of Rhea and Zeus
(to give the Divine pair their possible Ægean names) as in those of
Isis and Osiris, or Ashtaroth and Tammuz-Adon. But we may note first
that here was a vital bond of affinity between the Ægean folk and their
mainland neighbours on east and south, and second, that long before
historic Hellenic times, the former had arrived at that essential
condition of progressive civilisation, an anthropomorphic conception of
divinity.

[Sidenote: The Greek Debt to Ægean Civilisation]

Enough has now been said to show that Ægean civilisation was both a
broad channel through which influences of Asiatic and Egyptian culture
could and did flow, and also in itself of such importance as to be
likely to exert influence on nascent civilisation in Europe. To see
whether it did so, we look first to the culture which succeeded it in
its own area, the Hellenic culture of the historic age, about whose
action, exerted indirectly on all subsequent civilisation, there is
no possible doubt. And at the outset stress must be laid on the fact
that we are dealing, in respect of the two civilisations in question,
with one and the same geographical area. There is here no question of
alien influences dependent on short or long communications by sea
or land. The Hellenic race, if indeed to be distinguished from all
elements in the earlier Ægean, came into the very domain of the latter,
and experienced by actual contact the full force of the pre-existent
culture. This being so, the probability of heavy debts having been
contracted by the later culture to the earlier is enormous; and it
becomes all but certainty when the few facts which we know about the
early history of the Hellenic peoples proper come to be considered
in the light of ascertained general laws governing the relations of
intermingled races.

[Sidenote: Emerging of Historic Hellenism]

It is clear that the Hellenic tradition of a great descent of peoples
from the north into mainland Greece and the western isles, about
1000 B.C., enshrines substantial fact. These peoples, possessed of
iron weapons, were superior to the Ægean folk in war, but evidently
inferior in the softer social arts. The Greeks called them Dorians, a
name afterwards associated with the most distinctive, but the least
cultivated, of the historic races of the peninsula--a race, however,
possessed in its full form of the conception of the city-state; which
implied the subordination of the individual to the corporate body, and
was the chief social message to be taught thereafter by the Greek to
the world.

Without calling these invaders by any one name, or supposing Northern
folk to have made then their first appearance in the Ægean area, we may
safely see in this Greek tradition the record of a cataclysmic change
out of which historic Hellenism was to issue at the last. In proof of
the invader’s inferiority in the useful arts we have the undoubted
fact that the command of the Greek seas, formerly held by Cretans and
other Ægean folk, passed for some centuries into Semitic hands--the
hands of those Sidonian Phœnicians whose coming, but as yet incomplete,
“thalassocracy,” is reflected in the most important of contemporary
documents, the Homeric lays, and, under the lead of the Tyrians, was to
grow greater yet. To illustrate their inferiority in the luxurious arts
we have the dry, uninventive style of artistic decoration known as the
“Geometric,” which also lasted for some centuries. It is evident that
the newcomers were conquering soldiers, who destroyed, but could not of
their own virtue create.

[Illustration: A GREAT CITY OF ANCIENT CIVILISATION: THE BUILDING OF
CARTHAGE BY DIDO

    From the painting by Turner, in the National Gallery.
]

Now, the course of events after all such conquests, if permanent but
not exterminative, is the same. The rude military invaders, finding
themselves deficient in woman-folk, take not only slaves but wives from
the civilised people of the soil. The resultant children tend more
and more, as time goes on, to be influenced by their native mothers.
In them previous culture begins to revive, and ere many generations
are past, so completely is the new race assimilated by the old that
the language in general use is that not of the conquerors but of the
conquered.

[Sidenote: Hellas and its Conquerors]

[Sidenote: The New Civilisation in Greece]

For a crucial instance we need look no further than to the after
history of the Norman invaders of Britain; and we might almost assume,
were there no actual memorials of the fact, that the civilisation which
arose anew in the Ægean area, after the tumultuous period reflected in
the Homeric lays and the Greek tradition of early Asiatic colonisation,
was largely influenced by what had been there in the Ægean Age. There
is, however, proof that such was indeed the fact. As will presently
be pointed out, the long period of unrest had allowed other alien
influences to enter Hellas notably the Semitic from Phœnicia. But
beside what appears to be Asiatic, and also beside what was new and
distinctively Hellenic in the historic culture, which became prominent
from the ninth century onwards (and this includes such all-important
features as the conceptions of a supreme Father-God, and of the
city-state--an idea of social order as obdurate to southern influences
as our own Germanic social order has proved)--beside all this, the
“non-Hellenic” elements in the civilisation are almost entirely such
as may be referred to Ægean prototypes. Hellenic art, which flourished
pre-eminently among the non-Dorian inhabitants, is distinguished from
Eastern art by just those distinctive qualities of both realism and
idealism which distinguished the highest art of the Ægean Age. Hellenic
religion has for its oldest, most universal, and most popular deities
various feminine impersonations, indistinguishable from the earlier
Mother-Goddess. The chief of these is the unwedded Artemis-Aphrodite,
supreme patroness of life all through the historic period of pagan
Greece, the essential features of whose cult are still dominant in the
observance of the Greek peasant-worshippers of the Christian Virgin.
Hellenic cult is full of interesting survivals of the Tree and Stone
ritual amply attested in Ægean cult. Hellenic custom retained many
traces of a matriarchal system, appropriate to a society exclusively
devoted to the Great Mother, whom Hellas took in name and actual
primitive form to her pantheon under the names of Rhea and Kybéle. The
Dorian and Ionian styles of architecture can be directly affiliated
to the Ægean as revealed in Mycenæan tombs and Cnossian frescoes, and
the Greek house is a development of the earlier domestic plan. Certain
notable exceptions go far to prove the rule. The dress of the upper
class, and the fashion of body-armour and weapons, seem to have been
determined henceforth by the new folk. These are just the features
in civilisation which conquering invaders would naturally introduce
and retain. It is hardly necessary to add that if Ægean civilisation
seriously influenced that of historic Hellas, it seriously influenced
at second hand that of Western and Central Europe.

[Illustration: ATHENS IN THE HEIGHT OF HER CIVILISATION: THE MARKET
PLACE RECONSTRUCTED WITH THE ACROPOLIS IN THE BACKGROUND]

[Sidenote: Other Ægean Influences in Europe]

[Sidenote: Commercial Communication with Europe]

Hellenic civilisation, however, was perhaps not the only medium
through which Ægean influence affected inner Europe. In Scandinavian
tomb-furniture certain presumably foreign decorative motives, notably
the returning spiral and the _triquetra_, which are identical with
characteristic Ægean types, make their appearance in the first part of
the local Bronze Age; and these have been noticed also, at a slightly
later period, in the art of early Ireland, at that time the most
civilised of the British Isles. In point of form also some Northern
weapons in bronze resemble those of the Far South. If the spiral motive
stood alone, the affiliation of this distant decorative art to the
Ægean would be very doubtful, since Nature, whether through the forms
assumed by vegetable tendrils or animal horns, or through those of
shavings of wood or metal, might easily have suggested the ornament
independently. But taken together with other related motives, and
the evidence of assimilation of weapon-forms, these spirals raise a
presumption in favour of an early obligation of North Europe to Ægean
civilisation. A possible explanation of this fact, if fact it be, has
been found in the communication which appears to have been created
by the Ægean demand for Baltic amber; and early ways for this traffic
have been traced by Dr. Arthur Evans up the Adriatic, and also overland
from the Ægean shores to the Danube basin, whence, from a point near
the later Carnuntum, a combined route ran up the Moldau to the Elbe
system. Further, it is the opinion of Professor Montelius and some
other archæologists that not only certain bronze forms and decorative
motives, but the usage of this metal itself was derived in Scandinavia
from the south, somewhere before 1000 B.C. Since pure copper and pure
tin hardly occur in Sweden among objects of this age, it has been
held that the bronze was imported ready made in the mass. But Sweden
contains large natural copper deposits, and tin is also found; and,
therefore, this opinion is not universally accepted. Indeed, some
authorities reverse the debt, and actually derive Ægean knowledge of
bronze from Europe. If, however, the first derivation be ever proved,
we shall have to refer the first use of metal weapons--an enormous step
forward in social progress--in North and Central Europe to the Southern
civilisations, such as the Egyptian, which had certainly known and used
bronze for at least a thousand years before we find it in Sweden. It
is sometimes maintained that Cyprus was the first, and long the sole,
source of copper, which travelled north by way of Asia Minor and the
Ægean to Hungary and inner Europe; but this is not proved. In any case,
for some reason, bronze seems to have become known to the Scandinavians
and Danes earlier than to the Gallic peoples.

[Sidenote: Influences in Western Europe]

Yet more evidence is there of possible Ægean communication with Central
Europe after the introduction of iron, which seems not to have reached
Scandinavia till almost the Christian Era. Transylvanian, Russian,
and Balkan graves have yielded to recent explorers abundance of both
weapons and decorated articles of personal use and adornment, closely
resembling fabrics in the later periods of Ægean civilisation. Further
into the European continent we have again the various evidence of
the early Iron Age graves of the Salzkammergut on the south-eastern
fringe of the Bavarian plain. This “Hallstatt” culture, as it is
called, from the location of the chief cemetery, presents both in
character and development an extraordinarily close parallel to that
of the Ægean Geometric Age. About the same period we know also that a
civilisation was in progress in the fertile lands round the head of
the Adriatic, which is called Veneto-Illyrian, and shows even stronger
evidence of Ægean influence than the Hallstatt culture; as, indeed,
might be expected, if it be remembered that in Southern and Central
Italy, as well as Sicily, forms and decoration, obviously learned from
Ægean civilisation, as well as actual imported Ægean objects, had been
plentiful ever since the bloom of the Ægean age. A visit to the local
collections in Syracuse, Bari, and Ancona, will establish this fact to
the satisfaction of any archæologist. These two civilisations, that of
the Salzkammergut and that of the North Adriatic lands, have important
bearing on the development of all Western Europe; for we know that
the Celtic peoples, who penetrated south of the Alps in the sixth and
fifth centuries B.C., learned much from both, and especially from the
second; and graves, furnished after they had been pressed back again
into Switzerland and Gaul, show abundant evidence of what is called
“sub-Ægean” influence--that is, of form and ornament probably derived
ultimately from Ægean culture, but indirectly, or after undergoing
considerable degradation. Through various subsequent intermediaries,
notably the Belgic tribes, these derivatives passed ultimately to our
own islands, and we find their influence operative on early English art.

[Sidenote: Civilisations Help One Another]

At the same time it is necessary to add that this derivation of the
higher developments of mid-European and Scandinavian culture in the
Bronze and Early Iron ages from the influence of Ægean civilisation
is far from certain, whatever be the case for the Adriatic lands.
Knowledge obtained since Dr. Evans and Dr. Montelius first expressed
their views, especially in regard to the so-called Neolithic or
“Butmir” pottery, which has a very wide range in South-Eastern Central
Europe, has not strengthened their case, but rather tended to suggest
that the continental culture developed independently to, though in a
parallel direction with, that of the southern peninsulas and isles. If
this view ultimately prevail, it will illustrate the opinion, to which
we personally incline, that the derivation of civilisations, one from
another in early times, is the exception and not the rule, except in
respect of minor matters.

[Sidenote: The Vigorous Hittite Civilisation]

Two other intermediary civilisations of the South-east remain to
be considered--the Hittite and the Phœnician. The first is still,
unfortunately, very little known to us, and we are hardly in a position
to say much about its influence on Europe until more small objects of
use and ornament have been discovered on Hittite sites. The general
facts so far ascertained, which make such influence probable, are
these. This civilisation, characterised and distinguished from all
others by a very individual art, and by a system of writing apparently
independent of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian systems, but in its later
development showing kinship to Mediterranean systems, lay across all
the mainland routes from inner Asia and Egypt to South-eastern Europe.
Its monuments have been found scattered thickly from the valley of the
Syrian Orontes northwards, to within 150 miles of the Black Sea, and
westward to the last passes which lead down from the Anatolian plateau
to the Ægean littoral. So far as we can judge at present, its place
of origin was Cappadocia, but its later focus was possibly in North
Syria; while its period of florescence ranges back from about the sixth
century B.C. for at least a thousand years.

It was, as we know from many written records, in frequent collision
with both Egypt and Assyria, and in its southern home and latest period
came under Mesopotamian domination. As is to be expected, therefore,
its monuments show very strong Mesopotamian, and less strong Egyptian,
influence. At the last, indeed, those of North Syria approximate very
closely indeed to the contemporary Assyrian of the Sargonid Age. At the
same time, however, they retain sufficient individuality never to be
mistaken for other than Hittite; they represent facial types, dress,
and fashion of arms which are peculiar; and the inscriptions they bear
are always couched in a script having no relation to cuneiform writing.

[Sidenote: Europe and Hittite Influence]

This vigorous civilisation, occupying the great land bridge from Asia
into Europe in the dawn of the historic Hellenic period, and eminently
receptive of Mesopotamian influences, cannot but have been a medium
through which these reached the Ægean Sea, and so told on Europe. But
this did not take place to any appreciable extent in what is known as
the prehistoric period. The Cretan products, and those of the other
Ægean Isles and mainland Greece, betray very little Mesopotamian
influence, and none that we can reasonably trace to the Hittites. So
far as we can see, the Ægean culture was much more ancient than the
Hittite, and if there was kinship between them we are bound, on the
evidence, to derive the latter from the former, and not vice versa.
There is a certain relation between late Ægean art and products
of inland Asia Minor, but it indicates influence passing eastward
rather than westward; and even on the remoter Ægean sites of Asia
Minor--Hissarlik, for instance--non-Ægean traces are but slight, and do
not suggest the influence of a strong civilisation focused inland.

[Sidenote: The Hittite Pathway of Civilisation]

[Sidenote: Part Played by the Phœnicians]

In the early Hellenic Age, on the other hand, we have to note
considerable Mesopotamian influence on Greek culture, and, at the
same time, certain evidence of counter influence, both sub-Ægean and
Græco-Lydian, on Mesopotamia, which is as yet not fully understood.
But whether both or either of these respective influences were
transmitted through the Hittite civilisation is still very doubtful.
The Egyptian influence on archaic Anatolia, especially on Rhodes, and
even on the Greek mainland, seems clearly to have come by way of the
sea; and considering the part which the Phœnicians had been playing
for some time previously as transmitters of things eastern, there is a
probable alternative westward route for Mesopotamian influence also.
In Cyprus, at any rate, this influence, which at a certain period
has left strong traces, certainly came for the most part through the
western Semites. The claim of the Hittites, however, is not to be
denied altogether. Their script seems undoubtedly to have been the
parent of the Lycian and other local Anatolian systems. Phrygian art
and writing attest Græco-Lydian influence inland; Ionian culture was
certainly not unaffected by the Lydian in which many students recognise
a western offshoot of the Hittite; and there are a few features in
Ionian cult and in cult representations which seem to be owed rather
to the religious system of the central plateau than to that native to
the Ægean area. In this state of suspense we must leave the question,
adding only these final remarks, that Greek tradition itself ascribed
some of the arts and luxuries of its civilisation--for example, the
coining of money--to Lydian invention, and also affiliated to Lydia a
whole western culture, that of Etruria; while it is an undoubted fact
that a Mesopotamian standard of weight-currency travelled to the Ægean,
and thence affected all western commerce, but by what channel we do not
certainly know. There is an unknown quantity in all this problem--viz.,
Lydia. We have reason to suspect the latter of a considerable influence
on early Hellenic civilisation, both as creator and transmitter, but
must await further evidence.

The part played by the Phœnicians in transmitting influences of
civilisation from East to West is far more certain, and is now much
better understood than it was a few years ago. Much vague exaggeration
of it has been swept away by recent demonstration that there is
practically nothing of probable Phœnician origin in the remains of
the Ægean culture. The script of the latter is wholly independent;
the typical Phœnician vehicles of glyptic art, the cylinder and the
scarab, were never naturalised in the early Ægean; the whole path of
the latter’s artistic development was distinct; and the Ægean religious
representations, once regarded as Semitic, are now seen to be native.
On the other hand, decadent and derived Ægean forms and motives appear
among the earliest Phœnician known to us. Influence, if it passed at
all, between the Ægean and the Syrian coast lands, in the prehistoric
age, moved from west to east.

[Sidenote: Origin of Our Written Language]

[Sidenote: Semitic Influence in Greek Art]

In short, we now know that the Phœnicians did not begin to spread
over the western sea and influence Europe till the break up of the
Ægean civilisation. The Homeric lays and Hellenic myths reflect the
inception of a Semitic expansion, which must be placed after 1100 B.C.
Even in Homer there is more mention of Greek ships than of Sidonian,
and the Tyrian power is yet to come. The latter pushed westward later,
and the founding of Carthage, usually dated in the eighth century,
marks its first great achievement along those distant sea-routes,
which certainly the Semites had been coming to know during a couple of
centuries of huckstering trade, even if the dependence of the early
Hellenes on Phœnician knowledge of these waters has been overrated.
But, in any case, during the interval between the fall of Ægean power
and the rise of the Hellenic maritime cities these Semites counted
for much. Even in the light of Cretan discovery, we need not question
their responsibility for the Greek alphabet, and thus, indirectly, for
the ultimate medium of written communication used throughout European
civilisation; nor need it be doubted that Hellenic writers, who trace
early instruction in trade and barter to visits of Semitic ships to
their coasts, show real, though limited, knowledge of fact. Phœnician
factories were certainly established on Greek shores, and left Semitic
forms among later Greek place-names; and it is quite possible that
political power was exercised at one time by Semitic colonists in parts
of Hellas. Sufficient Phœnician art products have been found on archaic
Hellenic sites, to prove that, in the period between 1000 and 500 B.C.,
the Ægean coasts were often visited by these Semites. Such objects are
especially numerous in Rhodes, a convenient stage on the westward sea
route, and they radiate over not only Ionia and the Hellenic lands, but
also into the further Mediterranean, to Sicily and its neighbouring
islands, to Italy and South Gaul, and to Sardinia and Spain. Carthage
probably had much to say in their western distribution.

[Illustration: ÆNEAS AND DIDO: THE QUEEN OF CARTHAGE LISTENING TO THE
STORY OF THE SIEGE OF TROY

    From the Painting by P. Guerin, in the Louvre.
]

[Sidenote: No Phœnician Influence in Britain]

Of Semitic influence on archaic Greek art there is considerable
evidence. After the Geometric Age, we find in the Greek lands pottery
and metal-work showing certain motives and arrangement of decoration
foreign to Ægean art, and referable ultimately to the Mesopotamian and
Egyptian. Such are the animals and monsters disposed in concentric
friezes and zones on Cypriote bowls, Corinthian vases, and the Cretan
shields of the Idaean Cave. But this influence, strong and undoubted
as it was, must not be over estimated. As the Hellenes rose to power,
their instinct of sincerity and naturalism, inherited from Ægean
civilisation, revolted against, and triumphed over, this parasitic
Semitic art, and already in the ninth or eighth century we find a
Græco-Lydian influence, which owes nothing to Phœnician, breaking
back to the east and creating the ivories of the Sargonid Age at
Nineveh. Phœnician objects thenceforward become fewer and fewer in
Hellenic strata, and in the sixth century B.C. they virtually vanish.
By this time Phœnicia had become a subject country, about to give up
the last ghost of its independence to the Greeks themselves, as its
western offshoot, Carthage, was also to surrender a little later to
another civilisation near akin to the Greek. But, needless to say, the
Semite has had his full revenge for the short tenure of his earliest
predominance in European waters. The fall of Phœnicia cleared the way
for another Semitic family to capture international trade, and, first
with one creed and then another, to conquer the Greeks, the Romans, and
the World.

There are, of course, possibilities of direct Phœnician intercourse
with non-Mediterranean Europe--for example, with England’s
south-western coasts; but they need not detain us. For whether certain
Semites came to Cornwall in quest of tin or no, it is certain that
by these no lasting influence of civilisation passed in to England.
Neither the religion, the speech, nor the script of Britain owed them
anything. Recent scholarship tends to discredit any Semitic element
even in English south-western place-names.

[Sidenote: The Origins of our Civilisations]

Such, in brief outline, are the channels through which the
civilisations of the South-eastern river-valleys could communicate
with primitive Europe. It is easier to point them out than to say
exactly what flowed along them. Seldom can so definite a debt be
recorded as that under which we lie to the Semites of Phœnicia, for the
names and the forms of the written characters which, presumably, they
themselves had borrowed from Egypt, and modified ere they passed them
westwards. Usually the obligation must be stated much more vaguely,
being confined, as in the case of Ægean influences, to little more than
a general responsibility for the spirit, and for many forms of the
expression, of the first great artistic growth on the mainland soil of
Europe, as well as for certain persistent and dynamic features in South
European cults.

Thus, it becomes even more apparent at the end of our discussion than
it was at the beginning that when all has been said about influences of
Egypt and Mesopotamia, and influences of the intermediate civilisations
of the Ægean, Syria, and Asia Minor, only a very small part of the
whole story of incipient European civilisation has been told. Nor is
it to be expected that the origin of our culture should be capable
of being adequately expressed in terms of other cultures, developed
at a great distance and under different geographical conditions.
Civilisations, destined to be living growths, spring, it seems, of
themselves, and the debts which they can incur at the first are very
small and mostly in small things. It is only when they are come to
adult estate, have bred men of wealth and leisure with open and
receptive minds, and have broken through the geographical barriers
about them, that they begin to borrow at large.

[Sidenote: In the Childhood of Europe]

One of the intermediate civilisations of which we have treated, the
Ægean, the only one whose own origins are fairly well known, offers
proof in point. Its remains indicate but trifling obligations to
neighbouring Egypt till a very late period, that which, in Crete,
we call the Third Minoan. Thereafter, in the space of two or
three generations, the evidence of its debt increases at a wholly
disproportionate rate. So too, no doubt, in the misty period of the
childhood of Central and Western Europe, little was borrowed from
abroad that was essential to civilisation; and the heavy obligations
which we owe to the Eastern lands fall in ages much more recent.
They fall, in fact, in those times which saw the Anatolian cult of
Kybéle and Attis, the Egyptian cult of Isis and Horus-Harpocrates,
the Mesopotamian cult of Mithra, and, far more momentous, of course,
than these, Christianity--Hebrew in origin if modified by Greek
conceptions--brought by a greater intermediary civilisation than any
with which we have had to deal, to the knowledge of inner European
races already long emerged from savagery, and able and eager to borrow.

    DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH




[Illustration: THE TRIUMPH OF RACE

WHY ONE NATION CONQUERS ANOTHER

BY DR. G. ARCHDALL REID]


It is a familiar fact that offspring resemble their parents on the
whole, but differ from them in details. For example, the child of a
human being is always another, but never an exactly similar, human
being.

These differences in detail are of two sorts, _inborn_ and _acquired_.
Inborn or innate differences arise “by nature”; the child is inherently
unlike the parent--taller or shorter, fairer or darker, and so forth.
Acquired differences, on the other hand, are due to the conditions
under which parents and children have lived. Thus, owing to better or
worse surroundings, the child may develop better or worse than the
parent and so be taller or shorter, or a greater exposure to weather
may render him darker or fairer.

[Sidenote: Things We Cannot Inherit]

It was formerly believed by scientific men, and is still believed by
the public, that traits acquired by the parent tended to be inherited
by the child--that is, reproduced as inborn traits. Thus it was
supposed that if a man were made strong by exercise, or injured by
accident, his child would tend to inherit, in some degree at least, the
acquired benefit or injury, and as a result be naturally stronger or
more defective than the parent was at the start.

[Sidenote: Acquired Traits not Hereditary]

But very prolonged and careful investigation has proved that this is
certainly an error. For example, though for æons human beings have been
learning to speak and walk, and make a multitude of other acquirements,
yet none of these are ever inherited. In fact, owing to the evolution
of memory and the retrogression of instinct, man, of all animals,
acquires the most and inherits the least. Every child has to begin
afresh and learn what its ancestors learnt; all are born ignorant;
none speak or walk “naturally.” Each starts where the parent began,
not where he left off. The parental traits, if reproduced at all, are
always of the same kind in the child as in the parents, and appear
in the same way. That is, the inborn traits of the parent are always
inborn in the offspring; the acquired traits are never anything but
acquirements resulting from the same causes as they did in the parent.
In brief, the acquirements of the parent are never transmuted into
inborn characteristics in the child. They are never inherited. It is
admitted on all hands that inborn differences--_variations_, as they
are termed technically--tend to be inherited.

Thus, if the parent is naturally darker than the grandparent, the
child tends in colour to resemble the former more than the latter.
Since the child may vary from the parent in the same direction as the
latter varied from the grandparent, these inborn differences may be
accentuated in subsequent generations. It is due to this fact that
plant and animal breeders have improved domesticated species. They are
able to benefit the individual by improving his surroundings, but the
race they can improve only by breeding from the best. In other words,
when they have the latter end in view, they must build on natural
variations, not on acquirements.

[Sidenote: A Great Problem of Science]

[Sidenote: Differences among Kindred]

One of the most important problems in the whole range of science is the
question as to what causes offspring to differ in this inborn, natural
way from their parents. Many theories have been formulated, and the
subject is still to some extent under discussion; but the evidence is
overwhelming that variations--natural differences--are not generally
caused, as most people believe, by anything that happens to the parent
before the birth of the child, but are “spontaneous.” The subject is
a large and intricate one, and we have not space to discuss it at
length. One or two facts, however, may be mentioned. The members of
a litter of puppies, kittens, or pigs, may differ naturally amongst
themselves and from their parents in all sorts of ways--in colour,
shape, size, hairiness, disposition, and so on. One puppy may present
points of resemblance to the father, another to the mother, a third to
some ancestor, while a fourth may be unlike any of its predecessors.
Since, practically speaking, the puppies were all conditioned alike
before birth, it is evident that these great differences must be
“spontaneous.” They cannot have been caused by such things as the good
or ill health of the parents, their food, or the life they led, for, in
that case, the puppies would all have varied in the same way.

Again, malaria is, in effect, a universal disease on the West Coast
of Africa. Individuals differ naturally in their powers of resisting
it, some taking it lightly and some severely; but almost every negro
suffers, and many children perish of it. If the sufferings of the
parents caused children to be born weaker “by nature,” it is evident
that every individual would start life inferior to his predecessor at
the start, and the race would thus degenerate and ultimately become
extinct. On the other hand, if variations are “spontaneous,” if, quite
unaffected by the sufferings of the parents, some children are born
naturally different, naturally more or less resistant to malaria than
their predecessors, it is plain that the weeding out of the unfittest,
the weak against the disease, would ultimately make the race resistant
to it. In the one case the race would drift to destruction; in the
other it would undergo protective evolution. Obviously, the latter is
what has happened. Negroes show no signs of any kind of degeneration,
but they are of all races the most resistant to malaria.

[Sidenote: Suffering Produces Strength]

Similarly, Englishmen who have been much exposed to consumption and
measles, natives of India who have been much afflicted by enteric
fever and dysentery, Esquimaux who have suffered from cold, Arabs who
have endured heat, Chinamen and Jews who have long dwelt under that
complex of ill conditions found in slums and ghettos, are none of them
degenerate, but, on the contrary, have become resistant, each race
to its own particular ill-conditions in proportion to its sufferings
in the past. In fact, it may be laid down as a general rule that
races strengthen only when exposed to ill conditions, and deteriorate
only when the conditions are so favourable that the unfit are not
eliminated. An example of the latter is seen when prize breeds of
animals and plants, however well nourished and cared for, are no longer
bred with care. It follows that races, if not exterminated, are not
injured but strengthened by ill conditions, by the elimination of the
unfittest, as gold is refined by fire.

[Sidenote: Survival of the Fittest]

It is a remarkable fact that many people are able to accomplish the
surprising feat of knowing that races have become inured to ill
conditions, and of believing at the same time that the offspring of
people exposed to such conditions tend, as a rule, to be degenerate.
It is as if they believed that two and two make four, and two more
six, but that if a great number of two’s are added together the total
result is a minus quantity. Obviously the two beliefs are incompatible.
A race cannot degenerate in every generation and yet emerge in the end
strengthened from the struggle. The confusion has arisen because the
two diametrically opposite propositions are seldom considered together,
and in part also from a mistaken interpretation of what is observed in
such situations as the slums of cities. Here puny children are seen to
be derived from puny parents, and it is assumed that the children are
degenerate because the parents have suffered.

As a fact we have no reason to doubt that the children are affected in
precisely the same way as the parents. On the one hand, slums are sinks
into which descend people naturally inferior, people who have varied
spontaneously from their ancestors in such a way as to be feeble,
physically or mentally, and who reproduce their like. On the other
hand, the conditions are such that even the naturally strong, both
parents and children, develop badly. Doubtless, owing to the constant
elimination of the unfit, the latter--the naturally strong--are by far
the more numerous. There is nothing to show that, if they were removed
in early life to better surroundings, they would not develop just as
well as the offspring of country folk.

[Sidenote: An Evolution that has now Ceased]

The fact that races grow resistant to the ill conditions to which
they are exposed, and degenerate when placed under particularly good
conditions, is decisive proof that offspring are not, as a rule,
innately affected by the surroundings of their parents. No doubt
exceptions occur, but these are amongst the most unfit, and the race
is soon purged of them. Thus European dogs are said to degenerate when
taken to India. But the existence of old-established native races of
dogs is proof that the degenerative process is not perpetual. Malaria
and many other ill conditions are quite normal parts of the environment
of the races exposed to them, and have been so for thousands of years.
Except for occasional unfavourable variations, which are quickly
eliminated, they have long purged the races of those strains that
tended to become degenerate under their influence.

After man--through the evolution of the structures and faculties
which distinguish him from the lower animals, the large brain, with
its accompanying memory, the organs of speech, the hand, the erect
attitude--had achieved the conquest of the earth, his selection and
evolution along the ancestral lines gradually diminished, and has now
almost ceased. At the present day clever, strong, or active people do
not on the average have an appreciably more numerous progeny than those
who are not exceptionally endowed. No modern race is intellectually
superior to the Greeks who flourished more than two thousand years ago.
The brains, the hands, the organs of speech, the erect attitude, have
not altered. Apparently nothing more than traditional knowledge has
improved.

The gradual accumulation of traditional knowledge during prehistoric
times enabled man to cultivate animals and plants, and so to increase
and regulate his supply of food. As a consequence his numbers
multiplied. Areas of country which formerly supported only a few
wandering hunters now afforded sustenance to growing multitudes of
agriculturists, who often dwelt together for mutual protection in
villages. Commerce followed agriculture, towns and cities arose, and
civilisation dawned.

Civilisation implies a dense and settled community, protected from
most of the dangers which beset wild animals, and in which, therefore,
the elimination of the unfit is no longer of the kind that weeded out
the brute and the utter savage. Some sort of elimination does occur,
however, for, even in the most civilised states, multitudes of people
perish in youth, before they have contributed their full quota of
offspring to the race.

[Sidenote: Natural Selection at Work]

We have excellent opportunities of studying this elimination and noting
whether it results in evolution. Indeed, man presents the only instance
in Nature in which we are able to observe natural selection actually
at work. In all modern states statistics are compiled which set out
the causes of death, the mortality from each cause, and the ages of
its victims. By comparing races which have been much afflicted by this
or that cause of mortality with races that have been little or not at
all affected, we are able to ascertain the resulting racial change, if
any. As may be noted by everyone, _civilised people perish, with rare
exceptions, of disease_.


MANKIND’S LONG BATTLE AGAINST BACTERIA

[Sidenote: Resistance of Races to Disease]

We have just seen that every race is resistant to every disease
precisely in proportion to its past experience of it. It follows that
the evolution of civilised peoples is against disease. If any other
kind of evolution is now occurring, no one as yet has been able to
demonstrate it, though many unproved guesses have been made. Mere
alterations in traditional knowledge is not evolution. Children may
derive it just as well from other people as from their parents.

The vast majority of deaths from disease are of zymotic origin. A
zymotic or microbic disease is caused by the entrance into the body of
minute animals or plants (microbes), which find their nutriment there.
There are many species of microbes, each disease being due to one. Some
species are mainly air-borne, and infect through the breath; others are
water-borne; others earth-borne; yet others insect-borne; while a few
pass by actual contact from an infected to a healthy person.

[Sidenote: The Way Disease is Spread]

Some diseases--for example, consumption and leprosy--are of indefinite
but always prolonged duration; others, like measles, are short and
sharp. In the case of the latter, for reasons we need not dwell on
here, the body after an attack becomes, for a longer or shorter time,
an unfit habitation for the microbes of that particular species. The
rapid recovery which occurs in these “acute” diseases, indeed, implies
the banishment of the microbes. The air-borne diseases--measles,
influenza, smallpox, and the like, all of that acute type which confers
immunity against subsequent attacks--are very infective, spreading
through a susceptible population with great rapidity. Under favourable
conditions the water-borne diseases also--cholera, dysentery, enteric
fever, and the like--may spread very quickly. Chief amongst the
earth-borne diseases is consumption. It is contracted chiefly in
such dark, ill-ventilated, and crowded houses as are built by the
inhabitants of cold and temperate climates.

The disease-producing microbes are an infinitesimal proportion of the
total number of bacterial and protozoan species. In Nature it is not
easy to find a speck of earth or a drop of water from which these
minute living beings are absent. All decay, by means of which the dead
bodies of plants and animals are returned to the soil, is due to them.

[Sidenote: The Immense Antiquity of Diseases]

It is a safe assumption that the microbes of human diseases have
evolved from non-parasitic species. The niche they now occupy in
Nature is the human body. Two things formed essential parts of
this evolution--first, the microbes became capable of existing and
multiplying for a shorter or longer period in the body; secondly,
they evolved means of passing from one living body to another. The
latter must have been the more difficult process. Under favourable
circumstances several species of microbes--for example, those of
putrefaction, which are ordinarily non-parasitic--are capable of
entering the human body and becoming virulent; but, since they cannot
secure passage from one individual to another, they die out, and
their virulence is lost. Historical evidence renders it probable that
all known human diseases are of immense antiquity, the so-called new
diseases being merely newly-observed diseases. It appears probable,
therefore, that, owing to constant persecution by disease, by continued
survival of the fittest, humanity has grown so resistant that no
species of microbe which has not undergone concurrent evolution is now
able to establish itself as a regular parasite.

Obviously, since the microbes of human diseases draw their nutritive
supplies from man, they cannot persist except amongst populations
so crowded that they are able to pass from one individual to another
in unending succession. When the succession fails, the disease dies
out, and is not renewed, except from foreign sources. Microbic disease
is never contracted in desert places far from human settlements, and
even in modern times it is comparatively rare amongst nomadic tribes,
and, seemingly, was quite unknown in Arctic regions and in many
Pacific islands before its introduction by Europeans. These maladies,
therefore, must have made their appearance only after men had peopled
certain regions in considerable numbers.

[Sidenote: Progress of Sanitary Science]

On the other hand, we have no certain evidence that any
well-established parasitic disease has ever completely died out. The
chances are all against such an occurrence in the past. When once
established as parasites, the microbes, owing to the constant growth
of human population, found a constantly augmented food supply, and
therefore constantly increased opportunities of reaching fresh fields
of conquest. Sanitary science is still in its infancy. Preventive
measures, and perhaps other agencies, have caused the disappearance
of leprosy from several countries, but it is still prevalent in many
quarters of the globe. Contagious diseases have spread very widely.
Earth and air borne diseases have become endemic instead of merely
epidemic. Consumption is always with us, and almost every child
contracts measles, whooping-cough, chicken-pox, and common cold.
Small-pox has been replaced by vaccination, which is merely modified
small-pox. Malaria has spread but little during the historic epoch, but
only because its microbes were already present in almost every place
where the mosquitoes that convey it are able to exist.

[Illustration: THE DAYS OF THE PLAGUE IN LONDON

    Dr. Archdall Reid, in his essay on race supremacy, explains that
    the evolution of civilised peoples is against disease, and the age
    of pestilence and plague is passing. This picture of an incident
    in the greatest plague that has affected London in historical
    times--in the year 1665--is from the painting by F. W. Topham, R. I.
]

All our information indicates the Eastern Hemisphere as the place of
origin both of man and of his microbic diseases. Parts of it have been
inhabited by a dense and settled population from a time immensely
remote. “Behind dim empires ghosts of dimmer empires loom.” Beyond
the traces of the oldest civilisations we find evidences of primitive
agricultural communities, and far beyond these the remains of the
cave-men and hunters of the Stone Age. Even a race of hunters tends
to increase faster than the food supply. Doubtless the pressure of
population in the Old World led to the colonisation of the New. But
even in the New World there are signs of a civilisation so ancient that
some authorities have placed its beginnings as far back as a score
or more of thousands of years. With the exception of malaria, it is
extremely doubtful whether any zymotic disease existed in the whole of
the New World at the time of its discovery by Columbus.

The subject is involved in obscurity; but, while it is evident that
the European adventurers introduced many diseases, there is no clear
indication that they found and brought back one. Apparently all the
diseases which have been prevalent in Europe and America during the
last four hundred years were prevalent in the former continent before
the fifteenth century. Venereal disease and yellow fever have sometimes
been regarded as exceptions. But the former was well known to the
Roman physicians, and was common during the Middle Ages. Moreover, the
inhabitants of the New World take the disease in a very acute form, and
it is not found in remote communities to which Europeans have had no
access. Yellow fever was first noted with certainty in the West Indies
in the middle of the seventeenth century. The records of the time “tell
of the importation of the disease from place to place, and from island
to island.”

[Sidenote: Origins of Rare Diseases]

Not till more than a century later was it observed on the West Coast
of Africa. There can be no doubt, however, that the earlier observers
confused yellow fever with bilious malaria, and that it was present
both in the West Indies and Africa long before a differential diagnosis
was made. The fact that of all races negroes are most resistant to the
disease would seem to indicate West Africa as the place of origin. In
any case, it is certain that, with the exception of malaria, zymotic
diseases, if not entirely absent, were extremely rare in the New World.


THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE NATIVE RACES

[Sidenote: The Age of Pestilence is Passing]

Zymotic disease, then, arose amongst the slowly-growing populations of
the Old World. Air and insect borne diseases may have arisen amongst
the early hunters and nomads. Similar forms of disease, murrains
as they were anciently termed--for example, distemper, rinderpest,
the horse sickness in South Africa, the rabbit plague in Northern
Canada, and the cattle fever in Texas--occur among lower animals,
when these are present in considerable numbers. With the exception of
tuberculosis and leprosy, endemic disease was probably almost unknown
in the sparsely-peopled ancient world. The facts that air and water
borne diseases spread very rapidly, that the illnesses caused by them
are comparatively short and sharp, and that recovery is followed by
immunity, must have caused rapid exhaustion of the food supply of the
microbes. Under such conditions the persistence of the pathogenic
species was maintained among the scanty populations by a passage to new
and perhaps very distant sources of supply.

Introduced by travellers, or spreading from tribe to tribe, they
appeared suddenly in epidemic form as plagues and pestilences, and,
disappearing as suddenly, were not known again till a fresh generation
furnished a fresh supply of food.

When, however, in spite of war, famine, and pestilence, the human race
increased to such an extent that the number of fresh births furnished a
perennial supply of food, while at the same time a rising civilisation
and improved means of communication lessened the isolation of various
communities, then many diseases slowly passed from an epidemic to an
endemic form. Pestilence grew rare, but every individual was exposed
to infection, and, during youth, either perished from, or acquired
immunity against, the more prevalent forms of disease.

[Sidenote: Measles a National Scourge]

When endemic, zymotic disease--at any rate, disease against which
immunity can be acquired--is far less terrible than when epidemic.
Modern examples of ancient epidemics may be seen in isolated regions.
In Pacific islands, for example, air-borne disease spreads like a
flame. The whole community is stricken down. The sick are left untended
and perish in multitudes. The entire business of the community is
neglected, and famine frequently follows. Under such conditions measles
or whooping-cough, diseases which we in England are accustomed to
regard as scarcely more than nuisances, may rise to the level of a
great national disaster. Thus, in 1749, 30,000 natives perished of
measles on the banks of the Amazon. In 1829 half the population died in
Astoria. In 1846 measles committed frightful ravages in the Hudson Bay
territory. More recently a quarter of the total inhabitants was swept
away in the Fiji group of islands.

[Sidenote: Sanitation is Sometimes Powerless]

At the dawn of history, long after the evolution of zymotic disease,
the population of the Eastern Hemisphere was still sparse and
scattered. Even as late as the Norman Conquest that of England was
barely two millions--about one-third of the number now present in
London. Means of communication were poor and beset by dangers. A
journey from York to London was then a more serious affair than a
journey from London to San Francisco to-day. Water and air borne
diseases were, therefore, absent during long periods of time. When
they came they spread as epidemics. Accordingly we read of plague and
pestilence; of diseases suddenly becoming epidemic and sweeping away a
fourth or half of entire communities. Historians are apt to attribute
these immense catastrophes partly to the bad sanitation of the period
and partly to diseases which have died out of the world, or, at any
rate, out of Europe. Doubtless they are right in a few instances.
But, apart from diseases which spread under special circumstances
from tropical centres, had sanitation, under modern conditions of
intercommunication and crowding, tends to render water-borne disease
endemic, not epidemic. Over air-borne disease it has no effect.
Measles, whooping-cough, chicken-pox, influenza, common cold, and
small-pox (in a modified form) are as common as ever.

[Sidenote: Plagues “the Wrath of God”]

The character of these ancient epidemics, their special symptoms as
indicated in old literature, their sudden and portentous appearance,
which men attributed to the wrath of God, their tremendous infectivity
and rapid spread, their equally sudden and complete departure as of
Divine anger assuaged, point rather to air and water borne diseases of
the types now endemic and comparatively harmless among us, but still
so fearful in their effects on isolated communities. Like the light
flashed from a child’s mirror on a darkened wall, so they flickered and
swept forwards and backwards from end to end of the Old World--from
the Malay Peninsula to the North Cape of Norway, from Kamschatka to the
south point of Africa. A parallel may be found in the recent epidemic
of rinderpest amongst the herbivorous animals of Africa. Years might
pass, old men might remember, the peoples might sacrifice to their
gods; but when a fresh generation of those who knew not the disease
had arisen, when the harvest of the non-immune was ripe and ready,
the diseases would return to the dreadful reaping. Behind them the
earth was heaped with the dead, and the few and stricken survivors
grubbed for roots to satisfy their hunger. To-day sanitation has nearly
abolished water-borne diseases, and, in a population largely immune,
epidemics of air-borne disease, like a light thrown on a sunlit wall,
are but faint shadows of that which they were in their old days of
awful power.

[Sidenote: Growth of Resisting Power]

The progress of consumption was different; it was never truly epidemic.
Owing to its low infectivity, to its lingering nature, to the fact that
no immunity could be acquired against it, it did not spread suddenly
when first introduced, but when once established its virulence did
not abate within measurable time. In other words, it was endemic from
the beginning. It made its home in the hovels of the early settlers
on the land. In such situations--as in Polynesian villages--modern
Englishmen do not take the disease. But their remote ancestors were
more susceptible; they could be infected by a smaller dose of the
bacilli. Gradually, as civilisation advanced, the conditions grew
more stringent; men gathered into larger and denser communities, into
hamlets and villages in which they built houses ill lighted and worse
ventilated.

With the rise of towns, and ultimately of great cities, the stringency
of selection continually increased; and with it, step by step, the
resisting power of the race. To-day Englishmen dwell under conditions
as impossible to their remote ancestors as to the modern Red Indians.
In fact, no race, especially in cold and temperate climates, is now
able to achieve civilisation, to dwell in dense communities, unless it
has previously undergone evolution against tuberculosis. But of this
more anon.

So during the long sweep of the ages microbic diseases strengthened
their hold on the inhabitants of the Eastern Hemisphere, who in turn
slowly evolved powers of resistance. In like manner antelopes grew
swift and wild sheep active when persecuted by beasts of prey. Then,
when the germs of disease were rife in every home and thick on the
garments of every man, there occurred the greatest event in human
history, the vastest tragedy. Columbus, sailing across an untracked
ocean, discovered the Western Hemisphere. The long separation between
the inhabitants of the East and West ended. The diseases of the Old
World burst with cataclysmal results on the New.

[Sidenote: 3,500,000 Destroyed by Small-pox]

The ancient condition of the Eastern Hemisphere was reproduced in
the West. Again we read of plague and pestilence, of water-borne and
air-borne diseases coming and going in great epidemics, and of the
famines that followed. Measles and cholera piled the earth with the
dead. The part played by small-pox was even greater. When taken to the
West Indies in 1507 whole tribes were exterminated. A few years later
it quite depopulated San Domingo. In Mexico it destroyed three and a
half millions of people. Prescott describes this first fearful epidemic
as “sweeping over the land like fire over the prairies, smiting down
prince and peasant, and leaving its path strewn with the dead bodies of
the natives, who--in the strong language of a contemporary--perished
in heaps like cattle stricken with murrain.” In 1841 Catlin wrote of
the United States: “Thirty millions of white men are now scuffling for
the goods and luxuries of life over the bones of twelve millions of red
men, six millions of whom have fallen victims to small-pox.”

But the principal part was played by tuberculosis. Air-borne and
water-borne diseases generally left an immune remnant, but against
tuberculosis no immunity could be acquired. Red Indians and Caribs
could not in a few generations achieve an evolution which the
inhabitants of the Old World had accomplished only after thousands of
years, and at the cost of hundreds of millions of lives. Civilisation,
which implies a dense and settled community with cities and towns,
had suddenly become a necessity, but remained an impossibility to all
the inhabitants of the temperate parts of the West. It is a highly
significant fact that throughout the New World no city or town has its
native quarter, whereas every European settlement in Asia and Africa
has its native suburbs. The aborigines of the New World are found only
in remote or inaccessible parts.

[Sidenote: A Plague that Spread like Fire]

The following is an example of the manner in which tuberculosis went to
work: “The tribe of Hapaa is said to have numbered some four hundred
when the smallpox came and reduced them by one-fourth. Six months
later, a woman developed tubercular consumption; the disease spread
like fire about the valley, and in less than a year two survivors, a
man and a woman, fled from the newly-created solitude.... Early in the
year of my visit, for example, or late in the year before, a first case
of phthisis appeared in a household of seventeen persons, and by the
end of August, when the tale was told to me, one soul survived, a boy
who had been absent on his schooling.”

The Caribs of the West Indies are almost extinct. The Red Indians
are going fast, as are the aborigines of cold and temperate South
America. The Tasmanians have gone. The Australians and the Maoris are
but a dwindling remnant. As surely as the trader with his clothes, or
the missionary with his church and schoolroom appears, the work of
extermination begins on Polynesian islands. Throughout the whole vast
extent of the New World the only pure aborigines who seem destined to
persist are those which live remote in mountains or in the depths of
fever-haunted forests, where the white man is unable to build the towns
and cities with which he has studded the cooler and more “healthy”
regions of the north and south.

[Sidenote: Races that Decline before the Whites]

Many explanations, or pseudo-explanations, have been offered to
account for the disappearance of the natives. We are told that they
cannot endure “domestication,” that they “pine like caged eagles”
in confinement, that the change produced by civilisation makes them
infertile, as the change produced by captivity makes some wild animals
infertile, and so forth. But the only peoples who are disappearing
are those of the New World, some of whom were by no means savage. In
Asia and Africa are many tribes far lower in the scale of civilisation
who have persisted in constant communication with dense and settled
communities from time immemorial. Notwithstanding all that has been
written, the people of the New World do not wither away mysteriously
when brought into contact with the white man. They die as other men
do of violence, or famine, or old age, or disease. But deaths from
all these causes, except the last, are now comparatively rare amongst
them--much rarer than formerly during the time of their perpetual wars.
The vast majority die of imported diseases--exactly the same diseases
as white men die of. But their mortality is invariably much higher than
that of white men, and they perish on an average at a younger age.

[Illustration: THE EVE OF “THE VASTEST TRAGEDY IN HISTORY”: COLUMBUS
SIGHTING AMERICA

“The greatest event and the vastest tragedy in human history” is Dr.
Archdall Reid’s striking description of the discovery of America by
Columbus. It ended the long separation between the inhabitants of East
and West, and the diseases of the Old World burst with cataclysmal
results upon the New. The picture, by George Harvey, shows Columbus
approaching America, his rebellious crew pleading for pardon.]

All this is not mere hypothesis. It can be proved by reference to
carefully collected and tabulated statistics published by every
department of Public Health in America, Australasia, and Polynesia. The
cause of the sterility cannot be demonstrated with the same precision;
but it is hardly necessary to invent fanciful causes when a reasonable
one is to hand. The high mortality indicates a high sick-rate, and
presumably illness is as much a cause of sterility in the New World as
in the Old, among savages as among civilised people.

The Spanish conquest of the West Indies was followed by the swift
disappearance of the natives. To that end the Spaniards unconsciously
adopted the most effectual means possible. They satisfied their greed
by forcing the natives to labour in plantations and in mines, and
their religious enthusiasm by compelling attendance in churches and
cathedrals. In other words, they placed the natives under conditions
the most favourable for acquiring the diseases which they imported by
every vessel. When the native population dwindled, it was replaced by
negro slaves from West Africa.

[Sidenote: Africans Die in our Civilisation]

The history of negro migrations is extremely interesting and
illuminating. There are no accounts of negro conquest outside the
limits of Africa, but from very ancient times a constant stream of
slaves has passed to Southern Europe and Asia, where they have been
employed mainly in domestic service, and in more modern times to
America, where their occupation has been mainly agricultural. The
invasion of Asia has continued to our own day. But one may search
from Spain to the Malay peninsula and, except in recent importations,
find scarcely a trace of a negro ancestry. Yet slaves, like cattle,
are valuable property, more cheaply bred than imported. In Eastern
countries they have often been kindly treated, and many have attained
to wealth and power. Like the African soldiers in Ceylon, of whom it
is recorded that, though many thousands were imported by the Dutch
and English, hardly a descendant survives, all perished in a few
generations, the elimination of the unfit being so stringent as to
cause extinction, not evolution. A permanent colony of native Africans
in the midst of an ancient consumption-infested civilisation is
impossible.

[Sidenote: Fate of Natives of America]

The fate of the negro migrations into America has been different. The
race had undergone some evolution against consumption in Africa, and,
therefore, was more resistant than the vanishing aborigines. In its
new home, employed in agriculture in a hot climate where white men
and tubercle bacilli, also recent importations, were as yet few in
numbers, it was placed under the best conditions possible. Gradually,
as the stringency of selection waxed, it evolved resisting power.
To-day, American negroes are able to dwell even in Northern cities,
though it is said “every other adult negro dies of consumption.” After
the discovery of America the principal maritime races of Western
Europe competed for its possession. Spain and Portugal, then powerful
nations, had the first start in the race, and chose the seemingly
richer tropics. But the forests of the centre and south were defended
by malaria, which raised a barrier against immigration, and by heat
and light, which raised a barrier against tuberculosis. Moreover, the
Spaniards and the Portuguese intermarried freely with the aborigines,
and the mixed race which resulted inherits in half measure the
resisting power of both stocks. At the present day this mixed race,
with a leavening of mulattoes, pure Spaniards, Portuguese, and negroes,
inhabits the cities and more civilised parts. Even in tropical America
the pure aborigines are found, speaking generally, only beyond the
verge of civilisation. Farther south the disappearance of the natives
has been more complete, and the cooler, healthier, and more open pampas
are settled by a race more purely European.


THE TRIUMPH OF THE ANGLO-SAXON PEOPLES

[Sidenote: Expansion of the Anglo-Saxon]

The weaker British and French were shouldered into the seemingly
inhospitable north. But the British won the battle of Quebec, and
the French immigration soon ceased. That little fight is half
forgotten, but it is doubtful if any battle in history had results
half so important. It placed all North America in the grasp of the
Anglo-Saxon, and gave his race enormous space for expansion. Unchecked
by malaria, the new-comers gathered into communities and built towns
and cities such as those which across the Atlantic were the homes of
tuberculosis. The cold forced them to admit little air and light into
their dwellings. The aborigines melted away from the borders of the
settlements. Under the conditions there was little intermarriage. In
that climate Indian women, and even half-caste children, could not
exist within stone walls. The few white men who took native wives
preserved them only while living a wild life remote from their kin.

The British conquest of North America and Australasia resembles the
Saxon conquest of Great Britain. The natives have been exterminated
within the area of settlement. It is in sharp contrast to their
conquests in Asia and Africa. Both in the Old World and in the New
the subjugation of the natives was accompanied by many wars and much
bloodshed, and probably the conflicts in the former were more prolonged
and destructive than those in the latter. But in no part of the Old
World have the British exterminated the natives. They do not supplant
them; they merely govern them. Southern Asia and East and West Africa
are defended by malaria. The British cannot colonise them, and the
natives have undergone such evolution against tuberculosis that
they are capable of resisting the hard conditions imposed by modern
civilisation. In South Africa, where there is little malaria, Europeans
share the land with the natives, but the latter are likely to remain in
an overwhelming majority.

[Illustration: WHERE THE ANGLO-SAXON RACE OBTAINED POSSESSION OF NORTH
AMERICA

    On the Plains of Abraham, outside Quebec, the British and French
    troops fought in 1759, and the battle placed all North America in
    the grasp of the Anglo-Saxon, giving his race enormous space for
    expansion. It is doubtful, says Dr. Archdall Reid, if any battle in
    history had results half so important as this, although it is half
    forgotten.
]

If history teaches any lesson with clearness it is this--that conquest,
to be permanent, must be accompanied with extermination, otherwise in
the fulness of time the natives expel or absorb the conquerors. The
Saxon conquest of England was permanent; of the Norman conquest there
remains scarcely a trace. The Huns and the Franks founded permanent
empires in Europe; the Roman Empire, and that of the Saracens in Spain,
soon tumbled into ruins. It is highly improbable, therefore, that
the British will retain their hold on their Old World dependencies.
A handful of aliens cannot for ever keep in subjugation large and
increasing races that yearly become more intelligent and insistent
in their demands for self-government. But no probable conjunction of
circumstances can be thought of that will uproot the Anglo-Saxons from
their wide possession in the New World. The wars of extermination are
ceasing with the spread of civilisation. We have ransacked the world,
and now know every important disease. Diseases cannot come to us as
they came to our forefathers and to the Red Indians, like visitations
from on high. All the diseases that are capable of travelling have
very nearly reached their limits; the rest we are able to check. Even
in the unlikely event of a new disease arising, it would affect other
races equally. Canada and Australasia, like the United States, may
separate from the parent stem, but the race will persist. If ever a
New Zealander broods over the ruins of London, he will be of British
descent.

[Sidenote: The Natural History of Mankind]

The natural history of man is, in effect, a history of his evolution
against disease. The story unfolded by it is of greater proportions
than all the mass of trivial gossip about kings and queens and the
accounts of futile dynastic wars and stupid religious controversies
which fill so large a space in his written political history. In the
latter, as told by historians, groping in obscurity and blinded by
their own preconceptions, men and events are often distorted out of all
proportions. A clever but prejudiced writer may pass base metal into
perpetual circulation as gold. Luther and the Reformation are accepted
as Divine by many people; they are reviled as diabolical by more.
Cromwell was long regarded as accursed; to-day he is half-deified. How
many of us are able to decide, on grounds of fact, not of fiction,
whether the Roman Empire perished because the Romans, becoming
luxurious, sinned against our moral code, as ecclesiastic historians
would have us believe, or because a disease of intolerance and
stupidity clouded the clear Roman brain and enfeebled the strong Roman
hand, as Gibbon would have us think? But the natural history of man
deals, without obscurity and without uncertainty, with greater matters.
Study it, and the mists clear away from much even of political history.
We see clearly how little the conscious efforts of man have influenced
his destiny. We see forces unrecognised, enormous, uncontrolled,
uncontrollable, working slowly but mightily towards tremendous
conclusions--forces so irresistible and unchanging that, watching them,
we are able even to forecast something of the future.

The mere political results of man’s evolution against disease are of
almost incalculable magnitude. The human races of one half of the world
are dying, and are being replaced by races from the other half. Not
all the wars of all time taken together constitute so great a tragedy.
A quite disproportionate part in this great movement has been borne
by our own race. It has seized on the larger part of those regions in
which the aborigines were incapable of civilisation, because incapable
of resisting consumption, and were undefended by malaria. In the void
created by disease it has more room to spread and multiply than any
other race.

[Sidenote: Disease Mightier than the Sword]

Other races may dream of foreign conquests, but the time for founding
permanent empires is past. There remains for them only temporary
conquest, in a few malarious parts of the world in which Europeans
cannot flourish and supplant the natives. Spain and Portugal lost their
opportunity when they turned from the temperate regions and chose the
tropics. France lost her opportunity on the Heights of Abraham. Germany
is more than a century too late in the start. Russia can conquer
only hardy aliens who will multiply under her rule and ultimately
assert their supremacy. In times now far remote in the history of
civilised peoples, the sword was the principal means for digging deep
the foundations of permanent empires. Its place was taken by a more
efficient instrument. A migrating race, armed with a new and deadly
disease, and with high powers of resisting it, possesses a terrible
weapon of offence. But now disease has spread over the whole world and
so is losing its power of building empires. The long era of the great
migrations of the human race, of the great conquests, is closing fast.

[Sidenote: Possibilities of the Black Races]

It is generally supposed by historians and others that races that
disappear before the march of civilisation are mentally unfitted for
it. The assumption is not supported by an iota of real evidence. To be
mentally incapable a race must be of very defective memory. Recently
a school of Australian natives, who belong to one of the “lowest”
of races, took the first place in the colony. Negroes occupy a very
inferior position in America, especially in Anglo-Saxon territories.
But they are stamped by glaring physical differences, are treated with
great contempt and jealousy by the whites, and their acquired mental
attitudes, therefore, do not develop under good conditions. It is very
possible that they are mentally inferior to the whites; but not so
inferior as is commonly believed.

Russian peasants, though not sharply differentiated by physical
peculiarities from the governing classes, are equally scorned by
them, and show a mental development hardly, if at all, superior
to the negroes of United States. The Latins of South America seem
very incapable of orderly government, but they are the heirs of a
civilisation older than our own. At any rate, while it is conceivable
the American negroes and some other races are incapable of building
up a highly-enlightened society by their own efforts, it is manifest
that they are able to persist and multiply when civilised conditions
are imposed on them. Not so the aborigines of the New World, some of
whom--for example, the Maoris and the Polynesians--are admittedly
of good mental type. They perish swiftly and helplessly of _bodily_
ailments.

Very clearly, then, human races are capable or incapable of
civilisation, not because they are mentally, but because they are
physically, fit or unfit.

    G. ARCHDALL REID




[Illustration: AN ALPHABET OF RACES

BEING A HANDY DICTIONARY OF MANKIND

BY W. E. GARRETT FISHER]


An attempt is made in these pages to compile a dictionary of the main
existing races of the world, arranged in alphabetical order. The
accompanying Ethnological Chart on page 352, will enable the reader
to see at a glance the relationship of the various main divisions,
families, and stocks under which these races are distributed. The
Dictionary and the Chart, if used in conjunction, will thus supply
information about any race named in the list, and will tell the
inquirer to what branch of the human race it belongs. It is obviously
impossible to make the Dictionary inclusive of every tiny and
out-of-the-way tribe of Africa or South America, but all important
races are included. If the reader wants to know something about the
Abyssinians, he will look them up in the Dictionary, and find that they
are partly Semitic Himyarites, partly Hamitic Gallas, etc. The Chart
will then show him that the Hamitic and Semitic families belong to the
great Caucasic Division of mankind, that the Himyarites are one of the
main stocks of the Semitic family, and that the Gallas belong to the
Eastern branch of the Hamitic family. The student should familiarise
himself with the names and places of the families and chief stocks of
mankind, as given in the Chart, and so greatly facilitate the task of
reference. The intention of both Chart and Dictionary is, of course, to
serve as a kind of index to the History proper, which must be consulted
for further information. As far as can be discovered, no previous
attempt has been made to summarise the conclusions of modern ethnology
in this convenient form. The illustrations depict some of the most
interesting races.


    =Ababua.= A tribe of Sudanese negroes in Central Africa. See
    WELLE GROUP.

    =Abaka.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Abkhasians.= A Western Caucasian tribe occupying the Black
    Sea coast from Pitzunta to Mingrelia, akin to CIRCASSIANS
    (_q.v._).

    =Abo=, or =Ibo=. See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Abors.= An Assamese tribe in the Brahmaputra Valley,
    belonging to the Tibetan branch of the Southern Mongolic family.
    Wild jungle-dwellers.

    =Absarakas.= See SIOUAN.

    =Abukaya.= A negro tribe in the Sudan. See NILITIC
    GROUP.

    =Abunda.= A settled and fairly civilised race of Bantu
    Negroes, occupying the seaboard and inland districts of Portuguese
    West Africa, south of Ambriz.

    =Abyssinians.= A mixed race of Hamitic, Semitic, and Negro
    stock, inhabiting Abyssinia (from Arabic _habashi_--mixed). The
    main racial element--Abyssinians proper--consists of brown-skinned
    Semitic Himyarites, who probably emigrated from Arabia in
    prehistoric times, and profess themselves descended from the
    Queen of Sheba. Since the sixteenth century Abyssinia has been
    over-run by the Hamitic Gallas (_q.v._), who have largely mingled
    their blood with this older element. There is also a considerable
    admixture of Sudanese Negro blood. Since the fourth century the
    religion of Abyssinia has been a corrupt form of Christianity; the
    mediæval myth of Prester John perhaps relates to this fact.

    =Acadians.= French settlers of seventeenth century in Nova
    Scotia.

    =Achcæans.= See ARGIVES.

    =Achinese.= A warlike Malay race of Sumatra, long at war with
    the Dutch colonists.

    =Accras.= See GA.

    =Achuas=, or =Wochua=. A pygmy Negrito race,
    well-proportioned, though dwarfish, inhabiting the forests of
    the Welle and Aruwimi districts in Central Africa, and living by
    hunting.

    =Adamawa Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes inhabiting
    the district of the Upper Benue in Northern Nigeria.

    =Adansis.= Negro tribe on Guinea coast. See TSHI.

    =Æolians.= See HELLENES.

    =Aetas.= A Negrito race of the Philippine Islands, belonging
    to the Oceanic family of Ethiopic Man. Short of stature,
    black-skinned, with woolly hair, they present many points of
    resemblance to the Negritoes of Central Africa. There are many
    crosses between Aetas and Malays.

    =Afars.= A nomadic Turki tribe of Persia. See also
    DANAKILS.

    =Afghans.= A race of Iranian stock, belonging to the great
    Aryan family, who form about half the population of Afghanistan.
    They are divided into various tribes, of which the Duranis are the
    dominant one, the Ghilzais the most warlike, and the Yusufzais the
    most turbulent. There are also large tribes known as Pathans, who
    are of the same stock as the Afghans, but are classed separately.
    The Afghans are a handsome and athletic race, inured to war from
    their childhood, lawless and treacherous, but sober and hardy.
    Throughout the nineteenth century they were a constant source of
    trouble to British India, but a new era seems to have opened under
    the present Amir. For non-Afghan inhabitants of Afghanistan, see
    HAZARAS, KIZIL-BASHIS, and TAJIKS.

    =Afridis.= A warlike and turbulent Pathan race, occupying the
    neighbourhood of the Khyber Pass, and often at war with the English.

    =Afrikanders.= Persons of European descent born and living in
    South Africa.

    =Agaos.= An indigenous Hamitic race of Northern Abyssinia.

    =Ahoms.= Primitive inhabitants of Assam, belonging to the
    Indo-Chinese stock of the Southern Mongolic family.

    =Ainus.= An aberrant family of Caucasic Man in the Far East.
    They were probably the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan, but are
    now few in number, and confined to Yezo, the Kurile Islands, and
    part of Sakhalin. They have regular and often handsome features
    of Caucasic type, but are of low stature, and characteristically
    marked by an abundance of coarse, black, wavy or crisp hair on
    head, face, and body, whence they are commonly called the “Hairy
    Ainus.”

    =Akawais.= See CARIBS.

    =Akkas.= A pygmy Negrito race of the Welle district in Central
    Africa, akin to the Achuas (_q.v._), who are specially interesting
    because they are represented on Egyptian monuments of 3400
    B.C., with their existing racial characters.

    =Akkads=, or =Akkadians=. An extinct Mesopotamian
    race, founders of the oldest known civilisation in Babylonia,
    who belonged to the Northern Mongolic family, and probably to
    the Turki or Finno-Ugrian stock. They invented the cuneiform
    alphabet, which was adopted by their Semitic successors--see
    BABYLONIANS--and it is thought that they may have been the
    ancestors of the Chinese.

    =Akpas.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Alani.= A warlike nomadic race, probably belonging to the
    Turki stock of the Northern Mongolic family, and allied to the
    Tartars (_q.v._). In the fifth century they made settlements in
    Gaul and Spain, where they were absorbed by the Vandals and the
    Visigoths respectively. The remnant left in the East of Europe were
    conquered in the thirteenth century by the Golden Horde, and their
    name disappeared from history.

    =Albanians=, or =Arnauts=. The warlike race of
    mountaineers who inhabit Albania, on the western coast of the
    Balkan Peninsula. They are semi-civilised, live in a perpetual
    state of tribal warfare, and make admirable soldiers, forming the
    best part of the Turkish Army. They are probably the oldest of the
    Balkan races, and represent the earliest Aryan immigrants into
    Europe [see ILLYRIANS]. They are partly Christian, partly
    Mohammedan.

    =Albigenses.= A heretical sect, mostly of Provençal descent,
    who appeared in the South of France about the eleventh century, and
    were rigidly persecuted until they became extinct in the middle of
    the thirteenth century.

    =Alemanni.= An ancient German tribe on Upper Rhine, of
    Teutonic stock, from whom the modern Swabians and Swiss are in
    great part descended.

    =Aleutians.= Natives of Aleutian Islands, belonging to Eskimo
    stock of Northern American family.

    =Alfuros.= A half-breed race between Malays and Papuans: in
    Malaysia, a term given by Malays to their rude non-Mohammedan
    neighbours.

    =Algonquian.= A group of North American Indian tribes,
    formerly inhabiting the Central and Southern States of America,
    east of the Rocky Mountains, and as far south as South Carolina,
    now gathered into Indian Reservations. They include the Algonquin,
    Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Delaware, Fox, Illinois, Massachusett,
    Mohican, Ojibway, Sac, Shawnee, and many smaller tribes.

    =Alibamus.= See MUSKHOGEAN.

    =Ali-Elis.= See TURKOMANS.

    =Alsatians.= Natives of Alsace, of High German stock, allied
    to the Swabians (_q.v._).

    =Amadis.= See WELLE GROUP.

    =Ama.= Prefix of many Bantu racial names, as Ama-Zulu,
    Ama-Xosa. See ZULU, etc.

    =American.= One of the four main divisions of the human race,
    comprising three families, occupying North, Central, and Southern
    America respectively. Typically red-skinned, with lank, black hair,
    retreating foreheads, high-bridged noses, and either long or broad
    skulls--dolichocephalic or brachycephalic.

    =Americans.= The English-speaking white inhabitants of the
    United States, mainly of Anglo-Saxon descent. See also LATIN
    AMERICANS.

    =Amharas.= Natives of Central Abyssinia, of Hamitic descent.

    =Amorites.= A branch of the ancient Libyan race, of Semitic
    origin, inhabiting Canaan before the arrival of the Israelites from
    Egypt.

    =Anatolian Turks.= See TURKS.

    =Andamanese.= Natives of Andaman Islands, a race belonging to
    the Oceanic Negrito family, possibly representing the primitive
    type from which both Negroes and Papuans have sprung. They exhibit
    the lowest stage of civilisation.

    =Andis.= See LESGHIANS.

    =Angles.= A Teutonic race of Low German stock, who formerly
    inhabited the country round Schleswig, in North Germany. In the
    fifth century they migrated in large numbers to Britain, and with
    the Jutes and Saxons formed the stock of the Anglo-Saxon or English
    people.

    =Anglo-Saxons.= A general name now given to the
    English-speaking races of English, Scotch, and even Irish and Welsh
    descent, who inhabit the British Empire; in a wider sense, to all
    people of British descent.

    =Annamese.= Natives of Annam, or Cochin-China, belonging to
    the Indo-Chinese stock of the Southern Mongolic family; now under
    French rule.

    =Apaches.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Appalachis.= See MUSKHOGEAN.

    =Arabs.= One of the main branches of the Semitic family,
    inhabiting the Arabian peninsula. They are usually divided into
    two branches, the Ishmaelites of the north and the Joktanides of
    the south. The latter probably represent the oldest Arab stock,
    and may be of African origin. The primitive Arabs were nomadic
    horse-breeders and shepherds, very warlike, and of fine physical
    development. Under Islam they reared an enduring religious
    civilisation, which has had the greatest influence on the world
    after Christianity.

    =Arakanese.= Natives of Arakan, in Lower Burma, of
    Indo-Chinese stock.

    =Aramæans.= One of the main groups of the Semitic family,
    Syro-Chaldeans, who anciently inhabited Syria, Palestine, and the
    Euphrates Valley. The modern Syrians (_q.v._) belong to it.

[Illustration: A LITTLE GALLERY OF RACES

REPRODUCED FROM THE FAMOUS DRAWINGS

BY SIR DAVID WILKIE, R.A.]


[Illustration: A NATIVE OF BRITISH INDIA]

[Illustration: A CIRCASSIAN LADY]

[Illustration: A SPANISH CHILD WITH HER NURSE]

[Illustration: A PERSIAN PRINCE AND HIS NUBIAN SLAVE]

[Illustration: A DRAGOMAN AT BEYROUT]

[Illustration: A TRAVELLING TARTAR]

[Illustration: AN ARAB SHEIK]

[Illustration: A LETTER-WRITER OF CONSTANTINOPLE]

    =Araucanians.= The chief Indian race of Chili, possessing an
    ancient civilisation like those of Peru and Mexico, though less
    advanced. The Araucanians are probably the finest native race of
    the New World. They are a fierce and warlike people, who have
    always preserved their independence.

    =Arawaks.= A group of South American Indian tribes in the
    Guianas, including Maypuris, Wapisianas, Atorais and others.

    =Arcadians.= A race of ancient Greece, inhabiting the central
    highlands of the Peloponnesus, whose seclusion from the world
    caused them to be identified with the quality which we still call
    Arcadian simplicity.

    =Arecunas.= See CARIBS.

    =Argentines.= White natives of the Argentine Republic in South
    America, mainly of Spanish descent.

    =Argives.= Natives of Argos, the most important state of
    Homeric Greece: hence a generic term for Greeks or Hellenes in the
    Homeric Age. Achæans is another term similarly used.

    =Armenians.= Natives of Armenia, the mountainous country round
    Mount Ararat, now divided between Russia, Persia, and Turkey.
    They belong to the Iranian stock of the Aryan family, blended
    with Semitic blood, and with a still older unknown but probably
    non-Aryan element. They are not warlike, but of quick intelligence
    and specially successful in commerce.

    =Arnauts.= See ALBANIANS.

    =Aryans.= The most important family of Caucasic Man, to
    which all the chief civilisations of modern times belong. A
    tall, fair-skinned, long-headed race, whose origin is still
    doubtful--though it was probably in Central Asia--and who
    spread in prehistoric times over the whole of Europe and parts
    of Asia and Africa. Almost all modern Europeans are of Aryan
    descent. The family is also called INDO-EUROPEAN or
    INDO-GERMANIC, but these names are open to objections from
    which the term Aryan is free.

    =Ashantis.= See TSHI.

    =Assamese.= Natives of Assam, between India and Burma,
    belonging to the Hindu stock of the Aryan family.

    =Assinaboins.= See SIOUAN.

    =Assyrians.= One of the main branches of the Semitic family.
    The Assyrians founded a great empire in the northern part of
    Mesopotamia, of which Nineveh was the capital, and afterwards
    conquered the older Babylonian state (710 B.C.) and Egypt
    (671 B.C.), thus forming the first world-empire known to
    history. Within a century Assyria had become a Median province, and
    its people ceased to have an independent existence.

    =Athabascan= or =Tinney=. A group of North American
    Indian tribes, formerly inhabiting Alaska and the greatest part of
    Canada. It includes the Apaches, Chippewayans, Hupas, Kutchins,
    Navajos, Tacullis, and Umbquas.

    =Athenians.= The most important race of ancient Greece, whose
    city of Athens was the earliest centre of civilisation in the
    historical age of Europe.

    =Australians.= The aborigines of Australia, a branch of the
    Oceanic Negro family. Their numerous tribes present a general
    uniformity of physical and mental development, under which two main
    types may be recognised. The earlier of these is probably that
    shown by the extinct Tasmanians (_q.v._), one of the lowest races
    in point of culture yet discovered, who were probably still in
    the earliest stage of the Stone Age. The other type was perhaps
    akin to the Dravidians of India, or to a very low Caucasic race.
    The Australians are among the lowest of savage races, and present
    many features which have thrown light on the manners, customs and
    beliefs of primitive man.

    =Australians.= White inhabitants of Australia, mostly of
    Anglo-Saxon descent.

    =Austrians.= Inhabitants of the Austrian empire, including
    a great diversity of races. The name is properly applied only to
    the German-speaking people, of High-German Teutonic stock, who
    predominate in Austria proper.

    =Auvergnats.= Natives of Auvergne, in Central France. A short,
    sturdy, dark, round-skulled race, formerly regarded as typical
    Aryan Celts, but possibly descended from an older non-Aryan people.
    Much employed in Paris as porters.

    =Avars.= See LESGHIANS.

    =Avars.= A Tartar tribe, belonging to the Turki stock of the
    Northern Mongolic family, who appeared in the district round the
    Caspian Sea about the fourth century, and later made predatory
    raids over a large part of Eastern Europe. They were subdued by
    Charlemagne, and disappeared from history in the ninth century.
    They seem to have been closely allied to the Huns, whom they
    resembled in physical characteristics and warlike qualities.

    =Awawandias.= Bantu Negroes of the Nyassa plateau in British
    Central Africa.

    =Aymaras.= A race of South American Indians in Bolivia,
    probably related to the Incas (_q.v._) and perhaps their ancestors.

    =Azandeh=, or =Niam-Niam=. Sudanese Negroes of the Welle
    group. Notorious cannibals.

    =Aztecs.= The dominant Indian race in Mexico at the arrival
    of the Spanish invaders. They entered the country about the end of
    the thirteenth century, and founded the city of Mexico in 1325.
    Around it they reared a remarkable civilisation and a sanguinary
    religion. They were warlike, ferocious and cruel, but had a
    considerable aptitude for the arts of peace. Their empire was
    destroyed by Cortes in 1521, and annexed to Spain. Every trace of
    Aztec nationality was suppressed, but their name still lingers
    among the Nahuan Indians, and their blood is mixed with that of
    the conquerors. Many attempts have been made to find an Old World
    origin for Mexican culture, but they are not convincing.

    =Babylonians.= The Semitic race which founded one of the
    greatest of ancient civilisations in the rich alluvial plains of
    Chaldæa and on the arid plateau of Mesopotamia. Their history is
    too long to summarise here, but it may be stated that the Semitic
    peoples, variously known as Babylonians, Chaldæans, Elamites,
    Medians, and Assyrians, invaded and dispossessed at different times
    the primitive Mongolic race of Akkads (_q.v._). Their earliest
    settlement seems to have been at Ur of the Chaldees, on the right
    bank of the Euphrates. Babylon and Nineveh were afterwards the
    seats of the Babylonian and Assyrian powers, whilst Elamite and
    Median conquerors intervened at various times. These powerful
    Semitic races made great advances in art, science, literature,
    religion, and social policy. Their first incursion, probably
    from Arabia, into the Euphrates Valley dates back to about 3800
    B.C.

    =Baggaras.= A fierce and warlike race settled in the
    Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and formerly dominant under the Mahdi.

    =Baghirmis.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Bakairi.= See CARIBS.

    =Bakatla=, =Bakwena=. Bantu Negroes of Bechuana stock.

    =Bakwiri.= Bantu Negroes settled in the Cameroons.

    =Balinese.= A Malayan race of the East Indian Archipelago.

    =Balolo.= Bantu Negroes of the Middle Congo; one of the finest
    negro races.

    =Balong.= Bantu Negroes of West Africa.

    =Baltis.= A hardy Tibetan race, inhabiting the Alpine valley
    of the Upper Indus.

    =Baluba=, or =Basonge=. A dominant Bantu Negro race of
    the Kassai basin in Equatorial Africa.

    =Baluchis=, or =Beluchis=. Natives of Baluchistan, south
    of Afghanistan, of Iranian (Aryan) descent, with a mingling of
    Tartar (Mongolic) blood. The dominant race of the country is the
    Brahui, aboriginals who are probably of Mongolic descent, allied to
    the Dravidians (_q.v._) of India. The Brahui are of Mongolic type,
    short, with round flat faces, hospitable and generous. They are the
    more settled portion of the inhabitants. The Baluchis are chiefly
    nomads, taller, with more Aryan features, a warlike and predatory
    people.

    =Balunda.= Bantu Negroes of South Central Africa, occupying
    the Congo-Zambesi divide.

    =Bamangwato.= Bantu Negroes of north Bechuanaland; Khama’s
    semi-civilised people.

    =Bambaras.= See MANDINGAN.

    =Banandi.= Bantu Negroes of apish type, in the Semliki forests.

    =Bangalas.= Bantu Negroes of Middle Congo, on the Ubangi river.

    =Bantus.= One of the two subdivisions of the African Negro
    family of Ethiopic Man, occupying the southern half of the African
    continent, south of the Cameroons and Albert Nyanza. A Negro race
    modified from the Sudanese type by Hamite influences.

    =Banyai.= Bantu Negroes, south of the Middle Zambesi.

    =Banyoro.= See WANYORO.

    =Bapedi.= Bantu Negroes of Bechuana stock.

    =Bareas.= Sudanese Negroes inhabiting the Abyssinian slopes.

    =Barguzins.= See BURIATS.

    =Baris.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Barolongs.= Bantu Negroes of Bechuana stock, between Vryburg
    and Molopo river. Mafeking is their capital.

    =Barotse.= Bantu Negroes of Bechuana stock, about headwaters
    of Molopo river.

    =Barrés.= South American Indians in Venezuela and Guiana.

    =Basés.= Sudanese Negroes of Abyssinian slopes, a very low
    negroid type.

    =Bashkirs.= A branch of the Turki stock of the Northern
    Mongolic family. They are first mentioned in the tenth century as
    a warlike and idolatrous race, noted for their large, round, short
    heads, from which their name is derived. They now inhabit the
    Orenberg and Perm districts of Russia, on the western slopes of the
    Ural. Some are settled agriculturists, others pastoral nomads.

    =Bashukulumbwe.= Bantu Negroes of Kafue basin in Zambesia.

    =Basimba= or =Cimbebas=. Aboriginal Negroes of South
    Angola; a low Bantu type, or possibly Negrito, allied to Bushmen.

    =Basonge.= See BALUBA.

    =Basques.= One of the few non-Aryan races still existing
    in Europe, where they inhabit the districts on the French and
    Spanish sides of the Western Pyrenees. They originally occupied a
    much wider area in this neighbourhood, and preserve their ancient
    costume and language. Their ethnological affinities are still in
    dispute, but the best opinion is that they represent the ancient
    Iberians (_q.v._), a Western Hamitic race, related to the Berbers
    of North Africa on the one hand and to the Picts of Scotland and
    the ancient Irish on the other. Probably they have occupied their
    present home since Neolithic times. They are mainly agriculturists,
    with all the rustic virtues, and make excellent soldiers and
    servants.

    =Bassas.= See LIBERIAN GROUP.

    =Bastaards.= See GRIQUAS.

    =Bastarnæ.= See GOTHS.

    =Basutos.= The most civilised race of Bantu Negroes, of the
    Bechuana stock, who inhabit the rugged uplands of Basutoland, a
    British Crown Colony. They have long been subjected to European
    and Christian influence, under which they have presented the
    sole instance of a pure negro community, which has made itself
    self-supporting and approximately civilised. They have succeeded in
    assimilating Western culture, and their little State--which always
    preserved its independence against other natives and Boers--is a
    very flourishing example of what the negro can do under favourable
    auspices.

    =Batanga.= Bantu Negroes of the Cameroons.

    =Batavi.= An ancient German race inhabiting the island formed
    by the Meuse and an arm of the Rhine. Ancestors of the modern Dutch.

    =Bateke.= Bantu Negroes of Congo, above Stanley Pool.

    =Batjans.= See INDONESIAN.

    =Batlapi.= Bantu Negroes of Bechuana stock, near Vryburg.

    =Batonga= or =Batoka=. Bantu Negroes of Zambesia,
    Manicaland and Tongaland.

    =Battaks.= A pre-Malay race of North Sumatra, probably allied
    to the Polynesians (_q.v._).

    =Batwas.= A pygmy (_q.v._) Negrito race south of Congo, allied
    to Bushmen.

    =Batwanas.= Bantu Negroes of North Bechuanaland.

    =Bavarians.= A branch of the High German stock of the Teutonic
    family, in Bavaria.

    =Bayansis.= Bantu Negroes of Middle Congo, on Kwa River.
    Strong negro element.

    =Bechuanas.= A main stock of Bantu Negroes, occupying what
    is known as British Bechuanaland. The name is of European origin,
    and has no native significance as applied to the race, but is a
    convenient general term.

    =Bedawi= or =Bedouins=. Nomadic Arabs (_q.v._) who
    inhabit the deserts of Arabia and the neighbouring countries,
    and live by stock-breeding and robbery. Their breed of horses is
    world-famous. They are independent, chivalrous and hospitable. They
    correspond to the Biblical Ishmaelites, whose race and customs they
    preserve practically unchanged.

    =Bejas.= A race of Eastern Hamites, of splendid physique,
    occupying the eastern seaboard of Africa north of Massowah,
    including Bisharis, Hadendowas, and other tribes.

    =Belgae.= The northernmost of the three races occupying Gaul
    in Cæsar’s time, probably of Low German stock, with perhaps a
    Celtic element.

    =Belgians.= The inhabitants of Belgium, formerly the Spanish
    or Austrian Netherlands, of very mixed origin. The natives are
    either Flemings of Teutonic stock, or Celtic Walloons (_q.v._).
    Mingled with these are large numbers of German, French and Dutch
    immigrants; and constant crossing of blood has tended to produce a
    truly Belgian type out of all these fluctuating elements. They are
    among the most patient and productive of agriculturists, mostly
    small proprietors; and they possess flourishing manufactures and a
    rich commerce through the great port of Antwerp.

    =Beluchis.= See BALUCHIS.

    =Bengalis.= The majority of the natives of Bengal belong to
    the Hindu stock of the Aryan family, which was probably the first
    to develop a true civilisation and a great literature (in the
    ancient Sanscrit tongue). The typical Bengali is quick-witted,
    versatile, and successful in the arts of peace, but not
    warlike--though the native army of the old East Indian Company
    was largely recruited from Bengal. The Bengali Babu, of the
    professional or lower official class, is well known.

    =Beluchis.= See BALUCHIS.

    =Benin.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Berbers.= A Western Hamitic race occupying the Atlas
    Mountains and the Northern Sahara, of predatory and warlike habits.
    They are known in Algeria as Kabyles, and in Sahara as Tuaregs.
    Largely dark-haired and swarthy, with prominent noses, they belong
    to the Melanochroid branch of Caucasic Man. They correspond to the
    ancient Numidians.

    =Betsimisarakas.= One of the three main divisions of the
    Malagasy, or Malayo-African race which inhabits Madagascar. They
    occupy the east coast.

    =Bhils.= Primitive and still wild non-Aryan inhabitants of
    Central India, of Kolarian family (_q.v._).

    =Bisharis.= See BEJAS.

    =Blackfoot Indians.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Bœotians.= A branch of the Æolian race in ancient Greece. The
    Bœotians were supposed to be peculiarly dull, and were the typical
    rustic clowns of Greek literature.

    =Boers.= White inhabitants of Cape Colony, the Transvaal, and
    the Orange River Colony, mainly of Dutch descent, with a French
    Huguenot element and a sprinkling of Negro blood. They were the
    original colonists of South Africa, which they entered in 1652. A
    race of farmers (Boer is derived from the Dutch boor, peasant),
    they also proved themselves to be hardy pioneers and admirable,
    though not at all romantic, fighters, learning in long native
    wars the arts of strategy, which they exercised so well against
    the English in the South African War of 1899-1902. They have
    now accepted the English rule, and promise to be among our most
    flourishing African subjects.

    =Bohemians.= See CZECH.

    =Bolivians.= White natives of Bolivia in South America, of
    Spanish descent, with a considerable admixture of Indian blood.

    =Bongos.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Botocudos.= South American Indians on eastern seaboard of
    Brazil.

    =Brahui.= See BALUCHIS.

    =Brazilians.= White natives of Brazil, mainly of Portuguese
    descent, but with a considerable admixture, in many districts, of
    Indian and negro blood.

    =Bretons.= Natives of Brittany, descended from a short,
    round-headed, dark race, generally called Celtic, but perhaps
    pre-Aryan.

    =Bribris.= South American Indians of Costa Rica.

    =Britons.= (1) The ancient Britons were a Celtic race, whose
    remnants are still to be found in the Welsh (_q.v._). They attained
    a considerable degree of civilisation under the Roman conquerors,
    and adopted Christianity. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain
    drove most of them back into Wales, Cornwall, and other outlying
    portions of the island, whilst the remainder were either destroyed
    or assimilated. (2) In the wide modern sense, Britons are the white
    citizens of the British Empire.

    =Bugis= or =Buginese=. Natives of Boni in Celebes; a
    primitive Malay race.

    =Bulalas.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Bulgars.= A branch of the Finns (_q.v._), who were originally
    settled on the banks of the Volga. In the sixth century they
    crossed the Danube and conquered the modern Bulgaria, then occupied
    by the Slavonic Slovenians (_q.v._). A speedy fusion took place
    between the Slovenians and the Bulgars, who adopted the language
    and customs of the former, and rose to greatness as a Slav power.
    In the ninth and tenth centuries they ruled the greater part of
    the Balkan Peninsula, and warred successfully with the Byzantine
    Empire, which, however, subjected them in 1019 under Basil II.,
    “the slayer of the Bulgarians.” Later they passed under the Turkish
    rule, and ceased to have an independent national existence down to
    the nineteenth century.

    =Bulgarians.= Inhabitants of the modern Balkan state of
    Bulgaria, descended from the Bulgars (_q.v._) with considerable
    admixtures of Greek and Turkish blood.

    =Bulloms.= See TEMNÉ GROUP.

    =Burgundians.= An ancient people of Teutonic race (High
    German), who were originally settled between the Oder and Vistula.
    In the fifth century they invaded Gaul, where they formed the first
    kingdom of Burgundy, between the Aar and the Rhone. There were many
    later Burgundian kingdoms and duchies, of which the last and most
    famous was that of Charles the Bold, annexed to France in 1477. The
    Burgundians are now French subjects, but still show traces of their
    Teutonic origin.

    =Buriats.= The Western or Siberian branch of the Mongol stock
    of the Northern Mongolic family. They occupy the vicinity of Lake
    Baikal The majority are nomad pastors, but some have taken to
    agriculture. A peace-loving, but lazy and drunken people; they
    include various tribes, such as the Barguzins, Selengese, Idinese,
    Kudaras and Olkhonese.

    =Burmese=, or =Burmans=. A short-statured, thick-set and
    flat-featured people, approaching the Chinese type, the principal
    race of the Indo-Chinese stock of the Southern Mongolic family.
    They inhabit Burma--now a British possession--and are excitable,
    turbulent, and given to dacoity, or highway robbery. They make
    good farmers and shopkeepers, but are not warlike or methodical.

    =Burus.= See INDONESIANS.

    =Bushmen.= A nomadic Negro race of South Africa, who stand at
    the lowest stage of human culture. They are probably the aborigines
    of South Africa, where they have been dispossessed by Hottentots
    and Bantus from the north. They are thin and wiry, of small
    stature, not unlike the Hottentots in colour and features. They
    live by hunting, and possess a curious mythology. Their artistic
    powers, comparable to those of Palæolithic Man, are shown in the
    remarkable rock-drawings on the walls of their caves.

    =Calchaquis.= South American Indians, in Plate River district.

    =Cambojans.= Natives of Cambodia, Mongoloid approaching
    Caucasic type.

    =Canaanites.= One of the main branches of the great Semitic
    family, inhabiting Palestine and the Mauritanian sea-coast in
    ancient times, including Jews, Phœnicians, Carthaginians, Moabites,
    Amorites, Idumæans and Philistines (_q.v._). A fierce and warlike
    people, with a remarkable genius for religion, which has greatly
    influenced the modern world.

    =Canadians.= White natives of Canada, of mixed French and
    Anglo-Saxon descent.

    =Caribs.= South American Indians, formerly occupying the West
    Indian Islands, and now the shores of the Caribbean Sea, including
    Macusi, Bakairi, Akawai, Arecuna, and Rucuyenne tribes. They are
    strongly built, warlike and fierce, but honourable. The term
    cannibal is supposed to be a corruption of their name based on
    their habits.

    =Carthaginians.= Natives of one of the great empires of the
    ancient world, which was founded at Carthage, near the modern
    Bizerta, by Phœnician colonists in the ninth century B.C.,
    and was destroyed by Rome in 146 B.C. Carthage was the
    great rival of Rome as a Mediterranean power. Its inhabitants
    belonged to the Canaanite stock of the Semitic family, and were a
    nation of traders, cruel and gloomy in temperament, worshippers of
    Moloch with human sacrifices. Though in Hannibal they produced one
    of the greatest of generals, they were not warlike, and trusted
    chiefly to mercenaries, wherefore they fell.

    =Catalans.= Natives of North-east Spain, mostly of Gothic
    descent, and still distinct from other Spaniards in language and
    costume. Honest and enterprising, turbulent, and intensely devoted
    to liberty.

    =Caucasians.= One of the families of Caucasic Man, inhabiting
    the mountainous region of the Caucasus, and divided into
    southern, western, and eastern branches [see GEORGIANS,
    CIRCASSIANS, CHECHENZES, LESGHIANS].
    They include a great number of different tribes, who seem to have
    settled there from the earliest historical times. Some of these,
    the Melanochroid highlanders, like the Georgians, Circassians, and
    Lesghians, present an almost ideal standard of physical beauty,
    whilst others are squat and ungainly. Some ethnologists see in the
    Caucasus the primitive home of the Aryan family, from whom the
    Caucasians would, on this view, be an offshoot. The Ossets (_q.v._)
    are certainly Aryan. The Caucasians are very warlike, and struggled
    till quite recently with success against the Russian domination.

    =Caucasic.= One of the four great divisions of the human race.
    Type, white-skinned, square-jawed (orthognathous), skull between
    broad and long (mesocephalic), hair soft, straight, or wavy; in
    intelligence, enterprise, and civilisation, much superior to other
    divisions.

    =Cayugas.= See IROQUOIAN.

    =Celts.= See KELTS.

    =Chakhars.= A branch of Eastern Mongols, settled on the
    south-east boundary of the Desert of Gobi.

    =Chaldæans.= See BABYLONIANS.

    =Chamorros.= Aborigines of the Ladrone Islands, so named from
    their thievish propensities. A branch of the Oceanic Mongolic
    family, probably allied to the Formosans (_q.v._).

    =Chancas.= See INCAS.

    =Chaudors.= A nomad tribe inhabiting the steppes east of the
    Caspian and south of the Oxus. See TURKOMANS.

    =Chapogirs.= See TUNGUSES.

    =Charruas.= An extinct race of South American Indians in South
    Brazil, peculiar for their extremely black colour with lank hair.

    =Chechenzes.= A branch of the Eastern stock of the Caucasian
    family, inhabiting the northern slopes of the Eastern Caucasus.
    Their chief tribes are Ingushis, Kishis, and Tushis.

    =Cheremisses.= See FINNS.

    =Cherokees.= A brave and warlike tribe of North American
    Indians. See IROQUOIAN.

    =Cheyennes.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Chibchas.= South American Indians of Bogota.

    =Chichimecs.= See NAHUANS.

    =Chickasaws.= See MUSKHOGEANS.

    =Chilians.= White natives of Chili, of Spanish descent, with a
    mixture of Araucanian Indian blood.

    =Chinese.= One of the most numerous races of the world,
    inhabiting the Chinese Empire. They are a stock of the Southern
    Mongolic family, and it is thought by some ethnologists that they
    are descended from the Mongolic Akkads (_q.v._) of Mesopotamia.
    There is a remarkable uniformity in the physical type presented by
    the Chinese in all climates and environments; they are the most
    homogeneous of great peoples. They are yellow-skinned, short in
    stature, with obliquely set eyes, high cheek-bones, long skulls,
    and broad faces, with slight prognathism. They possess an ancient
    and highly organised civilisation, which is characterised by
    its conservatism and slowness to accept new ideas--so different
    in this from the Japanese. The Chinese are naturally frugal,
    industrious, and patient; they are excellent agriculturists, and
    very gregarious; they despise war, but make excellent soldiers when
    drilled by Europeans or Japanese. They are eminently literary, and
    have a high system of morality. There are many local varieties,
    such as the Puntis of the Canton districts, the Hakkas of Swatow,
    the Hoklas of Fohkien, the Dungans (_q.v._), which need not be
    farther particularised.

    =Chinooks.= A nearly extinct tribe of North American Indians
    on the Columbia River, on whose language is based the Chinook
    jargon, or traders’ Lingua Franca of British Columbia.

    =Chins.= See SINGPHOS.

    =Chippewayans.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Chiquitos.= South American Indians of Upper Paraguay basin.

    =Chiriguanos.= South American Indians of Bolivia.

    =Chitralis.= Natives of Chitral, in the Hindu Khush, rough,
    hardy hillmen, closely allied to the Kafirs (_q.v._) of Kafiristan.

    =Chocos.= A tribe of South American Indians of Matto Grosso.

    =Choktaws.= See MUSKHOGEAN.

    =Chontals.= Central American Indians of Nicaragua.

    =Chols.= See MAYA-QUICHÉ.

    =Chorasses.= See KALMUKS.

    =Chorotegans.= Central American Indians of Nicaragua.

    =Chukchis.= A Northern Mongolic race of North-east Siberia,
    closely akin to the American Eskimo in features and customs. They
    are of high character and very independent, but at a low stage of
    civilisation, and live by reindeer-breeding and hunting. A branch
    of the Chukchis, differing mainly in language, is known as the
    Koryaks.

    =Chunchos.= South American Indians on tributaries of Beni
    River in Peru.

    =Cimbebas.= See BASIMBA.

    =Circassians=, or =Tcherkesses=. A race of Caucasian
    mountaineers, formerly inhabiting the Black Sea coast between Anapa
    and Pitzunta, of high physical type, who maintained an unavailing
    struggle against Russia till 1864, when their subjugation was
    followed by a wholesale emigration of the Circassian tribes to
    the Turkish Empire. Allied to them are the Abkhasians and Kabards
    (_q.v._).

    =Colombians.= White natives of Colombia, in Central America,
    mostly of Spanish descent, with an admixture of Indian and negro
    blood.

    =Comanches.= See SHOSHONEAN.

    =Conibos.= South American Indians of Peru.

    =Copts.= Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians
    (_q.v._), of middle stature, slender limbs, and pale complexion,
    who inhabit Egypt, and preserve the language and customs of the
    last period of ancient Egyptian civilisation. They are essentially
    townsmen, clerks, or artisans.

    =Coras.= See OPATA-PIMA.

    =Cornish.= A race of Brythonic or P Celts, akin to Welsh
    and Bretons, inhabiting Cornwall in earlier times; now absorbed
    in English stock. Their language became extinct in seventeenth
    or eighteenth century. The crossing of the Cornish Celts with
    Anglo-Saxons has given birth to a singularly fine race of hardy
    fishermen and miners.

    =Corsicans.= The aborigines of Corsica were probably a Western
    Hamitic race, allied to the Ligurians (_q.v._). They were followed
    by Ionian invaders, and in turn by Carthaginian, Roman, Vandal,
    Hun, Gothic, Saracenic, and Italian conquerors, each of whom has
    added something to the mixture of blood in the modern Corsicans,
    a turbulent, lawless, and warlike race (now belonging to France),
    whose greatest son was Napoleon.

    =Costa Ricans.= White natives of Costa Rica, in Central
    America, mostly of pure Spanish descent.

    =Crees.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Creek Indians.= See MUSKHOGEAN.

    =Creoles.= Persons born in past or present French, Spanish, or
    Portuguese colonies, of pure European descent.

    =Cretans.= An ancient race of prehistoric culture [see
    MYCENÆANS]; in modern times chiefly Greek, mixed with Turk.

    =Croats.= Inhabitants of Croatia, now mainly of Slavonic race,
    mingled with an earlier short, dark race of non-Aryan descent.
    One of the motley races of the Austrian Empire. They are warlike,
    turbulent, and eager for independence.

    =Cro-Magnon.= A prehistoric race settled in the Vezere
    district of France, which may be taken as the primitive type of
    Caucasic Man. It is only known by a few skulls and other relics,
    and probably dates back to the Glacial Period.

    =Crow Indians.= See SIOUAN.

    =Cymry.= See WELSH.

    =Czechs=, or =Bohemians=. The most westerly branch of the
    Slavonic stock of the Aryan family, now occupying Bohemia, Moravia,
    and other parts of Austria. They are closely allied to the Slovaks
    of Hungary. They migrated from the Upper Vistula district to the
    modern Bohemia in the fifth century. Long an independent kingdom,
    and a bulwark of Christendom against the Turks, Bohemia passed to
    Austria in 1526. During the last century there has been a great
    recrudescence of the Czech nationality and language. The Czechs as
    a race are very musical and artistic.

    =Daflas.= A Tibetan race inhabiting the northern border of
    Assam.

    =Dahomans.= See EWE.

    =Dakotas.= See SIOUAN.

    =Dalmatians.= A Southern Slavonic race, crossed with Gothic
    blood. A fine race of hardy seamen, they manned the Venetian
    fleets, but now belong to Austria.

    =Damaras=, or =Hau-Khoin=. See HEREROS.

    =Danakils=, or =Afars=. An Eastern Hamitic race settled
    in the vicinity of Obock, between Abyssinia and the Red Sea. They
    are nomad pastors and fishermen, well-built, and slender.

    =Danes.= Natives of Denmark, belonging to the Scandinavian
    stock of the Aryan family. Denmark was originally inhabited by
    the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who colonised England. On their
    departure, the Danes from Zealand settled on the deserted lands,
    and there reared the kingdom which still exists. The early Danes
    were brave warriors and skilled seamen, who for a time ruled Saxon
    England under Canute. Their descendants, of comparatively pure
    blood, preserve these characteristics, and are also industrious
    agriculturists.

    =Dards.= A warlike and hardy race of Aryan descent, inhabiting
    the mountainous country around Gilgit, in North-west India, of whom
    the Hunzas and Nagars are the chief tribes.

    =Dargos.= See LESGHIANS.

    =Delawares.= A North American Indian race with whom William
    Penn dealt in the 17th century: now fairly civilised. See
    ALGONQUIAN.

    =Didos.= See LESGHIANS.

    =Dinkas.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Dogras.= An Aryan race in the Punjab, between the Chinab and
    the Ravi, who contribute excellent soldiers to the British Native
    Army.

    =Dorians.= See HELLENES.

    =Dravidas=, or =Dravidians=. Indigenous non-Aryan
    inhabitants of South India, including the Telingas or Telugu of the
    Nizam’s Dominions, the Tamils of Karnatic and Ceylon, the Kanarese
    of Mysore, the Malayalim of Malabar Coast, those wild hunters the
    Gonds of Vindhya Hills, the Sinhalese of Ceylon, and perhaps the
    Veddahs (_q.v._). A Mongoloid race originally, which has been
    assimilated to the Caucasic type by long intermixture of blood.

    =Druses.= A brave, handsome and industrious white race, who
    have been settled in the Lebanon district of Syria for at least 800
    years, and owe their unity to the possession of a special religion.
    Their origin is uncertain, but they are probably of a mixed stock,
    to which Arabs, Kurds, and Persians have all contributed. They are
    fair-haired and of light complexion. They are very warlike, have
    always preserved their independence against the Turks, and are the
    inveterate enemies of the Maronites (_q.v._).

    =Dungans.= Southern Mongolic inhabitants of Zungaria, between
    Tian-Shan and Altai. Allied to Chinese (_q.v._).

    =Durbats.= See KALMUKS.

    =Duranis.= See AFGHANS.

    =Dyaks.= The aborigines of Borneo, probably akin to the Malays
    (_q.v._), whom they resemble physically, though of greater average
    stature. They are active and warlike, and formerly indulged in
    the practice of head-hunting, now dying out. The Sea-Dyaks were
    bold and inveterate pirates. They possess a considerable degree of
    indigenous civilisation, and their moral character is very fine.

    =Easter Islanders.= (1) See POLYNESIANS. (2) Easter
    Island once possessed an older race of inhabitants, now extinct,
    who have left very remarkable traces in the shape of numerous
    colossal statues, thin-lipped and disdainful, standing on platforms
    of Cyclopean masonry, as well as many stone houses with thick
    walls, painted on the inside. Nothing farther is known of their
    race or history.

    =Ecuadorians.= White natives of Ecuador, in South America, of
    Spanish descent; noted for their laziness and political instability.

    =Edomites.= See IDUMÆANS.

    =Egbas.= See YORUBAS.

    =Egyptians.= (1) The ancient inhabitants of Egypt--known
    to them as Khem, the Biblical Mizraim--who reared one of the
    oldest and most important civilised states of the ancient world.
    The aborigines of Egypt were apparently a Palæolithic branch of
    Ethiopic Man, allied to the modern Bushmen. They were dispossessed
    and practically exterminated, probably about 7000 B.C.,
    by a slender, fair-skinned race of European type, belonging to
    the Hamitic family, and resembling the modern Berbers (_q.v._) in
    many respects. These were probably the same as the ancient Libyans
    (_q.v._). Later this race was modified by the introduction of a
    Semitic element, partly from Syria, partly from the Phœnician
    conquerors who founded dynastic rule in Egypt under Menes, between
    5000 and 4000 B.C. Their later history is written on their
    imperishable monuments, and need not be summarised here. In later
    times the Egyptian racial type was modified by Greek and Roman
    influence. The ancient Egyptians were highly skilled in agriculture
    and engineering, warlike but not aggressive, and with a highly
    developed literature and religion. (2) The modern Egyptians are
    partly descended from the ancient Egyptians, whose racial type
    as represented on the monuments is still to be found in purity,
    mingled with Bedouin Arabs, Turks, Syrians, and other races. See
    COPTS and FELLAHIN.

    =English.= Natives of England; used in a wider sense as
    equivalent to citizens of the British Empire [See BRITONS,
    ANGLO-SAXONS]. The English people are a Low German branch
    of the Teutonic stock of the Aryan family, with a faint Celtic
    element derived from the primitive Britons, a strong Scandinavian
    element (especially in the north-east), derived from the invading
    Danes and Norsemen in the ninth to eleventh centuries, and a
    considerable Norman element--Norse modified by French culture. The
    typical Englishman is white-skinned and fair-haired, belonging to
    the Xanthochroi, but there are many deviations due to modifying
    influences. The race is eminently warlike and aggressive, and makes
    the most successful colonisers known to the world.

    =Erie Indians.= See IROQUOIAN.

    =Erse.= See IRISH.

    =Eshi-Kongo.= A semi-civilised race of Bantu Negroes,
    belonging to the ancient Kongo Empire, now Portuguese West Africa.

    =Eskimos=, or =Innuits=. An Arctic aboriginal race,
    now inhabiting Greenland and the northern coasts of the American
    continent. They are nomadic, live by hunting and fishing, and are
    inured to extremes of cold. They are very broad-headed, fat, and
    of short stature, with flat quasi-Mongolic features. They seem
    to occupy a place midway between the North American Indian and
    the Mongolic type, and there is some reason to suppose that they
    represent a prehistoric Mongoloid incursion from Northern Asia, or
    perhaps from Indo-Malaysia.

    =Esthonians.= A branch of Baltic Finns (_q.v._) settled in
    Esthonia, and possessing an ancient ballad literature and mythology.

    =Ethiopians.= An ancient Berber tribe, settled in Egypt at
    least 5,000 years ago, now represented by the fair Berbers of
    Mauritania. Homer called them “blameless,” because he knew so
    little about them. See NUBIANS.

    =Ethiopic.= One of the four great divisions of the human race,
    occupying Africa, Australia, and many islands of the Eastern Ocean.
    Its members are typically black-skinned and woolly haired, with
    projecting jaws and broad skulls.

    =Etruscans.= An ancient Italian people, inhabiting Etruria
    in North Italy in pre-Roman times. They probably consisted of an
    aboriginal Pelasgian (_q.v._) race, modified by a dominant race of
    invaders, who may have been of Mongolic type, or perhaps akin to
    the Hittites (_q.v._). The Etruscans may be classed as Hamitic.
    They had a distinctive civilisation, and made great progress in
    art, of which many monuments remain. The Etruscan confederation,
    of which Veii was the chief city, long warred with the rising
    power of Rome, under whose dominion it fell in the fourth century
    B.C. Families of undoubted Etruscan descent are still
    found in North Italy.

    =Europeans.= Natives of Europe, mainly Aryan.

    =Ewe.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes of Guinea Coast. The
    best known are the Dahomans, or natives of the ancient kingdom
    of Dahomey, on the Slave Coast. Of small stature, but robust and
    warlike, they are noted for their great human sacrifices and their
    employment of female warriors or “Amazons.” Now under French rule.
    The Togos are also an Ewe tribe.

[Illustration: AN ARAB VILLAGE ON THE BORDERS OF EGYPT]

    =Fans.= A race of powerful and aggressive warriors, who
    intruded into Gaboon-Ogoway district about the middle of the
    nineteenth century; possibly related to Azandeh or Fulahs
    (_q.v._). Cannibals, but otherwise of higher intellect and morality
    than the average Negro, from whom they differ in physical type.

    =Fantis.= See TSHI.

    =Fellahin.= The labouring peasantry of modern Egypt,
    industrious but not warlike, descendants of ancient Egyptians, with
    a mixture of Syrian and Arab blood.

    =Felup.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes on Casamanza and
    Cacheo estuaries.

    =Fertits.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Fijians.= Natives of Fiji, belonging to the Melanesian stock
    of the Oceanic Negro family. Formerly ferocious cannibals, they are
    now civilised.

    =Filipinos.= See PHILIPPINES.

    =Fingus=, or =Ama-Fingu=. Bantu Negroes of the Kafir
    division in South-east Africa, regarded by Zulus and Ama-Xosa as an
    inferior race.

    =Finno-Ugrian.= A stock of the Northern Mongolic family,
    including (1) Ugrian or Siberian Finns, of which the chief races
    are Soyots, Ostyaks, Samoyedes, Voguls, Permian Finns, Siryanians,
    and Magyars (_q.v._); (2) European Finns, divided into: (_a_) Volga
    Finns, (_b_) Baltic Finns.

    =Finns.= The Finns proper are the inhabitants of Finland,
    between Russia and Norway. They are a Northern Mongolic race, of
    Finno-Ugrian stock, who are supposed to have originated beside
    the head waters of the Yenisei River. They entered Finland about
    the end of the seventh century and established themselves there,
    being afterwards annexed, first by Sweden and then by Russia.
    They are a strong, hardy race, who make excellent seamen, with
    round faces, fair hair and blue eyes. They are honest, highly
    moral and religious, and possess a remarkable ballad and folk-tale
    literature, of which the Kalevala is the chief example. The
    Baltic Finns of allied race include Esthonians, Karelians, Lapps,
    Livonians and Tavastians (_q.v._). The Volga Finns are another
    branch of the same people, whose chief tribe was the ancient
    Bulgars (_q.v._). The Mordvins and Cheremisses, still settled on
    the banks of the Volga in small communities, belong to the same
    race.

    =Flathead= or =Salish Indians=. A mixed race of North
    American Indians, in British Columbia and Montana.

    =Flemings=, or =Flemish=. The inhabitants of Flanders,
    now divided between Belgium and Holland, descended from Belgic
    tribes settled there in Cæsar’s time. They are a Low German branch
    of the Teutonic stock. They are an industrious and honest, though
    phlegmatic, people, who played a great part in mediæval commerce.

    =Formosans.= Natives of Formosa, of mixed Malayan and Negrito
    descent. They were divided into three classes by the Chinese
    invaders: the Pepohwan, civilised agriculturists, under Chinese
    rule; Sekhwan, settled tribes who acknowledged Chinese rule; and
    Chinhwan, the wild savage tribes of the mountains, who waged
    unceasing war against the invaders. The island has now passed under
    Japanese dominion. The Formosans in general approximate to the
    Malay type, but are more sturdily built.

    =Fox Indians.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Franks.= A confederation of Germanic tribes, dwelling on the
    Middle and Lower Rhine in the third century. They belonged to the
    High German branch of the Teutonic stock. In the third and fourth
    centuries they began to invade Gaul, where they established a
    Frankish kingdom under Clovis (481-511), who adopted Christianity.
    This later developed into the modern State of France. The Franks
    were a brave and stalwart race of warriors, with blue eyes and long
    flowing hair, well-built and large-limbed. They were a nation of
    democratic fighting men, who practised agriculture in the intervals
    of war.

    =French.= The inhabitants of modern France, a race of
    mixed origin. Among their ancestors are the Celtic Gauls, the
    Teutonic Belgae and Franks, the Hamitic Iberians, the Romans,
    and the Scandinavian Normans (_q.v._). They are probably the
    quickest-witted and most intelligent race of modern Europe.
    Extremely warlike and aggressive in earlier days, they are now
    displaying greater devotion to the arts of peace, especially
    agriculture. Paris has long been the chief centre of ideas in
    Europe.

    =Frisians.= A Teutonic race of Low German stock, living
    between Scheldt and Weser in Roman times, now belonging to the
    Netherlands.

    =Fuegians.= Natives of Tierra del Fuego in South America,
    savages of a very low physical and mental type.

    =Fulahs.= A warlike and predatory race of Saharan Hamites,
    formerly occupying small communities throughout the West and
    Central Sudan, who over-ran the native Hausa States about
    1800-1810, and founded the empire of Sokoto.

    =Furs.= See NUBA GROUP.

    =Ga.= A Sudanese Negro group in Guinea, including Accras and
    Krobos.

    =Gaels.= See HIGHLANDERS.

    =Gaikas= and =Galekas=. See XOSAS.

    =Galchas.= Highlanders of Hindu Kush and Turkistan, of Iranian
    descent.

    =Gallegos.= Natives of Galicia, in Spain, of Gothic descent.

    =Gallas.= A branch of Eastern Hamites, occupying Gallaland,
    south of Abyssinia. The finest people in all Africa, strongly
    built, of a light chocolate colour. They are distinguished for
    their energy and honesty. They are divided into numerous tribes,
    and are inveterate foes of the Somalis.

    =Gallinas.= Sudanese Negroes of Sierra Leone.

    =Garamantes.= An ancient Hamitic race inhabiting the
    neighbourhood of Tripoli in Roman times.

    =Garhwalis.= Tibetan natives of Garhwal, on the border of
    Tibet.

    =Gascons.= Natives of Gascony, of Basque descent, modified
    by Frank and French blood. They are notorious for their lively
    imagination and boasting “Gasconades.”

    =Gauchos.= A mixed race of Spanish and Indian descent,
    admirable horsemen, who are the chief herdsmen of Uruguay and the
    Argentine Republic. See PUELCHES.

    =Gauls.= In Cæsar’s time the Gauls occupied the central part,
    and formed the chief race, of modern France, which, after them,
    was called Gaul. They probably belonged to the Brythonic division
    of the Celtic stock, being closely allied to the ancient Britons,
    as well as to the modern Welsh and Bretons, who respectively
    represent the remnants of the primitive Celtic population of
    England and France. It is possible that there was a still earlier
    Celtic element in France, corresponding to the Goidelic division of
    the Celtic stock. Mingled with the Celtic element in the Gauls were
    traces of the earlier Iberian and Ligurian aborigines (_q.v._). The
    Gauls were blue-eyed, fair-haired and long-headed, in distinction
    to the older dark-eyed, black-haired, round-headed type, which is
    more commonly known as Celtic, but is probably characteristic of
    an older race. Under Roman rule the Gauls acquired a considerable
    degree of civilisation. They were dispossessed in the decline of
    the empire by Franks, Burgundians and Visigoths (_q.v._), but
    became in part ancestors of the modern French.

    =Georgians.= The chief race of the Southern Caucasus, a fine
    athletic race of pure Caucasic type, noted for the personal beauty
    of its individuals. The Georgians were formerly fierce and warlike,
    but under Russian rule have become industrious in the arts of
    peace. They are noted for a passionate love of music. They first
    appear in history in the time of Alexander the Great, when they
    were already settled in their mountains. The Georgian kingdom had
    an independent existence for about seven centuries, but suffered
    much from Mongolian and especially Turkish invasions. Georgia
    and Circassia furnished the majority of white slaves for Turkish
    harems. In 1801 Georgia was annexed to Russia. Other important
    South Caucasian races are the Imerians and the Mingrelians, who
    closely resemble the Georgians in physical characteristics, but
    have displayed less aptitude for civilisation.

    =Gepidæ.= See GOTHS.

    =Getæ.= An ancient race of Thracian (_q.v._) descent, who
    settled in Wallachia in the fourth century B.C. They
    were warlike and turbulent, but were conquered by Trajan and
    incorporated in the Roman Empire. In later centuries they appear to
    have been fused with the Goths (_q.v._).

    =Germans.= The Germans first appear in history as a multitude
    of independent and warlike tribes living amongst the dense forests
    which stretched in Roman times from the Rhine to the Vistula.
    They belonged to the Teutonic stock of the Aryan family. They
    were a tall and vigorous race, with long, fair hair and fierce
    blue eyes, who delighted in war and the chase. Their democratic
    social organisation has greatly influenced all Teutonic history;
    their love of liberty was a passion. At an early period they were
    divided into High and Low Germans, differing in type, according as
    they inhabited the central and southern portions of modern Germany
    or the low-lying lands towards the North Sea and the Baltic. The
    chief races of the former were the Goths, Franks, Burgundians,
    Swiss, Swabians, Austrians; of the latter, Saxons, Angles, Jutes,
    Frisians, Flemings, Batavi--from whom the modern English and
    Dutch are descended, whilst the High Germans represent the modern
    Germans. These are a very enterprising, thorough, and industrious
    race, alike in war and peace, and have thus given birth to one of
    the greatest Powers of the modern world.

    =Ghilzais.= See AFGHANS.

    =Gilyaks.= A Siberian Mongolic race of Saghalien.

    =Gipsies.= A nomadic race, which was first described as
    appearing in Europe in the fifteenth century, and is now found in
    nearly all civilised countries. At first they were believed to come
    from Egypt, and their name is a corruption of “Egyptians.” They
    have a dark, tawny skin, black hair and eyes, are small-handed
    and often very handsome, and live by tinkering, basket-making,
    fortune-telling, and other arts which can be practised on the
    road. Their chief characteristic is independence and love of a
    wandering life. Their origin is still uncertain; though their
    language, Romany, is known to be a corrupt dialect of Hindi, which
    supports the older theory that they are of Indian descent. A later
    and well-supported theory is that they are the descendants of the
    prehistoric race which introduced metal-working into Europe. On
    this view they must have existed in Europe from time immemorial,
    without being noticed in literature. The gipsy problem still awaits
    solution.

    =Goajiris.= See TUPI-GUARANI.

    =Golden Hordes.= See KIPCHAKS.

    =Gonaquas.= Hottentot Negro half breeds on Kafirland frontier.

    =Goads.= See DRAVIDAS.

    =Goths.= One of the chief Teutonic races of ancient times,
    who played a great part in European history from the third to
    the eighth century, but have left no descendants as a distinct
    race. They first appear in history in the third century, as a
    confederation of German tribes who had made a settlement in the
    district north of the Lower Danube. They soon split up into two
    distinct peoples, the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and the West Goths
    or Visigoths. There was a third and unimportant race of Mœsogoths,
    settled in Mœsia, for whom Ulfilas made his famous translation of
    the Scriptures. The Goths were extremely warlike and aggressive,
    a typical race of German warriors. The Ostrogoths remained north
    of the Danube, where they were subjugated for a time by the Huns
    of Attila. Recovering their independence, they invaded Italy,
    destroyed the Western Empire, and established a new kingdom under
    Theodoric. This was conquered by the Byzantine Narses in 552,
    after which the Ostrogoths disappear from history. The Visigoths,
    unwilling to submit to the Huns, crossed the Danube and settled in
    the Roman Empire, where they furnished many recruits for the army.
    In 395 they rebelled, and under Alaric invaded Italy and besieged
    Rome. Afterwards they founded kingdoms in the south of Gaul and in
    Spain, where the Visigoths ruled till the invasion of the Saracens,
    and where their blood is still found incorporated with that of
    the older races. A branch of the Ostrogoths which settled in the
    Crimea preserved its nationality and language down to the sixteenth
    century, or even later. The Bastarnæ, Gepidæ, and perhaps the
    Vandals (_q.v._), were branches of the Gothic race.

    =Greeks.= (1) For ancient Greeks, see HELLENES. (2)
    The modern Greeks are partly descendants of ancient Greeks, with a
    large admixture of Albanian, Wallachian and Slavonic elements. They
    are great in commerce, but not warlike.

    =Griquas.= A race of Hottentot-Dutch half-breeds, also known
    as Bastaards, in Griqualand.

    =Guaicuris.= Central American Indians of Lower California.

    =Guanches.= Aborigines of Canary Islands: so-called “White
    Africans,” probably of Berber Hamitic stock.

    =Guatemalans.= White natives of Guatemala, in Central America,
    of Spanish descent.

    =Guatusas.= Central American Indians of Costa Rica.

    =Guebres.= See PARSEES.

    =Gujeratis.= Natives of Gujerat in Western India, Aryans of
    Hindu stock.

    =Gurkas.= The dominant race of Nepal, who claim a Hindu
    (Aryan) origin, but have probably acquired a Mongoloid tinge from
    inter-marriages. They are of small stature, yet eminently warlike,
    and supply some of the best troops to our Indian Army.

    =Gypsies.= See GIPSIES.

    =Hadendowas.= See BEJAS.

    =Haidas.= North American Indians in British Columbia.

    =Hamites.= A family of Caucasic Man, belonging to the
    Melanochroid or dark type, ranging in colour from white to brown,
    and even black; hair soft, straight or wavy; skull, medium
    (mesocephalic); square-jawed (orthognathous); generally of fine
    physical development. Divided into Eastern Hamites--_e.g._, Somali,
    and Western Hamites--_e.g._, Berbers and Basques. Closely related
    to Semites.

    =Hau-Khoin.= See HEREROS.

    =Hausas.= The most important Sudanese Negro race of Northern
    Nigeria. Keen traders, physically well developed, they make
    excellent soldiers, and are largely utilised for this purpose by
    their British rulers. The Hausa States were over-run by the Hamitic
    Fulahs (_q.v._) about 1800-1810, and now form part of the Empire of
    Sokoto. The Hausa language is the common medium of commerce in the
    Central Sudan.

    =Hawaiians.= Natives of Hawaii, of brown Polynesian stock,
    akin to Maoris. A remarkably fine and handsome race, steadily
    decreasing since contact with European civilisation and diseases.
    Peculiarly subject to leprosy.

    =Haytians.= Natives of the negro republic of Hayti, descended
    from negro slaves imported by the earlier Spanish and French
    owners, who freed themselves at the time of the French Revolution.
    The Spanish portion afterwards formed the Dominican Republic in
    the eastern part of the island. Of mixed Bantu and Sudanese Negro
    descent, with a cross of white blood.

    =Hazaras.= Mountaineers of N.W. Afghanistan, a vigorous and
    turbulent race of Mongolo-Persian descent, often troublesome to
    British India.

    =Hebrews.= See JEWS.

    =Hellenes.= Inhabitants of ancient Greece, which they called
    Hellas. The Proto-Hellenes, or aborigines, were probably of
    Pelasgian origin, belonging to the Western Hamitic family, of
    whom the ancient Cretans and Mycenæans (_q.v._) may represent the
    ancestral type. These were followed by the true Hellenes--Achæans
    or Argives--divided into three main branches--Dorians, Ionians, and
    Æolians. Later they were divided into many local states, such as
    Athens and Sparta. The modern Greeks are in part descended from the
    Hellenes, crossed with Albanian, Wallachian, and Turkish blood. It
    is to the Hellenes that we owe the first important developments of
    civilisation in Europe.

    =Helveti.= Ancient inhabitants of Switzerland in Cæsar’s time,
    probably a German tribe, from whom the modern Swiss are in part
    descended.

    =Hereros=, or =Ovaherero=. Bantu Negroes inhabiting the
    plains of Damaraland, or German South-West Africa. The Damaras or
    Hau-Khoin are a cross between Hereros and the Hottentot aborigines.
    A pastoral nation who migrated thither about two centuries ago from
    the inland districts, and dispossessed the aboriginal Hottentots,
    now represented by the Namas of Namaqualand, with whom they
    are perennially at war. Recently they rose against the German
    authorities, and have given them much trouble. A fine, warlike race.

    =Highlanders.= The Gaelic-speaking inhabitants of Northern
    Scotland, a branch of the Goidelic or Q Kelts, also known as Gaels.
    They are descended from the ancient Scots (_q.v._), who originally
    migrated from Ireland in the fifth century. One of the finest races
    of the British Islands, who give them their finest soldiers.

    =Himyarites.= A branch of the Semitic family (“Red Men,”
    whence the Red Sea), formerly occupying Arabia Felix and Abyssinia;
    they form the main stock of the Abyssinian race. They included the
    kingdoms of the Minæans and Sabæans, the latter being identified by
    some with the Biblical Sheba.

    =Hindus.= A stock of the Aryan family, comprising a large
    proportion of the natives of India, described under the headings
    of Kashmiris, Punjabis, Rajputs, Marathas, Bengalis, Sindis,
    Gujeratis, Assamis, etc. The original Hindus entered India--hence
    called Hindustan--from the north-west at some prehistoric time, and
    soon became the predominant race in the peninsula.

    =Hittites.= A forgotten but once mighty people of Semitic
    race, who contested the entry of the Israelites into Canaan, and
    waged war with Egypt and Assyria for many centuries. Little is
    known about them, but they seem to have reared a mighty empire
    between Lebanon and the Euphrates, which endured for more than a
    thousand years, and was destroyed by the Assyrian Sargon II. in 717
    B.C.

    =Hondurans.= White natives of Honduras, of Spanish descent;
    few in numbers, the population being mostly of mixed blood.

    =Hor-Soks.= A primitive Mongol-Turki race of the Tibetan
    plateau.

    =Hottentots=, or =Khoi-Khoin=. The aboriginal Negro
    inhabitants of South Africa, which they shared with the Bushmen
    (_q.v._). Possibly the Bushmen are degraded Hottentots, or the
    Hottentots are a cross between the Bantus from the north and the
    Bushmen, who would on this view be the true aborigines. The only
    surviving race of pure Hottentots are the Namas of Namaqualand: the
    Damaras, Griquas, Gonaquas, and Koranas, are other races in which
    Hottentot blood is mixed with that of Bantu Negroes or of Europeans
    (mostly Boers). The Hottentots are a distinct branch of the Negro
    family, marked by extremely long heads and high cheek-bones, a
    brownish-yellow complexion, with other physical peculiarities
    exemplified in the so-called “Hottentot Venus,” and also found in
    the Bushmen. Their language is peculiar for its unique “clicks,”
    which no European can pronounce, and which seem to stand between
    articulate and inarticulate speech.

    =Hovas.= The dominant Malagasy race of Madagascar, of Malay
    descent, mixed with Bantu Negro blood from Africa. They stand
    nearest to pure Malays of all Malagasy peoples. The existing French
    Protectorate was only established after much fighting with the
    warlike Hovas, who had conquered all the other native tribes.

    =Huastec.= See MAYA-QUICHÉ.

    =Hungarians.= See MAGYARS.

    =Huns.= A nomad race of the Northern Mongolic family,
    probably of Turki stock, who settled in the neighbourhood of the
    Volga and the Urals about the dawn of the Christian era. In the
    fourth century they conquered and dispossessed the Ostrogoths and
    Visigoths on the Danube. Under Attila, in the fifth century, they
    invaded Greece and Gaul, and pushed their arms as far as Rome,
    which was only saved by the diplomacy of the Pope. Their cruel
    fierceness in war caused their great leader to be known as the
    Scourge of God. Like the Mongols, they were essentially a race of
    horsemen, and their “deformed figures and hideous Mongolic faces”
    added to the terror which they inspired. After Attila’s death in
    453 the Huns fell to pieces, and soon were absorbed into other
    nations--especially, perhaps, the Bulgars.

    =Hunzas.= See DARDS.

    =Hupas.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Hurons=, or =Wyandots=. A North American Indian race of
    Iroquoian stock, formerly inhabiting the shores of Lake Huron.

    =Hyksos.= A Northern Mongolic race who invaded Egypt
    and established the dynasty of the Shepherd kings about 2000
    B.C.

    =Ibeas.= A Negro race which recently invaded the Cameroons
    from the East: they bring down ivory from the unexplored interior.
    Either Bantu, or Sudanese--perhaps connected with the Azandeh
    (_q.v._).

    =Iberi=, or =Iberians=. An ancient race of Western
    Hamites, related to the fair Berbers of Mauritania. The Basques
    are probably descended from them, and there is good reason
    for identifying them with the Picts of Scotland and the Irish
    aborigines.

    =Ibo.= See ABO.

    =Icelanders.= Inhabitants of Iceland, originally Norwegians,
    who settled there about the end of the ninth century. A typical
    tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed Scandinavian race. The Icelandic Sagas
    form the chief part of ancient Scandinavian literature.

    =Idumæans= or =Edomites=. A warlike Semitic race of
    Canaanite stock, thought to be descended from Esau, who were
    conquered by the Israelites under Saul and David, and again by
    Judas Maccabæus in 165 B.C., after which they disappear
    from history.

    =Ife.= See YORUBAS.

    =Igorrotes.= An industrious agricultural race of the
    Philippine Islands. Indonesians of Malay descent, with a possible
    Chinese or Japanese element.

    =Illinois Indians.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Illyrians.= A savage piratical race of the eastern Adriatic
    sea-board, who were conquered by the Romans, and were the last of
    the Balkan peoples to be civilised. Probably the modern Albanians
    are descended from them, and they were among the first Aryan
    immigrants to Europe.

    =Ilocanos.= A Malay race of the Philippine Islands.

    =Imerians.= See GEORGIANS.

    =Incas.= The chief of the six Indian races, including the
    Quichuas and the warlike Chancas, which formerly occupied the
    central mountain-region of Peru. The Incas became the dominant
    race about 1000 A.D., and built up a vast and peaceful
    civilisation, in which a purely socialistic government was
    successfully administered. This Inca Empire was destroyed by the
    Spanish under Pizarro in 1533, but the Inca Indians still survive
    as a race in Central Peru, where they are known as industrious and
    honest agriculturists.

    =Indians.= Native races (1) of India; (2) of North, Central,
    and South America.

    =Indo-Chinese.= A section of the Southern Mongolic family,
    inhabiting the countries between India and China.

    =Indo-European, Indo-German.= See ARYAN.

    =Indonesians.= The light-coloured, non-Malay inhabitants of
    the Eastern Archipelago and South Sea Islands, who are of Caucasic
    type, and are mostly brown-skinned Polynesians (_q.v._). They also
    include the Batjans of Batjan I., the Burus, Korongui, and Suvu of
    the Malay Archipelago, and the Mentawey Islanders (_q.v._).

    =Ingushis.= See CHECHENZES.

    =Innuits.= See ESKIMOS.

    =Ionians.= (1) One of the three main Hellenic races of ancient
    Greece. (2) Greek inhabitants of the coast districts and islands of
    Western Asia Minor, forming the Ionian League, who passed in the
    sixth century B.C. under the Persian sway.

    =Iowa Indians.= See SIOUAN.

    =Iranians.= Ancient inhabitants of the Asian plateau bounded
    by the Indus, the Tigris, and the Hindu Kush. A stock of the Aryan
    family, now including Persians, Afghans, Baluchis, Kurds, and
    Armenians (_q.v._).

    =Irish.= (1) The aborigines of Ireland, probably Iberians
    (_q.v._). (2) The later Erse-speaking inhabitants of Ireland,
    a branch of the Goidelic or Q Celts. (3) Modern inhabitants of
    Ireland, mostly Celtic, but largely mixed with Teutonic elements in
    the north.

    =Iroquoian.= One of the families of North American Indians,
    including the Iroquois, or “Six Nations,” who comprised the
    Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas, Tuscaroras and Cayugas;
    the Hurons, or Wyandots, including the Eries, and the Cherokees.
    Their territory was Upper Canada, round the great lakes, New York,
    and the Virginian Highlands, and they played a large part in the
    Franco-British warfare of the eighteenth century. They are now few
    in numbers and confined to Indian Reservations in the U.S. and
    Canada.

    =Israelites.= See JEWS.

    =Italians.= (1) Ancient inhabitants of Italy, of Ligurian
    stock, probably Eastern Hamites, related to the Pelasgians [see
    LATINS and ROMANS]. (2) Modern Italians, mostly
    of Latin stock, crossed with Teutonic (Gothic and Lombard) blood.

    =Italic.= A stock of the Aryan family, including ancient and
    modern Italians (with ancient Romans), modern French, Spanish,
    Portuguese, and Roumanian, with Latin (Spanish and Portuguese)
    Americans.

    =Jallonké.= See MANDINGAN.

    =Jangalis.= An aboriginal Indian tribe, inhabiting the forest
    district north of Cuttack--the most primitive race in all India.
    Perhaps an early Dravidian (_q.v._) stock.

    =Japanese.= A race of the Northern Mongolian family, probably
    originating in Korea, whence they spread to Japan and dispossessed
    the Ainu aborigines, about the dawn of the Christian era. The
    most enterprising and civilised people in Asia, often called “the
    English of the Far East.” They possess a singularly high standard
    of honour and patriotism, which was the main factor in their recent
    victory over Russia, and they are eminently warlike, besides
    producing industrious agriculturists and enterprising traders.
    Of short but sturdy stature, white skin and yellow or sallowish
    complexion, oblique eyes, black hair.

    =Jats.= A numerous agricultural race of the Punjab in
    North-west India. They are probably of an Aryan stock, but
    ethnologists disagree as to their history, assigning them ancient
    Scythian invaders, the Rajputs, or the Gipsies, for ancestors.

    =Javanese.= A Malay race inhabiting Java, where they
    dispossessed the Negrito aborigines [see KALANGS] in
    prehistoric times. The Sundanese and Madurese are allied tribes,
    possessing parts of the island of Java, now under Dutch rule.

    =Jebus.= See YORUBAS.

    =Jews=, =Hebrews=, or =Israelites=. The most
    important of Semitic races, of the ancient Canaanite stock. The
    Israelites descended from Abraham, who came from Mesopotamia to
    Canaan about 2000 B.C.; thence they migrated to Egypt, and
    returned to take possession of Palestine. Their history is familiar
    to all from the Bible. After the Roman capture of Jerusalem under
    Titus, 70 A.D., the Jews--as they were now called--were
    dispersed through the world, but they have retained their racial
    characteristics in remarkable purity through long persecutions, and
    now play a great part in the commerce and finance of nearly all
    civilised countries, though they have no national unity or racial
    home.

    =Jivaros.= South American Indians, in Peru, on the head-waters
    of the Amazon.

    =Jolofs.= See WOLOFS.

    =Jutes.= Early inhabitants of Jutland, a Low German branch of
    Teutonic stock, who invaded England in the fifth century and made
    the first Teutonic settlement in that country, in Kent.

    =Kabards.= A Western Caucasian race, allied to the Circassians
    (_q.v._) and presenting a high standard of physical beauty.

    =Kabyles.= See BERBERS.

    =Kacharis.= Natives of the Terai at the foot of the Himalayas,
    belonging to the Tibetan stock of the Southern Mongolic family.

    =Kafirs=, or =Kaffirs=. Generic name of the fierce and
    warlike Bantu Negro races which occupied the south-eastern seaboard
    of South Africa when Europeans first colonised that country. They
    then held all the coast lands from the Gamboos to the Limpopo.
    The southern part (Kaffraria) belonged to the Kafirs proper, and
    the northern (Zululand) to the Zulus, an allied race, but usually
    distinguished from the Kafirs, or Ama-Xosa, whose chief tribes are
    Galekas, Gaikas and Tembus (_q.v._). Throughout the greater part
    of the nineteenth century the English settlers were engaged in
    constant Kafir wars, which resulted in the gradual subjugation of
    both Kafirs and Zulus.

    =Kafirs.= Fair-skinned mountaineers of Kafiristan, between
    the Kabul River and Hindu Kush. An offshoot of the Aryan family,
    thought by some to be descendants in part of the Greek troops with
    which Alexander the Great invaded India.

    =Kakhyens.= A race of freebooters, inhabiting the northern
    frontiers of Burma, whence they raid the more civilised
    agriculturists of the plains and levy blackmail. A Southern
    Mongolic race of Indo-Chinese stock.

    =Kalangs.= A recently extinct Negrito race of Java, remnants
    of the aborigines of that island; small, black and woolly-haired,
    with very retreating forehead and projecting jaws. The most
    ape-like of human beings, and the nearest approach yet found to the
    “missing link” between man and ape. They belonged to the Oceanic
    Negro family.

    =Kalmuks.= The Western Mongol stock of the Northern Mongolic
    family, scattered through Central Asia, and extending into Southern
    Russia. Nomadic pastors, owning large flocks and herds, and living
    in tents on the great steppes, they include the tribes of the
    Chorasses, Turguts, Khoshots, and Durbats. A large horde of Kalmuks
    invaded Russia in 1650, and settled there for a century, but in
    1771 most of them were expelled, and endured great sufferings on
    the march to China, so brilliantly described by De Quincy. These
    were mainly Khoshots and Durbats.

    =Kamchadales.= A Siberian branch of the Northern Mongolic
    family, inhabiting Kamchatka; a hardy race of hunters and fishers.

    =Kanakas.= A name given to South Sea Islanders, generally
    by sailors and traders, and especially to Polynesian labourers
    imported to Queensland.

    =Kanakas=, or =Bakanaka=. Negro aborigines of Angola,
    probably akin to the Bushmen. Other similar tribes are the Korokas,
    Kulabes, Kwandes and Kwisses.

    =Kanarese.= Mongoloid aborigines of Mysore in India. See
    DRAVIDIANS.

    =Kanembu, Kanuris.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Kara-Kalpaks=, or =Black Bonnets=. A branch of the Turki
    stock of the Northern Mongolic family, dwelling on the south-east
    of the Aral Sea and in the Oxus basin. A pacific pastoral race,
    dominated by their warlike relatives, the nomadic Kirghiz, and now
    subject to Russia.

    =Kara-Kirghiz.= See KIRGHIZ.

    =Karelians.= An Eastern branch of Baltic Finns dwelling in
    the eastern parts of Finland and adjoining provinces of Russia.
    Probably a Slavo-Mongolic mixture in which the original Mongolic
    element has been largely eliminated.

    =Karens.= Inhabitants of Burma, of the Indo-Chinese branch
    of the Southern Mongolic family. Largely Christianised. Formerly
    oppressed by the Burmans, than whom they are less clever, but more
    industrious. Agriculturists.

    =Karons.= A Negrito race of New Guinea, of very degraded type,
    and addicted to cannibalism.

    =Kargos.= See NUBA GROUP.

    =Kashmiris.= Natives of Kashmir, belonging to the Hindu
    branch of the Aryan family. Of fine physique, but corrupt and
    untrustworthy.

    =Kassonké.= See MANDINGAN.

    =Kazaks.= See KIRGHIZ.

[Illustration:

    A RED INDIAN CHIEF AND HIS FAMILY      Underwood & Underwood
]

    =Kelts=, or =Celts=. A stock of the Aryan family which
    settled in France and the British Islands in prehistoric times. The
    Gauls and Belgæ of Cæsar’s time and the early Britons represent
    them. They are divided into two branches, Goidelic and Brythonic
    Celts, respectively known also as Q and P Celts, from a linguistic
    peculiarity. The former are represented in modern times by Irish,
    Manx, and Scottish Highlanders; the latter by Welsh, Cornish,
    and Bretons. The typical Celt was probably a tall, broad-headed
    individual, with prominent nose, high cheek-bones, light hair and
    eyes. The small, round-headed, dark race which is also classed as
    Celtic, is more probably an earlier Hamitic type, allied to the
    Basques (_q.v._).

    =Khulkas.= A nomadic race of Eastern Mongols, occupying the
    Gobi desert.

    =Khamtis.= An Assamese race--Indo-Chinese stock of Southern
    Mongolic family--in the Brahmaputra Valley.

    =Khasis.= An Indo-Chinese hill tribe of Southern Mongolic
    family, in Khasi Hills of Assam.

    =Khoi-Khoin.= The name given to themselves by the Hottentots
    (_q.v._).

    =Khoshots.= See KALMUKS.

    =Kickapoos.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Kiowas.= A North American Indian race in Oklahoma.

    =Kipchaks.= A Turki race of Northern Mongolic family, settled
    in eleventh century between Urals and Don. In the middle of the
    thirteenth century, Batu Khan, a son of Genghiz Khan, led them
    to conquer all Central and South Russia, where they founded the
    Empire of the Golden Horde. It was broken up by Tamerlane about
    1390, and from its fragments arose the Khanates of Astrakhan, the
    Crimea, etc., now absorbed by Russia. From the Eastern Kipchaks
    are descended the Kirghiz (_q.v._), one of whose hordes is still
    known as Kipchak. The modern Kipchaks are nomadic, and live by
    stock-feeding in the steppes of western Turkestan.

    =Kirantis.= A Tibetan race of East Nepal, of Southern Mongolic
    family.

    =Kirghiz.= A nomadic people of Central Asia, where they occupy
    the vast steppes which lie to the north of Turkestan. They are
    descended from the Kipchaks (_q.v._) of the Golden Horde. They
    form a group of the Turki stock of the Northern Mongolic family.
    The Kara-Kirghiz, who inhabit the uplands between the Issik-Kul
    and the Kuen-Lun, are the oldest Turki nomads of whom there is any
    historical record, and are divided into On and Sol--right and left
    wings. The Kirghiz proper, who call themselves Kazaks, or “riders,”
    roam from Lake Balkash to the Volga, over the vast level steppes,
    where they dwell in skin tents and support themselves by breeding
    camels, horses, oxen, sheep and goats. They live in the saddle, and
    were formerly a warlike people, who once could put 400,000 fighting
    men in the field. They are divided into four hordes--Great, Middle
    or Kipchak, Little, and Inner. They are all now under Russian
    dominion.

    =Kishis.= See CHECHENZES.

    =Kissis.= See TEMNÉ GROUP.

    =Kizil-Bashis.= Persianised Turkis of Afghanistan, belonging
    to Turki branch of Northern Mongolic family, who supply the chief
    commercial classes of Afghanistan.

    =Kolajis.= See NUBA GROUP.

    =Kolarians.= One of the three non-Aryan races to which the
    primitive inhabitants of India belonged, of the Indo-Chinese stock
    of the Southern Mongolic family. They entered Bengal from the
    north-east, and are now represented by a few scattered tribes, like
    the Santals, Mundas, Kurkus, and Bhils.

    =Koranas.= See HOTTENTOTS.

    =Koreans.= Natives of Korea, belonging to the Koreo-Japanese
    stock of the Northern Mongol family. They stand midway between
    Chinese and Japanese, the latter being probably their descendants,
    and are taller, with lighter complexion and more regular features,
    than the typical Mongol. Their civilisation is of Chinese origin.
    They are not warlike, but are prosperous agriculturists.

    =Korokas.= See KANAKAS.

    =Korungas.= See WADAI GROUP.

    =Koryaks.= An Arctic race of North-east Siberia, allied to the
    Chukchis (_q.v._).

    =Krej.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Krim-Tartars.= See TARTARS.

    =Krus=, or =Krooboys=. Sudanese Negroes of Liberian
    Group. Bold and skilful boatmen, employed for that purpose all
    along the West African Coast.

    =Kulabes.= See KANAKAS.

    =Kulfans, Kunjaras.= See NUBA GROUP.

    =Kurds.= Native of Kurdistan, partly nomad and pastoral,
    partly settled and agricultural. A fierce and warlike people, they
    are much given to raiding, and were utilised by the Sultan to
    oppress the Armenians. They have settled in Kurdistan from time
    immemorial, and belong to the Iranian stock of the Aryan family.

    =Kurile Islanders.= See AINUS.

    =Kurinis.= See LESGHIANS.

    =Kurkus.= A broken Kolarian tribe, allied to the Santals of
    Central India, belonging to the Indo-Chinese branch of Southern
    Mongolic family.

    =Kutchins.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Kwandes, Kwisses.= See KANAKAS.

    =Ladakhis.= Natives of Ladakh in the Upper Indus Valley,
    belonging to the Tibetan stock of the Southern Mongolic family,
    conquered by Kashmir in seventeenth century.

    =Lake Chad Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes,
    inhabiting the districts round Lake Chad, including Kanembus,
    Kanuris, Baghirmis (warlike slave-raiders), Mandaras, Yedinas,
    Logons, Mosgus, Bulalas, Saras, etc.

    =Lampongs.= Malay inhabitants of Southern Sumatra.

    =Lamuts.= See TUNGUSES.

    =Landumans.= Sudanese Negroes of Senegambia.

    =Laos.= See SHANS.

    =Lapps.= A branch of the Finno-Ugrian stock of the Northern
    Mongolic family, inhabiting the parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland,
    and Russia collectively known as Lapland. They are the shortest and
    broadest-skulled people in Europe. Most of them are nomads, who
    live by their vast reindeer herds, though some have become settled
    and live by fishing and hunting. They are closely allied to the
    Baltic Finns, and like them show traces of a mixture of Caucasic
    blood.

    =Lascars.= A term applied to sailors of Indian and Malay
    seafaring races, employed on British vessels.

    =Latins.= The ancient inhabitants of Latium, the district
    of Central Italy which lay between the Tiber and the Liris, and
    included the Roman Campagna. They absorbed the earlier allied races
    of Oscans, Sabines, Samnites and Umbrians, and formed a league
    of thirty cities, which warred for some generations with Rome and
    then fell under the Roman dominion. Rome itself was originally a
    Latin city. The ancient population of Italy was divided into three
    grades: Roman citizens--not necessarily residents in Rome--Latins,
    and Italians. The Latins are a branch of the Italic stock of the
    Aryan family.

    =Latin= or =Romance Races=. A name often given to the
    modern races which speak a Romance language derived from Latin, and
    belong in whole or part to the Italic stock of the Aryan family.
    They include Italians, French (including Provençals), Spaniards,
    Portuguese, and Roumanians.

    =Latin Americans.= The white inhabitants of South America, of
    Spanish or Portuguese descent, and speaking these languages.

    =Lazes.= See GEORGIANS.

    =Lencan.= A group of semi-civilised Central American Indian
    tribes, including Chontals, Ramas, Payas, Wulwas, and Guatusas.

    =Lepchas.= Natives of Sikkim and Bhutan, belonging to the
    Tibetan stock of the Southern Mongolic family.

    =Lesghians.= A branch of the Eastern stock of the Caucasian
    family, inhabiting the Eastern Caucasus. Wild mountain tribes,
    who long offered an unavailing resistance to the Russian arms
    under Shamyl (1859). Their chief tribes are the Avars (the most
    cultivated and powerful), Andis, Dargos, Didis and Kurinis.

    =Lettic.= A stock of the Aryan family, including Letts,
    Lithuanians and the extinct Pruczi, Borussians, or Old Prussians,
    from whom modern Prussia takes its name. The Letts and Lithuanians
    in the fifteenth century formed a united people, inhabiting the
    south-west of Russia, from Courland to Odessa. Afterwards they
    passed under Polish and then Russian dominion. They are now mostly
    peasant agriculturists. They are fair and well-built, with fine
    features and blue eyes.

    =Letts.= See LETTIC.

    =Liberian Group.= Sudanese Negro tribes, inhabiting the Grain
    Coast of West Africa. The Krus or Krooboys (_q.v._), Queahs and
    Bassas are their chief tribes.

    =Liberians.= Natives of the negro republic of Liberia on the
    Guinea Coast, partly descended from freed slaves of all races, but
    mainly belonging to the Liberian group.

    =Libyans.= An ancient fair-haired and light-skinned race of
    Northern Africa, akin to the modern Berbers, belonging to the
    western stock of the Hamitic family. They are depicted on Egyptian
    monuments of fifteenth century B.C.

    =Ligures=, or =Ligurians=. An ancient race of the western
    stock of the Hamitic family, probably the aborigines of North-West
    Italy round Genoa, to whom the Siculi, Sards and Corsicans were
    apparently akin.

    =Limbas.= See TEMNÉ GROUP.

    =Lithuanians.= See LETTIC.

    =Livonians.= A branch of Baltic Finns, belonging to the
    Finno-Ugrian stock of the Northern Mongolic family; a dwindled
    remnant now inhabits the Baltic provinces of Russia.

    =Logons.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Lolos.= A fair-complexioned aboriginal race on the frontiers
    of China and Tibet, belonging to the Chinese stock of the Southern
    Mongolic family.

    =Lombards.= A race of Teutonic stock, formerly settled in the
    district of the Lower Elbe, who invaded Italy in 568, and there
    founded a powerful Lombard kingdom under Alboin and his successors.
    The Lombards were at first fierce warriors and little more; but
    they soon fell under the influence of Italian civilisation, and
    were merged into the Italian race when Charlemagne destroyed their
    independence in 774. Their name and some traces of their racial
    character still remain in Lombardy, between the Alps and the Po.

    =Luchuans.= Natives of the Luchu or Liu-Kin Archipelago,
    between Japan and Formosa, resembling the Japanese, but with
    differences which are attributed to a cross of the aboriginal Ainu
    blood. They belong to the Koreo-Japanese stock of the Northern
    Mongolic family.

    =Lushais.= A warlike race of Tibetan stock inhabiting the
    Lushai Hills on the confines of Assam, Bengal and Burma.

    =Mabas.= See WADAI GROUP.

    =Macedonians.= A warlike people of ancient Greece, who
    attained their greatest power under Alexander the Great. They were
    not true Hellenes, but a race of wild mountain tribes probably
    of Hamitic origin. Modern Macedonia is peopled by an extremely
    mixed race of Greeks, Bulgarians, Turks, etc., among whom some
    descendants of the ancient Macedonians may no doubt be found.

    =Macusis.= See CARIBS.

    =Madis.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Madurese.= A Malay race inhabiting Java, and allied to the
    Javanese (_q.v._).

    =Magars.= A Tibetan tribe of Western Nepal.

    =Magwangwaras.= A fierce predatory race of Bantu Negroes,
    occupying the head-waters of the Rovuma River in East Central
    Africa.

    =Magyars.= A warlike and now highly civilised race belonging
    to the Finno-Ugrian stock of the Northern Mongolic family. They
    first appeared in Europe about a thousand years ago, being
    probably Scythian (_q.v._) immigrants from the Caspian district.
    They conquered the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dacia, and
    there founded the Kingdom of Hungary in the year 1000. They are
    still the dominant race in Hungary, which now forms part of the
    Austro-Hungarian Empire, and preserve their Finno-Ugrian speech.
    They are a chivalrous and highly intelligent race, whose Mongolic
    descent is no longer perceptible in their white skins and regular,
    often handsome features. Probably this is due to frequent crossing
    of blood with German, Slav and Roumanian neighbours.

    =Mahrattas.= See MARATHIS.

    =Makololos.= A warlike branch of the Basuto race of Bantu
    Negroes who, in 1835, moved north and conquered the Barotses, only
    to be reduced by them to vassalage about 1864.

    =Makuas.= A savage cannibal race of Bantu Negroes, living
    north of the Zambesi in Portuguese East Africa.

    =Malagasy.= A Malayo-African people of mixed blood, inhabiting
    Madagascar. The Hovas (_q.v._) are the dominant tribe.

    =Malays.= The dominant native race of Malaysia, the chief
    stock of the Oceanic Mongolic family. They are of a distinctly
    Mongolic physical type, of low stature and yellowish colour,
    with high cheek-bones, black lank hair and broad skulls. They
    may be divided into three races: the Orang-Benua, or men of the
    soil, the indigenous Malay tribes at a low stage of culture; the
    Orang-Laut, or men of the sea, who live by fishing and piracy;
    and the Orang-Malayu, or civilised Malays proper. They inhabit
    the southern provinces of Sumatra, the native states of the Malay
    Peninsula (Kelantan, etc.), the British Straits Settlements (Johor,
    Perak, Selangor, etc.), parts of Borneo, Ternate, Tidor and the
    Banda Islands, and many islands of the Malay Archipelago. They
    have wandered as far as Madagascar, where the Malagasy (_q.v._)
    are Malays crossed with Negro blood. They were formerly warlike
    and much given to piracy, but are now the chief trading race
    of South-eastern Asia. Their origin is dubious, but Sumatra is
    generally regarded as their original home. Of kindred blood are
    many so-called Proto-Malay races, such as the Achinese, Javanese,
    Sundanese, Dyaks, etc. (_q.v._).

    =Malayalim.= See DRAVIDIANS.

    =Manchus.= The dominant native race of Manchuria, who
    conquered China in the seventeenth century and founded the existing
    Chinese dynasty. They are of the Mongol stock of the Northern
    Mongolic family. They first appear in history in the thirteenth
    century, when a number of nomad Manchu tribes were formed into
    a single people. They probably originated in Siberia, where the
    Tunguses (_q.v._) represent their primitive stock.

    =Mandans.= See SIOUAN.

    =Mandaras.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Mandingans.= The chief race of Sudanese Negroes in the
    Western Sudan, with numerous branches between the Upper Niger and
    the coast, including Mandé or Mandingoes, Bambaras, Jallonkés,
    Kassonkés, Masinas, Sarakolés, Solimas, Susus, etc. Timbuctoo was
    formerly the capital of the Mandingan empire, before it fell under
    Berber domination. A large proportion of American Negroes are
    descended from slaves of Mandingan origin.

    =Mangbattu.= Sudanese negroes of Welle group, noted for their
    pronounced cannibalism.

    =Mangkassara.= Malay natives of Macassar, in Celebes, under
    Dutch rule.

    =Manipuris.= Natives of Manipur, between Burma and Assam,
    mostly wild hillmen of mixed Burmese and Hindu blood, but classed
    with the Indo-Chinese stock of the Southern Mongolic family.

    =Man-Tses.= Inhabitants of the mountain districts of Sze-chuen
    in China, akin to Lolos (_q.v._). _m_

    =Manx= or =Manxmen=. Inhabitants of the Isle of Man,
    belonging to the Celtic stock of the Aryan family, and the Goidelic
    or Q Celt branch of it. There is a strong Scandinavian element in
    their blood, from the numerous invasions of the old Norse pirates.
    Their customs are also strongly marked by the Scandinavian element.

    =Manyuemas.= Warlike Bantu Negroes of the Upper Congo, long
    allied with the Arab slave-traders.

    =Maoris.= The aborigines of New Zealand, belonging to the tall
    brown race of Polynesians (_q.v._), a branch of the Indonesian
    family. A brave, generous and warlike people, who are said to have
    reached New Zealand from the Pacific islands about a thousand
    years ago, they are one of the few native races which promise to
    assimilate western civilisation with success.

    =Marathis=, or =Mahrattas=. A numerous Indian race of
    mixed origin, probably of aboriginal (Dravidian) blood in the main,
    with a Hindu element. They inhabit West and Central India, where
    they became the dominant power under Sivaji in the seventeenth
    century. The English had long and bloody contests with these wild
    and warlike mountaineers, who founded several great native states,
    some of which (Gwalior and Indore) survive to this day.

    =Maronites.= A sturdy, warlike Christian race of mountaineers
    in the Lebanon, belonging to the Syrian branch of the Aramæan stock
    of the Semitic family. Implacable foes of the Druses, with whom
    they are constantly at war.

    =Marquesans.= See POLYNESIANS.

    =Masais.= A branch of the Eastern Hamites, settled in British
    East Africa on the Tana River. A finely-built race, whom only
    their chocolate colour and frizzy hair prevent from passing for
    Europeans. Extremely warlike and intelligent, they are confirmed
    raiders and cattle lifters.

    =Mashonas.= Natives of Mashonaland, in South-eastern Rhodesia,
    formerly the half-fabulous empire of the Monomotapa, and the home
    of a forgotten civilisation, to which the ruins of Zimbabye and
    other similar relics bear witness. The Mashonas are Bantu Negroes,
    a peaceful, industrious people, who were subjugated about 1838 by
    the Matabeles under Umsilikatzi, and are now under British rule.

    =Massachusett Indians.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Massalits.= See WADAI GROUP.

    =Matabeles.= A branch of the Zulu race of Bantu Negroes, which
    was expelled from Zululand in 1838, and conquered the Mashonas, in
    modern Rhodesia, under Umsilikatzi. Like the Zulus, they were proud
    and fearless warriors, who were only subjugated with difficulty by
    the English in 1893, and revolted unsuccessfully in 1896.

    =Matacoans.= A South American Indian race on the Vermejo River
    in Argentine.

    =Mauri.= See MOORS.

    =Maviti.= Bantu Negroes of the Upper Shiré in British South
    Central Africa, of Zulu stock, who came as conquerors from the
    south.

    =Maya-Quiché.= A group of Central American Indian races,
    mostly in Yucatan and Guatemala. It includes the Mayas of Yucatan,
    Zendals and Zotzils of Chiapas, Quichés, Chols, Pokomans, and
    Zutugils of Guatemala, Huastecs and Totonacs of Vera Cruz. Like the
    Aztecs, the Mayas possessed an ancient civilisation and system of
    picture writing.

    =Maypuris.= See ARAWAKS.

    =Mbengas.= Indigenous Bantu Negroes of French Equatorial
    Africa, about Corisco Bay.

    =Melanesians.= The indigenous natives of the Western Pacific
    Islands, forming a distinct stock of the Oceanic Negro family of
    Ethiopic Man. They are long-skulled, or dolichocephalic, with the
    lowest cephalic index of all known races, prognathous, broad-nosed,
    of a sooty-black colour, with black frizzy hair, and of low
    stature. They are at a low stage of culture, being very savage,
    bloodthirsty, and treacherous, mostly cannibals and head-hunters,
    with little social organisation. They include the Fijians and the
    natives of the New Hebrides, the Solomon, Admiralty, Bismarck,
    and Loyalty Islands, New Britain, New Ireland, New Caledonia, and
    other islands of the Eastern Pacific. They are closely allied to
    the Papuans (_q.v._), under which name some ethnologists prefer to
    class the whole body of Melanesians.

    =Melanochroi.= A suggested division of Caucasic Man, in which
    a pale skin is typically accompanied by dark hair and eyes; it
    would thus include the Hamitic and Semitic families, with the
    Hellenic, Italic, and Celtic stocks of the Aryan family.

    =Mendis.= See TEMNÉ GROUP.

    =Mentawey Islanders.= A remnant of the aboriginal Polynesian
    race dispossessed by the Malays, off the coast of Sumatra.

    =Mestizos.= Cross-breeds between Europeans and Indians, in
    Spanish and Portuguese America.

    =Mexicans.= See AZTECS and NAHUANS. Also the
    modern inhabitants of Mexico, who are of Spanish descent, with a
    strong infusion of Indian blood.

    =Micmacs.= An Indian race of Nova Scotia, in whom some
    ethnologists think that a trace of Norse blood, dating from the
    pre-Columbian discovery of America, is perceptible.

    =Minæans.= See HIMYARITES.

    =Mingrelians.= See GEORGIANS.

    =Minh-huongs.= Franco-Annamese half-breeds in Cochin China, an
    increasing race who make very valuable colonists.

    =Minnetarees.= See SIOUAN.

    =Mishmis.= A wild Tibetan hill tribe occupying the
    jungle-covered hills through which the Brahmaputra flows, on the
    northern border of Assam. Warlike and turbulent.

    =Missouri Indians.= See SIOUAN.

    =Mixtecs.= An ancient Mexican race, contemporary with the
    Toltecs (_q.v._), probably represented by the modern Miztecs of
    Oajaca.

    =Moabites.= An ancient pastoral race of Semitic origin,
    ethnologically cognate with the Israelites, who dwelt on the east
    of the Dead Sea, and are now extinct.

    =Mœsogoths.= See GOTHS.

    =Mohawks.= See IROQUOIAN.

    =Mohicans.= One of the most famous and warlike of redskin
    races, immortalised by Fenimore Cooper. See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Mojos=, or =Moxos=. A yellowish Indian race of Bolivia,
    akin to the Chiquitos.

    =Mokis.= See SHOSHONEAN.

    =Mongolic.= One of the four great divisions of mankind.
    Typically characterised by yellowish skin, broad, flat features
    with prominent cheek-bones, broad skulls, mesognathous jaws, and
    oblique, almond-shaped eyes, with black, lank and coarse hair. The
    Manchus are a typical Mongolic race. The Mongolic races are mostly
    found in Asia, which is chiefly peopled by their stocks. The name
    “Mongolic” has replaced the older “Turanian.”

    =Mongols.= A stock of the Northern Mongolic, otherwise known
    as Mongolo-Tartar or Ural-Altaic, family, from whom the general
    term of Mongolic is derived. The name seems originally to have
    meant “brave,” and the Mongols have provided some of the most
    fierce and warlike races of history. They originated as scattered
    tribes in modern Mongolia. Under Genghiz Khan they were formed
    into a confederacy which conquered the whole of Central Asia in
    the thirteenth century, thanks to an unlimited supply of hardy and
    very mobile horsemen. The existing Mongol tribes, nomad pastors
    of Mongolia in Central Asia, are divided into Sharras or Eastern
    Kalmuks, or Western Buriats, or Siberian Mongols, and Tunguses,
    including Manchus (_q.v._).

    =Montenegrins.= A Servian race of civilised mountaineers,
    inhabiting the rugged district of Montenegro; the only Balkan race
    which preserved independence and Christianity against the Turkish
    conquerors. Their history is one of constant warfare with the
    Turks, and they have thus preserved the primitive virtues of the
    warrior in great perfection.

    =Moors.= The ancient Moors, or Mauri, were the inhabitants
    of the Roman province of Mauretania, roughly including the modern
    Algeria and Morocco. They were probably of mixed descent, partly
    Semitic from Arabia, partly Western Hamitic from indigenous
    sources. In modern times the name is applied (1) to the invaders
    and conquerors of Spain in the Middle Ages, who were mostly of Arab
    and Berber stock; (2) to the present inhabitants of Morocco and
    the Barbary States, of the same stocks, with a large infusion of
    Sudanese Negro blood. The Moors have always been a turbulent and
    warlike people, who furnished the most notorious pirates of modern
    history, thanks to their commanding position on the great highway
    of sea-borne commerce.

    =Moquis.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.

    =Mordvins.= A branch of the Finns (_q.v._), forming small
    communities on the banks of the Volga.

    =Mosgus.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Mossis.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Mpongwes.= A Bantu Negro race on the Gaboon Estuary in French
    Equatorial Africa, given to drink and boasting, of little economic
    value, though once powerful.

    =Mulattos.= Half-breeds between whites and negroes.

    =Mundas.= A Kolarian race of Lower Bengal, with possible
    traces of Negroid blood.

    =Mundrucus.= See TUPI-GUARANI.

    =Mundus.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Mushi-Kongo.= Bantu Negroes of Portuguese West Africa, still
    in an absolutely savage state.

    =Muskhogean=, or =Appalachian=. A group of North American
    Indian tribes, formerly occupying the south-eastern corner of the
    present United States, south of Tennessee, and east of Arkansas.
    Formerly a powerful confederacy of warlike hunters, they are now
    extinct or confined to Indian reservations. The chief tribes are
    Alibamus, Apalachis, Chickasaws, Choktaws, Creeks or Muskhogees,
    and Seminoles.

    =Mycenæans.= The inhabitants of ancient Mycenæ, one of the
    chief centres of prehistoric culture in Greece before the Homeric
    age. Recent excavations, at Mycenæ itself, at Cnossos in Crete, and
    other contemporary sites of government, have thrown light on the
    remarkable civilisation which then existed. The Mycenæans, Cretans,
    and their kindred peoples were probably a mixed Caucasic race,
    with affinities to the later Aryan Achæans and to the aboriginal
    Hamitic Pelasgians; but nothing is yet certainly known of their
    ethnological place.

    =Nagars.= See DARDS.

    =Nagas.= Aborigines of the Naga Hills, in South Assam,
    semi-savage and formerly accustomed to raid the British provinces;
    now under British rule. They are of Tibetan stock.

    =Nahuans=, or =Mexican Indians=. The aboriginal
    inhabitants of modern Mexico, whose history dates back to the sixth
    century. The oldest of the Nahuan races was that of the Toltecs,
    who established a civilisation marked by architectural and
    artistic monuments still existing, north of the valley of Anahuac.
    They were followed by the ruder Chichimecs and the Aztecs (_q.v._).
    Other branches of the same race are the Pipils and the Niquirans of
    Nicaragua.

    =Naimans.= (1) See SHARRAS. (2) A tribe of the Middle
    Horde of the Kazaks. See KIRGHIZ.

    =Nairs.= A Hindu tribe of Malabar, distinguished by their
    peculiar marriage customs. They practise polyandry, and a Nair’s
    property descends not to his own but to his sister’s children.

    =Namas= or =Namaquas=. A Hottentot tribe of Namaqualand,
    the true aborigines and the principal representatives of the
    Hottentots (_q.v._). Scattered in small pastoral groups.

    =Natchez Indians.= An extinct North American Indian race,
    formerly inhabiting the region of the Lower Mississippi.

    =Navajos.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Neanderthal Man.= A race of primitive man, represented
    only by a skull and a few bones found in a limestone cave of the
    Neanderthal in Rhenish Prussia in 1856. The most ape-like race yet
    known, and probably the oldest.

    =Negritoes.= A branch of Ethiopic Man, found in Central
    Africa, and in the Andamans, the Malay Peninsula and the
    Philippines, akin to negroes but of smaller stature and more
    ape-like. Possibly the primitive stock from which the Negroes
    (_q.v._) were developed.

    =Negroes.= The most numerous branch of Ethiopic Man, divided
    into African (Sudanese, Bantu, and Hottentot-Bushman) and Oceanic
    (Papuan, Melanesian, and Australian) sections. American Negroes
    are descended from African slaves, mostly of Sudanese origin. See
    HAYTIANS.

    =Nempés.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Nestorians.= A Syrian race, belonging to the Aramæan stock of
    the Semitic family, distinguished by a special form of Christian
    belief, who were driven out of the Roman Empire in the fifth
    century, and whose descendants now form a special community in
    the mountain ranges of Kurdistan. They are poor and illiterate. A
    branch of Nestorians is found in Travancore, where they go by the
    name of Syrian Christians.

    =New Guinea Natives.= See PAPUANS.

    =New Zealanders.= (1) Aborigines [see MAORIS]. (2)
    White inhabitants of New Zealand, of Anglo-Saxon descent.

    =Nez Percés.= A tribe of North American Indians, in British
    Columbia and Idaho, part of whom are well advanced in civilisation.

    =Niam-Niam.= See AZANDEH.

    =Nicaraguans.= White natives of Nicaragua, in Central America,
    of Spanish descent, with Indian and negro elements.

    =Nicobarese.= Natives of the Nicobar Islands, of Malay blood
    mixed with that of the Mongolic aborigines. Formerly given to
    piracy.

    =Nigerian Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes, all of
    allied stocks, inhabiting the Niger Delta, the Oil River, Lower
    Benue, and Niger region, including the Niger Bend. Amongst them are
    the people of Benin--noted for their vast human sacrifices--the
    Abo, Nempé, Nupé, Akasa, Qua, Efik, Okrika, Akpa, Mossi, Sienereh,
    and many other tribes.

    =Nilitic Group.= Another group of Sudanese Negro tribes,
    inhabiting the districts of the White Nile, Sobat, and the northern
    slopes of the Nile-Congo divide. They include the Abaka, Abukaya,
    Bongo, Shuli, Falanj, Madi, Bari, Nuer, Shilluk, Dinka, Mundu,
    Rol, Mittu, Krej, and Fertit tribes. They are mainly hard-working
    agriculturists, from whom the British draw material for excellent
    soldiery.

    =Niquirans.= See NAHUANS.

    =Nogais.= A race of Caucasian Tartars (_q.v._) inhabiting the
    steppes of the Kuma River; nomadic cattle-breeders.

    =Normans.= Natives of Normandy, descended from the Norsemen
    (_q.v._) who settled on the French coast under Rolf the Ganger in
    the beginning of the tenth century. The history of the Normans, who
    conquered England and Sicily, is well known. The modern Normans
    still preserve many signs of their Scandinavian ancestry, which
    distinguish them from their French or Breton neighbours.

    =Norsemen= or =Northmen=. A name given in the Middle
    Ages to the piratical emigrants from Denmark, Iceland, Sweden,
    and Norway, who descended on the coasts of England, France,
    Germany, and Southern Europe. They called themselves Vikings. These
    sea-rovers came, in the first instance, for portable plunder, but
    in many cases they were tempted by the look of the more fertile
    lands of the south to make settlements, among which those of the
    Danes in England and Ireland and of the Norwegians in Normandy,
    England, and Sicily were the most lasting and important.

    =Norwegians.= A branch of the Scandinavian stock of
    the Aryan family. They are probably descended from Teutonic
    immigrants--perhaps of Gothic race--who entered the Scandinavian
    peninsula in prehistoric times, and drove out the aboriginal Lapps
    or Finns. Another theory makes Scandinavia the original home of
    the Aryans, of whom, on this view, the Norwegians would represent
    the primitive stock. Their history begins in the ninth century,
    when a Norwegian kingdom was established by Harold Fairhair.
    The old Norwegians were extremely warlike and piratical [see
    NORSEMEN]. Their modern descendants are a peaceful and
    industrious race, the most simple and democratic people of Europe,
    who recently threw off the Swedish rule and re-established the
    ancient Norwegian kingdom.

    =Nsakkaras.= See WELLE GROUP.

    =Nuba Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes, occupying
    Nubia, Dar-Fur, and Kordofan, in the Egyptian Sudan. They include
    the Furs, Nubas, Nile Nubians, Tumalis, Kargos, Kulfans, Kolajis,
    and Kunjaras. They are an active and warlike race, in which the
    primitive Negro blood has frequently been modified by Semitic
    (Arab) and Hamitic influences. They supply many of our Sudanese
    regiments.

    =Nubians.= Ancient inhabitants of Nubia, probably identical
    with Ethiopians (_q.v._), but modified by the infusion of Negro
    blood. They established a Nubian kingdom in the Upper Nile basin
    about the sixth century.

    =Nuers.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Numidians.= An ancient Hamitic race, inhabiting the district
    now known as Algeria. They were fine horsemen, warlike, but
    treacherous, and were conquered by Rome B.C. 46. See
    BERBERS.

    =Nupés.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Nutkas.= A collective name given to the Indian tribes of
    Vancouver Island and the adjoining districts of British Columbia.

    =Obongos.= A Bushman-like race of pygmy Negritoes discovered
    by Du Chaillu on the western coast of equatorial Africa, physically
    and mentally degenerate.

    =Ojibbeways.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Okrikas.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Olkhonese.= A tribe of Buriats (_q.v._) inhabiting the
    district of Lake Baikal.

    =Omaguas.= See TUPI-GUARANI.

    =Omahas.= See SIOUAN.

    =Onondagas.= See IROQUOIAN.

    =Opata-Pima.= A group of Central American Indian races, allied
    to the Nahuan group (_q.v._), but of lower mental and physical
    type. It includes the Cora, Yuma, Papago, Tarahumara and Tepeguana
    tribes.

    =Orang-Benua, Orang-Lauts.= See MALAYS.

    =Ordos.= See SHARRAS.

    =Orochs.= A nomadic tribe of the Siberian Tunguses (_q.v._).

    =Osages.= See SIOUAN.

    =Oscans.= A primitive Italic race inhabiting Campania, who
    were conquered by and amalgamated with the Samnites (_q.v._) in the
    fifth century, B.C. Their language was a ruder form of
    Latin.

    =Osmanlis.= See TURKS.

    =Ossets.= An isolated Aryan race inhabiting the Central
    Caucasus, and differing in language and customs from their
    Caucasian neighbours. They are probably allied to the Iranian
    stock, though some suppose them to be descended from Gothic
    settlers.

    =Ostrogoths.= See GOTHS.

    =Ostyaks.= A Ugrian race of Mongolic physical type, allied
    to the Samoyedes (_q.v._), inhabiting the Obi basin in Western
    Siberia. They are mainly nomads, hunters and reindeer breeders.
    They are kind, gentle and honest, and show considerable artistic
    power.

    =Otoes.= See SIOUAN.

    =Otomis.= An Indian race of Mexico, assumed on linguistic
    grounds to represent the oldest of American Indian stocks.

    =Ottomans.= See TURKS.

    =Ovaherero.= See HEREROS.

    =Ovampos.= The chief Bantu Negro race of German South-west
    Africa, tall and well-proportioned, with regular features--a fine
    Negro type. They are industrious agriculturists, given to raiding
    and inter-tribal warfare.

    =Oworos, Oyos.= See YORUBAS.

    =Pampas Indians.= See PUELCHES.

    =Pangasinans.= A semi-civilised Malayan race in the Philippine
    Islands.

    =Papagos.= See OPATA-PIMA.

    =Papuans.= The savage aborigines of New Guinea and the
    neighbouring islands of the Torres Strait and East Malaysia.
    They belong to the Oceanic division of Ethiopic Man, and are
    allied to the African Negro, though they stand at a somewhat
    higher intellectual level. They are of Negroid physical type,
    characterised specially by their mops of frizzy hair; colour,
    a sooty brown to black, with projecting jaws, thick lips and
    retreating foreheads; nose sometimes flat, but oftener hooked
    and of Jewish appearance. The race has probably been modified by
    Malayan and Polynesian intermixture. Probably the Melanesians and
    the Australian aborigines are closely related to the Papuans. They
    are a fierce and treacherous race, hostile to strangers, and given
    to cannibalism and head-hunting. They show much agricultural skill,
    and in some cases are susceptible of European civilisation.

    =Paraguay Indians.= See TUPI-GUARANI.

    =Parsees.= Followers of Zoroaster, of Persian descent, who
    have settled in India, chiefly near Bombay, where they have become
    one of the most thriving sections of the community, owing to their
    marked ability for commerce. A small remnant of Parsees, known as
    Guebres, is still to be found in Persia itself.

    =Parthians.= A warlike people of the ancient world, inhabiting
    a district of Northern Persia. They seem to have been of Scythian
    (_q.v._) descent, and were noted for their habit of fighting
    on horseback and discharging their most fatal arrows whilst in
    pretended flight. Under Mithridates (171-138 B.C.), the
    Parthians became supreme in Persia, and afterwards warred for long
    successfully with the Romans.

    =Patagonians= or =Tehuelches=. Natives of the most
    southerly region of the American continent, noted for their great
    stature, in many cases approaching the gigantic. They are one of
    the physically strongest races of the earth, of a yellowish brown
    colour, with well-formed and regular features. They are nomadic
    tribes of Araucanian (_q.v._) descent, who live by fishing and
    hunting; and peacefully disposed to strangers.

    =Pathans.= See AFGHANS.

    =Payaguas.= A South American Indian race, in the Argentine,
    whose wealth of silver ornaments gave a name to the Rio de la Plata.

    =Pawnees.= A brave warlike tribe of North American Indians,
    akin to the Shoshonean group (_q.v._) and formerly settled in
    Nebraska.

    =Pechenegs.= An ancient Mongolic race of Turki stock, a branch
    of the Kipchaks (_q.v._).

    =Pelasgians.= The pre-Aryan inhabitants of Greece, apparently
    the aborigines of that country, who were dispossessed by the
    Aryan Hellenes. Little or nothing is known of their racial
    characteristics and affinities; but the excavations recently made
    at Mycenæ, Knossos, etc., show that they had reached a high stage
    of civilisation in prehistoric times on the Ægean coast. Probably a
    branch of the Western Hamitic family, resembling Berbers (_q.v._)
    in physical type. See MYCENÆANS and ETRUSCANS.

    =Permians.= A branch of the Finnish race, inhabiting the
    district of Perm in Russia, and closely resembling the Karelians
    (_q.v._).

    =Persians.= The ancient Persians were the main branch of the
    Iranian stock of the Aryan family, a civilised and warlike nation,
    who taught their sons “to ride, to shoot with the bow, and to speak
    the truth.” They reared a great empire under Cyrus (B.C.
    537) and his successors, which was destroyed by Alexander the Great
    and divided in 324 B.C. The modern Persians, known as
    Tajiks, and as Tats on the west of the Caspian, are the descendants
    of the ancient Persians with a considerable admixture of alien
    blood, due to a long period of Arab and Turkish domination.
    They present a fine Aryan type, however, and are cultivated and
    commercial, though not warlike.

    =Peruvian Indians.= See INCAS.

    =Peruvians.= White natives of Peru, partly of pure Spanish
    descent, partly crossed with Indian blood.

    =Philippine Islanders.= The natives of the Philippines belong
    to three distinct races--Negritoes, Indonesians and Malays.
    The Negritoes are known as Aetas (_q.v._). The Indonesians are
    confined to the island of Mindanao; they are light-skinned, tall
    and well-developed physically. Their chief tribe is that of the
    Igorrotes. The Malays are brown-skinned, with black hair and flat
    noses, being crossed with Negrito blood. Their chief tribes are the
    Visayans, Tagalogs, Bicols, Ilocanos, Cayagans, Pangasinans and
    Pampangas. These are all Christianised and fairly civilised. The
    interior is occupied by wild and savage tribes of similar race,
    and by the dwarfish and nomadic Negritoes. Many of these tribes
    practise head-hunting, cannibalism, and human sacrifices. The more
    civilised tribes, with the Spanish-Indian half-breeds, known as
    Filipinos, are turbulent and lawless, the source of much trouble to
    the new American as to the old Spanish rulers.

    =Philistines.= An ancient race inhabiting the Mediterranean
    seaboard to the south-west of Judæa, who warred much with the
    Israelites, and were finally subdued by them. They were probably
    a Canaanitish people, belonging to the Semitic family; but some
    regard them as an immigrant Hamitic race, perhaps related to the
    Cretans or Pelasgians. The assumed inferiority of their culture
    to that of the Israelites has given rise to the modern use of
    “Philistine” as a term of reproach.

    =Phœnicians.= The greatest seafaring and trading nation of
    ancient times, and the earliest of Mediterranean sea-powers.
    A branch of the Canaanite stock of the Semitic family, they
    inhabited the Mediterranean coast between Latakia and Acre, their
    chief cities being Tyre and Sidon. They possessed a remarkable
    polytheistic religion, disfigured by human sacrifices. They were
    an inventive race, to whom we owe glass and Tyrian purple. They
    seem to have entered Phœnicia from the direction of the Red Sea
    in prehistoric times, and were at first subject to Egypt, but
    about 1300 B.C. reared a great maritime empire, which
    endured for nearly a thousand years and was destroyed by Alexander
    the Great. They were the great traders of the ancient world, and
    carried on a commerce which ranged from Cornwall to Ceylon and
    Senegal. The Carthaginians (_q.v._) were a colony of Phœnicians.

    =Phrygians.= An ancient pastoral people of Asia Minor, closely
    related to the Armenians (_q.v._), who were absorbed by the
    Persians in the sixth century B.C.

    =Picts.= The aborigines of ancient Scotland, a short,
    round-headed, dark race, probably a branch of the Iberian stock of
    the Western Hamitic family, and thus closely related to the Basques
    (_q.v._). The Picts were a wild and warlike race, who harassed the
    Roman province of Britain, and were exterminated by the invading
    Scots from Ireland in the early part of the Christian era. The
    whole Pictish problem is still unsolved by ethnologists, some of
    whom hold that the Picts were a Celtic race, allied to the modern
    Welsh or to the Scottish Highlanders of to-day.

    =Picuris.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.

    =Pipils.= See NAHUANS.

    =Pitcairn Islanders.= Half-breed descendants of Englishmen
    (the mutineers of the “Bounty”) and Tahitian women. A peaceful and
    idyllic race.

    =Pocomans, Poconches.= See MAYA-QUICHÉ.

    =Poles.= A stock of the Western Slavonic family, originally
    dwelling between the Vistula and the Oder. In the tenth century
    Poland became an independent European Power, and remained an
    elective kingdom down to its partition in the eighteenth century
    between Russia, Austria and Prussia. The Polish peasantry have
    always been industrious and successful agriculturists, whilst the
    nobility were turbulent and warlike. The Poles who live under
    Austrian and German rule are fairly contented, but those of
    Russian Poland have carried on a long and often bloody series of
    struggles for liberty. Of late years, Russian Poland has become a
    manufacturing country, under German influence. The Poles have a
    considerable literature, and are eminently musical.

    =Polynesians.= The chief stock of the Indonesian (_q.v._)
    family, the tall, brown-skinned race of Caucasic type who inhabit
    the chief islands of the Eastern Pacific, and are generally
    known as South Sea Islanders. Their chief races are the Maoris
    (_q.v._) of New Zealand, the Marquesans, Tahitians, Tongans and
    Samoans, besides the natives of Easter, Gambier, Hervey, and other
    smaller islands. They are of tall stature--only surpassed by the
    Patagonians--muscular frame, regular and often handsome features,
    with brown skins, square jaws, and broad skulls. They probably
    originated in Malaysia, where they are still represented by the
    Battaks of North Sumatra, some Dyak races, and certain tribes
    of the Philippines and Gilolo. They are a gay, pleasure-loving
    people, formerly addicted to cannibalism, but otherwise of pleasing
    manners, and are now rapidly acquiring civilisation, though their
    numbers are everywhere decreasing under the influence of European
    manners and diseases.

    =Poncas.= See SIOUAN.

    =Portuguese.= Natives of Portugal, a mixed race, probably
    of Iberian or Basque origin, with later Celtic elements. After
    falling successively under Roman, Visigothic, and Saracen dominion,
    they formed an independent kingdom in the twelfth century. The
    early Portuguese were enterprising seamen, who contributed largely
    to the exploration of the world, and founded many colonies in
    Africa, which they still possess. Brazil is their chief American
    settlement, now independent.

    =Provençals.= Natives of Provence, in the South of France.
    Their primitive Ligurian (_q.v._) stock was modified by many
    successive influences, such as the Greek colonists, who founded
    Marseilles, the Roman settlers in the Provincia (Provence), and,
    later, Gothic and Saracen invaders. The Provençals are a gay,
    impulsive and pleasure-loving people, markedly distinct from the
    more staid and industrious inhabitants of Northern France.

    =Pruczi=, or =Old Prussians=. See LETTIC.

    =Prussians.= The earliest inhabitants of Prussia were Slavonic
    tribes [see LETTIC]. The modern Prussians, the dominant
    race of the German Empire, belong to the High German branch of the
    Teutonic stock.

[Illustration: WOMEN OF THE NUPÉ TRIBE IN NIGERIA

    The Nupé tribe is a family belonging to the Nigerian group of
    Sudanese Negroes. They inhabit chiefly the town of Lokoja, in West
    Africa. [See under Nigerian group].
]

[Illustration: THE AINUS, PROBABLY THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF JAPAN

    The Ainus are a declining race, now confined to a small area in the
    Far East. They have, as is seen in this picture, handsome features
    and an abundance of hair. [See page 312].
]

    =Pueblo Indians.= A semi-civilised race of North American
    Indians, dwelling in New Mexico and Arizona. They inhabit
    “pueblos,” or huge houses, often large enough to contain a whole
    tribe under one roof. They possess interesting religious and
    social customs, much studied by anthropologists. Their chief tribes
    are the Zunis, Teguas, Taos, Picuris, and Tusayas. The Moquis of
    Arizona are closely related to them.

    =Puelches=, or =Pampas Indians=. A strongly-built,
    dark-skinned race of South American Indians, who inhabit the great
    plains or pampas from the Saladillo to the Rio Negro in Argentina.
    They are expert horsemen, from whom the Gauchos (_q.v._) are
    derived.

    =Punjabis.= Natives of the Punjab, in North-West India, mostly
    Jats and Sikhs (_q.v._) belonging to the Hindu stock of the Aryan
    family. An agricultural and warlike people.

    =Puntis.= See CHINESE.

    =Pygmies.= Dwarfish Negrito races of Central Africa, long
    considered to be mythical, but now well known to ethnologists. They
    include the Akkas and Wochuas of the Welle Basin, the Obongos of
    the Gaboon, the Batwas of South Congo, etc. In very early times
    they were known by repute to the Egyptians--on whose monuments they
    appear in the thirty-fourth century B.C.--and the Greeks.
    They live by the chase in the Central African forests, and use
    poisoned arrows. Other small races, such as the Bushmen, Lapps,
    Kalangs, Samangs, etc., have contributed to the fame of the Pygmies.

    =Quas.= A Sudanese Negro tribe on the Ivory Coast, belonging
    to the Nigerian group (_q.v._).

    =Quapaws.= See SIOUAN.

    =Queahs.= See LIBERIAN GROUP.

    =Quichés.= A race of Central American Indians in Guatemala,
    rivalling the Aztecs in the possession of an ancient civilisation
    and a curious mythology. See MAYA-QUICHÉ.

    =Quichuas.= See INCAS.

    =Rajputs.= The predominant race of Rajputana, in Central
    India, belonging to the Hindu stock of the Aryan family. They are a
    proud and warlike aristocracy of soldiers and landowners, who rule
    many native states, of which Jaipur, Jodhpur and Udaipur are the
    most important.

    =Ramas.= See LENCAN.

    =Redskins.= A term given in common parlance to North American
    Indians, from their colour.

    =Rejangs.= A Malayan race of Sumatra, akin to the Achinese
    (_q.v._).

    =Rols.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Romans.= The most powerful and warlike, and in every sense
    the greatest race of ancient Europe, who acquired the dominion of
    the Western world, and laid the foundations of modern civilisation.
    The city of Rome was founded by Alban shepherds, of Latin (_q.v._)
    race, in the eighth century B.C. Oscan, Sabine, Samnite,
    and Umbrian (_q.v._) elements were added to the original stock, and
    thus the great Roman character was moulded. Rome later extended her
    power over the whole of Italy, and then over the whole of the known
    world.

    =Romance Races.= See LATIN RACES.

    =Romansch.= Natives of the Grisons in Switzerland, speaking a
    Romance dialect, and probably of Italic race.

    =Roumanians=, or =Vlachs=. Natives of the modern
    Roumanian kingdom, the leading Balkan State, composed of the older
    principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, which were long subject
    to the Turks. The Vlachs (Wallachs, a name akin to our Welsh) are
    probably descended from the Latin-speaking inhabitants of the
    ancient Roman province of Dacia, a tribe of Thracian descent,
    which was subjugated by Trajan in the second century. They have
    preserved their language, but their blood has been mingled with
    that of numerous conquerors--Goths, Huns, Slovenians, Albanians,
    Turks, etc. The Roumanian peasantry are a hardy and thrifty race,
    retaining their old warlike traditions.

    =Rucuyennes.= See CARIBS.

    =Russians.= The chief of the Slavonic races inhabiting
    European Russia, and divided into Great, White, and Little
    Russians. The physical distinction between these races is
    attributed to the mixture of the primitive Russian stock
    respectively with Finnish, Lithuanian, and Turkish blood. The
    original Russians belonged to the Slavonic stock of the Aryan
    family, and seem to have been settled in prehistoric times between
    the Danube, the Elbe, and the south coast of the Baltic. Thus they
    must have entered Russia from the west in the early centuries
    of our era. There they conquered and drove out or assimilated
    the aborigines of Northern Mongolic (Finno-Turkish) stock, and
    established a number of small states, agricultural in character,
    which long suffered from Tartar invasion, notably that of the
    Golden Horde [see KIPCHAKS], and were gradually moulded
    into a single kingdom, with Moscow for its capital. Modern Russia,
    with its vast Asiatic dependencies, is one of the greatest
    Empires in the world, but it is in a state of transition, and its
    civilisation is consequently backward. The Russian peasants are
    very patient, industrious, and thrifty. When well led, they are
    admirable soldiers. Their chief occupation is agriculture.

    =Ruthenians.= A branch of the Little Russian race, who inhabit
    the district of the Carpathians in Galicia and Hungary; poor, but
    hardy cultivators of the soil.

    =Sabæans.= See HIMYARITES.

    =Sabines.= An ancient Italic race, who inhabited the district
    between the Central Apennines--their ancestral home--and Rome.
    The Samnites were their descendants or near kinsmen, and the
    Umbrians were less closely related to them. When Rome was founded
    there was a strong Sabine element in its population, as indicated
    by the story of the Rape of the Sabine Women, and the statement
    that several of the early kings of Rome were of Sabine blood. The
    Sabines and Samnites warred against Rome for many years, but both
    were ultimately subdued and incorporated in the Roman State.

    =Sac Indians.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Sakais=, or =Samangs=. An aboriginal Negrito race of
    the Malay Peninsula; a wild and uncivilised people, with black
    skins and woolly hair, often approaching the ape-like in physical
    development and intelligence.

    =Sakalavas.= One of the principal groups of the Malagasy
    tribes, inhabiting the west coast of Madagascar; of mixed Malay and
    negro blood, and akin to the Hovas (_q.v._).

    =Salish.= See FLATHEADS.

    =Samangs.= See SAKAIS.

    =Sambos=, or =Zambos=. Half-breeds sprung from Negro and
    Indian parents.

    =Samnites.= See SABINES.

    =Samoans.= A Polynesian (_q.v._) race, of fine physical
    development, lazy and pleasure-loving, inhabiting the Samoan group
    of islands.

    =Samoyedes.= A Finno-Ugrian race, inhabiting the Obi basin in
    Siberia, once widely spread over the extreme north of Europe and
    Asia. They are short and dark haired, with Mongolic features, brave
    and honest, live by hunting and fishing, and are still in the Stone
    Age.

    =Samsams.= A mixed Malayo-Siamese race, forming a large part
    of the population of the Malayan States of Kedah and Ligor.

    =Santals.= A negro-like aboriginal tribe of Orissa in India,
    agriculturists, of the Kolarian family (_q.v._).

    =Saracens.= A term applied in the Middle Ages to the Moslem
    enemies of Christendom, especially to the nomadic Arabs and
    Bedouins of the Syrian deserts.

    =Saras.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Sarakolés.= See MANDINGAN.

    =Sards=, or =Sardinians=. The aboriginal inhabitants
    of Sardinia, probably of the Western Hamitic family, akin to the
    Iberians or Ligurians (_q.v._). The modern Sardinians are descended
    from this race, with considerable admixtures of alien blood from
    the Carthaginian, Roman, Saracen, Spanish and Italian owners of the
    island in successive periods.

    =Sarmatians.= An ancient nomadic and warlike people, probably
    akin to the Scythians (_q.v._), who roamed over the wide plains of
    Eastern Europe. Fine horsemen. They were destroyed by the Goths in
    the fourth century, and disappeared from history.

    =Sassaks.= Natives of Lombok in the Sunda Islands, of Malayan
    race.

    =Savoyards.= Natives of Savoy, originally a short,
    round-skulled, dark race, akin to the Auvergnats (_q.v._), now
    largely mingled with Teutonic blood.

    =Saxons.= (1) The Old Saxons originally inhabited the estuary
    of the Elbe and the neighbouring islands. They were a warlike race,
    of Low German stock, whose name is said to be derived from the
    “Saxes,” or heavy knives which they used in war. They were one of
    the most adventurous of Teutonic races, and made many piratical
    and colonising excursions, of which the most important was their
    settlement in Britain in the fifth century, where they united with
    the Angles (_q.v._) to lay the foundation of the modern English
    people. (2) The Saxons who remained on the Continent gradually
    extended their dominion till it reached modern Saxony. Under
    Charlemagne the Saxon power was subordinated to that of the Franks.
    Saxony later became an independent duchy, which is still one of
    the chief States of the German Empire. The modern Saxons are less
    adventurous than their ancestors, very industrious, and successful
    in agriculture and industry, and make excellent soldiers.

    =Scandinavians.= A main stock of the Aryan family, sometimes
    classed as a branch of the Teutonic stock, including the
    Icelanders, Norwegians, Danes and Swedes, as well as the old
    Norsemen and Normans (_q.v._). Some ethnologists regard them as
    the original stock of the Aryan family. They are tall, blue-eyed,
    fair-haired, warlike, and good sailors and colonists.

    =Scots= or =Scotch=. (1) The ancient Scots were a
    Celtic race, belonging to the Goidelic or Q Celts (_q.v._),
    originally settled in Ireland--the ancient Scotia--whence they
    made settlements in the fifth century in modern Scotland, to which
    they gave their name. They were gradually driven back into the
    Highlands by Anglo-Saxon, Norman and Danish invaders, and are now
    represented by the Highlanders (_q.v._) or Gaels. (2) The modern
    Scots, or Lowland Scots, are mainly of Anglo-Saxon race, modified
    by Norman, Danish, and Flemish elements. They are one of the
    finest and most hardy and industrious races in the world, equally
    successful in the arts of war and peace.

    =Scythians.= An ancient nomadic and warlike race, found in the
    seventh century B.C. on the vast plains of South-eastern
    Europe, where they lived by cattle-breeding and raiding. They dwelt
    in tent-covered waggons, fought on horseback with bows and arrows,
    and made drinking-cups of their enemies’ skulls. Their origin is in
    dispute. Some regard them as a Mongolic race, which was modified by
    association with Aryan races, and others as an Aryan stock; their
    kinsmen, the Sarmatians (_q.v._), were almost certainly Aryans.
    They made several incursions into Asia, where they conquered a
    large tract of Northern India and established a kingdom which
    lasted till about the fourth century A.D. The Rajputs and Jats
    (_q.v._) are sometimes held to be their descendants.

    =Selengese.= See BURIATS.

    =Seljuks.= A warlike Turkish people who were settled on
    the Jaxartes in the eleventh century and afterwards founded a
    considerable empire in Western Asia. See TURKS.

    =Seminoles.= See MUSKHOGEAN.

    =Semites.= An important family of Caucasic Man, who probably
    originated in North Africa, from a similar stock to that of the
    Hamites. They are characterised by fine regular features, large
    aquiline noses, black eyes and hair, white skins, long skulls and
    square jaws. They are very intellectual, though less practical
    than the Aryan type; poets, prophets, and dreamers, rather
    than men of action. They have given the world its two greatest
    religions--Christianity and Islam. Their chief divisions are
    Assyrians, Aramæans, Canaanites, Arabs and Himyarites (_q.v._).
    In the modern world they are best known from the ubiquitous Jews
    (_q.v._).

    =Seneca Indians.= See IROQUOIAN.

    =Serbs.= See SERVIANS.

    =Serers.= Sudanese Negroes inhabiting Senegambia in the Cape
    Verde district. They are the tallest of Negro races, with herculean
    frames, and are akin to the Wolofs (_q.v._)

    =Servians=, or =Serbs=. A race of Southern Slavonic
    stock, now inhabiting Servia. They were at first identical with
    the Croats (_q.v._), and seem to have originated in the Carpathian
    district, whence they migrated into the Balkan peninsula in
    the seventh century. The Serbs then separated from the Croats,
    and in the twelfth century founded a powerful Servian kingdom,
    which was conquered by the Turks in the fifteenth. The Servians
    recovered their independence in 1830, under Milosh Obrenovitch. The
    Servians are a well-built race, proud and martial in temperament,
    quick-tempered and prone to deeds of violence, as their recent
    revolution witnessed.

    =Shangallas.= A mixed negroid race of the Abyssinian slopes.
    Sudanese Negroes with a Hamitic infusion.

    =Shans.= Natives of the independent Shan States, lying to
    the north of Siam. They are identical with the Laos, and closely
    related to the Siamese (_q.v._). They belong to the Indo-Chinese
    stock of the Southern Mongolic family, and are probably descended
    from an aboriginal race of China, which appeared on the Upper
    Irawadi about 2,000 years ago. They are a peaceful, pleasure-loving
    people, mainly agricultural, but not unwarlike. They have a sallow
    skin and Mongoloid features.

    =Sharras=, or =Eastern Mongols=. A branch of the
    Mongol stock of the Northern Mongolic family. They are a nomad,
    tent-dwelling, pastoral race, who roam over the great steppes of
    Central Asia. They include the Khalkas, north of the Gobi Desert,
    the Tanguts of Northern Tibet, the Chakars, Barins, Durbans, Uruts,
    Naimans, and Ordos south of the Gobi. They are descended from the
    older Mongols (_q.v._), whom they resemble in physical type.

    =Shawnees.= See ALGONQUIAN.

    =Shilluks.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Shoshonean.= A group of North American Indian tribes, all
    belonging to the Shoshone or Snake family, formerly occupying
    Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming, with neighbouring districts. They include
    the Shoshones or Snakes, Bannocks, Comanches, Utahs, and Mokis.
    With the exception of the warlike Comanches, they are a peaceful
    race, who have received the white invaders with friendship.

    =Shulis.= See NILITIC GROUP.

    =Siamese.= Natives of Siam, belonging to the Indo-Chinese
    stock of the Southern Mongolic family. They are closely related to
    the Shans (_q.v._). They are of medium height, olive complexion,
    with slightly flattened noses, prominent lips, and black hair. They
    are a peaceful and indolent race, who have recently shown promise
    of assimilating Western civilisation. Their blood is largely mixed
    with Chinese and Malay. Siam is still independent, forming a buffer
    state between British and French possessions.

    =Siberian.= A stock of the Northern Mongolic family, including
    the Chukchi, Koryak, Kamchadale, Gilyak, and Yukaghir tribes
    (_q.v._).

    =Sicani, Siculi.= See SICILIANS.

    =Sicilians.= The primitive inhabitants of Sicily were the
    Sicani, probably a Hamitic race allied to the Ligurians (_q.v._).
    They were followed by the Siculi, an Aryan race of Italic stock,
    who crossed from Italy about 1000 B.C. They were civilised
    and modified by Phœnician, and especially Greek settlers, with
    later Norman and Saracen influences. Of all these elements the
    modern Sicilians are compounded. They are a handsome, industrious,
    and amiable race, but turbulent, lawless, given to blood-feuds and
    brigandage.

    =Sienerehs.= See NIGERIAN GROUP.

    =Sikhs.= A powerful and warlike race of Northern India, united
    by a common religious faith, dating from the eighteenth century,
    and mainly of Jat (_q.v._) descent. Under Ranjit Singh, at the
    beginning of the eighteenth century, they reared a formidable
    military power in the Punjab, which was conquered by the British
    in 1846-1849. The Sikhs contribute many of the best and most
    trustworthy troops to the Indian Army.

    =Silurians.= A dark, round-skulled, short race who inhabited
    South Wales and the neighbouring districts of England in Roman
    times. They were probably of Iberian stock, related to the ancient
    Picts and modern Basques.

    =Sindis.= Natives of Sind in North-West India, of Hindu
    descent.

    =Singphos.= A wild, daring hill-tribe of Tibetan stock
    bordering on the Assam valley, formerly given to raiding, but
    now peaceful agriculturists. The Chins of the Arakan uplands are
    probably an identical race; they are still predatory.

    =Sinhalese.= See DRAVIDIANS.

    =Siouan.= A numerous and formerly powerful group of North
    American Indians, inhabiting the western prairies between the
    Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. Their chief tribe was the
    Sioux or Dakotas, warriors of fine physique, courage, and military
    skill, who long maintained a successful resistance against the
    white settlers. Other allied tribes were the Assinaboins, Omahas,
    Poncas, Kaws, Osages, Quapaws, Iowas, Otoes, Missouris, Winnebagos,
    Mandans, Minnetarees, Absarakas or Crows, Tutelos, and Catawbas.

    =Sioux=, or =Dakotas=. See SIOUAN.

    =Siryanians.= A tribe of Ugrian Finns, dwelling on both sides
    of the Northern Urals, resembling the Samoyedes (_q.v._), except
    in their white colour and fair hair, probably due to a mixture of
    Slavonic blood. See FINNO-UGRIAN.

    =Slavonic Races=, =Slavs= or =Slavonians=. A main
    stock of the Aryan family, occupying the greater part of Eastern
    Europe, and formerly extending as far west as the Elbe. Many
    ethnologists consider them to be the primitive Aryan stock. They
    are a peaceful and industrious agricultural and pastoral race,
    broad-skulled, with fair hair and blue eyes; though the primitive
    type has been much modified by intermixture of blood, especially
    with Mongolic races, who have imprinted a Tartar character on
    many Slavonic physiognomies. The Slavs are divided into Eastern
    (Russians and Ruthenians), Western (Czechs and Slovaks, Poles and
    Wends or Sorbs), and Southern (Bulgarians, Servians, and Croats,
    Dalmatians, Slovenians, and Montenegrins). See under these heads.

    =Slovaks.= See CZECHS.

    =Slovenians.= A branch of Southern Slavonic stock, inhabiting
    Styria, Carinthia, and adjoining districts.

    =Solimas.= See TEMNÉ GROUP.

    =Somalis.= An Eastern Hamitic race of Somaliland in North-East
    Africa. They are a pastoral people, of good physique, handsome
    features, and light-brown colour, warlike and independent. The
    original Hamitic stock--closely akin to that of the Gallas
    (_q.v._)--is modified by Semitic and Negro blood. They make
    excellent soldiers and servants.

    =Sonrhays.= A Negro race of the Middle Niger, in whom the
    Sudanese stock is modified by Arab and Berber elements.

    =Sorbs.= See WENDS.

    =Soyots.= A tribe of Ugrian Finns, mixed with Tartar blood, in
    the Sayan Mountains of South Siberia. See FINNO-UGRIAN.

    =Spaniards=, or =Spanish=. The earliest known race
    of Spain was the Hamitic Iberians (_q.v._), now represented by
    the Basques. They were modified by Celtic invasions, which gave
    birth to the Celt-Iberian races of Central and Western Spain,
    who struggled so long against the Roman arms, by which they were
    finally subjugated and further modified. In the fifth century
    the Vandals and Visigoths (_q.v._) invaded Spain, and founded
    a Gothic monarchy, which fell before the Saracens in 711. The
    Visigothic refugees in the northern mountains gradually recovered
    the country, and the kingdoms of Leon, Navarre, Castile, and Aragon
    were ultimately united into a single state. The modern Spaniards
    are thus of mixed race, in which the Iberian and Visigothic are
    the predominant elements. They are haughty, brave, and warlike, by
    which qualities they once owned the greatest power in Europe. But
    they are turbulent and lacking in political skill, so that Spain
    has decayed. There are now signs of a return to prosperity.

    =Spanish Americans.= White natives of Central and South
    American States, except Brazil.

    =Spartans.= Natives of Sparta, the greatest state of ancient
    Greece after Athens, of Dorian stock, eminently warlike and
    patriotic, but wanting in art or literature.

    =Sudanese.= Full-blooded Negroes inhabiting the Western,
    Central, and Eastern or Egyptian Sudan--_i.e._ most of Africa
    north of the Victoria Nyanza. They are black in colour, with
    woolly hair, projecting jaws, long skulls, broad, flat feet and
    projecting heels, and form one of the main divisions of Ethiopic
    Man. They are less intelligent and susceptible of civilisation
    than the Bantus (_q.v._), in whom the Negro blood is modified by
    Hamitic or Semitic admixtures. They are mostly of strong physique,
    warlike and predatory, fond of music and bright colours, with the
    most elementary notions of art and religion. They may be divided
    for convenience into several racial groups (_q.v._), such as Wolof,
    Felup, Toucouleur, Mandingan, Temné, Nigerian, Nilotic, Liberian,
    Lake Chad, Wadai, Welle, Nuba, and Nilotic, besides the Tshi, Ga,
    Ewe, and Yoruba peoples of the Guinea district.

    =Suevi.= See SWABIANS.

    =Sundanese.= Natives of the Sunda Islands, of Malayan stock,
    closely allied to Javanese (_q.v._).

    =Susus.= See MANDINGAN.

    =Sutughils.= See MAYA-QUICHÉ.

    =Swabians.= Natives of Swabia, an ancient duchy occupying the
    south-western part of the modern German Empire; descended from the
    ancient Suevi, with whom the Alemanni (_q.v._) were amalgamated. A
    strong, large-boned, and good-humoured race of High German stock.
    The Alsatians are closely allied to them.

    =Swahilis.= Natives of Zanzibar and the adjoining mainland,
    Bantu Negroes, with a strong infusion of Arab blood, which has made
    them superior in intelligence and enterprise to the average negro.
    They play a large part in the commerce of East Africa, and their
    language--Ki-Swahili--is the principal medium of communication
    throughout the part of Africa between the Equator and the Zambesi.

    =Swazis.= Natives of Swaziland, a native state on the
    south-east of the Transvaal. A cross between Zulus and other
    Kafirs, they are industrious and warlike.

    =Swedes.= Natives of Sweden, a branch of the Scandinavian
    stock. They seem to have been originally a Teutonic race, who
    entered Northern Sweden about 3,000 years ago, and drove out the
    aboriginal Lapps and Finns. The inhabitants of Southern Sweden
    were called Goths, and may have been the ancestors of the Teutonic
    Goths. In time they amalgamated with the Swedes, and formed one
    nation, which has been an independent kingdom through most of the
    Christian era. The Swedes are warlike, and successful in commerce
    and industry; they make good sailors, and possess a considerable
    literature.

    =Swiss=, or =Switzers=. The prehistoric inhabitants of
    Switzerland were the unknown builders of the lake dwellings. At the
    dawn of history, in Cæsar’s time, the country was largely occupied
    by a Celtic race, the Helvetii. Later, Switzerland was invaded by
    Teutonic races of High German stock, Alemanni, Burgundians, etc.
    The modern Swiss are mostly descended from these races; there
    is also a considerable mixture of French, Italic and Romansch
    elements. The Swiss have always been a warlike race, who preserved
    the independence of their mountainous country through all ages, and
    in earlier times furnished excellent mercenary soldiers to foreign
    armies. They are now very industrious and successful in many arts
    and crafts, such as watchmaking, wood-carving, hotel-keeping, etc.
    They are a simple and handsome race, possessing in full measures
    the virtues of the mountaineer.

    =Syrians.= The ancient Syrians were a branch of the Aramæn
    stock of the Semitic family, and the modern Syrians are their
    descendants, with some Arab and Turkish elements added. They are
    tall, with white skins and dark complexions, black eyes and hair,
    often very handsome, and approaching the Jewish type. They are not
    warlike, but succeed in commerce.

    =Tacullis.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Tahitians.= Natives of Tahiti, of Polynesian stock;
    pleasure-loving and polite, but immoral and untrustworthy; now
    civilised but formerly noted for their cruelty.

    =Taipings.= The Chinese rebels who attacked the dynasty from
    1850 to 1864.

    =Tajiks.= See PERSIANS.

    =Talaings.= An Indo-Chinese race who preceded the Burmese
    in the Irawadi Delta, and founded a state of which Pegu was the
    capital. They were subjugated by Burmese in the eighteenth century.

    =Talamancas.= Wild hunting Indians, perfectly uncivilised, who
    occupy the forest-covered Atlantic slopes of Costa Rica.

    =Tamils.= Natives of Northern Ceylon and the Indian Carnatic.
    See DRAVIDAS.

    =Taos.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.

    =Tanguts.= Nomadic Mongols of Northern Tibet. See
    SHARRAS.

    =Tarahumaras.= See OPATA-PIMA.

    =Tarascans.= A group of Indian tribes inhabiting the province
    of Michoaca in Mexico.

    =Tartars= or =Tatars.= The modern Tartars are inhabitants
    of the Russian Empire, belonging to the Turki stock of the Northern
    Mongolic family. They are divided into various geographical
    subdivisions, such as the Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean (or Krim)
    Caucasian and Siberian Tartars. The name has no definite ethnical
    significance. The Tatars--a Manchu word meaning “archers” or
    “nomads”--were Mongol tribes who were first so named in the ninth
    century. They formed a large part of the hordes of Genghiz Khan
    [see MONGOLS] and stood in the van of the mediæval Mongol
    incursions into Europe, whence they attracted an attention out of
    proportion to their importance. Europeans called them Tartars,
    confusing the name Tartar with the Greek Tartarus or Hell. See
    TURKI.

    =Tasmanians.= The extinct aborigines of Tasmania, akin to the
    Australians (_q.v._), but of a still lower Oceanic Negro type. They
    held a place at the very bottom of humanity, alike in physique,
    intelligence and culture, being still in the early Stone Age;
    savage, untamable, and degraded.

    =Tatars.= See TARTARS.

    =Tats.= See PERSIANS.

    =Tavastians.= A branch of the Baltic Finns, with thick-set
    figures, small blue eyes, light hair, and white skins, probably
    the consequence of an admixture of German blood with the original
    Finnish stock. They inhabit central Finland.

    =Tazis.= See TUNGUSES.

    =Teguas.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.

    =Tehuelches.= Another name for the gigantic Patagonians
    (_q.v._) of South America.

    =Telugus.= See DRAVIDIANS.

    =Tembus=, =Amatembu=, or =Tambukies=. A group of
    Kafir (_q.v._) tribes in Tembuland, to the north of the Kei River
    in Cape Colony. Formerly warlike and troublesome, now settled to
    agriculture and subjected to British rule.

    =Temné Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes, inhabiting
    the Sierra Leone district of West Africa, including the Temnés or
    Timnis, Kissis, Sherbros, Gallinas, Bulloms, Solimas, Limbas, and
    Mendis.

    =Tepeguanas.= See OPATA-PIMA.

    =Teutons.= An important stock of the Aryan family, inhabiting
    England and the Scottish Lowlands, with the United States and
    British Empire, Germany, Holland, and parts of Austria and
    Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Teutonic races are
    divided into Low German and High German divisions, to which some
    add, but others do not, Scandinavians.

    =Thlinkits.= A race of North American Indians inhabiting the
    Pacific coast from Mount St. Elias to the Simpson River, and the
    adjacent islands. They live chiefly by fishing and hunting.

    =Thos.= An Indo-Chinese race of Lao descent [see
    SHANS], in the north of Tongking.

    =Thracians.= The ancient inhabitants of Thrace, on the west
    of the Black Sea. Their origin is dubious, but they are generally
    assumed to have belonged to the Aryan family, and been related
    to the Teutons and the Greeks. They were wild hill tribes, who
    acquired in later days a certain amount of Roman culture and spoke
    the Latin language. There is some probability that they were the
    ancestors of the Vlachs or Roumanians (_q.v._).

    =Thuringians.= A High German tribe inhabiting Thuringia in the
    fifth century, probably a branch of the Suevi (_q.v._). Now merged
    into the modern Saxons.

    =Tibetans=, or =Bod-Pa=. Natives of Tibet, forming
    the Tibetan stock of the Southern Mongolic family, and allied
    to the minor races of Lepchas, Baltis, Ladakhis, etc. (_q.v._).
    The Tibetans are akin to the Burmese, with Mongolic features,
    broad-shouldered and muscular. They are a secluded and archaic
    race, with many curious customs, such as polyandry. Their religion
    is full of elaborate ceremonials, and the land abounds in
    monasteries.

    =Tibbus.= A race inhabiting the oases of the Sahara,
    intermediate between Berbers and Negroes; perhaps descended from
    the ancient Garamantes (_q.v._).

    =Timnis.= See TEMNÉ GROUP.

    =Tinné=, or =Tinney=. See ATHABASCAN.

    =Tobas.= A warlike and predatory race of South American
    Indians on the Rio Vermejo in Bolivia.

    =Tocantins.= See TUPI-GUARANI.

    =Todas.= An isolated group of Caucasic race inhabiting the
    Nilgiri Hills, and distinguished from the neighbouring Dravidian
    tribes by their fine physique and regular features of Caucasic
    type; a dying race.

    =Togos.= See EWE.

    =Toltecs.= The oldest of Nahuan (_q.v._) races, who
    established a semi-civilised State in Mexico before the Aztecs.

    =Tongans.= See POLYNESIANS.

    =Tongas=, or =Amatonga=. A Kafir race of peaceful
    agriculturists, occupying Tongaland, to the north of Zululand.

    =Tonkinese.= A branch of the Annamese (_q.v._), skilled in
    agriculture and dyke-building.

    =Toucouleurs.= Sudanese Negroes of Senegambia, probably
    crossed with Hamitic blood; formerly dominant in the Western Sudan.

    =Tshi Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes of the Guinea
    Coast, including the warlike Ashantis, Fantis and Adansis.

    =Tuaregs.= The predatory Berber (_q.v._) Nomads of the Sahara.

    =Tudas.= See DRAVIDIANS.

    =Tumalis.= See NUBA GROUP.

    =Tunguses.= A branch of the Mongol stock of the Northern
    Mongolic family, who lead a nomad existence in the mountains of
    East Siberia and the Amur region. They are of Mongolic physical
    type, with square skulls, low stature, and wiry, well-knit figures.
    They are distinguished by fine moral qualities, a fearless race of
    hunters, industrious, trustworthy, and self-reliant. Their main
    tribes are the Lamuts, or “sea people,” Orochs, Chapogirs, Golds,
    and Tazis. The modern Tunguses probably represent the primitive
    stock of the Manchus (_q.v._).

    =Tupi-Guarani.= A wide-spread family of South American
    Indians, in Brazil, including numerous distinct tribes, of which
    the Chiriguanas of Bolivia, Caribunas of the Rio Negro, Paraguay
    Indians, Tupinambas of the Para coast, Mundrucus of the Tapajos,
    Omaguas, Goajiris and Tocantins, are the most important. They are
    copper-coloured, thick-set and muscular, with broad features,
    black hair and sometimes obliquely set eyes. They are of apathetic
    nature, and are slow to acquire civilisation.

    =Tupinambas.= See TUPI-GUARANI.

    =Turanian.= An ethnological term, now abandoned, roughly
    corresponding to the Northern Mongolic or Ural-Altaic family.

    =Turguts.= See KALMUKS.

    =Turkanas.= An African Hamitic race, allied to the Masais
    (_q.v._), and dwelling between Lake Rudolf and the Nile.

    =Turki=, or =Turks=. An important and wide-spread stock
    of the Northern Mongolic family, dwelling in Central Asia, Asia
    Minor, and in European Turkey. The primitive Turki stock--the
    Chinese Tu-kiu and ancient Turcæ--seem to have inhabited the Altai
    region as early as the second century B.C. Thence they
    spread far and wide, and founded many powerful and predatory,
    but unstable empires. The Huns (_q.v._) who followed Attila were
    largely of Turki stock. Their chief modern race is that of the
    Ottoman Turks [see TURKS], who raised their empire on the
    ruins of Constantinople in 1453. Other Turki races are the Yakuts,
    Usbegs, Naimans Andijanis, Nogais, Tartars, Bashkirs, Kizil-Bashis,
    Anatolian Turks, etc. They are closely allied to the Kirghiz,
    Kipchaks, Kara-Kalpaks and Turkomans (_q.v._). The Turki physical
    type, of Mongol origin, has been modified by intermixture with
    Caucasic races.

    =Turks=, =Osmanlis=, or =Ottoman Turks=. The
    dominant inhabitants of the Turkish Empire in Europe and Asia
    Minor, the most powerful of Turki races. They trace their descent
    from the Seljuks, a confederacy of Turki tribes who were settled
    on the Jaxartes in the eleventh century, and there adopted Islam.
    They conquered Persia and established kingdoms in Syria--the great
    Saladin was one of their princes--and Asia Minor, or Anatolia.
    The true Ottoman Turks entered the service of the Seljuk rulers
    in the thirteenth century, being driven from Kharasan by the
    advance of the Mongol hordes, and under Othman and his successors
    they became the dominant Turk race. They reared a great military
    power, and soon invaded Europe, where they destroyed the Eastern
    Empire in the middle of the fifteenth century and founded the still
    existing Turkish Empire. The Ottoman Turks are proud, ignorant
    and fanatical, but honourable and upright. They make admirable
    soldiers, when properly led, but are surpassed in the arts of peace
    by their subject races, Greeks, Bulgarians, Jews, etc.

    =Turkomans.= A race of Turki nomads who inhabit the steppes
    east of the Caspian and south of the Oxus. They include such tribes
    as the Chaudors, Tekkes (Akhal and Merv), Salors, Yomuds, Goklen,
    and Ali-Elis. They were formerly noted for their predatory and
    man-stealing habits, but under Russian rule have been forced to
    live a more peaceful life. _m_

    =Tusayas.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.

    =Tuscaroras.= North American Indians. See IROQUOIAN.

    =Tushis.= See CHECHENZES.

    =Tushilange.= A branch of the Baluba (_q.v._).

    =Tutelos.= See SIOUAN.

    =Tyrolese.= Natives of the Tyrol, the ancient Rhaetia, a
    mountainous district now belonging to the Austrian Empire. They are
    of High German Teutonic stock, and are noted for their patriotism
    and bravery, illustrated by their resistance under Hofer to the
    arms of Napoleon. They are industrious and thrifty, but backward in
    education, and devout Catholics.

    =Tyrrhenes.= An ancient pre-Hellenic race of Greece, found in
    Thrace and Etruria, who probably belonged to the Pelasgian stock of
    the Hamitic family, giving birth to the Etruscans (_q.v._).

    =Ugrian.= A branch of the Finno-Ugrian stock (_q.v._)
    including the Samoyedes, Voguls, Ostyaks, Soyots and Siryanians of
    Siberia, the Permian Finns of Russia, and the Magyars of Hungary.
    See under these heads.

    =Umbquas.= See ATHABASCAN.

    =Umbrians.= An ancient Italic race, perhaps allied to the
    Etruscans (_q.v._) or the Samnites, afterwards subjugated by Rome.

    =Ural-Altaic.= A term applied to the Northern Mongolic family
    of races, corresponding nearly to the older Turanian. It includes
    the Mongol, Turki, Finno-Ugrian, Siberian, and Koreo-Japanese
    stocks.

    =Uruts.= See SHARRAS.

    =Utahs.= See SHOSHONEAN.

    =Uzbegs.= Nomadic Turki race of the Oxus Basin.

    =Vaalpens.= A Negrito race of the Kalahari Desert, probably a
    half-breed between Bechuanas and Bushmen, formerly the serfs of
    the dominant Bantu races, but now freed under British rule.

    =Vandals.= A Teutonic race, settled at the dawn of the
    Christian era in North-east Germany between the Oder and the
    Vistula. Like the Goths, whom they physically resembled, they were
    a warlike and roving race. Early in the fifth century they invaded
    Gaul and formed a settlement in Spain, where Andalusia (anciently
    Vandalitia) preserves their name. Later, under the fierce Genseric,
    they crossed to Africa and over-ran Mauretania, where they
    established a short-lived piratical Empire. In 534 it was destroyed
    by a Byzantine army under Belisarius, and the Vandals thereafter
    disappeared as a separate race. Their name has become a by word on
    account of their turn for devastation.

    =Vaudois.= See WALDENSES.

    =Veddahs.= A primitive hunting people of Ceylon, who are
    sometimes classed as Dravidian, but more probably represent the
    still older (Negrito?) aborigines of the island. They are dwarfish,
    of dark complexion, with features intermediate between the Hindu
    and Papuan types. They rank among the rudest and least civilised
    of races, being equally unable to laugh, count, or cook. They are
    dying out.

    =Veis=, or =Vey=. A Sudanese Negro race, of Mandingan
    stock, on the West Coast of Africa, who are said to be the only
    Negro race who have invented an alphabet.

    =Venezuelans.= White natives of Venezuela, of Spanish descent.
    Most of them are crossed with Indian blood.

    =Vikings.= See NORSEMEN.

    =Visigoths.= See GOTHS.

    =Voguls.= A nomadic Finno-Ugrian race who inhabit both slopes
    of the Urals. They closely resemble the Ostyaks and Samoyedes
    (_q.v._). _m_

    =Vuaregga=, =Vuarua=, =Vuarunga=, =Vuavinza=.
    Bantu Negro tribes inhabiting the Congo basin and the Tanganyika
    district.

    =Wachaga.= A predatory Bantu race on the southern slopes of
    Kilimanjaro.

    =Wadai Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro tribes inhabiting
    Wadai and East Darfur, including Birkits, Massalits, Korungas,
    Mabas (mixed with Hamitic blood), and other tribes. They are mainly
    of pastoral habit.

    =Waganda.= A Bantu Negro race who founded the kingdom of
    Uganda and attained a remarkable degree of civilisation before the
    arrival of white men. They are very intelligent, and their skill in
    the industrial arts has caused them to be called the Japanese of
    Africa. They are also warlike, and formerly indulged in frequent
    plundering and slave hunting raids among the surrounding races.

    =Wagogo.= A Bantu Negro race of German East Africa.

    =Wahehe.= See WASAGARA.

    =Wa-Huma.= A conquering pastoral race, of Eastern Hamitic
    stock, who migrated from Gallaland and penetrated as far south
    as Unyamwezi, founding various kingdoms on the way. They are of
    Hamitic features, fair complexion, and tall stature; very warlike.
    The ruling classes of Uganda and Unyoro are of Wa-Huma origin. The
    Wa-Huma are a branch of the Gallas (_q.v._). Among their tribes are
    the Wajiji, Warundi, Waruanda, etc.

    =Wajiji.= See WA-HUMA.

    =Waldenses=, or =Vaudois=. A heretical sect which
    originated in the South of France in the twelfth century, and was
    formed into a separate race by persecution; of French, Swiss, and
    Italian elements. They are now settled in Savoy.

    =Walloons.= Natives of South-eastern Belgium, of mixed Celtic
    and Romanic stock, probably descended from the ancient Belgae
    (_q.v._). They are tall, bony, and of strong physique, and are very
    successful in industry, as shown in the great manufacturing town of
    Liege.

    =Wanyamwezi.= A warlike Bantu race of German East Africa, who
    formerly composed a powerful predatory state.

    =Wanyoro.= Natives of Unyoro, in British East Africa, of Bantu
    race, skilled in industrial arts, and formerly allied with Arab
    slave-traders.

    =Wapisianas.= See ARAWAKS.

    =Wapokomo.= The chief Bantu race of the Tana basin, skilled
    boatmen and hunters, formerly under Masai domination, now acquiring
    civilisation under British rule.

    =Warraus.= An aboriginal Indian race of British Guiana.

    =Warua.= A powerful, warlike, and barbarous Bantu race of the
    Lualaba district in the Congo Free State, forming a powerful native
    state, and skilled in industry and rude art.

    =Waruanda=, =Warundi=. See WA-HUMA.

    =Wasagara.= A warlike and widespread Bantu people of German
    East Africa; fierce mountaineers, much given to marauding. The
    Wahehe, who claim Zulu affinities, are one of their tribes.

    =Waswahili.= See SWAHILIS.

    =Wataveita.= A mild and settled agricultural Bantu race
    inhabiting the slopes of Kilimanjaro in German East Africa.

    =Welle Group.= A group of Sudanese Negro races inhabiting the
    region of the Upper Welle River in Central Africa, including the
    cannibal Niam-Niam, or Azandeh, the Mangbattu, Nsakkara, Amadi,
    Ababua, and other tribes.

    =Welsh=, or =Cymry=. The chief surviving branch of the
    Brythonic or P Celts, inhabiting Wales, where they preserve their
    ancient language and customs. They probably represent the ancient
    Britons who inhabited England at the time of the Anglo-Saxon
    immigrations. “An old and haughty nation, proud in arms.”

    =Wends.= A stock of the Western Slavonic family, settled in
    the north and east of Germany in the sixth century. They were
    gradually absorbed by the Teutonic Germans. A remnant of the
    Wendish race, preserving their ancient language and customs,
    survives in Lusatia, on the borders of Saxony and Prussia, where
    they are also known as Sorbs.

    =Winnebagos.= See SIOUAN.

    =Wochuas.= See PYGMIES.

    =Wolofs.= Sudanese Negroes, dwelling between Lower Senegal and
    Gambia; very black, but with regular features, indicating a trace
    of Hamitic blood. Their chief branch is that of the Jolofs.

    =Wulwas.= See LENCAN.

    =Xanthochroi.= A suggested division of Caucasic Man, opposed
    to the Melanochroi, characterised by fair hair, blue eyes, and rosy
    complexion. It would thus include the Teutonic, Scandinavian, and
    Slavonic stocks of the Aryan family.

    =Xosas=, or =Amaxosa=. The southern stock of the Kafir
    race (_q.v._), allied to the Zulus, or northern stock. They are
    eminently warlike, and have an interesting system of social
    organisation. They are of Bantu origin, immigrants from the north,
    who have dispossessed the Hottentot or Bushman aborigines. They are
    tall, well-built, and muscular, with Negro features and complexion,
    and woolly hair. They are semi-nomadic cattle-breeders and hunters,
    but many have taken to the settled pursuits of agriculture. They
    were long at war with the British and Boer settlers, but are now a
    peaceful and contented people under British rule.

    =Yakuts.= A Mongolic race of Turki stock, inhabiting the
    province of Yakutsk in East Siberia. They are of middle height,
    with black hair, flat noses, and narrow eyes. They are laborious
    and enterprising, and show more aptitude for civilisation than the
    Buriats or Tunguses. They inhabit log “yurtas” in winter, but camp
    out in summer. Cattle-breeding, and to a less degree agriculture,
    are their chief occupations.

    =Yankees.= Natives of the New England States. In a wider
    sense, the northern inhabitants of the United States.

    =Yaos.= Agricultural aborigines of French Indo-China, perhaps
    allied to the Chinese proper.

    =Yedinas.= See LAKE CHAD GROUP.

    =Yomuds.= See TURKOMANS.

    =Yorubas.= A group of Sudanese Negro races inhabiting the
    eastern half of the Slave Coast district, and united by a common
    Yoruba language, though much broken up by political feuds. They
    are peacefully disposed, industrious, and friendly to strangers.
    Their main pursuit is agriculture, but they also practise many
    industries; they are the best architects in Africa. Their chief
    tribes are those of Egba, Jebu, Oworo, Ondo, Ife, and Oyo.
    Abeokuta, the Egba capital, owes its fame to the success with
    which it held out as a city of refuge against the slave-hunters of
    Dahomey and Ibadan.

    =Yukaghirs.= A nomadic tribe of north-east Siberia, probably
    identical with the Tunguses (_q.v._).

    =Yumas.= See OPATA-PIMA.

    =Yuruks.= A nomadic Turki race in the Konia vilayet of
    Turkey-in-Asia.

    =Yusufzais.= See AFGHANS.

    =Zambos.= See SAMBOS.

    =Zaparos.= South American Indians, on the Upper Napo in Peru.

    =Zapotecs.= Central American Indians of Oajaca in Mexico.

    =Zendals=, =Zotzils=. See MAYA-QUICHÉ.

    =Zulus=, or =Amazulu=. A very warlike Bantu race, allied
    to the Xosas and other Kafir tribes, whom they resemble in physique
    and organisation. Originally a small Kafir clan, the Zulus were
    raised to eminence at the beginning of the nineteenth century by
    the genius of Tchaka, a kind of Negro Napoleon, who established
    a severe military despotism, and dominated South Africa from the
    Zambesi to Cape Colony by the courage and military skill of his
    regiments. Tchaka’s descendants ruled Zululand proper, and waged
    war against Kafirs, Boers, and English, until their country was
    annexed by Britain in 1887. The Zulus are both physically and
    mentally one of the finest of African races.

    =Zunis.= See PUEBLO INDIANS.

[Illustration: TYPES OF THE CHIEF LIVING RACES OF MANKIND

    1. Anglo-Saxon      2. Finn      3. Celtic      4. Bulgarian

    5. Greek      6. Caucasian      7. Tartar

    8. Arab      9. Fellah      10. Berber      11. Syrian

    12. Afghan      13. Javanese      14. Malay

    15. Ladrone Islander      16. Hindu      17. Samang      18. Negrito
]

[Illustration:

    19. Chinese      20. Japanese      21. Tartar      22. Aleutian

    23. Kalmuck      24. Kamchadale      25. Aleoutian

    26. Esquimau      27. Ainu      28. Samoyede

    29. Koriak      30. Stone Indian      31. Otoe Indian

    32. Kutchin Indian                   34. Yucatan Indian
                       33. Chili Indian                      35. Fuegian
]

[Illustration: GROUPED ACCORDING TO PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP

    36. Jeba Negro      37. Beja      38. Sahara Negro

    39. Hottentot      40. Kafir      41. Mozambique Negro

    42. North Australian                44. South Australian
                           43. West Australian             45. Tasmanian

    46. Tikopia Islander      47. Maori      48. Samoan

    49. Melanesian (Vanikoro Island)  50. Melanesian (New Hebrides)
                                                              51. Fijian
]




ETHNOLOGICAL CHART OF THE HUMAN RACE


This Chart, intended for reference in connection with the Dictionary
of Races beginning on page 311, gives a view of the various main
divisions, families, and stocks into which the human race is divided
by ethnologists. It is impossible to give a complete list of the
individual races within the necessary limits, but the chief typical
races are named under each stock in the right-hand column. The races
marked with an asterisk are extinct.


ETHIOPIC DIVISION

    Family   Stock              Typical races

    AFRICAN NEGRO

           _Sudanese_           {Mandingan
                                {Ashanti
                                {Hausa
                                {Azandeh

           _Bantu_              {Herero
                                {Wanyamwezi
                                {Basuto
                                {Waganda
                                {Ama-Xosa (Kafir)
                                {Zulu

           _Hottentot-Bushman_  {Nama
                                {Griqua
                                {Bushman

    AFRICAN NEGRITO

           _Pygmy_              {Wochua
                                {Akka
                                {Obongo

    OCEANIC-NEGRO

           _Papuan_             {New Guinea natives

           _Melanesian_         {Fijian
                                {Solomon Islanders

           _Australian_         {Australian aborigines
                                {Tasmanian*

    OCEANIC NEGRITO

           _Negrito_            {Andamanese
                                {Sakai
                                {Aeta


MONGOLIC DIVISION

    Family   Stock              Typical races

    NORTHERN MONGOLIC

                                {Sharra
                                {Kalmuk
           _Mongol_             {Buriat
                                {Tungus

                                {Turks
                                {Tartars
           _Turki_              {Bashkirs
                                {Kirghiz
                                {Turkoman


                                {Samoyede
                                {Magyar
           _Finno-Ugrian_       {Finn
                                {Bulgar
                                {Lapp

           _Siberian_           {Chukchi
                                {Kamchadale

           _Koreo-Japanese_     {Korean
                                {Japanese

           _Dravidian(?)_       Tamil

    SOUTHERN MONGOLIC

                                {Tibetan
           _Tibetan_            {Balti
                                {Lushai

                                {Burmese
           _Indo-Chinese_       {Siamese
                                {Bhil
                                {Annamese

                                {Chinese
           _Chinese_            {Punti
                                {Lolo


    OCEANIC MONGOLIC

                                {Malay
           _Malaysian_          {Dyak
                                {Javanese

           _Malagasy_           Hova

           _Philippine_         {Visayan
                                {Ilocano

           _Formosan_


AMERICAN DIVISION

    Family   Stock              Typical races

    ARCTIC

           _Eskimo_             {Eskimo
                                {Aleutian

    NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN

           _Athabascan_         {Apache
                                {Navajo

           _Algonquian_         {Delaware
                                {Mohican
                                {Blackfoot

           _Iroquioan_          {Huron
                                {Mohawk
                                {Cherokee

           _Thlinkit_           Thlinkit

           _Haida_              Haida

           _Chinook_            Chinook

           _Siouan_             {Sioux
                                {Dakota
                                {Omaha

           _Shoshonean_         {Shoshone
                                {Utah
                                {Comanche
                                {Pawnee

           _Muskhogean_         {Choktaw
                                {Seminole

           _Natchez_            Natchez*

           _Kiowa_              Kiowa

           _Salish_             Flathead

           _Pueblo_             {Zuni
                                {Taos

    CENTRAL AMERICAN INDIAN

           _Otomi_              Otomi

           _Opata-Pima_         {Cora
                                {Tarahumara

           _Guaicuri_           Guaicuri

           _Tarascan_           Tarascan

           _Nahuan_             {Toltec
                                {Aztec
                                {Mexican

           _Maya-Quiché_        {Maya
                                {Quiché
                                {Huastec

           _Lencan_             {Chontal
                                {Guatusa

           _Bribri_             Bribri

           _Talamanca_          Talamanca

           _Zapotec_            Zapotec

           _Miztec_             Miztec

           _Chorotegan_         Chorotegan

    SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN

           _Inca_               {Quichua
                                {Chanca

           _Aymara_             Aymara

           _Chibcha_            Chibcha

           _Choco_              Choco

           _Zaparo_             Zaparo

           _Jivaro_             Jivaro

           _Mojo_               Mojo

           _Chiquito_           Chiquito

           _Barré_              Barré

           _Charrua_            Charrua*

           _Chuncho_            Chuncho

           _Conibo_             Conibo

           _Carib_              {Macusi
                                {Rucuyenne

           _Arawak_             {Maypuri
                                {Wapisiana

           _Warrau_             Warrau

           _Botocudo_           Botocudo

           _Tupi-Guarani_       {Paraguay
                                {Caribuna
                                {Tupinamba

           _Payagua_            Payagua

           _Matacoan_           Matacoan

           _Toba_               Toba

           _Araucanian_         Araucanian

           _Puelche_            {Puelche
                                {Gaucho

           _Patagonian_         Patagonian

           _Fuegian_            Fuegian


CAUCASIC DIVISION

    Family               Stock           Typical races

    HAMITIC

           _Eastern_             { Egyptian
                                 { Somali
                                 { Galla
                                 { Masai

           _Western_ { Numidian    Berber
                     { Iberian   { Basque
                                 { Pict*
                     { Ligurian    Corsican
                     { Pelasgian { Mycenæan*
                                 { Etruscan*

    SEMITIC

           _Assyrian_              Chaldæan*
           _Aramæan_             { Syrian
                                 { Hittite*
           _Canaanite_           { Israelite
                                 { Phœnician*
                                 { Carthaginian*
           _Arab_                { Arab
                                 { Bedouin
           _Himyarite_             Abyssinian

    ARYAN

          _Hindu_                { Punjabi
                                 { Bengali
          _Iranian_              { Afghan
                                 { Persian
                                 { Armenian
                                 { Kurd
          _Hellenic_             { Albanian
                                 { Greek
          _Italic_               { Roman
                                 { Italian
                                 { French
                                 { Spanish
                                 { Portuguese
                                 { Latin American
          _Keltic_   { Goidelic  { Irish
                     {   or      { Manx
                     { Q Kelts   { Highland Scottish
                     { Brythonic { Welsh
                     {    or     { Breton
                     { P Kelts   { Cornish*
          _Lettic_               { Lithuanian
                                 { Lettish
          _Slavonic_             { Russian
                                 { Czech
                                 { Polish
                                 { Servian
          _Scandinavian_         { Norwegian
                                 { Swedish
                                 { Danish
          _Teutonic_ { Low       { Old Saxon*
                     { German    { Dutch
                     {           { Flemish
                     {           { Anglo-Saxon
                     { High      { German
                     { German    { Saxon
                                 { Swiss
                                 { Austrian

    CAUCASIAN

          _Southern_               Georgian
          _Western_                Circassian
          _Eastern_              { Chechenz
                                 { Lesghian

    INDONESIAN

         _Polynesian_            { Samoan
                                 { Maori
                                 { Marquesan

    AINU

         _Ainu_                    Ainu




[Illustration: MAKING OF THE NATIONS AND THE INFLUENCE OF NATURE]




THE BIRTH & GROWTH OF NATIONS

BY PROFESSOR RATZEL


In order that the cosmic conception of the life of man may be more
than a mere isolated idea, incapable of being applied and developed,
it is necessary to indicate the relation which human life bears to the
collective life of the earth.

[Sidenote: Man is Bound up with the Earth]

Human existence is based upon the entire development of vegetable
and animal life; or, as Alexander von Humboldt said, in reality the
human race partakes of the entire life on earth. Just as plants
and animals, vegetable and animal remains and products, occupy an
intermediate position between man and the inanimate substance of the
earth, so almost without exception the life of man depends not directly
upon the earth, but upon the animals and plants, which in turn are
immediately bound to the earth by the necessities of existence. It is
the dependence of later and more evolved types upon the earlier and
less evolved. In 1845 Robert Mayer, the German scientist, published
his epoch-making thesis on “The Relations of Organic Motion to
Metabolism,” in which he described the vegetable world as a reservoir
wherein the rays of the sun are transformed into life-supporting
material and are stored up for use. According to his view the physical
existence of the human race is inseparably linked together with this
“economic providence”; and he even went so far as to connect it with
the instinctive pleasure felt by every eye at the sight of luxuriant
vegetation.

[Sidenote: Man’s Fight with Plants and Animals]

[Sidenote: Spreading Life Over all the Earth]

The history of mankind shows how various are the elements contained
in this reservoir, and how manifold their action. Originally plants
and animals share the soil with man, who must struggle with them for
its possession. The plains favour and the forests obstruct historical
movement; the inhabitant of the tropics is hardly able to overcome the
growth of weeds that covers his field; for the Esquimau the vegetable
world exists but two months in the year, and then only in stunted,
feeble species. The unequal distribution of edible plants has in a
large measure been the cause of divergence in the developments of
different races. Australia and the Arctic countries have received
almost nothing; the Old World has had abundance of the richest gifts
showered upon it, Asia receiving more than Africa or Europe. The
most valuable of domestic animals are of Asiatic origin. America’s
pre-European history is incomparably more uniform than that of the Old
World, and this is owing to her moderate endowment of useful plants
and almost complete lack of domestic animals. The transplanting of
vegetable species from one part of the earth to another, carried on
by man, is one of the greatest movements in the collective life of
the world. Its possibilities of extension cannot be conjectured; for
the successful diffusion of single cultivated plants--the banana,
for example--over a number of widely separated countries is yet
problematical. This process can never be considered to have come to an
end so long as necessity forces man to get a firmer and firmer hold on
the store of earthly life.

The relations of man to the earth are primarily the same as those of
any other form of life. The universal laws of the diffusion of life
include also the laws of the diffusion of the human species. Hence the
study of the geographical distribution of man must be looked upon only
as a branch of the study of the geographical distribution of life, and
a succession of the conceptions belonging to the latter.

[Sidenote: The Material Tie that Binds Men Together]

To these conceptions belong the main area of distribution, the
habitable world, and all its various parts: zones, continents, and
other divisions of the earth’s surface, especially seas, coasts,
interiors of lands, bordering regions, divisions exhibiting continuity
with others as links in a chain, and isolated divisions. Also
relations as to area: the struggle for territory, variations in the
life development in small or inextensive regions, in insular or in
continental districts, on heights of land and plateaus, and, in
addition, the hindrances and the aids to development presented by
different conformations; the advance development in small, densely
populated districts; or the protection afforded by isolated situations.
All must be included. Finally, properties of boundaries must be
conceived of as analogous to phenomena occurring on the peripheries of
living bodies.

As races are forms of organic life, it follows that the state cannot
be comprehended otherwise than as an organised being; every people,
every state is organic, as a combination of organic units. Moreover
there is something organic in the internal coherence of the groups and
individuals from which a state is formed. However, in the case of a
people and a state, this coherence is neither material nor structural;
states are spiritual and moral organisms. But, together with the
spiritual, there is also a material coherence between the individual
members of a race or a nation. This is the connection with the ground.
The ground furnishes the only material tie that binds individuals
together into a state; and it is primarily for this reason that all
history exhibits a strong and ever-increasing tendency to associate the
state with the soil--to root it to the ground, as it were.

[Sidenote: The State and the Soil]

The earth is not only the connecting principle, but it is also the
single tangible and indestructible proof of the unity of the state.
This connection does not decrease during the course of history, as
might be supposed, owing to the progressive development of spiritual
forces; on the contrary, it ever becomes closer, advancing from the
loose association of a few individuals with a proportionately wide
area in the primitive community, to the close connection of the dense
population of a powerful state with its relatively small area, as in
the case of a modern civilised nation. In spite of all disturbances,
the economic and political end has ever been to associate a greater and
greater number of individuals with the soil. Hence the law that every
relation of a race or tribe to the ground strives to take a political
form, and that every political structure seeks connection with the
ground. The notion of an unterritorial and a territorial epoch in the
history of man is incorrect; ground is necessary to every form of
state, and also to the germs of states, such as a few negroes’ huts
or a ranch in the Far West. Development consists only in a constant
increase in the occupation and use of land, and in the fact that, as
populations grow, so do they become ever more firmly rooted in their
own soils.

[Sidenote: If One State Embraced the Whole Earth]

At the same time the nature of the movements of peoples must change.
Penetration and assimilation of one race by another occur instead
of displacement of one by another; and with the rapid decrease of
unoccupied territory the fate of the late-comers in history is
irrevocably sealed. Since the state is an organism composed of
independent individuals and households, its decay cannot be analogous
to the death and corruption of a plant or an animal. When plants decay,
the cells of which they are composed decay also. But in a decayed state
the freed individuals live on and unite together into new political
organisms; they increase, and the old necessity for growth continues
in the midst of the ruin. The decay of nations is not destruction;
it is a remodelling, a transformation. A great political institution
dies out; smaller institutions arise in its place. Decay is a life
necessity. Nothing could be more incorrect than the idea that the
growth of nations would come to an end were one state to embrace the
whole earth. If this were to happen, long before the great moment of
union came, there would be a multitude of processes of growth already
in operation, ready to rebuild in case of decadence, and to provide
for a new organisation if needed. As yet the political expansion of
the white races over the earth has not resulted in uniformity, but in
manifoldness.

[Illustration: THE PEOPLE OF THE MOUNTAINS: SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF
ENVIRONMENT ON CHARACTER

    This picture, by Alexander Johnston, illustrates the keynote of
    Professor Ratzel’s chapters on the influence of the earth on
    character. Johnston represents a marriage among the Scottish
    Covenanters, who, persecuted under the Stuarts, took to the
    moss-hags and the hills, of whose stern ruggedness their own stern
    independence was the outcome and counterpart.
]

[Sidenote: Earth and the Movements of Peoples]

All conditions and relations of peoples and states that may be
geographically described, delineated, surveyed, and, for the greater
part, even measured, can be traced back to movements--movements that
are peculiar to all forms of life, and of which the origin is growth
and development. However various these movements may be in other
respects, they are always connected with the soil, and thus must be
dependent upon the extent, situation, and conformation of the ground
upon which they take place. Therefore, in every organic movement we
may perceive the activity of the internal motive forces which are
peculiar to life, and the influences of the ground to which the life
is attached. In the movements of peoples, the internal forces are the
organic powers of motion common to all creatures, and the spiritual
impulses of the intellect and will of man.

In many a view of history these forces alone appear; but it must not
be forgotten that they are conditioned by the fact that they cannot be
active beyond the general limits of life, and they cannot disengage
themselves from the soil to which life is bound. In order to understand
historical movements it is first necessary to consider their purely
mechanical side, which is shown clearly enough by an inquiry into the
nature of the earth’s surface. Neglect of this occasions a delay in
the understanding of the true character of such movements. Men merely
spoke of geography, and treated history as if it were an atmospheric
phenomenon.

[Sidenote: National Emigrations in History]

Nations are movable bodies whose units are held together by a
common origin, language, customs, locality, and often necessity for
defence--the strongest tie of all. A people expands in one direction
and contracts in another; in case of two adjacent nations, a movement
in the one betokens a movement in the other. Active movements are
responded to by passive, and vice versa. Every movement in an area
filled with life consists in a displacement of individuals. There are
also currents and counter-currents: when slavery was abolished in the
Southern States of America, an emigration of white men from the South
was followed by an influx of ex-slaves from the North, thus causing an
increase in the black majority of the South.

[Sidenote: Why Nations Must Seek New Homes]

Such external movements of peoples assume most varied forms. History
takes a too narrow view in considering only the migrations of nations,
looking upon them as great and rare events, historical storms as it
were, exceptional in the monotonous quiet of the life of man. This
conception of historical movements is very similar to the discarded
cataclysmic theory in geology. In the history of nations, as in
the history of the earth, a great effect does not always involve a
presupposition of its being the immediate result of a mighty cause.
The constant action of small forces that finally results in a large
aggregate of effect must be taken into account in history as well as in
geology. Every external movement is preceded by internal disturbance:
a nation must grow from within in order to spread abroad. The increase
of Arabs in Oman led to an emigration to East Africa along highways of
traffic known to times of old. Merchants, craftsmen, adventurers, and
slaves left their native land and drew together in Zanzibar, Pemba,
and on the mainland. The process was repeated from the coast to the
interior, and as a result of the aggregate labour of individuals as
merchants, colonists, and missionaries, Arabian states grew up in
the central regions of Africa. Instances of the occupation of vacant
territories are of the greatest rarity in history as we are acquainted
with it. The best example known to us is the settlement of Iceland
by the Northmen. The rule is, a forcing in of the immigrating nation
between other races already in possession; the opposition of the latter
often compels the former to divide up into small groups, which then
insinuate themselves peacefully among the people already established in
the land.

[Illustration: THE NORTHMEN TAKING POSSESSION OF ICELAND

    Instances of peoples taking possession of uninhabited lands and
    settling therein are extremely rare. Iceland is the best example
    known. The hardy Northmen took possession of it in the ninth
    century, but found the country untenanted.
]

[Sidenote: The Human Will Knows no Obstacle]

The movements of nations resemble those of fluids upon the earth: they
proceed from higher altitudes to lower; and obstacles cause a change of
course, a backward flow, or a division. Though at first there may be a
series of streams running along side by side, there is a convergence
at the goal, as shown by the migration of different peoples to a
common territory; there is concentration when there are hindrances to
be overcome, and a spreading out where the ground is level and secure.
One race draws other races along with it; and, as a rule, a troop of
wanderers come from a long distance will be found to have absorbed
foreign elements on its way. But it would be wrong to look upon the
movements of nations as passive onflowings, or even to deduce a natural
law from the descent of tribes from the mountains to the river valleys
and to the sea--an idea that once led to the acceptance of the theory
of the Ethiopian origin of Egyptian civilisation. Either the wills
of individuals unite to form a collective will, or the will of a
single man imposes itself upon the aggregate. The human will knows no
insurmountable obstacle within the bounds of the habitable earth.

[Sidenote: Bursting Nature’s Barriers]

As time goes on, all rivers and all seas are navigated, all mountains
climbed, and all deserts traversed. But these have all acted as
obstructions before which movements have either halted or turned aside,
until finally they have burst the barriers. At least two thousand years
passed from the time of the first journey of a Phœnician ship out
through the Pillars of Hercules into the Atlantic until the arrival of
the day when a voyage across was ventured from Southern Europe. The
Romans turned at the Alps, both to the right and to the left, seven
hundred years after their city had been founded, but how many nooks in
the interior of those mountains were unknown to them even centuries
later! Yet to-day Europe feels the effect of this circumstance, the
fact that the Romans did not advance straight through the Central Alps
into the heart of the Teutonic country. They followed a roundabout way
through Gaul, and thus Mediterranean culture and Christianity were
brought to Central Europe from the west instead of from the south;
hence the dependence of the civilisation of Germany upon that of France.

It is precisely the Romans who, contrasted with barbarians, show us
that will or design in the movements of nations does not necessarily
increase with growth of culture, even though culture constantly
puts more means of action at its disposal, improved methods of
transportation, by which the way may be lightened. The mounted bands
of Celts and Germans crossed the Alps quite as easily as did the Roman
legions; and in spreading about and penetrating to every corner of
the Alps and the Pyrenees, the barbarians were always superior to the
Romans.

[Sidenote: The Great Wanderers of the Earth]

Wandering tribes of semi-civilised people are smaller, less
pretentious, and less encumbered. In every war that has taken place in
a mountain land, the greater mobility of untrained militia has often
led to victories over regular troops. Races of inferior culture are
invariably more mobile than those of a higher grade of civilisation;
and they are able to equalise the advantages of the superior modes of
locomotion with which culture has supplied the latter. Mobility also
indicates a weaker hold upon the ground, and thus uncivilised peoples
are more easily dislodged from their territories than are nations
capable of becoming, as it were, more deeply rooted. In nomadic races,
mobility bound up with the necessity for an extensive territory assumes
a definite form, and, owing to a constant preparedness for wandering
and to the possession of an organised marching system, such peoples
have been among the greatest forces in Old World history.

Movements of nations are often spoken of as if certain definite
directions were forced upon them by some mysterious power. This view
not only wraps itself in the garment of prophecy--for example, when
announcing that the direction in which the sun travels must also be
that of history--but it formally presupposes a necessary east-to-west
progression of historical movements, endeavouring to substantiate
its doctrine by citation of examples, from Julius Cæsar to the
gold-seekers of California. But this necessity remains always in
obscurity. Not only is it contradicted by frequently confirmed reflex
movements in historical times, but it is also disproved still more by
the great migrations which have taken place on the same continent in
contrary directions. In Asia the Chinese have spread over the entire
area of interior plain and desert, westward to the nation-dividing
barriers of the Pamir Mountains; other Asiatic races have overflowed
into Europe--also from east to west. Contrariwise, ever since the
sixteenth century we have seen the Russians at work conquering the
entire northern part of the continent, constantly pressing on towards
the east. Even the sea proved no obstacle, for they both discovered and
acquired Alaska during the course of this same movement.

[Illustration: HOW CIVILISATION SPREAD THROUGH EUROPE

    The inexorable influence of physical conditions on the life of
    the peoples is well illustrated by the influence of the Alps in
    deflecting the path of Mediterranean culture. These mountains
    hemmed in the north of the Roman Empire and forced the Romans,
    in their expansion, to the west. Hence Mediterranean culture and
    Christianity were carried to Central Europe from the west instead
    of from the south, and the civilisation of Germany depends on that
    of France. The map shows the route followed by the stream of Roman
    civilisation.
]

We shall not attach any universal significance to such fashionable
terms employed in historical works as political or historical
attraction, elective affinity or balance; least of all shall we presume
to discover occult, mysterious sources for them. It is obvious that a
powerful nation will overflow in the direction of least resistance; and
in the case of a strong Power confronting one that is weak there is a
constant movement toward the latter. Thus, from the earliest times,
Egypt has pressed on toward the south; and everywhere in the Sudan
we find traces of similar movements to the south as far as Adamawa,
where they are still to-day in energetic continuance. The history of
colonisation in America shows a turning of the streams of immigration,
in the south as well as in the north, towards the more thinly settled
regions; the more thickly populated are avoided. The migrations of
nations, which took place during periods of history when a surplus of
unoccupied land existed, were determined to a great extent by natural
causes. The more numerous nations become, the greater the obstacles
to migration, for most of these obstacles arise from the very nations
themselves.

Nations increase with their populations; lands with enlargement of
territory. So long as a country has sufficient area, the second form
of growth need not of necessity follow the first--the race spreads
out over the gaps which are open in the interior, and thus internal
colonisation takes place. If there is need for emigration, occupiable
districts may be found in the lands of another people--for centuries
Germans have thus found accommodation in Austria, Hungary, Poland, and
America.

[Sidenote: How New States are Born]

Of course, such colonists gradually become absorbed into the people
among whom they have settled. This is simple emigration, which is
therefore connected with the internal colonisation of a foreign land.
External colonisation first comes into being when a state acquires
territory under its control, into which territory, if it be suitable, a
portion of the inhabitants of the state move and settle. Colonisation
is not necessarily a State affair from the first. If a race inhabit
a country so sparsely as the Indians did America in the sixteenth
century, a foreign people, having the power of spreading out, may press
into the gaps with such success that this initial internal colonisation
may also be advantageous from a political standpoint. The State then
intervenes and appropriates the territory over which groups of its
inhabitants have previously acquired economic control.

The emigrants formed a social aggregate in the new country, and from
this aggregate a state, or the germ of a state, develops. Since such
an economic-social preparatory growth greatly assists in the political
acquirement of land, it is obvious that this form of colonisation
is especially sound and effectual. The opposite method follows when
a state first conquers a territory which it occupies later with its
own forces; this is colonisation by conquest. It can be capable of
development only when subsequent immigration permanently acquires the
land as a dwelling-place.

[Sidenote: Why Rome’s Empire Endured Long]

Conquest that neither can nor will take permanent possession of the
soil is characteristic of a low stage of culture; thus the Zulu states
in Africa, surrounded by broad strips of conquered yet uncontrolled
territory, and the old “world-empires” of Western Asia, exhausted
themselves in vain efforts to obtain lasting increase of area through
aggressive expeditions. That the Roman Empire lasted a longer time than
any of the preceding universal empires was due to the single fact that
agricultural colonisation invariably followed in the footsteps of its
political conquests.

The enlargement of a nation’s area is associated with soil and
inhabitants. If the increase of territory--for example, through
conquest--is much more rapid than the increase of population, an
inorganic, loosely connected expansion results, which, as a rule,
is soon lost again. If, on the contrary, population increases at a
proportionately greater rate than area, a crowding together, checks to
internal movements, and over-population follow. In consequence, great
discrepancies between growth of territory and increase of population
lead to the most varied results. The conquering nation expands over
extensive regions for which there are no inhabitants. Passive races in
India and in China become so crowded together that it is impossible for
their soil to support them any longer; hence a continuous degradation
and recurrent periods of famine, which may bring with them a relatively
feeble and unorganised emigration.

[Sidenote: The Modern Nations as Colonisers]

There are nations with whom conquest and colonisation seem to follow
in most profitable alternation: this appears to have been the case
with all colonising countries of modern history that have followed the
example of the Roman Empire. But there are great contrasts presented
even by these nations. Germany, Austria, and Russia, in immediate
connection with their conquered provinces, have colonised and expanded
toward the east. In spite of a rapid increase of population, Germany
has been backward in establishing trans-marine colonies, while France,
with a proportionately smaller increase of population, began by
colonising in all directions, but occupied more land than she was able
to master; for which reason colonization in the history of France has
taken more or less the character of conquest. England, on the contrary,
with a vigorous emigration and an expansive movement in all directions,
presents an example of the soundest and strongest method of founding
colonies which has been seen since early times.

[Illustration:

    ABBREVIATIONS

    BR. BRITISH
    FR. FRENCH
    SP. SPANISH
    RU. RUSSIAN
    GER. GERMAN
    DU. DUTCH
    PORT. PORTUGUESE

    G. F. MORRELL 1907.

THE EXPANSION OF THE WHITE RACES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD

    This map illustrates the extent to which the white races have
    spread into other than their native lands. The pale tint, as on
    the British Isles, indicates the native land of the whites; the
    darker tint shows where whites have settled down; while the black
    portions represent those parts of the earth where the coloured
    races predominate.
]

[Sidenote: Some New National Problems]

Through the entire course of history an ever-increasing value attached
to land may be traced; and in the expansion of nations we may also
see that mere conquest is growing less and less frequent, while the
economic acquisition of territory, piece by piece, is becoming the
rule. The getting of land assumes more and more the character of a
peaceful insinuation. The taking possession of distant countries
without consideration for the original inhabitants, who are either
driven away, or murdered--speedily with the aid of bullets, or slowly
with the assistance of gin or contagious diseases or by being robbed of
their best land--is to-day no longer possible. Colonisation has become
a well-ordered administration combined with instruction of the natives
in useful employments. The old method has left scarcely a single
pure-blooded Indian east of the Mississippi in the United States, and
not one native in Tasmania; the new method has before it the problem
how to share the land with negroes--in the Transvaal with 74 per cent.
and in Natal with 82 per cent. Climatic conditions are also to be taken
into consideration, for Caucasians are able to develop all their powers
in temperate regions only; a hot climate impels them to ensure the
co-operation of black labour through coercion.

[Sidenote: Mankind Ages with Civilisation]

During the course of centuries a motley collection of countries has
developed, all of which are called colonies, although they stand in
most striking contrast with one another. Several are nations in embryo,
to which only the outward form of independence is lacking; not a few
have once been independent; and many give the impression that they will
never be fit for self-government. There are some in which the native
population has become entirely extinct, such as Tasmania, Cuba, and
San Domingo; others in which the original inhabitants, still keeping
to their old customs and institutions, are guided and exploited by a
few white men only; and, finally, colonies in which the rulers and the
natives have assimilated with one another, as in Siberia. Once upon
a time such tokens of the youth of races as may be seen in rude but
remunerative labour on unlimited territory were widespread in many
colonies. But the new countries fill up visibly, and even they show
that mankind, as a whole, ages the more rapidly the more the so-called
progress of civilisation is hastened. However, an examination of the
peoples of the present day shows that the differences in age between
mother-countries and colonies will, indeed, continue for a long time
yet. Such differences exist between west and east Germans as well as
between New Englanders and Californians; they are even to be detected
in Australia, between the inhabitants of Queensland and of New South
Wales. Such differences are shown not only in the characteristics of
individuals, but also in the division of land and in methods of labour.

[Sidenote: Nations Hold fast to Nature]

Divergence and differentiation are the great factors of organic
growth. They govern the increase of nations and states from their
very beginnings. Since, however, these organisms are composed of
independent units, differentiation does not consist in an amalgamation
and transformation of individuals, but in their diffusion and grouping.
Therefore the differentiation of nations becomes eminently an affair
of geography. Never yet has a daughter people left its mother-country
to become an independent state without a previous disjunction having
taken place. All growth is alteration in area, and, at the same time,
change in position. The further growth extends away from the original
situation, the sooner dismemberment follows. In Australia, New South
Wales spreads out towards the north, and at the new central point,
Brisbane, a new colony, Queensland, is formed, which already differs
materially from New South Wales. And Queensland itself expands towards
the north, beyond the tropic of Capricorn into the torrid zone; and a
younger, tropical North Queensland develops.

[Illustration: LANDMARKS OF PAST AGES: FAMOUS FORTRESSES THAT HAVE
CEASED TO BE OF USE

    With the changing conditions of politics, places once of enormous
    importance have often become mere curiosities. There are in Europe
    to-day hundreds of useless castles, fortresses, and harbours.
    Even Dover Castle is of little strategic value. The fortresses
    illustrated are (1) Mantua, (2) Dover, (3) Chillon, (4) Calais, (5)
    Verona.

    Photographs by Frith and Neurdein
]

[Sidenote: The Genius of the Coloniser]

The fact that nations hold fast to their natural conditions of
existence, even when growth impels them towards expansion in various
directions, is a great controlling force in historical movement. Russia
expands in its northern zone to the Pacific ocean; England continues
its growth on American soil, across the Atlantic, in almost the same
latitude. The Phœnicians, as a coast-dwelling people, remained on
the coasts and on the islands; the colonising Greeks ever sought out
similar situations to those of their native land; the Netherlanders
are found everywhere in Northern Germany as colonists of the moors
and marshes. All German colonies beyond the Alps and the Vosges have
disappeared; and the few Germans that remain are Latinised. Nations
that are accustomed to a limited territory, as were the Greeks,
always search for a similar limited area; on the other hand, the
Romans discovered a main factor of empire-building in their judicious
agricultural colonisation of broad plains; and the Russians sought
and found in Siberia the endless forests, steppes, and vast rivers
of their native land. Every nation, in expanding, seeks to include
within its area that which is of the greatest value to it. The
victorious state acquires the best positions and drives the conquered
race into the poorest districts. For this reason competition between
the colonizing nations has become very keen; they all judge of the
character of territory according to the same standard. Therefore,
wherever England has colonised, only a gleaning remains for the rest of
the Northern and Central European Powers.

Differentiation, arising from the valuation of land, is the cause of
a constant creation of new political values and of a constant lapsing
of old. Every portion of the world has its political value, which,
however, may become dormant, and must then be either discovered or
awakened. Such a discovery was the selection of the Piræus as the
harbour for Athens from among a number of bights and bays.

[Sidenote: The World is Being Centralised]

Every settlement and every founding of a city is at bottom an awakening
of dormant political value. Capacity for recognizing this value is
a part of the genius of a statesman, whose policy may be called
far-seeing partly because he is able to discern the dormant value while
yet on the most distant horizon. It is obvious that political values
vary; each is determined by the point of view from which it is looked
upon. The French and the German valuations of the Rhine borderland
are very different. Every nation endeavours to realise the political
value which it recognises; and in respect to political growth, ends are
set up in the shape of the portions of the earth to which that growth
aspires. Peculiarities in the conformation of states may be traced
back to an appreciation of the value of coasts, passes, estuaries, and
the like. With the spreading out and the concentration of nations,
such portions of the world as are important from a political point of
view have marvellously increased both in number and in value. But for
this very reason a choice of selection has become necessary, and this
we see in the use of fewer Alpine passes during the age of railways
than before, and in the concentration of a great commerce into fewer
seaports--into such as are capable of accommodating vessels of the
deepest draught. Others must withdraw from competition. To-day there
are hundreds of worthless harbours, passes, and fortresses in Europe
that were once situated on the highways of historical movement; now
however, they are avoided, deserted by the current of traffic.

[Sidenote: All the Rubbish of Civilisation]

There are more things necessary to an understanding of the dependence
of history on natural conditions than a mere knowledge of the land
upon which the development has taken place, particularly than a mere
knowledge of the ground as it was when history found it. Although each
country is in itself an independent whole, it is at the same time
a link in a chain of actions. It is an organism in itself, and, in
respect to a succession or a group of lands forming a whole, of which
it is a member, it is also an organ. Sometimes it is more organism than
organ; sometimes the opposite is true; and an eternal struggle goes
on between organism and organ. If the latter be a subjected province,
a tributary state, a daughter country, a colony, or member of a
confederation, the striving for independence is always a struggle for
existence.

This by no means presupposes a state of war. Not only war, but the
outwardly peaceful economic development of the world’s industries
reduces organisms to organs. When the wholesale importation of bad but
cheap products of European industries into Polynesia or Central Asia
causes decay in the production of native arts and crafts, it is a loss
to the life of the whole people; henceforth the race will be placed
in the same category with tribes that must gather rubber, prepare
palm-oil, or hunt elephants to supply European demand, and who in
turn must purchase threadbare fabrics, spirits that contain sulphuric
acid, worn-out muskets, and old clothes--in a word, all the rubbish of
civilisation.

Their economic organisation dies; and in many cases this is also
the beginning of the decline and extinction of a people. The
weaker organism has succumbed to the more powerful. Is the case so
different--that of Athens, unable to live without the corn, wood, and
hemp of the lands on the Northern Mediterranean coast?--or of England,
whose inhabitants would starve were it not for the importation of meat
and grain from North America, Eastern Europe, and Australia?

In vain have men sought for characteristics in the rocks of the
earth and in the composition of the air by which one land might be
distinguished from another.

[Illustration:

    Underwood and Underwood.

MAN’S WONDERFUL TRIUMPH OVER NATURE

    By irrigation the arid desert of California has been made to
    blossom as the rose in the luxurious orange groves of Riverside.
    These views show the desert, the method of irrigation, and the
    result of man’s labour.
]

[Sidenote: How Man is Levelling the Earth]

The idea of great, lasting, conclusive qualitative variations in
different parts of the earth is mythical. Neither the Garden of Eden
nor the land of Eldorado belongs to reality. There is no country
whose soil bestows wondrous strength upon man or an exuberance of
fruitfulness upon woman. In India precious stones are as little apt
to grow out of the cliffs as silver and gold are likely to exude
from fissures in the earth. Nor is there any basis for the slighter
differences between the Old World and the New which the philosophers
of history of the eighteenth century believed they had discovered.
The opinion that the New World produces smaller plants, less powerful
animals, and finally a feebler humanity, was not unconditionally
rejected by even Alexander von Humboldt. The degeneration and wasting
away of the American Indians would certainly be a less disgraceful
phenomenon could it be attributed to some great natural law instead
of to the injustice, greed, and vices of the white men. In the
course of development of the European daughter-nations in America
we cannot recognise any such great and universal distinction. The
course of history in America, just as in corresponding periods of
time in Northern Asia, in Africa, and in Australia, only confirms the
belief that lands, no matter how distant from one another they may
be, whenever their climates are similar, are destined to be scenes of
analogous historical developments.

It is certain that, so far, one of the greatest results of the labour
of man has been the levelling and overcoming of natural differences.
Steppes are made fertile through irrigation and manuring; the
contrast between open and forest land becomes less and less--indeed
the destruction of forests is being far too rapidly and widely
carried out--the acclimatisation of men, animals, and plants causes
variations to disappear more and more as time passes. We can look
forward to a time when only such extremes as mountains and deserts will
remain--everywhere else the actions of the earth will be equalised. The
process by which this is carried out may be described shortly. Man, in
spite of all racial and national differences, is fundamentally quite as
much of a unity as the soil upon which he dwells; through his labour
more and more of this character of unity is transmitted to the earth,
which, as a result, also becomes more and more uniform.

[Sidenote: History from Heaven to Earth]

One of the most powerful of the ties by which history is bound to
Nature is that of its dependence on the ground. At the first glance
any given historical development is involved with the earth only--the
earth upon which the development takes place. But if we search deeper
we shall find that the roots of the development extend even to the
fundamental principles of the planetary system. By this it is not meant
that every history must be founded on a cosmological basis, that it
must begin with the creation, or, at least, with the destruction of
Troy, as was once thought necessary; but it is certainly safe to say
that a philosophy of the history of the human race, worthy of its name,
must begin with the heavens and then descend to the earth, filled with
the conviction that all existence is fundamentally one--an indivisible
conception founded from beginning to end on an identical law.

The 316,250,000 square miles of the earth’s surface is the first area
with which history has to do. Within it all other surface dimensions
are included; it is the standard for measurement of all other areas,
and also comprehends the absolute limits of all bodily life. This area
is fixed and immutable so far as the history of mankind is related to
it, although in respect to the history of the world it is not to be
looked upon as having been unalterable in the past, or as being likely
to remain unchanged in the future.

[Sidenote: 316,250,000 Miles of History]

The earth’s surface may be divided into three unlike constituent
parts--84,250,000 square miles of land, 220,000,000 square miles of
water, and 13,750,000 square miles of ice-covered, and for the greater
part unexplored, land and sea in the Northern and Southern Polar
regions. The land is the natural home of man, and all his historical
movements begin and end upon it. The size of states is computed
according to the amount of land which they include; their growth has
derived its nourishment from the 84,250,000 square miles of earth as
from a widespread fundamental element. The sea is not to be looked upon
as an empty space between the divisions of land, merely separating them
one from another, for the 220,000,000 square miles of water are also of
historical importance, and the area of every ocean and of every portion
of an ocean has its historical significance. History has extended
itself over the sea, from island to island, from coast to coast, at
first crossing narrow bodies of water, later broad oceans; and states
whose foundations arose from connections by sea remain dependent on the
sea. The Mediterranean held together the different parts of the Roman
Empire just as the oceans unite the Colonies of the British Empire.

The variations of the earth’s form from that of a perfect oblate
spheroid are so small that they may be entirely disregarded from the
point of view of history. All portions of the earth’s surface may be
looked upon as of equal curvature; the pyriform swelling which Columbus
believed to be a peculiarity of the tropic zones in the New World was
merely an optical illusion. Thus all portions are practically similar,
and uniformity obtains over the entire earth to such an extent that
there is room left only for minor inequalities in configuration. To
these belong the differences in level between lands and seas, highlands
and lowlands, mountains and valleys. Such variations amount to very
little when compared with the earth as a whole; for the height of the
tallest of the Himalayas added to the earth’s radius would increase its
length by about 1/700 only; and the same may be said of the greatest
depressions beneath the level of the sea--inequalities that cannot be
represented on an ordinary globe. Their great historical significance
is due chiefly to the fact that the oceans and seas occupy the
depressions, from which the greatest elevations emerge as vast islands.

[Sidenote: Irregular Surface of the Earth]

The remaining irregularities of the earth’s surface are not sufficient
to produce any permanent variations in the diffusion of races or of
states. Their influence is merely negative; they may only hinder or
divert the course of man in his wanderings. Even the Himalayas have
been crossed--by the Aryans in the west, and by the Tibetans in the
east; and British India has extended its boundaries far beyond them to
the Pamirs. The historian is concerned with but two of the variable
qualities of the land--differences in level and differences in contour.
Variations in constitution, development, elementary constituents,
and the perpetual phenomena of transformation and dissolution which
present a thousand problems to the geographer, scarcely exist for the
historian. Nor are those great inequalities, the depressions in which
the seas rest, of any interest to him. It is indifferent whether the
greatest of such depressions be covered by five miles of water, or,
as we now know, by almost six miles. The fact that the Mediterranean
reaches its greatest depth in the eastern part of the Ionian Sea has
nothing whatever to do with the history of Greece.

[Sidenote: Depths of The Sea]

To be sure, there is a general connection between the depth of the
Mediterranean, shut up within the Straits of Gibraltar, and the
climate of the neighbouring regions, which has a direct influence on
the inhabitants of Mediterranean countries; but it is a very distant
connection, and it is only mentioned here in order to remind the reader
that there is not a single phenomenon in Nature that is not brought
home to mankind at last. Still, as a rule, history is concerned with
the depths of the sea only in so far as they are the resting-places for
submarine telegraph cables; and this is a fact of very recent times.
It may be said that the formation of the earth’s crust occurred at a
period too remote to have had any influence on the history of man, and
that therefore all questions concerning it should be left to geology.
The first statement may be admitted, but the latter does not follow by
any means; for if the whole Mediterranean region from the Caucasus to
the Atlas Mountains, and from the Orontes to the Danube, is a region
of uniform conformation, it is purely by reason of a uniformity in
development. In the same manner there is an extensive region of uniform
conformation to the north, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Sudetic
Mountains in Austria.

[Sidenote: Nature Divides and Unites]

There are great features of the earth’s conformation that are so
extensive that groups of nations share them in common. Russia and
Siberia occupy the same plain upon which the greater portions of
Germany, Belgium, and Holland are situated. Germany and France share
the central mountain system which extends from the Cévennes to the
Sudeten, or Sudetic Mountains. A mere participation in a common
geological feature produces such affinity and relationship as may be
seen in the Alpine states, in Sweden and Norway, and in the nations
of the Andes. This reminds us of the groups of nations that surround
seas; but that which separates the Baltic states binds them together;
and the mountains that unite the Swiss cantons also separate them from
one another. Lesser features of conformation divide countries and often
exhibit gaps and breaches in development, for the reason that they
divide a political whole into separate natural regions. The history
of the lowlands of North Germany differs greatly from that of the
mountainous districts of the same country; the lowlands of the Po and
Apennine Italy are two different lands. The great contrast between the
hilly manufacturing west of England and the low-lying agricultural
east extends throughout English history; and in like manner the
highlands and the lowlands are opposed to each other in Scotland.

[Illustration: SCENERY THAT SHAPES CHARACTER: THE INFLUENCE OF THE
MOUNTAINS

    The stories of mountain peoples are very similar; the Highlanders
    of Scotland, Wales, Switzerland, the Cevennes, and Tyrol, have
    many characteristics in common, owing their rugged nature and
    independence to environment.
]

Wherever mountain formations occur largely in a country, the question
arises whether, in spite of all diversity, they unite to form a whole,
or whether they exist as separate, independent neighbouring parts.
The elements of the surface formation of the earth are not only
historically important in themselves as units, but also on account
of the way in which they are connected with one another. We have in
Greece an example of an exceedingly intricate mountain system in which
barren plateaus are interspersed with fertile valleys and bays. Owing
to the sea, such bays as those of Attica, Argos, and Lamia are to a
high degree self-dependent; they became little worlds in themselves,
independent states, which could never have grown into a united whole
had they not been subjected to external pressure.

The reverse of this state of disunion, arising from the juxtaposition
of a great number of different formations, is the division of
North America into the three great regions of the Alleghanies, the
Mississippi Valley, and the Rocky Mountain plateau, which gradually
merge into one another and are bound into a whole by the vast central
valley. Austria-Hungary includes within itself five different mountain
features--the Alps, Carpathians, Sudeten, the Adriatic provinces, and
the Pannonian plains. Vienna is situated where the Danube, March,
and Adria meet, and from this centre radiates all political unifying
power. If a still closer-knit unity is co-existent with a diversified
geological formation of insular or peninsular nature, as in Ireland or
Italy, it follows that this unity binds the orographic divisions into
an aggregate. The discrepancies between Apennine Italy, Italy of the
Po Valley, and Alpine Italy, which have been evident in all periods of
history, formed, in their rise and in their final state of subjugation
to political force, an example of dissimilarity of mountain features
existing within peninsular unity.

The great continental slopes are also important aids to the overcoming
of orographic obstacles to political unity. In Germany there is a
general inclination towards the north, crossed and recrossed by a
number of mountain chains and successions of valleys. It is not to
be denied that the intersecting elevations have furthered political
disunion. Without doubt, a gradual slope from the southern part of
Germany to the sea, with a consequent partition of the country by
the rivers into strips extending from east to west, would have been
attended by a greater political unity. Again, but in another way, the
preponderance of any one orographic element has a unifying effect on
all the other elements, as we have seen in North America, where the
simple, even course of development has been in conformity with the
existence of geological formations on a large scale.

[Illustration: THE SOFTENING EFFECT OF THE RICH AND FRUITFUL LOWLANDS

    Whereas mountains breed independence and rugged character in their
    inhabitants, the more fruitful lowlands develop a gentler race,
    loving the companionship of communities. The lowlands, also, are
    the homes of mixed races.
]

There are internal differences in formation in every mountain range
and in every plain, all of which have different influences on history.
The steep fall of the Alps on the Italian side has rendered a descent
into the plains of the Po far easier than a crossing in the opposite
direction, where many obstacles in the shape of mountain steeps,
elevated plateaus, and deep river valleys surround the outer border
of the Alps. Again, penetration from the plains to the interior of
the Alps is less difficult in the west, where there are no southern
environing mountains, than in the east, where there is such a
surrounding mountain chain. The compact formation of the Alps in the
west crowds obstacles together into a small space, where they may be
overcome with greater labour and in a shorter time than in the east,
among the broadened-out chains of mountains, where there are numerous
smaller hindrances to progression spread out over a wider territory.
The route from Vienna to Trieste is twice as long as that from
Constance to Como.

In mountain passes orographic differences are concentrated within very
limited areas, and for this reason passes are of great importance in
history. The value of gorges and defiles increases with their rarity,
and their number varies greatly in different mountain chains. The
Pindus range is broken but once, by the cleft of Castoreia, and an easy
passage from Northern to Central Greece is possible only by way of
Thermopylæ; the short overland route from Persia to India is through
the Khyber or Bolan Passes. The Rhætian Alps are rich in defiles and
gorges; but the mountain ridges are poor in crossing-places, and, as a
rule, the elevation of the passes decreases towards the east.

[Sidenote: Nature’s Place in History]

The possibility of journeying over the Himalayas increases as we travel
westward. During the Seven Years’ War the great difference between
the accessible, sloping Erz-Gebirge of the Bohemian frontier and the
precipitous, fissured, sandstone hills of the Elbe was very apparent.
Mountain passes are always closely connected with valleys and rivers;
the latter form the ways leading to and from the former. The valleys
of the Reuss and the Tessin are the natural routes to the pass of St.
Gothard; and were it not for the gorges of the Inn and the Etsch in
the northern and the southern Alps, the Brenner Pass would not possess
anything like its present supreme importance. Wherever such entrances
to passes meet together or cross one another, important rallying-points
either for carrying on traffic or for warlike undertakings are formed;
such places are Valais, Valteline, and the upper valley of the Mur.
Coire is a meeting-point of not less than five passes--the Julier,
Septimer, Splügen, St. Bernardin, and Lukmanier. The value of passes
varies according to whether they cross a mountain range completely
from side to side, or extend through only a part of it. When the
Augsburgers, on the way to Venice, had got through the Fern Pass, or
that of Leefeld, the Brenner still remained to be crossed; but when the
Romans had surmounted the difficulties of Mont Genevre, the ridges of
the Alps were no longer before them; they were in Gaul.

There are also passes through cross ridges that connect mountain
chains, such as the Arlberg, that pierces a ridge extending between
the northern and the central Alps. Passes of this sort are of great
importance to life in the mountains, for, as a rule, they lead from one
longitudinal valley to another, such valleys extending between ridges
being the most fertile and protected districts in mountainous regions.
In this manner the Furka Pass connects Valais, the most prosperous
country of the Alps during the time of the Romans, with the upper Rhine
valley; and the Arlberg connects the Vorarlberg with the upper valley
of the Inn.

[Sidenote: Value of Mountain Passes]

Mountain passes are not only highways for traffic, they are the
arteries of the mountains themselves. Commerce along the mountain ways
leads to settlements and to agriculture at heights where they would
hardly have developed had it not been for the roads; and the highest
permanent dwellings are situated in and about passes. The Romans
established their military colonies in the neighbourhood of passes,
and the German emperors rendered the Rhætian gorges secure through
settlements. There are political territories that are practically
founded on mountain passes. The kingdom of Cottius, tributary to the
Romans, was the land of the defiles of the Cottian Alps; Uri may be
designated as the country of the north Gothard, and the Brenner Pass
connects the food-producing districts of the Tyrol with one another.

[Sidenote: Battlefields of Mountain Borderlands]

The transition point from one geological formation to another is
invariably the boundary line between two districts that have different
histories. The movements in one region bring forces to bear on the
movements in the other. Hence the remarkable phenomena which occur on
mountain borderlands. The historical effects of mountainous regions
are opposed by forces that thrust themselves in from without; external
powers anchor themselves, as it were, in the mountains, seeking to
obtain there both protection and frontier lines. Rome encroached more
and more upon the Alps, first from the south, and then from the west
and the north, by extending her provinces. Austria, Italy, Germany,
and France have drawn up to the Alps on different sides; they merely
fall back upon the mountains, however; their centres lie beyond. The
same phenomenon is shown in the regions occupied by different races.
Rhætians, Celts, Romans, Germans, and Slavs have penetrated into the
Alps; but the bulk of their populations have never inhabited the
mountainous districts. The question as to which nation shall possess
a mountain chain or pass is always decided on the borders. Here are
the battlefields; here, too, are the great centres of traffic whose
locations put one in mind of harbours situated at points where two
kinds of media of transmission come into contact with each other. This
margin, like that of the sea, also has its promontories and bays.

[Illustration: THE BANDIT’S WIFE

    The effect of life in the hills is clearly seen in this picture by
    Leopold Robert, who painted it after living among the “Brigands of
    the Mountains” and studying their wild and picturesque life. The
    association of peoples with mountains develops a rugged character
    and gives that strength and independence which mountain races have
    displayed in history.
]

Height of land obstructs historical movements and lengthens their
course. The Romans remained at the foot of the Alps for two centuries
before they made their way into them, forced to it by the constant
invasion of Alpine robbers who descended from the heights as if
sallying forth from secure fortresses. Long before this the Romans
had encircled the western side of the Alps and had begun to turn the
eastern side. The colonies on the Atlantic coast of America, the
predecessors of the United States, had been in existence for almost
two hundred years before they passed the Alleghanies; and it is certain
that this damming up of the powerful movement towards the west, which
arose later, had a furthering influence on the economic and political
development of the young states. The passes of the Pyrenees occur at
about two-thirds of the distance from the level ground to the summits
of the mountains; in the Alps the elevation of the gorges is but
one-half or one-third that of the mountain tops; hence, as a whole, the
Alps are more easy of access than the Pyrenees. The Colorado plateau is
a greater obstacle than the Sierra Nevada range in California, which,
although of much greater elevation, slopes gently and is interspersed
with broad valleys. It was due rather to the forests than to the
moderate elevation of the central mountains of Germany that their
settlement was delayed until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
The influence of the broad, desert tableland of the great basin in
separating the western from the Mississippi states is greater than
that of the Rocky Mountains with peaks more than twelve thousand feet
in height. The extensive glacial formations and the sterility of the
mountains in Scandinavia have held Sweden and Norway asunder, and at
the same time have permitted the Lapps and their herds of reindeer to
force themselves in between like a wedge. The broad, elevated steppes
of Central Tien-schan enabled the Kirghese to cross the mountains with
their herds and to spread abroad in all directions.

[Sidenote: Little Worlds on the Heights]

[Sidenote: Man in Touch with Nature]

In such cases the natives of tablelands and mountainous regions,
who inhabit little worlds of their own on the heights, themselves
contribute not a little towards rendering it difficult to pass through
their countries. The most striking example of this is Central Asia
with its nomadic races, whose influence in separating the great
coast-nations of the east, west, and south from one another has been
far more potent than that of the land itself. And these nomads are a
direct product of the climate and the soil of this greatest plateau
in the world. The dry tablelands of North America, from the Sierra
Madre in Mexico to Atacama in the south, were in early times inhabited
by closely related races, having more or less similar institutions
and customs. A like effect of life on plateaus, shown in the Caucasus
Mountains, that have preserved their character as a barrier against
both Romans and Persians, and have been crossed by the Russians
only in recent times, points to a further reason for the sundering
influence of the wall-like position of mountains between the steppes
and the sea. Phenomena similar to those observed in Central Asia
and in North America occur on a smaller scale in every mountainous
country--extensive uninhabited tablelands in which man and free nature
come into direct contact with each other. Independent development
is thus assured to the dwellers on mountains, and to their states a
preponderance of territory over population. The political importance
of Switzerland is not owing to its three millions of inhabitants,
but to the impossibility of occupying one-fourth of the Alps. The
position--almost that of a Great Power--held by Switzerland during
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was due to the union of this
element of strength (and the fact that Switzerland, by reason of its
situation, includes many of the most important commercial routes in
Europe) with the mountain-bred spirit of liberty and independence of
its people. In other respects, too, mountain states stand pre-eminent
among nations--as Tyrol outshone all other Austrian provinces in 1809,
so the mountain tribes of the Caucasus were the only Asiatics able to
offer any permanent resistance to the advance of the Russians. The
broad, rough character of a highland country is an active force; in
all mountain wars it has led to the spreading out of armies and to the
lengthening of columns.

[Sidenote: Mountains the Friends of Weak Nations]

The support afforded by mountains to weak nations that without the
protection of a great uninhabited region would not have been able to
maintain their independence can be likened only to the protection
which, as we have seen, is given by the sea. Switzerland has often
been compared to the Low Countries; and there is even a still greater
resemblance between city cantons such as Basle and Geneva and ports
like Hamburg and Lübeck. It was owing to similar reasons that the
strongholds of French Protestantism during the sixteenth century
were the Cévennes, Berne, and La Rochelle. The protection given by
mountains must not be looked upon as of an entirely passive nature,
for the rugged nature of mountaineers, and their concentration within
small areas where a development is possible, rendering them conscious
of independence and assisting them to preserve it, are also a result
of life in the highlands. In low-lying countries difference in levels
cannot exceed a thousand feet; and, as the variations in conformation
are correspondingly small, the lowlands offer fewer hindrances to
historical movements than do rivers, seas, and marshes--thus there is
a greater opportunity for the development of such movements upon the
plains. Consequently there is a rapid diffusion of races over extensive
regions whose boundaries are determined by area rather than by
conformation.

[Sidenote: Effect of Mountains on People]

Lowlands hasten historical movements. There is no trace of the
retarding and protecting effects of the highlands in lands where,
as Labu said of Saxony, a nation dwells together with its enemies
on the same boundless level. Nomadism is the form of civilisation
characteristic of broad plains and extensive tablelands. But the
Germanic races of history, a great part of which were no longer
nomads, exhibited a hastening in their movement towards the west when
they reached the lowlands; for they appeared on the lower Rhine at
an earlier time than on the upper Rhine, delayed in their wanderings
towards the latter by the mountainous, broken routes. Long after the
Celts had disappeared from the lowlands, when their memory only was
preserved in the names of hills and rivers, they still continued to
exist in the protected mountain regions of Bohemia. In like manner, in
later times, the Slavs maintained themselves in natural strongholds
after they had vanished from the plains of Northern Germany. Compare
the conquest of Siberia, accomplished in a century, with the endless
struggles in the Caucasus. And what lowland country can show remnants
of people equivalent to those of the Caucasus?

[Sidenote: The Natural Strongholds of Nomad Races]

The lowlands are also regions of the most extensive mingling of races.
We have but to think of Siberia or the Sudan. In the development of
states, lowlands take precedence over mountainous district. Rome
expanded from the sea-coast to the Apennines, and from the valley of
the Po to the Alps; the conquest of Iberia began in the one great
plain of the peninsula, in Andalusia, and in the lowlands of the Ebro;
and foreign control of Britain ended at the mountains of Scotland and
Wales. In North America colonisation spread out in broad belts at
the foot of the Alleghanies before it penetrated into the mountains.
In Southern China the mountains with their unsubdued tribes are like
political islands in the midst of the Mongolised hills and plains.

The lesser the differences in level, and the smaller the conformations
of the earth, the more important are those differences that remain
within heights of less than a thousand feet above the sea. Elevations
of a dozen yards were of the greatest importance on the battlefields
of Leipzig, Waterloo, and Metz. The significance of the little rise in
the land of Gavre, near Ghent, lies in the fact that even at times of
flood a foundation for a bridge will remain firm upon it. The slightest
elevation in the lowland cities of Germany and Russia offers such a
contrast in altitude to its surroundings that a fortress, a cathedral,
or a kremlin is erected upon it. The two ridges that extend through the
plains of North Germany are not only very prominent in the landscape,
but also in history. Owing to their thick forests, their lakes and
marshes, and small populations, they are peculiarly like barriers; and
the breaches in them are of importance to the geography both of war and
of commerce. The battles fought against Sweden and Poland, round about
the points where the Oder and the Vistula cross these regions, are to
be counted among the most decisive struggles in the history of Prussia.

[Sidenote: Nature at Waterloo]

Wherever there are no differences in level, a substitute is sought in
water. In such cases wide rivers or numerous lakes and marshes form
the most effective obstacles, boundaries, and strongholds. Finally
the plains approach the sea and are submerged by it; and here lowland
countries find a support safer than that of the mountains, and richer
in political results. North Germany is supported by the sea; South
Germany by mountains. Which boundary is the more definite, the more
capable of development, politically and economically? Political
superiority is ever connected with the protection and support of the
sea.

The influences of vegetation upon historical movements are often more
important than those of the earth-formation itself. Wherever extensive
lowland regions are overgrown with grass, we always find mobile nomadic
races that, with their large herds and warlike organisations, are
great causes of disturbance in the development of neighbouring lands.
Since the form of vegetable growth which covers grass steppes and
prairies is dependent on climate, it follows that nomadism is prevalent
throughout the entire northern sub-temperate zone, where such grass is
abundant--from the western border of Sahara to Gobi. Nomadic races of
historical significance are even to be seen in the New World--for
example, the Gauchos of the Pampas, and the Llaneros of Venezuela.

[Illustration: THE GREATEST PLATEAU IN THE WORLD: ITS PEOPLE, AND ITS
INFLUENCE IN HISTORY

    This is a typical scene of life in Central Asia, the greatest
    plateau in the world, whose people, the direct product of the
    climate and the soil, inhabiting little worlds of their own on the
    heights, have exercised an enormous influence in separating the
    great coast nations of the east, west, and south from one another.
]

[Illustration: A MOUNTAIN PASS: A NATURAL FACTOR OF VAST IMPORTANCE IN
HISTORY

    Mountain passes have been of great importance in history. The
    Romans established their military colonies in the neighbourhood of
    passes, and there are political territories practically founded on
    mountain passes. This is a picture of an entrance to the famous
    Bolan Pass, through which, and through the Khyber Pass, lie the
    shortest overland routes from Persia to India.
]

[Illustration: NOMADIC PEOPLES OF THE NEW WORLD

    Wherever there are vast lowland countries covered with grass,
    nomadic peoples are found moving from place to place with their
    herds. There are many such peoples in the Old World and a few in
    the New World, notable among the latter being the Gauchos of the
    Pampas, types of whom are here seen.
]

In comparison with plains and prairies, forests are decided hindrances
to historical movements. Peoples are separated from one another by
strips of woodland; the state and the civilisation of the Incas ceased
at the fringe of primeval forest of the east Andes. Thickly-wooded
mountains present the most pronounced difficulties to historical
movements. The appearance of the oldest large states and centres of
culture on the borders of steppes, in the naturally thinly-wooded
districts at the mouths of rivers, and on diluvial plains, seems
natural enough to us when we think of the difficulties presented by
life in a forest glade to men who had only stone implements and fire at
their command.

A description of the difficulties encountered during Stanley’s one
hundred and fifty-seven days’ journey through the primeval woods of
Central Africa gives us a very clear conception of what are termed
“hindrances” to historical movements. The early history of Sweden has
been characterised as a struggle with the forest; and this description
is valid for every forest country. The forest divides nations from each
other; it allows only small tribes to unite, and creates but small
states, or, at the most, loosely bound confederations. It is only where
a great river system forms natural roads, as in the regions of the
Amazon and the Congo, that great forest districts may be rapidly united
to form a state. In other cases settlements in forest clearings and
road-breaking precede political control.

In this way the Chinese conquered the races of the western half of
Formosa in two hundred years; in the eastern half the land is still
under forest and the natives have also retained their independence.
The existence of small states, with their many obstacles to political
and economic growth, still continues in forest regions alone; and the
roaming hordes of hunters inhabiting them belong to the simplest forms
of human societies.

[Illustration]




[Illustration: THE MAKING OF THE NATIONS--II

Professor FREDERICK RATZEL]




LAND AND WATER AND THE GREATNESS OF PEOPLES


Since man is a creature capable only of life on land, bodies of water
must at one time have been the greatest obstacles to his diffusion.
Thus the original family of human beings could have inhabited only one
portion of the earth, to which it was restricted by impassable barriers
of water. We know that in early geological times the division of the
earth’s surface into land and water was subject to the same general
laws as to-day; therefore such a portion of the earth could not have
been more than a part of the total land in existence--a larger or
smaller world-island.

[Sidenote: Early Man’s Greatest Invention]

The first step beyond the bounds of this island was the first step
towards the conquest of the whole earth by man. The first raft was
therefore the most important contrivance that man could have invented.
It not only signified the beginning of the acquisition of all parts of
the earth to their very farthest limits, but also--and this is far more
important--the potentiality for all possibilities of divergence and
temporary separation offered by our planet. It brought with it escape
from the development that always turns back upon itself, travelling in
a circle, and the progress that constantly consumes itself--factors
inseparable from life confined within a small area; it led to the
creation of fruitful contrasts and differences, and to wholesome
competition--in short, to the beginning of the evolution of races and
peoples. Looked at from this point of view, even the discovery of
Prometheus has been of less moment to the progress of mankind than that
of the inventor who first joined logs together into a raft and set out
on a voyage of discovery to the nearest islet.

[Sidenote: Why the Sea is Important]

From the time of this first step onward, the development of the human
race was so intimately connected with the uninhabitable water that
one of its most powerful incentives lay in the struggle with the sea.
And so little have we advanced from this condition that the stoutest
race of the present day is one that from a narrow island commands the
ocean. England’s strength is a proof of the tremendous importance of
the sea as a factor of political power and of civilisation. But not
to exaggerate the significance of the ocean, we may at the same time
remember that it consists in the fact that, by means of the sea, open
highways are presented from land to land. Command of the sea is a
source of greatness to nations, for it facilitates dominion over the
land.

By reason of its consistency the water is an important agent of
levelling and equalising effects. As we perceive this in Nature, so
do we also in history. A race familiar with the sea in one place is
familiar with it in all regions. The Normans off the coast of Finland,
and the Spaniards in the Pacific, found the same green, surging
element, moved by the same tides, subject to the same laws. The ocean
has an equalising effect upon the coasts even; the dunes of Agadir and
of the harbour at Vera Cruz awaken memories of home in the mind of the
sailor from Hela. The diffusion of the sea over three-quarters of the
earth’s surface must also be taken into account. Thus the influence
of the ocean in rendering men familiar with different parts of the
world is far greater than that of the land. From the ocean comes a
constant unifying influence which ever tends to reduce the disuniting
effect of the separation of land from land. As yet no attempt to extend
boundaries beyond the land out over the sea has been followed by
lasting success.

[Sidenote: No Nation can Possess the Sea]

[Sidenote: The Sea’s Unifying Influence]

No nation can or ever will possess the sea. Carthage and Tarentum
wished to forbid Italian vessels the passage of the Lacinian capes by
treaty; the Venetians desired dominion over the Adriatic to be granted
them by the Pope; Denmark and Sweden strove for a dominion over the
Baltic Sea; but all this is against the very nature of the sea; it is
one and indivisible. Only near by the coast, within the three-mile
limit of international law, and in landlocked bays, may it be ruled as
land is ruled. The claims of the Americans concerning the sovereignty
of Behring Sea have never been recognised, and England can retain
dominion over the Irish Sea only by means of her naval power. The ocean
has a unifying influence on the land, even when this influence consists
only in the same ends to be attained being placed before different
nations. During a time of the greatest disunion, German cities that lay
far enough from one another were united by Baltic interests. The union
of scattered land-forces prepared the way for the opening up of wider
horizons to England in the sixteenth century in the same manner as for
Italy and Germany in the nineteenth.

[Illustration: THE LITTLE ISLAND THAT RULES THE SEA

The command of the sea is the source of national greatness, as it
facilitates dominion over land. England from a narrow island dominates
the sea. The tiny part of white in the Eastern Hemisphere on this page
shows how relatively insignificant Great Britain is to the vast world
of waters where her shipping is supreme.]

Sea power is far more closely connected with traffic than is land
power; in fact, the foundation of sea power is trade and commerce. It
is, however, more than mere commercial power and monopoly of trade.
In spite of all egoism, greed, and violence there remains one great
characteristic peculiar to maritime Powers, spared even by Punic faith
and Venetian covetousness. Even the neighbourhood of the ocean is
characterised by its vast natural features; rivers broaden as they
approach the sea, great bays lie within the coasts, and, though the
latter may be flat, the horizon lines of their low dune landscapes are
broad. The horizons of maritime races are also broad. Whether it be the
hope of profit from commerce or of gain from piracy that lures men
forth, many a ship has returned to port bearing with it inestimable
benefits to mankind; for the greatest maritime discoveries have not
been mere explorations of new seas, but of new lands and peoples. Such
discoveries as these have contributed most to the broadening of the
historical horizon. Even political questions expand, assume a larger
character, and often become less acute, when they emerge from the
narrow limits of continental constraint upon the free and open coasts.
This is true even of the Eastern Question, to the solution of which
definite steps were taken upon the Mediterranean when it seemed to have
come to a deadlock in the Balkan peninsula.

[Sidenote: Short-lived Nations of the Sea]

[Sidenote: The Fall of Maritime Nations]

The ocean is no passive element to maritime races. By deriving power
from the sea they become subject to the sea. The more strength they
draw from the ocean, the less firm becomes their footing upon the
land. Finally, their power no longer remains rooted in the land,
but grows to resemble that of a fleet resting upon the waves; it
may with but small expenditure of effort extend its influence over
an enormously wide area, but it may also be swept away by the first
storm. As yet all maritime nations have been short-lived; their rise
has been swift, often surprisingly so; but they have never remained
long at the zenith of prosperity, and, as a rule, their decay has been
as rapid as their elevation to power. The cause of the fall of all
maritime nations has been the smallness of their basis, their foreign
possessions, widely separated from one another and difficult to defend,
and their dependence upon these foreign possessions. In many cases
the over-balancing of political by economic interests, the neglect
of materials for defence, and effeminacy resulting from commercial
prosperity, have also contributed to their destruction.

[Illustration: MAN’S FIRST STEP TOWARDS THE CONQUEST OF THE EARTH

    The most momentous event in the early history of man was the
    launching of the first raft. That moment was instinct with all the
    mighty conquests and discoveries yet to be accomplished over seas;
    and even the discovery of fire, says Professor Ratzel, has been of
    less moment to the progress of mankind than that of the inventor
    who first joined logs together into a raft and set out on a voyage
    of discovery to the nearest islet.
]

Special combinations of characteristics arising from the geographical
positions of oceans, continents, and islands are connected with the
broad features common to oceanic continuity. These characteristics
are reflected from the sea back to the land, and there give rise to
historical groups. The historical significance of such groups is
expressed in their names even--Mediterranean World, Baltic Nations,
Atlantic Powers, and Pacific Sphere of Civilisation. They are
primarily the results of commerce and exchange, and of the furthering,
correlating influences of all coasts and islands. When they united all
peninsulas, islands, and coasts of the Mediterranean into one state the
Romans merely set a political crown upon the civilised community that
had developed round about, and by means of, this sea.

[Sidenote: Uniqueness of the Mediterranean]

And if we wish rightly to estimate the significance of Roman expansion
from a Central European point of view, we may express our conception
very shortly--the diffusion of Mediterranean culture over Western and
Central Europe. It was at the same time a widening of the horizon of a
landlocked sea to that of the open ocean. The Atlantic Ocean succeeded
to the Mediterranean Sea. The Americans and the Russians, and the
Japanese, repeating their words, maintain that in the same manner the
Pacific must succeed to the Atlantic; but they forget the peculiar
features of the Mediterranean, especially its conditions of area. It is
no more probable that such a compact, isolated development will occur
again than that the history of Athens will repeat itself on the Korean
peninsula or at Shantung. The greater the ocean, the farther is it
removed from the isolated sea. It was not the Atlantic that succeeded
to the Mediterranean, but the broad world-ocean that succeeded to the
narrow basin called the Mediterranean Sea. There have always been
differences between the various divisions of the main sea; and these
variations will ever continue to be prominent, although constantly
tending to become less and less so.

[Sidenote: The vast Potentialities of the Pacific]

The Pacific will always remain by far the greatest ocean, including,
as it does, forty-five per cent. of the total area of water. Owing to
its great breadth, the Pacific routes are from three to four times as
long as those of the Atlantic. The Pacific widens toward the south;
and Australia and Oceania lie in the opening, thus furnishing the
Pacific with its most striking peculiarity--a third continent situated
in the Southern Hemisphere, together with the richest series of island
formations on earth. Whatever the Pacific may contribute to history,
it will be a contribution to the annals of the Southern Hemisphere;
and if a great independent history develop in the antipodes, it will
have the Southern Pacific, bounded by Australia, South America, New
Zealand, and Oceania, for its sphere of action. The area of the
Atlantic Ocean is but half that of the Pacific. Nor is it for this
reason alone that in comparison with the latter it is an inland rather
than a world sea; for, owing to its narrowness between the Old and the
New Worlds, the branches it puts forth, and the islands and peninsulas
that it touches, it shortens the routes from one coast to the other.
In it there is more of a merging of land and sea than a separation;
and to-day it is chiefly a European-American ocean. The Indian Ocean
is both geographically and historically but half an ocean. Even though
important parts of it may be situated north of the equator, it is too
much enclosed to the north; it widens to the south, and thus belongs to
the Southern Hemisphere.

[Illustration: A STORM SUCH AS MAY SWEEP AWAY A NATION’S POWER

    All maritime nations, says Professor Ratzel, have been short-lived.
    The more strength they draw from the ocean the less firm becomes
    their footing upon the land, and their power grows to resemble that
    of a fleet resting upon the waves; it may extend its influence over
    an enormous area, but it may also be swept away by a single storm.
]

[Sidenote: The Coast the Threshold of the Land]

The great oceans open up broad areas for historical movements, and
through their instrumentality peoples are enabled to spread from
coast to coast in all directions; the inland seas, on the contrary,
cause the political life of the nations bordering upon them to be
concentrated within a limited area. The Mediterranean will ever remain
a focus towards which the interests of almost all European Powers
concentrate. It has, moreover, become one of the world’s highways
since the completion of the Suez Canal. The Baltic somewhat resembles
the Mediterranean; but it would be saying too much to look upon its
position as other than subordinate to that of the greater sea. The area
of the Baltic is but one-seventh that of the Mediterranean; and it is
lacking in the unique intercontinental situation of the latter. In many
respects it resembles the Black Sea rather than the Mediterranean,
especially by reason of its eastern relations.

Originally the coast was the threshold of the sea; but as soon as
maritime races developed it became the threshold of the land. In
addition it is a margin, a fringe in which the peculiarities of sea
and land are combined; and for this very reason sea-coasts have a
historical value greatly disproportionate to their area, especially as
they constitute the best of all boundaries for the nations that possess
them. Here harbours are situated, fortresses, and the most densely
populated of cities. Owing to their close connection with the sea, the
inhabitants of coasts acquire characteristics which distinguish them
from all other peoples. Even if of the same nationality as their inland
neighbours--as, for example, the Greeks of Thrace and of Asia Minor and
the Malays of many of the East Indian islands--their foreign traffic
nevertheless impresses certain traits and features upon them which in
the case of the Low Countries led almost to political disruption.

[Sidenote: Living and Dead Coasts]

A coast is more favoured than an interior in all things relating to
commerce and traffic; yet neither may enjoy permanent life alone
without the other. The French departments of the Weser and of the Elbe
were among the most ephemeral of the political results achieved by the
short-lived Napoleonic era. With the sea at their backs it is easy for
the inhabitants of a coast to become detached from their nation, and
but a simple matter for them to spread over other coasts. Ever since
the time of the Phœnicians there have been numerous colonists of coasts
and founders of coast states. The Normans are most typical in European
history. The expansion of coast colonies towards the interior is one
of the most striking features of recent African development. Thus
coasts are to be looked at from within as well as from without. To many
races--such as Hottentots and Australians--the coast is dead compared
with the interior; for Germany the coast has been politically dead for
centuries. A river-mouth is best suited to carrying the influences of
the coast inland.

All ancient historians supposed that the Mediterranean Sea, with
its many bays, peninsulas, and islands, schooled the Phœnicians in
seamanship. This, however, is not so. Nautical skill is transmitted
from one people to another, as may be seen from some of the most
obvious cases in modern history. No maritime people has become great
through its own coast alone. It is not the coast of Maine, with its
numerous inlets and bays, that has produced the best seamen, but the
coast of Massachusetts, naturally unfavourable for the most part;
and it has produced the best seamen for the reason that the inland
districts bounded by it are far more productive and furthering to
commerce than are the interior regions of Maine.

[Sidenote: The Place of the Coast in History]

Nature has forced races to take to the sea only in such countries as
Norway and Greece, where the strips of coast are narrow and the inland
territory poor. In order to have political influence it is sufficient
to have one foot on the sea-coast. Aigues-Mortes, with its swampy
environment, was sufficient to extend France to the Mediterranean
during the reign of St. Louis; Fiume sufficed for Hungary. Forbidding
desert coasts have had a peculiarly retarding effect on historical
development. It was necessary to rediscover the Australian mainland,
to touch at more favourable points, one hundred and thirty years after
the time of Tasman; thus the history of the settlement of Australia by
Europeans originated, not with him, but with Cook.

As portions of the general water area, rivers are branches or runners
of the sea, extending into the land--lymphatic vessels, as it were,
bearing nourishment to the ocean from the higher regions of the
earth. Therefore they form the natural routes followed by historical
movements from the sea inland and vice versa. A solid foundation of
truth underlies those rivers of legendary geography that joined one
sea with another. The connection of the Baltic and the Black Sea via
Kieff is not that described by Adam of Bremen; but Russian canals have
established a water-way, following out the plan indicated by Nature,
just as the Varangians also realised it in a ruder way by dragging
their boats from the Dwina to the Dnieper. By uniting the Great Lakes
to the Mississippi by means of the Illinois River, the French provided
a waterway from the North Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, a line
of power in the rear of the Atlantic colonies. The latter fell back on
salt water, the former on fresh. The Nile, flowing parallel to the Red
Sea from Tanasee in the Abyssinian highlands, shares with the Red Sea
even to-day in the traffic between Eastern and East-central Africa. The
railway from Mombasa to Uganda completes a western Mediterranean-Indian
line of connection, as a road along the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf
would an eastern, each following the direction of rivers running
parallel to the Red Sea. We can clearly see the transition of the
functions of oceans to fresh, shallow water, to sounds and lagoons, in
which sea traffic is furnished with smoother, quieter routes under the
shelter of the coasts.

[Illustration: THE OCEANS OF THE WORLD

    This map, on a projection used by mariners, shows the relative
    sizes of the great oceans, viewed from above. The natural advantage
    of the position of the British Isles for communicating with the
    ocean’s highways is clearly seen, and the vast area of the Pacific
    is strikingly indicated.
]

In truth, only portions of the lines of traffic follow rivers; for
rivers flow from highland to lowland, watersheds breaking their course
here and there. In comparison with the oceans, rivers are but shallow
channels, the continuity of which may be broken by every rocky ledge.
Thus different regions for traffic arise at various points in the same
stream. Only that part of Egypt which is situated north of the first
cataract is Egypt proper; the territory to the south was conquered from
Nubia. The farther we travel up a stream the less water and the more
rapids and falls we shall find; therefore traffic also decreases in
the direction toward the river’s source. It may be seen from this that
there is but little probability of truth in the analogy drawn between
the flowing of rivers from elevations to plains and the migrations
of nations and directions in which states expand. History shows that
migration and development follow a direction contrary from that in
which rivers flow.

Maritime and terrestrial advantages are concentrated where a river
joins the sea; especially characteristic of such districts are deltas,
at an early date rendered more efficient for purposes of commerce
through canals and dredging. The fertility of the alluvial soil, the
lack of forest occasioned by frequent floods, and the protection
afforded by the islands of the delta, may have had not a little
influence on the choice of such regions as settlements for man. At
all events, estuaries and deltas, both small and great, were in the
earliest times centres of civilisation. Egypt and Babylonia both
testify to this; the colonising Greeks also showed a preference for
river mouths. Miletus, Ephesus and Rome were states situated at the
mouths of rivers, and so were the ancient settlements on the Rhone,
the Guadalquivir, and the Indus. It would not be possible, however,
to deduce from this proofs of a potamic phase of civilisation and
formation of nations preceding the Thalassic, or Mediterranean. Estuary
and delta states are far more a result of the Mediterranean culture.
The latter led to the settlement of favourable districts on various
coasts, all of which were finally swallowed up into the Roman Empire
during the period of its northern and eastern expansion.

[Illustration: THE ORIGIN OF SEAFARING PEOPLES

    It is not sufficient to have a favourable sea-coast in order to
    breed a race of sea-going people. The land behind the coast-line
    must be fertile and productive, else no inducement exists for
    seafaring. This condition is everywhere present along the British
    shores, of which this is a typical coasting scene.
]

[Illustration: THE JUNCTIONS OF GREAT RIVERS ARE LANDMARKS OF HISTORY

    Where two rivers join, two lines of political tendencies always
    meet, and their junction is the point whence political forces must
    be controlled. This is the significance of the situations of Mainz
    (1 at top), Khartoum (2), Lyons (3), and Belgrade (4)

    Photos: Frith and Photochrome
]

[Sidenote: Rivers as Highways of Development]

Another much more evident process of development through the
instrumentality of rivers was shown at the time when traffic began
to extend itself over wide areas. Rivers are the natural highways
in countries which abound in water, and are of so much the greater
importance because in such lands other thoroughfares are frequently
wanting. Taken collectively, rivers form a natural circulatory system.
In America at the time of the exploration and conquest, in Siberia, in
Africa to-day, they are natural arteries by means of which exchange
and political power may be extended. The more accessible a river is
to commerce, the more rapidly political occupation increases about
its basin, as has been shown by the Varangians in Russia and the
Portuguese in Brazil. The best example of a country having developed
through conformity with a natural river system and in connection with
it is that of the Congo State, with part of its boundaries drawn
simply along the lines of watersheds. Mastery among rival colonies is
determined by the results of the struggle for the possession of rivers;
this has been as clearly shown by the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi
in America, as by the Niger and the Benuwe in Africa. The influence of
riverways in furthering the path of political development may be best
seen in the contrast between South America and Africa; the colonising
movement came to the latter more than 300 years later than to the
former continent.

Every river is a route followed by political power, and is therefore
at the same time a point of attraction and line of direction. The
Germans have pushed their way along the Elbe between the Danes and the
Slavs, and along the Vistula between the Slavs and the Lithuanians or
old Prussians. The river that supports an embryonic nation holds it
together when developed. The influence of the Mississippi was directed
against the outbreak of the Civil War in America. As pearls are strung
along a cord, so the provinces of new and old Egypt are connected
by the Nile. Austria-Hungary is not the Danube nation only because
the river was the life nerve of its development, but also because
eighty-two per cent. of Austro-Hungarian territory is included within
the regions drained by it. When the natural connection of rivers is
broken then this power of cohesion ceases. The political and economic
disunion of the Rhine, the Main, and other German rivers preceded the
dissolution of the German Empire.

[Sidenote: Rivers as Sources of Power]

Where two rivers join there is always a meeting of two lines of
political tendencies, and the place of their junction is the point
whence the political forces must be controlled and held together. This
is the significance of the situations of Mainz, Lyons, Belgrade, St.
Louis, and Khartoum. The course followed by flowing water is far less
direct than that of historical movements; the latter take the shortest
way, and do not continue along the stream where a loop is formed; or
they may follow a tributary that runs on in the original direction of
the main stream, as in the case of the very ancient highway along the
Oder and the Neisse to Bohemia. The sides of sharp angles formed by a
river in its course lead to a salient point as, Regensburg and Orléans.
A tributary meeting the main stream at this point forms the best route
to a neighbouring river, or the angle may become a peninsula, so
bounded by a tributary stream at its base as almost to take the form of
an island.

[Sidenote: Rivers as Dividers of Land]

Breaks in the continuity of the land occasioned by rivers are caused
rather by the channel in which the water flows than by the river
itself. Thus we often find that dry river-beds are effective agents of
this dividing up of the land. Permanent inequalities of the earth’s
surface are intensified by flowing water. Therefore a river system
separates the land into natural divisions. These narrow clefts are ever
willingly adopted as boundary lines, especially in cases where it is
necessary to set general limits to an extensive territory. Thus Charles
the Great bounded his empire by the Eider, Elbe, Raab, and Ebro.
Smaller divisions of land are formed by the convergence of tributaries
and main streams, and again still smaller portions are created by the
joining together of the lesser branches of tributaries, these taking
an especially important place in the history of wars: for example,
those formed by the Rhine, Weser, Elbe, and Oder, and on a lesser
scale by the Moselle, Seille, and Saar. Fords are always important; in
Africa they have even been points at which small states have begun to
develop. Rivers as highways in time of war no longer have the value
once attributed to them by Frederick the Great, who called the Oder
“the nurse of the army.” Yet rivers were of such great moment in this
respect in the roadless interior of America during the Civil War that
the getting of information as to water-levels was one of the most
important tasks of the army intelligence department. Rivers will always
remain superior to railways as lines of communication during time of
war, at least in one respect, for they cannot be destroyed.




[Illustration: THE MAKING OF THE NATIONS--III

Professor FREDERICK RATZEL]

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT IN THE LIFE OF NATIONS


Upon the earth, with its varied configuration and formation of land and
sea, are many kinds of hindrances and limits to life.

The most obvious effect of natural region and natural boundary lies
in the counteracting forces opposed by the earth through them to a
formless and unlimited diffusion of life. Isolated territory furthers
political independence, which, indeed, is of itself isolation. The
development of a nation upon a fixed territory consists in a striving
to make use of all the natural advantages of that territory. The
superiority of a naturally isolated region lies in the fact that
seclusion itself brings with it the greatest of all advantages. Hence
the precocious economic and political development of races that dwell
on islands or on peninsulas, in mountain valleys and on island-like
deltas.

[Sidenote: The Rise and Death of Isolated States]

Often enough growth that originates under such favourable conditions
leads to ruin. A young nation deems itself possessed of all so long
as it has the isolation that ensures independence; it sees too late
that the latter has been purchased at the price of a suffocating lack
of space; and it dies of a hypertrophy of development--a death common
to minor states. This was the cause of the swift rise and decline of
Athens and of Venice, and of all powers that restricted themselves to
islands and to narrow strips of coast.

[Sidenote: Natural Boundaries of a State]

[Sidenote: A State must Forsake its Boundaries]

The more natural boundaries a state possesses, the more definite are
the political questions raised by its development. The consolidation
of England, Scotland, and Wales was simple and obvious, as patent
as if it had been decreed beforehand, as was also the expansion of
France over the region that lies between the Alps and the Pyrenees,
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. On the other hand, what a
fumbling, groping development was that of Germany, with her lack of
natural boundary in the east! Thus in the great geographical features
of lands lie pre-ordained movements, constrained by the highest
necessity--a higher necessity in the case of some than of others.
The frontier of the Pyrenees was more necessary to France than that
of the Rhine; an advance to the Indian Ocean is more necessary to
Russia than a movement into Central Europe. Growth is soundest when a
state expands so as to fill out a naturally bounded region--as, for
example, the United States, that symmetrically occupy the southern half
of the continent of North America, or Switzerland, extending to the
Rhine and Lake of Constance. There are often adjustments of frontiers
which force the territory of a nation back into a natural region, as
shown in the case of Chili, which gave up the attempt to extend its
boundaries beyond the Andes, in spite of its having authorisation to do
so, founded on the right of discovery, the original Spanish division
of provinces, and wars of independence. A favourable external form is
often coincident with a favourable internal configuration which is
quite as furthering to internal continuity as is the external form to
isolated development. The Roman Empire, externally uniform as an empire
of Mediterranean states, was particularly qualified for holding fast
to its most distant provinces, by reason of the Mediterranean Sea that
occupied its very centre. Everything that furthers traffic is also
favourable to cohesion. Hence the significance of waterways for ancient
states, and of canals and railways for modern nations. Egypt was the
empire of the Nile, and the Rhine was at one time the life-vein of the
empire of Charles the Great. A state does not always remain fixed in
the same natural region. However advantageous they may have been, it
must, on increasing, forsake the best of boundaries. Since one region
is exchanged for another, the law of increasing areas comes into force.
Every land, sea, river region, or valley should always be conceived
of as an area that must be discovered, inhabited, and politically
realised before it may exert any influence beyond its limits. Thus the
Mediterranean district had first to complete its internal development
before it could produce any external effect.

[Sidenote: First Continent State]

This internal development first took possession of the small
territories, and, mastering them, turned to the greater. Thus we may
see history progress from clearings in forests, oases, islands, small
peninsulas, such as Greece; and strips of coast, to great peninsulas,
such as Italy; isthmian situations of continental size, such as Gaul;
only to come to a halt in half continents such as the United States and
Canada, and continents. Europe--next to the smallest continent--has
had the richest history of all, but with the greatest breaking up of
its area into small divisions. Australia, the smallest continent, is
the earliest to unite its parts into a continental state. Development
expends all its power in bringing the areas of the three greatest
land-divisions into play, and in opposing their one hundred and five
million square miles to the ten and a half million of the smaller
divisions; their economic action is already felt to a considerable
degree. Thus there arises an alternation of isolation and expansion,
which was clearly shown in the history of Rome, whose territory grew
from the single city, out over the valley of the Tiber, into Apennine
Italy, into the peninsula, across the islands and peninsulas of the
Mediterranean, and finally into the two adjacent continents.

[Illustration: THE HOTTEST PLACE IN THE WORLD IS INHABITED BY MAN

    No climate has triumphed over the endurance of man. Massowah, the
    most important town in the Italian Colony of Eritrea, in North
    Africa, is the hottest place in the world, but, like the coldest
    known place, it is inhabited.
]

[Sidenote: Nature and National Destiny]

The boundaries of natural regions are always natural boundaries.
Although this delicate subject may be left to political geography, it
is by no means to be neglected by those who are interested in history,
boundary questions being among the most frequent causes of wars. In
addition, boundaries are the necessary result of historical movements.
In case two states strive against each other in expanding, the motion
of both is impeded, and the boundary lies where the movement comes to
a halt. It is in the nature of things that growing states are very
frequently contiguous to uninhabited regions, not to other states.
This contiguity is always a source of natural boundaries. The most
natural of all arise from adjacency to uninhabitable regions: first
the uninhabitable lands, then the sea. The boundary at the edge of the
uninhabitable world is the safest; for there is nothing beyond. The
broad Arctic frontiers of Russia are a great source of power. A high
mountain range, also, may separate inhabited regions--which are always
State territory--by an uninhabited strip of land. After all, the sea,
marshes, rivers even, are uninhabitable zones. But traffic brings
connection with it, and the Rhine, which to the Romans was a moat,
especially well adapted as a defence, is now, with its thirty railway
bridges and thousands of vessels plying up and down and across, far
more of a highway and a means of communication than a dividing line.

The position, form, and movements of the earth seem far enough removed
from the deeds and destinies of peoples, yet the more we contemplate
the latter, the more we are led to consider the earth’s inclination
to its axis, its approximately spherical form, and its motion, which,
combined, are the cause of the recurrence in fixed order of day and
night, summer and winter.

[Illustration: INHABITANTS OF THE COLDEST PLACE IN THE WORLD

    Man is the most adaptable of living creatures. There is no climate
    in the world in which he cannot live. The lowest temperatures taken
    have been at Verkhoyansk, in Siberia, but the place is inhabited by
    people, of whom we give a group.
]

The effects of these great earthly phenomena are differently felt
in every country; for they vary according to geographical location.
Practically, that which most conforms to any given situation north
or south of the equator is the climate of a land. Day and night are
of more even length at the equator than in our country; but beyond
the Polar circles there are days that last for months, and nights
equally long. Scarcely any annual variation in temperature is known to
the inhabitants of Java, while in Eastern Siberia Januarys of fifty
degrees below freezing-point and Julys of twenty degrees above zero of
Centigrade, winters during which the mercury freezes, and summers of
oppressive sultriness, are contrasted with one another.

[Illustration: MAN’S TRIUMPH OVER CLIMATE: THE COLDEST PLACE IN THE
WORLD

    Just as man has established himself in the torrid heat of Massowah,
    so he can endure the highest degree of cold. The coldest place
    in the world, Verkhoyansk, of which this is a photograph, is the
    capital of a Siberian province.
]

In our temperate region there is rain, as a rule, during all months,
but as far north as Italy and Greece the year is divided into a dry
and a wet season. Great effects are produced over the entire earth and
upon all living creatures by the thus conditioned climatic differences.
They must be considered at the very beginning of every investigation
into history. Since we know that a fluctuating distribution of heat is
caused by the 23½° inclination of the earth’s axis, investigation
also leads us to a knowledge of further phenomena, to a consideration
of the dependence of the winds and of the precipitation of heat upon
this very same condition.

[Sidenote: The First Question about a Country]

And thus we come into contact with the thousand connecting threads by
which man’s economic activity, health, distribution over the earth,
even his spiritual and his political life, are inseparably bound
up with the climate. Hence the first question that should be asked
concerning a country is: What is its geographical situation? A land may
be interesting for many other reasons besides nearness or remoteness
from the equator; but that which is of the greatest interest of all
to the historian is a consideration of the manifold and far-reaching
effects of climate.

The study of human geography teaches us that climate affects mankind
in two ways. First, it produces a direct effect upon individuals,
races, indeed the inhabitants of entire zones, influencing their
bodily conditions, their characters, and their minds; in the second
place, it produces an indirect effect by its influence on conditions
necessary to life. This is due to the fact that the plants and animals
with which man stands in so varied a relationship, which supply him
with nourishment, clothing, and shelter, which, when domesticated and
cultivated, enter his service, as it were, and become most valuable
and influential assistants and instruments for his development and
culture, are also dependent upon climate. Important properties of the
soil, the existence of plains, deserts, and forests, also depend upon
climate. Effects of climate, both direct and indirect, are united in
political-geographical phenomena, and are especially manifest in the
growth of states and in their permanence and strength.

[Sidenote: Man can Bear all Climates]

There is no climate that cannot be borne by man; of all organic beings
he is one of the most capable of adapting himself to circumstances.
Men dwell even in the very coldest regions. The place where the lowest
temperatures have been measured, Verkhoyansk, with a mean January
temperature of -54° F., is the capital of a Siberian province; and a
district where the temperature is of the very hottest, Massowah, is the
most important town in the Italian colony of Eritrea.

However, both heat and cold, when excessive, tend to lessen population,
the size of settlements, and economic activity. The great issues of
the world’s history have been decided on ground situated between the
tropic of Cancer and the Polar circle. The question as to whether the
northern half of North America should be English or French was decided
between the parallels of 44° and 48° north latitude; and in the same
manner the settlement as to whether Sweden or Russia should be supreme
in Northern Europe took place a little south of 60° north. Holland
did not lose and regain her Indian possessions in the neighbourhood
of the equator, but in Europe; and Spain fell from the high estate
of sovereign over South and Central America because her power as a
European nation had decayed.

[Sidenote: Strange Divergence of a Race]

The coldest countries in the world are either entirely uninhabited--as
Spitzbergen and Franz Josef’s Land--or very thinly populated. Some are
politically without a master--the two territories just mentioned, for
example; some are politically occupied, as is Greenland, but are of
very little value. History teaches that traffic between such colonies
and the mother country may cease entirely without the mother country
suffering any loss thereby. The hottest regions in the world are for
the most part colonies or dependencies of European Powers. This applies
to the whole of tropical Africa, Asia, Australia, and Oceania, and
partly to tropical America.

The exclusion of European nations from grasping for possessions in
America was not determined upon in the compromised territory of
tropical America, but in the United States, a short distance south of
39° north latitude. What a difference in the parts played in history
by the two branches of the Tunguse race, the one held in subjection
in the cold latitude of Russia, the other conquering China, and now
the sovereign power in the more temperate climate of that country;
or between the Turks who, as Yakuts, lead a nomadic life in the Lena
valley, and the Turks who govern Western Asia! Latham called the region
extending from the Elbe to the Amoor--within which dwell Germans,
Sarmatians, Ugrian Finns, Turks, Mongolians, and Manchurians, peoples
who strike with a two-edged sword--a “Zone of Conquest.” Farther to
the north nations are poor and weak; toward the equator, luxurious
and enervated. The inhabitants of this central zone have over-run
their neighbours both to the north and to the south, while never,
either from the north or from the south, have they themselves suffered
any lasting injury. The Germans have advanced from the Baltic Sea to
the Mediterranean; the Slavs inhabit a territory that extends from
the Arctic Ocean to the Adriatic Sea; the Turks and Mongolians have
penetrated as far south as India; and there have been times when
Mongolians ruled from the Arctic Ocean to Southern India. Finally, the
Manchurians have extended their sphere of influence over Northern Asia
as far south as the tropic of Cancer.

[Illustration:

    ISOTHERMAL LINES

    JANUARY

    ISOTHERMAL LINES

    JULY

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE COURSE OF HISTORY

    A map on which the isothermal lines are drawn is rich in historical
    instruction. Where the lines diverge we have regions of equal
    temperature; where they crowd together, districts of different mean
    annual temperatures lie close together. The crowding of climatic
    variations in any region enlivens and hastens the course of
    history.
]

These differences occur over again in more restricted areas, even
within the temperate zone itself. The inhabitants of the colder
portions of a country have often shown their superiority to the men who
dwell in the warmer districts. The causes of the contrast between the
Northerners and the Southerners, which has dominated in the development
of the United States, may for the most part be clearly traced: the
South was weakened by the plantation method of cultivation, and
slavery; its white population increased slowly, and shared to a lesser
degree than did the Northerners in the strengthening, educating
influences of agriculture and manufacturing industries. Thus after a
long struggle that finally developed into a war, the North won the
place of authority.

[Sidenote: Sunbeams and Rainfall in History]

In Italy and in France the superiority of the north over the south is
partially comprehensible; and in Germany the advantages possessed by
Prussia, at least in area and in sea coast, are obvious. But when in
English history also the north is found to have been victorious over
the south, conditions other than climatic must have been the cause. In
this case elements have been present that are more deeply-rooted than
in sunbeams and rainfall alone.

We must call to mind the zone-like territories of early times, occupied
by peoples from which the nations of to-day are descended; the boundary
lines have disappeared, but the northern elements have remained in the
north, and the southern elements in the south. It is well known that
Aristotle adjudged political superiority and the sphere of world-empire
to the Hellenes because they surpassed the courageous tribes of the
north in intelligence and in mechanical instinct, and were superior to
the both intelligent and skilful inhabitants of Asia in courage. “As
the Hellenic race occupies a central geographical position, so does
it stand between both intellectually.” The thought that this union of
extreme intellectuality and power in arms on Hellenic soil could be the
result of ethnical infiltration did not seem to have occurred to the
philosopher. The fundamental idea of Aristotle, the aristocratic state,
in which the talented Hellene alone was to rule over bondmen of various
origins, who were, above all, to labour for him, could not have been
possible had his views been otherwise. And yet he had clearly seen that
the two talents--for war and for industry--were unequally distributed
among the different Hellenic stocks, and that they were also variable
according to time.

[Illustration: HOW THE SAME PEOPLES DIFFER

    The Yakuts, who lead a nomad life in the valley of the Lena, and
    the Turks who govern Western Asia, are of the same stock, but the
    genial climate has enabled the Turks to flourish while the cold has
    kept the Yakuts poor. These groups represent both branches of the
    stock.
]

Considering the influence even of slighter differences in climate,
the locations of regions of similar mean annual temperature, and the
distances which separate them from one another, cannot be otherwise
than important. A map on which the isothermal lines are drawn is rich
in historical instruction. Where the lines diverge we have regions of
equal temperature; where they crowd together, districts of different
mean annual temperatures lie close to one another. The crowding of
climatic variations in any region enlivens and hastens the course of
history in that region. If the variations occur only at long intervals,
all parts of a large territory having approximately equal mean annual
temperatures, then climatic contrasts, which act as a ferment, as it
were, are not present to any appreciable extent, and their effects lose
in intensity and are dispelled.

Where are greater combinations of contrasting climatic elements to
be found than in Greece and in the Alps? The joining together of the
natives of rich, fruitful Zürich with the poor shepherds of the forests
and mountains was of the utmost importance to the development of the
Swiss Confederation. It was also a union of regions of mild and cold
temperatures. The possession of Central European and Mediterranean
climates, that shade into one another without any sharp line of
demarcation, is a great advantage to France. If climatic differences
approach one another in too great a contrast, clefts in development are
likely to occur, such as the gap between the Northern and the Southern
States in America, and that between North and South Queensland. If it
be possible to adjust the political differences, then the union of
areas of different temperatures has an invigorating effect, as shown
by the history of the American Southern States since 1865.

[Illustration: THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON THE POWER OF PEOPLES

    There is a world of difference between the two branches of the
    Tunguse race: the one is a poor people living in cold regions and
    subject to Russia; the other is the ruling race of the Chinese
    Empire, flourishing in a temperate climate. The upper group is
    composed of ruling Tunguses in China and the lower group represents
    Tunguses subject to Russia.
]

Winds blowing in a constant direction for many months at a time were
of great assistance to navigation during the days of sailing vessels,
which, indeed, have not yet been entirely supplanted by steamships.
Before the time of steam vessels all traffic on the Indian Ocean was
closely connected with the change of the monsoons; and important
political expansions have followed in the track of the same winds--for
example, the diffusion of the Arabs along the east coast of Africa
and in Madagascar. The influence of the trade winds on the Spanish
and Portuguese discoveries along the Atlantic coast of America is
well known. The south-eastern trade winds have been a cause of both
voluntary and involuntary emigrations of Polynesian races. It may be
clearly seen from the history of Greece what advantage was obtained by
the race that won the alliance of the coast of Thrace and the wind that
blows south from it with constancy during the entire fair season, often
eight months long.

Where the wind is most variable, visiting entire countries with
storms, to the great destruction of lives and property, the result is
a stirring up of the survivors to exertions that cannot fail to be
strengthening both to body and to mind, and of direct benefit to life
in general. At the same time that the people of Holland were engaged in
forcing back the ocean, they won their political liberty. In another
part of the North Sea coast the Frisians receded farther and farther
south, owing to the invasions of the sea and the attacks of the
natives of Holstein. The tempest that scattered the armada of Philip
II. was one of the most important political events of the time; and
it is not to be denied that the snowstorm in Prussian Eylau, at the
beginning of the battle in which Napoleon suffered his first defeat,
contributed not a little to the result.

[Sidenote: One of the Greatest Problems]

Acclimatisation is one of the greatest of human problems. In order that
a nation shall expand from one zone into another, it must be capable
of adapting itself to new climates. The human race is, as a whole, one
of the most adaptable of all animal species to different conditions of
life; it is diffused through all zones and all altitudes up to about
thirteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. But single nations
are accustomed to fixed zones and portions of zones; and long residence
in foreign climates leads to illness and loss of life.

[Sidenote: Climate and Will-Power]

In some races the individuals are of a more rigid constitution than
in others, and are thus less capable of adaptation. Chinamen and Jews
adapt themselves to different climates far more easily than do Germans,
upon whom residence in the southern part of Spain even, and to a still
greater degree in Northern Africa, is followed by injurious effects.
The constant outbreaks of destructive disease before which the German
troops withered away are to be counted amongst the greatest obstacles
opposed to the absorption of Italy into the German Empire. During the
Spanish discoveries and conquests in America in the sixteenth century,
whole armies wasted away to mere handfuls. The greatest hindrances to
German colonisation in Venezuela are climatic diseases. Medical science
has, to be sure, pointed out such deleterious influences as may be
traced to unsuitable dwelling-places, nutrition, clothing, etc.; and
the losses to Europe of soldiers and officials in the tropics have been
greatly reduced. But even to-day deaths, illnesses, and furloughs make
up the chief items in the reports sent in from every colony in the
tropics. British India can only be governed from the hills, where the
officials dwell during the greater part of the year.

Climatic influence is not limited to bodily diseases. One of the first
effects of life in warm climates upon men accustomed to cold regions
is relaxation of what is known as will-power. Even the Piedmontese
soldier loses his erect carriage in a Neapolitan or Sicilian garrison.
Englishmen in India count on an ability to perform only half the amount
of work they would be capable of at home. Many inhabitants of northern
countries escape the bodily diseases of the tropics; but scarcely one
man of an entire nation is able to resist the more subtle alterations
in spirit.

[Sidenote: The Peoples of North and South]

Their historical influence extends only the deeper for it. The
conquering nations that advance from north to south have invariably
forfeited their power, determination, and activity. The original
character of the Aryans who descended into the lowlands of India
has been lost. A foreign spirit rings through the Vedic hymns. West
Goths and Vandals alike lost their nationalities in Northern Africa
and Spain, as the Lombards lost theirs in Italy. In spite of all
emigration, immigration, and wandering hither and thither, there always
remains a certain fixed difference between the inhabitants of colder
and those of warmer countries; it is the nature of the land, moulding
the more ductile character of a people into its own form. There are
differences also between the northern and the southern stocks of the
same race, and thus climate exerts here greater and there lesser
influence upon nations and their destinies.

Since it lies in the nature of climatic influences to produce
homogeneity among those peoples who inhabit extensive regions of
similar mean annual temperatures, it follows that a unifying effect
is also produced on political divisions that might otherwise be
inclined to separate from one another. In the first place, a similar
climate creates similar conditions of life, and thus the northern and
southern races of each hemisphere, with their temperate and their
hot climates, differ widely. Climate is also the cause of similar
conditions of production over large territories. Leroy-Beaulieu rightly
mentioned climate--above all, the winter, during which almost every
year the whole land from north to south is covered with snow--as next
in importance to the configuration of the country in its unifying,
cohesive effects on the Russian Empire. Winters are not rare during
which it is possible to journey from Astrachan to Archangel in
sledges; and both the Sea of Azov and the northern part of the Caspian
Sea are frozen over during the cold months, as well as the Bay of
Finland, the Dnieper as well as the Dwina.

[Illustration: A STORM THAT CHANGED THE COURSE OF HISTORY: THE WRECK OF
THE ARMADA

    The weather has greatly influenced the course of history and
    helped to mould the fate of nations. The tempest that scattered
    the Spanish Armada in 1588 was one of the most important political
    events of the time. This picture, from the painting by J. W. Carey,
    illustrates the wreck of the galleon “Girona,” at Giant’s Causeway.
]

Situation determines the affinities and relations of peoples and
states, and is for this reason the most important of all geographical
considerations. Situation is always the first thing to be investigated;
it is the frame by which all other characteristics are encircled.
Of what use were descriptions of the influence of the geographical
configuration of Greece on Grecian history, in which the decisive point
that Greece occupies a medial position between Europe and Asia, and
between Europe and Africa, was not insisted upon above all? Everything
else is subordinate to the fact that Greece stands upon the threshold
of the Orient. However varied and rich its development may have been,
it must always have been determined by conditions arising from its
contiguity with the lands of Western Asia and Northern Africa. Area
in particular, often over-valued, must be subordinated to location.
The site may be only a point, but from this point the most powerful
effects may be radiated in all directions. Who thinks of area when
Jerusalem, Athens, or Gibraltar is mentioned? When it is found that the
Fanning Islands or Palmyra Island is indispensable to the carrying out
of England’s plans in respect to telegraphic connection of all parts of
the empire with one another, merely because these islands are adapted
for cable stations on the line between Queensland and Vancouver, is it
not owing to their location alone, without consideration as to area,
configuration, or climate?

Every portion of the earth lends its own peculiar qualities to
the nations and races that dwell upon it, and so does each of its
subdivisions in turn. Germany, as a first-class Power, is thinkable
only in Europe. There cannot be either a New York or a St. Petersburg
in Africa. Our organic conception of nations and states renders it
impossible for us to look upon situation as something lifeless and
passive; far rather must it signify active relations of giving and
receiving. Two states cannot exist side by side without influencing
each other. It is much more likely that such close relationships result
from their contiguity; that, for example, we must conceive of China,
Korea, and Japan as divisions of a single sphere of civilisation,
their history consisting in a transference, transplanting, action, and
reaction, leading to results of the greatest moment. Some situations
are, indeed, more independent and isolated than others; but what would
be the history of England, the most isolated country in Europe, if all
relations with France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia were
omitted? It would be incomprehensible.

The more self-dependent a situation is, the more is it a natural
location; the more dependent, the more artificial, and the more it
is a part of a neighbourhood. Connection with a hemisphere or grand
division, identity with a peninsula or archipelago, location with
respect to oceans, seas, rivers, deserts, and mountains, determine the
histories of countries. It is precisely in the natural locality that
we must recognise the strongest bonds of dependence on Nature. Apart
from all other features peculiar to Italy, her central position in the
Mediterranean alone determines her existence as a Mediterranean Power.
However highly we may value the good qualities of the German people,
the best of these qualities will never reach so high a development in
the constrained, wedged-in, continental situation of their native land
as they would in an island nation; for Germany’s location is more that
of a state in a neighbourhood of states than a natural location, and
for this reason more unfavourable than that of France.

[Illustration:

    _Outward Voyage of Columbus shown thus_
    _Homeward Voyage of Columbus shown thus_
    _Periodical Winds_ (_Monsoons_) _shown thus_
    _Prevailing & Constant Winds shown thus_

POLITICAL EXPANSION HAS FOLLOWED IN THE TRACK OF THE WINDS

    This map illustrating the trade winds and prevailing winds shows
    how important were these winds before the days of steam vessels. It
    shows that the outward voyage of Columbus was entirely along the
    track of the north-east trade winds. Where the arrows cross, as off
    the North-west of Scotland, we have regions of wind disturbances.
]

[Illustration: THE RIVERS OF TWO CONTINENTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN
CIVILISATION

    The influence of riverways in furthering political development may
    be best seen in the contrast between South America and Africa; the
    colonising movement came to Africa three hundred years later than
    to South America.

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THEIR NEARNESS TO THE SEA

    A country’s prosperity depends greatly upon its relation to the
    sea. This map shows the boundaries of European countries, and the
    black lines indicate those countries that lie within 250 and 500
    miles from the sea-coast.

THE RELATION OF RIVERS AND THE SEA TO THE CIVILISATION OF COUNTRIES]

[Sidenote: The Ideal Situation for a State]

Natural localities of the greatest importance result from the
configuration and situation of divisions of the earth’s surface. The
extremities of continents--such as the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Horn,
Singapore, Ceylon, Tasmania, and Key West--are points from which
sea power radiates; and at the same time they are the summits of
triangular territories that extend inland and are governed from the
apex. In the same way all narrowings of parts of continents are of
importance. France occupies an isthmian position between ocean and
sea; Germany and Austria between the North Sea, the Baltic, and the
Adriatic. Some states are situated on the coast, occupying a bordering
position; others occupy an intermediate location. And the more isolated
situations are all fundamentally different, according to whether they
are insular, peninsular, or continental. Situations in respect to the
oceans are even more various. How different are Atlantic locations in
Europe from those on the Mediterranean, the Baltic, or the Black Sea!
Only a few nations occupy a position fronting on two great oceans. The
ideal natural situation for a state may be said to be the embracing
of a whole continent within one political system. This is the deeper
source of the Monroe Doctrine.

[Sidenote: Contrasts and Comparisons]

Similar locations give rise to similar political models. Since
there are several types of location, it follows that the histories
of such locations assume typical characters. The contrast between
Rome and Carthage, their association with each other, exhibiting the
reciprocal action of the characters of the northern and southern
Mediterranean coasts, is repeated in similarly formed situations in
Spain and Morocco, in Thrace and Asia Minor, and on a smaller scale
in the Italian and Barbary ports. In all these places events similar
to those in Roman and Punic history have taken place. Japan and
England are unlike in many respects; yet not only the peoples, but
also the political systems, of the two island nations have insular
characteristics. Germany and Bornu are as different from each other
as Europe is from Africa, but central location has produced the same
peculiarity in each--a source of power to the strong nation, of ruin to
the weak.

Contiguity with neighbouring states brings with it important
relationships. The most striking examples of such contiguity are to
be seen in nations that are cut off from the coast of their continent
and completely surrounded by other countries. Owing to the constant
reaching out for more territory, such a situation in Europe, as well
as in other continents, signifies unconditional loss of independence.
Only connection with a great river can prevent the dissolution of a
nation so situated. The instinctive impulse to extend its boundaries
to the sea, shown by all nations, arises from the desire to escape
an insulated continental position. Only the very smallest of states,
such as Andorra and Liechtenstein--which, moreover, do not aspire
to absolute independence--could have existed for centuries in the
positions that they occupy. A medial situation held by one country
between two others is also, in point of risk, comparable to a
completely encompassed position. France was so situated when Germany
and Spain were under the same ruler. The alliance of two neighbouring
lands may place a third state in a similar position.

[Sidenote: What is National Progress?]

Whatever the individual locations of neighbouring states may be,
their number is a matter of great importance. It is better to have a
multitude of weak neighbours than a few strong ones. The development
of the United States that gradually ousted France from the south,
Mexico from the west, and Spain from both south and west, in order
to be in touch with the sea on three sides, has, with the decrease
in neighbouring Powers, resulted in an enviable simplification of
political problems.

A nation covering various dispersed and scattered situations is to be
seen at the present day only in regions of active colonisation and in
the interiors of federal states. Powerful nations are consolidated
into a single territory. We may see everywhere that when the area of
distribution of a form of life diminishes in extent, it does not simply
shrink up, but transforms itself into a number of island-like sites,
giving the appearance that the form, of life is proceeding from a
centre of the conquest of new territory. In what does the difference
lie between islands of progress and of recession? With nations and
states progress lies in the occupation of the most advantageous sites;
retrogression lies in their loss and sacrifice. The American Indians,
forced back from oceans, rivers, and fertile regions, form detached
groups of retrogression; the Europeans who took these sites from
them formed isles of progress as, one after another, they seized the
islands, promontories, harbours, river-mouths, and passes.




[Illustration: THE MAKING OF THE NATIONS--IV

Professor FREDERICK RATZEL]




THE SIZE AND POWER OF NATIONS


[Sidenote: The State and its Territory]

It is not without reason that so much importance is attached to extent
of surface in geography. Area and population represent to us the two
chief characteristics of a state; and to know them is the simplest
means--often too simple--for obtaining a conception of the size and
power of a nation. We cannot conceive of any man, much less a human
community, without thinking of surface or ground at the same time.
Political science may, through a number of clever conclusions, reduce
the area of a state to a mere national possession; but we all know that
territory is too tightly bound up with the very life of a state for
it to assume a position of so little importance. In a nation, people
and soil are organically united into one, and area and population
are the measure of this union. A state cannot exchange or alter its
area without suffering a complete transformation itself. What wonder,
then, that wars between nations are struggles for territory? Even in
war the object is to limit the opponent’s sphere of action; how much
more does the whole history of nations consist in a winning and losing
of territory. The Poles still exist as they did in former times; but
the ground upon which they dwell has ceased to belong to them in a
political sense, and thus their state has been annihilated.

[Sidenote: The Vast Modern Empires]

During the course of history we constantly see great political areas
emerging from the struggle for territory. We see nations from early
times to the present day increasing in area: the Persian and Roman
Empires were small and mean compared with those of the Russians,
English, and Chinese. Also the states of peoples of a lower grade of
culture are insignificant compared with the states of more advanced
races. The greatest empires of the present day are the youngest;
the smallest--Andorra, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Monaco, appear to
us only as venerable, strange petrifications of an alien time. The
relation of surface to the growth of spheres of commerce and of means
of communication is obvious. Communication is a struggle with area;
and the result of this struggle is the overcoming of the latter. The
process is complicated because, as control is gained over area, one
also acquires possession of its contents: advantages of location,
conformation, fertility, and, by no means least, the inhabitants of
the territory themselves. But the loss in value of all these things,
brought about by their being widely scattered throughout an extensive
area, can be overcome only by a complete control of the region over
which they are spread.

[Sidenote: Traffic Leads to Empire]

The development of commerce is the preliminary history of political
growth. This applies to all races, from Phœnicians to North Americans,
who point out to us a post of the American Fur Company as the germ
from which Nebraska developed. Every colony is a result of traffic;
even in the case of Siberia, merchants from European Russia travelled
thither as far as the Ob about three centuries before its conquest. The
phrase “conquests of the world’s commerce” is perfectly legitimate.
The building of roads is a part of the glory of the founders and
rulers of nations. To-day, tariff unions and railway politics have
taken the place of road-making. It has always been so; both state and
traffic have had the same interest in roads and thoroughfares. Traffic
breaks the way, and the state improves and completes it. It seems to
be certain that the firmly organised state in ancient Peru opened
the roads which were later a service to traffic. In a lower phase of
development we may see commerce leading directly to the establishment
of states; in a higher, to victory in war, arising from commercial and
railway communication. It would be impossible for France to construct
the Sahara Railway without first subjugating the Tuareg and seizing
their country. Highways of traffic as weapons for hostile states, the
important part played by commercial nations and the culture of strictly
industrial and commercial peoples, the endeavour of traffic to be of
service to the policies of states, and, finally, the powerful reactions
caused by the removal and disuse of thoroughfares of commerce to races,
nations, and to entire spheres of civilisation--can only be indicated
here.

[Sidenote: Every Trader Bears his State with him]

Every political movement, whether it be a warlike expedition or a
peaceful emigration, is preceded by movements which are not political.
Inquiries must be made and relations instituted; the object must be
determined, and the road explored. All the while that knowledge of the
world beyond the bounds of a country is being gained, there is also
an imperceptible broadening of the geographical horizon; and this not
only widens out, but becomes clearer. Fabulous tales are circulated as
to the terrors of strange countries; but the fear gradually vanishes
as our knowledge increases, and with the latter a spirit of political
enterprise awakens One can say that every trader who passes the bounds
of his country bears his state with him in his load of merchandise. To
be sure, there are both long preparations made and quick leaps taken
in the processes of commerce. Roman merchants prepared the way to a
knowledge of Gaul and its conquest. But how different the attitude
of the Romans to Gaul before and after the time of Cæsar! What a
difference in the Spanish estimate of the worth of American colonies
before the days of Cortez and Pizarro, and afterward! The broader and
clearer the geographical horizon grows, the greater become political
schemes and standards of policy.

[Sidenote: Causes of National Success and Failure]

The widening of the geographical horizon and the clearing up of
mysteries beyond are invariably a result of the travels of individuals
or of groups for peaceful purposes. The first of these purposes
is commerce; the chase and fishing are also to be taken into
consideration; and the involuntary wanderings of the lost and strayed
are not to be excluded. Europe possessed a Pytheas and a Columbus who
discovered new worlds; and every primitive community had its explorers,
too, who cleared paths from one forest glade to another. If such
pioneers return, they also bring back with them contributions to the
general stock of knowledge of the world without, and it becomes less
difficult for others to follow in their footsteps; finally armies
or fleets may advance, conquering in their tracks. Whenever traffic
makes busy a multitude of men, and employs extensive means by which to
carry on its operations, the truth of the saying, “The flag follows
trade,” is finally established in its broadest sense. With all this
struggling and labouring, territory does not fall to the state simply
as a definite number of square miles. Just as single individuals bring
enlightenment to the state, in the same manner the idea of area arises
in the intelligence of the aggregate.

When we say that an area increases, we must remember that by this we
mean that the intelligence which views it and the will that holds it
together have increased, and naturally, also, that which is requisite
for rendering intelligence and will capable for their work. In this
lies one of the greatest differences that exist between nations, one of
the greatest causes of success and failure in development.

A disposition for expansion that advances boundaries to the farthest
possible limit is a sign of the highest state of civilisation. It is a
result of an increase both of population and of intellectual progress.

[Sidenote: Small States in Fine Situations]

There is something very attractive in the small political models of
early times: those city-states whose development had in definiteness
and in precision a great deal of the lucidity and compactness of
artistic compositions. Lübeck and Venice are more attractive than
Russia. The concentration of the forces of a small community in a
limited, beautifully situated, and protected location, is a source of
a development that takes a deeper hold on all the vital powers of a
people, employing them more extensively, and therefore ending in a more
rapid and definite perfection of historical individuality. Thus small
areas take the lead of large territories in historical development; and
we may see many examples of a slow but sure transference of leadership
from the small area to the large, and of the gradual diffusion of
progress in the latter. Thus Italy followed Greece; Spain, Portugal;
England, Holland.

[Illustration: THE COMMAND OF THE SEAS: GREAT BRITAIN’S MIGHTY
MACHINERY OF DEFENCE

    Great Britain’s strength is a proof of the tremendous importance of
    the sea as a factor of political power. This is a bird’s-eye view
    of the British Navy assembled at Spithead.
]

The opposite of this is precocity in growth: the earlier a state
marks out its limits without consideration for later expansion, the
sooner the completion of its development. The growth in area of Venice
and the Low Countries stood still, while all about them territories
increased in size. The development of small countries flags unless the
increase of population within a limited area leads to that disquiet and
emigration and expulsion of citizens especially characteristic of small
nations: the horizon grows too narrow for the times; patriotism becomes
local pride; and the most important life forces are impaired. Thus
minor nations, through which races are separated into little groups,
develop: the great national economic and religious cohesive forces are
broken up; and even the political advantages of the ground are reduced
in value through disintegration.

[Sidenote: Founding of States by Strangers]

Under such conditions the impulse for new growth must be brought in
from without. The native, who is acquainted with only one home, is
always inferior to the foreigner, who has a knowledge of two lands
at least. It is remarkable how numerous are the traditions of the
establishment of states by strangers. Sometimes these are mighty
hunters, as in Africa; often they are superior bearers of civilisation,
as in Peru; and an especially large number of them have descended
to the earth from heaven. In the face of history which tells of
the foundation of a Manchurian dynasty in China and a Turkish in
Persia, of the establishment of the Russian Empire by wandering North
Germans, and that of the great nations in the West Sudan by the Fulah
shepherds--these mythical accounts, although they may appear decidedly
incredible when taken singly, as a whole are probable enough. The
foundation of the nation of Sarawak in Borneo by Brooke is reality and
corresponds with many of the old legends of the formations of states.

[Sidenote: A Great Turning-point in History]

The broad conception of a state, which acts as a ferment does on
a disrupted mass, is introduced from one neighbouring nation into
another, each sharing in its production. When such territories are
adjacent, the state situated in the most powerful natural region
overgrows the other. The more mobile race brings its influence to
bear on the less mobile, and possibly draws the other along with it.
The more compact, better organised and armed state intrudes on weaker
nations, and forces its organisation upon them. A nation left to itself
has a tendency to split up into small groups, each of which seeks to
support its own life upon its own soil, heedless of the others; and
as such groups increase, they always reproduce in their own images:
families families, and tribes tribes. We find all sorts of measures
taken by some nations to limit an increase in growth that would carry
them beyond their old boundaries and place them under new conditions
of life. Many an otherwise inexplicable custom of taking human life is
a result of this tendency; perhaps, in some cases, even cannibalism
itself. This impulse towards limitation would have rendered the growth
of nations impossible had not the antithetical force of attraction
of one to another led to growth and amalgamation. Truly, the advance
from a condition of isolated, self-dependent communities to one of
traffic between state organisms, which must of necessity lead to ebb
and flow and union of one group with another, is one of the greatest
turning-points in the history of man.

[Sidenote: Nations as Neighbours]

Since the tendency has been for territory to become the exclusive
reward of victory in the competition of nations, balance of territorial
possessions has grown to be one of the chief ends of national
policies. The phrase “balance of power,” which has been so often
heard since the sixteenth century, is no invention of diplomats, but
a necessary result of the struggle for expansion. Hence we find an
active principle of territorial adjustment and balance in all matters
concerning international politics. It is not yet active in the small
and simple states of semi-civilised peoples; such states are much more
uniform, for they have all originated with a uniformly weak capacity
for controlling territory. In addition, the principle of territorial
isolation hinders the action of political competition. As soon,
however, as necessity for increased area leads to the contiguity of
nations, the conditions alter. The state that occupies but a small
region strives to emulate its larger neighbour. It either gains so much
land as is necessary to restore equality, or forces a decrease in the
neighbour’s territory.

[Sidenote: The Balance of Power]

Both alternatives have been of frequent occurrence. Prussia expanded
at the expense of Schleswig and Poland in order to become equal in
territory to the other great Powers. The whole of Europe fought
Napoleon until France had been forced back within such boundaries as
were necessary to international balance. Austria lost provinces in
Italy and replaced them with others in the Balkan Peninsula. This
loss and gain appears to us, in looking over an easily epitomised
history, such as that of France, as an alternation of violent waves
and temporary periods of rest attained whenever a balance is reached.
Therefore it is not owing to chance that the areas of Austria, Germany,
France, and Spain may be respectively designated by 100, 86, 84, and
80, that the area of Holland is to that of Belgium as 100 is to 90, and
that the United States stands to Canada as 100 to 96. To be effective,
such balances must presuppose equal civilisations, similar means for
the acquirement of power. Rome was so superior to her neighbours in
civilisation that she could not permit any territorial balance. Perhaps
the adoption of the River Halys as the boundary between Media and Lydia
was a first attempt to establish a national system on the principle of
balance instead of “world” dominion.

[Sidenote: A New British Empire is not Conceivable]

Our standards for measuring the areas of countries have constantly
increased during the growth of historical territories. The history of
Greece is to us but the history of a small state; and how many years
shall pass before that of Germany, Austria, and France will be but the
history of nations of medium size? England, Russia, China, and the
United States include the better half of the land of the world; and
to-day a British Empire in the other half could not be conceivable.
Development has ever seized on greater and greater areas, and has
united more and more extensive regions into aggregates. Thus it has
always remained an organic movement. The village-state repeats itself
in the city-state, and the family-state in the race-state, the smaller
ever being reproduced in greater forms. The smallest and greatest
nations alike retain the same organic characteristics more or less
closely united to the soil.

[Sidenote: Area Does Not Mean Power]

The surface of a state bears a certain relation to the surface of the
globe, and according to this standard is the land measured upon which
the inhabitants of a nation live, move, and labour. Thus it may be said
that the 208,687 square miles of the German Empire represent about
1/940 of the entire surface of the earth; further, that the empire
has a population of 60,500,000, from which the ratio of 5·45 acres to
each individual follows. Although it is true that wholly uninhabited
or very thinly populated regions, high mountains, forests, deserts,
etc., may be valuable from a political point of view, nevertheless the
whole course of the world’s history shows us that, as a general rule,
the value of territory increases with the number of inhabitants that
dwell upon it. Thus, before their disunion, Norway-Sweden, with an area
of 297,000 square miles--two-fifths greater than that of the German
Empire--but with a population of 6,800,000, cannot be looked upon as a
first-class Power; while Germany closely approaches the Russian Empire
in strength, for although its area is but 1/43 that of the latter, its
population is only one-half less. Thus area alone is never the deciding
factor of political power. In the non-recognition of this fact lies the
source of the greatest errors which have been made by conquerors and
statesmen. The powerful influence that small states, such as Athens,
Palestine, and Venice, have exerted on the history of the world proves
that a great expanse of territory is by no means indispensable to great
historical actions. The unequal distribution of mankind over a definite
area is a much more probable source of political and economic progress.

Civilisation and political superiority have always attended the
thickly populated districts. Thus the whole of development has been a
progression from small populations dwelling in extensive regions to
large populations concentrated in more limited areas. Progress first
awoke when division of labour began to organise and differentiate among
heaped-up aggregates, and to create discrepancies promoting life and
development. A simple increase of bodies and souls only strengthens
that which is already in existence by augmenting the mass. In China,
India, and Egypt, population has increased for a long time; but
development of civilisation and of political power has been unable to
keep pace with it.




[Illustration: THE MAKING OF THE NATIONS--V

Professor FREDERICK RATZEL]




THE FUTURE HISTORY OF MAN


[Sidenote: Man and the Universe]

Looking back upon the history of man, it appears to us the history of
the human race as a life phenomenon bound and confined to this planet
alone. We are thus unable to form any conception of progress into the
infinite, for every tellurian life-development is dependent upon the
earth, and must always return to it again. New life must follow old
roads. Cosmic influences may broaden or narrow the districts within
which man is able to exist. This was experienced by the human race
during the Glacial Period, when the ice sheet first drove men toward
the equator, and later, receding, enabled them once more to spread out
to the north. The limits of world life in general depend upon earthly
influences; and thus, for mankind, progress limited by both time and
space is alone possible.

Perhaps it would be well, for the elucidation of the question of
development, were geography to designate as progress only that which
from sufficient data may be established as such beyond all doubt. Thus,
to begin with, we have learned to know of a progress in space--man’s
diffusion over the earth--which proceeds in two directions. The
expansion of the human race signifies not only an extension of the
boundaries of inhabited land far into the Polar regions, but also the
growth of an intellectual conception of the whole world.

[Sidenote: Manifold Growth of Mankind]

Together with this progress there have been countless expansions
of economic and political horizons, of commercial routes, of the
territories of races and of nations--an extraordinarily manifold
growth that is continually advancing. Increase of population and of
the nearness of approach of peoples to one another goes hand in hand
with progressing space. Mankind cannot become diffused uniformly over
new areas without becoming more and more familiar with the old. New
qualities of the soil and new treasures have been discovered, and thus
the human race has constantly been made richer. While these gifts
enriched both intellect and will, new possibilities were all the while
arising, enabling men to dwell together in communities; the population
of the earth increased, and the densely inhabited regions, at first but
small, constantly grew larger and larger.

[Sidenote: History is the Growth of Differences]

With this increase in number, latent abilities came to life; races
approached one another; competition was entered into; interpenetration
and mingling of peoples followed. Some races acted mutually in
powerfully developing one another’s characteristics; others receded
and were lost, unless the earth offered them a possibility of
diffusion over better protected regions. Already we see in these
struggles the fundamental motive of the battle for area; and at the
same time, on surveying this progress, we may also see the limit set
to it--that increase in population is unfavourable to the progress of
civilisation in any definite area, if the number of inhabitants become
disproportionately large in respect to the territory occupied. Many
regions are already over-populated; and the numbers of mankind will
always be restricted by the limits of the habitable world.

Already in the differences in population of different regions lie
motives for the internal progress of man; but yet more powerful
are those incentives to the development of internal differences in
races furnished by the earth itself through the manifoldness of its
conformation.

The entire history of the world has thus become an uninterrupted
process of differentiation. At first arose the difference between
habitable and uninhabitable regions, and then within the habitable
areas occurs the action brought about by variations in zones, divisions
of land, seas, mountains, plains, steppes, deserts, forests--the whole
vast multitude of formations, taken both separately and in combination.
Through these influences arise the differences which must at first
develop to a certain extent in isolation before it is possible for
them to act upon one another, and to alter, either favourably or
unfavourably, the original characteristics of men.

[Sidenote: Earth’s Variety Reflected in its Peoples]

All the variations in race and in civilisation shown by different
peoples of the world, and the differences in power shown by states, may
be traced to the ultimate processes of differentiation occasioned by
variations in situation, climate, and soil, and to which the constantly
increasing mingling of races, that becomes more and more complex with
the diffusion of mankind over the globe, has also contributed. The
birth of Roman daughter states, and the rise of Hispano-Americans
and Lusitano-Americans from some of these very daughter nations, are
evidences of a development that ever strives for separation, for
diffusion over space, which may be compared only to the trunk of a
tree developing, and putting forth branches and twigs. But the bole
that has sent forth so many branches and twigs was certainly a twig
itself at one time; and thus the process of differentiation is repeated
over and over again. Progress in respect to population and to occupied
area is undoubted; but can these daughter nations be compared to Rome
in other respects? They have shown great powers of assimilation and
great tenacity, for they have held their ground. Nevertheless, their
greatest achievement has been to have clung fast to the earth; in other
words, to have persisted. Certainly this is far more important than the
internal progress in which the branches might perhaps have been able to
surpass the older nation.

[Sidenote: Decisive Element in a Nation]

It is an important principle that since all life is and must be closely
attached to the soil, no superiority may exist permanently unless it be
able to obtain and to maintain ground. In the long run, the decisive
element of every historical force is its relation to the land. Thus
great forces may be seen to weaken in the course of a long struggle
with lesser forces whose sole advantage consists in their being more
firmly rooted in the soil. The warlike, progressive, on-marching
Mongols and Manchus conquered China, it is true, but they have been
absorbed into the dense native population and have assumed the native
customs. The same illustration applies to the founding of nations by
all nomadic races, especially in the case of the Southern European
German states that arose at the time of the migration of Germanic
peoples. The health and promise of the English Colonies in Australia
present a striking contrast to the gloom that reigns over India, of
which the significance lies only in a weary governing, conserving, and
exploiting of three hundred millions of human beings. In Australia the
soil is acquired; in India only the people have been conquered. Will
a time ever come when all fertile lands will be as densely populated
as India and China? Then the most civilised, evolved nation will have
no more space in which to develop, maintain, and root its better
characteristics; and the success of a state will not result from the
possession of active forces, but from vegetative endowments--freedom
from wants, longevity, and fertility.

[Sidenote: The Goal of the Nations]

Even though the future may bring with it a union of all nations in the
world into the one great community already spoken of in the Gospel of
John, growth may take place only through differentiation. And thus
there is no necessity for our sharing the fear that a world-state would
swallow up all national and racial differences, and all variations in
civilisation.

From the fact that history is movement, it follows that the geographer
must recognise the necessity for progress in space in the sense of a
widening out of the historical ground, and a progressive increase of
the population of this ground; further, a development toward the goal
of higher forms of life together with an uninterrupted struggle for
space between the older and newer life-forms. Yet, for all this, the
definite bounds set to the scene of life by the limited area of our
planet always remain.

Finally, all development on earth is dependent on the universe, of
which our world is but a grain of sand, and to the time of which
what we call universal history is but a moment. There must be other
connections, definite roads upon which to travel, and distant goals,
far beyond. We surmise an eternal law of all things; but in order to
_know_, we should need to be God himself. To us only the belief in it
is given.

    FREDERICK RATZEL

[Illustration: THE FAR EAST DIVISION OF THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD

    This History begins with the East and comes westward round the
    world. Japan is therefore the first country to come into its
    survey, and from Japan we travel to Siberia, which, though
    extending far west, must be treated as one. After Siberia come
    China and Korea; and Australia, Oceania, and Malaysia all come into
    the “Far East” when thus treated geographically. The whole of the
    white portion of this map is treated in the Grand Division which
    now opens.
]




[Illustration: HISTORY OF THE WORLD

SECOND GRAND DIVISION

THE FAR EAST

    STEPHEN REID
]




[Illustration]




SECOND GRAND DIVISION




THE FAR EAST


The Far East falls into two sections, Asiatic and Oceanic. The Asiatic
comprises the insular empire of Japan; and, on the continent, China,
Korea, and Siberia, the extreme northern territory which, though
extending far westward, must be treated as one.

The Oceanic division includes the Australian continent, with the island
of Tasmania; the Pacific islands grouped under the names of Melanesia,
Micronesia, and Polynesia, to which last New Zealand is attached, the
whole being conveniently associated under the name of Oceania; and the
Malay Archipelago, or Malaysia, lying between Australia and the Asiatic
continent.

Of these three sections of Oceanic Far East only Malaysia has a
record extending over centuries. The history of the other two, till
the white sea-going races began to settle among them, is inferential,
conjectural. A doubt was suggested whether New Zealand should be
attached rather to Australia than to Oceania, for the reason that it
has developed into one of the group of autonomous states which make up
so large a portion of the British Empire; but this consideration must
clearly yield to those based on geography and ethnology.


    PLAN

    THE INTEREST & IMPORTANCE OF THE FAR EAST
    Angus Hamilton

    JAPAN
    Arthur Diósy and Max von Brandt

    SIBERIA
    Dr. E. J. Dillon and other writers

    CHINA
    Sir Robert K. Douglas, W. R. Carles, C.M.G., and other writers

    KOREA
    Angus Hamilton

    AUSTRALIA & OCEANIA
    Hon. Bernhard R. Wise and Professor Weule

    MALAYSIA
    Basil Thomson and other writers

    INFLUENCE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN HISTORY

           *       *       *       *       *

    For full contents and page numbers see Index

[Illustration]




[Illustration: LANDS & PEOPLES OF THE FAR EAST]




THE INTEREST AND IMPORTANCE OF THE FAR EAST

BY ANGUS HAMILTON


The influence of environment upon a people is seldom shown more
prominently than in the high degree of civilisation attained by the
early Chinese.

Although the records are shrouded in mystery and marred by
discrepancies, a consensus of scientific opinion traces the origin of
the Chinese to a nomad tribe who, setting out from the shores of the
Caspian, continued to wander until it found a home on the banks of the
Yellow River and in the plains of Shansi. Under the influence of these
immigrants, the rude manners of the aboriginals gave way to conditions
in which a knowledge of the smelting of iron and the resources of
agriculture was acquired. In the upward process of development, the
weaving of flax into garments and the spinning of silk from cocoons
followed; then, with primeval chaos reduced to order and the faculties
quickened by habits of industry, the beginnings of government were
made in the separation of the tribes from one another under their own
leaders.

While conditions of a settled existence were in course of attainment
within the region which is now known as China Proper, the spectacle
of a prosperous civilisation, reacting upon the uncouth instincts of
tribes dwelling among the grassy uplands of Mongolia and the plains
of Manchuria or amid the ice-clad fastnesses of the mountains and
forest-strewn valleys of the farthest north, was presently to be
responsible for the rise of predatory races, who, in the zenith of
their strength, regarded the teeming cities of the south as lawful
prizes. While the northern heights of Asia were producing a race that
was to leave an indelible impression on the whole of the Asiatic
Continent, the evolution of a no less specific type was proceeding in
the islands off the coast. Carried by a wave of migration from India,
which lapped the coast of Malaysia, Indo-China and Polynesia, and
mingled in the islands of the Yellow Sea with a stream from New Guinea
so that separate ethnographic identities were lost, were tribes who
looked to the ocean for their existence much as the earlier Chinese
relied upon the proceeds of their husbandry and the northern nomads
upon their flocks.

Glancing at the people living amid the plains, the uplands, and the
islands, it will be seen that an irresistible force was enveloping the
several races, moulding their instincts and idiosyncrasies in accord
with the nature of their environment. Thus, while the Chinese, under
the incentive of a knowledge of arts and crafts, had already produced,
in 2356 B.C., a system of civilisation destined to endure to
our time, the nomads and the islanders, unqualified by knowledge and
controlled by climate, were hardly removed from a state of savagery a
few centuries before the Christian era.

If the passage of 4,000 years has affected the Chinese no more than
the gliding of an hour, the existence of this great impassive people
has not been without its effect upon the nations of Europe as upon the
races of the Farthest East.

[Sidenote: Eternal Mystery of China]

A point of ancient contact between Christendom and the world of
Confucius, reflecting, in contemporary Japan to-day the more permanent
qualities of its teaching, China has stirred the spirits of the
adventurous in all ages by its singular graces of refinement, its
hidden wealth and the exquisiteness of its artistic perceptions.
Arousing the curiosity of the Arab traders as early as the eighth
century, it was known to the ancients, if they journeyed by the
Southern Sea, as the kingdom of Sin, Chin, Sinæ, or China, in
corruption, perhaps, of the word Tzin--under which dynasty occurred,
in 250 B.C., the fusion of several petty kingdoms into an organic
empire; or by the name of Seres if, traversing the longitude of Asia,
they came by the overland route. Known to the Middle Ages by the name
of Cathay--corrupted from Kitai, the name by which China is still
described by Russia and by the races of Central Asia, but which itself
sprang from the Khitans, the first of the northern dynasties--it
represented to European commerce of the thirteenth century the
embodiment of wealth, romance, and mystery; much as its position,
maintained unchanged through long centuries, had made it the actual
repository of the records of Central, as well as Southern, Asia.

[Sidenote: Korea, the Middle Kingdom]

Contemporary with the early Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Hebrews,
and comprising an empire that in 241 B.C. represented as nearly as
possible the present limits of the Eighteen Provinces, the Middle
Kingdom has been affected by the great upheavals of the Western world
as little as she herself has troubled to impress her methods and manner
of government upon the aboriginal races beyond her borders. Indeed,
filled with a lofty disdain of the outer barbarians, it was not until
the chance migration to Korea of some five thousand Chinese under
Ki-tze, in 1122 B.C., that the ethical, social, and political systems
in vogue in China were carried further afield. Once transplanted,
however, the aboriginal life of the cave-dwellers of the peninsula
gave way before the superior culture of Ki-tze’s followers, and within
the course of the succeeding thousand years a cluster of independent
states, fashioned upon the parental model, was firmly established.

Although in the centuries just before the Christian era there was
a constant interchange of communications with these states of the
Eastern Peninsula, the classic conservatism of the Middle Kingdom was
unabated by any expression of curiosity or interest in the welfare of
the unknown islands. Yet the islanders, confronted with a struggle for
existence, had risked the perils of many voyages to the neighbouring
coasts, spreading wonderful stories of their own land and returning
with ample evidences of the power and importance of the Korean kingdom.
Unconscious of this intercourse, but by reason of it, China, the tutor
of Korea, became through the agency of her pupil a determining factor
in the upward progression of the islanders when, between 290 B.C. and
215 B.C., in consequence of dynastic difficulties, a steady stream of
inhabitants from the peninsula passed from the Land of Morning Radiance
eastwards with the intention of settling on the coasts of Japan, with
whose inhabitants, in fact, they at once merged.

[Sidenote: Japan at the Dawn of Our Era]

Though at the other end of the pole of human endeavour in comparison
with the Chinese, and familiar only with the elemental accessories
to life, the islanders, under the influence of this alien strain, at
the dawn of our era had emerged from a state of tribal control to
the recognition of the authority of a single and supreme ruler. Two
centuries later Japanese arms were strong enough to invade Korea,
where several victories were gained; but even then the Middle Kingdom
maintained no communication with the islands of the Yellow Sea, and
was more or less indifferent to the rise of over-sea relations between
her vassal and the mariners from the East. It is possible to trace
to this obliquity in the political vision of the Celestial Empire of
the day much of the subsequent havoc that the self-same race were to
inflict upon the coasts of Asia. Impressed with no consideration for
the interests of the mainland, and troubled by no sense of material
responsibility, Japanese corsairs harried the Chinese and Korean coasts
unmercifully, finding in the occupation an outlet for that primitive
but inherited instinct for aggression that stimulates the race to-day.

Disturbed less by the appearance of an island Power than by a
confederacy of barbarian clans that, by 1000 A.D., had exerted a
mastery over Mongolia, Tartary, and Manchuria, and a century later
served as a menace to the safety of the dynasty itself, the Celestial
Empire was beset on two sides by enemies who were attracted by the
prosperity of its people. Unmindful to a great degree of the dangers
which were accumulating, an instinct for and an interest in trade,
confirmed by the revelation of the self-supporting character of an
empire that reached to Cochin-China in one direction and the Pamirs
in another, prompted the Chinese to neglect the arts of war in their
preference for the triumphs of peace.

[Sidenote: The Peaceful Path of the Chinese]

Characterised by a capacity for infinite pains, and possessed of
a complete understanding of the varied resources of agriculture,
the Chinese insensibly pursued a path leading always in a contrary
direction to those marked out by Nature for the islanders, as for
the fierce nomads of the steppe. Thus innately addicted to habits of
peace, centuries upon centuries of undisturbed prosperity chastened
natures that were never very warlike; whereas the exact inversion of
this existence propelled those hordes of Tartars, Huns, Turks, Khitans,
Kins, Mongols, and Manchus to leave the Far North in a disfiguring
passage through Asia, and bade the islanders release their sails in
expeditions against Korea. It was not enough for the founder of the
Tzin dynasty to fortify his northern frontiers by the construction of
the Great Wall, or for that great warrior Panchow to drive the Huns
before him to the Oxus itself, or for the rulers in the long period of
disunion which unites the fall of the Han dynasty to the rise of the
Sung to compromise with the leaders of successive rushes of barbarian
horsemen by matrimonial alliances with their families. The cause lay
in the foundations of the race itself. Yet, such was the insidious
character of the land against which these mounted hordes so often flung
themselves that, although the imminence of attack ultimately became
a thing with which the Government of China was wont to conjure the
peaceful, well-contented lower classes and the luxury-loving upper
classes, the effect of each invasion was dissipated so soon as the
invaders experienced the subtle blandishments of Chinese civilisation.

[Sidenote: Swift-moving History in Little Known Lands]

Presented with remarkable clearness, we have an array of devastating
invasions, the one following the other in rapid succession and
occasionally assuming such dimensions that the operations riveted
the attention of Europe upon the little-known lands of Asia, which
in most instances required only the passage of a few centuries for
the minutest vestige to be obliterated. Thus the Kins, who left no
trace, displaced the Khitans, equally irrecoverable, and were in turn
dispossessed by the Mongols, whose wide dominion embraced so much of
the earth’s surface that in 1227 A.D. the whole of High Asia, from the
Caspian to Korea, and from the Indus to the Yellow Sea, recognised
its sway--always excepting the strong but still despised sea-state of
Japan, whose lusty inhabitants threw back the allied hosts of China,
Korea, and the Mongol monarch in 1274 and 1281.

Yet if the Mongols, in an effort to wreak their vengeance on the
Chinese, razed to the ground the cities of the vanquished so that their
horsemen could ride over their deserted sites without stumbling, none
the less they earned the acclamations of posterity by the facilities
that the Mongol domination of Central Asia offered to communications
between the West and Cathay. Marco Polo was not alone in his knowledge
of the Court of the Great Khan, although doubtless he was the first
to visit it. But this liberty of intercourse, existing only by the
land route to Asia, was measured solely by the duration of the Mongol
rule; freedom of action along the high-road from West to East stopped
prematurely when the sway of Islam settled once again over Central
Asia. Two centuries elapsed before, under the banners of the Manchus,
bold horsemen of the North, in 1644, flashed once again through the
plains of China, imposing, by a change of costume and of coiffure,
perhaps the most striking effect of any that has followed in the train
of these invasions.

[Sidenote: Opening the Gates of the East]

[Sidenote: Lifting the Veil in Japan]

But if the exclusiveness of the Mohammedan conquerors closed the route
to Cathay so effectually that for two hundred years nothing more was
heard of the country, Columbus, Cabot and others set themselves the
task of opening up communications by water. But it was not Cathay
that they reached. That was left to the Portuguese Raphael Perestralo
to accomplish by sailing, in 1511, from Malacca to Canton, and thus
winning the coveted distinction of first approaching China by sea.
Fifty years later (1560) the same race succeeded in obtaining a
settlement at Macao, while the Spaniards gazed with longing eyes from
their strongholds in the Philippine Islands upon the rich junks
on the China seas. Such was the effect of these trading visits from
the West that the Chinese in their turn were emboldened to visit for
themselves these outlying centres of Western traffic. But it was more
usually vessels from Japan that were seen, for the Chinese were still
without any special appetite for Western trade. With the islanders,
on the other hand, a love of barter, acting on the native instincts
of a maritime people, caused them to traverse these more distant
waters; although occasionally the scantiness of the resources in their
own country moved them, so that they were propelled as much by stern
necessity as by the lust of war and loot or a passion for trade. At
first Polynesia, then Malaysia and India were visited. Again, trips
were made to the remote coasts of Mexico. Still later, a colony founded
at Goa became the centre of an important trading connection throughout
the Indian hemisphere. In these voyages we see the attractive influence
exercised by the Pacific and the Indian Oceans on an island people,
who, fitted by temperament no less than by position, played in Eastern
waters the rôle filled by the Elizabethan explorers on the coasts of
the New World.

[Sidenote: Raising the Curtain]

As yet the distinctive call of the East had been heard only along the
byways of Turkestan, and even those who had responded had ventured no
further than the provinces of Cathay. Thus the isles of the Yellow Sea
were to the Western mariner at the dawn of the sixteenth century as
much a terra incognita as the Arctic and Antarctic regions are to the
sailor of to-day. The spectacle of Japanese junks sailing gaily across
the heaving waters of the Spanish Main and rounding the heel of India
aroused the interest of the Western traders, who at once embarked for
the fortunate lands of the East, arranging relations there even before
they had been welcomed by the Chinese.

With the arrival of Portuguese traders off Japan in 1542, a curtain was
raised which was never quite to descend. In the interval a commercial
entrepôt was established on the island of Hirado, and an intercourse
set afoot that encouraged a visit from a Spanish squadron towards the
close of the sixteenth century. This visit was returned in 1602 by
the despatch of a ceremonial embassy to the Governor-General of the
Philippines.

[Sidenote: Untold Wealth of Asia]

Throughout the first half of that century Japan continued to attract
the adventurous, and the Dutch now followed in the wake of the
Portuguese and Spanish ships. The reception of the bold spirits was
unequal, and in 1624 all foreigners except the Dutch and the English
were banished. By 1641 no traders were allowed but Dutch, who, in spite
of being restricted to the island of Deshima, enjoyed a monopoly of the
trade with Japan until 1867. In the meantime, abroad, rumours of the
untold wealth of Asia had brought the Indies, together with Cathay and
Japan, into distinct prominence. Under the Chinese Emperor Kien-Lung,
whose reign of sixty years, 1735-1795, was remarkable for its conquests
and successful administration, commercial intercourse with the West
was regularised, and the founding of recognised trading settlements
on the China coast ended the era of furtive attempts to open trade
relations with this exclusive people. From these early trading stations
have sprung the several commercial capitals that now grace the China
coast. Hong Kong, Canton, Shanghai, Tientsin, and Newchang are the
links existing to-day between the magnificence of the merchant princes
and the sway of the “John Company.” Of course conditions are now much
altered, yet the memories of the past find a very splendid setting
in the size, dignity, and importance of the modern treaty ports.
Although the Far East was already manifesting its powers of holding the
attention of the civilised world, the centres of interest there were
concerned for many years solely with the kingdoms of China and Japan.

[Illustration: CALM IN THE FAR EAST: THE SETTING OF THE SUN IN THE
MONGOLIAN DESERT]

[Sidenote: China on the Western Horizon]

Australasia was a great unknown when the high latitudes of Asia were
the fount of many conquering races. Obviously, therefore, the magnet
of acquisitiveness pointed to the value of investigating the bleak
northern steppes. Once started, the Pacific and the Amur were reached
within eighty years under the impetus of an unrelenting progress which
swept from west to east across the regions of North Asia. Begun at
the instigation of Stroganoff, who pushed the hesitating footsteps of
Yermak across the Urals in 1580, by 1584 this gallant freebooter was
offering to Ivan IV. with no uncertain voice the wide dominions of
Siberia as the price of pardon. Khan after khan was unseated, tribe
after tribe dispossessed, for neither Tartar nor Turk, Buriat nor
Tunguse, could offer effective resistance to the Cossacks from the
Don. In the end this all-conquering advance was stayed by the Chinese,
who, in the treaty of Nertchinsk, 1689, contracted their first formal
convention with a foreign Power. For nearly two centuries Russia
faithfully observed the terms of this engagement, apprehensive of
endangering the Kiachta trade if she continued her encroachments upon
Manchu territory. By this action the trade of China, which has now made
the problem of the Far East of dominating importance, became of more
than passing interest to a Western Government. As generations passed,
however, the advance of Russia, to the Pacific in one direction, and
in search of a warm-water harbour in another, was resumed. First
Eastern Siberia and then Northern Manchuria were added to her Asiatic
satrapy, and the Amur ceased to be the containing line. Ultimately her
frontier rested on the ocean to the north, the east, and the south;
Vladivostock, Port Arthur, Harbin, and Mukden becoming the centres from
which her Far Eastern dominions were administered.

[Sidenote: The English Find Australia]

The spirit of adventure, now inspiring all ranks of society as well as
most of the civilised races of the world, was by no means satisfied by
territorial conquest. The wide dominions of the sea, as yet untraced
and all unknown, embraced an empire which appealed as strikingly to the
sympathies of geographers as did the prospects of Far Eastern trade to
the feelings of the East India merchants. Much the same ceaseless quest
carried the Cossack Dejneff, in 1648, round the north-eastern extremity
of Asia; Torres, a Spaniard commissioned by the Spanish Government
of Peru, in 1606 negotiated the strait between New Guinea and the
mainland; and various Dutch expeditions in 1606, 1616, 1618, 1627 and
1642 endured the dangers of the reef-bound coasts. But it was not until
1688 that the English first made their appearance on the Australian
coast. In some measure the situation was awaiting the man. The
voyages of Captain Cook (1769-1777) took up the work of geographical
exploration in the Southern Hemisphere in a style quite befitting the
records already elsewhere accomplished.

[Sidenote: Pacific and the Destinies of Peoples]

If between the continent of Australia and the coasts of China to-day
there is only a commercial connection, it must not be forgotten that
Australia is closely identified with the Polynesian races, who in
turn are related to the early Japanese. New Zealand, Australia, New
Caledonia, and New Guinea, as parts of one and the same continent,
which now in many places has disappeared beneath the sea, present an
ethnographic study of unusual importance and interest. In few other
parts of the world is so great an ethnographic variation imposed upon a
single connecting racial family as in the island divisions of the South
Seas--Australasia, Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. It is by the
existence of this underlying relationship that the Indo-Pacific races,
whatever their specific origin, undoubtedly link up two hemispheres
which organically are widely separated. By the abruptly disintegrated
character of existing racial location, however, it is possible to read
the impression made by the Pacific Ocean on the history of the world.
If oceanic influences are represented in other ways to-day, and tribal
migrations in a body are occurrences of the past, the necessities
of the age still make such heavy demands on what is, after all, the
immemorial highway of mankind that the Pacific can still be said to
mould the destinies of races to-day as easily as it has obliterated
them in the past.

[Sidenote: What will Happen To-morrow?]

Turning to Asia, although the Empires of Russia in Siberia and of
China have worked out their destinies independently of the Pacific,
remaining unaffected by it more than all other Eastern states, the
part that the Pacific has played in the development of Asia since the
eighteenth century cannot go unnoticed. Japan, in particular, has
profited by the readiness of communication that the ocean provides to
rise above prejudices which are usually inseparable from an island
people and are pre-eminently to be expected among Asiatics. In China
the absence of any prominent dependence on the sea, either for food
or means of transport, has produced in very sinister form an aversion
against the West. None the less, under pressure from the Occident,
and without regarding the example set by Japan, the Celestial Empire
has permitted much commercial encroachment. Succeeding the galleons
of the buccaneers have come the stately traders of the merchant
princes of Europe and America, and these in turn have given place to
the steamers of industrial trusts, exacting as large a tribute as the
earliest marauders. While the consequences of industrial expansion
among Oriental people have made the Pacific the focus of much restless
energy, Japan, now as great a Power on land as formerly she was, and
is, at sea, has developed an intelligence that has made her pre-eminent
among the trading nations of the East. Undeterred by exertion, unmoved
by expenditure, Japan has displaced the carrying trade of the Pacific
by her fearless invasion of Western markets. Throughout the isles of
the Southern Seas, and up and down the face of the Pacific slope,
the islanders have swarmed, filling the lands of their passage with
unaccustomed energy.

Looking back, then, at the conditions of Asia in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, and comparing them with those existing to-day,
it will be noticed that a wide gulf still separates Japan from China
in the twentieth century as it formerly separated China from the rest
of the Far East. On the one side there is China, now emerging from
revolution; on the other there is Japan, voicing the regeneration of
Asia with raucous tones.

[Sidenote: China Thirty years Hence]

Meanwhile the vast interests of the Occident in the Orient are united
with either power by frequent political intercourse and a traffic which
has given to the Pacific priority of place in the battle for commercial
supremacy. Yet while China is commercially independent of the West,
and Japan dependent upon it, all branches of foreign industry cannot
but view with alarm the increasing aggressiveness of the spirit of
independence now inspiring Asia at the prompting of Japan. Obviously
these signs are the indication of an approaching cleavage between East
and West, which, when fully attained, will bear witness to the complete
severance of the shackles hitherto enthralling Asia to the interests
and purposes of the West. It must not be forgotten that Japan already
has achieved her complete regeneration. Thirty years hence China, no
doubt, will have followed suit, when a federacy of the Far Eastern
Powers may become an accomplished fact. Even at this moment such a
union is possible, and its realisation would impose upon all European
Governments the immediate revision of their Asiatic policies.

At this time such a combination is hampered only by the unwillingness
of China to accept the suggestions of Japan in anything affecting the
policy of Asia, although, in spite of this objection, active reforming
influences are gradually effecting important changes throughout the
Chinese Empire. For the moment, therefore, Japan is content to tread
alone the path she has marked out, encouraging her subjects by example
to exploit Asia for the Asiatics, and to secure recognition of the
doctrine of equality between the white and Asiatic races.

If the full significance of this movement is not yet discernible,
there is enough evidence to show that the problem will rank among the
greatest that the politics of the twentieth century can disclose. Not
only one part of the civilised globe will be affected by the rise of
a dominant Asia, for the whole world will be confronted equally with
the necessity of resisting whatever indications may appear. If it is
difficult to devise an arrangement short of total exclusion that does
not admit an annual influx of a large number of Japanese, Chinese,
Korean, or Indian immigrants into the lands affected by this invasion,
it is at least tolerably certain that if the existing flow of Asiatics
across the Pacific to America and Australasia continues unabated for
a further decade, the areas now menaced will be inhabited by a white
minority.

[Sidenote: Problem of the Century]

It appears evident that the continuation of the Far East under existing
conditions is doubtful, if not impossible, in view of the awakening
of Asia and the visible prejudices that Western democracy entertains
against the Asiatic. Yet if the clash of conflicting interests
ultimately precipitates a struggle between the two great racial
divisions of the world, there can be no doubt that the moral teachings
of humanity will be discredited.

    ANGUS HAMILTON




    +---------------------------------------------------+
    |        GREAT DATES IN THE HISTORY OF JAPAN        |
    +------+--------------------------------------------+
    |=B.C.=|              =To 500 A.D.=                 |
    | =660=| Supposed foundation of the Japanese        |
    |      |   Empire by Jimmu                          |
    |      |                                            |
    |=A.D.=|                                            |
    |   =3=| Emperor Suinin flourished. Abolition       |
    |      |   of the practice of burying retainers     |
    |      |   alive on the master’s death              |
    |  =59=| Reputed Korean immigration                 |
    | =125=| Legendary hero Yamato Daké                 |
    |      |   flourished                               |
    | =202=| Reputed conquests in Korea by Empress      |
    |      |   Jingō Kōgō                               |
    | =397=| Probable introduction of Chinese           |
    |      |   civilisation, through Korea              |
    |      |                                            |
    |      |               =500-1000=                   |
    | =552=| Introduction of Buddhism                   |
    | =645=| The Taikwa Laws of Kōtōku                  |
    | =675=| Encouragement of Buddhism by Temmu         |
    | =689=| The Laws reduced to a written code         |
    | =750=| Development of the Samurai class           |
    | =782=| Emperor Kwammu                             |
    | =800=| Fusion of Shintō with Buddhism by          |
    |      |   Kōbō Daishi                              |
    | =889=| High offices become hereditary in the      |
    |      |   Fujiwara family                          |
    |      |                                            |
    |      |              =1000-1500=                   |
    |=1155=| Wars of the Taira and Minamoto             |
    |      |   clans                                    |
    |=1186=| Victory of the Minamoto                    |
    |=1192=| The Minamoto Shogunate established         |
    |      |   Japanese feudal system                   |
    |=1220=| Supremacy of the Hōjō family               |
    |=1275=| Attempt of Kublai Khan to invade           |
    |      |   Japan                                    |
    |=1281=| Destruction of the Chinese (Mongol)        |
    |      |   Armada                                   |
    |=1333=| Ashikaga revolt and overthrow of the       |
    |      |   Hōjō                                     |
    |=1337=|Rival Mikados of the North and South        |
    |      |   for fifty-five years                     |
    |      |                                            |
    |      |              =1500-1800=                   |
    |=1543=| First appearance of Europeans              |
    |      |   (Portuguese) in Japan                    |
    |=1549=| Francis Xavier attempts to introduce       |
    |      |   Christianity                             |
    |=1574=| Overthrow of Ashikaga by Nobunaga          |
    |=1581=| Rapid development of Christianity          |
    |=1582=| Death of Nobunaga. Supremacy of his        |
    |      |   general Hideyoshi (Taikō Sama)           |
    |=1583=| Envoys sent from feudal lords to the       |
    |      |   Pope                                     |
    |=1592=| Hideyoshi’s invasion of Korea              |
    |=1598=| Death of Hideyoshi. Accession to           |
    |      |   power of Iyeyasu                         |
    |=1606=| Prohibition of Christianity                |
    |=1615=| Restoration of Minamoto Shōgunate          |
    |=1617=| Foreign trade limited to two ports         |
    |=1621=| Japanese prohibited from foreign travel    |
    |=1624=| Decree of expulsion against all foreigners |
    |      |   except Dutch and Chinese                 |
    |=1637=| Peasant and Christian revolt               |
    |=1641=| Dutch and Chinese restricted to Nagasaki   |
    |=1694=| Development of trade-guilds                |
    |=1792=| Russian squadron visits Japanese coast     |
    +------+--------------------------------------------+
    |      |                                            |
    |      |              =1800-1867=                   |
    |=1804=| Russia attempts unsuccessfully to open     |
    |      |   relations with Japan                     |
    |=1818=| Captain Gordon at Yedo Bay                 |
    |=1844=| Holland makes proposals for extension      |
    |      |   of trade                                 |
    |=1848=| Visit of American and French warships      |
    |      |   to Japanese waters                       |
    |=1853=| Commodore Perry in Yedo Bay                |
    |=1854=| First Japanese Treaty with a Western       |
    |      |   Power (U.S.A.) in March. First Treaty    |
    |      |   with Great Britain in October            |
    |=1855=| Russian Treaty                             |
    |=1856=| Dutch Treaty                               |
    |=1859=| Readmission of Christian missionaries      |
    |=1861=| Attack on British Legation                 |
    |=1862=| Murder of Mr. Richardson                   |
    |      | Japanese Embassy to the Treaty Powers      |
    |=1863=| Bombardment of Kago-shima by British       |
    |=1864=| Bombardment of Shimonoseki by              |
    |      |   international squadron                   |
    |      | Contest and reconciliation of the two      |
    |      |   great clans (Sats-cho)                   |
    |=1866=| Kei-ki, last Shōgun                        |
    |      | New Conventions with Western Powers        |
    |=1867=  Accession of Mutsu-hito as Mikado          |
    |      | Appointment of Europeans: French           |
    |      |   military and British naval instructors   |
    |      | Resignation of Shōgun Kei-ki               |
    |      |                                            |
    |      |              =1868-1907=                   |
    |=1868=| Restoration of imperial power              |
    |=1869=| The Emperor takes up residence at          |
    |      |   Yedo, re-named Tokio. Emperor’s          |
    |      |   “charter” oath                           |
    |      | The Daimiyo surrender feudal rights        |
    |=1871=| Feudalism abolished                        |
    |=1872=| Establishment of religious toleration      |
    |=1873=| Adoption of Gregorian Calendar             |
    |      | Universal Military Service                 |
    |=1874=| Saga rebellion. Formosan expedition        |
    |=1875=| Saghalin exchanged for Kuriles             |
    |=1876=| Korean Treaty                              |
    |=1877=| Revolt and death of Saigo                  |
    |=1879=| Annexation of Riu-Kiu Islands              |
    |=1889=| Promulgation of the Constitution.          |
    |      |   Establishment of local self-government.  |
    |      | Anti-foreign reaction                      |
    |=1890=| First Imperial Parliament. New civil       |
    |      |   and commercial codes                     |
    |=1894=| War with China                             |
    |=1895=| Victory over China. Formosa annexed        |
    |=1897=| Revised customs tariff. Gold standard.     |
    |      |   Freedom of Press and public meetings     |
    |=1899=| New Treaties on terms of equality.         |
    |      |   Opening of the whole country             |
    |=1900=| Expedition against Boxers in China         |
    |=1902=| Anglo-Japanese agreement                   |
    |=1904=| War with Russia                            |
    |=1905=| Victory over Russia. Japan obtains         |
    |      |   Port Arthur, S. Saghalin, control of     |
    |      |   S. Manchuria, and protectorate of        |
    |      |   Korea                                    |
    |      | Anglo-Japanese alliance                    |
    |=1907=| Franco-Japanese Agreement                  |
    |      | Russo-Japanese Convention                  |
    |=1910=| Korea annexed                              |
    |=1911=| Anglo-Japanese Agreement                   |
    +------+--------------------------------------------+




[Illustration: JAPAN]

THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE

BY ARTHUR DIOSY




THE EMPIRE OF THE EASTERN SEAS


[Sidenote: Length and Breadth of Great Japan]

Asia’s furthest outpost towards the vast waters of the Pacific Ocean,
a long, narrow chain of rocky, volcanic islands, extends north-east to
south-west along the eastern coast of the mainland, separated from it
by the Sea of Japan and the China Seas. A glance at the map shows this
long string of more than three thousand islands and islets, stretching
from 51°5′, the latitude of Shumo-shu, the most northern of the Kurile
group of islands, down to 21°48′, the latitude of the South Cape of
Formosa, a total length of nearly thirty degrees. Its component parts
extend from 157°10′ east longitude, at Shumo-shu, as far westwards as
119°20′, the position of the extreme western islets of the Pescadores,
or Hokoto, archipelago, a distance of nearly thirty-eight degrees, the
total breadth of the Empire of Dai Nippon--Great Japan.

The enormous length of the island empire, the configuration of which is
likened by the Japanese to the slender body of a dragon-fly, provides
a great variety of climate, from the Arctic rigour of the Kurile
Islands and the Siberian climate, with its long and terrible winter
and its short but fierce summer, obtaining in the larger northern
islands, to the sweltering, steamy heat of Formosa, the tropic of
Cancer passing through that island and through the Pescadores. These
extreme temperatures apart--and they prevail only at the ends of the
empire--Japan possesses a temperate climate, similar to that of the
northern shores of the Mediterranean, but colder in winter and much
damper, the excessive humidity causing both heat and cold to be very
trying, though never dangerous. The rainfall is especially heavy in
June and in September, but no month is entirely without rain. The
hottest period of the year is called dō-yō, corresponding to our
“dog-days,” and follows the rainy season of June and early July.

[Sidenote: What Japan Owes to its Position]

Japan owes its great humidity, the consequent fertility of such parts
of its surface as are cultivable--about 84·3 per cent. of the whole
area of Japan proper is too rocky to yield food for man--and the
luxuriant verdure that clothes the lower slopes of its wooded hills, to
its insular position, and, chiefly, to two great factors, a current and
a wind. The great warm current known as the Kuro-shio, the Black Brine,
or Black Tide, flowing from the tropical region between the Philippines
and Formosa, raises the temperature of the east coast, and, where it is
in part deflected by contact with the southern coast of Kiū-shū, also
of the west coast, acting in the same beneficent manner as the Gulf
Stream of the Atlantic. The wind that affects the Japanese climate
most strongly is the north-east monsoon, tempered by the action of the
dark, warm, ocean current.

[Illustration:

    Keystone View Co.

A GLIMPSE OF THE INLAND SEA, THE LOVELIEST SHEET OF WATER IN JAPAN

    Studded with hundreds of islands, every part of the Inland Sea of
    Japan, stretching 240 miles in length, and widening once to 40
    miles, offers an enchanting prospect. The islands occur often in
    clusters, giving the appearance of lakes.
]

The geographical position of Japan has had great influence on the
history of its people, and clearly indicates the supremely important
part the empire is destined to play in the future development of the
Far East. Its insular character has preserved it from invasion--it is
the proud and legitimate boast of the Japanese that no foe has, within
historical times, trodden Japanese soil for more than a few hours--and
whilst it rendered possible the seclusion in which the nation lived for
more than two centuries, developing, undisturbed, a high civilisation
of its own, the basis of many of the qualities displayed by the
Japanese in our day, it has been, in recent times, the cause of Japan’s
real might in the world--her sea-power, naval and commercial.

The map shows the four principal islands of Japan Proper: HON-SHŪ,
or Hon-dō--“Principal Circuit,” the largest island of Japan,
commonly called Nippon, really the name of the whole empire, meaning
“Sun-origin,” equivalent to Sunrise Land; KIŪ-SHŪ, or Nine Provinces;
SHI-KOKU, or Four States; and the great northern island of YEZO, the
second in size, officially termed Hok-kai-dō--“North Sea Circuit.”

The four islands extend, opposite the mainland, from the coast
of the Russian Maritime Province, on the north-west, down to the
southern extremity of the Korean peninsula, on the south-west. North
of Yezo, facing the mouth of the great River Amur, the long, narrow
island of Saghalin--Karafuto, in Japanese--belongs partly to Russia,
partly to Japan, its southern districts, up to the fiftieth degree
of latitude, being ceded to the victors by Article IX. of the Treaty
of Portsmouth (1905). Separating these islands, important channels
afford communication between the Sea of Japan and the Pacific. The
Gulf of Tartary divides Saghalin from the mainland, whilst the Strait
of La Pérouse, or Strait of Tsugaru, separates the island from Yezo.
The Straits of Korea, between that empire, now under the protectorate
of Japan, and the main island, Hon-shū, or Nippon, are the way of
communication joining the Sea of Japan and the eastern part of the
China Sea, the straits being divided into three channels by the island
of Iki and by those of Tsu-shima, a name rendered for ever glorious
by Togo’s great victory on May 27th, 1905. The various straits are
sufficiently narrow to be easily closed to an enemy by Japan’s splendid
fleet.

[Illustration:

    Keystone View Co.

A CRATER WITH EIGHTY VILLAGES, IN WHICH TWENTY THOUSAND PEOPLE LIVE

    Twenty thousand people live in eighty villages in the outer crater
    of Aso-san, probably the largest crater on earth, competing, says
    Professor Milne, with some of the great craters of the moon. The
    crater of Aso-san is from 10 to 14 miles across, and its wall is
    everywhere 2,000 feet high, the highest peak being Taka-dake, 5,630
    feet.
]

Although Japan has remained immune from invasion throughout historical
time, its proximity to the mainland, and especially to the Korean
peninsula, led, in prehistoric ages, to its receiving from the
continent an influx of immigrants who gradually conquered the
insular natives, and whose descendants probably form the main stock
of the present Japanese race. It was this proximity that brought the
civilisation of China into Japan, in the first instance through Korea;
the same route was followed by another mighty invasion of foreign
thought, the introduction of Buddhism.

[Illustration:

    Keystone View Co.

HAKONÉ LAKE AND THE GATEWAY TO THE INARI TEMPLE IN KIŌTO

    Hakoné Lake, the top picture, is a delightful summer resort. The
    bottom picture, the avenue of Torii (portals), forming the entrance
    to a Shintō Temple at Kiōto, is a wonderful sight. There are over
    400 Torii, arranged in two colonnades.
]

[Illustration:

    Keystone View Co.

A GLIMPSE OF THE BUSY NAGOYA CANAL AND OF THE PARK AT KUMAMOTO

    Nagoya is one of the great manufacturing cities of Japan, and a
    busy canal links the city with the port of Yokkaichi. The park of
    Suizenji, in Kumamoto, is a beautiful example of Japanese landscape
    gardening.
]

No country has been better fashioned by Nature for the acquirement
of sea-power than the Island Empire of the Rising Sun. Its enormous
extent of coast-line, with countless indentations, especially numerous
on the south-eastern coasts of Hon-shū, Shi-koku, and Kiū-shū, its
many excellent harbours, naturally fortified by reason of the narrow
entrances to the gulfs in which they are situated--for example:
Nagasaki, in Kiū-shū, the naval stations at Sasebo, in the same island,
Kure, in the Inland Sea, and Yoko-suka, near Tōkio Bay--and, above all,
the excellence of its seafaring population, supply the elements that
give Japan the mastery in Far Eastern waters.

[Sidenote: Seafaring Qualities of Japanese]

In the thousands of hamlets nestling in the bays, large and small,
and creeks of the Japanese islands, dwells a hardy race of fishermen,
inured to peril and fatigue, men of brawny strength and indomitable
pluck, frugal and enduring, as fine material for the manning of
warships and trading craft as the world has ever known. The persistence
of those seafaring qualities which the Japanese owe chiefly to the
natural advantages of their island home--partly, no doubt, to a
strain of the blood of Malay sea-rovers, perhaps also of Polynesian
canoe-men--is a remarkable phenomenon. In olden times they were
bold seafarers, roaming as far as the Philippines and the coast of
Indo-China. The waters of Formosa and of Siam were the scene of their
piratical exploits, for, like all nations destined to be great at sea,
they passed through a period when the spirit of adventure, as much as
the lust for spoil, made them into daring sea-robbers.

But, with the closing of Japan to foreign intercourse--save on a
strictly limited scale--early in the seventeenth century, came the
enactment of laws devised to prevent the Japanese from visiting foreign
parts; the tonnage and build of ships were fixed by these decrees in
such a manner that only fishing and coasting trips were thenceforward
possible. This prohibition lasted for two centuries and a half; yet, on
its removal, the germ of the seafaring qualities, supposed to have died
out, was found to have been only in a state of suspended animation; it
revived with surprising rapidity. In less than a quarter of a century
it produced a naval _personnel_ capable of manning a highly efficient
fleet of thirty-three sea-going fighting-ships; in ten years more the
amazed world recognised Japan’s Navy as the triumphant victor in the
greatest battle since Trafalgar, and coupled Admiral Togo’s name with
that of Nelson.

[Sidenote: The Sea as Japan’s Friend]

The sea has, indeed, ever been Japan’s friend; to this day it supports
a large number of the population, and, in a sense, it may be said to
keep the whole nation alive, as the fish that teem in Japanese waters
supply a considerable part of the people’s food. Every marine product
available as nutriment is utilised, even seaweed of various kinds
being largely used as food. Fishing seems to have been practised from
the earliest times; it is probably in recognition of its antiquity
and national importance that the Japanese of our day still affix to
any gift a strip of dried seaweed, passed through a piece of paper
peculiarly folded, the idea they thus symbolise being, it is said:
“This is but a trumpery present, but it comes from a cheerful giver; be
pleased to take it as it is meant. Remember our forefathers were poor
fisherfolk; this strip of seaweed is to remind you that poverty is no
crime.”

[Sidenote: Japan’s Beautiful Scenery]

There are many other customs connected with the harvest of the sea, and
innumerable legends and folk-tales wherein the chief part is played by
some marine spirit or by a visitor--deity or mortal--to the mysterious
realms of the deep. And deep it is, for, off the eastern coast of
Northern Japan, the sea-bed falls abruptly to a depression--the
famous Tuscarora Deep, called after the United States warship of that
name--of 4,655 fathoms, nearly 28,000 ft., or more than five miles,
probably the deepest sea-bed in the world. The encircling sea forms
an important part of most of the beautiful pictures the scenery of
Japan offers to the delighted eye. Whether the waves dash tumultuously
against the precipitous rocks of the south-eastern side of the main
islands, especially of Shi-koku and Kiū-shū; whether the waters dance
in the sunshine in the countless bays and creeks of those coasts
where the frequency of the shelter afforded to fishing-craft led to
an earlier and more dense settlement than on the north-west coast of
Hon-shū; whether the far-famed Inland Sea shines like a mirror under
the moonbeams, or the Sea of Japan tosses its grey billows or spreads a
sullen expanse under the pall of fog caused by the meeting of warm and
cold currents--in all its moods the ocean forms part of nearly all the
grandest scenery of Japan.

[Illustration: SCENES IN JAPAN AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE

    There is at least one shock of earthquake every day in Japan; there
    are 500 shocks in a year. As late as 1891 an earthquake wrecked two
    populous towns and destroyed two smaller ones. These photographs
    show the havoc of such earthquakes.
]

[Illustration: YOKOHAMA: THE TOWN AND HARBOUR IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE
GREAT CHANGE]

[Illustration: OLD TŌKIO: THE CITY OF YEDO, SEAT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF
THE SHŌGUNS FOR HUNDREDS OF YEARS

    The “Japan Bridge,” one of the striking features of the capital of
    Old Japan, was regarded as the centre of the empire, and from it
    all distances were measured.
]

The “Three Views,” known to every Japanese man, woman and child,
for they are portrayed in countless pictorial representations, are
sea-scapes. The 808 islets of Matsu-shima, with the thousand trees from
which the group derives its name of Pine Islands, are the glory of the
province of Sen-dai, in Northern Hon-shū; the hoary tori-i, or gateway,
of the great Shin-tō temple at the sacred island of Miya-jima,
or Itsuku-shima--so holy that no birth nor death may take place on
the island, and no dog is allowed there--stands firmly amidst the
very waves of the Inland Sea; Ama-no Hashidaté, the “Sacred Bridge,”
stretches its slender two-mile length of sandy spit, only 190 ft.
broad--crowned, all along, with an avenue of pine-trees--into the blue
waters of the gulf of Miya-zu, in the Sea of Japan.

The so-called Inland Sea, 240 miles long from its narrow western
entrance, only one mile across, between Shimo-no-seki on the main
island and Mo-ji, the busy colliery port in Kiū-Shū to its eastern
extremity, where it joins the open sea through the Aka-shi and Naru-to
Straits--it widens to forty miles where the Bungo Channel divides
Shi-koku from Kiū-shū--is perhaps the most lovely sheet of salt water
in the world. Studded with many hundreds of islands, every part of
its expanse offers an enchanting prospect, the islets being often in
clusters, making many stretches appear like lakes.

Water enters into the beauty of every Japanese landscape; districts
remote from the sea have their lakes and rivers--generally short,
swiftly-flowing streams, almost, sometimes quite, dry in summer,
exposing beds of pebbles, but rushing torrents in the wet season.

[Illustration:

    Keystone View Co.

MODERN YOKOHAMA: THE HARBOUR, SEEN FROM THE HEIGHTS OF THE TOWN]

Biwa is the largest lake in Japan, and far-famed for its scenery;
its area is about the same as that of the Lake of Geneva, and it is
nearly as beautiful. Lake Chū-zen-ji, or Chū-gū-shi, is surrounded by
luxuriant verdure at an altitude of 4,375 ft. above sea-level, and
is surpassed in beauty by the smaller Lake Yumoto, higher up, in the
sulphur-springs region, 5,000 ft. above the sea. There are many other
lovely lakes in Japan, Lake Hakoné amongst them. Those just mentioned
are singled out because they lie in the mountainous district round
Nikkō, a region on the main islands, to the north of Tōkio, presenting,
in their greatest beauty, characteristic features of Japanese inland
scenery--imposing mountains, stately, venerable trees, and grand
waterfalls comparable to those of Norway. The aspect of the Japanese
islands is, as may be inferred, diversified, stern and rugged amidst
the dark forests of the north, smiling in the sunlit regions further
south, beautiful almost everywhere.

[Illustration: OVERLOOKING MODERN TŌKIO, THE CAPITAL OF JAPAN]

[Illustration: Looking over the Bay of 808 Islands]

[Illustration: Sunset among the pine-clad rocks]

[Illustration:

    A natural arch      The White Co.

SCENES IN MATSUSHIMA BAY, JAPAN]

The land is chiefly mountainous, the ranges running from south-west
to north-east, interspersed with smiling valleys, fertile plains,
chequered into regular squares by the narrow, raised embankments
dividing the rice-fields, with, here and there, wild, desolate moors
in places where even the untiring industry and agricultural skill of
the people could not induce the stubborn ground to yield sustenance.
Where anything useful can possibly be made to grow, the Japanese grow
it. Beside plants of utility, they grow, to a greater extent than in
any other land, plants intended only for pleasure, for the delight they
give the Japanese eye by their beauty.

In no other country are flowers so reverently admired as in Japan;
nowhere are they more skilfully grown and tended. Every month has a
special blossom, and what may be termed its flower festival, when the
people, high and low, rich and poor, go in their tens of thousands
to seek happiness in the contemplation of Nature’s most delicate
productions. The plum-blossom appears about a month after the New Year,
and is followed by the far-famed cherry-flower early in April, when,
in many ancient groves and on many hillsides, the lightest of delicate
clouds, faintly pink, seem to have settled on the trees.

No words can do justice to the exquisite beauty of Japan in
cherry-blossom time; it is then easily to be understood how dear the
flower of the cherry is to the Japanese heart. To the people of Great
Japan it is the emblem of patriotism and of chivalry, sharing their
affections with the chrysanthemum, the badge of the empire. Other
flowers grown to wonderful perfection are the peony, symbolical of
valour; the graceful wistaria, the glowing azalea, the slim-stalked
iris, the convolvulus, or “morning-glory,” in many strange forms, and
the lotus, the sacred flower of Buddhism. Besides these and other
cultivated flowers, Japan possesses wild blossoms galore that fleck
its plains and valleys with colour. The leaves of the maple turn, in
November, to hues of crimson and gold, clothing the woods with a glory
to be equalled only in Canada.

The natural, beauty of Japan has undoubtedly fostered the æsthetic
taste inborn with the Japanese of all classes. High and low, they
admire and enjoy intensely the lovely scenes amidst which they
dwell. This admiration and enjoyment are strong incentives to their
patriotism. It seems to them that their beautiful country must indeed
be _Kami-no-Kuni_, “the Land of the Gods.” To travelled Occidentals,
the scenery of Japan suggests, in places, the Norwegian fjords; in
others, the smiling shores of the Italian lakes; at some points the
coves of Devonshire, the rocky coasts of the Channel Islands, or the
pleasant hills of Surrey. That these impressions are correct is proved
by the fact that Japanese travellers who visit any of these places
never fail to recognise their similarity to some favourite spot in
Japan.

The “backbone” of the southern half of the main island and of the whole
island of Shikoku consists of rock, principally primitive gneiss and
schists; Kiū-shū, Yezo and the northern half of the main island are
partly, the Kurile islands--Chishima--entirely, volcanic. Subterranean
fires still smoulder in many parts of Japan, many of the mountains
being volcanoes, not all of them extinct. Fuji, the glorious cone so
dear to the Japanese heart, uplifting its peak 12,365 ft. from the
surrounding plain, is a volcano that erupted last in January, 1708.
Fifty-one volcanoes, such as Asama and Bandai-san in Eastern Japan,
Aso-san in Kiū-shū, Koma-ga-také in Yezo, have been active in recent
years, some of them, especially Bandai-san, with disastrous results.
Nor do only volcanoes threaten danger to the inhabitants of Japan:
earthquakes are frequent--about 500 shocks yearly--and sometimes
appallingly destructive of life and property.

The great earthquake in the Gifu region, in the central provinces
of the main island, on October 28th, 1891, wrecked two populous
towns--Gifu and Ōgaki--completely destroyed two smaller ones--Kasamatsu
and Takegahana--killed about ten thousand people, and caused more or
less severe wounds to nearly twenty thousand. In Japanese earthquakes,
a great part of the destruction arises from the innumerable fires
that break out when the flimsy houses--mostly of wood, with paper
partitions, in sliding frames, between the rooms--collapse through the
shock, scattering the glowing charcoal from the kitchens amidst heaps
of highly inflammable materials. Earth-tremors bring not only fiery
ruin in their train; they cause at times upheavals of the sea that work
stupendous havoc. On the evening of June 15th, 1896, the north-eastern
coasts of the main island were overwhelmed by a so-called “tidal wave.”
The sea, impelled probably by a seismic convulsion on the bed of the
Northern Pacific, rose in a wave of towering height and, rushing inland
with terrific speed, engulfed whole districts. More than 28,000 lives
were lost, and more than 17,000 people were injured.

[Illustration: Sea-girt gateway of Miya-ima, a famous Shintō shrine

The Sacred Bridge at Nikko

    The White Co.

View of Fuji-yama across Motosu

THREE FAMOUS SCENES IN JAPAN]

[Illustration: THE CEMETERY HILL AT NAGASAKI BEFORE THE MODERN
EXPANSION OF THE TOWN]

[Illustration: THE CRATER OF FUJI, THE MOST GLORIOUS MOUNTAIN OF JAPAN,
MORE THAN TWO MILES HIGH

    Japan has fifty volcanoes that have been active in recent years;
    this picture shows the crater of the most famous mountain in the
    island empire. Fuji, the cone so dear to the Japanese heart,
    uplifts its peak 12,365 feet from the plain. It has not erupted
    since the beginning of 1708. No other natural feature in Japan
    comes so often into its pictures as Fuji.
]

[Illustration: MAP OF THE ISLAND EMPIRE OF JAPAN]




[Illustration: JAPAN AND ITS PEOPLE--II

ARTHUR DIÓSY]

QUALITIES OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE


[Sidenote: The Wonderful Islanders]

It is in presence of great calamities that the best qualities of the
Japanese masses shine brilliantly. Their resignation, their patient
endurance, the altruism that prompts them to mutual help and to
countless acts of kindness; their self-sacrificing bravery in the work
of rescue, the proud honesty with which they will content themselves
with the barest pittance, when relief is distributed, so that enough
may be left for others in greater need--these are only some of the fine
characteristics of the wonderful islanders whose achievements in recent
times have earned the respectful admiration of the world, even of their
late foes. There is, of course, another aspect of their character; they
are not without some of the vices and failings human nature is heir to.
An attempt is made, later in these pages, to describe their moral and
mental characteristics, and in so doing to hold the scales impartially.

[Illustration:

    Underwood & Underwood

THE RISING GENERATION IN JAPAN]

According to the census of 1913 there were 52,985,423 subjects of the
Emperor of Japan (excluding Korea), and their number is increasing
steadily and rapidly. The number of males exceeds that of females by
well-nigh a million. The population is very dense in the fertile
regions, and increases so rapidly that emigration is absolutely
necessary. The masses are healthy and strong, capable of great
endurance--a fact brought into striking prominence by the achievements
of the Japanese forces in the Arctic winter of Manchuria, and in its
torrid summer. The Japanese can, as a rule, bear cold much better
than heat. Living thinly clad in unwarmed houses that offer but little
protection and are by day draughty as bird-cages, they early become
inured to cold. The average physique of the upper classes is by no
means so good as that of the manual workers, and is considerably below
the Occidental standards.

[Sidenote: A Race of Little People]

The Japanese are a black-haired race, with smooth skins, varying in
colour through various yellowish shades, from a hue of brown, in the
case of those working in the sun, to a light tint no darker than that
of the Southern European, with comparatively large skulls, prominent
cheek-bones, and a tendency to projecting jaws. They are of small
stature, the average height of the male being only slightly over five
feet (5·02 ft.), that of the female slightly over four feet six inches
(4·66 ft.). In other words, the men are of about the same average
stature as European females, the women proportionately shorter.

[Sidenote: The Two Types of Japanese]

There are, of course, exceptions, some Japanese being of a height
that would cause them to be considered tall amongst Occidentals; but
they appear as giants amongst their diminutive compatriots. Both men
and women have small hands and feet, those of the upper classes being
beautifully shaped. Even amongst manual workers it is not rare to find,
especially amongst females, hands of an aristocratic type. The shapely
appearance of the feet is often spoiled by thick ankles, probably the
result of wearing sandals. The black hair is abundant on the head,
straight and coarse; there is hardly any on the arms, legs and chest.
The eyelashes are scanty, and grow immediately out of the eyelids,
without the “hem” that borders the eyelids of Occidental races. The
eyes are dark, full in the broad-faced, plebeian type, narrow in the
aristocratic cast of countenance. In the latter they are generally set
more or less obliquely, their slanting appearance being enhanced by the
fact that the aperture for the eye seems to have been cut, as it were,
directly in the smooth skin, tightly stretched over the upper part of
the face, not, as in the white races, in a very marked depression under
the brow.

[Illustration: THE CHILDREN’S FESTIVAL: FEAST OF DOLLS IN A JAPANESE
HOME

    Japan is the land of love for children, and many quaint customs
    are observed for their sake. On the third day of the third month
    in each year the Feast of Dolls is held in thousands of Japanese
    homes, and the day is one of great delight.
]

[Illustration: THE VARIOUS GRADES OF SOCIETY IN OLD JAPAN

    Society in Old Japan was based on the principle that the producer
    was worthy of high honour. There were four great classes. At
    the top were the _Shi_, the nobility and gentry, warriors,
    administrators, and scholars. Next were the _No_, the agricultural
    class; thirdly came the _Ko_, craftsmen and artists; and at the
    bottom were the _Sho_, traders and bankers. Some of the wealthier
    classes were thus at the bottom, because they were not producers
    but only circulators.
]

[Sidenote: Physique of the Nation]

[Sidenote: Cleanest Nation in the World]

There are two plainly distinct types in the nation. The majority are
“stocky,” rather squat people, with broad, round faces, rather thick
lips and flat noses; the minority, of the aristocratic type, are more
slenderly built, with long oval face and aquiline nose. In both types
the trunk is long as compared with the legs, their shortness being
probably due, in some measure, to the national habit of sitting on the
floor, in a kneeling posture, the weight of the body being thrown back
on to the heels. Sitting on benches, as in school and in barracks,
necessitated by the introduction of Western educational and military
methods, has somewhat improved the proportions of the Japanese body in
this respect. The admirable gymnastic training given in the schools
to children of both sexes, and, still more, the naval or military
service to which every able-bodied Japanese adult male is liable,
have done wonders in improving the physique of the nation. Statistics
collected by the Army Medical Department clearly show that the race is
gradually growing taller since the introduction of universal service.
The Japanese grow to maturity more rapidly than Occidentals; they also
age earlier. As in other countries, very old women are more numerous
than very aged men. Both the slender, often weakly, upper classes and
the stout plebeians are nimble in their movements, have supple limbs
and remarkably skilful fingers. The workers use their toes to hold
and steady the material on which they are at work, often sitting at
their labour where Occidentals would stand. The great toe is well
separated from the others, owing to the effect of the loop of cord
passing between them to secure the sandal to the foot, the tabi, or
sock, of cotton-cloth being made with a separate compartment for
the great toe. The skin of the whole body is generally of satin-like
smoothness, owing, no doubt, to the very hot baths--at a temperature
of about 110° F.--in which all Japanese indulge at least once a day,
thus maintaining their well-deserved reputation as the cleanest nation
in the world. To the Occidental eye, the majority of Japanese men
are not comely, although there are notable exceptions, presenting
fine faces, of noble and intellectual type. The women are often very
pretty, judged by the Occidental standard; they are nearly always
graceful and charming, owing to their exquisite manners and gentle
voice. The chief element in their charm is undoubtedly their perfect
femininity. There is absolutely nothing masculine about their ways or
their speech, yet, when the need arises, they are capable of courage
and self-sacrifice that places them on the same high level as their
heroic fellow-countrymen. It may safely be asserted that there are no
more dutiful wives, no better mothers. There are certainly no daughters
with a greater sense of filial piety, a virtue that forms the basis of
family life in Japan.

[Illustration:

    A lantern-mender

    A clock-maker

    Coopers at work

    Artists

    Plasterers at work

    A marionette show in the street

    The Royal Mail in Old Japan

LIFE AND WORK IN OLD JAPAN: SOME TYPES IN THE ANCIENT CAPITAL]

[Illustration:

    Peasant woman reeling silk

    Buddhist priest

    Mediæval friar

    Preparing cotton for spinning

    Servant

    Samurai bowing

    Japanese ladies at their toilet, using burnished metal mirrors

    Lady in walking costume

    A Japanese lady and her servant, showing the aristocratic and
    plebeian types of face

    Lady in walking costume

SOME TYPES IN OLD JAPAN: CHIEFLY DEPICTED BY NATIVE ARTISTS]

[Sidenote: The Chief Qualities of the Race]

Throughout the Far East the whole social fabric is based on the family;
the whole state is, indeed, considered as one great family, with the
Emperor at its head. It is the mothers who train Japanese children from
infancy in the spirit of reverence and obedience to parents and elders
in the family circle, and to the Emperor as the supreme chief of the
great national family. And well do the children assimilate the lessons
of obedience and devotion so carefully inculcated by the mother, for
there are none more docile than the boys and girls of Japan, whose
respectful, courteous manners, not only towards their parents, but
towards elder brothers and sisters, earn the admiration of Occidentals.
The chief qualities of the Japanese race are patriotism--which is, with
them, synonymous with loyalty--courage, filial piety, and cleanliness.
In love of country, in self-sacrifice for the common weal, in loyalty
to the sovereign--with them a cult--in reckless gallantry, and in
bodily cleanliness, the Japanese surpass all other nations of our time.
It may be truly said that patriotism is their real religion; it
inspires their magnificent courage in war, on land and sea; it supplies
the incentive of their lives in times of peace, all merely personal
considerations being subordinate to this passionate national feeling.

[Illustration: WINTER IN JAPAN; BY A JAPANESE ARTIST]

The people of Japan are distinguished, besides, by quick intelligence,
a remarkable power of observation--derived, no doubt, from their close
study of Nature, of which they are devoted lovers--by a mastery of
detail, and a very retentive memory, fostered by the system of learning
by rote imported from China, together with the writing by means of
ideographic signs, necessitating the memorising of thousands of
characters standing for words. In politeness they stand first amongst
the nations, every incident of life being attended by strictly-defined
rules of social etiquette, observed by all, not only, as in Occidental
countries, by the more highly educated classes. Their courtesy, though
often degenerating into mere hollow formality, is based on a kindly
regard for the feelings of others, a generous altruism and a consequent
depreciation of self. They are hospitable and open-handed, the giving
of presents attending numerous festivals and many occasions in social
life.

Schooled from babyhood by the rules of their rigid etiquette, Japanese,
young and old, of all classes, are remarkably quiet in their demeanour,
the higher ranks being extremely dignified in manner, and completely
concealing their feelings under an imperturbable mask. They bear pain,
both physical and mental, with Spartan stoicism, their nerves being
much less easily excited than those of Occidentals, so that they have
often been described as “a nation without nerves.” Their apparent
contempt for death arises chiefly from the fact that, to most of them,
the passing out of this world does not imply a total severance from
mundane interests, their general belief being that the spirits of the
departed have cognisance of the doings of those they leave behind. This
idea, inseparable from the ancestor-worship that has prevailed amongst
them from time immemorial, and still prevails, was well exemplified in
their great struggle with Russia, their forces being buoyed up by the
conviction that the spirits of all the warriors who had died for Japan
were fighting side by side with their gallant successors.

[Sidenote: Artistic Taste of the Japanese]

The love of the beautiful in Nature, common to all members of the
Japanese race, is probably one of the chief factors in the artistic
feeling so highly developed among all classes. Their appreciation of
beauty of form and colour, their exquisite sense of appropriateness in
decoration, the delicate restraint so evident in the productions of
their wonderfully skilful, patient artist-craftsmen, are too well known
to require more than passing mention. Even their commonest household
utensils are beautiful in shape, elegant, and well adapted to their
purpose. Their innate good taste has added a delicate refinement to the
vigorous art they received, in early times, from China, chiefly by way
of Korea. Their æsthetic perception enables even the poorest Japanese
to derive intense pleasure from the contemplation of the beautiful,
thus providing them with many delights unknown to the vast majority of
modern Occidentals. Combined with the simplicity and frugality of their
lives, and with their naturally contented spirit, it would seem to
have enabled the Japanese to solve the great problem “how to be happy,
though poor.”

A nation possessing, to a high degree, the virtues and qualities
just enumerated would appear to be living in a perfect Utopia. There
is, however, shade in the picture as well as bright light. This
happy, contented, smiling people, pre-eminent in domestic virtues,
industrious, fond of learning, easily governed, gentle in manners
and speech, capable of rising, in moments of national emergency,
to admirable heights of patriotic heroism and self-sacrifice, is,
after all, human, and consequently tainted with some of the vices
and many of the defects inherent in human nature. The defects of the
Japanese character are, to a great extent, inseparable from their very
virtues and good qualities in their extreme manifestations. Their
intense patriotism is the cause of the anti-foreign spirit still,
unfortunately, rife amongst them. Their country is to them “the Land
of the Gods,” their nation the Elect People, living under the special
protection of Heaven, whose blessings are transmitted to them by the
benevolence of a superhuman sovereign, directly descended, in unbroken
line, from the Sun Goddess.

[Sidenote: National Pride of the Japanese]

With this belief firmly rooted in the minds of the great majority
of the people, it is no wonder that all those who have not the good
fortune to be born Japanese appear to them not only as foreigners, but
as Gentiles. The statesmen of New Japan are profuse in their assurances
that it is the desire of their people to form a unit, on terms of
equality, in the great family of nations.

This assurance is echoed by many Japanese writers; it is in accordance
with the spirit of the tolerant, all-embracing, gentle Buddhist faith,
brimming over with sympathy for all living creatures; it is also in
agreement with the calm, placid tenets of the Chinese philosophy that,
with Buddhism, has to such a great extent moulded the thought of Japan.
Yet those statesmen and writers know full well that in this respect
neither Buddhism, nor Chinese philosophy, nor the cosmopolitan spirit
of the middle period of the nineteenth century, nor the brotherhood of
man inculcated by true Christianity, has succeeded, to any appreciable
degree, in causing the Japanese to look upon foreigners as brothers, or
even on the same plane with their own heaven-descended race.

[Illustration: LADY AT HER TOILET: BY A JAPANESE ARTIST]

The reckless bravery of the Japanese, their contempt for death, are
closely related to the slight value they set upon human life and to the
national delight in tales of bloodshed. Co-existent with the mildness
of their manners and the placid tenor of their domestic life, there
is found, deep in Japanese hearts, a wild delight in carnage, the
legacy, naturally most cherished amongst those of the warrior class,
of centuries of internecine warfare. The sword, “the living soul of
the Samurai,” is still held in reverence as the instrument not only
of national defence against the foreign foe, but of vengeance and
of the chastisement of one looked upon by the wielder of the weapon
as an enemy to the State. Hence the indulgence with which political
assassination is still regarded by the masses in Japan. As the brutal
instincts, inherited from primeval ancestors, often become manifest
in an English-speaking crowd watching a football match or a boxing
contest, so, in Japan, the old savagery reveals itself, time and again,
at fencing bouts, the excited cries of the combatants recalling the
bad, wild days of yore.

[Illustration: JAPANESE ON A PILGRIMAGE]

This fierce spirit seems incompatible with the noble generosity towards
prisoners of war, and the tender care of the enemy’s wounded and
sick, that redounded to the glory of the Japanese in both their great
struggles in our time, the wars against China and against Russia. It is
difficult to believe that savagery can survive in the breasts of people
capable of organising such an admirable institution as the Red Cross
Society of Japan, whose noble work, in war and peace, is one of the
chief glories of New Japan; but it must be remembered that the young
Great Power still feels itself to be undergoing probation under the
eyes of an observant and critical world. The natural instinct of the
Japanese warrior would lead him utterly to destroy the foe who dared to
oppose his Emperor’s will, and it requires the application of the most
severe discipline to make him understand that on his exercise of humane
forbearance to the vanquished depends, to a great extent, his nation’s
good repute among the Powers.

This desire to stand well in the opinion of foreign nations has
been so thoroughly inculcated in the people of New Japan that every
individual brought into contact with foreigners beyond the boundaries
of his native land feels that the honour of Japan is dependent on his
behaviour, even in minute particulars. Hence the high reputation for
excellent conduct enjoyed by Japanese students and others residing, or
travelling, abroad.

[Illustration: A FISH HAWKER IN JAPAN]

The altruism and self-effacement, born of the family system, fostered
by the division of the nation into clans--now officially abolished, but
still binding huge groups of families with strong ties--and culminating
in the most complete devotion to the head of the national family,
the Emperor, are the causes of a peculiar defect in the Japanese
character--the lack of individuality. It may be said of the Japanese
that, on most important matters, they feel and think by millions.
The whole system of their civilisation tends to make individual
effort subservient to the common cause; the reverence and obedience
inculcated from early childhood are not likely to develop the spirit
of individuality. Hence the wonderful facility with which the Japanese
combine to carry out any policy they recognise as needful for the
public welfare once that course has been clearly indicated by their
trusted leaders as one that has the Emperor’s approval.

[Illustration: A PEASANT IN A RAIN CLOAK

    (Made of straw.)
]

Japan is, for this reason, the land where leagues, unions, guilds,
trusts and “combines” work with astonishing efficiency, such
institutions being, by their very nature, well suited to the national
character. There are, of course, exceptional Japanese who chafe under
the repression of their strong individuality; these occasionally break
through the national custom and strike out an independent line. Their
fate is not encouraging to those who might be tempted to follow their
example. Public opinion reproves them, and they are soon made to feel
that their conduct is looked upon as anti-national. Those amongst
them who will not bow their heads to the popular verdict, and refuse
to be reduced to the level at which the nation strives to keep the
individual, soon find life in their own country unbearable. In various
cities of Europe, still more in those of North America, such Japanese
individualists may be found living in self-imposed exile, shunned by
their compatriots, until the day, which comes to most of them, when
they submit and go home to resume their place in the ranks of a nation
that abhors eccentricity and expects every man to fit into his proper
groove in the great national machine.

The mental activity of the Japanese, their respect for knowledge and
for all intellectual pursuits, causing them to admire keen wits and
exercise of brainpower, have probably contributed in a large measure
to form one of the traits in their character that is repellant to
Occidentals--their inclination to be cunning and deceitful. In spite of
the high and pure ideals of their chivalry, they have not our loathing
for deceit, our contempt for chicanery, our respect for the truth. A
Japanese convicted of an untruth merely conceals his annoyance at being
found out by a smile, sometimes by a laugh, and is not deterred from
another statement at variance with facts should he consider it useful
to make one. Low cunning is frequently looked upon as cleverness;
the suppression of facts is so common that there is no other country
where it is so difficult to arrive at the truth. The national failing
of intense secretiveness arises, no doubt, from the suspicious nature
of the people, who distrust not only all foreigners, but even most of
their own race--a condition of mind due, to a great extent, to the
widely ramified system of spying that flourished during the rule of the
Tokugawa Shōguns, and still exists to a lesser degree.

Their infinite capacity for attention to the most minute details leads
to a certain pettiness, a disinclination to consider great abstract
questions, and, consequently, to a narrowness of view that accounts
for some of the blunders which occur in the execution of the otherwise
marvellously efficient policy of the rulers of Japan.

[Sidenote: Manners of the Haughty Samurai]

The exquisite politeness of the Japanese is responsible for a great
part of that insincerity with which they are taxed by Occidentals
who have been much in contact with them. This extreme courtesy makes
them so anxious to avoid any speech that might possibly give offence
that they frequently distort the truth, suppress it entirely, or
replace it by polite fiction, intended to give pleasure. It should be
remembered that, in the knightly times of old--they continued until
the early ’seventies of the nineteenth century--a Japanese had to be
very guarded in his speech and demeanour; quite unintentionally, a word
lightly spoken, an incautious gesture, might give dire offence to a
Samurai--one of the gentry, privileged to wear two swords--who would be
quick to resent the fancied slight to his punctilious sense of personal
dignity. Insults, real, and often imaginary, were wiped out with blood.
Hence the endeavour to avoid any possible cause of offence, for the
same reason that made Europeans very circumspect in their behaviour in
the days when gentlemen wore swords and drew them on small provocation.

[Illustration: THE END OF A JAPANESE FEAST: BRINGING IN THE SEA-BREAM]

To such a pitch was punctilio carried amongst Japanese gentlemen until
quite recent times that they preferred death, inflicted by their own
hands in the most painful manner--by self-disembowelment, or hara-kiri,
more elegantly termed seppuku, or “self-immolation”--to living with
a stain on their honour, such stain being often merely inability to
disprove a slanderous imputation. To this day, the Japanese remain the
most acutely sensitive people on the point of honour; so “touchy” are
they that friendly intercourse with Occidentals is thereby rendered
extremely difficult.

What places an additional bar to perfect cordiality in such relations
is the deplorable fact that an Occidental may unwittingly give grave
offence to a Japanese without the latter giving any sign of displeasure
at the time. Allowance is seldom made for the perfectly unintentional
error on the part of the offender, whilst the grievance is allowed to
rankle, is rarely forgiven, and never forgotten. Where an Occidental
would certainly call his friend’s attention to the fact that he was
displeased by some remark or action that would, no doubt, be promptly
atoned for by a sincere apology, thus terminating the incident, the
Japanese says nothing. He nurses his resentment, sometimes for years,
until a fitting opportunity presents itself to avenge the real, or
fancied, wound to his feelings by some particularly unpleasant action
directed against the Occidental, all unconscious of his offence.

This unfortunate peculiarity of the Japanese character is the outcome
of two main currents that run through the national temperament--the
spirit of secrecy, already alluded to, and the thirst for revenge. The
latter, possibly due to the strain of Malay blood in the much-mixed
Japanese race, is one of the chief stumbling-blocks hindering the
introduction of Christianity, and has prevented Buddhism, also a
religion teaching meekness, from obtaining a complete hold on the
people. In its petty forms, this spirit of long-cherished spite is
merely annoying; in its extreme manifestations it becomes exceedingly
dangerous.

It may be thought that the admirable magnanimity displayed by the
Japanese towards the vanquished in their wars with China and with
Russia affords evidence that the old spirit of revenge is dying out.
Unfortunately, it is as strong as ever, the explanation of the apparent
anomaly being that, in both cases, the foe was vanquished, and thus
became, according to the principles of Japanese chivalry, an object
for mercy and compassion. As long as the opponent resists, or refuses
to surrender at the mercy of the conqueror, he is implacably attacked;
the moment he has, metaphorically speaking, grovelled and placed the
victor’s foot on his head, he is raised from the ground and treated
with the greatest consideration.

[Illustration: A GROUP OF CIVIL AND MILITARY OFFICIALS IN OLD JAPAN]

This applies not only to warfare, but to those incidents in civil life,
already alluded to, in which a Japanese considers himself aggrieved,
especially when the offender is a foreigner. In such cases, humble
apology for the slight, however unintentional--in fact, an attitude
amounting to “I do not know what I have done to offend; but, in any
case, I own I am in the wrong, and promise, with sincere apologies, not
to offend again; deal with me as you think fit,” would generally ensure
the restoration of good relations, provided the apology be sufficiently
public to gratify the self-esteem of the Japanese. It is hardly to be
expected that a self-respecting Occidental would demean himself thus to
atone for an error unconsciously committed.

[Sidenote: Defects of Japanese Character]

Japanese self-esteem has just been mentioned; it often becomes
insufferable arrogance, showing plainly, through a cloak of false
modesty, “the pride that apes humility.” This arrogance, displayed
chiefly towards foreigners, but also by Japanese in official positions
towards their fellow-countrymen of inferior rank, is intimately
connected with another national failing, excessive vanity. It is less
noticeable amongst sailors and soldiers than amongst civil officials of
corresponding rank.

Minor failings of the Japanese are jealousy, envy of those who achieve
success, and, connected with these faults, a great love of gossip and
a readiness to listen to slander, or to disseminate it.

[Illustration: A STREET SCENE IN A VILLAGE OF OLD JAPAN]

[Sidenote: Japanese Ideas of Modesty]

There are, finally, two charges to be examined that are frequently
levelled at the Japanese by those who profess to know them well--the
accusations of immorality, sexual and commercial. The first of these
charges may be disposed of by the statement that the Japanese are about
as moral in their sexual relations as the Latin nations of Europe,
with the advantage slightly in favour of the Japanese. What has given
them an evil repute in this respect is, probably, the fact that they
consider as natural, and treat accordingly, certain evils that the
Northern Occidental peoples affect to ignore. The natural, simple
life led by the vast majority of Japanese predisposes them to take a
natural, sensible view of matters that the less primitive conditions of
Western civilisation have imbued with an objectionable significance.
They see, for instance, no harm in nudity where it is unavoidable,
as in bathing, or convenient, as in the performance of hard work in
hot weather. A Japanese woman will feel no shame at being seen naked
when entering or leaving the daily bath, but would strongly object to
what she would consider the gross immodesty of exposing a considerable
surface of her body in Occidental evening dress. In the first case,
the nudity is looked upon as quite natural; in the second, as useless
and provocative of pruriency.

[Sidenote: National Honour in Commerce]

As to the commercial morality of the Japanese, it is necessary to
observe the great difference that exists between the position, in this
respect, of Japanese State institutions, financial and commercial
corporations, and firms of the first rank on the one hand, and the
great mass of traders on the other. The Imperial Japanese Government,
municipal corporations, and the great financial institutions and
industrial and commercial associations under State control (such as
subsidised steamship companies), have always met their obligations with
scrupulous fidelity and are likely to continue to do so. With them
the national honour is considered at stake; it is certain that the
last Japanese will part with his last garment sooner than involve the
national credit in disgrace by failure to meet the nation’s engagements
towards the foreign creditor.

[Sidenote: Results of Old Class Divisions]

It is, unfortunately, quite otherwise in the case of the great bulk
of the trading classes. There are, in Japan, a number of first-class
firms, some of them established for centuries, whose reputation is
above reproach; but between these and the majority of the merchants a
great gulf is fixed. It must be remembered that, until the beginning
of the New Era, in the early ’seventies of the nineteenth century, the
trading community formed the lowest of the four classes, then sharply
and immutably divided one from the other, composing that part of the
Japanese nation that had full civil rights (below them stood only the
Eta, who carried on despised occupations, involving contamination by
contact with dead bodies, human or animal, and the outcast Hi-nin).

[Illustration: IN THE OUTSKIRTS OF YEDO, NOW TŌKIO, THE CAPITAL OF
JAPAN]

The nation was divided into Shi, the nobility and gentry, the military,
scholarly and administrative class; No, the agriculturists; Ko, the
craftsmen, with whom the artists were counted; and Sho, the traders,
placed below farmers and handicraftsmen as non-producers.

The natural consequence of this low place in the social scale was a
lack of self-respect on the part of those engaged in commerce and
finance that led them to be unmindful of their good repute. Trade and
finance were looked upon by the majority as occupations unworthy of
a gentleman and beneath the callings of the peasant and the workman;
every trick was considered excusable when practised by the merchant,
whose whole business was looked upon as a sort of warfare, in which
cunning stratagem could be legitimately employed to the end of personal
gain, a purpose appearing most unworthy to the classes swayed by the
old knightly spirit. The evil effects, on a class as on an individual,
of a bad reputation and consequent public contempt have, unfortunately,
outlived the abolition of the old social divisions. The Japanese
merchants and bankers no longer form a separate and despised class;
the gentry, even members of the aristocracy, are engaging every day
more and more in financial, industrial and commercial pursuits, many of
them with marked success, yet the old taint adheres to the bulk of the
trading community.

[Sidenote: The Desire to Trick the Foreigner]

There are, of course, many strictly honourable dealers in Japan, even
amongst the smaller tradespeople and retailers. It is amongst the
wholesale merchants and the brokers that lapses from the straight
path of commercial integrity are still frequent, especially in their
dealings with foreigners. It is, unfortunately, still the case that an
advantage gained over the foreigner, even by the most shady methods, is
looked upon as, in some way, a national victory. This deplorable point
of view is likely to prevail as long as Japanese nationalism exists in
its extreme form.

[Sidenote: Japanese National Finance]

The Japanese Government has, time after time, loudly proclaimed, by
the mouths of its statesmen at home, and its representatives abroad,
its desire to facilitate, in every way, the introduction of foreign
capital, the vital influence so urgently required for the realisation
of Japan’s bold schemes of industrial and commercial development.
Strange to say, this cordial invitation, though energetically responded
to by the capitalists of Europe, especially of Britain, and by those
of America, has not, as yet, led to the investment of any very
considerable sums in Japanese enterprises, although, as is well-known,
the Japanese Government has easily borrowed many millions sterling in
London, New York and Paris, for purposes of State. The chief obstacle
to the investment on a large scale, of foreign capital in Japanese
enterprises is to be found in the fact that, forgetting that capital
is, after all, a commodity, therefore subject to the laws of supply and
demand, the Japanese financial and industrial classes do not realise
that the capitalist, being virtually the seller, controls the price of
his property.

[Sidenote: The Social Qualities of the Japanese]

A mistaken impression appears to prevail in Japan that foreign capital
is _obliged_ to find an outlet in the Empire of the Rising Sun and
must, therefore, submit to such conditions as may seem suitable to the
Japanese and accept such security as the Japanese may deem sufficient.
As long as this erroneous view obtains, there can be no considerable
influx of foreign money into the coffers of Japanese industrial and
commercial concerns. Experience is proverbially the best teacher; the
dearth of funds that is certain to follow, in due time, the abnormal
and feverish activity which is animating Japanese economic conditions,
immediately after the successful issue of the great struggle with
Russia, will undoubtedly induce a more reasonable appreciation of
the circumstances. Once the Japanese have been taught by experience
that they must regulate their demands by the lowest terms considered
acceptable by the foreign holders of capital, a vast and profitable
field will lie before those Occidental capitalists who have the
advantage of expert advice in their selection of Japanese investments.

As a general rule, it may be stated that intercourse with the people
of Japan leaves Occidentals very favourably impressed with the social
qualities of the inhabitants of the island empire. Their exquisite
courtesy, their gentle manners, and the thousand ways in which they
demonstrate that kindness of heart that lubricates the wheels of life’s
machinery all tend to make ordinary, everyday relations with Japanese a
delightful experience. It is only when the more serious aspects of life
are approached that the Occidental begins to feel the wide divergence
between his point of view, in nearly every important matter, and that
of the Japanese.

[Sidenote: Courtesy of the Japanese]

It is exceedingly difficult to specify with exactitude the particular
feature of the Japanese character which lies at the root of the
unfortunate fact that nearly all Occidentals who have had serious
dealings with the people of Dai Nippon have emerged from their
experience exasperated and often disgusted. It is probable that want of
candour is the trait that acts as the sharpest irritant, for it must be
confessed that frankness, so highly prized by Occidentals, especially
by those of the nations that “push the world along,” is neither
appreciated at its true value nor generally practised by the Japanese.
The very nature of their elaborate courtesy makes them shrink from
that bluff frankness which obtains amongst Occidentals on a footing of
intimate friendship. Even the Japanese mode of speech is a hindrance
to direct statement of fact; a Japanese, asked if he has ever been in
England, will reply, in his own tongue, “Yes,” and, after a pause, “I
have _never_ visited England.” He would not deem it polite to shock his
questioner by a direct negative!

[Illustration: THE AMAZING SUICIDE: A GHASTLY FACT IN THE LIFE OF OLD
JAPAN

    This picture represents the Japanese custom of “Hara-kiri,” or
    disembowelment, known also as “Seppuku,” or self-immolation, the
    form of suicide which was the privilege of gentry in Old Japan
    instead of death at the hands of the executioner. Instances of this
    ghastly act occurred frequently during the Russo-Japanese war,
    Japanese destroying themselves rather than surrender. The standing
    figure in the picture is the best friend of the man about to die,
    acting as his kai-shaku, or second, ready to strike off his head on
    receiving the sign from the dying man.
]

Another peculiarity of the Japanese character, that is apt to loom
large in Occidental eyes as a grave national failing, is the lack
of the spirit of gratitude, as it is understood by the white races.
The Japanese have, hitherto, never failed to deal out fair measure,
according to the letter of the contract, to the numerous Occidentals
whom they have employed, as advisers and instructors, in adapting
Western civilisation to the material needs of their re-organised
empire; their labours, as well as those of friends of Japan who have
rendered voluntary, unpaid services, have also been recognised by the
bestowal of marks of Imperial favour; but it is doubtful whether a real
feeling of what we term gratitude has ever entered the hearts of
the nation towards the many distinguished men who have given of their
best to assist in the making of New Japan, or to spread a knowledge of
its greatness. This doubt does not apply to the Navy and Army; those
gallant forces, keeping the sacred fire of chivalry alight, show deep
gratitude to the British sailors and European soldiers--French and,
after them, Germans--who instructed them in the modern art of war.

[Illustration: TYPICAL JAPANESE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS]

Sympathy with their aspirations is, of course, cordially welcomed from
every quarter by the Japanese; they are delighted to receive help of
any kind from Occidental friends at such times as, in their view,
render such assistance or sympathy necessary. When the occasion has
passed, and they feel independent of foreign support, they not only
cease to make any effort to attract, but take no pains to conceal their
indifference to it. This attitude, induced by the severely practical
nature of their policy, is repugnant to Occidental feeling, and has
caused the accusation to be brought against the Japanese that they
treat their foreign friends “like lemons, to be thrown away once the
juice has been squeezed out of them.”

This course of conduct should not be judged too harshly; it should be
remembered that such a proud, hypersensitive nation is ever desirous of
displaying its independence, and is consequently averse to appearing
to solicit help or sympathy from the outside. A gifted Frenchman, a
true friend of Japan, the late Félix Régamey, several of whose spirited
pictures of Japan are reproduced in this History, and who did much
to gain sympathy for that country amongst his compatriots at a time
when they were little inclined to extend it, said to the writer: “It
would, indeed, be a pleasure to help the Japanese, but they will not
let one help them.” It is noticeable that this coolness towards foreign
sympathy is usually coincident with a period of national elation,
consequent on the victory of Japanese arms or the obtaining of some
solid advantage by Japanese diplomacy.

Reviewing impartially the good and the bad points of the Japanese
national character, one must come to the comforting conclusion that
its faults are likely to disappear, or, at least, to be considerably
attenuated in the future, as Japan enters more and more into the active
life of the family of nations. The pressure of the public opinion of
the vast majority of civilised mankind must exercise a beneficial
influence in bringing the Japanese gradually into line with ourselves
where the points of view are still too widely divergent to admit of
cordial co-operation between them and Occidentals. The virtues now
pre-eminently Japanese may, indeed probably will, suffer to a certain
extent in the process; it is the writer’s firm conviction that enough
of them will remain to enable the Japanese to accomplish the glorious
destiny towards which they are marching. Their patriotism, their
valour, their thoroughness, their wisdom in matters of national moment,
are of the virtues that make nations great.

    ARTHUR DIOSY

[Illustration]