Please see the Transcriber’s Notes at the end of this text.

  Elements printed in italics or in boldface have been transcribed
  between _underscores_ and =equal signs= respectively. Small capitals
  have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. Superscript and subscribt texts
  have been transcribed as ^{text} and _{text}. Some formulas contain
  italic letters followed by subscript indices; these will show two
  underscores, as in _T__{a}.





  HIGHWAYS
  AND
  HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION


[Illustration:

  © _Major Hamilton Maxwell_
  © _Underwood and Underwood_

STORM KING HIGHWAY

A Great Engineering Project Along the Hudson between Cornwall and West
Point, N. Y.]




  HIGHWAYS
  AND
  HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION

  BY

  GEORGE R. CHATBURN, A.M., C.E.

  _Professor of Applied Mechanics and Machine Design
  Lecturer on Highway Engineering
  The University of Nebraska_

  NEW YORK
  THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY
  PUBLISHERS




  COPYRIGHT 1923, BY
  THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY

  _Printed in the United States of America_




PREFACE


The following pages on Highways and Highway Transportation do not
pretend to be an exhaustive treatise on the subject, but rather a
glimpse of the vast development of the humble road and its office as
an agency for transportation. Possibly the grandeur of the mountains
is best appreciated by one who lives among them, who climbs their
acclivitous heights, who daily experiences their power and majesty,
and measures their magnitude by grim muscular exertion. But, even
so, it would be foolish to contend that he who gets his information
from the seat of a Pullman car receives no benefit from the hasty
glimpse, or, that his imagination is not quickened and cultured by
the experience. In writing this book, then, I have had constantly in
mind the myriads of people who have not the time, and possibly not the
facilities, to search the pages of the literature of the past for the
origin and development, or to work out their present importance, of
our amplification of roads and of road uses. It is felt that many of
these people laudably desire a conversational knowledge of the origin,
evolution and present status of highway transportation, even though it
be glimpsed by a very rapid passage through a very large subject.

The primary objects have therefore been, to sketch briefly and simply
the development of the transportation systems of the United States,
to indicate their importance and mutual relations, to present some
practical methods used in the operation of highway transport and to
make occasional suggestions for the betterment of the road as a usable
machine for the benefit and pleasure of mankind.

Any observations made or conclusions drawn are purely personal. I
entered into and have carried on the work entirely unbiased. I am
not financially or otherwise, except academically, interested in
any firm or company whose business has to do with transportation
either directly as a carrier, or indirectly as a manufacturer of the
instruments or accessories to transportation, nor does any of my living
come from societies or foundations organized as propagandists for any
particular forms of transportation, or transportation materials or
equipment. I have no admiration for the man who hopes to see the steam
and electric railways put out of business or even caused to run at a
loss by the automobile, motor express or motor bus. Neither have I
any plaudits for the man who would arrest the growth of the new forms
of transportation by drastic legal enactments and excessive taxation
in order to preserve the old. I believe there is room and need in the
United States for all forms of transportation, and that each can thrive
in its respective field just as do wheat and corn but none will thrive
if they attempt to occupy the same field at the same time.

The text is naturally divided into two parts--the development of
highways and their use. The first part treats of the relation of
transportation to civilization generally, explaining briefly how the
two have grown together like children at school, how each has helped
the other, and how the meter of one is the measure of the other.

Leaving the old world there is sketched all too briefly the development
in the United States of transportation facilities from the coastal and
natural waterways, from the pack and trail, used by the aborigine and
early settlers, through the treks of the pioneers, the periods of canal
digging, the toll road competition, and the railway frenzy, to the
advent of the modern road with the coming of the bicycle and automobile
and their wonderful accelerative impulse.

The effects of State and Federal aid upon the road conditions of the
country are fully treated as is also the planning of highway systems.

Automotive transportation for business and pleasure including rural
motor express and bus lines, and their effect on production and
marketing are described and discussed.

In the chapters on highway accidents and highway aids to traffic,
attention is called to many types of accidents, including railway
crossing accidents, with suggestions for their mitigation. Here also
are given the most recent practical rules for the regulation of traffic
in both city and country.

A chapter is devoted to the esthetics of the highway, a subject just
coming to the attention of road men who have heretofore been mostly
concerned with distances, grades, widths and surfaces, which, by
the way, are frequently mentioned in the text. As in all building
construction the first appeal was made to material things and their
relation to the pocket-book, while the last and most enduring appeal is
spiritualistic and is made to the pleasures of the imagination.

The same idea of making the road a means of catering to the
preservative and pleasure instincts of man is considered in the final
chapter on aids and attractions to traffic and travel. Safety and
warning devices are discussed as such, while comforts and conveniences
are means for luring the average citizen to the highway, to the camps
and parks, for the broadening effect upon his character, the health of
his body, and the enlightenment of his soul.

Thus we close a most hurried journey from the very beginning of roads
to their modern far superior yet very imperfect attainments. The main
thought throughout has been the road as a usable agency in the economic
and entertaining phases of life. Each equally important to the wealth,
health, and happiness of our people. The mind easily travels ahead to
a time when separate roads will be devoted to the two great ends of
business and pleasure. Then the flight of fancy passes on to still
another period of time and sees the highways made inoperative and
superfluous, overgrown by weeds and grass, for the argosies of business
and pleasure have taken to the air.

  GEORGE RICHARD CHATBURN.

  LINCOLN, NEBRASKA
  March 9, 1923.




CONTENTS


  CHAPTER I

                                                                    PAGE

  TRANSPORTATION A MEASURE OF CIVILIZATION                             1

  Stages of Civilization: Direct Appropriation; Pastoral;
  Agricultural -- Manorial and Feudal Systems; Handicraft --
  Merchant Guilds, Effect upon Trade, Domestic System, Government
  Control, Agriculture; Industrial -- Building of Canals,
  Smelting Iron, Invention of Steam Engine, Railways Developed.
  Some Historical Roads and their Influence: Early Highways --
  Asiatic, Greek, Roman, Pre-Historic American.


  CHAPTER II

  TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES: EARLY TRAILS AND
  ROADS                                                               34

  First Settlements near Coast. Birch Bark Canoe, Meagerness of
  Roads. Settlement follows Waterways. Portages. Lines of Travel
  -- Through Alleghanies, from the North, Boone’s Trace or the
  Wilderness Road, Calk’s Diary. Explorations -- Marquette, Lewis
  and Clark, Fur Companies. Western Trails -- Oregon, Salt Lake,
  Later California, Santa Fé, Gila and Spanish. Turnpike Roads,
  Wagon Road Neglect, National Participation -- Cumberland Road.
  Early Inns.


  CHAPTER III

  WATERWAYS AND CANALS                                                70

  Coastal, Inlets, Rivers, Creeks. Canals -- Europe, New York,
  Pennsylvania, Ohio, Other States; Passenger Traffic on;
  Prosperity and Desuetude. Ship Canals: Sault Ste. Marie,
  Cape Cod, Panama -- Inducements for, Early Schemes, Routes
  -- Tehauntepec, Nicaragua, Others; French Participation --
  DeLesseps’ Grant, Company Organized; Other Promotion Schemes;
  Indignation in the United States against Foreign Building
  Canal; DeLesseps begins Work; Clayton-Bulwer Treaty; Hay and
  Pauncefote Treaty; Commission Reports Favorably on Nicaraguan
  Route; French Company Bankrupt; Colombian Congress Refuses
  to Sell to the United States Control of the Canal Strip;
  Panamanian Revolution -- Roosevelt’s Part in Revolution;
  United States Secures Control of Canal Strip, Colombia
  Protests; Construction of Canal Begun; Description of Canal,
  Canal Traffic. River Transportation: Small Boats, Pole Boats,
  Large Boats, Rafts. Steamboat: Construction, Mississippi
  River Traffic, New Orleans Levee, Mississippi Steamboats and
  Steamboating; Steamboat Fares. Government Attitude toward
  River Improvement. John Fitch Granted a Right in New Jersey;
  Calhoun’s Activities, Monroe’s Attitude. National Aid for
  Internal Improvements.


  CHAPTER IV

  RAILROADS                                                           99

  Origin and Early Development. Optimism of Promoters. Early
  Locomotives. First Chartered Railroad -- Charleston and
  Hamburg, First Passenger Car on Baltimore and Ohio, New
  York Central, Camden and Amboy, New England Roads, West of
  Alleghanies, in the South. Rapid Growth in Railway Mileage.
  Call for Government Aid. Land Grants. Pacific Roads --
  Congressional Discussion, Compromise Bills, Construction of
  Pacific Roads, Crédit Mobilier. Era of Railway Consolidation --
  Typical Consolidations, Methods of Consolidating. Mechanical
  Development: Rails, Freight Cars, Locomotives, Gauge,
  Telegraph, Signals. The Evolution of the Sleeping Car. Street
  Car Service. Electric Traction -- Origin, Development.


  CHAPTER V

  THE MODERN WAGON ROAD                                              126

  Neglect and Desuetude of Wagon Roads, 1830-1890. Laying out and
  Working Roads, Statutory Width of Roads. Influence of Bicycle
  for Better Roads: Origin of Bicycle, Development, Ordinary,
  Safety, Cycling Boom, Organization of Wheel Clubs, Propaganda
  for Good Roads, Prevalence of Poor Roads, Comments by Writers.
  Good Roads Associations; League of American Wheelmen,
  National Highway Commission, Col. Pope’s Propaganda, Bills
  Introduced in Congress. Office of Public Roads Inquiry: Duties
  and Limitations, Cooperation with Good Roads Organizations,
  National Good Roads Association -- Good Roads Trains, Object
  Lesson Roads, Policy Discontinued, Duties and Scope of Office
  of Public Roads Widened and Name Changed -- Educational Work,
  Research, Administration of Federal Aid. Rural Free Delivery
  of Mail: Origin, Development, Advantages. State Aid: Origin
  -- New Jersey, Salient Features, Difficulties of Getting it
  Enacted; Massachusetts; Other States; State Bonds for State
  Aid. Federal Aid; Enactment of Law, Provisions, Appropriation,
  Administration, Additional Appropriations.


  CHAPTER VI

  INTERRELATION BETWEEN HIGHWAY AND OTHER KINDS OF TRANSPORTATION    159

  Classification of Transportation. Railroads have not always
  Acted Honorably. Quantity Production and Division of Labor
  Applied to Railway Transportation, to Motor Transport.
  Automobiles Cutting into Railway Earnings, Babson’s Prediction.
  Effect of Motor Competition on Interurban Trolley Lines, on
  Street Car Lines, Taxicabs and Jitneys, Buses, Trackless
  Trolleys. Guaranteeing Earnings of Street Car Companies,
  Legitimate Fields of Transportation Agencies. Length of Haul
  for Economic Trucking. Reduction of Rates and Expenses. Carving
  out New Fields. Still Room for all Kinds of Transportation.


  CHAPTER VII

  AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORTATION                                          181

  Defined, Radical Changes to be Expected. Business Passenger
  Traffic: Jitney and Taxicab, Motor Bus -- Qualifications,
  Fares, Competition with Street Cars, Cross-country Service,
  Carriers of School Children, Transfer between Depots. Pleasure
  Passenger Traffic: An Influence in the Purchase of Automobiles,
  Pleasurable Effect of Automobile Riding, Recreational and
  Pathological Benefits of Motoring, Cost of Motoring. Freight
  Traffic: Cost and Time Factors, Motor Trucks and Congested
  Districts, Time Devoted to Loading and Unloading, Depots,
  Warehouses, Devices, Removable Bodies, Sectional Containers,
  Store to Door Delivery, Mass Loading. Devices Connected with
  the Truck. Devices Separate, Special Types of Bodies. Traffic
  between Towns: Economic Distance, Licenses and Insurance,
  State Regulation without Competition, Development of State
  Regulation. Motor Bus Traffic: Buses, Rates, Future of Motor
  Bus and Other Types of Transportation. To and from the Farm:
  Importance of Farm Trucking, Arguments in Favor of, Cost of
  Trucking, Diversified Farming, Intensive Farming, Live Stock.
  Trucking, Benefits to the Farmer, Economy of Farm Trucking,
  Parcel Post Service and the Farm, Rural Express, Milk Trucks,
  Convenience to the Farmer, Purchasing a Truck. Terminal
  Facilities: Advantages. Social Aspect of Motor Transportation:
  Effect on Merchandising, Housing, Unification of Society,
  Standard of Living, Size of Farms, Salesmen, Hotels, City and
  Country Stores. Consolidated Rural Schools: The Public School
  and Patriotism, Peace, Changing Concepts of Public Schools.
  Rural Mail Delivery. Automobile and Health: As a Form of
  Exercise, Effect on Styles; Medical Science; Sanitary Effects
  -- Mosquitoes, Flies. The Automobile and Crime: Bootlegging,
  Robbery, Vandalism. Types of Automobile Transportation.


  CHAPTER VIII

  PLANNING HIGHWAY SYSTEMS: SELECTION OF ROAD TYPES                  222

  Object of a Road. Road Classification: Agricultural.
  Recreational, Commercial, Military. Problem of the Road
  Planner: Economy, Accommodation, Utilizing Existing Roads.
  Essentials to be Considered: Ruling Points, Branch Lines and
  Detours, Alternate Routes, Existing Highways and City Streets,
  Vested Rights, Widening Roads and Streets, Railroads, Trolley
  Lines, etc., Bridges, Culverts, Drainage, etc., Ruling Grades,
  Esthetics. Motor Transport Efficiency Outline, Highway System
  Unit: Arguments in Favor of National System -- Eliminates
  Sectional Differences, Gives Continuous Roads, Military Roads,
  Benefits of Example. State Systems -- Benefits. Procedure of
  Laying out a Road System: Commission, Determining Factors,
  Maps, Tentative System, Reconnaisance Survey -- What Shown,
  How Taken, Instruments; Hearings -- Object; Final Location
  -- Considerations, Traffic Census Advisable. Financial
  Considerations: First Cost, Upkeep, Traffic Census: Affects
  Location, Type of Road, Grades, Width, Foundations. Making a
  Traffic Census: Variation of Traffic -- Number of Counting
  Days, Hours Each Day, Weights, Observer’s Cards, Both Way
  Count, Weather, Stations -- Location of. Classification
  of Traffic: Object, Maximum Loads, Effect of Heavy Loads,
  Influence Units of Traffic -- British, French, Other Countries,
  Maryland, Massachusetts, Borough of Brooklyn; Suggested Form
  of Traffic Sheet -- New Jersey. Destructive Factors: Density
  of Traffic, Weight of Vehicles, Impact, Speed, Wrinkling,
  Sprung and Unsprung Weight, Tires, Pleasure Cars and Light
  Traffic to be Considered. Other Methods of Estimating the
  Amount of Traffic: Area Served, Tonnage Arising. Distribution
  of Traffic over Township Roads. Selection of a Suitable Type of
  Road. Taxpayers Allowed to Assist in Selection, Engineers to
  Suggest. Ideal Road: Qualities of -- Low First Cost, Durability
  -- Materials and Design, Resistance to Traction and Tractive
  Force -- Horse, Truck, Speed, Temperature, Roughness, Width
  of Tire, Diameter of Wheel, Table of Resistances; Resistance
  Due to Grade -- Formulas, Coefficient, Available Engine
  Effort; Slipperiness -- Type of Pavement, Climatic Conditions;
  Sanitariness -- Definition, Effect of Type of Road; Noisiness;
  Acceptability. Some Types of Roads and their Qualities: Earth,
  Sand-clay, Gravel, Macadam, Bituminous Macadam, Bituminous
  Concrete, Brick, Concrete, Creosoted Wood Block, Asphalt Block,
  Sheet Asphalt, Other Types. Comparison of Roads -- Specimen
  Tables.


  CHAPTER IX

  EFFECT OF EASE AND COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON PRODUCTION AND
  MARKETING                                                          273

  Production Defined, Productive Activities -- Change of Form,
  Change of Place, Change of Time. Nature and Labor. Capital
  -- Stored up Labor. Marketing -- Wholesaling and Retailing.
  Grain Exchanges; Defined, Object, Commission Merchant, Dealing
  in Futures -- Hedging. Cooperative Marketing: Advantages.
  Local Grain Merchant -- Financing Movement of Crops. Elements
  Entering into the Cost of Marketing. Transportation from Farm
  to Local Market. Cost of Production, Effect of Good Roads upon,
  Intensive Farming, Fruit Farming, Long Haul Transportation.
  Stock Marketing: Changing Character of Stock Raising, Distance
  of Economic Hauling by Team and by Truck, Effect of Truck
  Hauling on Number of Hogs Marketed. Seasonal Effect. Stock
  Merchant -- Local, Shrinkage, Dairying. Poultry. Forestry:
  Logging and Lumbering, Forest Management, Use of Truck and
  Trailer, At Saw Mill, Log Loader, in Lumber Yards, Mining.
  Factory Products. From Factory to Retailer. Terminal Charges
  Eliminated. Construction.


  CHAPTER X

  FINANCING HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION LINES                306

  Origin and Reasons for Road Work. Working out Road Tax
  Abolished. Private Financing, Public Financing. Taxation: Tax
  Defined, Classified. Direct Taxes -- Levied Uniformly. Indirect
  Taxes: Defined, Classes of, Special Taxes, How Levied, Benefits
  Decrease with Distance, Petitioning Influence -- Curve of,
  Concrete Illustration. Zone Weights: How Determined, Plots and
  Tables. Frontage: Defined, Calculation, Illustrative Example.
  Unequal Zones and Irregular Lots -- Concrete Illustration.
  Another Method of Apportioning Assessments. Rule for
  Assessment. Miscellaneous Sources of Revenue: Public Service
  Corporations, Bus and Truck Lines, Municipal Sale of Water,
  Gas, Electricity, Ice, Coal. Public Ownership of Transportation
  and other Necessary Utilities. Bonds: Sinking Fund, Serial,
  Annuity, Comparison of Costs. Term of Bonds. Stocks and
  Bonds. National and State Aid. Present Status of Federal Aid.
  Matching Federal Aid Dollars. Financing Highway Transportation:
  Individual, Partnership, Corporation. Public Ownership -- When
  Advisable.


  CHAPTER XI

  HIGHWAY ACCIDENTS AND THEIR MITIGATION                             351

  Accidents Result of Disorder, Codes to Prevent, Automobile
  Accidents Lead in Number. Causes: The Driver -- Mentally or
  Physically Unfit, Ignorant, Indifferent, Reckless; Driving
  and Operating: Recklessness, Speeding, Around Sharp Turns,
  Passing Cars. Horns. Stopping Cars on Grades, in Streets,
  etc., Backing. Other Forms of Carelessness. The Car: Skidding,
  Brakes, Flexibility, Steering and Turning Ability, Lights,
  Unlighted Vehicles, Speedometer. Bad Roads: Slipperiness --
  High Crowns, Embankments and Guard Rails, Super-elevation --
  Rule for, Clear Vision, Curves, Bridges and Culverts. Railway
  Crossing Accidents: Prevalency, Elimination of Crossings --
  Cost, Automobile Drivers Careless -- Observations, Methods
  of Mitigation; Bridge Clearance. Pedestrians -- Jay-walkers,
  Obstacles that Obscure Vision, Pedestrians on Country Roads,
  Slow Going Vehicles, Bicycles. Road and Traffic Regulations:
  Development of, Council of National Defense Code, Education
  Necessary.


  CHAPTER XII

  HIGHWAY ESTHETICS                                                  382

  Indispensable Elements of Architecture -- Stability, Utility,
  Beauty. Esthetic Sense -- Applied to Roads, to Landscape
  Gardening. Styles -- Natural and Formal. Application to Roads.
  Varieties of Road and Street Trees -- List; Shrubs -- List;
  Climbers -- List. Semi-formal Style. Telephone and other Poles,
  the Ideal Section, Legislation Necessary. Local Conditions
  Determine Planting.


  CHAPTER XIII

  AIDS AND ATTRACTIONS TO TRAFFIC AND TRAVEL                         418

  Pleasure Riding -- Extent, Advantages to a Community to Have
  Tourists Pass through, Ranking and Parking, Parking Spaces a
  Convenience to Motorists -- Space for and Angle of Parking,
  Location of Parking Spaces, One Way and Rotary Traffic, Opera
  House Traffic, Public Garages -- Several Story Garages.
  Terminal Stations -- Omaha, Poughkeepsie, Elsewhere. Gas, Air
  and Water Stations, Named and Numbered Roads; Marks, Signs and
  Guides -- Distance and Direction Signs, Letters and Colors,
  Warning Signs, Map Signs, Detour Signs, Location of Detour
  Markers, Dummy Cop, Semaphores, Signal Lights and Colors, Road
  and Street Lighting, City Traffic Lighting, Traffic Officer,
  Semaphore and Towers. Touring: Prevalency and Pleasures of,
  Camping -- Grounds, Caravans, and Equipment. Camp Sites,
  Hotels, Parks, Information Bureaus and Agencies.


  INDEX                                                              465




LIST OF INSERTS


  1. STORM KING HIGHWAY                                   _Frontispiece_
  A Great Engineering Project Along the Hudson between Cornwall and
  West Point, N. Y.
                                                                    PAGE

  2. THE APPIAN WAY                                                   22
  Showing the original Paving Stones laid 300 B.C.

  3. MAP OF ITALY                                                     24
  Showing Some of the Twenty or More Roads that Radiated from Rome.

  4. MAP OF ROMAN ROADS IN ENGLAND                                    26
  (After Jackman: “Development of Transportation in Modern
  England.”)

  5. MAP OF THE NORTH-EASTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES            36
  Showing the Location of Well-known Portages. There Were Other
  Portages Wherever Two Water Courses Came Near to Each Other. (See
  Farrand: “American Nation,” Vol. I, and Thwaites, Ib. Vol. VII.)

  6. MAP                                                              42
  Showing Main Highways and Waterways in the United States about
  1830. When the Railroads Entered the Industrial Arena, the Country
  Was Being Covered With a Net Work of Highways. (Based on Tanner’s
  Map of 1825 and Turner in “American Nation,” Vol. XIV.)

  7. MAP                                                              54
  Showing Transcontinental Trails in the United States.

  8. WAY BILL                                                         66
  Used on the Slaymaker Stage Line from Lancaster to Philadelphia,
  1815. (Courtesy of Prof. P. K. Slaymaker, Lincoln, Nebr.)

  9. THE SAULT STE. MARIE CANAL                                       76

  10. THE EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY TRAIN                             102
    1. The First Railway Coach--1825.
    2. Horse Power Locomotive--1829-30.
    3. Stourbridge Lion--1829.
    4. Stevenson’s Rocket Locomotive--1829.
    5. The DeWitt Clinton Locomotive--1831.
    (From Brown’s “First Locomotive”--Courtesy of D. Appleton &
    Company.)

  11. MODERN LOCOMOTIVES                                             120
    1. Showing the Growth in the Size of Locomotives During the Past
       Twenty Years. The Smaller Locomotive is an _American_ Type
       Class Engine of 1900. The Larger is a _Mountain Type_ Engine.
       Both are Used on the C. B. & Q. R. R. Photographed at
       Lincoln, Nebr., Sept., 1922.
    2. One of the New Gearless _Electric_ Locomotives Built by the
       General Electric Company for the C. M. & St. Paul R. R.

  12. TRANSPORTATION ACROSS DEATH VALLEY                             126
  A Picturesque Method of Earlier Days.

  13. GOOD ROADS DAY IN JACKSON COUNTY, MO.                          132

  14. CHART OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE U. S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS
      AND RURAL ENGINEERING, 1917                                    142

  15. HARD SURFACE HIGHWAY IN OREGON                                 146

  16. A FARMER’S WIFE MEETING THE POSTAL TRUCK                       146

  17. TRACKLESS TROLLEY OPERATED ON STATEN ISLAND, N. Y.             166

  18. MOTOR OR RAIL-CAR                                              166
  Showing the Gasoline Locomotive and Trailer, Operated by the
  Chicago & Great Western R. R.

  19. THE EVOLUTION OF THE STEAM AUTOMOBILE                          182
    1. The Cugnot Steam Carriage--1770.
    2. The Trevithick & Vivian Steam Carriage--1801.
    3. The Gurney Steam Carriage--1827.
    4. The Church Automobile Carriage (Steam)--1833.
    5. Gaillardit’s Steam Carriage--1894.
    (Courtesy of the _Scientific American_.)

  20. A MODERN RURAL PASSENGER BUS                                   184

  21. A NEW YORK CITY “STEPLESS” BUS                                 184
  It Has an Emergency Door, with Wire Window Guards, and will Seat
  30 Persons.

  22. THE EVOLUTION OF THE GASOLINE MOTOR CAR                        188
    1. Panhard & Levassor Carriage--1895.
    2. Duryea Motor Wagon--1895.
    3. The Benz Motocycle.
    4. Hertel’s Gasoline Carriage--1896.
    5. The Olds Horseless Carriage.
    6. Winton’s Racing Machine.
    (Courtesy of the _Scientific American_.)

  23. HAULING BEANS BY MOTOR TRUCK AND TRAILER                       200
  Sacramento Valley, Calif.

  24. HAULING SUGAR BEETS TO MARKET IN A MOTOR TRUCK                 200

  25. TRAFFIC ON FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY                         234

  26. GIVING A MACADAM ROAD AN APPLICATION OF TARVIA BINDER          254
  This is Followed by a Coat of Screenings and then the Road is
  Rolled Again.

  27. A ROAD OF MIXED ASPHALT AND CONCRETE BEING TESTED OUT          254

  28. CROWNING A DIRT ROAD IN CALIFORNIA WITH TRACTOR DRAWN GRADER   263

  29. A MILK TRUCK EQUIPPED WITH BOTH CANS AND TANK                  296

  30. A LUMBER LOG TRUCK USED IN THE NORTHWEST                       296

  31. A NATIONAL HIGHWAY IN THE MOUNTAINS OF MARYLAND                332

  32. A DANGEROUS CURVE MADE SAFE BY AN ARTISTIC CONCRETE WALL       364
  The Tennessee State Highway at Lookout Mountain, Built of Cemented
  Concrete.

  33. PIN OAK STREET TREES                                           388
  About 15 Years Old on Land that Was Once Considered to be a part
  of the “Great American Desert.”

  34. A COTTONWOOD WIND BREAK                                        388
  Formerly very Common in the Prairie Region.

  35. WARNING AND DIRECTION SIGNS USED IN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS      434

  36. TRAFFIC GUIDES                                                 442
  (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation.”)

  37. NEW YORK CITY TRAFFIC GUIDES                                   444
  “In November, 1903, one hundred blue and white enameled signs,
  directing slow-moving vehicles to keep near the right-hand curb,
  were put in use in New York. These were probably the first traffic
  regulation signs ever used.”
  (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation.”)

  38. TRAFFIC TOWER ON FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY                   446

  39. CAMPING GROUND AND CARAVAN                                     458

  40. A GIPSYING TOURING CARAVAN                                     458




HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION




CHAPTER I

TRANSPORTATION A MEASURE OF CIVILIZATION


As the several peoples inhabiting the earth have progressed from
barbarism through the different stages of civilization, the
transportation occasioned by their wants and desires has kept a close
pace. By a study of the transportation--travel, movement of goods and
commodities--and the means and facilities for its accomplishment,
the relative civilization of any people, their rank and position may
be accurately surveyed, graduated, and estimated. The highways of a
nation, whether they be of the land or sea, or both, are most vital
elements in its progress and could almost as well as transportation be
considered the measuring rod of civilization.


=Stages in Civilization.=--Sociologists differ as to what constitute
the several stages of civilization. One might trace the development
of man through literature, another through art, another through
government; others consider his economic activities the more
fundamental factors. The most widely used economic classification,
according to Ely,[1] is based upon the increasing power of man over
nature and consists of (1) Direct Appropriation, (2) The Pastoral
Stage, (3) The Agricultural Stage, (4) The Handicraft Stage, and (5)
The Industrial Stage. These stages are well illustrated in English
history. The stage of direct appropriation corresponding to the
prehistoric period and up to 54 B.C., when the Romans overran the
island of Britain; the Pastoral stage from this time to the invasion by
William the Conqueror, 1066; the Agricultural up to about the discovery
of America, when a great impetus was given to travel and discovery; the
stage of Handicraft, from 1500 to the invention of the steam engine
and its application to manufacture at the beginning of the eighteenth
century; the Industrial stage, to the present time. While these
stages necessarily overlap each other considerably, it will be seen
that as one declines the next is ushered in with some radical change
in government or in economic or industrial condition. The present
day--immediately following as it does the Great World War, out of
which have issued many scientific discoveries and inventions, notably
those advancing the theory and practice of air navigation, with many
potential possibilities in new lines of transportation; and the setting
forth of an idea which is capable of leading to a better understanding
or even a confederation of nations and altering all forms of national
government--may be the beginning of a new stage of civilization.


=Stage of Direct Appropriation.=--This stage covers the whole course of
prehistoric man from the time the first ape stood erect some 500,000
years ago[2] through the stone, bronze, and iron ages to the age of
literature and art. During these long years civilization traveled far,
for the least cultured savages observed have advanced not only away
beyond the highest of the lower animals but also beyond the lowest
intellectual estate of which human beings may be supposed capable
of subsisting. And from the lowest to the highest of these tribes
are shown traits varying as greatly in degree as from one stage in
the above classification to another. The Indians at the time of the
discovery of America and the three centuries following, and many of the
tribes of Africa during the explorations of Livingstone and Stanley,
were and still are in this stage and hence have been subjected to
scientific study and investigation. Their governments while variable
are of the primitive types. Ordinarily a chief autocratically rules
because of hereditary influence. Little is manufactured, planting is
scarcely known; by hunting, fishing, and collecting nature’s products
of wild seeds and roots is a subsistence obtained often with long,
arduous, and dangerous labor. Efficiency, as we understand that term
to-day, is very low, and the number of persons that a given area can
support is few. No one can predict but what to-morrow he may have to
go hungry or suffer cold from the inclemency of the weather, for his
store of food is _nil_ or small, his shelter rudimentary and clothing
scanty. Note the hardships of the party of Henry M. Stanley during his
expedition across the African wilderness in quest of Emin Pasha.[3]
Notwithstanding Stanley’s men were possessed of firearms and edged
tools and carried some provisions with them, and were traversing
a country teeming with vegetable and animal life, many times they
were on the verge of starvation. The number of the natives in these
wildernesses are no doubt kept low because of the extreme difficulties
of procuring the necessities of life.

The barbarian requires less, of course, than the civilized man; he
is satisfied with mere subsistence. He is improvident and relies
upon picking up his needs from day to day as a robin picks worms
from the grass. Cannibalism often exists, for the sacredness of
human life has not yet been established, although magic and crude
religious rites are seldom missing. While private personal property
is recognized and retained by personal prowess, the ownership of land
is absent. Coöperation of the crudest sort only is found; division
of labor consists largely in having the females perform the work of
planting, cultivating, carrying burdens--when these are attempted
at all--cooking and caring for the children in the crudest fashion,
leaving to the men the work of hunting, fishing, and fighting. Each
tribe is self-sufficient and consists of a chief with a few followers
bound together loosely for the purposes of protection from other
tribes. Exchange, barter, and trade is at its lowest ebb; consequently
transportation is practically unnecessary, and roadways except mere
trails do not exist.


=The Pastoral Stage.=--In the process of evolution certain animals
undoubtedly were domesticated and used for food. Whether or not this
domestication preceded or followed primitive agriculture or “hoe
culture,” is not important, as the pastoral stage of culture evidently
lies between the hunting and the farming stages. The written history of
mankind indicates that this stage largely prevailed among the earlier
Hebrew, Greek, and Teutonic races. A private ownership in cattle and
herds was recognized, but the necessity of moving about with the flocks
precluded fixed habitations, although large areas were claimed and held
or endeavored to be held from trespass thereon by neighboring tribes.
A given area would thus support a much larger number of people than
in the preceding stage. A small amount of trading or bartering was
carried on and consequently some transportation was required, but road
building as such was little known. Rivers and coast waters for canoes
and dugouts were no doubt early taken advantage of by the aborigines of
bordering territories. But since there is so little division of labor,
so little of barter and exchange, commerce was not developed much
during this stage.


=The Agricultural Stage.=--The growing and storage of crops, increased
by the use of animal power, greatly changed the economic and social
conditions of man. It made possible and profitable the living in fixed
habitations, even in communities, and this brought out the needs of
rules of government. But even yet each family provided without the
assistance of others for practically all its own needs. In planting,
reaping, threshing, grinding the meal and cooking, the family became
the unit. No great division of labor was yet evident, consequently
exchange, barter, and transportation still remained low. Ownership of
land was necessary if a family was to cultivate the same land year
after year. This meant definite rules and laws and consequently the
development of governments. Ownership of herds and land brought wealth
and a certain distinction in the community. Slavery, which had no doubt
existed to some extent in the pastoral stage, here, because it greatly
increased wealth, grew immensely. Large families likewise meant more
workmen and greater wealth, distinction, and leisure, hence polygamy
and polyandry often existed. As the evolution continued there was a
trend toward handicraft and the division of labor; the products of one
place began to be exchanged for the products of other places. This
necessitated some forms of transportation, meager though they might be,
and trails between communities.


=The Manorial and Feudal Systems.=--In England and on the continent
during the later years of this stage there were developed the manorial
or feudal forms of government. The people lived largely in villages
each controlled by a lord or earl (eorl) and to whom in return for
his protection, the use of land, and other favors, they were bound to
return to him service in the cultivation of his land and in waging war
when called upon to do so. The lords in turn held their allegiance to
the king. Some handicraftsmen were among the retainers but they were so
few that they did not form an important part of the village, neither
was there a great deal of travel or transportation. The manor instead
of the family was the unit, and it was almost self-sufficient. The land
was allotted in small tracts and tilled in the manner designated by the
lord. Each person raised barley, oats, peas, and lentils sufficient for
his own needs. Variation in crops was little practiced. Much land at
distances from the manor was still devoted to herds and flocks.

However, toward the later part of this stage, the feudal system began
to break down. There were more free-holders and free-tenants, living
upon the land they cultivated according to their own ideas. Wheat, rye,
flax, and root crops were assuming greater importance. This variety in
farming and the larger fields cultivated by the individual naturally
increased the products to be sold or exchanged and hence increased
transportation. People who had devoted only so much of their time
to spinning and weaving as was necessary to supply their own family
needs, were beginning to do more, selling the excess and purchasing
from others things not grown or manufactured by themselves. Thus were
developed towns as centers of trade; money as a medium of exchange
assumed greater importance; and a division of labor brought into being
and increased the social standing of trades and professions. Thus was
ushered in the Handicraft Stage of civilization.


=The Handicraft Stage.=--In England this stage lasted through
approximately five centuries, from 1200 to 1700. The merging of one
period into another came about so gradually that a definite date
can hardly be designated, and the time is so long that undoubtedly
many changes occurred in the economic activities as well as in the
government and literature of the people.

While it is probable that merchants, middlemen who bought from one
person and sold to another, had thrived throughout the earlier
civilizations of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and even extended their
trade to Britain, merchandising held a comparatively minor position
in England until the twelfth century, when merchants became very
prominent, so much so that combinations or guilds were formed by them
in all the large towns for the purpose of protecting and controlling
the conduct of business and, to some extent, of maintaining a
monopolistic control of the trade in their particular businesses. A
guild was an association or fraternity of persons engaged in the same
line of business. It differed from a trade-union in that the guild was
an association of masters and employees, whereas the trade-union is an
association of employees only.

Many of the merchant guilds grew wealthy and strong; they obtained
Royal Charters from the Crown either by direct payment or by an
arrangement to pay a special tax, or secured recognition in the
borough charters. By authority of these they were endowed with certain
privileges such as: (_a_) limiting the number of their own members and
the number who could participate in any line of merchandising; (_b_)
entering into secret price agreements and trade arrangements; (_c_)
controlling the import and export of wares; (_d_) the establishing of a
court which had absolute jurisdiction over its members and others not
members engaged in the same line of business. This court “could settle
trade disputes, discipline its apprentices with the whip if necessary,
could imprison its journeymen who struck work, and could fine its
master members who acted against its rules. And, finally, the members
of the company were forbidden to appeal to any other court unless their
own court failed to obtain justice for them.”[4] Moreover, the meeting
together for social enjoyment, feasting, and worship; the helping one
another in sickness and poverty; and uniting together for the pursuit
of some common cause, naturally brought about very close and fraternal
relations.


=Craft-guilds.=--Craftsmen of like occupations joined together
in guilds also and they, too, became not only numerous but very
influential. They regulated their own internal affairs and specified
how many apprentices might be entered, and under what circumstances
a man might become a journeyman or master craftsman. Numerous other
guilds, social and religious, were extant throughout Europe.


=Effect upon Trade.=--The merchant guilds and the craft-guilds
materially affected the production and trade of the community and
country. The merchants of Phoenicia and later of Greece and Rome are
said to have visited the British Isles to secure tin and copper. The
great merchant guilds outfitted adventures to the ends of the then
known world to secure the goods--whether they were silks, spices,
furs or grain--in which they dealt. They were instrumental in the
passage of laws encouraging and securing commerce. They themselves
regulated the quality of goods dealt in. For example the Goldsmiths’
Guild of London required that all silver and gold-plate and jewelry
manufactured within three miles of London should be brought to the
guild hall for inspection. If it did not come up to the specified
standard it was ordered remelted; if it did it received the “Hall Mark”
that anyone purchasing it might be assured of its quality. It is said
the guilds were so punctilious in the matter of quality that “Made in
England” goods received in the markets of the world a standing of the
highest rank; a reputation that never entirely disappeared, and as a
consequence English uprightness of character became proverbial.


=The Domestic System.=--All this made necessary the building of ships
and harbors, and the improvement of internal highways of trade, and
these in turn stimulated manufacture which as yet was carried on
by hand. The family instead of the town or guild became the unit;
apprentices were entered and kept, usually, as members of the family
and worked along side the sons and daughters of the master. As these
grew to manhood their pay, beginning with mere keep, was gradually
increased with their work and responsibility until at the end of seven
years they were fitted to go forth as journeymen and later themselves
became masters. The work was done at or near the master’s home. The raw
material was usually received from a middleman, to whom was returned
the finished product; the middleman disposed of it to the merchant who
in turn sold it to the consumer.

This corresponds rather closely to what is called the “sweat shop”
method of the present time. Goods in a raw or a semi-raw state are
received by the workman from the “manufacturer” and carried home;
the workman performs, with the help of his family, certain specified
operations and upon the return of the goods is paid for his work. Or
in agriculture, to the contract method, whereby specified products
such as sugar beets, sweet-corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, fruits, and
other products for manufacture, canning, preserving, or pickling in
a factory, are raised by the farmer and sold to the manufacturer
at a previously agreed-upon contract price. Under the guild plan
the manufacturer or importer sold usually to the ultimate consumer.
So the economic system was gradually growing more complex, and the
interdependence of man upon man more pronounced.

The older agricultural procedure had not entirely disappeared. Most
families cultivated land, and raised more or less stock and poultry,
but performed the work of manufacturing as a side line, as at present
in the Middle West farmers make grain and stock raising their main
industry with dairying, vegetable gardening, poultry, and eggs as mere
adjuncts, although these latter often bring in about as much money as
the former. Defoe[5] describes these methods (1724-1726) as follows:

  [The land] was divided into small inclosures from two acres to six
  or seven each, seldom more; every three or four pieces of land had
  a house belonging to them ... hardly an house standing out of a
  speaking distance from another.... We could see at every house a
  tenter, and on almost every tenter a piece of cloth or kersie or
  shaloon.... At every considerable house was a manufactury.... Every
  clothier keeps one horse, at least, to carry his manufactures to
  the market, and everyone generally keeps a cow or two or more for
  his family. By this means the small pieces of inclosed land about
  each house are occupied, for they scarce sow corn enough to feed
  their poultry.... The houses are full of lusty fellows, some at the
  dye-vat, some at the looms, others dressing the cloths, the women or
  children carding or spinning, being all employed, from the youngest
  to the oldest.


=Governmental Control.=--The numerous guilds reached their zenith
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and then gradually
diminished in importance. Some of them, however, still remain active in
London. During the recent World War several were engaged in welfare
work. Guilds in France were destroyed or lapsed into desuetude during
the revolution, 1791-1815. Those of Spain and Portugal likewise during
the revolutionary years of 1833-40; of Austria and Germany in 1859-60
and of Italy in 1864. Guilds, as known in Europe, never found a
substantial lodging in the United States.

The functions of the guilds were gradually taken over by the
government, which seemed later to be a better and more satisfactory
medium to control labor, trade, and commerce. Laws were enacted in
England to regulate the entering of apprentices, to force able bodied
men to serve as agricultural laborers in case of need, and to work the
roads annually. Justices of the Peace were given authority to settle
disputes and regulate wages. Foreign trade was by laws and Royal
Grants encouraged; likewise immigration of artisans to introduce new
industries, the establishment of foreign colonies and the development
of banking and insurance. Almshouses were built and poor laws enacted
to care for the old and indigent. The public roads were still very poor
but a beginning was made for their betterment. Macaulay, in writing of
the State of England in 1685,[6] has considerable to say regarding the
condition of the highways. Speaking of the lack of homogeneity among
the people he says:

  There was not then the intercourse which now exists between the two
  classes. [The Londoner and the rustic Englishman.] Only very great
  men were in the habit of dividing the year between town and country.
  Few esquires came to the capital thrice in their lives. [And again],
  The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of
  society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty found in passing from
  place to place. _Of all_ inventions, the alphabet and the printing
  press alone excepted, _those inventions which abridge distance have
  done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement_ of
  the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually
  as well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of
  the various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove
  national and provincial antipathies, and to bind together all the
  branches of the great human family.

  [Further on], It was by the highways that both travellers and goods
  generally passed from place to place; and those highways appear to
  have been far worse than might have been expected from the degree of
  wealth and civilization which the nation had even then attained.

The degree of civilization attained was no doubt due to other things
than the public roads. Sea transportation brought to England the
products of the world. Coast transportation was well developed and
river and canal transportation had well begun. Macaulay states that

  One chief cause of the badness of the roads seems to have been the
  defective state of the law. Every parish was bound to repair the
  highways which passed through it. The peasantry were forced to
  give their gratuitous labor six days in the year.... That a route
  connecting two great towns, which have a large and thriving trade
  with each other, should be maintained at the cost of the rural
  population scattered between them, is obviously unjust.

This sounds like modern arguments against paving rural roads and
charging the cost to the abutting property, and is evidently one good
reason for state and national aid.

However, transportation and travel continued to improve. On the main
roads “waggons” were employed to transport goods and stage coaches
for people, while pack animals and riding horses were used on less
frequented trails and roads. Four and six horses were necessary to pull
a carriage or a coach “because with a smaller number there was great
danger of sticking fast in the mire.” A diligence ran between London
and Oxford in two days, but in 1669 it was announced that the “Flying
Coach would perform the whole journey between sunrise and sunset.” The
heads of the university after solemn deliberation gave consent and the
experiment proved successful. The rival university at Cambridge, not
to be outdone, set up a diligence to run from Cambridge to London in
one day. Soon flying coaches were carrying passengers to other points.
Posts were established for the change of horses and longer distances
essayed. This mode of traveling was extolled by contemporaneous writers
“as far superior to any similar vehicles ever known in the world.” It
is not to be thought that these advances in rapid transportation were
without objectors. According to Macaulay,

  It was vehemently argued that this mode of conveyance would be fatal
  to the breed of horses and to the noble art of horsemanship; that the
  Thames, which had long been an important nursery of seamen, would
  cease to be the chief thoroughfare from London up to Windsor and
  down to Gravesend; that saddlers and spurriers would be ruined by
  hundreds; that numerous inns, at which mounted travelers had been in
  the habit of stopping, would be deserted, and would no longer pay any
  rent; that the new carriages were too hot in summer and too cold in
  winter; that the passengers were grievously annoyed by invalids and
  crying children; that the coach sometimes reached the inn so late
  that it was impossible to get supper, and sometimes started so early
  that it was impossible to get breakfast.

Objections of this character have been made against every innovation
and advancement in travel and transportation to the present day when
the air-plane is beginning to attract notice as an economic vehicle.
Laws were then demanded and passed, as they are now, to regulate power
and speed, accommodations and rates, and multifarious other things
which might affect the privileges or profits of those interested in
older methods, as well as laws for the protection and safety of the
general public.


=Agriculture.=--It might be thought that the agriculture of the
preceding stage of development might wane. But not so; with the
division of labor and improved transportation and marketing facilities
agriculture received a great impetus. Larger tracts were farmed by
the individual. Growing crops and stock became more of a business and
from the lords of the manor was evolved the landed aristocracy of the
country. To be sure, there were holders who cultivated their own soil,
but much was held upon leaseholds for short or long periods. Many still
lived in the villages where “commons” were laid out for the pasturage
of the few cows each family needed for its own milk. Farms were
divided by hedges into fields or closes, the amount of land depending
upon the rent. The “Book of Surveying,” by Fitzherbert, 1539, gives
reasons for such closes and explains the manner of laying them out so
that they shall be most convenient and together. The following is a
specimen of his style:

  Now every husband hath sixe severall closes whereof iii. be for
  corne, the fourthe for his leyse, the fyfthe for his commen pastures,
  and the sixte for his haye; and in wynter time there is but one
  occupied with corne, and then hath the husbande other fyue to occupy
  tyll lent come, and then he that hath his falowe felde, his ley
  felde, and his pasture felde al sommer, and when he hath mowen his
  medowe then he hath his medowe grounde, soo that if he hath any
  weyke catel that wold be amended, or dyvers maner of catel, he may
  put them in any close he wyll, the which is a great advantage; and
  if all should lye commen, then wolde the edyche of the corne feldes
  and the aftermath of all the medowes be eaten in X or XII dayes. And
  the rych men that hath moche catel wold have the advantage, and the
  poore man can have no helpe nor relefe in wynter when he hath most
  nede; ... and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be
  worn or ware bare, then he may breke and plowe up his close that he
  had for his layse, or the close that he had for his commen pasture,
  or bothe, and sowe them with corne and let the other lye for a time,
  and so shall he have always reist grounds, the which will bear moche
  corne, with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great profyte of
  the wod in the hedges when it is growen; and not only these profytes
  and advantages aforesaid but he shall save moche more than al these,
  for by reason of these closes he shall save meate drinke, and wages
  of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and the wages of the
  swineherde, the which may fortune to be as chargeable as all his
  holle rent; and also his corne shall be better saved from eatings or
  destroying with catel.

Later the system of crop rotation came into vogue resulting in great
improvement in the fertility of the soil.

In the same author’s “Book of Husbandry,” 1534, are described farm
tools and their uses. There are explanations to show where a “horse
plow” is better and where an “oxen plow.” It indicates that beans,
peas, wheat, barley, and oats are common crops, and that some
vegetables and root-crops were coming into use. Wheat was probably
sowed after plowing up a pasture or “fallowe” field, for he observes,

  the greater clottes (clods) the better wheate, for the clottes
  kepe the wheate warm all wynter; and at march they will melte and
  breake and fae in many small peces, the which is a new donynge and
  refreshynge of the corne.

The industries and arts of transportation continued to develop: ocean
craft, especially, became more numerous and more efficient. Learning
and art grew in harmony as the intercourse of the peoples of the
country and of the world increased.


=The Industrial Stage.=--This stage of economical civilization, while
brought about gradually through many years as factories and special
work shops came into existence, was nevertheless greatly accelerated
by the inventions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The
invention of the canal lock (it is a disputed question whether in
Holland or in Italy) in the fourteenth century had made practicable
the building of many canals throughout Europe, one of the largest
across France connecting the Bay of Biscay with the Mediterranean Sea.
However, the building of important commercial canals began in England
with the Bridgewater Canal from Worsley to Manchester, completed in
1767. Green[7] tells us that the main roads which lasted fairly well
through the middle ages had broken down under the increased production
of the eighteenth century. That the new lines of trades lay along
“mere country lanes”; that much of the woolen trade had to be carried
on long trains of pack animals at a large cost; that transportation
“in the case of heavier goods such as coal distribution was almost
impracticable save along the greater rivers.” In fact coal was
ordinarily referred to as “sea coal” because it was brought to most
ports by water routes. The Duke of Bridgewater and a young engineer
of the name of Brindley solved the problem of transportation for the
time being by beginning the great network of canals which later covered
England to the extent of more than 3000 miles. Too great praise cannot
be given to the engineers and constructors of these canals. Brindley
considered canals not as adjuncts of rivers and bays, on the contrary
“rivers were only meant,” he said, “to feed canals.” He carried this
canal by means of an aqueduct over the river to Manchester, thus
bringing the coal to a new thriving manufacturing city. Green further
says (Paragraph 1528)

  To English trade the canal opened up the richest of all markets, the
  market of England itself. Every part of the country was practically
  thrown open to the manufacturer; and the impulse which was given by
  this facility of carriage was at once felt in a vast development of
  production. But such a development would have been impossible had
  not the discovery of this new mode of distribution been accompanied
  by the discovery of a new productive force. In the coal which lay
  beneath her soil England possessed a store of force which had
  hitherto remained almost useless.

Not the least were the new methods of smelting iron with coal instead
of wood, which changed the whole aspect of the iron trade and which
made Great Britain for many years the workshop of the world. Lead,
copper, and tin were also mined and smelted by the use of coal. The
great advance of the “industrial revolution” did not come until Watt’s
improvements upon the steam engines of Newcomen, Cawley, and Savery,
which were themselves improvements over earlier inventions of Papin,
della Porta, and Worcester, made practicable the transfer of energy
stored up in coal to the movement of machinery. He changed the steam
engine from a clumsy, wasteful, inefficient machine into a workable
apparatus little differing from the reciprocating steam engines of the
present. Up until the successful operation of the turbine engine, the
principal advances upon Watt’s engine were mere details, though often
of great importance. For instance the boilers for the generation of
steam were improved; the enlarged application of the principle of
expansion, developing better cut-off mechanisms and governors, to more
economical construction due to better facilities and better knowledge
of materials and their properties; and to the application of the steam
engine in locomotives to propel transportation cars.

Watt’s claims and specifications for patents from 1769 to 1784 cover
such inventions as:

1. Methods of keeping the cylinder or steam vessel hot by covering it
with wood or other slow heat-conducting materials, by surrounding it
with steam or other heated bodies, and by suffering no water or other
substance colder than steam to touch it.

2. By condensing the steam in vessels entirely distinct from the
cylinder, called condensers, which are to be kept cool.

3. By drawing out of the condenser all uncondensed vapors or gases by
means of an air pump.

4. The use of the expansion force of steam directly against the
cylinder.

5. The double-acting engine and the conversion of the reciprocating
motion into a circular motion.[8]

6. Throttle valve with governor and gear for operating the same,
parallel motion for opening and closing the valves, and indicator.

These inventions not only made it possible to replace hand-labor often
with machines, but made it possible to construct machines much more
rapidly and to make them in every way more convenient.

Improvement in the arts of spinning and weaving caused the textile
establishments and population of north England to go forward by leaps
and bounds.

Previous to the invention of the “fly shuttle” in 1733 by John Kay of
Bury, the weaver had to throw the shuttle through the warp by hand.
Weaving became much more rapid; also by having several shuttles with
different-colored yarn stripes and checks could be woven into the
cloth. Since weaving had been made quicker and easier there came a
demand for more yarn. Three separate inventions satisfied this, viz.,
James Hargreaves of Blackburn invented his “jenny” about 1767, by
which eight threads could be spun at once. At the same time Richard
Arkwright, a barber of Preston, invented and developed the throstle
spinning frame (1769-1775). Samuel Crompton, about 1775, invented
his spinning “mule,” which seemed to combine the good principles of
the others. Power was applied to spinning about 1785 and then it was
weaving that needed accelerating. To Cartwright in 1784 is ascribed the
honor of inventing the power loom. Other inventions for both spinning
and weaving have made almost automatic the running of thousands of
spindles and hundreds of looms in a single factory.


=Railways Developed.=--With power manufacturing and increased
production due to the adoption of improved factory systems came still
greater demand for transportation. Tramways had already been laid in
1676 for transporting coal from the mines to the sea. The rails were
first made of scantling laid in the wheel ruts, then of straight rails
of oak on which “one horse would draw from four or five chaldrons
of coal.” Later (1765) cast-iron trammels 5 feet long by 4 inches
wide were nailed to the wooden rails. These trammels collected dust,
therefore in 1789 Jessop laid down at Loughborough cast-iron edge-rails
and put a flanged wheel on the waggon. The rails were also placed on
chairs and sleepers (ties), the first instance of this method. The
distance apart of the rails was 4 feet 8¹⁄₂ inches, what is now known
as “standard gauge.” The success of these coal roads suggested tramways
for freight and for passenger transportation between the larger towns.
The canals had become congested with much traffic; it is said that
notwithstanding there were three between Liverpool and Manchester the
merchandise passing “did not average more than 1200 tons daily.” The
average rate of carriage was 18s. ($4.37) per ton, and the average
time of transit on the 50 miles of canal was thirty-six hours. The
conveyance of passengers by the improved coach roads, was, for then,
quite rapid but rather expensive.

Some experimental locomotives had been made and used in the mining
regions. Their success led to the building of others. The Stockton and
Darlington Railway opened in September, 1825, by a train of thirty-four
vehicles, making a gross load of 90 tons, drawn by one engine driven by
George Stephenson, with a signal man on horseback in advance. The train
made at times as high as 15 miles per hour. The rail used weighed 28
pounds per yard. This road was intended entirely for freight but the
demand of the people to ride was so pressing that a passenger coach to
carry six inside and fifteen to twenty outside was put on to make the
round trip in two hours at a fare of one shilling.

When the bill passed for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1826
Stephenson was appointed engineer in charge at a salary of $5000 per
year. This road made a great impression on the national mind, no little
enhanced by the competition of locomotives at its completion in 1829,
resulting in the victory of Stephenson’s engine the “Rocket.” It made
the then astonishing speed of 35 miles per hour and proved conclusively
the practicability of railway locomotion.

To follow the progress of industry during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries would require volumes. More has probably been accomplished,
not without evils at times, than in the whole preceding history of the
world. And as no small part of these accomplishments are the means
and amount of travel and traffic and associated developments and
organization made necessary by the vast industries which now supply the
world’s wants, once more it may be asserted that the civilization of
the world can be measured by its transportation.


=Some Historic Roads and Their Influence.=--In the brief survey
of the stages through which ordinarily a civilization passes note
has frequently been made that as the world progresses so does the
necessary transportation increase and improve in character. It is not
contended that civilization follows the improvement of transportation,
although that is no doubt sometimes the case, but that the state of
transportation follows up and down with the state of civilization.
Very likely the same could be truthfully said of other elements of
civilization such as literature, art, religion, and government. Or
even if there be applied Guizot’s three tests of a civilized people:
“First, they review their pledges and honor; second, they reverence and
pursue the beautiful in painting, architecture, and literature; third,
they exhibit sympathy in reform toward the poor, the weak and the
unfortunate,” it will be found that those nations most progressed in
traffic and travel will rank highest in these tests.


=Early Highways.=--To return to some of the important earlier
highways. All evidence seems to indicate that civilization had its
origin in western Asia. Early history speaks of the civilization
and culture of Arabia and Egypt, of Assyria and Persia. Coeval with
these civilizations were trade and commerce. Great caravans of camels
traversed the sandy highway with their accompanying merchants carrying
many products of many lands--frankincense and myrrh from Arabia; cloths
and carpets from Babylon and Sardis; shawls from Cashmere; leather
from Cordavan and Morocco; tin, copper, gold, and silver utensils from
Phœnicia; pearls from the Far East; and grain and other agricultural
products nourished and grown by the beneficence of the great mother
Nile. The extensive civilizations of these countries are handed down
stingily by cuneiform inscriptions on clay tablets scattered here and
there among the ruins of their ancient towns and villages, or inscribed
upon granite mountain sides as historical memoranda for future
generations. Even Holy Writ says little about roads and highways, but
that they were known is evident from the few references made. Those
things which are commonplace often receive least attention by writers.
In Isaiah, 35:8, may be read: “And a highway shall be there, and a
way, and it shall be called the way of holyness ... the wayfaring
men, though fools, shall not err therein.” And again, Isa. 40:3-4,
“The voice of him that cryeth in the wilderness, prepare ye the way
of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every
valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low:
and the crooked shall be made straight and the rough places plain.”
These would certainly indicate that in Isaiah’s time there were both
travelers and roads marked and graded. Isaiah in other places shows
that he, if not himself a road builder, is familiar with that process:
Isa. 57:14, “And shall say, cast ye up, cast ye up, prepare the way
take up the stumbling block out of the way of my people.” Isa. 62:10,
“Prepare ye the way of the people; cast up, cast up the highway; gather
out the stones; lift up a standard for the people.” Also Jeremiah
likens the path of the wicked to an ungraded road. Jeremiah 18:15,
“Because my people have forgotten me, they have burned incense to
vanity, they have caused them to stumble in their ways from the ancient
paths, to walk in paths, in a way not cast up.”

The trade along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean and across
Palestine and the great Arabian deserts to Persia, to Babylonia, and
possibly to India was evidently of importance to the fluctuating
destinies of Egypt and Assyria, and later of Greece, Rome, and
Turkey; so much so, that many wars were waged for the control of the
great highway over which it passed. Palestine became a territory of
importance. It is said Jerusalem has suffered some three score sieges,
most of them because she dominated this highway, being at or near the
confluence of its forks reaching east into the deserts, north toward
the straits over which a crossing could be made into Europe, and
southward to Egypt. Egypt and Assyria fought for its control; Greece
and Rome in turn came into possession of it; Turkey and the Mohammedans
for centuries monopolized it; and the recent great World War was no
doubt accentuated by the cupidity of Germany to control a long line of
transportation through Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, Mesopotamia
to Persia, Baluchistan and India.[9]

Alexander the Great overran the East, besieged Tyre, and converted
an island into an isthmus in order to secure and hold control of the
highway and the rich bounty imagined to be at its farther end. “Babylon
is a ruin, a stately and solitary group of palms marks where Memphis
stood, jackals slake their thirst in the waters of the sacred lake by
the hall of a thousand columns at Thebes, but the road that formed the
nexus between these vanished civilizations remains after the winds of
four millenniums have sighed themselves to silence over the graves of
its forgotten architects and engineers.”[10]

But the Greater Greece, built up by the personality and sword of
Alexander the Great, fell, largely, because of the lack of roads.
The very name of Alexander was sufficient to subdue city after city,
but as soon as his personal influence was at an end the cities fell
apart. Here was a wonderful opportunity. With magnificent natural-made
waterways, with innumerable safe harbors what a chance for commerce,
for trade with the entire world. The islands of the Aegean Sea were
stepping stones to Asia Minor; Macedonia furnished an open route for
the Bosphorus and Dardanelles; Thrace led to those fertile lands
surrounding the Black Sea and extending away to the Caspian and joining
once more with empire already conquered. On the west there was close
at hand the islands of, and land bordering, the Adriatic, the great
Italian boot, and Sicily where new civilizations were ready to rise and
take on Greek culture for the mere offering. It would seem as though
Greece ought to have become the fostering mother of world colonization,
but the different parts of Greece proper, where the real mental ability
lay, were separated by lack of roads from each other. Athens was
potentially nearer to the Black Sea than to Sparta; Corinth was nearer
Sicily than to Macedonia. The many Grecian tribes were distinct, having
different laws, customs and manners. Intercourse, which could have
been brought about had there been interconnecting roads, was necessary
to weld the people into a homogeneous mass. Sparta and Athens, less
than an hour apart by modern air-plane, because of the mountains,
roadless and almost pathless between them, barriers which they failed
to surmount, developed different forms of civilization, different
thought, habits, and tastes. To Athens the world owes an everlasting
debt for masterpieces in poetry, oratory, architecture, and sculpture.
“There was no Spartan sculpture, no Laconian painter, no Lacedaemonian
poet.” The lack of intercommunication caused differences in language,
in customs, in ideals, and in manners, making of Greece a heterogeneous
conglomeration of tribes where internecine strife was ever present, and
no strong centralized government could exist. Lucky for the best of the
Greek civilization that it would be carried to the ends of the world by
the roads of a young giant which was arising in the west.


=Roman Roads.=--The roads in Rome bore such a prominent part in
the civilization that they could not be entirely overlooked by
contemporaneous writers. The roads are often described as military
roads because they were primarily planned to transport soldiers
quickly and easily to any desirable part of the empire. But no doubt
the greatness of Rome was due more to the traffic in goods and people
brought to and taken away from her precincts by these roads than to
military prowess. Her roads were the arteries and veins through which
the life blood of the nation pulsated; were the sensory and motive
nerves which fetched and carried intelligence, which prompted action.
She received and she disseminated. She was the hub of the universe, her
roads the spokes radiating to and holding together the limits of her
vast domain.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

THE APPIAN WAY

Showing the original Paving Stones laid 300 B.C.]

How many roads Rome built it is difficult to state, for they were
found in all parts of the empire. Some, as those in Italy, were very
carefully and substantially built; others less so, grading down to
mere trails in the hintermost districts. The Via Egnatia, which was
one of the important provincial roads, is said by Strabo to have been
regularly laid out and marked by milestones from Dyrrhacium, (Durazzo)
on the coast of the Adriatic across from the heel of Italy’s boot
through Thessalonica (Saloniki) and Philippi to Cypselus on the Hebnis
and later to the Hellespont, for Cicero speaks of “that military way of
ours which connects us with the Hellespont.” This road became historic
as the scene of the conflict between the friends and enemies of the
decaying Roman republic. Brutus and Cassius on the one hand here in 42
B.C., met the forces of Antony and Octavius. There tradition states
the ghost of the dead Caesar met Brutus, and as a matter of fact, the
“liberators” were cut to pieces in two engagements. Brutus and Cassius,
believing the cause of the republic lost, both committed suicide, and
the Roman world was soon thereafter in the hands of two masters--Antony
in the East and Octavius in the West. Three centuries later this road
became the leading highway to Byzantium (Constantinople), the great
city founded by Constantine, impregnable in its rocky seclusion,
dominating the waterway to the Black Sea and the rich agricultural land
beyond.

Some twenty of these roads, more if their branches be counted,
concentrated at the Eternal City and passed through her several gates.
Rome could sit on her seven hills and by means of these roads rule
the world. Among the most important of these were the Via Appia, Via
Flaminia and Via Aemilia, Via Aurelia, Via Ostiensis, and Via Latina.
One peculiarity of these Roman roads was their straightness, passing
almost in a direct line between determining points. Another, to
which is due their durability, was their massiveness. Their general
construction may be described as follows: The line of direction having
been laid out trenches were made along each side defining the width,
which was from 13 to 17 feet. The loose earth between was excavated
to secure a firm foundation and the road was then filled or graded
up to the required height with good material, sometimes as high as
20 feet. The pavement usually consisted of a layer of small stones;
then a layer of broken stones cemented with lime mortar; then a layer
of broken fragments of brick and pottery incorporated with clay and
lime; and finally a mixture of gravel and lime or a floor of hard
flat stones cut into rectangular slabs or irregular polygons fitted
nicely together. The whole was frequently 4 feet thick. Along the road
milestones were erected, some of them quite elaborate with carved names
and dates. Near the arch of Septimus Severus in the Roman Forum still
remains a portion of the “Golden Milestone,” a gilded pillar erected
by Augustus, on which were carved the names of roads and lengths
similar to a modern guide post. Some of these roads were used hundreds
of years until they fell into neglect after Rome had been invaded by
the northern barbarians. From a statement of Procopinus, the Appian
Way, construction begun 312 B.C., was in good condition 800 years
later, and he describes it as broad enough for two carriages to pass
each other. It was made of stones brought from some distant quarry
and so fitted to each other (over some 2 feet of gravel) that they
seemed to be thus formed by nature, rather than cemented by art. He
adds that notwithstanding the traffic of so many ages the stones were
not displaced, nor had they lost their original smoothness. The papal
government excavated, repaired, and reopened that road as far as Albano
and it is still being used as a highway.

[Illustration: MAP OF ITALY

Showing some of the twenty or more roads that radiated from Rome]

The Flaminian Way extended from Rome to Ariminum and thence was carried
under the name Via Aemilia through Parma, and Placentia across to
Spain. While not so much traffic passed over it, because the West
was sparsely settled, as over the Appian Way, it nevertheless was a
worthy rival. The Aurelian Way followed up the coast through Etruria
and furnished another highway to Spain and Gaul. The Ostien highway
connected Rome with a splendid harbor at the mouth of the Tiber.
But the Appian Way was rightly the most famous of all; it was the
earliest made, it was perhaps the longest paved road, and it carried
the greatest amount of traffic. The road was built by Appius Claudius
Caecus--then a Roman Censor, afterwards a Consul, from whom it takes
its name--to Capua, a distance of 142 miles. Later it was extended
across the Apennine Mountains through Beneventum, Venusia, and
Tarentum, to Brundisium, a port on the Adriatic Sea, in the heel of the
boot, a total distance of 350 miles. The improvements of Appius were
begun in the year 312 B.C., and carried out at least as far as Capua.
Livy speaks of a road over part of this way some thirty-five years
earlier. A portion outside the walls was paved with lava (silex) in 189
B.C., and during the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117) the Via Appia was
paved from Capua to Brundisium (Niebuhr). From Brundisium (Brindis)
traffic could be carried by ship to Dyrrhacium and thence over the
Via Egnatio to Macedonia and the Bosphorus; or along the coast to the
Grecian towns, to the cities of the Far East and to Egypt. Many are the
references to the noted highway in literature; Milton, in “Paradise
Regained,” book four, bids us to watch flocking to the city, enriched
with spoils, proconsuls, embassies, legions, in “various habits on the
Appian road.”

“What a cosmopolitan throng must have graced that highway in the
first century,” says Dr. Carroll.[11] “Thick-lipped Ethiopians with
rings in noses and ears, swarthy-browed turbaned Mesopotamians,
haughty Parthians, burnoosed Arabs still worshiping their polygods,
hook-nosed Hebrews, carven with the humility of the despised rich,
Greek Pedagogues and Rhetors and Tutors, togaed senators, white-clad
vestals with modest faces, and painted harlots with amber hair. Lictors
clearing the way with rods for some purple clad dignitary of Nero’s
court and carrying the fasces and the ax; street merchants and hawkers
of small wares, slaves scantily clad, stark bemuscled gladiators,
_Cives_ and _Peregrini_, citizens and strangers, displaying, in
varying degree, arrogance and curiosity; long yellow-haired Germans,
their faces smeared with ocher and their yellow hair with oil;
kilted soldiers with long spears and short broad swords; beggars
(the lazzaroni of that bygone age), pathetically sullen or volubly
mendicant in the sunshine lecticae; couches carried by bearers
containing pampered nobles or high-born ladies; the cisium and the
_rhoda meritoria_; the carriage and the hack of that time crossing each
other’s path in the narrow road; children naked and joyous; merchants
on caparisoned asses; the swinging columns of the legionaries; brown,
straight-featured Egyptians. For part of the distance a canal runs
parallel and travelers have their choice to take the pavement or to
ride in state on painted barges dragged by mules; on the pavement a
Pontifex in his robes of office and Augurs exchanging cynical smiles;
the rattle of chariot wheels and some haggard-eyed noble, redolent from
the warm and scented bath, with flower-crowned brow, drives in furious
guise along the Appian Way, while barbarian and Scythian, bond and
free, yield the way before him.”

[Illustration: MAP OF ROMAN ROADS IN ENGLAND

(After Jackman: “Development of Transportation in Modern England.”)]

Davis[12] tells us that the Roman road system after it had become
a network over Italy began to spread over the whole Empire. That
admirable highways were built by peaceful legionaries for commercial
purposes--and that even to-day in North Africa and in the wilds of Asia
Minor where travelers seldom penetrate may be found the Roman road with
its hard stones laid on a solid foundation. He further states that as
a consequence of these roads commerce expanded by leaps and bounds. A
great trade passing down the Red Sea sprang up with India, reaching
to the coast of Ceylon, returning with pearls, rare tapestries, and
spices. Another set penetrated Arabia for much-desired incense, or
unto the heart of Africa for ivory. Also with such merchandising there
came a money system with banks, checks and bonds rivaling those of
the present day. The bridges are an important part of any road. Those
across the Tiber in Rome were regarded as sacred. They were cared for
by a special body of Priests called _pontifaces_ (bridge-makers).
The name Pontifex Maximus was borne by the High Priest and became a
designation for the emperor; it is now applied to the Pope as the
highest authority in the papal or pontifical state.


=Pre-historic American Roads.=--When America was discovered it was
sparsely settled with tribes of semi-civilized peoples. The ordinary
aborigine was in the hunting and fishing stage, just beginning to
cultivate crops. True, tribes claimed regions and attempted by force
to keep other tribes from trespassing thereon. They had no literature
save perhaps a few rough diagrams or drawings. There was no trade or
commerce and consequently no roads except mere trails. Their methods
of transportation consisted in walking or in paddling canoes. In the
making and operating of canoes and of weapons of warfare and of the
chase they were most advanced.

In many parts of the country there had been a civilization, but so long
ago no very authentic knowledge of its character can be predicated
upon the mounds, utensils, and other evidence now remaining. The Mound
Builders and the Cliff Dwellers are as yet to us unknown peoples.

In Mexico, Central America,[13] and Peru a much higher civilization
prevailed. Especially in Peru where a very high state of agriculture
was in vogue. There is even evidence of a considerable degree of Art
and Literature.[14] Many of the remains remind one of early Egyptian
and Persian temples and roads, but perhaps no more lucid description of
the ancient Peruvian roads and transportation exists than that given in
Prescott’s justly celebrated classic, “The Conquest of Peru.” Slightly
abridged it reads thus:

  Those who may distrust the accounts of Peruvian industry will find
  their doubts removed on a visit to the country. The traveler still
  meets, especially in the central regions of the tableland, with
  memorials of the past, remains of temples, palaces, fortresses,
  terraced mountains, great military roads, aqueducts, and other public
  works, which, whatever degree of science they may display in their
  execution, astonish him by their number, the massive character of the
  materials, and the grandeur of the design. Among them, perhaps the
  most remarkable are the great roads, the broken remains of which are
  still in sufficient preservation to attest their former magnificence.
  There were many of these roads, traversing different parts of the
  kingdom: but the most considerable were the two which extended from
  Quito to Cuzco, and, again diverging from the capital, continued in a
  southerly direction toward Chili.

  One of these roads passed over the great plateau, and the other along
  the lowlands on the borders of the ocean. The former was much the
  more difficult achievement, from the character of the country. It was
  conducted over pathless sierras buried in snow; galleries were cut
  for leagues through the living rock; rivers were crossed by means
  of bridges that swung suspended in the air; precipices were scaled
  by stairways hewn out of the native bed; ravines of hideous depths
  were filled up with solid masonry; in short, all the difficulties
  that beset a wild and mountainous region, and which might appall
  the most courageous engineer of modern times, were encountered and
  successfully overcome. The length of the road, of which scattered
  fragments only remain, is variously estimated at from fifteen hundred
  to two thousand miles; and stone pillars, in the manner of European
  milestones, were erected at stated intervals of somewhat more than
  a league, all along the route. Its breadth scarcely exceeded twenty
  feet. It was built of heavy flags of freestone, and, in some parts
  at least, covered with a bituminous cement, which time has made
  harder than the stone itself. In some places where the ravines had
  been filled up with masonry, the mountain torrents, wearing on it
  for ages, have gradually eaten away through the base, and left the
  superincumbent mass--such is the cohesion of the materials--still
  spanning the valley like an arch.

  Over some of the boldest streams it was necessary to construct
  suspension bridges, as they are termed, made of the tough fibers
  of the maguey, or of the osier of the country, which has an
  extraordinary degree of tenacity and strength. These osiers were
  woven into cables of the thickness of a man’s body. The huge ropes,
  then stretched across the water, were conducted through rings or
  holes cut in immense buttresses of stone raised on the opposite banks
  of the river and then secured to heavy pieces of timber. Several of
  these enormous cables bound together formed a bridge which, covered
  with planks, well secured and defended by a railing of the same osier
  materials on the sides, afforded a safe passage for the traveler.
  The length of this aerial bridge, sometimes exceeding two hundred
  feet, caused it, confined as it was only at the extremities, to dip
  with an alarming inclination towards the center, while the motion
  given to it by the passenger occasioned an oscillation still more
  frightful, as his eye wandered over the dark abyss of waters that
  foamed and tumbled many fathoms beneath. Yet these light and fragile
  fabrics were crossed without fear by the Peruvians, and are still
  retained by the Spaniards over those streams which, from the depth or
  impetuosity of the current, would seem impracticable for the usual
  modes of conveyance. The wider and more tranquil waters were crossed
  on balsas--a kind of raft still much used by the natives--to which
  sails were attached, furnishing the only instance of this higher kind
  of navigation among the American Indians.

  The other great road of the Incas lay through the level country
  between the Andes and the ocean. It was constructed in a different
  manner, as demanded by the nature of the ground, which was for the
  most part low, and much of it sandy. The causeway was raised on a
  high embankment of earth, and defended on either side by a parapet
  or wall of clay; and trees and odoriferous shrubs were planted along
  the margin, regaling the senses of the traveler with their perfumes,
  and refreshing him by their shades, so grateful under the burning
  sky of the tropics. In the strips of sandy waste which occasionally
  intervened, where the light and volatile soil was incapable of
  sustaining a road, huge piles, many of them to be seen at this day,
  were driven into the ground to indicate the route to the traveler.

  All along these highways, caravansaries, or tambos, as they were
  called, were erected, at the distance of ten or twelve miles from
  each other, for the accommodation, more particularly of the Inca and
  his suite and those who journeyed on the public business. There
  were few other travelers in Peru. Some of these buildings were on
  an extensive scale, consisting of a fortress, barracks, and other
  military works, surrounded by a parapet of stone and covering a large
  tract of ground. These were evidently destined for the accommodation
  of the imperial armies when on their march across the country. The
  care of the great roads was committed to the districts through
  which they passed, and under the Incas a large number of hands was
  constantly employed to keep them in repair. This was the more easily
  done in the country where the mode of traveling was altogether on
  foot; though the roads are said to be so nicely constructed that a
  carriage might have rolled over them as securely as on any of the
  great roads of Europe. Still in a region where the elements of fire
  and water are both actively at work in the business of destruction,
  they must, without constant supervision, have gradually gone to
  decay. Such has been their fate under the Spanish conquerors, who
  took no care to enforce the admirable system for their preservation
  adopted by the Incas. Yet the broken portions that still survive here
  and there, like the fragments of the great Roman roads scattered over
  Europe, bear evidence to their primitive grandeur, and have drawn
  forth the eulogium from a discriminating traveler, usually not too
  profuse in his panegyric, that “the roads of the Incas were among the
  most useful and stupendous works ever executed by man.”

  The system of communication through their dominions was still further
  improved by the Peruvian sovereigns by the introduction of posts,
  in the same manner as was done by the Aztecs. The Peruvian posts,
  however, established on all the great routes that conducted to the
  capital, were on a much more extended plan than those in Mexico. All
  along these routes, small buildings were erected, at the distance of
  less than five miles asunder, in each of which a number of runners,
  or chasquis, as they were called, were stationed to carry forward the
  dispatches of government. These dispatches were either verbal, or
  conveyed by means of quipus, and sometimes accompanied by a thread
  of the crimson fringe worn round the temples of the Inca, which was
  regarded with the same implicit deference as the signet-ring of an
  Oriental despot.

  The chasquis were dressed in a peculiar livery, intimating their
  profession. They were all trained to the employment and selected
  for their speed and fidelity. As the distance each courier had to
  perform was small, and as he had ample time to refresh himself at the
  stations, they ran over the ground with great swiftness, and messages
  were carried through the whole extent of the long routes, at the rate
  of one hundred and fifty miles a day. The office of the chasquis was
  not limited to carrying dispatches. They frequently brought various
  articles for the use of the court and in this way fish from the
  distant ocean, fruits, game, and different commodities from the hot
  regions on the coast, were taken to the capital in good condition,
  and served fresh at the royal table. It is remarkable that this
  important institution should have been known to both the Mexicans and
  the Peruvians without any correspondence with one another and that it
  should have been found among two barbarian nations of the New World
  long before it was introduced among the civilized nations of Europe.

  By these wise contrivances of the Incas, the most distant parts of
  the long extended empire of Peru were brought into intimate relations
  with each other. The while the capitals of Christendom, but a few
  hundred miles apart, remained as far asunder as if seas had rolled
  between them, the great capitals Cuzco and Quito were placed by the
  high roads of the Incas in immediate correspondence. Intelligence
  from the numerous provinces was transmitted on the wings of the wind
  to the Peruvian metropolis, the great focus to which all the lines
  of communication converged. Not an insurrectionary movement could
  occur, not an invasion on the remotest frontier, before the tidings
  were conveyed to the capital and the imperial armies were on their
  march across the magnificent roads of the country to suppress it. So
  admirable was the machinery contrived by the American despots for
  maintaining tranquillity throughout their dominions! It may remind us
  of the similar institutions of ancient Rome, when, under the Caesars,
  she was mistress of half the world.

Hiram Bingham, Director of the Geographic Society-Yale Peruvian
Expedition[15] gives an interesting description of the tracing out of
two of these old roads. Evidently the trail was mostly used by foot
passengers, or possibly llamas, for there were frequently steep grades
and flights of steps and open ravines which had more than likely been
crossed by the osier suspension bridges. No doubt much commerce beside
fertilizer from the great nitrate beds was carried on over these roads.


=Conclusion.=--If the story, very briefly given, of these old roads
does not verify the thesis that transportation is a measure of
civilization, a view might be taken of the tribes and peoples now
living in the various parts of the earth. If the character of the
transportation of the tribes of Africa and of Asia, of the Arctic and
Antarctic regions, the least civilized now known, be compared with
that of those nations considered most civilized, the same general
conclusion would be drawn. Compare the railways, canals, highways,
cars, automobiles, ships, and aircraft of the present-day United States
with the pack animals and ox-carts of many less favored nations and
the further evidence of amount of traffic and travel per person, will
be unnecessary to establish the relative states of civilization. It
is not necessary even to go beyond the confines of the great American
Republic. Writers who traveled through it in the ’forties, ’fifties
and ’sixties are wont to call attention to the uncouthness of the
inhabitants, to the lack of the refinements of speech and manners
characterizing those who dwelt in the more populous communities. But
the honesty, integrity, generosity, willingness, and ability of the
American pioneers to dare and to do, were unquestioned. It is a pity
that many of the best traits of humanity disappear when people are
crowded into cities, when their wants and desires are increased, when
the refinements of civilization have replaced the ruggedness of pioneer
life. Then, as now, upon the action of a bare majority, which in a
republic is called “the will of the people,” often hung the political,
social and financial destiny of the nation. A slight change would have
changed the course of civilizing evolution; who knows whether for good
or ill. As the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_ were the roads, believed by
the ancients to lead to a liberal education, so the government and the
civilization of this now great nation has rested consecutively in its
upward progress, upon the slender path of the aborigine, swelled to
the well defined trail of the pack-train, broadened into the cart and
wagon road, cast up into a turnpike; and upon the rippling trace of the
light canoe, the dugout, the keel-boat, the pole-boat, the flat-boat,
the canal-boat and the steam-boat; all to be supplanted by the thunder
of the locomotive. What in the process of evolution will follow it? The
automobile, the truck, the flying machine? Time alone can tell.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  DAVIS, WILLIAM STEARNS, “The Influence of Wealth on Imperial Rome,”
  pp. 85-105. The Macmillan Company, New York.

  ELY, RICHARD T., “Outlines of Economics,” The Macmillan Co., New
  York. Chapter III.

  Encyclopaedia Britannica. Articles on the “Steam Engine,” “Yarn,”
  “Weaving,” and “Railway.”

  GREEN, JOHN RICHARD, “History of the English People,” Book IX,
  Chapter III.

  HAVELL, H. L., “Republican Rome,” p. 112, Harrap & Co., London, 1914.

  HEITLAND, W. E., “The Roman Republic,” University Press, Cambridge.

  LIVY, TITUS, “History of Rome,” Translated by William A. M’Devitte,
  Book IX, Chap. 29; XXII, 15; XXIV, 8; George Bell & Sons, London,
  1890.

  MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, “The History of England,” Vol. I, Chapter
  III.

  MOMMSEN, PROFESSOR THEODOR, “The History of the Roman Republic,”
  Abridgment by Bryans and Hendy, pp. 95, 97, 98, 108, 175, 219, 251,
  318, 319, 320. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1893.

  MORLEY, S. T., “Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala,” _The National
  Geographic Magazine_, March, 1913.

  Account of explorations made in Peru by a joint expedition of Yale
  University and The National Geographic Society in _The National
  Geographic Magazine_, April, 1913, February, 1915, and May, 1916.

  NIEBUHR, B. G., “Lectures on Ancient History,” Vol. III, p. 156;
  “Lectures on the History of Rome,” Vol. III, p. 229. Taylor, Walton &
  Maberly, London, 1852.

  OSBORN, HENRY F., “Men of the Old Stone Age.” C. Scribner’s Sons, New
  York, 1915.

  PRESCOTT, WILLIAM H., “Conquest of Peru,” 2 Vol., Vol. I, pp. 62-67,
  J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1869.

  SANDS, W. F., “Mysterious Temples of the Jungle,” in _The National
  Geographic Magazine_, March, 1913.

  SELFRIDGE, H. GORDON, “The Romance of Commerce,” John Lane, London.

  STANLEY, HENRY M., “In Darkest Africa” (two volumes). C. Scribner’s
  Sons, New York.


FOOTNOTES

  [1] “Outlines of Economics,” by Richard T. Ely. The Macmillan Co., N.
  Y.

  [2] See “The Man of the Stone Age,” by H. F. Osborne.

  [3] “In Darkest Africa” (two volumes), by Henry M. Stanley. Charles
  Scribner’s Sons, New York.

  [4] “The Romance of Commerce,” by H. Gordon Selfridge. John Lane,
  London.

  [5] Quoted by Ely in “Outlines of Economics.” Macmillan, New York.

  [6] “The History of England,” by Thomas Babington Macaulay, Chapter
  III.

  [7] “History of the English People,” by John Richard Green, Paragraph
  1527.

  [8] It is well to note that Watt in his application for a patent on
  steam engines granted in 1769 also laid claim for a rotary engine.
  The rotary engine has been lately developed into the steam turbine.

  [9] “Germany and Austria-Hungary were increasingly convinced that in
  the further disintegration of the old Turkish Empire they must be
  recognized in an exceptional way and must be allowed ... to acquire
  an undisputed influence from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and the
  Persian Gulf.”--Albert Shaw in the introduction to Simonds’ “History
  of the World War.” Also see map Vol. II, p. 346.

  [10] From the report of a lecture at Shreveport, La., 1905, by B. H.
  Carroll, Professor of History, Baylor University, Waco, Texas.

  [11] Lecture delivered at Shreveport, La., by B. H. Carroll, Ph.D.,
  Professor of History, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, later U. S.
  Consul at Naples.

  [12] “The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome,” by William Stearns
  Davis, The Macmillan Company, N. Y., pp. 95-105.

  [13] See “Mysterious Temples of the Jungle,” by W. F. Sands, and
  “Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala” by S. T. Morley. _The National
  Geographic Magazine_, March, 1913.

  [14] See several excellent articles with illustrations on the
  explorations made in Peru by a joint expedition of Yale University
  and The National Geographic Society in _The National Geographic
  Magazine_, April, 1913, February, 1915, and May, 1916.

  [15] _Geographic Magazine_, May, 1916.




CHAPTER II

TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES; EARLY TRAILS AND ROADS


The early settlements of this country were made upon the shores,
naturally, because the settlers were brought by ships from Europe and
supplies of various sorts were from time to time renewed by ships. The
settlers were not skilled in the art of living on the country as were
the natives and when supply vessels failed to put in their appearance
there was real hardship in and sometimes entire extermination of the
colonists. The penetration of settlement to the interior was slow and
even to times within the memory of men now living much of the interior
was an unknown wilderness.


=The Birch Bark Canoe.=--Travel from place to place was at first
insignificant and what little there was was carried on by walking,
horseback riding, or by boat. Settlement, which had begun on the ocean
or at the head of ocean navigation on inlets or rivers, was eventually
pushed farther inland. The rivers and other waterways being at hand
were utilized; the birch-bark canoe, the dugout, and the plank boat,
furnished the principal vehicles of transportation. The Indians were
very expert in the manufacture and operation of light birch-bark
canoes. Longfellow in “Hiawatha” gives a poetical description of this:

    With his knife the tree he girdled;
    Just beneath its lowest branches,
    Just above the roots he cut it,
    Till the sap came oozing outward;
    Down the trunk from top to bottom,
    Sheer he cleft the bark asunder,
    With a wooden wedge he raised it
    Stripped it from the trunk unbroken.

Then he explains how the framework is made of cedar:

    Like two bows he framed and shaped them,
    Like two bended bows together.

After which they were tied together and the bark fastened to the frame
by fibrous roots of the larch, then Hiawatha

    Took the resin of the fir tree
    Smeared therewith each seam and fissure,
    Made each crevice safe from water.

The aborigine paddled this frail bark so skillfully that the noise of
rowing was scarcely audible or the waves visible. And when he came to
the headwaters of the stream he was able to raise the light craft above
his head and follow the dim trail across the lower lying hills to the
stream beyond the water-shed leading in the opposite direction.

The white man, profiting by the Red Man’s experience learned to
build these boats, as well as heavier ones of logs and timber
for transporting goods, and utilized the same trails to push his
civilization farther into the unknown.


=Meagerness of Early Roads.=--In the “History of Travel”[16] Mr. Dunbar
quotes from a document in the New York Historical Society’s collection,
written by Benjamin Fletcher, Governor of His Majesty’s Province of New
York, and dated 1694, which shows the lack of roadways or even passable
trails in northern New York: “It is impossible to march with any party
of men to Canada by Land, either in winter or summer, but they must
passe a Considerable Part of ye way over ye Lake, ye land on each side
being extream steep and Rocky mountains or els a meer cumbered with
underwood, where men can not goe upright, but must creep throu Bushes
for whole days’ marches, and impossible for horses to goe at any time
of ye year.”

The same author quotes from a letter by Deputy Governor Hinkley of
Plymouth Colony, about 1680, asking the English Government for favors
because this Colony was “the first that broke the ice, and underwent
ye brunt, at our own charge, for the enlargement of his Majestie’s
dominions in this heretofore most howling wilderness, amidst wild
Indians and wild beasts.”

In Massachusetts,[17] on the other hand, it is stated that while
communication was usually by water one writer boasts that “the wild and
uncouth woods were filled with frequented ways and the large rivers
were overlaid with bridges, passable both for horse and foot.” But
notwithstanding this it was probably not before the beginning of the
sixteenth century that any very serious attempts were made even to
widen the trails so that wagon traffic was possible. In 1754[18] four
days were needed to go from Boston to New York by stage, and three days
more to go to Philadelphia. Twelve years later it required the “Flying
Machine” two days to make the trip between New York and Philadelphia.


=Settlement Follows Waterways; Portages.=--The opening up for
settlement of new territory necessitated means of communication. That
near waterways was most easily reached and most easily kept within
reach of older settlements and was, therefore, naturally first taken up
and occupied. To penetrate farther the interior made it necessary to
cross from one water system to another. As necessity arose the trails
were widened into roads and often at these portages were established
forts and villages for protection against the natives and to facilitate
trade. Villages grew into towns and towns into cities. Portages became
known and were talked about just as railroad lines were later.[19] To
go from the region near New York the Hudson River was available to the
watershed near Lake George, where there was a 15-mile portage guarded
by Forts Edward on the Hudson and William Henry on Lake George. After
traversing Lake George there was another portage to Lake Champlain
guarded by Fort Ticonderoga. These names are often mentioned in the
histories of the French and Indian and of the Revolutionary wars.
[Illustration: MAP OF THE NORTH-EASTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES
SHOWING PORTAGES

Showing the Location of Well-known Portages. There Were Other Portages
Wherever Two Water Courses Came Near to Each Other. (See Farrand:
“American Nation,” Vol. I, and Thwaites, Ib. Vol. VII.)]

The Oneida portage, leading from the Mohawk, a tributary of the Hudson,
to Wood Creek thence by the Oswego River furnished a way to Ontario and
the other Great Lakes. A portage around Niagara Falls is now supplanted
by the Welland Canal.


=Lines of Travel.=--To reach the Ohio Valley travelers might go by
way of the north along the routes just mentioned to the Great Lakes,
thence to the interior of Ohio, or they could leave the Mohawk and
portage across to the upper waters of the Allegheny. The Indians gave
trouble along these lines, so a more southerly route was often taken.
Some of these, commencing on the north, were: Up the Susquehanna to
its headwaters, portage to one or the other of tributaries which flow
into the Allegheny near Kittanning; leave the Susquehanna and go up the
Juniata and portage over to the Conemaugh, thence to the Allegheny--a
course partly occupied now by the Pennsylvania railroad; or, by way
of the Potomac, and Wills Creek, then across the Youghiogheny, and
Monongahela. Several other trails crossed the Alleghanies. A trail
through southern Pennsylvania called occasionally Nemacolin’s Path
afterward formed the line of Braddock’s Road, hastily constructed for
military purposes during the French and Indian War, and over which
Braddock’s unfortunate expedition traveled. Still farther south there
was a well-known trail often followed by the Cherokee Indians, by
trappers, hunters, traders, and missionaries desirous of reaching the
lands beyond the mountains. Skirting the north end of the Blue Ridge
range the traveler followed up the Shenandoah to near the present
town of Staunton, thence across the ridges to the headwaters of the
James, thence to upper tributaries of the New River, then by crossing
a few more ridges to the Holston River, thence into the bountiful
hunting grounds of Tennessee. The Cherokee Indians were jealous of
this territory and as far as possible kept it closed to the settler.
Therefore the country beyond the Alleghanies was not well known to the
Virginia colonists, even up to 1800. True, records of Dougherty, a
trader, who had visited the Indian tribes in this region as early as
1690 were known, and another (Adair) in 1730, and still others after
1740. Glowing reports were brought back by the few traders, hunters,
trappers, and occasional talkative Indians, who had visited those
regions of magnificent rivers, vast woods, and extended prairies. The
wild beasts with which this fertile country abounded were likened to
the leaves on the trees, they were so abundant. Even the great Ohio
River was but a tributary of a larger river of which they had no
definite information. The trip, in the language of the Indian, from the
headwaters of the Holston (Hogo higee) to the Wabash (Ohio) required
for its performance “two paddles, two warriors, three moons.”[20]
These glowing descriptions only whetted the adventurous appetite and
soon such hardy pioneers as Daniel Boone and his comrades sought this
territory where they could live near to nature and be freed from high
taxes. There was also a well-worn trail from Philadelphia, east of
the Cherokee (Shenandoah) through Virginia to the Yadkin, from which
travelers could diverge at various points and reach the Cherokee trail
or go on through Cumberland Gap farther to the west.


=Trails from the North.=--Traders from Virginia who reached far out in
Tennessee and Kentucky found competition from those who came down by
one of the several routes from the Great Lakes or up from the lower
Mississippi. A route left Lake Erie at what is now Cleveland, passed
up the Cuyahoga, portaged across to a tributary of the Ohio, then
into Kentucky; another left the Lake at Sandusky, followed the Miami,
crossed to the Scioto, thence down to the Ohio, across Kentucky to
Cumberland Gap, sometimes called the Scioto trail and farther south the
Warrior’s Trail.

As western territory settled, trails and roads became more numerous.
Readers desiring further detailed information are referred to Hurlbert,
Thwaites, Dunbar, and Farrand.[21] A few other routes, however,
should be mentioned on account of the importance they assumed in the
settlement of the nation.


=Boone’s Trace, or The Wilderness Road.=--This road is said to be the
first road built into the wilderness for the purpose of encouraging
settlement and development. In the late years of the nineteenth century
it was no uncommon thing for a railroad to precede settlement, but at
the beginning of the eighteenth century roads were, in America, made
largely for military purposes or where demanded by the traffic of
earlier settlement.

Daniel Boone, the noted hunter and explorer, had several times left his
home in North Carolina to hunt and travel in the wilds of Kentucky. He
brought back to the eastern side of the mountains glowing descriptions.
These excited the cupidity of a friend, a judge and prominent citizen
of North Carolina, James[22] Henderson. Henderson employed Boone to
confer with the Cherokee Indians who claimed this territory for the
sale of their rights. Boone sought out the Indians and by means now
unknown got them to agree to sell. The fact that they were persuaded
to dispose of their great hunting grounds shows what influence Boone
had among them. It has been intimated that the chiefs realized the
futility of further fighting the white settler or that the Cherokees
felt they had no real right to this land as it had been rather held as
neutral territory among several tribes. However, as soon as they had
given their pledge Boone is said to have gone immediately to Henderson,
who repaired at once to Fort Watauga on a branch of the Holston in
North Carolina, where he met 1200 natives in council and completed
the deal in the name of the Transylvania Company. The main opposition
came from an eloquent and powerful chief named Dragging Canoe,[23] who
was able to disrupt proceedings the first day. After his speech the
council broke up in confusion. The next day, however, the Indians again
went into council and the treaty was ratified. Estimates of the price
paid range from “ten wagon loads of cheap goods and whiskey,” to “the
equivalent of ten thousand pounds sterling.”[24]

As soon as the deal was consummated Boone, employed by Henderson, began
the marking and cutting out of a road from Watauga, North Carolina, to
Boonesborough, Kentucky. The party numbered about forty men, consisting
of colored men to care for the camp duties and the necessary pack
animals and a body of woodsmen with axes. Boone went ahead and blazed
the way by chopping notches in the sides of trees along the way, the
axmen following cleared away the underbrush and felled and removed such
trees as stood in the way. However, as it was easier to detour than to
chop, usually only small trees were cut. It was not intended that this
should be a wagon road, as wagons had but just made their appearance in
this region. However, it was to be an easily followed way for future
settlers. In Boone’s Autobiography, dictated to John Filson, the matter
of the road is referred to thus:

  After the conclusion of which (a campaign against the Shawanese
  Indians which Boone commanded by order of Governor Dunmore), the
  militia was discharged from each garrison, and I, being relieved from
  my post, was solicited by a number of North Carolina gentlemen, that
  were about purchasing the lands lying on the north side of Kentucky
  River, from the Cherokee Indians, to attend their treaty at Wataga,
  in March, 1755, to negotiate with them, and mention the boundaries
  of the purchase. This I accepted; and, at the request of the same
  gentlemen, undertook to mark out a road in the best passage from the
  settlement through the wilderness to Kentucky, with such assistance
  as I thought necessary to employ for such an important undertaking.

  I soon began this work, having collected a number of enterprising
  men, well armed. We proceeded with all possible expedition until we
  came within fifteen miles of where Boonesborough now stands, and
  where we were fired upon by a party of Indians, that killed two, and
  wounded two of our number; yet, although surprised and taken at a
  disadvantage, we stood our ground. This was the 20th of March, 1775.
  Three days after, we were fired upon again, and had two men killed
  and three wounded. Afterwards we proceeded on to Kentucky River
  without opposition; and on the 1st of April began to erect the fort
  of Boonesborough at a salt lick, about sixty yards from the river on
  the south side.

A letter from Captain Boone to Colonel Henderson is quoted by Peck
in his life of Boone, relating to this same enterprise, which shows
the dangerous nature of the work and that even Boone seemed somewhat
worried over the matter:

  Dear Colonel: After my compliments to you, I shall acquaint you with
  our misfortune. On March the 25th a party of Indians fired on my
  company about half an hour before day, and killed Mr. Twitty and his
  negro, and wounded Mr. Walker very deeply but I hope he will recover.

  On March the 28th, as we were hunting for provisions, we found Samuel
  Tate’s son, who gave us an account that the Indians fired on their
  camp on the 27th day. My brother and I went down and found two men
  killed and scalped, Thomas McDowell and Jeremiah McPeters. I have
  sent a man down to all the lower companies in order to gather them
  all to the mouth of Otter Creek. My advice to you, sir, is to come or
  send as soon as possible. Your company is desired greatly, for the
  people are very uneasy, but are willing to stay and venture their
  lives with you; and now is the time to flusterate their (the Indians)
  intentions, and keep the country whilst we are in it. If we give way
  to them now, it will ever be the case. This day we start from the
  battle-ground for the mouth of Otter Creek, where we will immediately
  erect a fort, which will be done before you can come or send; then
  we can send ten men to meet you if you send for them.

  I am sir, your most obedient,

  DANIEL BOONE.

  N. B.--We stood on the ground and guarded our baggage till day, and
  lost nothing. We have about fifteen miles to Cantuck at Otter Creek.

The road began “at the settlements,” which were probably in what are
now Sullivan and Hawkins counties. Tennessee, but mostly along the
Watauga River, then thought to be a part of Virginia. The road was a
continuation of the Cherokee trail through the mountains. This trail
served the great migration following the Revolutionary War in Tennessee
and Kentucky. From the settlements there is a westerly course to the
Holston River at Long Island near the site of old Long Island Fort
constructed by Colonel Bird to winter his army during the French and
Indian War in 1758. At this place he received some reinforcements and
then continued in a generally westward direction through country he
was more or less familiar with to the Clinch River, then across the
ridge to the Powell River, and finally to Cumberland Gap, through which
he entered the land of “Kentucke.” Here he arrived at the Warrior’s
Trail leading northward, so called because Kentucky had been a sort
of neutral hunting grounds of the Indians from the North, the Miamis,
Shawnees, Wyandots, and others and of the Cherokees, Creeks, Catawbas,
and others, from the South. Nevertheless the Indians from the South
habitually crossed over and fought those from the North and vice versa,
hence a large and much frequented trail.

[Illustration: MAP SHOWING MAIN HIGHWAYS AND WATERWAYS IN UNITED STATES
ABOUT 1830

When the Railroads Entered the Industrial Arena, the Country Was Being
Covered With a Net Work of Highways. (Based on Tanner’s Map of 1825 and
Turner in “American Nation,” Vol. XIV.)]

Boone appropriated this native route for a distance of about 50 miles
to near the present town of Manchester in Clay County. Here he found
a “street” made by the buffalo, which were wont to travel through the
cane-brakes about five or six abreast, thus with their thousands of
hoofs breaking and hardening a way wide enough for a team and wagon.
Turning west he followed the bisons’ street to Rock Castle River,
then turned northward again to the Kentucky River and the site of
Boonesborough. A fort was here erected by placing stout log cabins with
heavy stockades between about a rectangular space some 150 x 260 feet.
A pair of strong wooden gates furnished ingress and egress. Several
times was this fort attacked by Indians, the last time in 1778, by
nearly 500 warriors, but always, because of the block houses at the
corners with their loop-holes and the heavy barricades, also with loop
holes, they were able to withstand the attacks and finally repulse the
Indians.

The first legislature of the Transylvania Republic, as Henderson’s
scheme came to be known, was held here. Boone was a member, as was
Harrod from Harrodstown, and other early settlers of Kentucky.

There is no doubt but that this highway and blockhouse fort were of
great assistance in settling and developing the country of Kentucke.


=Calk’s Diary.=--One of the first parties to make use of Boone’s Trace
was that of Henderson in response to Boone’s letter heretofore quoted.
A naïve diary kept by one of its members, William Calk, is still in
existence. It has been made available by the publications of the
Filson Club. Speed[25] and Dunbar[26] quote it extensively. Theodore
(afterward President) Roosevelt[27] says “the writer’s mind was
evidently as vigorous as his language was terse and untrammeled.” While
spelling, capitalization, and punctuation may not conform to the best
modern style it must be remembered that in those early days there were
no public schools. A few private schools were taught by more or less
shiftless school teachers, but the man who could read and write at all
was fortunate. Boone’s schooling, of a very meager nature, closed when
he and some of his schoolmates exchanged the teacher’s whisky bottle
for a similar one doped with tartar emetic. The sick teacher made a
“rough house” with Boone and his companions but was finally knocked
down and the school dismissed.

To return to William Calk’s diary. It is a sort of log or running
account of the trip and events from day to day as they impressed
him, from its beginning March 13, 1775, in Prince William County,
Virginia, till he arrives at Boonesborough. It is certainly a very good
commentary on the early travel conditions. A few of the entries are:

  1775, Mon. 13th--I set out from prince wm. to travel to Caintuck on
  tursday Night our company all got together at Mr. Priges on rapadon
  which was Abraham hanks phipip Drake Eanock Smith Robert Whitledge
  and myself thiar Abrahms Dogs leg got broke by Drakes Dog.

  Wednesday, 15th--We started early from priges made a good days travel
  and lodge this night at Mr. Cars on North fork James River.

So he continues with his daily items. It may be interesting to note that

  Wedns 22nd--We start early and git to foart Chissel whear we git some
  good loaf bread and good whiskey.

On “fryday 24th” they turned out of the main wagon road in order to
go to “Danil Smiths” on the Clinch River, where they arrived Saturday
evening and very hard traveling they found it through the mountains.
Those who have had experience with pack animals in the timber will
relish this incident which occurred soon after the few days’ sojourn at
Smith’s.

  Thusd 30th--We set out again and went down to Elk gardin and there
  suplid our Selves With Seed Corn and irish tators then we went on a
  little way I turned my hors to drive before me and he got scard ran
  away threw Down the Saddle Bags and broke three of our powder goards
  and Abrams beast Burst open a walet of corn and lost a good Deal and
  made a turrable flustration amongst the Reast of the Horses Drakes
  mair run against a sapling and nocht it down we cacht them all again
  and went on and loged at John Duncans.

They “suplyed” themselves with bacon and meal at “Dunkan’s.” This was
their last chance to get provisions other than the game afforded by
the country. They found this a “verey Bad hilley way.” Were mired in
the mud, fell in the water and got their loads wet. Since they turned
off to go to Smith’s they had been traveling unbroken or dim trails; on
“mond 3rd” after traveling the woods without any track they “git into
hendersons Road,” that is the trail which Boone had recently blazed
for the Transylvania Company. On “Tuesday 4th” they overtook “Col.
henderson and his company Bound for Caintuck,” at Capt. Martin’s where
“they were Broiling and Eating Beef without Bread.” They now formed a
company of about “40 men and some neagros.”

  Saturday 8th--We all pack up and started crost Cumberland gap about
  one oclock this Day. Met a good many peopel turned back for fear of
  the indians but our Company goes on Still with good courage.

News of the depredations of the Indians frightened many and caused them
to turn back. The Henderson party were able to pursuade some of these
to remain. On the 9th they met “another Companey going Back they tell
such News abram and Drake is afraid to go aney farther there we camp
this night.”

However, after many hardships, swollen streams over which they
must sometimes swim their horses, “obliged to toat” the packs over
themselves, they arrived at their destination. Once “Abrams mair Ran
into the River with her load and swam over” he followed her and “got
on her and made her swim back again.” He mentions occasionally Killing
game: one “Eavening two Deer,” another day a “beef,” and again “2
bofelos.” The writer was evidently disgusted with the uncleanly and
unsanitary Drake, whose dog is mentioned in the first entry, for he
notes that “Mr. Drake Bakes Bread without washing his hands,” which
evidently was unusual in even these frontier times.

After arriving at “Boones foart” they drew “for chois of lots;” some as
will always happen were dissatisfied. This small company, however, must
have decided to accept the verdict of chance for Calk writes:

  Wednesday 26th--We Begin Building us a house and a plaise of Defense
  to Keep the indians off this day we begin to live without bread.

  Satterday 29th--We git our house Kivered with Bark and move our
  things into it at Night and Bigin houseKeeping Eanock Smith Robert
  Whitledge and myself.

Thus ends this interesting journal kept under difficult conditions
when ordinary men would have considered it useless labor to make such
a record. There is no doubt but that Boone’s Wilderness Road and
Boone’s Fort were both very instrumental in the settlement of Kentucky
and Tennessee. The territory of Kentucky was separated from Virginia
in 1786 and admitted to the union as a state in 1790, when it had a
population, by U. S. Census, of 73,077.


=Marquette’s Explorations.=--Religious devotion and zeal has done much
for the settlement of North America: the Puritans in New England, the
Quakers in Pennsylvania, the Catholics in Maryland and Canada, and very
much later the Mormons in Utah are familiar examples. A French Jesuit
missionary, Jacques Marquette, who with another, Claude Bablon, had
founded (1668) a settlement at St. Mary’s on the falls between Lakes
Superior and Huron, said to be the first French settlement within the
present boundaries of the United States, had made friends with the
Illinois Indians and learned their language. He also collected the
remains of the Huron tribes at St. Ignace and established a mission
there (1671). Marquette had heard from the Indians many tales of the
Great river to the west, and decided to explore the region along its
borders, despite their assertion of great dangers, that its warriors
never spared the stranger, and that monsters would devour both men
and canoes. Traveling with his company up the Fox River from Green
Bay he crossed the portage, which still retains the name “Portage,”
to the headwaters of the Wisconsin. With the explorer Joliet and five
subordinates as companions, he boldly embarked upon the Wisconsin and
floated down its course, knowing not where it would lead nor what
dangers might be in store. After seven days of solitary travel they
floated with inexpressible joy on the broad bosom of the Mississippi,
June 17, 1673. They continued their lonely voyage along its placid
waters until they reached the mouth of the Moingona, where were seen
evidences of habitation. Fourteen miles in the interior was a native
village. They said they were received most friendly with a calumet,
invited into their dwellings, and feasted. They explained their
religious doctrines and were sent away with the gift of a calumet or
peace pipe embellished with the heads and necks of various colored
bright and beautiful birds.

They sailed along their solitary way and were soon rewarded by hearing
the rush of the swifter, more turbulent, muddy waters of the Missouri,
which seemed from thereon to enhance the speed of the current. They
went on past the mouths of the Ohio and the Arkansas, where they found
savages who spoke a new tongue and were armed with guns, proof that
they had trafficked with the Spaniards from the Gulf of Mexico, or
with the English from Virginia. These exhibiting hostility which was
only allayed by the peace pipe, they retreated and sailed back up the
river. When Marquette reached the Illinois he entered and ascended that
river where he beheld the magnificent fertility and coloring inuring
to the late summer and early autumn of the extensive plains and vast
wooded tracts of Illinois. An easy portage brought him to the Chicago
River, a short stream whose waters are now reversed and flow into the
Illinois. Some authorities claim Marquette to have been the first white
man to set foot upon the site of Chicago (1673). Others[28] state that
the French Jesuit Nicholas Perrot and his party of fur traders pitched
their tent on its prairies the latter part of 1669.

To Marquette, however, belongs the honor of discovering two very
important routes to the Mississippi Valley; the one by way of the
Fox and Wisconsin Rivers, and the other by way of the Illinois.
Unfortunately the hardships of this journey undermined his health and
the next year (1674) a half hour after he had retired for devotion to
a small altar of stones on the banks of a little stream now called by
his name, he was found dead. Thus judged by the extent and value of the
territory traversed, passed away, at the early age of thirty-one, one
of our country’s greatest explorers.


=The Lewis and Clark Expedition.=--Another exploring expedition sought
a path to extend the commerce of the United States in the far Oregon
country. The great Rocky Mountain ranges precluded direct approach. The
idea had evidently fastened itself upon Thomas Jefferson, even before
he became president, that the Missouri River might be made the highway
across the continent, and that trade and commerce thus engendered would
inure to the benefit of the country. Also being a highly educated man,
he was deeply interested in extending the geographical and biological
knowledge of this vast region even though no remuneration to the
nation might come therefrom. Furthermore, it is possible, he desired
to secure the territories beyond the Rockies as a part of the country,
but he was too shrewd to make plain statements to that effect. His
shrewdness and the business sagacity of Livingston, minister to France,
coupled with the financial straits of Napoleon resulted in obtaining
an extensive portion of the country without which the United States
could not have developed into a strong well-bound nation reaching from
coast to coast. Whether Mr. Jefferson would have attempted to take this
country by force matters not now. The fact that the Lewis and Clark
military expedition was ready to start almost as soon as the purchase
was made, lends suspicion to that idea. The nomination of Monroe to
be Minister to France, the man whom Jefferson expected to conduct the
Louisiana negotiations, and who arrived in France just in time to see
them completed by Livingston, was made January 11, 1803; while the
message proposing the expedition was submitted January 18; the treaty
of cession for the purchase was signed May 2; and during that same
month the expedition which had previously organized left its winter
quarters about a day’s journey from St. Louis, and proceeded up the
Missouri River. The expedition consisted of forty-five persons in three
boats, one a flat boat decked over at the ends and two pirogues[29]
together with a number of horses which were to be driven along the
bank for the use of the hunters. The personnel consisted of the two
officers, Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant (by courtesy Captain)
William Clark, both of whom were from families already distinguished
in border service; twenty-seven men who expected to make the entire
journey; seven soldiers and nine voyageurs who were to go only to the
Mandan villages of the Missouri, where the party would winter. Of the
twenty-seven permanent members one was a half-breed hunter who would
also act as interpreter, two were French voyageurs, and one a negro
servant of Clark. All, except the black slave, were enlisted in the
army that discipline might be secured. Their progress was necessarily
slow and a full account of it reads like a romance. They of course had
to live off the country as they proceeded. There was no roadway along
the river, often the brush was thick and the grass high; the river with
its turbulent waters, snags, and sand bars made navigation difficult;
flies and mosquitoes, those pests of bottom and marshy land, were
abundant. They had some trouble with the Sioux Indians, but Captains
Lewis and Clark were evidently able to cope with them successfully.
They reached a point near the present site of Bismarck, N.D., that
summer. This region was occupied by the Mandan Indians, who lived in
villages of rather permanent character. Among these they found some
who had traveled far toward the headwaters of the Missouri. One woman,
known as the Bird Woman, was especially helpful to them. She had been
captured some time previously from a mountain tribe and according
to Indian custom married to one of their own number, a half breed.
During the stay at winter quarters, in addition to writing up their
journals and records very carefully, they cultivated the acquaintance
of this woman. She, with her half breed husband and small child,
accompanied the expedition when it began its onward journey in the
spring of 1805. There was real need for them not only to act as guides
and interpreters, but to replace those who had been sent back down the
river with reports of the progress and observations of the expedition
up to this time. Part of the duties of the expedition, as heretofore
intimated, was to note the character and productivity of the land, as
well as the nature and number of Indians found and general information
concerning them and their mode of living.

When the falls of the Missouri were reached there seemed to be an
_impasse_. But from logs and other timbers found there they constructed
a crude wagon on which their supplies and equipment were transported
to the river above. They had brought with them the iron framework of a
smaller boat than those used heretofore with the idea of covering it
with stretched skins. They found difficulty, however, in getting it
watertight. They attempted to get pitch by heating pine tree trunks
but were again unsuccessful. They resorted finally to a combination of
powdered charcoal, beeswax, and buffalo tallow--practically natural
products of the land. The boat floated nicely and they were greatly
encouraged but when it was taken from the water the mixture dropped
off and the seams opened up. Lewis finally gave up the attempt and
buried the framework and built canoes according to the Indian fashion.
In passing up they came to forks in the river and were often at a loss
which to take. By conference with the Indian woman and reports of
scouts sent ahead they were usually fortunate in choosing the right
course. Being explorers of a new country they assigned names to the
rivers as they discovered them. At three forks, they called the rivers,
Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson, names which they still retain. Three
branches of the Jefferson were Philosophy, Philanthropy, and Wisdom;
these names have not remained--probably they were too fanciful--the
Philanthropy is now the odoriferous Stinking Water.

They followed up the Jefferson until it became too shallow and
precipitous to navigate longer. Lewis started out overland into the
interior hoping to find an Indian habitation and someone who would
guide him to waters flowing Pacificward. Game, which had been very
abundant practically all the way, was here scarce and the company were
often hungry, and very likely despondent. After arduous and weary
wandering Lewis came across an old Indian woman and some girls. They
were afraid of him and bowed their heads for execution. Instead he
gave them trinkets and face paint. The men of the tribe having come up
he with difficulty persuaded them to go with him to the river where
the “Bird Woman” who had come with them from the Mandan village was
recognized as the sister of the chief of the band with which Lewis had
fortunately come in contact.

Their food up to this time, which was mostly meat, was easily supplied
from the numerous herds of buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope; from
flocks of wild fowl, and prairie chickens; and from several varieties
of fish found in the waters. “On the return voyage, when Clark was
descending the Yellowstone River, a vast herd of buffalo, swimming and
wading, plowed its way across the stream where it was a mile wide, in
a column so thick that explorers had to draw up on shore and wait for
an hour, until it passed by, before continuing their journey.”[30]
They frequently found hungry wolves, grizzly bears, and rattlesnakes
which gave them more or less trouble, but they complained mostly of the
mosquitoes.

But now having left the open country they found game very scarce.
The Indians occasionally brought them a Rocky Mountain sheep but
they themselves claim never to have seen one alive. After a short
exploration in the region of the headwaters of the Jefferson they
decided to continue toward the west. So purchasing ponies from the
Indians and cacheing most of their goods went on until the rivers
were again passable for boats, where making new canoes they again
took to the waters and voyaged to the mouth of the Columbia. Hunger
harassed them, while rapids and whirlpools made their downward travel
very disagreeable. The Indians on the lower reaches were generally
friendly but their food consisted largely of dog meat, which at first
was nauseating; however, after awhile they became reconciled to the
Indians’ favorite dish.

The party wintered on the coast at a post they named Fort Clatsch. The
damp winds here were cold and raw and to persons used to active outdoor
life the winter’s enforced idleness cloyed, and they were glad when
spring came and they could turn back. The streams toward the mountains
are very swift so much of the return journey to the place where they
had left their horses with the Nez Percé Indians had to be made on
foot. Upon again securing their horses they separated at the top of the
divide, Lewis returning by way of the Missouri and Clark going by way
of the Yellowstone. Clark for a portion of the way subdivided his party
in order that the maximum territory might be explored. They met again
at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone and concluded their
expedition at St. Louis, September 23, 1806. Thus ended a marvelous
journey of three and a third years through a wilderness beset with many
dangers, inhabited by savage tribes, venomous reptiles, and ferocious
beasts; but a wilderness on the whole extremely friendly, abounding in
succulent vegetation and edible game, and endowed with a healthful and
invigorating climate. During all this time, notwithstanding hardships
and exposures, one man only had died, one had deserted and not more
than two Indians had been killed.[31] To Lewis and Clark for their
ability to handle men, for their courage, and fidelity should be given
much praise.

Upon the report of this expedition being made public very many
hunters, trappers and fur traders came to the lands beyond the
Missouri. These in turn were followed by bona-fide settlers. Soon this
country was furnishing supplies for those farther east, the great
rivers Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio being busy routes of internal
commerce. As a result of Lewis and Clark’s labors the United States was
able to lay claim to the Oregon country some years later. The door was
opened for the development of a vast empire with versatile resources
far beyond the fabled riches of the far east.


=Transcontinental Trails.=--Following the purchase of the Louisiana
territory there was, of course, an extension of settlement to the
prairies beyond the Missouri. The State of Missouri was early occupied
and became a state in 1821, but it was many years later before other
portions of the Louisiana Purchase were sufficiently settled to become
territories.[32] The settlement of these lands, together with the
opening up of Oregon and later California with its great gold rush,
created a demand for transcontinental roads. The mountain ranges
were searched for passes, possibly not so much for the purposes of
settlement as means for going to and coming from fur trading posts
which large companies established throughout the whole Rocky Mountain
region. St. Louis became the greatest fur center in the world, a
position which she probably holds still.[33] Provost, leader of
a detachment of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company (Wm. H. Ashley, of
Virginia, founder), found the South Pass by way of the Sweetwater
branch of the North Fork of the Platte River, 1823. This pass held
preëminence as a crossing through the Rockies to the great interior
basin and to the Pacific coast. Already has been mentioned the
crossing of Lewis and Clark in the North. Bridger discovered the pass
in Southern Wyoming bearing his name, about 1824. This defile though
wide enough for an army to pass through seems narrow because of its
lateral walls of red granite and metamorphic sandstone extending almost
perpendicularly from 1000 to 25,000 feet. The overland mail route prior
to the building of the Union Pacific Railroad was through this pass.
Jedediah Smith, who succeeded Ashley as head of the Rocky Mountain
Fur Company, explored practically all the region from Great Salt Lake
to the Pacific, and from San Diego to the upper Columbia River in
Canada. To him is the world indebted for its first knowledge of much
of the vast region west of Salt Lake as by other active members of
this company was revealed the sources of the Platte, the Yellowstone,
the Green and the Snake Rivers, and possible routes through the almost
impassable mountains drained by them. New England was especially
interested in the Oregon country and through men from there the
Humboldt River route was discovered.

During this same period there were being opened up trade and trade
routes with the Spanish possessions farther south. In 1822 a wagon
train was taken from Missouri to Santa Fé by a man named Beckwith to
trade for horses and mules, and trap along the way. For years St. Louis
was headquarters for many overland traders to these regions, taking
to them cloths and other manufactured goods and bringing back furs,
silver, mules, and horses.

[Illustration: TRANSCONTINENTAL TRAILS IN THE UNITED STATES]

The Oregon Trail, the Santa Fé Trail, the Spanish Trail and the Gila
Route, had become quite well known by the early ’thirties and after the
discovery of gold in California in ’forty-nine carried many people and
much traffic across the continent.


=Origin of the Oregon Trail.=--At Bellevue the Nebraska State
Historical Society erected, June 23, 1910, a monument a part of the
inscription on which reads:

  Commemorative of the Astorian Expedition organized June 23, 1810, by
  John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company. This Expedition discovered
  the Oregon Trail which spread knowledge of the Nebraska country
  leading to its occupancy by white people.

John Jacob Astor’s purpose in organizing the Pacific Fur Company, a
subsidiary of the American Fur Company, was to establish himself and
American control in the already disputed Oregon country.[34] As a
result two expeditions were fitted out to go to and establish trading
posts in Oregon with a central control or main post at Astoria. One
of these expeditions went by water around Cape Horn to “carry out the
people, stores, ammunition and merchandise, requisite for establishing
a fortified trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River.” The other
“conducted by Mr. Hunt, was to proceed up the Missouri, and across the
Rocky Mountains, to the same point: exploring a line of communication
across the continent, and noting the place where interior trading posts
might be established.”[35]

The overland expedition, consisting of about sixty men with four boats
left their winter quarters in Missouri and proceeded up the river in
the spring of 1811. They deviated somewhat from Lewis and Clark’s route
by leaving the Missouri River at the mouth of the Grand River, near
where the Pacific extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul
railroad crosses. They seem to have gone across the country north of
the Black Hills into Wyoming to the Wind River and Wind Mountains south
of the Yellowstone Park, using present-day terms for locations; thence
a short distance to the head waters of the Snake River, a part of the
Lewis and Clark route, which with some deviations they followed to the
Columbia. At the mouth of the Columbia they met the sea party, and on
July 28, 1812, a party of six men started back with dispatches. They
wintered near Scott’s Bluff, Nebraska, having crossed the mountains
substantially along the line afterwards known as the Oregon Trail. In
the spring of 1813 they continued down the Platte to the Missouri.
This trip proved the possibility of a direct route avoiding the long
roundabout journey by way of the headwaters of the Missouri River. The
evolution of the Oregon Trail has been summarized by Albert Watkins,
Historian of the Nebraska State Historical Society, in Collections,
Vol. XVI, p. 26, as follows:[36]

  The Missouri Fur Company sent an expedition of 150 men to the upper
  waters of the Missouri in 1809. The powerful and ferocious Black Feet
  Indians, who were the providence of the Oregon Trail, discouraged
  the attempts of these men to gain permanent foothold there. Part
  of them retreated and another part, headed by the intrepid Henry,
  crossed the mountain divide in the fall of 1810 and established Fort
  Henry on Henry’s Fork of the Snake River. This was the beginning of
  the southern movement. In 1821 Pilcher, who succeeded Lisa as head
  of the Missouri Fur Company, made another attempt at a foothold in
  the Black Feet country, but was forced back. Ashley, leader of the
  Rocky Mountain Fur Company, organized in 1822, was also beaten back
  in 1823. By this time Henry was discouraged about holding on to the
  upper Missouri and turned his attention to permanent exploitation
  of the Green River valley. In that year Provost made the important
  discovery of South Pass. In 1824, Ashley conducted an expedition
  to the lower fields along the regular trail except that he went to
  Council Bluff and from there west up the Platte Valley. In 1830, his
  great lieutenants, Smith, Jackson and Sublette, went west with a
  train of fourteen wagons--the first to go to the mountains over the
  cut-off; that is, up the Little Blue valley to its head, across to
  the Platte, following the river to the mountains. In 1832 Bonneville
  also went over the cut-off and took a wagon train over the South
  Pass, the first wagons to cross the mountains. In 1832 Nathaniel
  Wyeth went over the cut-off to Oregon, but did not take wagons over
  the mountainous part of the course. In 1836 Marcus Whitman, one of
  the intrepid winners and founders of Oregon, went almost through
  to the Columbia with a wagon, thus demonstrating and illustrating
  the practicability of a transcontinental road for all purposes. The
  Oregon Trail was now clearly outlined. It was thoroughly established
  in 1842 by the aggressive Oregon emigration.


=The Final Trail.=--The Trail as finally adopted and used by emigrants
and freighters to Oregon in the “forties” started from Independence
and Westport (outfitting stations near the present metropolis of
Kansas City, Missouri) then followed in a general way the Kansas, Big
Blue, and Little Blue Rivers to near the Platte, crossing over to the
latter river a short distance west of the present city of Kearney. The
trail here proceeded up the South bank to the forks, and from there
up the North Fork to the Sweetwater which it followed through South
Pass. Thence it bore southwestward, westward, and northwestward to the
Snake River which was followed to a point about west of Boise where a
cutoff was made through the Blue Mountains arriving at the Columbia
River about the mouth of the Umatilla, thence down the Columbia to the
Pacific Ocean.


=Salt Lake Trail.=--Many variations of the above described trail were
in use. Travelers up the Missouri River disembarked at St. Joseph,
Nebraska City, Plattsmouth and especially at Council Bluffs. The great
Mormon trek was made from the last-named place. They reached the Platte
River west of Omaha and followed it on the north bank, paralleling the
Oregon Trail from Fort Kearney to Fort Laramie, where they crossed over
and joined with the Oregon Trail through South Pass then leaving that
trail turned south and west to Great Salt Lake.


=Later California Trail.=--A continuation of the Salt Lake route north
of Great Salt Lake and along the Humboldt River, across the desert to
near Lake Tahoe, where there was a crossing through the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, the Truckee Pass, thence to the Gold Diggings or across
California by way of the American and Sacramento Rivers, was a trail
very popular to California gold miners and was afterwards used by the
overland stage, and known as the Later California Trail.


=Santa Fé Trail.=--This road passed westward and a little south to the
Arkansas River, which it followed to Bent’s Fort (Colorado), thence up
Timpas Creek and over the Raton Pass to Las Vegas (New Mexico). Then
westward through Apache Cañon to Santa Fé. This trail was too rough
for wagon traffic, so later a route which crossed over south from the
Arkansas to the Cimarron and meeting the old trail at Las Vegas was
used.


=Gila and Spanish Trails.=--Two routes were possible from Santa Fé. One
southwestward by way of the Rio Grande and Gila Rivers into southern
California. The other took a northwesterly direction up the Chama
River, down the Dolores Valley, and across to the Grand River near
the present site of Moab, Utah. Then west to the Sevier, up which it
followed until it crossed over to the Virgin River; up this for a short
distance then turned directly south-west across the Mohave desert
toward Los Angeles. This last route received the name of Spanish Trail.

Many of these trails were difficult on account of scarcity of water
in the deserts. Descriptions of early travel over them are replete
with hardships, sickness, and deaths. Some of the graves were marked
with wooden, stone, or iron markers with names roughly chiseled, but
more received no marking whatsoever. Many travelers and settlers were
killed by the Indians; the tribes apparently becoming more hostile
as the number of whites increased until their own numbers became so
decimated they could no longer command sufficient warriors to warrant
further attacks. It would seem as though no advance in civilization is
unaccompanied by its toll of human lives.


=Era of Turnpiking.=--The need of better transportation facilities was
“borne in” on the people of the eastern part of the country long before
the west had been developed. The Indian trail, a single path,--for
they always traveled in single file--gave way to the “tote path” over
which each year the settler’s surplus crops were transported to market
on pack animals. Even if they owned wheeled vehicles the roads were
generally so bad they could not be used. However, wheeled vehicles
were not many prior to 1800. When Braddock wished to transport his
army to western Pennsylvania he called upon the colonies for wagons,
but Maryland and Virginia furnished only twenty-five. He appealed
to Franklin, who by his influence was able to secure 154 wheeled
vehicles[37] from Pennsylvania, probably the best supplied with wagons
of all the colonies.

It was the custom for communities to join together after crops were
gathered to start a caravan of packers to market.[38] A master driver
with one or two assistants could manage a pack-train of a dozen or so
horses. “Hides and peltries, ginseng, and bear’s grease” are mentioned
as articles to be bartered for salt, iron, nails, pewter plates and
dishes, and cloth and articles of clothing, although the latter were
usually made at home. The horses traveled in single file each fitted
with a natural crotch of wood for a tree. Hobbles and bells were
provided that the horses could be turned loose to graze at night.
Sometimes packs had to be taken off to be carried over streams or
through narrow defiles. Naturally, methods of transportation had much
influence on the character of the crops raised. Stock--cows, sheep,
and pigs--could be driven to market by the raiser or sold to a drover
who acted as a middleman. Farm products were concentrated by being fed
to stock or manufactured into something requiring less space. Settlers
complained that it required two bushels of grain to get one to market.
Whisky and brandy were easily made, served to concentrate the grain
and surplus fruit and always had a ready sale. When the government
placed an excise tax on it the opposition was so great as to produce an
insurrection in Pennsylvania (1794). Had there been good transportation
facilities probably there never would have been a “Whisky Rebellion.”
Sixteen gallons (two kegs) of whisky worth $1.00 per gallon east of
the Alleghanies was a horse load; whereas the same animal would only
pack about two bushels of grain worth, perhaps, 80 cents. That packing
was a business of considerable importance is shown by a statement in
“The History and Topography of Dauphin (and) Cumberland Counties (Pa.)”
quoted by Dunbar: “Sixty or seventy years ago five hundred pack horses
had been at one time in Carlisle, going thence to Shippenburg, Fort
London and further westward.” This was written in 1848.

Naturally so much traffic induced men to make packing a means of
livelihood. They became so numerous and strong that when wagons
began to take over the business of freighting they considered it
an infringement upon their vested rights. But as goods could be
transported more easily and cheaply by wagon the old had to make way
for the new. Wagon roads and at first two-wheeled then four-wheeled
vehicles began to appear. This created a demand for better roads. At
first that consisted in merely widening the packtrain trails. But
about the beginning of the nineteenth century, Tresaguet in France,
and Macadam and Telford, in Great Britain, were building broken-stone
roads which greatly changed and augmented the internal commerce and
the industry of those countries. The most populous and wealthy of the
colonies likewise began to consider the road question. A few military
roads, such as Braddock’s, had been constructed; there was a road along
the coast of Massachusetts, and some roads and bridges in the interior,
there were roads connecting the larger cities as from Boston to New
York and from New York to Philadelphia. The cities in order to retain
and extend their trade needed highways of commerce.


=Turnpike Roads.=--The construction of turnpike roads many of which
were stoned was encouraged by a number of the states, especially by
Pennsylvania. The Lancaster turnpike from Philadelphia to Lancaster
was “stoned” in 1792 by throwing on it stones of all sizes. These were
afterwards removed and stones “passing a 2-inch ring” substituted. This
is said to have been the first scientifically built hard surfaced
road in America. In 1800 Pennsylvania fostered the construction
of a system of turnpikes (toll roads), by granting franchises and
subscribing stock, which was eventually to cover the state and control
the western market. By 1828 there had been 3110 miles of chartered
turnpike in Pennsylvania costing over $8,000,000. These thousands
of miles of fine turnpike roads including many good bridges placed
Pennsylvania in the lead for internal improvements. But other states
were similarly employed. New York and New England by 1811 had chartered
317 turnpikes.[39] Virginia appropriated funds “to be used exclusively
for river improvements, canals and public highways,” in 1816. South
Carolina voted a million dollars, in 1818, to be raised in four annual
levies for similar purposes.

During these years the states were opening public roads but the only
good roads were those built by the turnpike companies, which erected
gates and collected tolls every few miles. This resulted in a higher
cost of transportation than was liked by the public who clamored for
free roads and canals. They were wanted by both the producer and the
merchant. The turnpikes were opposed to anything which would tend to
reduce their control of transportation.


=Wagon Road Desuetude.=--The introduction of the steam railway with
its quicker, better, and cheaper form of transportation put out of
existence the freighting and coaching business of the turnpikes, in
fact of all wagon roads. Roads which had had a thriving trade found
their toll boxes scarcely held enough to maintain the gate keeper. As
there was no adequate system of maintenance, although many of them
had been macadamized, they gradually fell into a state of disrepair.
Freighters and coachers gravitated westward or took shorter runs as
feeders to the railroads. Turnpikes, built as private or semi-private
enterprises, were gradually being taken over by the public and
maintained by local road overseers. The old practice of calling on
the freeholders to work out their road tax annually was in vogue and
is still in use in places. By it no road was ever kept at a high state
of efficiency. Even the National highway, the Cumberland Road, which
had been constructed to Vandalia, Illinois, and surfaced with stone to
Columbus, Ohio, at an expense to the nation of nearly seven millions of
dollars, had lost its ardent supporters. Jackson’s theory that national
money should only be spent for roads in territories, and the states’
right idea that each state should be the unit of government and look
after all its own internal affairs, seemed to prevail. As a result
wagon road building further than to make a mere way for crop marketing
at odd seasons of the year stood still until bicycle enthusiasts began
an agitation for better roads about 1890. However, a real awakening
to the advantages of good roads came only after the advent of the
automobile about 1900.


=National Participation.=--The Revolutionary War had shown the need
of roadways for quick intercourse between the seaboard and the
trans-Alleghany regions. The efforts of the different states, still
retaining their colonial jealousies, to secure the control of the trade
of these regions emphasized the need of a unifying influence which
would bring harmony. The debate proceeded in a desultory fashion for a
number of years. Strict constitutionalists did not believe the national
government has the authority to construct roads at all. States’ rights
men argued that road construction is the province of the states and
the National Government has jurisdiction only in the territories. On
March 29, 1806, President Thomas Jefferson approved a bill to survey
and construct a road from a point on the Potomac near Cumberland to
the Ohio River near Steubenville popularly known as the Cumberland
or National road, and appropriated therefor $30,000. This was in the
minds of friends of government control to be the beginning; there was
increasing need of travel and traffic facilities from the Hudson to
the Great Lakes, from the Delaware to the Ohio; from Virginia and the
Carolinas to Kentucky and Tennessee, to say nothing of north and south
routes, which unfortunately did not mature in time to prevent the great
Civil War a half-century later.

Alfred Gallatin and Henry Clay sponsored the Cumberland Road. The
former in compliance with the wish of Congress (1808) drew up a scheme
for a national system of internal improvements by roads and canals at
an annual expense of $2,000,000 for ten years. But its opponents were
able to stay it off and the war of 1812 coming on caused financial
troubles and the entire scheme was indefinitely postponed.

The first appropriation for the Cumberland Road had been made, not
from the general funds of the government, but from the proceeds of the
sales of land, a fiction, of course, for the benefit of the strict
constitutionalists. Gradually, however, Congress came to accept the
doctrine of “implied powers.” Madison in his last message invited the
attention of Congress “to the expediency of exercising their existing
powers and, where necessary, of resorting to the prescribed mode of
enlarging them, in order to effectuate a comprehensive system of roads
and canals, such as will have the effect of drawing more closely
together every part of the country, by promoting intercourse and
improvements and by increasing the share of every part of the common
stock of national prosperity.”[40]

Up to this time there had been completed only 23 miles of the road.
In 1816, $300,000 was appropriated for its completion; two years
later $260,000 was voted; but a proposal to appropriate $600,000 for
internal improvements failed in 1817, as did also a bill providing for
the extension of the Cumberland Road. But as a result of the labor of
Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin, Thomas Jefferson, President James Madison,
and other friends of cheap and rapid transit, by 1820 the total of
Congressional appropriations for the Cumberland Road amounted to more
than $1,500,000; in 1844 the thirty-fourth appropriation made a total
of nearly $7,000,000.[41] The growth of the road was slow: the first
contract was let in 1811 for 10 miles; contracts for short sections
were let from year to year and the road by 1817 had crawled, following
approximately the Nemacolin Path, with the Potomac through the
Cumberland gateway over the Alleghany range by way of Negro Mountain at
an elevation of 2325 feet, down to the Youghiogheny, past the scene of
Braddock’s defeat and the cairn which marks his resting place, through
the Laurel Hill Range over to Brownsville within reach of Pittsburgh,
thence westward slightly north through Washington (Pennsylvania), to
Wheeling (West Virginia) on the Ohio River.

Thus had the old Indian trail developed into a route for Washington
and his band to Fort Necessity; into Braddock’s road to Great Meadows;
into a pack train trail trampled by thousands of caravan hoofs; and,
finally, into a finished paved highway cleared to 66 feet in width,
having no grade above 5 per cent which Washington and Jefferson and
Madison had visions would be the means of binding together with the
strong bands of commerce the cis- and trans-Alleghanian countries.


=Extension of the Cumberland Highway.=--The road immediately proved
its worth. The mail coaches were placed upon it; great freight lines
were established having their own stage houses and depots in towns
along its way; inns and hotels thrived; apparently the “pulse of the
nation beat to the steady throb of trade along its highway.”[42] Like
the Appian Way it became noted the world over. The _National_, _Good
Intent_, _June Bug_, and _Pioneer_ stage coach lines were common names
as are the _Pennsylvania_, _New York Central_, _Burlington_, and _Union
Pacific_ railroad lines of to-day. The coming to town of these coaches,
which had developed from the plain square box, through the oval type
to the finished Concord painted in brilliant colors, perhaps bearing
the name of some prominent personage, drawn by four and six horses,
with the proud and arrogant driver often better known than the eminent
patrons whose names now grace the pages of history, was an important
event in the work of the day. Hardly had the stage stopped before the
hostlers were busy changing the horses, taking the tired animals to
rub-down, rest, and feed, bringing on fresh high-stepping spirited
ones, champing their bits, apparently very anxious for a galloping
start toward the next post; the passengers were alighting to stretch
their legs, rest and refresh themselves at nearby food “emporiums”
or select an inn from among the claims of numerous barkers; agents
were transferring and recording baggage, mail, and express; and the
curiosity loungers constituted most of the remaining populace. The
stage driver, Westover, made a record of forty-five minutes for the 20
miles between Uniontown and Brownsville, while “Red” Bunting’s drive of
131 miles, with the declaration of war against Mexico, in twelve hours
remains, like Paul Revere’s ride, a part of the nation’s history.

The amount of traffic over the National road was tremendous. The
annual traffic was probably not less than 3000 wagons.[43] One firm in
Wheeling is said to have, during the first five years of its existence,
done a business of over 5000 wagons carrying 2 tons each.[44] A view
of the road must have been interesting, for the Conestoga wagons with
their sway-backed canvas covers were said to have been “visible all
day long,[45] at every point, making the highway look more like a
leading avenue of a great city than a road through rural districts....
I have staid over night with William Cheets on Nigger (Negro) Mountain
when there were about thirty six-horse teams in a wagon yard, a
hundred Kentucky mules in an adjoining lot, a thousand hogs in their
enclosures, and as many fat cattle in adjoining fields. The music made
by this large number of hogs eating corn on a frosty night I shall
never forget. After supper and attention to the teams, the waggoners
would gather in the bar-room and listen to the music on the violin
furnished by one of their fellows, have a Virginia hoe-down, sing
songs, tell anecdotes, and hear the experience of drivers and drovers
from all points of the road, and, when it was over, unroll their beds,
lay them down on the floor before the bar room fire side by side, and
sleep with their feet near the blaze as soundly as under a parental
roof.”

Ah! where is the poet whose facile pen will engrave upon the tablets
of literature the tales of these men as has Longfellow the “Tales of a
Wayside Inn” in Sudbury Town so alike, where:

    ... from the parlor of the inn
    A pleasant murmur smote the ear,
    Like water rushing through a weir;
    Oft interrupted by the din
    Of laughter and of loud applause;
    And, in each intervening pause,
    The music of a violin.

The success of the Cumberland Road to the Ohio created demands for its
extension. In conformity to this demand $10,000 was appropriated in
1820 to lay out a road from Wheeling to the Mississippi River near St.
Louis. This continuation was for a road 80 feet wide and in spite of
much congressional objection and occasional presidential vetoes, the
road was pushed on; the last appropriation being made for a portion
west of the Ohio, May 25, 1838. The exact total of all appropriations
amounted to $6,824,919.33. The road proper reached southern Illinois.

[Illustration:

  _Courtesy of Prof. P. K. Slaymaker_

WAY BILL USED ON SLAYMAKER STAGE LINE FROM LANCASTER TO PHILADELPHIA,
1815]

States wanted appropriations for other roads, but these were pretty
generally vetoed. One important case was the veto, 1830, by Jackson
of the bill authorizing a subscription by the United States for stock
in the Maysville, Washington, Paris, and Lexington Road Company.
The company was incorporated in Kentucky to build a road from the
Cumberland Road at Tanesville, Ohio, to Florence, Alabama, on the
Tennessee River, which had been surveyed by U. S. engineers in 1827.
Maysville, through which the road was to pass, was on the south side of
the Ohio River, and did considerable trade in Kentucky and Tennessee. A
census was taken of the existing road, admitted to be in bad condition,
showing an average daily traffic of 351 persons, 33 carriages and 51
wagons. The $150,000 to be subscribed by the government was not to be
paid until an equal amount had been subscribed in equal parts by the
State of Kentucky and private individuals. Other bills of a similar
character were before Congress, one for a road from Buffalo to New
Orleans having been laid on the table, and opponents of the bill
insisted any road anywhere could be as well regarded to be a national
road as could be the Maysville road. The Washington Turnpike Company
bill of a similar tenor was vetoed.[46] Jackson evidently doubted the
constitutional right of the government to enter into internal projects
of this character. In his message to Congress he had conceded that
“every member of the Union, in peace and in war, will be benefited by
the improvement of inland navigation and the construction of highways
in the several states,” he noted the opposition to methods heretofore
adopted as unconstitutional and inexpedient. He therefore proposed
an amendment to the constitution, to be submitted if it could not
otherwise be done, whereby the surplus revenue might be appropriated to
the several states in proportion to their representation in Congress
for the purpose of internal improvements. State sovereignty was always
to be maintained.

In 1838 when the road had reached Southern Illinois a new element
entered the industrial world. The railroads were proving their ability
to compete most successfully with other forms of transportation. The
building of national highways ceased; canal and river transportation
were practically put out of business with the entrance of this new
leviathan.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  ADAMS, HENRY, “Life of Albert Gallatin,” Edited by Henry Adams,
  Vol. I, pp. 78, 79, 305, 309, 370, 395. J. B. Lippincott & Co.,
  Philadelphia.

  BOONE, DANIEL, “Autobiography,” dictated to John Filson, 1784, is
  given also as an appendix to Hartley’s “Life of Daniel Boone.”

  CALK, WILLIAM, “Diary of” in Filson Club publications.

  DODDRIDGE, JOSEPH, “Notes on the Settlement of Indian Wars.” Chaps.
  I, XIII, XVIII, XXIV; First publication, 1824, Third--Rittenour &
  Linsey, Pittsburgh, 1912.

  DUNBAR, SEYMOUR, “A History of Travel in America,” 4 volumes, 1915,
  Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis.

  EARLY, ALICE MORSE, “Stage Coach and Tavern Days.”

  CHANNING, EDWARD, “The Jefferson System,” Vol. XII, The American
  Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  FARRAND, L., “Bases of American History,” Vol. II of the American
  Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  HARTLEY, CECIL B., “Life of Daniel Boone,” 1865, Porter & Coates,
  Philadelphia.

  HOWARD, GEORGE E., “Preliminaries of the Revolution,” Vol. VIII of
  the American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  HOWE, HENRY, “History of the West.”

  HURLBERT, A. B., “Historic Highways of America,” 16 volumes, 1902-05,
  A. H. Clark Company, Cleveland, O.

  HURLBERT, A. B., “The Paths of Inland Commerce,” Chronicles of
  America Series, Vol. 21, New Haven, 1920.

  IRVING, WASHINGTON, “Astoria,” Irving’s Works, Vol. I, G. P. Putnam’s
  Sons, New York.

  LONGFELLOW, HENRY W., “Poetical Works,” Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

  MCMASTER, JOHN BACH, “History of the United States,” Vol. V, Chap.
  XLIV, D. Appleton & Company, New York.

  MONETTE, JOHN W., “History of the Valley of the Mississippi,” Vol.
  II, Chap. II, pp. 52-58, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1846.

  “Register of Debates in Congress,” Vol. VI, pp. 433-435, 806, and
  820. Published by order of Congress, 13 Vol. Washington, 1825-37.

  RICHARDSON, JAMES D., “Messages and Papers of the Presidents.” 8
  volumes, Government Print, Washington.

  ROOSEVELT, THEODORE, “Winning of the West,” Vols. I, II and IV. G. P.
  Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1889.

  SPEED, THOMAS, “The Wilderness Road,” No. 2 of the Filson Club
  publications, Louisville, 1886.

  TURNER, FREDERICK J., “Rise of the New West,” Vol. XIV of the
  American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  TYLER, L. G., “England in America,” Vol. IV of the American Nation
  Series, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  U. S. Census review of “Agencies of Transportation,” 1880.

  WATKINS, ALBERT, “The Oregon Trail,” Nebraska State Historical
  Society Collections, Vol. XVI, p. 26 et seq.


FOOTNOTES

  [16] “A History of Travel,” by Seymour Dunbar.

  [17] “The American Nation,” “England in America,” by L. G. Tyler.
  Vol. IV, p. 322.

  [18] “American Nation,” Vol. VIII, p. 15.

  [19] Cf. “Historic Highways of America,” by A. B. Hurlbert, and
  “Basis of American History” (Vol. II of “The American Nation”), by L.
  Farrand.

  [20] Ramsey’s “Annals of Tennessee.”

  [21] “Historic Highways of America,” by A. B. Hurlbert, 16 volumes,
  1902-05, A. H. Clark Company, Cleveland. A series of annotated
  reprints of some of the best contemporary volumes of travel in
  America, compiled by Reuben Gold Thwaites, 1904-07, 32 volumes, A. H.
  Clark Co., Cleveland.

  “A History of Travel in America,” by Seymour Dunbar, 4 volumes, 1915,
  Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis, Ind.

  “Basis of American History,” Chapter II, “Routes of Travel,” Vol. II
  of the American Nation Series, by Livingston Farrand, 1907, Harper &
  Brothers, New York. There is good bibliography in this volume.

  [22] Cecil B. Hartley in his “Life of Daniel Boone,” gives the name
  of the head of this company as Colonel Richard Henderson.

  [23] “The Winning of the West,” Vol. II, by Theodore Roosevelt.

  [24] Dunbar’s “History of Travel,” Vol. I. Roosevelt’s “Winning of
  the West,” Vol. II.

  [25] “The Wilderness Road.”

  [26] “A History of Travel in America.”

  [27] “Winning of the West.”

  [28] Henry Howe.

  [29] A pirogue proper is a canoe dug out of a single log. These may
  have been and probably were keel boats built of timber and the name
  pirogue extended to them colloquially.

  [30] “The Winning of the West,” Vol. VI, by Theodore Roosevelt.

  [31] Cf. “Winning of the West,” Vol. VI, p. 259; and “The American
  Nation,” Vol. XII, p. 94.

  [32]

  ------------+-------+----------+----------
              |       |Admitted a|Admitted a
    State     |Settled|Territory |  State
  ------------+-------+----------+----------
  Missouri    |  1755 |   1812   |  1821
  Arkansas    |  1685 |   1819   |  1836
  Kansas      |  1854 |   1854   |  1861
  Nebraska    |  1847 |   1854   |  1867
  North Dakota|  1812 |   1861   |  1889
  South Dakota|  1859 |   1861   |  1889
  Wyoming     |  1834 |   1868   |  1890
  Colorado    |  1859 |   1861   |  1876
  Idaho       |  1852 |   1863   |  1890
  Montana     |  1861 |   1864   |  1889
  Iowa        |  1833 |   1838   |  1846
  Minnesota   |  1846 |   1849   |  1858
  ------------+-------+----------+----------


  [33] Reports for 1920 show that New York has exceeded St. Louis in
  manufactured furs but St. Louis seems still to be the largest market
  for raw furs.

  [34] Albert Watkins in “Collections of the Nebraska State Historical
  Society.” Vol. XVI, p. 22.

  [35] Washington Irving’s “Astoria.”

  [36] Cf. p. 230, Ibid.

  [37] Dunbar’s “History of Travel.”

  [38] Doddridge’s “Notes on the Settlement of Indian Wars.” Monette’s
  “History of the Valley of the Mississippi.”

  [39] Cf. Gallatin’s report for a scheme of national roads and
  pavements (Adams’ Gallatin, p. 350 et seq.).

  [40] Richardson, “Messages and Papers.”

  [41] Hurlbert, “Cumberland Road.”

  [42] Hulbert, “The Paths of Inland Commerce.”

  [43] “American Nation,” Vol. XIV, p. 100.

  [44] Hurlbert, “The Paths of Inland Commerce,” p. 121.

  [45] Searight, quoted by Hurlbert.

  [46] Debates of Congress VI, 433-435, 806, 820.




CHAPTER III

WATER WAYS AND CANALS


From the earliest exploration and settlement periods rivers and coast
inlets have been used for transportation. As has been pointed out, the
Indian, before the coming of the white man, made good use of his canoe.
Boats and barges propelled by oars, poles, or snubbed along by ropes
attached to trees on the banks were in early use. Along the coast and
the larger rivers sails were made use of. Upon the ocean there was
a large development in wooden sailing vessels. The great number of
American ships and the inroads made by American merchants upon English
trade had much to do with bringing on the war of 1812.


=Canals.=--Canals had shown their usefulness in England and other
European countries, for transporting the internal commerce cheaply
and efficiently; it was but natural, therefore, that they should be
considered in the United States. The first canal was in Orange County,
New York, and was used for transporting stone as early as 1750.
Numerous short canals were constructed in Pennsylvania, New York, and
Massachusetts prior to 1810, but the peak of canal building came after
this date. The first lock used in the United States was part of a canal
extending from the Schuylkill River to the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania.

New York, seeing the trade of the Northwest Territory going to
Philadelphia on account of the turnpikes which had crossed the
Alleghanies through state and private means, was anxious to do
something to get control. An agitation for a canal joining the Hudson
River with Lake Erie or Lake Ontario consummated in a commission,
1810, headed by Gouverneur Morris, to investigate the question of
building one or both of the canals which seemed feasible, namely (1)
from Albany up the Mohawk and westward to Lake Erie near Buffalo; (2)
from Albany to Lake Champlain, thence an opening to the St. Lawrence,
which had already been surveyed. In 1812 a second commission was formed
which included with Morris, such men as De Witt Clinton, Robert Fulton,
and Robert R. Livingston. An endeavor was made to secure Congressional
aid. The war coming on no action was taken, but the demands for
the canal continued. To the energy and political ability of DeWitt
Clinton is attributed the final success of the enterprise. When he
was elected governor in 1816 he made this the paramount effort of his
administration. He stirred public interest by addresses and presented
a convincing memorial to the legislature. He argued that “As a bond
of union between the Atlantic and western states it may prevent the
dismemberment of the American empire. As an organ of communication
between the Hudson, the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Great
Lakes of the north and west, and their tributary rivers, it will
create the greatest inland trade ever witnessed. The most fertile and
extensive regions of America will avail themselves of its facilities
for a market. All their surplus productions,” he prophesied, “whether
of the soil, the forest, the mines, or the water, their fabrics of
art and their supplies of foreign commodities, will concentrate in
the city of New York, for transportation abroad or consumption at
home. Agriculture, manufactures, commerce, trade, navigation and the
arts,” he continued, “will receive a corresponding encouragement. That
city will in the course of time become the granary of the world, the
emporium of commerce, the seat of manufactures, the focus of great
moneyed operations, and the concentrating point of vast, disposable
and accumulating capitals, which will stimulate, enliven, extend,
and reward the exertions of human labor and ingenuity, in all their
processes and exhibitions. And before the revolution of a century, the
whole island of Manhattan, covered with habitations and replenished
with a dense population will constitute one vast city.”[47]

As bombastic as this may seem his predictions have been more than
realized and the realization began with the completion of the canal
to Buffalo in 1825. There grew up along its way the great cities of
Buffalo, Rochester, Albany, and scores of smaller ones. The products
of the entire west did seem to flow through it, for the tolls are said
to have been a half million dollars per year immediately upon its
completion and over a million by 1830.[48]

This the largest canal project in the United States is still in use. As
first constructed, it was 40 feet wide at the top, 4 feet deep, and was
navigable for 76-ton boats. It was later enlarged to a general width of
70 feet and depth of 7 feet, navigable for boats of 240 tons burden.
Some of the locks had been replaced by power lifts; the transfers are
more quickly made.

The increase of New York’s prestige of course diminished that of
Philadelphia. Pittsburgh was, too, growing up at the head of Ohio River
navigation and in the coal and iron regions of Pennsylvania.

While numerous canals had been constructed by private enterprises
an extensive system of canals was begun under an act of 1825, to
connect Philadelphia with Pittsburgh as well as other objective
points. Jealousies sprang up over the state, as usually do with any
improvement. Always one part thinks the other is getting more than its
just share. But notwithstanding, nearly a thousand miles of canals have
been constructed in Pennsylvania, some of which washed out and were
never replaced, some were abandoned and some are still in operation.
In Ohio two canals were built by the state from Lake Erie to the
Ohio River, over 400 miles in all. One of these extended from Toledo
through Defiance, St. Mary’s, and Dayton to Cincinnati; the other from
Cleveland through Akron, New Philadelphia, Coshocton, Newark, Columbus,
Chillicothe, to Portsmouth. Branch lines were run down the Muskingum
to Marietta, down the Hocking to Athens, and from Junction westward to
Antwerp to connect with the Indiana canal system. Making a total for
Ohio about 1000[49] miles. In Indiana the Wabash & Erie Canal, begun
about 1834, was constructed through Fort Wayne, LaFayette, Terre Haute
to Evansville, in 1853, on its way to the Ohio River. By this time
the railroads had paralleled its course and its trade had practically
ceased.

One of the earliest projects, said to have had the backing of
President Washington, culminated, eventually, in the Chesapeake &
Ohio canal extending from Georgetown, the upper limit of tidewater
on the Potomac, to Cumberland. After numerous efforts and years of
talking, representatives of Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia,
and Pennsylvania met in a convention in the city of Washington and
passed resolutions stating that “Whereas the connection of Atlantic and
Western waters by a canal leading from the city of National Government
to the River Ohio ... is one of the highest importance to the states
... Resolved that it is expedient to substitute for the present
defective navigation of the Potomac River, above tidewater, a navigable
canal from Cumberland to the eastern base of the Alleghany and to
extend such canal as soon thereafter as practicable to the highest
constant steamboat navigation of the Monongahela or Ohio River.”
Jealousies between the states delayed matters somewhat, but in 1825 the
proponents obtained governmental participation. Delays occurred for
various causes, but in 1828 Congress authorized the U. S. treasurer
to subscribe for $1,300,000 worth of stock and went further and
guaranteed subscriptions made by the towns of Washington, Georgetown,
and Alexandria to the amount of $1,500,000. The United States had then
once more endorsed the policy of spending national money for internal
improvements, and had become a partner in a canal proposition. Building
proceeded slowly. Many difficulties were encountered. Opponents fought
it in the legislatures of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, as
well as in Congress. In two years the money was gone and the canal not
completed. Maryland extended further aid, and then still more aid by
the help of which the canal was completed to Cumberland in 1850. In
1870 efforts were made to have the Government carry the canal on to the
Ohio River, but the plan was never consummated. This canal is still in
use, the bulk of its traffic being coal brought down to Washington.

Canals were constructed in many other states, but they need not here
be followed in detail. Illinois was connecting Chicago with the
Mississippi River; Massachusetts built artificial ways about falls and
rapids; New Jersey connected the Hudson with the Delaware; and numerous
other schemes were carried out.


=Canal Prosperity and Desuetude.=--Until the greater advantages of
railway travel and traffic lessened the usefulness of the canals,
they did a thriving business. As has already been noted with regard
to the Erie canal so was it with the others.[50] In the whole United
States there was a “grand total of 4,468 miles[51] of canals, costing
approximately $214,141,802.” Not all these were remunerative. To the
end of 1872 the New York Canals had only averaged a profit of 3.2 per
cent, while the Erie Canal proper paid but 4 per cent on its cost.[52]
The speed at which the barges traveled was about 2 miles per hour; this
was reduced on account of time lost by regular stops, passing through
locks, and accidents, to 1.7 miles per hour on the average. Rates for
freight were about 0.3 cent per ton per mile. The railroads later
hauled through freight at 0.7 cent per ton per mile. Both these rates
were, no doubt too small, for proper maintenance and remuneration.

Passenger traffic, notwithstanding the slow speed, amounted to a
considerable volume. Packets were in use, that for workmanship, finish
and convenience vied with the Pullman cars which later supplanted them.
They were decorated in bright colors--green, yellow, brown, red, white,
blue--with windows and panels done in contrasting and harmonizing
shades and tints. On the interior in addition to compartments for the
crew which were separated from those for the passengers, were usually
a large general assembly room ordinarily occupied by the men for
lounging, writing letters, playing games, and protection from stormy
weather. There was a special cabin for the women, also lavatories
and conveniences for men and women. In addition there were kitchen,
lockers, and cupboards. Three times daily the assembly saloon was
transformed into a dining room by re-arranging and setting the tables
which constituted a regular part of the room’s furniture with others
of a temporary nature, carried stored away on the boat, into one long
table lengthwise of the room. The captain and his two assistants--the
mule driver and steersman not on duty at the time--performed this
service and waited upon tables. At night both the saloon and ladies’
cabin were converted into dormitories by attaching shelves about 6 feet
long and 3¹⁄₂ feet wide to hooks in the wall, the outer edges being
held up by wooden supports extending from the floor. In each berth
was placed a “mattress,” that is a tick having some straw in it and a
pillow of similar make.

The passenger usually furnished his own sheets if they were wanted,
although some of the later boats were supplied with sheets and
coverlets. The berths were three high along the wall and had curtains
suspended in front of them. The passengers selected their berths in
the order in which they had secured passage, late comers being obliged
to sleep on the tables or on the floor. Sometimes the whole floor was
thus covered. Travelers complained bitterly of the mosquitoes. Crude
as this may seem at the present time, these packets were no doubt
the forerunners of the present Pullman palace car. The outside decks
and the roof of the car were utilized for promenading, lounging and
sight-seeing. They were often enlivened by music and dancing.

Greeley[53] speaks of the “‘cent and a half a mile, mile and a half
an hour,’ line boats.” The expression he puts in quotations as though
it were common or a slogan. Charges on the Wabash and Erie Canal in
Indiana were for the 221 miles from Cincinnati to Fort Wayne, $6.75;
138 miles from LaFayette to Fort Wayne, $3.75; 104 miles from Fort
Wayne to Toledo, $3.25.[54] An average of about three cents per mile.

The canals were unable to compete with the railroads when time became
an element. Passengers would not be content to travel 36 miles per
day along a tortuous canal when they could travel a much more direct
route at nearly 36 miles per hour. The swifter speed of freight traffic
accelerated business; the merchant’s capital could be turned over more
frequently; his net profits were consequently greater. Is there any
wonder, therefore, that the business of the canal continually decreased
while that of the railroad as continually increased. Many canals were
actually abandoned, others allowed to depreciate from want of proper
maintenance, and now only occasional barges are run to transport heavy
non-perishable freight such as grain, iron-ore, and coal. And of
these commodities, because of better terminal facilities and the time
element, the railroads soon were carrying much more than the canals.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

THE SAULT ST. MARIE CANAL]


=Ship Canals.=--Reports show the tonnage of the Erie Canal to have
continually decreased from 2,031,735 tons in 1911 to 667,374 tons
in 1918. The total tonnage of all the New York state canals shows a
like decrease from 3,097,068 tons in 1911 to 1,159,270 tons in 1918.
Notwithstanding such records there are those who firmly believe canal
transportation will again take an upward trend with better terminal
facilities and possibly electric propulsion. There is one class of
canals that seems to have held its own, that is ship canals. The great
canal and locks at Sault Ste. Marie transfer a vast lake traffic
annually from one level to another between Lakes Superior and Huron.
Vast quantities of iron-ore are brought in mammoth vessels by this
route from docks near the Mesaba mines for the great iron mills at
Gary, at Cleveland, at Pittsburgh, and other points. Similar vessels
loaded with wheat, oats, and flax from the Northwest grain fields are
unloaded at Buffalo for transportation to the seaboard. Agitation
has been going on for some time to enlarge the Welland Canal and its
locks between Lakes Erie and Ontario, thus giving seagoing vessels
the opportunity of coming up by way of the St. Lawrence River and
traversing the entire Great Lake system. The ambition of cities is here
again manifest; Chicago would like such transportation, but it would
not be beneficial to New York.

A ship canal across Cape Cod saves 70 miles and considerable time
and makes the trip much less dangerous from New York to Boston. Ship
canals within the islands along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts have been
proposed to make safe coast commerce. There is also talk of a ship
canal from Chicago to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois and
Mississippi Rivers; and still another from Lake Erie to Pittsburgh.


=The Panama Canal.=--All present-day readers are familiar with the
greatest of all ship canals, the Panama Canal, constructed by the
Government at a cost of approximately $400,000,000, and open to the
ships of the world. It will be remembered that a canal across the
isthmus had been dreamed of practically ever since Balboa passed over
and for the first time a white man saw the Pacific from the west
coast of America. With the opening of the Oregon territory there was
increased interest in such a canal. With the discovery of gold in
California much traffic went by way of Panama being freighted across
and transshipped on the other side. Soon a railroad was established for
that purpose. Other crossings, too, were much in mind. In 1846 a treaty
of amity and commerce was entered into with New Granada, afterwards the
United States of Colombia, which gave the United States a right of way
across the Isthmus by any available method. In return the United States
agreed to guarantee the neutrality of the Isthmus. Great Britain had
likewise long been interested in a canal scheme and courted Nicaragua.
Also because of English settlements at Belize or British Honduras they
claimed rights which had been confirmed by the treaty of Versailles
in 1773. Another route, across the isthmus of Tehauntepec, had also
assumed importance. In 1848 a company of American citizens was formed
for and began at once to construct a railway across the isthmus of
Panama. Another contracted with the Nicaraguan government for a canal
there. A treaty was made with Nicaragua whereby a concession was
granted the company for the waterway, the United States guaranteeing
the neutrality of the way as had been done with New Grenada. But the
British government claimed control of the eastern terminus, therefore
a treaty had to be negotiated with her. As a result the Clayton-Bulwer
Treaty was signed and ratified in 1850, whereby the United States and
Great Britain agreed to join in promoting a canal by the Nicaraguan
route promising that neither “would obtain or maintain for itself any
exclusive control over the ship-canal,” nor, and here was the joker,
“assume or exercise any dominion ... over any part of Central America.”
Neither was to acquire nor have any rights the other did not have and
they both guarantee the neutrality of the canal. This, apparently,
was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine in so far as it did allow a
European nation a foothold upon this continent, and it was contrary to
the Washingtonian policy of avoiding “entangling alliances.” However,
it was considered at the time to be a victory for American diplomacy.
But Great Britain retained her hold on Belize and some islands along
the coast, and finally it was made known that before the signing of
the treaty Sir Henry Bulwer had left with Clayton a memorandum to the
effect that British renunciation in Central America should not apply
to “Belize” or any of its “dependencies.” Greytown, a British trading
post, had been established as a “free” city at the eastern terminus of
the Nicaraguan route through British influence and support.

In 1851 Greytown levied tribute upon the steamers of the transit
company. One of these refused to pay and was fired upon by a British
man-of-war, the fiction of Greytown being a “free city” apparently
went glimmering. The situation was critical and for some time looked
as though a war might result. Meanwhile the Accessory Transit Company
continued in a state of trouble with the Greytown government. So
bad was it that the United States vessel _Cyane_ was called upon to
protect the buildings of the Canal Company from destruction. Conditions
remained strained, feelings ran high, until in 1854 one of the officers
of a company steamer killed an individual and in a riot which followed
the mob attacked the United States consul. Lieutenant Hollins,
commanding officer of the Cyane, demanded reparation, and as this was
not forthcoming he bombarded and destroyed the town. This accentuated
the trouble between the United States and Great Britain but did not
particularly enhance the building of the Nicaraguan canal.

About this time Great Britain became involved in the Crimean War
while in the United States the slavery question divided the country.
Some hot-headed southerners wished forcibly to annex Nicaragua and
filibusters actually joined in some of the “revolutions” which are
almost always in progress in Central American States with the idea of
extending slave territory.[55] Through one of these a man by the name
of Walker had made himself head of Nicaragua and for two years remained
a dictator. His rule was marked by severity and a series of acts that
won him the enmity of the Central American States and also that of the
Accessory Transit Company, whose charter and steamers he confiscated.
He had secured the presidency and opened the state to slavery; he had
also been able to get recognition at Washington. But another revolution
broke out and he was driven out in 1857.

The action of Walker had destroyed American influence in Central
America. In the United States opinion was divided. Slavery enthusiasts
openly advocated control of any transit route across the isthmus and
that “no power on earth should be suffered to impede.”[56] This and
numerous other troubles which followed, off and on intermittently,
delayed and prevented canal construction.


=French Participation.=--After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
by the French an organization of French scientists made a careful
study of the various routes across the Isthmus and decided the one
at Panama to be the most feasible. As a result, in 1875, De Lesseps,
the engineer of the Suez Canal, began a careful survey of that route
and in 1878, Lucien Bonaparte Wyse, of the French Navy, secured from
the United States of Colombia (which had succeeded New Granada) a
concession giving a company to be organized by him exclusive right to
construct a canal and railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Neutrality
was to be maintained and troops transported only by permission of
Colombia. In return for this privilege and certain grants of land
Colombia was to receive 5 per cent of the gross tolls collected. The
concession was for ninety-nine years and the canal was to be opened
within eighteen years. While it was claimed this concession did not
conflict with the treaty of 1846 between New Granada and the United
States, nevertheless it provided that the latter might share in its
advantages. The concession was transferred to De Lesseps, who arranged
for an International Congress of Geographical Sciences, which assembled
in Paris, May 15, 1879. The United States was one of the twenty-five
nations there represented. Fourteen projects involving seven different
routes were discussed and included all that were considered feasible.

Without going into detailed description some of these routes may be
mentioned. The Tehauntepec route was 148 miles long and required 120
locks, would take about twelve days to pass a vessel through, and was
in the region of earthquakes. The Nicaraguan Route was favored by
many--it was 180 miles long, needed 17 locks, but it required an actual
construction of only 60 miles as existing rivers and lakes could be
utilized. A route from the Chiriqui Gulf to the Gulf Dulce, another
from the Gulf of Darien by way of the Atrato and Napipi Rivers, and
another into the San Miguel Bay, were discarded for various reasons.
The choice centered upon the route from Colon to Panama by way of the
Culebra pass and the Chagres River. This route, the shortest of all,
was only 45 miles in length, but there were several disadvantages. The
Chagres River must be diverted by a large dam or carried for miles in
an aqueduct.

A company (Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique) was organized
and popular subscriptions invited. It was claimed that further than
granting the charter the French Government had nothing to do with the
canal. Stock could be owned by people of all nations, but the United
States did not take kindly to the measure, although no formal action
to prevent the construction of the canal was taken. Several promotion
schemes were advanced by private individuals to head off the French
and Congress was petitioned for aid. Captain Eads, who by jetties
had deepened the mouth of the Mississippi River, and an engineer of
note, suggested a ship railway across the isthmus of Tehauntepec. A
“Marine Canal Company of Nicaragua” wanted Congress to guarantee its
capital stock; another Nicaraguan company had Ex-President Grant as a
sponsor.[57] The surveys made by the United States of the Panama and of
the Atrato-Napipi routes in 1875, were printed by order of Congress. In
1880 the House asked the president for the report of surveys made in
1872 and submitted in 1875 which had not yet become public; this report
recommended the Nicaraguan route.

From time to time indignation was manifested in the United States
against allowing a foreign country to gain a foothold even though by
a neutral company on the American continent. The Monroe Doctrine was
brought out; the Clayton-Bulwer treaty was presented; the reports of
Congressional Commissions were referred to as arguments against the
De Lesseps Canal. Various other complications entered, one of which
was a possible conflict of authority if in case of a revolution on
the Isthmus it were necessary to send troops by the United States
to maintain the neutrality of the railroad and by France troops to
maintain the neutrality of the canal.

Sweeping aside these questions De Lesseps made preparation to construct
the canal, and landed a force of seventy engineers, superintendents
and workmen on the Isthmus of Panama in 1881. De Lesseps planned
a tide-water canal which would require a cut of 285 feet in the
Culebra pass. Difficulties encountered from slides in this cut and
other reasons made it advisable afterwards to change the plans. De
Lesseps purchased much machinery in Europe and America at large
expense; bought the Panama railroad for $17,000,000, because the
line of the Canal crossed it frequently and it could be utilized for
transporting materials, and began the operation of opening up the cut
at various points along its course. The engineers estimated the cost at
843,000,000 francs; this, De Lesseps cut to 600,000,000 francs, and
set the opening ceremonies for 1888.

During the Garfield administration Secretary of State Blaine held out
for a strong American policy and informed Colombia, which was charged
with making arrangements whereby certain European powers might assume
joint guarantee over the canal, that “any movement in the sense of
supplementing the guarantee contained (in the treaty of 1846) would
necessarily be regarded by this government as an uncalled for intrusion
into a field where the local and general interest of the United States
of America should be considered before those of any other power save
those of Colombia alone.”[58] England claimed to be a new world power
equally interested with the United States in maintaining the neutrality
of the canal. Blaine proposed amending the Clayton-Bulwer treaty so
that the United States could fortify the canal, also to annul that
part extending it to any other practical routes so that the United
States might be free to build a canal at Panama or elsewhere as it
chose. Garfield’s death and Blaine’s retirement from the cabinet ended
for the time being policies regarding South and Central Americas that
would either have brought the United States in trouble with England
or secured to her complete control of the canal and also, perhaps,
much of South American trade. A treaty with Nicaragua allowing the
construction of a canal wholly under American control, the United
States guaranteeing the integrity of the territory of Nicaragua, which
was undoubtedly a violation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, and prepared
by Frelinghuysen, Secretary of State under Arthur, for the purpose
of testing that treaty, was withdrawn by President Cleveland who was
inaugurated before its confirmation.

There was a growing feeling that the De Lesseps company would never
finish the canal. The company had spent $10,000,000 more than the
estimate of 600,000,000 francs ($120,000,000), and had not paid the
$17,000,000 promised for the Panama railway. In fact it was bankrupt.
While a large amount of excavation had been done, it was small compared
with what was necessary. A magnificent plant with much costly machinery
was going to decay.

The Spanish-American war brought forcibly to the attention of the
public the need of an interoceanic canal.

In 1900 a treaty negotiated by John Hay and Sir Julian Pauncefote
embodying some modifications of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty had been so
amended in the Senate that Great Britain would not accept it. A new
treaty made in view of the Senate amendments and the British objections
was submitted a few months after Roosevelt became President. It
abrogated parts of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and gave to the United
States full ownership and control of the proposed canal. Colonel
Roosevelt had strongly advocated this while governor of New York before
his accession to the presidency.[59]

Two commissions in the past had reported favorably on the Nicaraguan
route. A third commission with Admiral John G. Walker as chairman
was appointed and authorized in 1899 to expend a million dollars, if
necessary, to make a thorough investigation of the several routes. In
1901 the committee reported that the “Commission is of the opinion
that the most practicable and feasible route for an Isthmian Canal, to
be under the control, management, and ownership of the United States
is that known as the Nicaraguan route.”[60] The Commission placed the
estimated cost of the Nicaraguan Canal at $189,864,062; of completing
the Panama Canal at $144,233,358; and that to this latter sum should
be added the cost of acquiring the rights of the French company. The
company asked $109,141,500, but the Commission estimated its worth at
$40,000,000. The company considered this unfair but finally offered
to negotiate with the United States and sell on the best terms
possible. The Commission made a supplementary report recommending the
Panama route and purchase of the French company’s work and rights
at $40,000,000. An act was signed by the president, June 28, 1902,
which had passed Congress, not without opposition, authorizing the
president to acquire control of the rights and property of the Panama
Canal Company, to acquire perpetual control of a strip of land not
less than 6 miles in width, across the Isthmus, to proceed as soon as
these rights were acquired to construct a canal through “The Isthmian
Canal Commission” created by the act; but should he be unable to get
satisfactory title to the property of the French company and the
control of territory from Colombia, then the president was authorized
to negotiate with Nicaragua and build a canal along the Nicaraguan
route.

Attorney General Knox reported that the French company could give
a clear title; a convention was entered into by which the United
States upon the payment of $10,000,000 in cash and an annual rental
of $250,000 per year was to receive the necessary control and strip
of land. The Senate ratified this March 17, 1903. When it went to
the Colombian congress, however, it was rejected by unanimous vote.
President Roosevelt declared Colombia wanted to wait until they could
forfeit the title of the French company then sell to the United States
for $40,000,000.[61] This view may and possibly was erroneous. There
was again a demand that the Nicaraguan route be chosen. But on November
3, 1903, the Panamanians, instigated by the French company, whose
entire concession and undertaking would revert to Colombia in less than
a year,[62] seeing their interests being sacrificed by the cupidity of
Colombia, consummated a revolution. Many were of the opinion that the
president of the United States was _particeps criminis_. In a letter
to a friend[63] dated October 10, 1903, he says, “I cast aside the
proposition at this time to foment the secession of Panama. Whatever
other governments can do, the United States can not go into the
securing, by such underhand means, the cession. Privately, I freely say
to you that I should be delighted if Panama were an independent state,
or if it made itself so at this moment; but for me to say so publicly
would amount to an instigation of a revolt, and therefore I cannot say
it.”

Many years later when chaffingly accused of being a wicked conspirator,
Mr. Roosevelt is quoted as having said: “What was the use? The other
fellows in Paris and New York had taken all the risk and were doing all
the work. Instead of trying to run a parallel conspiracy, I had only to
sit still and profit by their plot--if it succeeded.”[64]

The revolution was bloodless except for the accidental killing of a
Chinaman and a dog. Colombia, however, as soon as possible sent troops
to Colon. The following day the U. S. Ship _Nashville_ landed fifty
marines. The next day the Colombian troops left, said by some to have
been bribed. A Panamanian government was formed; on November 6th, the
American consul was ordered from Washington to recognize it; a week
later their minister was formally received by President Roosevelt. On
January 4, 1904, the president presented for ratification a treaty. The
Senate ratified it February 23, 1904. Thus rapidly did things move. By
this agreement the United States secured from the Republic of Panama
a zone of land 10 miles wide for the canal with full power over it.
In return the United States guaranteed the independence of the Panama
republic, and agreed to pay $10,000,000 upon exchange of ratifications
and the sum, beginning nine years thereafter, of $250,000 per annum.

The Colombians protested and sent their former president General Reyes
to Washington to persuade the Government to abrogate its compact with
Panama. The counsel for Colombia is quoted as saying that “Reyes was
authorized to accept $8,000,000 for all the desired concessions and
he would have taken $5,000,000, but Hay and Roosevelt were so foolish
they wouldn’t accept.”[65] Be that as it may, the effort was several
times made to get for Colombia a gratuity much greater than Reyes would
have accepted, and in 1921 Congress appropriated for that purpose
$25,000,000, thus, in a way, acknowledging that Colombia was wronged
and that the United States had been profited thereby.

A commission was formed to undertake the construction of the canal.
This was changed two or three times during the construction. The
immensity of the work necessary to make a tidewater canal, and the fact
that its completion would be materially delayed, caused the abandonment
of that plan. Three sets of locks were provided--at Gatun, Pedro
Miguel, and Miraflores. A great dam was built across the lower end of
the Chagres, entirely blocking the flow of that river and creating a
large artificial lake 165 square miles in area whose maximum height is
85 feet above sea water. This lake serves for storage water necessary
to manipulate the canal and locks; any surplus flows through a spillway
into the Pacific Ocean. Great breakwaters were constructed to make
smooth harbors at Colon and Panama and prevent silting. The canal is at
sea level to Gatun, 8 miles, then three steps lead it to Gatun Lake;
it continues on that level for 32 miles; then down one step at Pedro
Miguel to Miraflores Lake, 55 feet above sea level; thence through
the Miraflores locks to sea level again and then out to deep water in
the Pacific, 11 miles. The locks are 1000 feet long and large enough
in every way to accommodate the largest ships afloat. These great
locks with their mammoth gates, tunnels for filling, and mechanical
means of operation are one of the seven wonders of the modern world.
The cost was about $400,000,000 to date of opening. Since that time
considerable sums have been spent in fortifications, improvements,
and maintenance--several large slides having occurred in the Culebra
Cut. The “total amount expended or advanced to disbursing officers
for purchase, construction, fortification, etc., to June 30, 1919,
$452,075,376.”[66] The tolls amount to about $7,000,000 annually.

The principal arguments in favor of the United States building the
inter-oceanic canal were its utility as a measure of preparedness for
and strategy in case of war. By furnishing quick passage between the
east and west coasts the navy necessary for the protection of these
coasts could be reduced one half. With the canal entirely in the
control of the Government no foreign nation could take advantage of
it to our detriment. Notwithstanding the need of the canal for war
purposes, the benefits to be derived by the commerce of peace will
doubtless be manifold more valuable. It furnishes cheap transportation
between the west and east coasts, and shortens materially the distance
from the Atlantic seaboard to western South America as well as to
the islands of the Pacific Ocean. During the year 1920, “2814 ships
representing 11,236,119 tons of cargo, passed through the waterway”
being a considerable increase over any preceding year.[67] Of these
45.5 per cent were registered United States vessels, more than any
other one nation. Fuel-oil, nitrates, steel and iron hold leading
places in the line of commodities carried.


=River Transportation.=--As has already been stated streams and rivers
were early adopted as a means for transportation. Birch-bark and
dug-out canoes, flat-boats and keel-boats, with and without sails, and
rafts were extensively used. For small boats paddles and oars furnished
the means of navigation, while several pairs of oars were utilized on
the larger boats. In shallow water poling was much in vogue. Two men by
pushing poles against the bottom of the stream from opposite sides of
a small boat could easily propel it. On still larger boats and rafts
the men as they pushed walked toward the stern as far as possible while
the craft moved through the water under them. A third man held it with
his pole until the first two regained a position near the front for
another push. By this arduous and crude means boats were propelled
up shallow but often swift currents. On the larger rivers sails were
employed. Going downstream offered little difficulty except to keep
clear of sand bars and snags. Sails, oars, and poles were sometimes
relied upon to assist the current in making speed. Large rafts of
logs and lumber made by tying timbers together with wooden pins were
floated down the rivers and broken up and sold when they reached their
destination. Furs, hides, bacon, cured hams, or jerked-meat might form
a cargo, stored during transit, in a small cabin erected at the center
of the raft, which might occupy from 400 to 600 square feet.

The construction of a practicable steamboat in 1807 by Robert
Fulton[68] and another by John Stevens, the same year, revolutionized
both river and sea navigation. While many attempts had been made
to utilize the steam engine for propelling boats, and some of them
mechanically successful, Fulton’s was the first boat built and
adapted for the conveyance of freight and passengers on a scale
commercially successful. Fulton had had the confidence and backing of
R. R. Livingston and the firm of Fulton & Livingston was formed. This
firm secured a monopoly for operating steam vessels in the waters of
the state of New York. The first boat, the _Clermont_, named after
Livingston’s estate on the Hudson River, was 130 feet long, 18 feet
beam, and 7 feet deep, with a burden of 160 tons. The Boulton & Watt
engine had been brought from England the year previous by Fulton and
the boat built for it. The vessel made a successful trial trip to
Albany, August 7 to 9, and returned the following two days; her running
speed had only averaged about 5 miles an hour, but she had demonstrated
the practicability of steam navigation on inland waters. Following
close after this event, Stevens, who had been experimenting for years
and, it is claimed, had launched a screw propeller vessel driven by
steam as early as 1804, perfected his vessel, but because of Fulton &
Livingston’s monopoly took it to the Delaware River at Philadelphia.
The trip around by sea demonstrated the feasibility of steam navigation
on the ocean. Very shortly thereafter Fulton & Livingston had placed
a fleet of their vessels on the Hudson River and Long Island Sound,
and had begun to build them at Pittsburgh while John Stevens & Sons
had their vessels on the Delaware and Connecticut Rivers. Soon all
navigable waters were covered with steam propelled vessels.

Prior to the introduction of the steamboat Mississippi River traffic
had been, as has been stated, carried on by flat boats, rafts, and
perhaps some twenty barges[69] of a better quality. These latter had
been making one round trip a year requiring sixty days down and ninety
days back from Louisville to New Orleans. This time, by 1822, had
been reduced to seven days down and sixteen days up. By 1830 all the
navigable tributaries of the Mississippi were traversed by steamboats
and the produce of a western empire teeming through the portals was
rapidly making New Orleans a great city. The value of these commodities
were given as approximating $26,000,000 annually.[70] In 1860 a writer
said: “upward of two hundred millions of dollars worth of merchandise
are annually brought to this market.”[71] New Orleans was an extremely
busy place with all the picturesqueness of pioneer cities generally.
Ranking twelfth of the cities of the United States in 1790, it had
steadily climbed up to third place in 1840,[72] when the northern
cities through the influence of the railroads and the decline of river
traffic began to outstrip it. The levee, an embankment along the river,
several feet higher than the city, was bordered by a long line of
warehouses on the land side and by quays extending into the river on
the other side. Miles of ships, boats, and barges were anchored along
the levee as automobiles are now parked along a street, heads in. A
contemporaneous writer describes it thus:

  The New Orleans levee is one continuous landing-place, or quay, 4
  miles in extent, and of an average width of 100 feet. It is 15 feet
  above low water mark, and 6 feet above the level of the city, to
  which it is graduated by an easy descent. During the business season,
  from November to July, the river front of the levee is crowded with
  vessels, of all sizes and from all quarters of the world, with
  hundreds of large and splendid steamboats, barges, flat-boats,
  etc. The levee presents a most busy and animated prospect. Here
  are seen piles of cotton bales, vast numbers of barrels of pork,
  flour and liquors of various kinds, bales of foreign and domestic
  manufactures, hogsheads of sugar, crates of ware, etc., draymen
  with their carts, buyers, sellers, laborers, etc. Valuable products
  from the head waters of the Missouri, 3000 miles distant, center
  here. The Illinois, the Ohio, the Arkansas and Red Rivers, with the
  Mississippi, are all tributaries to this commercial depot.

Under the influence of the river traffic many other cities were
springing into importance. Many of these later became centers of
railroad activity and thus retained or even bettered their rank. Others
gradually wasted away until they are mere hamlets to-day.

The times seem to have been ripe when Fulton’s _Clermont_ appeared, for
almost immediately the steamboat industry thrived. During the first ten
years 131 steam vessels had been built and by 1832, 474;[73] in 1836
and 1837, 145 and 158 respectively were launched. Building was for a
few years checked by business depression but soon revived and in 1846
there were constructed 225 steam vessels. The Civil War reduced the
number; immediately following business sprang up again and taking into
account coasts, rivers, and lakes has continued brisk ever since.

With the growth in the number of vessels, up until railroads began
to monopolize travel and freight, the accommodations and speed were
continually improved until river and sound boats were frequently
spoken of as “floating palaces.” Packets were built to accommodate
several hundred passengers, with staterooms, saloons, dining rooms,
bathrooms, barber shops, and other features. The river steamboat may
be said to be a development of the pole-boat or flat-boat. On account
of the shoals they must be broad and shallow. The paddle wheels on the
sides are operated independently in order to facilitate quick turning.
The weight of engines, boilers, fuel bunkers, freight and passenger
burden, are distributed fairly well over the entire surface. Some of
the best lower Mississippi boats had a length of hull of 300 feet, a
width of 50 feet and depth of hold of 9 feet. The boat fully loaded
drew about 10 feet of water, when light, 4 feet. “Mark twain,” 6 feet,
represented the shallowest water the vessels piloted by Samuel L.
Clemens could navigate; after quitting steam-boating he adopted that
term for a _nom-de-plume_, under which his inimitable writings were
published.[74] The main deck overhangs the hull and is about 90 feet
wide. A complete system of ties and braces above the hull gives it
strength and stiffness. Modern boats are electric lighted and have
swinging gangplanks, capstans, and all the recent power improvements
for the rapid handling of freight and passengers. The staterooms are
erected on the saloon deck with doors opening into the saloon and on
a narrow passageway along the outside. The saloon generally extends
the full length of the house, giving a large well-lighted room, used
as a lounging and dining room. Above this is another deck on which are
officers’ quarters and above all fully glassed in is the pilot house.
The freight capacity of these boats is given as 1500 tons, and there
are 70 staterooms to accommodate 140 passengers. Deck passage could be
provided for a number more. The cost of a “floating palace” was in the
’eighties from $100,000 to $120,000.

Extremely handsome, well equipped, and finely decorated boats ply
regularly on the Hudson River and on Long Island Sound. Some of the
vessels of one line are over 400 feet long and 50 feet wide. The decks
are about 90 feet wide and they have over 350 state rooms; many of them
are magnificently equipped.

O’Hanlon’s “Irish Emigrants’ Guide to the United States,” published
in 1851, would indicate that all traveling in that day was not as
comfortable as might be inferred from the preceding. With regard to
steamboats it says:

  These have been termed “flying palaces,” and many of them are fitted
  up in style of great magnificence. But the comfort of traveling by
  them is confined to cabin passengers, state rooms, accommodating two
  persons each, in separate berths, are appropriated for retirement by
  day and for rest at night; ladies and gentlemen have separate cabins,
  but dine at the same table, which is set out in the “social hall,”
  and stocked with a variety of luxuries.... The deck passengers are
  immediately under the cabin, and in the hinder part of the boat.

  A few berths are fitted up for their reception without bedding.
  Provisions must be provided at their own expense, and also a mode
  of preparing them. Sometimes numbers are huddled together on board
  without having room to move, or stretch themselves out for rest; the
  inconvenience of this mode of traveling can hardly be appreciated
  without being experienced.

It is also stated that steamboat traveling was dangerous because of
the explosions. It is true there were a number of boiler explosions.
Mark Twain mentions one of the very worst,[75] the explosion of the
_Pennsylvania_. He also discusses the subject of racing, which after
the Government rules regarding steam pressure went into effect, he
claims not to have been dangerous. One of the later races, that between
the _Robert E. Lee_ and the _Natchez_ in 1870 was an event of national
interest. The time of the _Robert E. Lee_ from New Orleans to St. Louis
was 3 days 18 hours and 14 minutes from dock to dock. Mark Twain claims
the fastest long-distance running was made by the _Eclipse_ in 1855
when she made the trip from New Orleans to Cairo at an average speed
“a shade under fourteen and three-eighths miles per hour.”  An idea
of the rates charged for passenger fare and for freight traffic on
steam-boats may be obtained from the following.

In 1816 from New York to Albany the fare was $7, about 4 cents per
mile. For way stations between about 5 cents per mile, but no charge
less than $1.[76]

STEAMBOAT FARES

  ----+----------------------+--------+------------------------
      |                      |        |          FARE
      |                      |        +-----+------------------
  Date|       Between        |Distance|Total|  Per Mile Cents
  ----+----------------------+--------+-----+------------------
  1816|New York and Albany   |   145  |$7.00| 4
  1817|New York to Providence|   200  |10.00| 5
  1825|Boston to Portland    |   160  | 5.00| 3
  1825|Boston to Bath        |        | 6.00|      }
  1825|Boston to Augusta     |        | 7.00|      } With meals
  1825|Boston to East Port   |   275  |11.00| 4    }
  1848|New York to Albany    |   145  |  .50|  .3}
  1848|New York to Erie      |   600  | 7.50| 1.3}
  1848|New York to Detroit   |   825  | 8.50| 1  }
  1848|New York to Chicago   |  1520  |12.50|  .7}[77]
  1848|Baltimore to Richmond |   378  |10.00|    }
  1848|Tuscaloosa to Mobile  |   675  |12.00|    }
  1848|Boston and New York   |Sailing}|     |    }
      | to New Orleans       |Packet }|40-50|    }
  ----+----------------------+--------+-----+------------------

In 1817 from Rhode Island to New York, $10, approximately 5 cents per
mile.


=The Government’s Attitude Toward River Improvement.=--The individual
states had been encouraging turnpikes, canals, and other interior
improvements by subscribing and underwriting stock in private companies
authorized to build and operate the improvements. Frequently monopolies
were granted to operating companies.[78] States were jealous of each
other and hesitated to appropriate money for improvements which would
inure to the benefit of another state, and frequently an improvement
in one state was worthless unless joining improvements could be made
in neighboring states. Many men, believing in a large and unified
nation rather than a confederation of several small nations advocated
governmental action. Strict constitutionalists and states’ rights men
objected. President Madison had vetoed Calhoun’s Bonus Bill for roads
and canals upon the ground that the constitution did not vest Congress
with power to undertake such improvements.[79] Calhoun had used all the
power of his great eloquence based upon the “common defense and general
welfare” clause of the constitution in favor of such improvements.
He considered it the duty of Congress to “bind the republic together
with a perfect system of roads and canals.” He exclaimed that the
very extent of the country “exposes us to the greatest of all
calamities,--next to the loss of liberty,--and even to that in its
consequences--disunion. We are great, and rapidly--I was about to say
fearfully growing. This is our pride and our danger; our weakness and
our strength. We are under the most imperious obligation to counteract
every tendency to disunion.... Whatever impedes the intercourse of the
extremes with this, the center of the Republic, weakens the Union.”[80]

Monroe’s first message indicated that he followed Madison in the belief
that Congress was not empowered by the constitution to establish
internal improvements; and later he vetoed a measure to authorize the
president to erect toll houses along the Cumberland Road, appoint
toll gatherers and otherwise regulate its use, on the ground that it
exceeded the power of congress. He favored internal improvements but
thought a constitutional amendment necessary.[81]

The next year, however, some bills for internal improvements got
through among them the first act for the improvement of harbors. In
1802, under the influence of Gallatin, Randolph and Jefferson, 5 per
cent of the Ohio lands sold were appropriated for the building of
roads.[82] In 1809 was passed the first act for river improvement.[83]

These were the beginnings of National aid for internal improvements in
the United States. The “implied powers” adherents seem to have been in
the ascendency for a report of the treasurer shows that up to 1830 the
United States had appropriated for internal improvements--Cumberland
Road, $2,443,420.20; subscriptions to canal stock and improvements
of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, $1,263,315.65; for other items
such as building of piers, preservation of ports and piers, making
roads and removing river obstructions, $1,603,694.31. It was pointed
out that only $234,955.92[84] had been expended in the territories
where the question of constitutionality did not arise. Presidents
had nearly always declared in favor of internal improvements but
desired that constitutional provision be made for the same. Jackson,
a strong state sovereignty man, suggested that the surplus funds of
the Government be distributed among the several states in proportion
to their representation in Congress; and in 1830 vetoed a bill for
subscription to the stock of one canal and pocketed others, and closed
his administration by pocketing a bill for the improvement of the
Wabash River. While Jackson’s attitude checked federal appropriations,
especially for roads and canals, those for rivers and harbors became
almost a national scandal, and were with other public appropriation
bills frequently referred to as “pork bills.” A congressional
appropriation, whether for rivers and harbors, a federal building,
or an irrigation project, brought considerable money into a state;
it was considered a feather in the cap of a congressman and enhanced
his chances for reelection. Consequently nearly every congressman
introduced such an act for his district and “log-rolling” schemes
were entered into by many to procure their passage. River and harbor
appropriations continued to increase until 1882, when they amounted
to the vast sum of $18,743,875 to be applied to some 500 different
localities. President Arthur[85] vetoed the bill, but Congress passed
it over the veto and the “barrel of pork” was divided up as usual. The
publicity given the matter checked appropriations for a while but they
soon climbed higher than ever. The appropriation for the fiscal year of
1920 was $33,378,364.[86]


SELECTED REFERENCES

  ARTHUR, PRESIDENT CHESTER A., Veto of river and harbor bill,
  Richardson’s “Messages and Papers,” VIII, pp. 120-122.

  BARNARD, CHARLES, “Inland Navigation of the United States,” _The
  Century Magazine_, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 353-372.

  CALHOUN, JOHN C., “Works of.” Edited by Richard K. Cralle, 6 volumes,
  1853-1855. Vol. II, p. 190. D. Appleton & Company, New York.

  Canals.--“Report of the Committee on Roads and Canals (of the House
  of Representatives) in reply to memorials of Chesapeake & Ohio Canal,
  Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and inhabitants of Virginia, Maryland,
  and Pennsylvania, asking additional subscriptions by the United
  States to the capital stock of the Canal.” Report No. 414, H. of R.
  23d Cong. 1st Sess., pp. 378 et seq.

  DUNBAR, SEYMOUR, “History of Travel in America,” 4 volumes,
  Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis.

  GREELEY, HORACE, “Recollections of a Busy Life.” J. B. Ford & Co.,
  New York, 1869.

  HAZARD, GEORGE S., “The Erie Canal. Its National Character.”
  Published by order of Board of Trade, Buffalo, N. Y., 1873.

  HOWE, HENRY, “Historical Sketch of the West.”

  “Isthmian Canal Commission Report,” Sen. Doc., 57th Congress, 1st
  session, No. 54.

  Johnson’s Cyclopaedia. Article on Canals.

  MACDONALD, WILLIAM, “Jacksonian Democracy,” Vol. XV of the American
  Nation Series, Chapter VIII, “Internal Improvements.” Harper &
  Brothers, New York.

  MCMASTER, JOHN BACH, “History of the United States,” Vol. V, Chap.
  XLIV. D. Appleton & Company, New York, 1911.

  O’HANLON, REV. J., “Irish Emigrant’s Guide of the United States,”
  Boston, 1851.

  Panama Canal.--Financial Statement to June 30, 1919, The American
  Year Book for the year 1919, p. 364, D. Appleton & Co., New York.

  RICHARDSON, JAMES D., “Messages and Papers,” Vol. I, 584, President
  Madison’s Veto of Calhoun’s Bonus Bill. Published by order of
  Congress, 8 Vols., Washington, 1896-1899.

  ROOSEVELT, PRESIDENT THEODORE, “Messages to Congress,” January 4,
  1904, Sen. Doc. 58th Sess., No. 53, pp. 5-26.

  SMITH, THEODORE C., “Parties and Slavery,” Vol. XVIII, of the
  American Nation Series, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  SPARKS, EDWIN E., “National Development,” Vol. XXIII of the American
  Nation Series, Chapters IV and XIII, Harper & Brothers, New York.

  THAYER, WM. R., “Theodore Roosevelt,” p. 178 et seq. Grosset &
  Dunlap, New York.

  THAYER, WM. R., “John Hay,” Vol. II, pp. 339-41. Houghton Mifflin
  Company, Boston, 1915.

  TURNER, FREDERICK J., “Rise of the New West,” Vol. XIV of the
  American Nation Series, Chapter VIII, “Western Trade and Ideals,”
  Harper & Brothers, New York.

  TWAIN, MARK (Clemens, S. L.), “Life on the Mississippi,” Harper &
  Brothers, New York.

  U. S. Census review of “Agencies of Transportation,” 1880.

  WARNER, I. W., “Immigrant’s Guide and Citizen’s Manual.” New York,
  1848.


FOOTNOTES

  [47] “American Nation,” Vol. XIV, p. 32.

  [48] McMaster, “United States,” Vol. V.

  [49]

  Length of Miami and Erie Canal    301.49 miles
     „    „ Ohio Canal              512.26
     „    „ Penn. and Ohio Canal     76
     „    „ Sandy and Beaver Canal   79
     „    „ Whitewater Canal         32
                                   -------
                         Total     1000.75 miles

  --Dunbar’s “History of Travel in America”.


  [50]

  Total mileage of boats clearing from
    Fort Wayne in 1849                      209,982
    LaFayette                               162,297

  Total mileage by passengers from and to
    Fort Wayne in 1849                      519,336
    LaFayette                               505,397

  “Annual Report of the Trustees of the Wabash and Erie Canal,” 1849.

  [51] U. S. Census review of “Agencies of Transportation,” 1880.

  [52] Johnson’s Cyclopaedia.

  [53] “Recollections of a Busy Life,” by Horace Greeley.

  [54] “A History of Travel in America,” Dunbar.

  [55] Smith: “Parties and Slavery,” (“American Nation,” Vol. XVIII).

  [56] Democratic Platform, 1856.

  [57] _North American Review_, Vol. CXXXII, p. 107.

  [58] “American Nation,” Vol. XXIII.

  [59] “Theodore Roosevelt,” by W. R. Thayer, 180. “John Hay,” by W. R.
  Thayer, II, 339-41.

  [60] Isthmian Canal Commission Report, Sen. Doc. 57th Congress., 1st
  session, No. 54.

  [61] Message of January 4, 1904, Sen. Doc., 58th Cong. 2nd Sess. No.
  53, pp. 5-26.

  [62] “Theodore Roosevelt,” by William Roscoe Thayer, p. 184 et seq.

  [63] Letter to Albert Shaw by President Theodore Roosevelt. _Literary
  Digest_, October 29, 1904.

  [64] “Theodore Roosevelt,” by W. R. Thayer, p. 190.

  [65] “Theodore Roosevelt,” by W. R. Thayer, p. 186.

  [66] “The American Year Book,” 1919. Appleton, N. Y.

  [67] _Panama Canal Record._

  [68] For a long list of steamboats built in America, and operated
  under their own power prior to Fulton’s _Clermont_, see “A History of
  Travel in America,” by Seymour Dunbar.

  [69] “American Nation,” Vol. XIV.

  [70] “American Nation,” Vol. XIV, p. 105.

  [71] Henry Howe, “Historical Sketch of the West.”

  [72] Statistical Atlas 1900. 12th Census of the U. S.

  [73] Charles Barnard in _The Century Magazine_, Vol. XXXVIII,
  from which also is derived information relative to dimensions and
  decorations of steam vessels, pp. 353-372.

  [74] See “Life on the Mississippi,” by Mark Twain, p. 117.

  [75] “Life on the Mississippi,” by Mark Twain, Chapter XX.

  [76] Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America.”

  [77] Warner’s “Immigrant’s Guide and Citizen’s Manual.”

  [78] March 18, 1786, John Fitch was granted by New Jersey “the sole
  and exclusive right of constructing making using and employing or
  navigating, all and every species or kind of boats, impelled by the
  force of fire or steam” within the limits of that state. Delaware
  gave him similar rights in 1787 and New York, likewise, the same
  year. In 1798 Fitch’s grant in New York, which was to have run
  fourteen years, was canceled and Livingston given a monopoly for
  twenty years providing within a year he run a steamboat at four miles
  an hour. This he failed to do, but got his grant renewed in 1803, and
  again extended until the successful operation of the _Clermont_ in
  1807.

  [79] “Messages and Papers,” Richardson, I, 584.

  [80] Calhoun: “Works II,” 190. “American Nation” XIII, 253.

  [81] “American Nation,” XIV, 231.

  [82] “Laws of the United States,” VI., 120.

  [83] MacDonald, “American Nation” Vol. XV, 134.

  [84] “American Nation,” Vol. XV, pp. 136-137.

  [85] Richardson, “Messages and Papers,” VIII, 120-122.

  [86] “The American Year Book,” 208.




CHAPTER IV

RAILROADS


During the period of the development of the canals there was growing
up along side of them an agency for transportation that was destined
practically to put them out of business. Engineers in both Europe and
America were straining every energy to apply the steam engine to the
propulsion of wagons along a highway. No one at first looked upon the
railroad as a separate and distinct industry. For years upon roads over
which there was much hauling of heavy loads planks had been placed
in the tracks to prevent rutting. These planks had developed into
rigidly set timbers or rails either attached to cross timbers or to
stones set in the roadway. A little later iron straps were fastened
to the tops of the rails to lessen wear and friction. It was found
that a horse could haul on these tramways several times as much as
he could on the dirt roadway. The steam engine had revolutionized
industry and was turning all sorts of machinery with an efficiency
unknown before, why then could it not be applied to propel vehicles?
In England George Stephenson and associates were proving that it
could. But prior to their time many thinkers of America believed in
it. John Fitch, the half crazy inventor of an early steamboat, had
built a model locomotive. Oliver Evans, who had placed wheels under
a steamboat of his invention (1804) and run it over the streets of
Philadelphia, predicted “The time will come when people will travel
in stages moved by steam engines, from one city to another, almost as
fast as birds fly, fifteen to twenty miles an hour.” His vision went
still further; he saw what most people think to be absolutely modern
innovations: “A carriage will set out from Washington in the morning,
the passengers will breakfast at Baltimore, dine at Philadelphia, and
sup at New York, the same day ... and travel by night as well as by
day; and the passengers will sleep in these stages as comfortably as
they do now in steamboats.”[87] Evans antedated Stephenson’s thought
that speed with a locomotive could only be made on nearly level
rails. John Stevens, who is often spoken of as the father of American
railroads, of course, had similar beliefs, and wrote a pamphlet to
impress his ideas of the importance of railways upon Congress. He
said: “I am anxious and ambitious that my native country should have
the honor of being the first to introduce an improvement of such
immense importance to society at large, and should feel the utmost
reluctance at being compelled to resort to foreigners in the first
instance.”[88] Had Congress not turned a deaf ear to him it is quite
possible that he might have been before Stephenson in demonstrating the
practicability of the locomotive.[89] Stevens built a small locomotive
and demonstrated it on a piece of track on his grounds with himself as
passenger in 1820. Several tramways or railroads operated by horse were
established in different parts of the country. One of them--sponsored
by the people of Baltimore, anxious to retain their trade--was the
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, which had secured from Maryland, Virginia,
and Pennsylvania charters for its construction in 1827 and 1828. It
was being built with many curves, as it, too, was expected to have
horse propulsion. Many persons thought it should be made straighter in
order to take advantage of the steam locomotive when the inventors had
perfected it sufficiently to be usable. It was not considered feasible
to operate locomotives on crooked roads. Peter Cooper, justly praised
for many benefits to his country, decided to build a locomotive to
prove it could run on a crooked track. In his own words: “Under these
discouraging circumstances many of the principal stockholders were
about to abandon the work, and were only prevented from forfeiting
their stock by my persuading them that a locomotive could be so made
as to pass successfully around the short curves then found in the
road.”[90]

Accordingly in 1829 Cooper fitted up a small engine and boiler on a
flat car and with that crude locomotive, the _Tom Thumb_, was able to
demonstrate that curves could be “navigated.” Having made some changes
in the _Tom Thumb_, Cooper, the next year, ran it over the 13 miles
from Baltimore to Ellicott’s Mills in an hour and a quarter, an average
of 6 miles per hour, returning in sixty-one minutes, including a stop
of four minutes. The engine pushed ahead of it a flat car carrying
twenty-four passengers. The wheels of the engine had been constructed
on the “cone principle” which allowed it to round the curves of 400
feet radius without trouble.[91] This was the first time a car filled
with passengers had been hauled over a railroad in the United States by
means of steam power.

In England steam engines had been tried out but not until 1820 was the
first commercial road, the Stockton & Darlington Railroad, 37 miles in
length, completed. Prior to this time the tram roads had been erected
for specialized private transportation (from colliery to canal, for
instance) or as improvements to the public highways. The Stockton &
Darlington was intended to be operated with horses. And even as late
as 1828 the Liverpool & Manchester Railroad, intended primarily to
haul freight and relieve the congested condition of the canals, was
chartered with a provision that the owners could exact toll of all
who might put vehicles on the road for the transport of goods. The
engineer, George Stephenson, however, was a strong advocate of steam
power and the success of the _Rocket_, built by his son Robert, in
1829, as this road was nearing completion, definitely determined the
power to be used. Roads in America followed the same idea that they
were public highways. In Pennsylvania the state built a railroad from
Philadelphia to Columbia and licensed over twenty different companies
to run their horse-drawn cars over it.[92] In other states the same
idea prevailed and the right to charge tolls “upon all passengers and
property” transported upon the road was legalized by the charter.

The utility and economy of the railways were so manifest that
organizations were formed rapidly over the whole well settled portions
of the country. Several locomotives were imported from England. One
of these, the _John Bull_ (locomotives were for a number of years all
named like sleeping cars are now), brought over by Stevens & Son, is
said to have given Baldwin information which enabled him to build
_Old Ironsides_, the first locomotive to run on Pennsylvania tracks,
and establish a business which afterwards became one of the largest
locomotive works in the world. _Old Ironsides_ was built by Matthias
Baldwin and his brother-in-law Rufus Tyler for the Philadelphia,
Germantown & Norristown Road. Tyler seems to have made the drawings.
Baldwin was by trade a jeweler but his mechanical ingenuity had carried
him further. He had added to his business that of constructing tools
and calico printing apparatus and machinery. He had built a steam
engine for his own shop. A museum operator in Philadelphia desiring
to add to the attractions of his place of amusement wished to put in
a miniature locomotive and railway. He applied to Baldwin, who built
the road with its small locomotive and cars. On April 25, 1831, its
installation was completed and it hauled two four-seated passenger cars
about a circular track, to the great delight of the patrons, who were
anxious for the experience of riding on the railroad.

[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY TRAIN

  1. The First Railway Coach--1825.
  2. Horse Power Locomotive--1829-30.
  3. Stourbridge Lion--1829.
  4. Stevenson’s Rocket Locomotive--1829.
  5. The DeWitt Clinton Locomotive--1831.

(From Brown’s “First Locomotive”--Courtesy of D. Appleton & Company.)]

One of the roads that seems to have been prolific in “first things”
was between Charleston and Hamburg, South Carolina. Chartered in 1827,
again in 1828. In 1829-30 it experimented with sailing cars, as did
also the Baltimore & Ohio and with treadmill horse powers. But the
company fortunately employed Horatio Allen, who had studied the English
roads and was strongly inclined to steam power. He so convincingly
presented his ideas that it was decided to strengthen construction
and use such locomotives. This then, very likely, was the first
railroad in the world to adopt formally the steam locomotive as its
means of propulsion (January 14, 1830). The company accordingly built
its lines substantially and placed upon them the “first locomotive
made in America for regular and practical use on a railway.”[93]
This locomotive known as the _Best Friend of Charleston_ was built
in New York and shipped to Charleston by sea. After some adjustments
it satisfied the demands of the contract, but distinguished itself
by being the first locomotive to explode. It is said a negro fireman
sat upon or held down the safety valve to prevent escaping steam
from annoying him. The _Charleston Courier’s_ account closes with
the gratifying information that “none of the persons are dangerously
injured except the negro, who had his thigh broken.” A new locomotive,
the _West Point_, was secured, upon which several improvements
suggested by experience had been made; among them the safety valve was
placed out of reach of the fireman, making it fool-proof.

The beginning of the New York Central may be traced to a charter
granted in 1826 to the Mohawk & Hudson Company, which with five or six
other small lines was joined together into that company. Its first
locomotive, the _De Witt Clinton_, had a rather interesting initiation.
The engine was constructed by the West Point foundry, the same concern
that had built the _Best Friend_ and the _West Point_. A demonstration
was announced for August 9, 1831, the road having 17 miles of rails at
that time. The locomotive, a small affair compared with the modern
engines, is still in existence and with its train of that day was
exhibited at the Pageant of Progress, Chicago, July 30, 1921, as the
“pioneer American steam passenger train.” The whole engine was only
about 12 feet long with large wheels, tall smoke stack and a central
steam dome. Back of it were the tender and wood for fuel and two
barrels of water, two passenger coaches modeled after stage coaches,
and following these several small flat cars to which had been attached
temporary benches for seats. The locomotive and cars were joined
together with short sections of strong chain. When the engine started
these jerked so badly the passengers could not retain their seats;
stopping had a similar effect. On the trip it is said the passengers
appropriated rails from a near fence and made braces to keep the cars
the full length of the chains apart. The wood fuel produced many sparks
which flying backward set fire to and ruined much of the passengers’
clothing. But according to a newspaper report[94] the train “passed
over the road from plane to plane, to the delight of a large crowd
assembled to witness the performance. The engine performed the entire
route in less than one hour, including stoppages, and on a part of the
road its speed was at the rate of 30 miles an hour.”

On May 10, 1893, Engine No. 999, of the New York Central Railroad,
made, traveling alone, a record of 112.5 miles an hour.

The Camden & Amboy road was chartered in 1830 and was somewhat unique
in that New Jersey in return for $200,000 worth of stock had granted
a monopoly of the right of way between Philadelphia and Newark. Poore
says:[95] “The state became a willing party to the scheme, under the
idea that it could thereby draw the means for supporting its government
from citizens of other States, thus relieving its own from the burdens
of taxation.” He says, “the state now (1860) derives a revenue of
over $200,000 annually from transit duties and dividends on the stock
presented to it.”

NewEngland started three railway projects about the same time: Boston
& Lowell, chartered in 1830 first used in 1834, 26.7 miles long;
Boston & Providence, chartered in 1831, first used in 1834, 43.5
miles long; and the Boston & Worcester, chartered in 1831, first used
in 1834, 44.6 miles long.[96] These roads were chartered with the
idea of using horse-drawn vehicles, except the Boston & Worcester,
where steam locomotives were authorized, but it was not until about
1834 that they were used. Some of these roads, as did most of those
built farther west, followed the English practice of laying track.
One of them, at least, laid its track upon wooden cross-ties, thus
securing the necessary resiliency for service. It was not many years,
however, before several other roads were established with regular
trips of locomotive drawn cars arranged both for passenger and freight
traffic. The time of passenger service from Boston to New York had
been materially shortened by connecting the schedules of stage coaches
to Providence with those of steamboats down the Sound. When the steam
railway came into existence the time of the trip was again shortened,
and still again when an all rail route was opened in 1848, as shown by
the following table:

  1775 General Washington was 12 days en route.
       Early coaches required a week.
  1800 Stage coaches required 4 days.
  1832 Stage coaches required 41 hours.
  1822 Coach to Providence, steamboat to New York, 28 hours.
  1835 Coach to Providence, steamboat to New York, 16 hours.
  1835 Railway to Providence, steamboat to New York, 15 hours.
  1848 All railway, 10 hours.
  1922 All railway, 5 hours, 10 minutes.
  1922 Air plane, 3 hours.

While the railroads of the East were gradually working west, the
trans-Alleghany states were themselves looking toward railroad
transportation. The first railway in Ohio was begun in 1835 and had
completed 30 miles by 1840. It extended from Sandusky to Springfield.
When it was chartered, 1832, under the name of the Mad River & Lake
Erie Railway, the intention was to connect Lake Erie with the Ohio
River. A locomotive was purchased and shipped to Sandusky by canal
and lake. It arrived before any track was laid hence the gauge of the
track was made to fit the locomotive, 4 feet 10 inches. Other roads in
Ohio were laid at that gauge and in time the state adopted that as a
standard.

Michigan in 1832, then a territory, incorporated the Detroit & St.
Joseph Railroad Company. After several years without doing anything the
road was completed to Ann Arbor in 1840. Later its western terminal
became New Buffalo, from which point there was steamboat communication
with Chicago. This was the germ which has grown into the Michigan
Central.

A railroad was begun from Frankfort, Kentucky, to Lexington, a few
miles from the pioneer settlement at Boonesborough. By 1840 this
road had extended to the Ohio River near Louisville and was 92 miles
in length. Indiana chartered not less than a half-dozen railways in
1832 and continued with a score or more in the next few years. The
Lawrenceburg & Indianapolis line, chartered 1832, was opened with a
Fourth of July celebration, 1834, and had laid less than 2 miles of
track by 1836.[97] The Madison & Indianapolis road was opened in 1838.
The report of the principal engineer, 1837, states that “the exclusive
use of steam as a motive power” had been adopted, thus saving “the cost
of a horse path” and avoiding “the delay and confusion arising from the
simultaneous use of both steam and horse power,” as well as elevating
the “character of the road by greater dispatch in the conveyance of
passengers.” He thinks “in the use of the railroads constructed by the
state it will probably be best for the state to furnish the motive
power, leaving the cars for the conveyance of freight and passengers
to be furnished by individuals or companies, from whom the state will
exact the proper toll for the use of the road, and for the motive
power.” The idea seems everywhere to have prevailed that a railway was
a public highway to be used by and for the benefit of the public. Only
for a very short time in the history of the country did the theory have
prominence that a railway is private property to the extent that its
owners could do as they pleased with it and the “public be damned.”

At various points in the South were railways projected and built.
Besides the Charleston & Hamburg, which has already been mentioned,
and which by 1850 had extended across the state to Hamburg directly
across the Savannah River from Augusta, Georgia, and northward to
Columbia with some branches, should be noted a few others. From
Richmond there was a line westward to the coal fields (1830-31) and
a line which by 1840 connected the Potomac with Fredericksburg, a
distance of 75 miles. It was constructed in the ordinary manner of
wooden rails with strap-iron plates. In Virginia there were the
Petersburg & Roanoke, about 60 miles long and other lines sufficient
to total in 1840 more than 300 miles. North Carolina also took up
the rail question rather early. The Wilmington & Raleigh, chartered
in 1833, had laid upwards of 160 miles in 1840. Georgia was building
lines in the ’thirties and ’forties from Augusta across the state to
link with lines in Tennessee. The lines of these several Southeastern
states were joined together later and became parts of large systems.
Of the several projects authorized amounting to more than 1000 miles
(1837) only one materialized, namely, the road from Springfield to
Meredosia, and 58 miles had been completed by 1842. A locomotive was
purchased and according to the Springfield _Journal_, March 18, “the
cars ran from Jacksonville, 33¹⁄₂ miles, in two hours and eight minutes
including stoppages.” On account of the unsettled condition of the
country and the accidents along the way,--no doubt the track was poorly
constructed,--it did not pay. The locomotive for a considerable time
lay out in the open where it had jumped the track. A man bought it,
equipped it with wide tired wheels and attempted to operate it on the
wagon roads. This proved unsuccessful and it was finally abandoned on
the prairie.[98] The road was sold in 1847. Several roads were reaching
out for the Mississippi River and the fertile prairies beyond. The
bustling young city of Chicago began its first railway toward the west
in 1848. The other extremity was set for Galena on the Mississippi
River. Not being financially able to buy T-rails they purchased
some second-hand strap-irons. Likewise a second-hand locomotive was
obtained, but when it arrived at the water front in Chicago the city
authorities having refused the privilege of laying tracks on the street
the company was at a loss to know how to get it to the end of their
rails. After much discussion permission to lay a temporary track was
given, and the _Pioneer_ finally reached her destination. The railway
proved successful from the first; later it became part of the Illinois
Central System. The locomotive _Pioneer_ is still retained in the Field
Museum of Chicago.

There is not space to trace the development of the railways in all
the individual states. In all natural growths, increases at first
are slow, then accelerated until a maximum is reached, followed by a
gradual retardation. So with the railway growth. The number of miles of
railroad constructed up to 1830 was 41; 1835, 918; to 1840, 2797; in
small widely scattered locations, but from that time on to the Civil
War the work went on rapidly. By 1860 about 31,000 miles had been
constructed and was going on at the rate of 5000 miles per year. Seven
trunk line roads had passed through the Appalachian Mountain system; at
eight places they and their connections touched the Ohio River, and the
Mississippi at ten.[99] By 1850 there was railway connection between
Boston and the east end of Lake Erie, and from the west end of Lake
Erie to Lake Michigan with steamboat connection across the two lakes;
before 1860 there was a network of rails between the Atlantic seaboard
and the Mississippi River. Construction lagged behind in the South. Up
to 1856 the building was approximately as follows:

  Northeastern States       4000 miles
  Northern Central States   7500   „
  South Atlantic States     2750   „
  Southern Interior         2150   „

And the very fact that few of these were north and south roads, that
travel and intercourse were east and west, that the people of the
North did not fraternize with the people of the South, that they grew
apart and worshiped at the shrine of different ideals, furnished at
least one cause for the cruel Civil War. There are still too few north
and south trunk lines of travel and commerce, too little trade and
friendly intercourse to heal the differences engendered by a century of
separation. There lies one of the hopes of the interchange of summer
and winter automobile visitors.

The building of railroads offered an opening for surplus capital; the
opportunity for fortune and fame was attractive; but above all the
people were crazed with the idea of improvement; every town wanted
to grow bigger and a railroad was an absolute necessity; scores of
companies were formed with the intention of beginning construction,
then deeding the improvement to some established line to operate. Many
communities subscribed stock, others voted bonds, others paid for right
of way by private subscription in order to secure a railroad. Mob
psychology had got in its work; the people were frenzied. The result
was often overbuilding, parallel lines, too many roads attempting to
occupy the same territory, with the result that branch lines often
never paid interest on the cost of construction. On the other hand the
gambling instinct was rampant, many roads were overcapitalized, stock
was voted influential persons without money consideration, and stock
sold to others for more than it was worth.

As there had been for turnpikes, as there had been for canals, once
again there came a popular call for governmental aid. Land was
then plenty and the general belief was that the prosperity of the
country demanded its settlement. If railways could be induced to go
out into the open prairies and by their selling agencies bring about
the occupation and tillage of these lands, other lands owned by the
Government would soon be in demand. There would be no particular
hardship on anyone, since Government land was sold to actual settlers
for such a small sum, the railroads would be unable to dispose of their
land at a much larger price. As a matter of fact the land was sold by
the railroads for whatever it would bring; the prices increased as
settlement became more dense. In Iowa railroad land sold from $5 to $50
per acre during the ’sixties and ’seventies. The remaining land held by
the government was ordinarily increased in price from $1.25 to $2.50
per acre.

Congress, evidently influenced by the demand for railroads, and falling
back upon the precedent of the National Highway, heretofore mentioned,
granted in 1850 to the State of Illinois a strip of land about 12
miles wide lengthwise through the state to be transferred by it to the
Illinois Central Railroad. The act gave six sections per mile on each
side of the track, amounting, as certified to later, 2,595,053 acres.
In consideration of this and in lieu of all other taxes, the company
agreed to pay the state an amount equal to 7 per cent of the gross
earnings from freight and passenger traffic. The company had received
from the sale (principal and advanced interest) of 2,250,633 acres, up
to January 1, 1873, $24,296,596;[100] an average of about $11 per acre.

Other companies were quick to take advantage of this precedent. Each
had its representative in Congress. For over twenty years there was
scarcely a Congress that did not make one or two such grants. More
than a hundred such grants[101] were made between 1850 and 1872,
aggregating 155,000,000 acres.[102] Several roads did not comply with
the conditions of the grants hence the donation lapsed. Up to June 30,
1880, grants amounted to 155,504,994.59 acres, according to Donaldson,
of which there had been patented to the same date, 35,214,978.25 acres.


=Pacific Roads.=--The most gigantic land grants made by the Government
were for the benefit of the trans-continental or Pacific roads. The
idea of a transcontinental railroad has been traced back practically
to the beginning of railroad building in the United States.[103]
During the ’fifties the debates in Congress waxed strong. Should the
states’ sovereignty idea prevail and federal aid be first granted to
the states and dealt out by them to the builders as had been done with
the Illinois Central and numerous other cases, or should the National
Government undertake the work itself or grant the aid to a company
for that purpose? Where would the road be built: in the North, which
would give an advantage to the abolitionists, or in the South, with
corresponding advantage to slavery partisans? The two classes were
absolutely antagonistic to each other’s desires. Then there was a
middle class, who desired to prevent separation and war who refused to
vote upon either side for fear it would create trouble with the other.

As a compromise a bill was passed in 1853 to have the country west of
the Mississippi River surveyed to determine the most feasible region
for building the transcontinental railroad. The report of the survey
is contained in eleven volumes, and was made by the War Department, of
which Jefferson Davis was the Secretary. This cabinet officer reported
in favor of “the route of the 32d parallel” as the “most practical and
economical from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.”[104]
A line this far south, of course, was not acceptable to the North.
The election and Civil War coming on changed the status of affairs
and on July 4, 1862, President Lincoln signed the bill by which the
first transcontinental road should be constructed by two companies:
the Central Pacific working from the west, and the Union Pacific
working from the Missouri River at Omaha westward. A grant of land of
approximately 35,000,000 acres was made, namely, the odd sections lying
contiguous to the line on either side. This was not quite a return to
the position of the Government when it built out of the funds from the
sale of public lands the National Road westward from Maryland, through
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, into Illinois. Then the construction
was done under the direction of the federal Government and the road
remained the property of the Government. Now federal aid was given to
private companies to be operated for their own benefit. What might have
been the result in this country had the Government taken a firm stand
for national ownership is problematical, but the fact that it has made
a success of the construction and operation of the Panama Canal leads
many to believe that the railroad question would have been handled
as easily if that system had grown up from the beginning. Opponents
of government ownership point to the roads of continental Europe as
being less efficient than those of England and the United States under
private ownership. And more recently the fiasco of Government operation
under war emergency is considered a strong argument against public
ownership.

In addition to the land granted to the Union Pacific for the “purpose
of aiding in the construction of said railroad and telegraph line, and
to secure the safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops,
munitions of war, and public stores thereon, every alternate section
of land, designated by odd numbers, to the amount of five alternate
sections per mile on each side of said road,”[105] the company
was given for “right of way” 200 feet each side of the track,[106]
“including all necessary grounds” for stations, side-tracks and various
other purposes enumerated, also to take from the public land “adjacent
to the line of said road” (afterwards limited to 10 miles on each
side) “earth, stone, timber, and other materials, for the construction
thereof.” Further help was also granted by the provisions of the act
(Section 5): “That ... the Secretary of the Treasury shall, upon the
certificate in writing ... of the completion and equipment of forty
consecutive miles ... issue ... bonds of the United States of one
thousand dollars each, payable in thirty years after date, bearing six
per centum per annum interest ... to the amount of sixteen of said
bonds per mile.” The act provides that this loan shall constitute a
first mortgage lien on the property, but the act of 1864 allowed the
company to issue bonds to the same amount and subrogate the Government
bonds to those issued by the company making the Government claim a
second mortgage instead of a first. The Government gave similar grants
and privileges to the Central Pacific, although it was a purely state
corporation and, at first, was only to build to the east line of
California. Apparently the last vestige of the traditions of Madison
and Monroe, of Jackson and Buchanan had disappeared.

There was danger that other lines would be built. A line was preparing
to go west from Leavenworth, lines were converging on St. Joseph and
Sioux City, any of which might become rivals of the Union Pacific, so
the act provides that they shall unite with the Pacific not farther
west than the one hundredth meridian of longitude, and if they do so
grants of lands and subsidy bonds will be given to them.

However, the demand for transcontinental lines was so great that three
other lines were authorized. In 1864 the Northern Pacific Railroad
to connect Lake Superior with Puget Sound, with a land grant of
58,000,000 acres; in the Atlantic & Pacific to follow the old 32d
parallel route, now a part of the Southern Pacific, with a grant of
42,000,000 acres; and last, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé received
also a large grant. The total Congressional grants certified or
patented to railroads and military wagon roads from 1850 to 1880 were
as follows:

  To States                                          35,214,978.25 acres
  To Corporation and Pacific Roads                   10,435,048.08
  Military Wagon Roads                                1,301,040.47
                                                     -------------
                                                     46,951,066.80
  Deduct lands forfeited                                607,741.76
                                                     -------------
  Grand Total for Railroads and Military Wagon
  Roads                                              46,343,325.04

  Acres necessary to fill grants providing all
  roads are constructed                             155,504,994.59[107]


=Construction of Pacific Roads.=--It would be interesting to take up
in detail the work of constructing these roads, but space will not
permit. Nothing can be said of the intense interest throughout the
United States; of the romance and adventure of penetrating 1700 miles
of wilderness and desert with hostile Indians ready at any time to
attack; with worse than hostile Indians in the rough-necks, gamblers,
and prostitutes who followed the camps; of the magnitude of the work
employing 2000 graders to go first, 1500 wood choppers and tie-getters
spreading their labors over thousands of miles of Government forests;
of the engineers and their feats of searching out easiest passages;
of the track layers; of the boarding houses; of general camp life; of
the exciting race with the Central Pacific ending in the union of the
two lines and the driving of the golden spike at Promontory Point on
the north shore of Great Salt Lake, 1086 miles westward from Omaha and
689 miles eastward from Sacramento, on the 10th day of May, 1869; and
of the crowds in Omaha, Chicago, Cincinnati, New Orleans, Washington,
New York, San Francisco, and every other place of importance in the
whole nation, who patiently waited the sounds of the bells rung in
unison with the sounds of the strokes upon the spike, transmitted
instantaneously through the intervening space by the electric telegraph.

There is no doubt but that the benefits that have come from the
railways through the increased facilities for transportation and the
corresponding gain to civilization has amply repaid the Government for
all its bounties, notwithstanding some of them were unnecessary, in
fact, a willful waste and led to an orgy of financial and political
corruption a little later.


=The Crédit Mobilier.=--Perhaps the most widely noticed scandal
connected with the railroads was the scheme known as the Crédit
Mobilier. This was made much of by the Grange and other anti-monopoly
movements which reached their height in the ’seventies. Charges having
been made that many congressmen had been bribed by an organization
known as the Crédit Mobilier, a Congressional investigation was
made,[108] Thomas Durant, vice president, and other leading
stockholders of the Union Pacific Railroad, secured a controlling
interest in the stock of the Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency in 1864 and
had its name changed to the Crédit Mobilier of America. One of the
ostensible functions of the company was to loan money for railroad
construction. The same men were instrumental in awarding the contract
for the building of the Union Pacific Railroad to one of their number,
Oakes Ames, a member of the United States House of Representatives,
for stipulated amounts per mile for the different sections ranging
from $42,000 to $96,000, amounting in the aggregate to $47,000,000.
The contract was right away transferred to seven trustees composed of
the same controlling stockholders, who were to execute it receiving
therefor $3000 per year each, and the profits were to be divided among
those stockholders of the Crédit Mobilier of America who would comply
with certain conditions. The Crédit Mobilier agreed to furnish the
necessary money at 7 per cent per annum and 2¹⁄₂ per cent commission,
not to exceed the amount provided in the contract to be paid by the
Union Pacific company. These same leading stockholders of the Union
Pacific being also controlling stockholders of the Crédit Mobilier were
thus, because the contract prices were said to be twice the actual
constructing prices, making a big profit, practically all of which was
coming from the United States treasury. Complaints were being made and
adverse legislation was feared. Stock in Crédit Mobilier was offered
to members of congress at a very low figure on which it is said they
made dividends of 340 per cent. It amounted to this: The men entrusted
with the management of the road let the contract for its construction
to themselves at a figure double its real cost, and pocketed the
profits, estimated at about $30,000,000. These same men started the
scheme, which afterward became common, of watering the stock, that is
increasing the outstanding stock, and distributing it as dividends,
upon the plea that the property had increased without any new outlay of
money. It also appears to be a method of earning dividends upon money
never invested.


=Railroad Consolidation.=--It has been shown that at the beginning
railroad building consisted of short stretches from town to town, or
from the end of one water communication to the beginning of another.
It was but reasonable that these would join for the purpose of through
traffic. The result was also better efficiency as the equipment could
be used to better advantage; the terminal costs were reduced as there
were not so many of them; and, what may have been a leading cause,
the control, and perhaps prevention, of competition. Unrestricted
competition caused rate wars; rates once down it was difficult to get
them back and frequently bankruptcy occurred. Government regulations
were made prohibiting rate agreements and pooling. Such apparently
hastened consolidation. One objection to consolidation was the
concentration of vast financial powers in the hands of a few, and since
money had much influence in Washington and in the state capitals,
political power as well. This and combinations of other industrial
concerns were causes which brought about the enactment of the Sherman
Anti-Trust law of July 2, 1890.[109] This law did not come in time to
stop consolidation and it may be doubtful if it would for the Supreme
Court has decided that combinations are not unlawful unless they
exercise an unreasonable restraint upon trade.[110]

The methods of consolidation are: _merger_ or outright purchase, in
which case the individual lines lose their separate identity; _stock
purchase_, wherein a controlling share of the stock of another road is
held by the purchasing line or by a holding company; _lease_ usually
for long periods, a rental being paid periodically for the use of
the line; and, _community of interest_, that is the establishment of
friendly relations. The consolidations are more often financial than
physical. When two roads physically combine under one management it is
customary to reorganize and assume the same name. In the consolidations
given in the table below many of the roads are operated separately and
almost independently but are dominated by common financial interests
with common policies or very friendly relations. Some of the principal
consolidations prior to 1912 are:[111]

             _Vanderbilt Interests_

                                              Mileage
  Boston & Albany                                392
  New York Central                             3,591
  Lake Shore & Michigan Southern               1,663
  Michigan Central                             1,805
  New York, Chicago & St. L.                     561
  Lake Erie & Western                            886
  Big Four                                     1,979
  Pittsburgh & Lake Erie                         215
  Chicago, Indiana & Southern                    329
  Other affiliated eastern lines               1,759
  Western Maryland[112]                          575
  Chicago & North Western Systems              9,827
                                              ------
      Total                                   23,582

               _Morgan Interests_

  Erie Railroad                                2,565
  Pere Marquette                               2,334
  Southern Railroad System                     8,667
  Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific        335
  Mobile & Ohio                                1,114
  Atlantic Coast Line                          6,818
  Louisville & Nashville                       4,590
  Chicago & Great Western                      1,495
                                              ------
      Total                                   27,918
                                              ======

              _Harriman Interests_

  Oregon Short Line                            1,646
  Oregon Railway & Navigation Company          1,737
  Union Pacific System (remainder)             3,791
  Southern Pacific                            10,257
  Illinois Central System                      6,340
  Central of Georgia                           1,915
  Baltimore & Ohio                             4,555
  Delaware & Hudson                              875
  San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake           1,105
  Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton                1,015
                                              ------
      Total                                   33,236
                                              ======

  _Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé_             10,472

  _Chicago, Milwaukee and
    St. Paul System_                           9,657

  _Seaboard Air Line_                          3,084

          _Pennsylvania Railroad Interests_

  Pennsylvania Lines                          11,197
  Norfolk & Western                            1,990
                                              ------
      Total                                   13,187
                                              ======

                  _Gould Interests_

  Wabash System                                2,663
  Wheeling & Lake Erie                           457
  Missouri Pacific System[113]                 3,920
  St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern[113]       313
  St. Louis, Southwestern[113]                 1,675
  Texas & Pacific[113]                         1,991
  International & Great Northern[113]          1,159
  Denver & Rio Grande[114]                     2,778
  Western Pacific[113]                           979
                                              ------
      Total                                   15,935

                  _Moore Interests_

  Rock Island System                           8,144
  Delaware, Lackawanna & Western[114]          1,052
  Lehigh Valley[115]                           1,431
                                              ------
      Total                                   10,627
                                              ======

                  _Hill Interests_

  Great Northern                               7,397
  Northern Pacific                             6,281
  Chicago, Burlington & Quincy                10,443
  Colorado & Southern                          1,249
                                              ------
      Total                                   25,370
                                              ======

                _New Haven Interests_

  New York, New Haven & Hartford               2,887
  Boston & Maine                               3,594
                                              ------
      Total                                    6,481

                 _Hawley Interests_

  Minneapolis & St. Louis                      1,027
  Iowa Central                                   559
  Toledo, St. Louis & Western                    451
  ’Frisco System                               7,147
  Chicago & Alton                              1,025
  Chesapeake & Ohio System                     2,232
  Missouri, Kansas & Texas                     3,393
  Hocking Valley                                 350
                                              ------
      Total                                   16,508
                                              ======

  _Philadelphia and Reading_                   2,137

  Grand Total of above Groups and Systems    198,638
  Total milage of railways in the United
  States, Dec. 31, 1916                      397,014

  For a more extended discussion see “National Consolidation of
  Railroads,” by George H. Lewis.


=Mechanical Development.=--There is not space to follow in detail
the mechanical development of railroads. The rail, for instance, was
at first a mere plank placed in the cart track to prevent rutting;
this evolved into a rail of timber about 4 x 6 inches held in proper
position by cross-ties not to be considered as sleepers or supports
especially. On top of the rail was later placed a strap iron. Since
this strap iron under the wheel loads curled up, thicker plates began
to be used. Then cast-iron rails some 4 or 5 feet long from tie to tie,
cast deeper at the middle for greater strength. Then the rolling mills
were becoming sufficiently improved to roll out wrought-iron rails, at
first rectangular plates, then T-rails held up by chairs and finally
through a dozen or more forms to Bessemer, then open-hearth steel rail
shapes as at present used. The fastenings and fish plates have gone
through a stage of evolution. The track soon assumed a standard form
and has retained it with little variation notwithstanding attempts to
use steel and concrete ties.

The freight cars, at first boxes with wheels on them, have gradually
developed into monsters of steel with draw bars, automatic brakes and
couplings. Passenger cars at first very variable were developed from
stage coaches and Conestoga wagons hitched together. In Europe they
remained short, like stage coaches with side doors. In the United
States they lengthened out with seats through the interior and doors
and platforms at the ends. Platforms were eventually housed in with
vestibules. Both types have their advantages and disadvantages.
Sleeping cars seem to be a development of the canal and steamboat
sleeping quarters. Here a single company early obtaining a working, if
not a legal, monopoly of the business of making and operating sleepers.
As a result no improvements of note have appeared in them for years.
For financial efficiency the monopoly seems to be a good thing; for
mechanical progress it is not.

Locomotives have shown a continual progress. One reason perhaps is
their short lives; new ones must always be coming along and there is
ample opportunity for experimentation. From the _Tom Thumb_ to the
powerful Mountain Type is a long climb, but as each step was taken the
individual changes were not very noticeable. Like the hour-hand of a
watch only by observing its position at times quite separated can it be
noticed to have traveled.

In fact the entire railway system with its millions of cars operating
on hundreds of roads has grown complex and yet standardized. To get a
common gauge that cars from one road might pass to another required an
act of Congress. At first companies adopted diverse gauges that their
cars could not go onto another road, but when transcontinental roads
were to be built and through lines of traffic established President
Lincoln was called upon to set a gauge. He “side-tracked” the matter
and threw it onto Congress, who established the distance 4 feet 8¹⁄₂
inches as the standard width between rails.

Without the telegraph the present amplification of railroad business
could not have taken place. The early trains traveled by time schedule.
No extra train could be added, although looking-posts were established
at the stations up which the train men could climb to watch for the
smoke of an approaching train. Now every division point must have its
coterie of dependable dispatchers. Each wire carries multiple messages.
Electric signals and other safety devices to lessen accidents are
universal, while the bewildering network of tracks in the ordinary city
yard are operated easily from distant towers by interlocking switches.
That railroads have brought about an industrial and social revolution,
that they have increased enormously the country’s transportation,
that they have thus been very instrumental in bringing the present
civilization to its high and uniform state of attainment, cannot be
denied.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

MODERN LOCOMOTIVES

1. Showing the Growth in the Size of Locomotives During the Past Twenty
Years. The Smaller Locomotive is an _American_ Type Class Engine of
1900. The Larger is a _Mountain Type_ Engine. Both are Used on the C.
B. & Q. R. R. Photographed at Lincoln, Nebr., Sept., 1922. 2. One of
the New Gearless _Electric_ Locomotives Built by the General Electric
Company for the C. M. & St. Paul R. R.]


=The Evolution of the Sleeping Car.=--Mr. Husband has made a very
interesting book of the story of the Pullman car and its evolution[116]
in which he traces with much detail, step by step, the improvements
from 1836, when the first sleeping car was offered to the traveling
public, to the most modern parlor car now in use. The discomfort and
inconvenience of travelers by rail was so much greater than that by
canal that only the greater speed of the former caused it to forge
ahead of the latter. As the mileage of the roads increased so also did
the comforts of travel. It has already been noted that sparks set fire
to the clothing of passengers. Soon box-like cars replaced the open
carriages and bogie trucks replaced the rigid wheels, the former giving
much more protection and the latter comfort while rounding curves. But
yet passengers were herded like cattle on stiff-backed narrow benches
in cars with scant head clearance and width. Clean stone ballast for
the road bed had not yet been thought of and the dust blew in clouds
through the open windows in the summer time, and a stove vitiated the
air in the winter. There were no screens or vestibules. It is a far
cry from the dim flaring candle to the brilliant white incandescent
electric lights. Passenger cars were rapidly improved until by 1844
they had taken on something of the appearance of the present coach.

George M. Pullman, a Chicago contractor, having experienced the
inconveniences of railway travel and also being acquainted from close
association with the Erie Canal and the sleeping arrangements of
the canal boats, had visions of similar or better rail comforts. In
1858 he engaged Leonard Seibert, an employee of the Chicago & Alton
Railroad, to remodel two coaches into the first Pullman sleeping cars.
Mr. Pullman’s invention of upper berth construction whereby it could
be closed during the day and serve as a receptacle for bedding was
introduced into these cars, before which time sleeping car bunks had
been stationary and on one side only. The success of his venture was
such that he established a shop for the manufacture of the cars and
employed technical skill to plan and make them. He had such organizing
ability, however, that before his death he saw the Pullman Company
holding a practical monopoly of all the sleeping cars in the country,
with through cars scheduled so that change of Pullman was unnecessary
from coast to coast, or if a change had to be made it was merely a
transfer from one car to a connecting car on another route. A single
ticket will carry a passenger from Portland, Maine, to San Francisco,
by way of Washington, D.C., New Orleans and Los Angeles with only two
changes of cars, namely, at New York and Washington, a total distance
of 4,199 miles.

It may be interesting to note that some 26,000,000 persons are annually
accommodated by the 7500 cars operated by this company.


=Street Car Service.=--Now that more than one half the population
of the United States live in cities makes the matter of local
transportation of at least passing interest. Railroads were at first
tram cars and many of them were built through the city streets, it
was easy, therefore, to make of them street cars caring for such
local traffic as desired to take advantage of them. They became a
popular means of local transportation in the decade 1850-60. As the
demand became greater the one-horse car gave way to the two-horse
with its longer body and greater capacity. These not being sufficient
steam locomotives were used in some cities, in others the tracks were
elevated above the surface, the first in New York in 1876, or depressed
below with steam locomotives operating trains of cars rapidly loaded
and unloaded at stopping points about four blocks apart. In 1879
or 1880 in San Francisco where the hills were too steep for horses
the cable car was designed, whereby an endless cable operated from
a central station ran continuously in a trench or conduit under the
track. A grip attached to the car could be made to take hold of this
cable and the car was thus drawn along. Notwithstanding they were
expensive to install cable cars were rapidly replacing horse-drawn cars
when electric traction came in and displaced them.


=Electric Traction.=--There are reports of attempts to obtain magnetic
traction by the use of batteries, but not until the electric dynamo
and motor had become practical working machines was anything like a
successful working electrically propelled car developed. The ordinary
method is to generate the electricity at a central station, carry
it along the track by means of a wire, from which it is taken by a
trolley or some form of conductor to a motor on the car completing
the circuit through the track and ground. Such a car was practically
demonstrated at the Berlin Exposition of 1879, by Werner Siemens, with
a line 219 yards long.[117] This was the first practical electric
railway. But long before this time in America experiments had been
made with electric traction. Dever exhibited a model at Springfield,
Massachusetts, in 1835.[118] In 1879, the year of Siemens’ exhibition,
another model railway having a “third rail” to carry the current was
exhibited at Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Edison had a car in operation
at Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 1882, and the following year a small
road carried passengers at an exhibit in Chicago. Miniature roads were
exhibited at Philadelphia, Denver, Cleveland, New Orleans, and possibly
elsewhere. The first electric railway built and operated for profit
in American streets was at Richmond, Virginia, in 1885 on 2¹⁄₂ miles
of track. During the same year 2 miles between Baltimore and Hampton
were put in operation.[119] By 1890 the number of cities having trolley
cars had increased to forty-nine.[120] From that time on the change
from horse-drawn cars was very rapid. Trolley lines were even extended
throughout the country districts. At one time it looked as though they
might replace steam cars for passenger traffic, especially short-haul
traffic. There was a complete network of interurban trolley lines in
the Eastern and Central Western states by 1910.[121] The trolley is
also being used upon hard-surfaced roads without tracks by buses and
trucks. Steam railroads running into New York City through the tubes
use electric locomotives to draw the trains, thus avoiding the smoke
nuisance and the danger therewith connected. The Milwaukee Railroad
is using electric locomotives on its mountain division in Montana and
Idaho. Electricity is generated by water power; also the trains going
down grade are run against a dynamo and storage battery thus acting as
a brake as well as renewing the batteries.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  BROWN, WILLIAM H., “History of the First Locomotive in America.” D.
  Appleton & Co., New York, 1871.

  BURCH, EDWARD P., “Electric Traction for Railway Trains,” Chap. I
  (Historical). McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1911.

  CALLENDER, GUY S., “The Economic History of the United States,”
  Chapter VIII, “Transportation,” Ginn & Co., New York.

  Census, U. S. Eleventh (1890) “Transportation on Land.”

  Census Bureau, U. S. Special Report (1902) “Streets and Electric
  Railways.”

  DAVIS, JOHN P., “Union Pacific Railway.” S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago.

  DONALDSON, THOMAS, “History of the Public Domain,” Published by order
  of an act of Congress, 1884.

  DUNBAR, SEYMOUR, “A History of Travel in America,” 4 volumes.
  Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis.

  ERICSSON, JOHN, “Life of” by William C. Church, Chap. IV. Charles
  Scribner’s Sons, New York.

  HUSBAND, JOSEPH, “The Story of the Pullman Car.” A. C. McClurg &
  Company, Chicago, 1917.

  JOHNSON, EMORY R., “Elements of Transportation,” 1909. D. Appleton &
  Company, New York.

  LARRABEE, WM., “The Railroad Question,” Shulte Publishing Company,
  Chicago, 1893.

  LE ROSSIGNOL, J. E., “Monopolies Past and Present.” T. Y. Crowell
  Company, New York.

  LEWIS, GEORGE H., “National Consolidation of Railroads.” Dodd, Mead &
  Co., New York.

  Maps of Interurban Lines, Century Atlas. Century Company, New York.

  MARTIN, E. W., “History of the Grange Movement, or The Farmer’s War
  against Monopoly.” A subscription book published in 1874. National
  Publishing Company, Chicago.

  POORE, HENRY V., “History of Railroads and Canals of the United
  States,” Vol. I, p. 377. New York, 1860.

  SANBORN, JOHN B., “Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of Railways.”
  University of Wisconsin Bulletin, Vol. II, No. 3, Econ. pol. Sci. and
  Hist. Series.

  SELFRIDGE, H. GORDON, “The Romance of Commerce.” John Lane, London.

  SPARKS, E. E., “National Development,” Vol. XXIII, The American
  Nation Series, Chapter III and IV. Harper & Brothers, New York.

  U. S. Statutes, 1862-1864, Pacific Railway Acts, Investigation of the
  Crédit Mobilier.

  U. S. Statutes, 41st Congress, 1st Session, Chap. DCXLVII, Sherman
  Anti-Trust Law.

  U. S. Statutes, Railroad Bills, 1850-1880 House Report 42d Cong., 3d
  Session, No. 77.


FOOTNOTES

  [87] Quoted from “Niles’ Register” of 1812 by Dunbar.

  [88] Stevens’ pamphlet published in 1812.

  [89] Stephenson’s first locomotive was put out in 1814. His _Rocket_
  and Ericsson’s _Novelty_ had their famous contest resulting in favor
  of the _Rocket_ in 1829.

  [90] Brown’s “History of the First Locomotive,” letter from Cooper,
  1869.

  [91] The coning of wheels is an invention of Jonathan Knight,
  Engineer of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company.

  [92] Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” 932.

  [93] Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” 960.

  [94] The _Albany Argus_, August 11, 1831.

  [95] “History of the Railroads and Canals of the United States,”
  1860, Vol. I, p. 377.

  [96] Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” 998, 1383.

  [97] Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” 1071.

  [98] _Potter’s American Monthly_, July, 1879.

  [99] T. C. Smith, _American Nation_, Vol. XVIII, p. 60.

  [100] E. W. Martin, “History of the Grange Movement,” 1874, p. 35.

  [101] Donaldson, “History of the Public Domain.” University of
  Wisconsin Bulletin: “Congressional Grants of Land in Aid of
  Railways,” by J. B. Sanborn, Pol. Sci. and History Series, Vol. II,
  No. 3.

  [102] The “History of the Grange Movement,” a subscription book by
  Edward Winslow Martin, published in 1874, but which can hardly be
  taken as wholly reliable, says: “The lands granted by the Government
  to various railway corporations make up a total area of 198,165,794
  acres, or about 300,000 square miles--an area larger than the State
  of Texas, which contains 237,504 square miles ... and the railway
  subsidies comprise nearly one-tenth of the entire Union.”

  [103] Dunbar, “A History of Travel in America,” Chap. LVI, et seq.
  Donaldson, “History of the Public Domain.”

  [104] Senate Executive Document No. 78, 33d Congress, 2d Session.

  [105] U. S. Statutes. Acts of 1862 and 1864.

  [106] By subsequent provision the right of way was cut to two hundred
  feet, although the company still holds four hundred feet through
  parts of Nebraska.

  [107] Thomas Donaldson’s “History of the Public Domain.”

  [108] “House Reports,” 42 Cong., 3d Session, No. 77.

  [109] U. S. Statutes, 51 Cong., 1 Sess., Chap. DCXLVII.

  [110] Digest U. S. Supreme Court Reports, Vol. IV, “Monopoly,” pp.
  4043-4052, The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company, Rochester, N.
  Y., 1908.

  [111] Funk and Wagnalls’ Encyclopedia.

  [112] Jointly with Gould Interests.

  [113] Jointly with Rockefeller, Kuhn, Loeb, & Co., Vanderbilt and
  other interests.

  [114] Jointly with Standard Oil interests.

  [115] Jointly with Erie, Reading and Vanderbilt interests.

  [116] “The Story of the Pullman Car,” by Joseph Husband. A. C.
  McClurg & Company, Chicago, 1917. Cf. _Literary Digest_, February 10,
  1923, p. 25.

  [117] Funk and Wagnalls’ Encyclop.

  [118] “Special Reports, Streets and Electric Railways,” U. S. Census
  Bureau (1902). This, of course, was not a practical machine.

  [119] “American Nation,” Vol. XXIII, 39.

  [120] U. S. Eleventh Census (1890), “Transportation on Land.”

  [121] See Maps in Century Dictionary.




CHAPTER V

THE MODERN WAGON ROAD


Gone are the long picturesque lines of emigrant and freight wagons,
with their conestogas, their stage coaches, their oxen, their mules
and horses; gone are the hospitable inns with their gay and social
crowds of happy travelers; gone are the nightly wagon-formed corrals
into which the freighter was wont to drive his animals to prevent their
stampeding by the wily red-skin; gone are the complacent but slow-going
canal barges so plentiful and popular that at the cry of “low bridge,”
everybody ducked by reflex action; gone are the floating palaces on
the vacillating and changeable waters of the interior river systems;
these yesteryear implements of transportation have been all but
superseded by more powerful or more speedy instruments. The canals are
very frequently but weed-grown scum-covered channels through the soil,
while many of the wagon roads are similarly weed-grown or dust-covered
lanes on top of the soil. Perhaps a rejuvenation will come. Already
the public road shows signs of a more vigorous growth than the world
has ever witnessed even in the heyday of road building under the Roman
Caesars.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

TRANSPORTATION ACROSS DEATH VALLEY

A Picturesque Method of Earlier Days.]

Public highways began their desuetude (partial at least) about 1830,
at the advent of the steam railway. To be sure, arrangements were
made for the laying out and care of roads. There were, also, usually
poll and property taxes levied for road and bridge purposes. But
generally the old English custom of allowing such taxes to be worked
out prevailed. In Iowa, for instance,[122] the county court was given
“general supervision over the highways” which must be 66 feet wide
unless otherwise specially directed. The manner of establishing roads
is set forth and the county judge may if he wishes call in a competent
surveyor and “cause the line of the road to be accurately surveyed and
plainly marked out.” “Where crops have been sowed or planted before the
road is finally established the opening thereof shall be delayed until
the crop is harvested.” The county supervisor must appoint a deputy
in each township, but the deputy “must regard himself as an actual
laboring hand” and his compensation “shall not exceed one dollar and
fifty cents for each day actually employed.” It is the duty of the
supervisor “to place and preserve the roads in as good a condition as
the funds at his disposal will permit, and to place guide boards at
such points as he may think expedient or as the court may direct.” In
the Eastern states and in the hilly districts the method of locating
each individual road to follow a trail or stream or ridge usually
prevailed, but in many of the prairie states roads were located by law
on each section line and in some states on each half-section line as
well. This made every man’s farm adjacent to a road, although it was
certainly a waste of land. In nearly all the prairie states the legal
right of way is now 66 feet,[123] in other states it is made 49¹⁄₂
and 33 feet. Massachusetts state-aid roads have a minimum of 50 feet.
Texas divided her roads into three classes with widths of 60, 30 and
20 feet. New Jersey has some state roads 33 feet wide. On the whole 66
feet seems to be favored. This, if roads are made on every half-section
mile, appropriates almost 5 per cent of the land, a quantity that
by proper selection and location might be materially reduced. The
section line method is liked by farmers because it leaves the fields
rectangular, a convenient form for efficiency in cultivation.


=The Influence of the Bicycle on Roads.=--Road construction remained in
a lackadaisical state with here and there a spurt, with now and then
an intelligent supervisor who appreciated the need of better wagon
roads, until the coming of the bicycle. That machine may be considered
a descendant of the old celeripede, which consisted of two wheels
connected by a horizontal bar on which the rider sat and propelled
himself by pushing with his feet alternately on the ground, through
the velocipede, which had the front wheel pivoted to the framework for
easy steering. The attachment of pedals is credited to a Scotchman,
Kirkpatrick Macmillan, about 1840, who applied them to the rear wheel.
In 1886 Lallement in the United States and Michaux in France, placed
the pedals on the front wheels. The front wheel was gradually increased
in diameter until in the ’eighties it sometimes measured as much as 60
inches. The rear wheel decreased as the front increased. The stability
of the wheel was not very great; headers were common, and mounting
was difficult. To overcome these defects of the “ordinary” there was
developed, 1885, the “safety,” approximately the present bicycle,
in which the pedals are carried on a separate shaft and the power
transmitted by chain and sprocket to the rear wheel. With the invention
of the Dunlop[124] pneumatic tire, and consequent overcoming of much of
the jolting so objectionable in more solid tires, the adoption of the
bicycle as a means of pleasure and business locomotion was extremely
rapid. The cycling boom reached its height about 1896 or 1897, by which
time a great many large manufactories of bicycles had been established
over the country. A frenzy seized upon the people and men and women of
all stations were riding wheels; ardent cyclists were found in every
city, village, and hamlet.

As a result of the cycling craze there were organized numerous “wheel
clubs” and finally a national one known as the League of American
Wheelmen, organized about 1887. Its object partly social and partly to
popularize the new sport of cycling, became a few years later almost
wholly a form of propaganda for “better roads.” Newspaper space was
freely utilized; many papers making special and regular features of
“good roads”; pamphlets were published and distributed broadly, and a
magazine was established.[125]

At first the wheelmen were met by the cry of selfishness, with the
argument that the city folk wanted the farmers to build good roads
for their pleasure; but men of foresight, men of affairs, saw the
benefits accruing to all kinds of business and added their influence.
Mr. Potter, a lawyer of New York City, who had graduated in civil
engineering at Cornell University before turning to the law, became
interested in the good roads movement, studied and made himself one of
the best posted men on roads in the United States. When the League of
American Wheelmen decided to start a magazine he was selected for its
editor and manager. Under his direction the subscription list of _Good
Roads_ soon reached more than 30,000.[126] “The articles strive to
show the value of roads in a commercial sense and by a comparison with
other countries demonstrate how far behind America is in this respect.”
Pictures of good and bad roads were used freely, thus holding the
attention where reading matter alone would have failed. European roads,
the French especially, were described and played up through newspapers
generally. Scarcely a journal that did not run leaders and other
articles on the benefits of good roads and methods of building and
maintaining the same. Our ordinary roads were decried on every hand. A
lady voices her opinion thus:[127]

  I came to this country with the best prejudices, having enjoyed
  the privilege of meeting with some of its noblest representatives
  in my fatherland. I admired much the individual independence, the
  high standing of women, the gentle sway of the church, the liberal
  education of the children, and the unsurpassed charity that extends
  even to distant countries. I must confess that I was struck with
  the bad roads everywhere, in cities as well as in the country, and
  at the same time, amused at the compensation one gets when one meets
  with an accident. Why not spend the money in the improvements of the
  roads--make these roads perfect, and then let everybody look out for
  himself.

  In summer the worst road is good; but in winter schools have to
  be closed, the children are stopped in their regular pursuits,
  learning becomes desultory, and the strong feeling of duty that
  has to be developed from the very beginning of life by strict good
  habits gets slackened and slighted; and so also the attendance of
  the churches--for many people the only comfort in the struggle for
  existence--becomes an impossibility. And especially the painstaking
  farmer must find it hard to drive his team through the muddy, clayey
  road, in bringing the fruits of his labor to the market. I hear him,
  with many a suppressed oath on everything under the sun, dragging his
  cartload through the mud and standing pools, and in snowstorms he is
  sometimes totally lost. All communication stops.

And so on for a column or more. She inserts by way of anecdote which
shows that two of the greatest Germans who ever lived did not think the
lowly road too insignificant to discuss:

  When Heinrich Heine for the first time met with the royal poet,
  Goethe, he was so impressed with the majesty of his personality that
  he could speak of nothing less than the plum trees on the chaussée,
  between Jena and Weimar.

Also Bill Nye, the humorist, takes a rap at the roads in this
manner.[128]

  Our wagon roads throughout the country are generally a disgrace to
  civilization and before we undertake to supply Jaeger underwear and
  sealskin covered bibles with flexible backs to the African it might
  be well to put a few dollars into the relief of galled and broken
  down horses that have lost their breath on our miserable highways.

  The country system, as I recall it, was in my boyhood about as poor
  and inefficient as it could well be. Each township was divided up
  into road districts, and each road district was presided over by an
  overseer of highways, whose duty it is to collect so many days’ work
  or so many dollars from each taxpayer in the district. Of course no
  taxpayer would pay a dollar when he could come and make mud pies on
  the road all day and visit and gossip with the neighbors and save his
  dollar too.

  The result seemed to be that the work was misdirected and generally
  an injury to the road. With all our respect to the farmer, I will
  state right here that he does not know how to make roads. An all
  wise Providence never intended that he should know. The professional
  roadbuilder, with the money used by the ignorant sapheads and
  self-made road architects, would in a few years make roads in the
  United States over which two or three times the present sized load
  could be easily drawn, and the dumb beasts of the Republic would rise
  up and call us blessed for doing it.

This bit of doggerel appeared in _Good Roads_ about the same time:

_They May Be Sinking Yet_

    Old farmer John drove off to town
      All on a rainy day.
    The glistening highway up and down,
      With mire shone all the way.

    The gentle weeping raindrops fell
      And had fallen all the night;
    The bottom of that highway--well;
      ’Twas literally out of sight.

    But John had hitched his sturdy steeds.
      His sturdy steeds and true
    That often ’mid such urgent needs.
      Had boldly struggled through.

    And John had sworn a big round oath
      With deep and bated breath,
    He’d rather brave the deep, forsooth,
      Thrice o’er than starve to death.

    For visions of the flour bin,
      ’Twas empty he could see,
    And for a week no sugar in
      His coffee cup had he.

    And so amid the sea of mire.
      Those steeds right valiant reel,
    While turbid waves creep higher, higher,
      Upon the wagon wheel.

    Oh! help ye powers that rule the wave,
      Wherever ye may be;
    Reach down and this poor mortal save
       From out the turbid sea.

    They sink, now just the horses’ ears
      Still struggling through the flood;
    Now nothing but John’s hat appears
      Above that sea of mud.

    The rich black loam of Illinois
      Above that outfit met;
    And since our roads are bottomless,
      They may be sinking yet.

Thus was the propaganda for better roads spread during the last
decade of the nineteenth century. And this is not all the country
owes to the enthusiastic wheelman of that period. Their efforts had
resulted in a stirring of the whole populace. True, some were opposed
to spending money for highfalutin highways, but many of the best
thinkers of the country caught the true spirit of the wave and did all
they could to continue the good work. In many states organizations
were formed and good roads meetings called. In Des Moines, August
16, 1892,[129] more than 300 delegates representing boards of trade,
boards of supervisors, county road conventions, 88 counties and 130
cities met in an enthusiastic convention of two days’ duration with
Judge E. H. Thayer of Clinton as presiding officer. On the programme
were such men as Horace Boies, Governor of the state, Judge Peter A.
Day, Railway Commissioner, and Charles A. Schaeffer, President of the
State University. The resolutions adopted among other things recommend
that, until further legislation can be had, the following steps by
county associations be taken: “(1) To set on foot a movement in every
township in the respective counties looking to the consolidation of
road districts...; (2) to impress on boards of supervisors the duty
of levying the county fund tax...; (3) where it is apparent that the
public interests will be best subserved by a larger immediate
expenditure ... to urge ... the propriety of submitting to the people
the voting of a higher levy or the issuance of bonds ... to agitate
in cities and towns the question of the propriety of expending money
beyond their limits in improving highways leading thereto....”

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

GOOD ROADS DAY IN JACKSON CO., MO.]

While this convention was in session a similar one was meeting in
Missouri; in fact practically all the states in the Union were getting
“in the band wagon.”

The League stopped not here, but were interesting the political men
of the country in the issue. They visited the president of the United
States, Benjamin Harrison, at Washington in July,[130] at which time he
turned to Colonel Charles L. Burdet, head of the League, and said: “One
thing; if wheelmen secure us good roads for which they are so zealously
working, your body deserves a medal in recognition of its philanthropy.”

The great World’s Fair was coming off at Chicago in 1893, and “good
roads boosters” were extremely anxious that a suitable exhibition
be made there. General Roy Stone framed a bill which was favorably
reported by the Senate Committee July 23, 1892. It was a bill to create
a National Highway Commission and prescribe its duties, “composed of
two Senators and five members of the House of Representatives, and
five citizens appointed by the president” for the purpose of a general
inquiry into the condition of highways in the United States and means
for their improvement, and especially the best method of securing
a proper exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exhibition of approved
appliances for road making, and of providing for public instruction in
the art during the exhibition.[131]

Colonel Albert A. Pope, of Boston, a zealous road worker, secured
the opinions of hundreds of prominent men, which he presented to the
members of congress. Only a few extracts can be made here.[132]

  A want of understanding and system has resulted in a nearly useless
  expenditure of enough labor and money to have furnished the settled
  portions of our country with good substantial roads.

  --_President Benjamin Harrison._

  Looking at it from a postal standpoint enlarged free delivery or
  anything like universal free delivery will have to be postponed until
  there are better facilities of communication through the rural and
  sparsely settled districts. The experiments that we have made in the
  smaller towns and villages have proved the practicability of greater
  extended free delivery, but without good roads it must necessarily be
  limited to the small towns.

  --_John Wanamaker, Postmaster General._

  There is no doubt that the diffusion of knowledge in regard to the
  good construction of roads will be of immense benefit to all the
  people.

  --_John A. Noble, Secretary of the Interior._

  I think the people of the United States are taking more interest in
  the improvement of good roads than in any other non-political matter.

  --_O. H. Platt, Senator from Connecticut._

  I have often thought that the people, speaking of them generally,
  have never yet understood the value of good roads. They are not only
  matters of convenience, but they are really matters of great economy
  in every community. The farmer with one team of two horses is able
  to move on a good road more than he could move with four horses and
  a wagon of much greater strength on a poor road. This I have tested
  personally many times. Farmers are constantly in need of the use of
  highways to transport their property and to move themselves from
  place to place. The average farmer is five miles distant from the
  nearest railway station and his surplus produce must be moved that
  distance year after year. If he were to compute the saving that he
  and his neighbors would have by reason of first-class roadways, they
  would discover that it would amount to more than the expense of
  putting the roads in good condition and keeping them so. Our road
  system is miserably deficient.

  --_William A. Peffer, Senator from Kansas (Populist)._

  Aside from the benefits that good roads bring to the people in
  times of peace I do not know of a great city in this country that
  is provided with such highways as would admit of the expeditions
  marching of a great army in times of war. Washington City is a fair
  example in this regard. The highways leading to this city through
  Maryland and Virginia are both narrow and crooked. There is not a
  single public outlet or inlet that can be called a great national
  highway.

  --_H. C. Hansbrough, Senator from North Dakota._

  In the old Roman days all roads led to Rome, and they were good
  roads. They built roads for military and commercial purposes, and
  the wisdom of their enterprise was apparent even in that early day.
  European nations to-day regard road-making as one of their economic
  questions, and it does seem that our Government in its honest
  endeavor to benefit the agricultural classes, should have thought of
  good roads long ago. We want and must have splendid highways, owned
  not by corporations but by the people. They will be an economical
  investment, and an untold comfort to the traveler.

  --_James H. Kyle, Senator from South Dakota._

  The country could spend no money so economically and enlist no genius
  so usefully as in making better roads for communications between one
  neighborhood and another.

  --_John W. Daniel, Senator from Virginia._

  I esteem good roads throughout the country to be as necessary as
  railroads.

  --_Francis E. Warren, Senator from Wyoming._

  The prosperity of our country depends so largely on the prosperity of
  our farmers that everything possible should be done to render life in
  the rural districts agreeable as well as profitable and nothing could
  conduce more to the comfort and happiness of our people than the
  improvement of the roads.

  --_Joseph Wheeler, Representative from Alabama._

  That good roads in good condition are always of great value in a
  military point of view is plain enough; for any section of active
  operations the prompt transportation of material and the moving of an
  army would demand it.

  --_Major General Oliver O. Howard, United States Army._

  The importance of good roads has been brought to my attention most
  forcibly on many occasions when my wagon trains have been forced to
  move at a snail’s pace over almost impassable roads, and when every
  hour’s delay might mean untold disaster. The expenditure of animal
  force on such occasions was fearful. In times of peace good roads are
  no less important; the general condition of country roads is a very
  good index of the civilization and prosperity of the community. It is
  not difficult to show by mathematical deduction that money expended
  in constructing good roads is economy from a financial standpoint,
  while from a social standpoint the benefits are incalculable.

  We have splendid railroads traversing the whole country in every
  direction and we have in most cities very creditable means of rapid
  transit, but the country roads in most parts of the United States
  are really deplorable. This condition of affairs is something like
  putting a boy at work on Latin and Greek before he has mastered the
  alphabet of his own language.

  --_Brig. Gen. D. K. Stanley, United States Army._

The above are only a small portion of the letters from which they were
extracted, but they serve to show that the League of American Wheelmen
and such men as Colonel Pope were very active in spreading the gospel
of good roads. The arguments in these and hundreds of other letters,
from men of all classes and professions, of all political parties from
all parts of the nation, cover a very wide range and the effect has
been lasting.

About this time, also, Senator Charles F. Manderson, of Nebraska,
introduced a concurrent resolution in the Senate to print a lot of
consular reports relating to streets and highways in foreign countries
and distribute them in bulletin form. The edition consisted of 30,000
and served to show how the United States was lagging behind other
countries in the matter of road building.[133]


=Office of Public Roads Inquiry.=--A very few lines of the
Congressional Record serves to introduce the beginning of a great
instrumentality for good roads in America. On January 26, 1893,
Representative Deborow introduced a resolution in the House of
Representatives, “instructing the committee on agriculture to
incorporate in the agricultural appropriation the sum of $15,000 to
be expended for the purpose of making investigations for a better
system of roads.”[134] On the same day Representative Lewis presented
a similar resolution “instructing the committee on agriculture to
incorporate in the bill making appropriations for the Agricultural
Department a clause authorizing the Secretary to make inquiry
regarding public roads.”[135] Both resolutions were referred to the
committee on agriculture. As a final result a statute carrying an
appropriation of $10,000 was approved March 3, 1893. Under this statute
the Office of Public Roads Inquiries was instituted, October 3, 1893,
with “General Roy Stone, of New York, recognized as a superior civil
engineer, and thoroughly identified with the popular movement toward
the improvement of the highways in the several states, in charge.”[136]

The Letter of Instructions of the Secretary of Agriculture to General
Stone upon his appointment summarizes the statute and defines the
object and scope of the inquiry to be made. The last paragraph of the
instructions shows that the old theory of “state sovereignty,” still
had a place in the mind of the Secretary, and it was not for several
years that this office did more than the mere collection of information
relative to roads. The letter follows:[137]

  U. S. Department of Agriculture,
  Office of the Secretary,
  Washington, D. C., October 3, 1893.

  Sir: You have been this day appointed to supervise and carry out the
  investigations pursuant to the statute approved March 3, 1893, which
  has four branches:

  (1) To make inquiries in regard to the systems of road management
  throughout the United States.

  (2) To make investigations in regard to the best method of
  road-making.

  (3) To prepare didactic publications on this subject, suitable for
  distribution.

  (4) To assist the agricultural colleges and experiment stations in
  disseminating information on this subject.

  It will not be profitable to enter upon all of these points at first.
  The work under the appropriation will need to be of gradual growth,
  conducted at all times economically. Therefore, it is not expected
  that there will be any considerable force of clerical help, and aside
  from your salary, no considerable expenditure for the present. It is
  understood that you have at your command the data for a compilation
  of the laws of several of the states, upon which their road systems
  are based. It should be your first duty, therefore, to make such
  collection complete, and prepare a bulletin on that subject.

  Incidentally, while preparing this bulletin, you should charge
  yourself with collecting data relating to the different methods of
  road making, which, in the first instance, should be generic in their
  character; including--

  (1) The best method of constructing a common highway, without gravel
  or stone.

  (2) Gravel highways.

  (3) Macadam and other stone roads.

  (4) Data upon which to base suggestions for the transportation of
  material within reasonable access, for the proper surfacing of
  the roadbed. These data should form the foundation for the second
  bulletin, or second series of bulletins.

  There are certain restrictions I wish specifically to bring to your
  attention. It must be borne in mind that the actual expense in the
  construction of these highways is to be borne by the localities and
  states in which they lie. Moreover, it is not the province of this
  Department to seek to control or influence said action, except in so
  far as advice and wise suggestion shall contribute toward it. This
  Department is to form no part of any plan, scheme, or organization,
  or to be a party to it in any way, which has for its object the
  concerted effort to secure and furnish labor to the unemployed
  persons or to convicts. These are matters to be carried on by states,
  localities, or charities. The Department is to furnish information,
  not to direct and formulate any system of organization, however
  efficient or desirable it may be. Any such effort on its part would
  soon make it subject to hostile criticism. You will publish this
  letter in the preface to your first bulletin.

  Yours truly,
  J. STERLING MORTON,
  Secretary.

  MR. ROY STONE,
  _Special Agent and Civil Engineer in charge of
  Good Roads Investigations_.

The Office followed these instructions pretty closely for several
years. General Stone and his successor General Dodge encouraged the
formation of good roads organizations. In fact General Stone prior to
the institution of the Office of Road Inquiries was instrumental in
organizing at Chicago in connection with the dedication of the World’s
Fair in 1893, the National League for Good Roads. General Stone
himself attributed to the influence of this League the organization
of the Office of Public Roads and the great work which it has since
accomplished.[138]

Other good roads organizations were springing up. The Office of Public
Road Inquiries encouraged these to the extent of publishing addresses
given at their conventions as bulletins upon the theory that the
information relative to road improvements throughout the United States
was in line with the object and scope of the Office.

The organization known as the National Good Roads Association, with W.
H. Moore of St. Louis, Missouri, as president, and R. W. Richardson, of
Omaha, Nebraska, as secretary, seems to have been especially active.
Colonel Moore was a man of impressive manner, suave and affable, and
was able to interest and associate with him many very influential
people. He was a born “good roads booster.” He always worked with the
men in power. Directors Stone and Dodge not only had prominent places
on his convention programmes, but recommended to the Secretary of
Agriculture that the proceedings be printed as Departmental Bulletins.
This was for a time helpful to the cause of good roads, for the
conventions were addressed by able and influential men. Director Dodge
in his letter of transmittal of the proceedings of the convention held
at St. Louis, Missouri, April 27 to 29, 1903, to Hon. James Wilson,
Secretary of Agriculture, says:[139]

  Among the distinguished speakers who delivered addresses were Hon.
  Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States; Hon. William
  J. Bryan, of Nebraska; General Miles, of the United States Army;
  Governor Dockery, of Missouri; Governor Cummins, of Iowa; Hon. A.
  C. Latimer, United States Senator from South Carolina; Hon. W. D.
  Vandiver, member of Congress from Missouri; Hon. D. R. Frances,
  president of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Committee; Hon. J.
  H. Brigham, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture; General Roy Stone,
  of New York; and Mr. Samuel Hill, of Washington. Addresses were
  also delivered by prominent men engaged in agriculture, railway
  transportation, commercial pursuits, and newspaper work.

This organization, like many state good-roads organizations, had no
permanent membership list. Any city that would “finance” a convention
could get one. Invitations were sent to governors, mayors, county
officers, city officers, commercial clubs urging them to appoint
delegates to the conventions. As a result large conventions were
promoted and held at Chicago, St. Louis, Buffalo, Portland, and
elsewhere, usually in connection with some exposition or fair.

There being no permanent membership the only way to finance such
undertakings was by popular subscriptions and donations from social,
commercial and political bodies. Colonel Moore[140] went to New York
and talked to the president of the Illinois Central railroad, Mr.
Stuyvesant Fish, and asked for a special “train of fifteen cars to
carry modern road machinery.” “How much will this project cost?”
asked Mr. Fish. Moore replied, “As near as we can figure it out, to
furnish and operate this train for three months will cost you $40,000
to $50,000.” President Fish replied, “That is a large amount to throw
in the mud, but we will consider it.” The train was granted. In the
language of Colonel Moore, the “railroad company shouldered the
burden.” The government through the Office of Public Roads furnished
two expert engineers, other engineers and necessary employees
were hired. This train made the trip from Chicago to New Orleans.
Advance-agents were sent along the way to secure the coöperation of the
various communities. They were asked to raise a sufficient amount of
money to defray the local expenses. Moore states, “we did not visit a
single city in the South where we laid the matter before the mayor, the
city council, and the supervisors that they did not promptly respond
in the affirmative.” Road machinery carried on the train was explained
by men frequently sent along for this purpose by the manufacturers
who had donated its use or by engineers and others in charge. Short
sections of road were graded and stoned--“object lesson roads were
built.” Similar trains were run over the Lake Shore Road, and later
over the Southern Railway. The latter at a cost of about $80,000; the
road equipped the train, fed the men and furnished Pullman cars for
sleeping accommodations. The last such train was over the Northern
Pacific. This particular organization (there were others) and its work
has been thus fully mentioned to show how thoroughly the propaganda was
carried on which resulted later in the greatest road-building campaign
in the history of the world. The National Good Roads Association came
to grief at the Portland Exposition in 1905, where strenuous opposition
developed to the financing methods of Mr. Moore and an unsuccessful
effort was made to oust him from the presidency of the association.
James W. Abbott, Pacific Coast Agent for the Office of Public Roads in
a newspaper interview among other things said:[141]

“We feel that the wild, reckless and impossible things which Colonel
Moore promises to do for communities must later produce a reaction
positively disastrous. He has already promised that the construction
train of the National Good Roads Association will do an amount of
work gratuitously for communities, which, allowing for unavoidable
delays, climatic and otherwise, would take more than ten years. The
three good roads trains which have heretofore done object-lesson road
work have been under the direct operation and executive management of
Colonel Richardson. They were wonderfully well-equipped trains, but
they demonstrated that the building of suitable object-lesson roads
efficiently and economically was not and could not be made a circus
proposition.”

In addition to good roads associations, the agitation for better roads
was taken up by governors who devoted a not inconsiderable portion of
their messages to the legislatures to a discussion of the subject. Even
presidents of the United States paid it attention in their messages
to Congress. With the coming of the automobile the need of better
highways and hard pavements was greatly emphasized. With lots of money
for propaganda, with nearly everyone becoming a disciple of good roads,
is it any wonder that Congress finally voted for federal aid?

Participation in road conventions and coöperation with more or less
spurious organizations was greatly curtailed when Logan Walter Page
was promoted to the Directorship of the office. Still, speakers and
experts were freely sent to address meetings for the purpose of
educating the citizenry to the need of better roads, and how they
should go about to obtain them and what such roads will cost. Speakers
were, therefore, supposed to give definite and specific information
on which local committees might act intelligently. Propaganda for the
purpose of influencing legislation in any state or city was tabooed and
bulletins took on a more scientific nature relating more to quality,
availability, and cost of materials; methods and costs of construction;
and efficiency of types of roads.

Road associations have continued to increase and many have and are
doing praiseworthy work for the cause of better roads. The Good Roads
Year Book, 1914, published by the American Highway Association, of
which Director Page was president, listed, giving the names of the
principal officers, 1 international, 38 national and 617 state and
county associations.


=Object-Lesson Roads.=--The Office of Public Roads inquiry beginning,
as has been shown, very simply, has by devoted service and extreme
economy been able to do a remarkable amount of good for the public
highways of this country. The men at its head and employed by it
deserve much praise. Their salaries were small, yet they worked with
missionary zeal. They were able to coöperate with scientific and
professional organizations, such as the American Society for Testing
Materials, The American Society of Civil Engineers, The Bureau of
Standards, and a number of organizations employing reputable high-class
scientific men in research work pertaining to road construction and
road materials. The government’s appropriation beginning at $10,000
or excluding the Director’s salary $8000, was increased from time to
time until it was in 1896, $37,660 and in 1911, $135,000. Since the
adoption of the system of Federal Aid, there has naturally been greatly
increased operation. The total appropriations for the Bureau of Public
Roads are now approximately three quarters of a million dollars.

[Illustration: Chart of the Organization of the U. S. Bureau of
Public Roads and Rural Engineering, 1917

                                  +--------+
                                  |DIRECTOR|
                                  +---+----+
                                      |
               +----------------------+------------------+
               |                      |                  |
  +------------+-----------+ +--------+---------+ +------+-------+
  |MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS| |GENERAL INSPECTION| | ENGINEERING  |
  |Chief of Management     | |General Inspectors| |Chief Engineer|
  +-----------+------------+ +------------------+ +------+-------+
              |                                          |
         +----+-----------+                +-------------+-------+
         |                |                |                     |
  +-----+-------------+   |    +-----------+-----------+         |
  |     MANAGEMENT    |   |    |    ROAD MATERIALS     |         |
  |                   |   |    |      TESTS AND        |         |
  |Correspondence     |   |    |      RESEARCH         |         |
  | and Files         |   |    |                       |         |
  |Cooperation with   |   |    |Chemical and Physical  |         |
  | Solicitor         |   |    | Tests                 |         |
  |Accounts           |   |    |Microscopic Examination|         |
  |Editorial & Library|   |    | and Classification    |         |
  |Quarters & Stock   |   |    | of Rocks              |         |
  +-------------------+   |    |Standardization of     |         |
             +------------+    | Methods of Testing    |         |
             |                 |Investigations of      |         |
  +----------+---------------+ | Non-Bituminous        |         |
  |      ENGINEERING         | | Materials             |         |
  |       ECONOMICS          | |Research on Dust       |         |
  |                          | |Preventives and        |         |
  |Economic Investigations   | | Road Binders          |         |
  | and Advice               | |Concrete Investigations|         |
  |Statistical Investigations| |Field Experiments      |         |
  |Legislative Investigations| |Inspection & Advice    |         |
  | and Advice               | +-----------------------+         |
  |Lectures & Exhibits       |            +----------------------+
  |Illustrations and         |            |
  | Models                   |            |
  +--------------------------+            |
              +----------------------+----+------------------+-----------+
              |                      |                       |           |
  +-----------+----------+ +---------+-----------+ +---------+---------+ |
  | HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION | |     IRRIGATION      | |     DRAINAGE      | |
  |         AND          | |                     | |                   | |
  |     MAINTENANCE      | |Utilization of Water | |Farm Drainage      | |
  |                      | | Power and Appliance | |Drainage of Swamps | |
  |Post Road Construction| | Equipment           | | and Wet Lands     | |
  |Forest Road           | |Flow of Water in     | |Removal of Surplus | |
  | Construction and     | | Ditches, Pipes, etc.| | Water             | |
  | Maintenance          | |Duty, Apportionment  | |Field Experiments  | |
  |Object Lesson Roads   | | and Measurement     | |Investigating and  | |
  |Cooperative and       | | of Water            | | Developing        | |
  | Experimental         | |Customs, Regulations | | Equipment         | |
  | Maintenance          | | and Laws            | |Inspection & Advice| |
  |Bridges & Culverts    | |Drainage of Irri-    | +-------------------+ |
  |Inspection & Advice   | | gated Lands         |                       |
  +---------+------------+ |Inspection & Advice  |   +-------------------+
            |              +---------------------+   |
  +---------+                        +---------------+------+
  | +-------------+                  |       RURAL          |
  | |1st. District|                  |    ENGINEERING       |
  +-+             |                  |                      |
  | |Wash.        | +-------------+  |Farm Water Supply     |
  | |Ore., Idaho  | |2nd District |  |Drainage Disposal     |
  | +-------------+ |             |  |Construction of Farm  |
  +-----------------+Berkely, Cal.|  | Buildings            |
  |                 |Cal., Nev.   |  |Rural Engineering     |
  |                 |Ariz., N. M. |  | Problems Involving   |
  |                 +-------------+  | Mechanical Principles|
  |                                  | Traction Tests       |
  |                                  |Instrument Making     |
  |                                  | and Repairing        |
  |                                  |Inspection & Advice   |
  |                                  +----------------------+
  |                                +-------------+
  |                                |3rd. District|
  |                                |             |
  +--------------------------------+Denver, Colo.|
  |                                |Mont., Wyo.  |
  | +-------------+                |Utah, Colo.  |
  | |4th. District|                +-------------+
  +-+             |
  | |N.D., S.D.   |
  | |Minn., Wis.  | +-------------+
  | +-------------+ |5th. District|
  +-----------------+             |
  |                 |Nebr., Iowa  |
  |                 |Kan., Mo.    | +-------------+
  |                 +-------------+ |6th. District|
  +---------------------------------+Texas., Okla.|
  |                                 |Ark., La.    |
  |                                 +-------------+
  | +-----------------+
  | |7th. District    |
  | |                 |
  +-+So. Chicago, Ill.|
  | |Mich., Ill.      | +---------------+
  | |Ind.,  Ky.       | |8th. District  |
  | +-----------------+ |               |
  |                     |Tenn.          |
  +---------------------+Miss., Ala.    | +--------------------+
  |                     |Ga., S.C., Fla.| |9th. District       |
  |                     +---------------+ |                    |
  +---------------------------------------+Me., N.H., Vt., N.Y.|
  |                                       |Mass., Conn., R.I.  |
  | +-----------------+                   |N.J., Del.          |
  | |10th. District   |                   +--------------------+
  | |                 |
  +-+Washington, D.C. |
    |Ohio., Penn., Md.|
    |W.Va., Va., N.C. |
    +-----------------+]

The duties and scope of the Office of Public Roads Inquiry was
gradually widened and its name changed to the Office of Public Roads.
In 1915 by reorganization of the Department of Agriculture it became
the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering and took charge of
all the Department’s work which partook in any way of an engineering
nature. In 1916 the Secretary of Agriculture directed the Office
to act for him in the routine administration of the Federal Roads
Act. The work of the Office or Bureau of Public Roads, as it is now
designated, was in 1916, carried on along three general lines:[142] (1)
Educational; (2) Research, and (3) Administration of the Federal Road
Act. By its educational or extension work the Office was endeavoring
to reach the people by means of lectures, addresses, the publication
of bulletins and the exhibit of models. Emphasizing the economic value
of improved roads and the efficiency of various types. Special advice
and assistance to communities was given by furnishing engineers and
experts to confer with municipal officers on their particular problems.
Actual demonstration by the construction of object-lesson roads was
freely carried on. The community furnished the material and labor; the
Office sent its engineers and experts to design and superintend the
construction. These “seed miles” resulted in the construction of many
other miles by the community itself. The Office tried to impress also
the need of proper maintenance from the beginning.

Fully as important as its educational work was the research or
investigational work carried on. The Office was able to secure
the services of several young men of scientific attainment and the
bulletins put out by L. W. Page, Prévost Hubbard, A. S. Cushman and
their successors have commanded world-wide recognition. Laboratories
were erected to test road materials, and experimental roads were built
to demonstrate the actual use of the same according to various methods.
In this manner careful studies were made of a vast number of materials,
including oils, asphalts, tars, concrete, brick, crushed stone and
gravel. In connection with practical road men and research committees
of such organizations as the American Society of Civil Engineers, and
the American Society for Testing Materials many useful standards have
been adopted for road materials and road construction. The effect of
traffic on various types of roads has also been a profitable subject
for study. The organization of the Bureau may be best shown by the
chart.


=Rural Free Delivery.=--A brief mention of this agency for better
roads should not be omitted. Postmaster-General Wanamaker, in 1890,
recommended the extension of free delivery to villages of less
than 10,000 population and he inaugurated an experimental “village
delivery.” After an existence of about two years this was ordered
discontinued. However, free delivery on a broader basis was demanded
by State Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry and other farmers.
Congress made small appropriations for rural free delivery, but the
Postmaster-General, W. S. Bissell, declined to make any use of them.
When Hon. W. L. Wilson became Postmaster-General (1895) he agreed with
his predecessor in believing the project impractical, but if Congress
would make the money available he was willing to try it out. An
appropriation of $40,000 was placed at his disposal.[143]

The first Rural Free Delivery routes were established on October 1,
1896, at Halltown, Uvilla, and Charlestown, West Virginia. Others
immediately followed. President McKinley in a message to Congress
December 3, 1900, states that “by the close of the current fiscal year
about 4000 routes will have been established, providing for the daily
delivery of mails at the scattered homes of about three and a half
million of rural population.”[144] So successful did it prove that it
soon displaced nearly all the star routes and was well established in
practically all rural districts of the United States. In 1919 out of a
total expenditure by the Post Office Department of over $362,000,000,
a little less than $51,000,000 was distributed to the rural delivery
service.[145]

The Department having adopted a rule to the effect that the rural
delivery service would only be established along reasonably good
roads, and that a carrier need not go out unless the roads were in fit
condition spurred the inhabitants up to better attention of the roads
for after a man once got in the habit of receiving his mail daily he
wanted it regularly.

“When a heavy snow blocks the way of the rural carrier it is customary
for the farmers to turn out and break the roads, and this is done
several days earlier than would be the case ordinarily. In this way
communication throughout neighborhoods and with the outside world is
opened up promptly. In consequence the farmer is able to take advantage
of good markets and the townspeople are not cut off from the supply
of fresh country produce, as often has happened in severe storms.
Also cases of distress in isolated farm homes are sooner reached and
relieved.”[146]

The Department finding the rural delivery popular determined to make it
not only more so but to make it pay also. So they took precautions to
protect the mail in the farmer’s boxes by regulating the kind of boxes
to be used and promptly prosecuting cases of thievery and molestation
of mail; they established registration by rural carriers and allowed
carriers to receipt for applications for money orders; carriers
were also authorized to receive and deliver “drop” letters on their
routes without passing them through the terminal post office. A little
later when the parcel post was instituted the popularity of rural
delivery was greatly enhanced. Like many other conveniences the rural
inhabitants cannot now realize how they could get along without free
delivery of the mails. Postmaster-General Charles Emory Smith in his
report of 1900[147] says of the then quite new system:

  Rural delivery has now been sufficiently tried to measure its
  effects.... It stimulates social and business correspondence, and so
  swells the postal receipts. Its introduction is invariably followed
  by a large increase in the circulation of the press and of periodic
  literature. The farm is thus brought into direct daily contact with
  the currents and movements of the business world. A more accurate
  knowledge of ruling markets and varying prices is diffused, and the
  producer, with his quicker communication and larger information, is
  placed on a surer footing. The value of farms, as has been shown in
  many cases, is enhanced. Good roads become indispensable, and their
  improvement is the essential condition of the service. The material
  and measurable benefits are signal and unmistakable.

  But the movement exercises a wider and deeper influence. It becomes
  a factor in the social and economic tendencies of American life.
  The disposition to leave the farm for the town is a familiar effect
  of our past conditions. But this tendency is checked, and may be
  materially changed by an advance which conveys many of the advantages
  of the town to the farm. Rural free delivery brings the farm within
  the daily range of the intellectual and commercial activities of the
  world, and the isolation and monotony which have been the bane of
  agricultural life are sensibly mitigated. It proves to be one of the
  most effective and powerful of educational agencies. Wherever it is
  extended the schools improve and the civil spirit of the community
  feels a new pulsation; the standard of intelligence is raised,
  enlightened interest in public affairs is quickened, and better
  citizenship follows.

  With all these results clearly indicated by the experiment as thus
  far tried, rural free delivery is plainly here to stay. It cannot be
  abandoned where it has been established, and cannot be maintained
  without being extended.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

HARD SURFACE HIGHWAY IN OREGON]

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A FARMER’S WIFE MEETING THE POSTAL TRUCK]

The law for federal aid is based upon the clause in the Constitution
giving Congress power “to establish post offices and post roads.”[148]
and the money made available may only be expended on post roads outside
of towns “having a population of two thousand five hundred or more,
except that portion of any such street or road along which the houses
average more than two hundred feet apart.”[149] Thus may be seen the
very great importance to better public highways of the “rural free
delivery.”


=State Aid.=--While the bicyclist and voluntary road organizations were
creating sentiment favorable to improved highways, the states were not
idle. It will not be possible to follow the progress in each of the
states, but since some form of state aid has been adopted by all of
them the development of that idea will be sketched. By state aid is
meant a plan whereby a part of the expense of constructing roads is
borne by the state and a part by the locality in which the road lies.

New Jersey,[150] like many of the other Eastern states, had a few
turnpike roads constructed and maintained by private corporations.
These roads were much better than the public roads on which there
were no toll gates. The public roads were administered under ordinary
laws of overseers of highway districts. Charges of partiality had led
to amendments, then other amendments until the laws were a maze of
intricacies. To eliminate these, the state board of agriculture in
1887 called a mass meeting of farmers and others interested in good
roads. The result of the conference, which was well attended, was
the appointment of a committee, consisting of one member for each of
the Congressional districts in the State, to examine the laws of New
Jersey, of other states and of foreign countries and report methods
for bettering the New Jersey system. After careful consideration they
drafted a law abolishing the overseers and conferring the powers and
duties of caring for the public highways on the township committee.
This was presented to the State Board of Agriculture and received
unanimous approval. But when it came before the State Legislature, of
1888, for adoption the opposition of the road overseers succeeded in
defeating it. In 1889 it was again presented and defeated; and met a
similar fate in 1890. But in 1891 with the coöperation of the governor
its passage was secured.

Mr. Clayton Conrow of New Jersey[151] claims the honor of proposing
the first state aid road law in the United States. He asserts that
he learned from actual observation of the travelers on a section of
highway that it was used not only by “teams of the local township
but also from the adjoining township and the township beyond, and so
on and on they came until a score of townships were represented on
this section of the road.” He therefore concluded that the county
and the state by rights should assist in building the main traveled
roads, and that “every citizen of the state is entitled to the free
use thereof.” This, he says, was in 1890, just the time the state
board of agriculture was pushing its law to discontinue the overseers.
Conrow says he consulted with Hon. Edward Burrough, president of the
state board of agriculture, and outlined his plan for a State Aid Road
Law. Burrough was highly pleased, but there was an obstacle in the
way, namely the turnpike corporations. They were creatures of the law
and had rights that should be respected. Mr. Burrough advocated the
adoption of the law having faith that the people would buy the turnpike
roads so that no citizen would be the loser. Judge William M. Lanning
put the draft of the bill in legal form. It was then submitted to
Governor Abbett for his approval as they did not care to encounter a
veto if a slight change of form would reconcile him to its provisions.
Mr. Conrow claims his original draft was changed only slightly by the
board and again by the governor, then submitted to the legislature by a
Mr. Davidson of Gloucester county. This is the act that was passed in
1891.


=Salient Features of the State Aid Law.=--The essential points of the
law are set forth in the following extract being the preamble and parts
of the seventh and fourth sections:

  _An Act to provide for the more permanent improvement of the public
  roads of this State._

  Whereas public roads in this State have heretofore been built and
  maintained solely at the expense of the respective townships in which
  they are located; and

  Whereas such roads are for the convenience of the citizens of the
  counties in which they are located, and of the entire State as well
  as of said townships; and

  Whereas the expense of constructing permanently improved roads may be
  reasonably imposed in due proportions, upon the State and upon the
  counties in which they are located: Therefore, ...

  _And be it enacted_, That whenever there shall be presented to
  the board of chosen freeholders of any county a petition signed
  by the owners of at least two-thirds of the lands and real estate
  fronting or bordering on any public road ... praying the board to
  cause such road ... to be improved under this act, and setting
  forth that they are willing that the peculiar benefits conferred on
  the lands fronting or bordering on said road ... shall be assessed
  thereon, in amount not exceeding ten per centum of the entire cost
  of the improvement, it shall be the duty of the board to cause such
  improvements to be made: Provided, that the estimated cost of all
  improvements ... in any county in any one year shall not exceed
  one-half of one per centum of the ratables of such county for the
  last preceding year....

  And be it enacted, That one-third of the cost of all roads
  constructed ... shall be paid for out of the State treasury:
  Provided, That the amount so paid shall not in any one year exceed
  the sum of seventy-five thousand dollars....

It will be seen that under this law the property owners pay one-tenth,
the State one-third and the county the remaining 56²⁄₃ per cent. Except
for the 10 per cent paid by the abutting property holders the burden
borne by all citizens of the county is the same.

The friends of the movement demanded its enforcement; the opponents
were equally determined which resulted in an appeal to the courts and
the mandatory features were sustained. As it was first enacted the
total expenditure was $20,000 and a Commissioner of Agriculture was
to supervise its disbursement. But as there was no such officer the
next legislature, at the suggestion of the governor, authorized the
president of the State Board of Agriculture to perform these duties;
this he did until the office of the Commissioner of Public Roads was
created. The first money paid out under the act was December 27, 1892,
$20,661.85, and this was the first money paid in the United States for
state aid for the construction of roads. With slight amendments the law
remains to the present and has been emulated by nearly all the states
in the Union.

In Massachusetts advocates of better roads attempted legislation
looking toward a system of state highways in 1887 and annually
thereafter until 1892.[152] In 1892 the demand became so great that
the legislature enacted a law providing for a commission of three to
inquire into the entire subject and report to the legislature of 1893,
with suitable appropriation for the purpose. The commission made a
thorough investigation, held public hearings, and made inquiries among
all classes. Their findings were brought before the legislature and
a general road law was enacted providing for a commission of three
competent persons who should give advice to those having charge of the
public highways; it further contemplated the building and care for by
this commission of a system of state highways connecting the several
municipalities. At first the counties were supposed to grade the roads
and the Commonwealth to surface them but the law was changed (1894) so
that the Commonwealth through the highway commission does the entire
work of construction and maintenance then charges back to the counties
25 per cent of the cost, so that finally the State pays 75 per cent and
the county 25 per cent. In 1913 an amendment was made to relieve small
communities from the payment of the entire amount thus the State, in
reality, pays more than 75 per cent of the expense.

The state aid principle has been adopted by all states in the union;
many before federal aid came, the remainder since. Connecticut was
third in 1895 and New York fourth in 1898.

In order to raise money to meet the demands for state aid roads many
of the states bonded themselves for large amounts. New York voted a
bond issue of $50,000,000 in 1906 and another of the same amount in
1912. California voted bonds of $18,000,000 in 1910 and $15,000,000 in
1916. Illinois voted $60,000,000 in 1920 eventually to be paid from
automobile licenses. Maryland authorized a bond issue of $5,000,000
for trunkline roads; additional issues were made in 1910, $1,000,000;
in 1912, $3,170,000; in 1914, $6,600,000; and in 1916, $2,700,000.
Missouri authorized a $60,000,000 bond issue in 1921 and so on for
other states. On January 1, 1914[153] there were outstanding highway
and bridge bonds in the United States to the amount of $445,147,073;
of which $158,590,000 had been voted by the States and $286,557,073
by counties and townships. After the war increased interest in road
building became manifest. Between November 1, 1918, and December 31,
1919,[154] state highway bonds amounting to $234,000,000 were voted:
Illinois, $60,000,000; Pennsylvania $50,000,000; Michigan, $50,000,000;
Missouri, $60,000,000 and many other states smaller amounts. There is
pending legislation for nearly $300,000,000 additional bonds, among
which are Minnesota, $75,000,000; Texas, $75,000,000; West Virginia,
$40,000,000; Washington, $30,000,000; Alabama, $25,000,000. Funds
are otherwise raised by direct taxation, property and special, by
appropriations from the general fund, by automobile licenses, and from
court fines. The grand total for road construction expended in the
United States from 1910 to 1920 is over $2,500,000,000.


=Federal Aid.=--The real road building age in the United States was
ushered in by the enactment of the law providing that “the Secretary of
Agriculture shall on behalf of the United States in certain cases aid
the States in the construction and maintenance of rural post roads.”
From the time Representative Brownlow startled the country in 1904
by introducing a bill to appropriate $24,000,000 for road building,
not a session of Congress passed without several such bills being
introduced. Most of these took the form of creating a commission to
administer any fund for national aid that might be appropriated, and
many feared such large appropriations would result in “pork barrels”
all over the country. In 1915 one such bill passed the House but did
not become a law. However, the leaven continued to work. The influence
of the automobile was making thousands of new road enthusiasts every
day. Many petitions were being rained upon Congress and scores of bills
introduced for national aid both for specific roads and of a general
nature. During the 63d Congress, forty-nine bills were introduced, 10
in the Senate and 39 in the House. A report had been submitted by a
joint congressional committee on January 21, 1915[155] embodying data
from foreign countries showing systems in effect, the mileage and cost
of roads constructed; similar data from the several states; extracts
from state constitutions showing limitations of state debts; statistics
on tonnage transported over rural roads; statistics on length,
character and condition of rural routes; transportation rates on road
materials by rail; comparative statistics embodying possible factors in
apportionment of Federal aid; statistics of wealth, debt, and highway
expenditures; comparative statistics on the cost of road construction,
historical sketches of national roads, work of the Office of Public
Roads; and a synopsis on congressional action on Federal aid to road
improvement.

The report speaks of the economic importance of good roads, the
constitutionality of Federal aid and gives data to show the public
sentiment in favor of Federal aid. Of 10,000 replies to inquiries
received from every state in the Union, 97 per cent favored Federal aid
and 3 per cent opposed.

On January 6, 1916, Representative Shackleford of Missouri, chairman
of the committee on roads, introduced the bill which later became a
law. The bill ran the usual course and created a great deal of interest
and was freely debated in both House and Senate. The discussion on it
comprises more than 300 pages of the Congressional Record[156] and
cover practically every reason for and objection to the betterment of
highways and the use thereon of national money. The bill finally passed
the house January 25, 1916, by a vote of 283 Yeas, 81 Nays and 70 not
voting; and the Senate as amended, May 8, 1916, by a unanimous vote.
The bill went to conference, the Senate agreed to the conference report
June 27, and the House June 28, 1916. President Wilson approved the
bill July 11, 1916, and it became Public Law, No. 156, 64th Congress.

The title of the bill as amended is “An Act to provide that the
United States shall aid the States in the Construction of rural post
roads, and for other purposes.” In brief it authorizes the Secretary
of Agriculture to coöperate with the states through their respective
highway departments in the construction of rural post roads. In order
to keep state sovereignty intact no money apportioned under the act
could be expended in any state until the legislature of that state
shall have assented to the provisions of the Act. The Secretary of
Agriculture and the State Highway department agree upon the roads to be
constructed therein and the character and method of construction. By
providing that all roads constructed under the provisions of the act
shall be free from tolls of all kinds Congress avoided the objection
raised by President Monroe in his veto of the National Road bill in
1822. A most liberal definition of Post Roads is also given in the
bill, namely, “the term ‘rural post road’ shall be construed to mean
any public road over which the United States mails now are or may
hereafter be transported, excluding every street and road in a place
having a population, as shown by the latest available federal census,
of two thousand five hundred or more, except that portion of any such
street or road along which the houses average more than two hundred
feet apart.”

For the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the act there was
appropriated for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1917, the sum of
$5,000,000; 1918, $10,000,000; 1919, $15,000,000; 1920, $20,000,000;
1921, $25,000,000. After deducting the amount necessary for
administration not exceeding 3 per cent, the remaining amount available
was to be distributed as follows: “One-third in the ratio which the
area of each State bears to the total area of all the States; one-third
in the ratio which the population of each State bears to the total
population of all the States as shown by the latest available Federal
census; one-third in the ratio which the mileage of rural delivery
routes and star routes in each State bears to the total mileage of
rural delivery routes and star routes in all the states.” The Secretary
of Agriculture is to approve only projects which are substantial
in character. Items of engineering, inspection and unforeseen
contingencies may not exceed 10 per cent of the estimated cost. The
share paid by the Government shall not exceed 50 per cent of the total
cost.

The same act appropriated $10,000,000 for the survey, construction
and maintenance of roads and trails within the national forests when
necessary to develop the resources upon which communities within and
adjacent to the national forests are dependent.

The Secretary of Agriculture issued September 1, 1916, a set of rules
and regulations for carrying out the Federal-Aid Road Act.[157] These
are quite detailed and require a close supervision by the Office of
Public Roads and Rural Engineering, the Director of which or other
officers and employees designated by him, was officially appointed
to represent the Secretary of Agriculture in its administration.
These rules explain and relate specifically to definitions of terms;
information to be furnished the Secretary; project statements; surveys,
plans, specifications and estimates; project agreements; contracts;
construction work and labor; records and cost keeping; payments;
submission of documents to the Office of Public Roads.

A State, County or District making application for aid must present a
Project Statement “to enable the Secretary to ascertain (_a_) whether
the project conforms to the requirements of the act; (_b_) whether
adequate funds, or their equivalent, are or will be available by
or on behalf of the State for construction; (_c_) what purpose the
project will serve and how it correlates with other highway work of
the State; (_d_) the administrative control of, and responsibility
for, the project; (_e_) the practicability and economy of the project
from an engineering and construction standpoint; (_f_) the adequacy of
the plans and provisions for proper maintenance of roads; and (_g_)
the approximate amount of Federal aid desired.” Also there must be
submitted for approval forms of contract, with documents referred to
in them, and the contractor’s bond. Likewise maps of surveys, plans,
specifications and estimates, showing quantity and cost shall have
the approval of the Secretary. The state shall provide the rights of
way and railroad grade crossings shall be avoided where practicable.
A project agreement between the State Highway Department and the
Secretary is executed. It must also be shown that adequate means either
by advertising or other devices were employed, prior to the beginning
of construction, to insure economical and practical expenditures, and
rules for submitting and tabulating bids are given. Samples of the
materials to be used must be submitted for approval whenever requested,
and all materials, unless otherwise stipulated, must be tested prior to
use by the standard methods of the Office of Public Roads. Supervision
shall include adequate inspection. Reports of progress, records and
cost accounts must be kept in approved manner.

Many states in order to take advantage of the Federal aid within the
time stipulated by the Act have, as has been shown, issued long-time
bonds. Others have relied on increased taxation, and many require
abutting property to pay a special tax for improvements.

The success of the Act was extremely marked. So much so that the
Post Office Appropriation act of February 28, 1919,[158] carried an
amendment to the original Federal Aid Act providing an additional
appropriation of $200,000,000 for post roads and $9,000,000 for forest
roads. Fifty million dollars of the post road fund was made immediately
available and $75,000,000 was made available for each of the fiscal
years of 1920 and 1921. Of the forest road fund $3,000,000 was made
available for each of the fiscal years 1919, 1920 and 1921. This
bill transferred to the Secretary of Agriculture all available war
material and equipment suitable for use in the improvement of highways
for distribution to the several states on a value basis the same as
provided in the Federal Aid Act of 1916. Under this provision trucks,
road equipment, and road materials having when new a value of over
$100,000,000 had been distributed by November 1, 1919.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  ANDERSON, ANDREW P., “Highways,” _American Year Book_, 1918, pp.
  317-321; 1919, pp. 308-311. D. Appleton & Company, New York.

  “Bonds for Highway Improvement,” Office of Public Roads Bulletin No.
  136, U. S. Dept of Agr.

  _Boston Transcript_, Letter by a foreign visitor giving her opinion
  of American Roads. Aug. 10, 1892.

  BURROUGH, EDWARD, “State Aid to Road Building in New Jersey,” Office
  of Public Road Inquiry Bulletin No. 9, 1894. Dept. of Agriculture,
  Washington.

  CHATBURN, GEORGE R., “Highway Engineering,” pp. 125-126, John Wiley &
  Sons, New York.


  _Congressional Record._--Good Roads Resolution introduced in the
  Senate by Senator Manderson, Vol. XXIV, pp. 157, 261, 300. Introduced
  in the House by Representative Lewis, Vol. XXIV, p. 883.

  CONROW, CLAYTON, “Inside History of the State Aid Law,” Report of the
  New Jersey Commissioner of Public Roads, 1900, p. 81.

  Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1900, p. 522.

  Federal Aid Road Law, History of, _Congressional Record_, Vol.
  LIII, 1916. The Federal Aid road bill, the one that was finally
  passed and became the most effective road law the world has ever
  known, had a history in Congress that would make a large volume in
  itself. The pages of the _Congressional Record_ where it may be
  found follow: House Roll 7617--To provide that the United States
  shall aid the States in the construction of rural post roads, and
  for other purposes--was introduced by Mr. Dorsey W. Shackleford, of
  Missouri, January 6, 1916 and referred to the Committee on Roads,
  637.--Reported back (H. Rept. 26), 746.--Debated, 1131, 1165, 1234,
  1269, 1285, 1353-1368, 1373-1408, 1451-1480, 1516-1537 (Appendix,
  21, 36, 141, 157, 160, 162, 172, 177, 178, 188, 203, 207, 208, 209,
  211, 213, 214, 216, 218, 593, 1273, 2247).--Amended and passed
  house January 25, 1916, Ayes 283, Noes 81, Present 3, not voting
  67, 1536, 1547.--Referred to Senate Committee on Agriculture and
  Forestry, 1551.--Motion for change of reference debated, 2049-2057,
  2329-2335.--Reference changed to Committee on Post Offices and Post
  Roads, 2334, 2335.--Reported with amendments (S. Rept. 250), 3460,
  3881.--Debated, 6425-6433, 6494-6504, 6532-6549, 6565-6585, 6731,
  6782-6785, 6840-6849, 6897-6899, 7119-7127, 7225-7228, 7291-7300,
  7414, 7451, 7456-7465, 7499-7518, 7560-7571.--Amended and passed
  Senate unanimously, May 8, 1916, 7571.--Referred to House Committee
  on Roads--Reported back (H. Rept. 732), 8357.--House disagrees to
  Senate amendments and asks for a conference, 8749.--Senate insists
  on its amendments and agrees to a conference, 8783.--Conference
  appointed, 8749, 8783.--Conference report (S. Doc. No. 474) made in
  Senate, 9964.--Conference report unanimously agreed to in Senate
  June 27, 1916, 10086.--Conference report (No. 856) made in House.
  10171.--Conference report debated in House, 10162-10173 (Appendix,
  1316, 1318, 1334, 1340, 1360, 1361, 1647, 1719, 1724, 1793, 1860,
  2082).--Conference report agreed to in House, June 28, 1916, by a
  vote of 181 ayes to 53 noes, 10173.--Examined and signed, 10348,
  10371.--Presented to the President, 10446.--Approved (Public Statutes
  No. 156, July 11, 1916), 10836.

  “Federal Aid Road Act, Regulations for carrying out,” Office of
  Public Roads Circular No. 65. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

  Free Delivery of Mail. Agricultural Year Book, 1917; Postmaster
  General’s Reports, 1892-1899; Ex. Doc. 1, Pt. 4, 52d Cong., 2d Sess.,
  p. 11; Ex. Doc. 1, Pt. 4, 53d Cong., 2d Sess., pp. ix, 55; Ex. Doc.
  1, Pt. 1, 54th Cong., 3d Sess., pp. 11, 120; H. Doc. 4, 54th Cong.,
  1st Sess., pp. 8, 116; H. Doc. 4, 54th Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 25, 129;
  H. Doc. 4, 55th Cong., 3d Sess., pp. 12, 104; _American Year Book_,
  1919, p. 556. D. Appleton & Company.

  Funk and Wagnalls’ Encyclopaedia, Article “Cycling.”

  Good Roads Year Book, 1917, “State Highway Department Legislation,”
  pp. 37-218.

  Good Roads Meetings.--“Iowa Highway Meeting,” _Engineering Record_,
  August 27, 1892; National Highway Association at Portland, Oregon,
  _The Morning Oregonian_, June 22, 1905; Office of the Public Roads
  Bulletins, Nos. 15, 17, 19, 21-26.

  GREATHOUSE, CHARLES H., “The Delivery of Rural Mails,” Year Book,
  1917. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

  “Highway Bonds,” _The American Year Book_, 1919, 1920. D. Appleton &
  Co., New York.

  House Document No. 1510, “Federal Aid to Good Roads,” being Vol. 99
  of the House Documents.

  Iowa Code of 1851, “Road Laws.”

  Office of Public Roads Established, Bulletin No. 1, 1894, Report of
  Secretary of Agriculture, 1893, p. 36. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

  _New York Times_, Good Roads Department, Sept. 11, 1892.

  NYE, BILL, “On Good Roads,” _Good Roads_, September, 1892.

  PERKINS, GEORGE A., “State Highways of Massachusetts,” U. S. Dept. of
  Agri. Year Book, 1894, p. 505.

  Post Roads.--The Constitution of the United States on, Section 8.

  POTTER, I. B., “The Gospel of Good Roads,” League of American
  Wheelmen.

  SMITH, CHARLES EMORY, “Rural Mail Delivery,” Agricultural Year Book,
  1900, p. 522. U. S. Dept of Agriculture.


FOOTNOTES

  [122] Code of 1851.

  [123] “Highway Engineering,” by G. R. Chatburn, pp. 125-126.

  [124] J. B. Dunlop, a surgeon of Dublin, invented the pneumatic tire
  in 1888.

  [125] One of the early books was entitled “The Gospel of Good Roads,”
  by I. B. Potter, and appealed directly to the farming interests.

  [126] _New York Times_, September 11, 1892.

  [127] Adolphine Hingst, under the heading “Surprised at America.
  A European’s Shock on Seeing its Roads and Highways,” _Boston
  Transcript_, August 10, 1892.

  [128] _Good Roads_, September, 1892.

  [129] _Engineering Record_, August 27, 1892.

  [130] _New York Times_, Sept. 11, 1892.

  [131] Ibid.

  [132] Printed as a Senate Document.

  [133] Cong. Record, Vol. 24: Dec. 15, 1892, p. 157; Dec. 21, p. 261;
  Dec. 22, p. 300. Senate Documents.

  [134] Congressional Record, Vol. 24, Jan. 26, 1893, p. 883.

  [135] Ibid.

  [136] Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1893, p. 36.

  [137] Bulletin No. 1, Office of Road Inquiry, p. 5.

  [138] Bulletin No. 26, Office of Public Road Inquiries, p. 46.

  [139] Bulletin No. 26, Office of Public Road Inquiries.

  [140] Address on the “History and Purposes of the Good Roads
  Movement,” by William H. Moore, president National Good Roads
  Association, Bulletin No. 26, Office of Public Road Inquiries, p. 10.

  [141] _The Morning Oregonian_ (Portland), June 22, 1905.

  [142] “Goods Roads Year Book,” 1917, p. 29.

  [143] “The Delivery of Rural Mails,” by Charles H. Greathouse.
  Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1890.

  [144] Cong. Record, Dec. 3, 1900, p. 12.

  [145] “The American Year Book,” 1919, p. 556.

  [146] Dept. of Agri. Year Book, 1900, p. 522.

  [147] Year Book, 1900. Department of Agriculture, Washington.

  [148] “The Constitution of the United States,” Section 8.

  [149] Public Law No. 156, 64th Congress.

  [150] “State Aid to Road Building in New Jersey,” by Edward Burrough,
  Chairman of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, Office of Road
  Inquiry Bulletin No. 9, 1894.

  [151] “Inside History of the State Aid Road Law,” by Clayton Conrow,
  President of the New Jersey State Road Improvement Association,
  Report of the New Jersey Commissioner of Public Roads, 1900, p. 81.

  [152] “State Highways in Massachusetts,” by George A. Perkins,
  Chairman Massachusetts State Highway Commission, U. S. Department of
  Agriculture Year Book, 1894, p. 505.

  [153] Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 136.

  [154] “The American Year Book,” D. Appleton Co., New York, 1919, 1920.

  [155] House Document No. 1510, “Federal Aid to Good Roads,” being
  Vol. 99, of the House Documents.

  [156] Vol. LIII, 1916. See page references at end of chapter.

  [157] Circular No. 65, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of
  Public Roads.

  [158] “American Year Book,” 1920, p. 308. D. Appleton & Company, New
  York.




CHAPTER VI

INTERRELATION BETWEEN HIGHWAY AND OTHER KINDS OF TRANSPORTATION


Transportation has been classified as primary and secondary.
Transportation on the public highway, whether of raw products to
the market or finished products to the consumer, is denominated
primary; transportation by railroads, canals, and ships as secondary.
Practically all secondary transportation is of products which were
first or last or both subjects of primary transportation.[159] There
should, therefore, be a natural harmonious relation between them.
Suppose the foot should say to the hand, “You are useless, it is I who
support the body”; and the hand should retort, “Think you’re smart,
don’t you? I’ll let you know it is I who collect and prepare the food
which nourishes it; a log of wood could easily replace you”: would that
make either one of them independent of the other?

Too true that the great railroad corporations have not always acted in
a manner suitable to the man in the street, that they have often taken
too much toll, that they have become rich and arrogant, that they have
frequently manipulated the political machinery of government in their
own favor, that they have exploited where they should not, that they
have shown favoritism to prominent shippers, and that they have often
borne down heavily on the laboring man; but, this country would never
have been developed to its present state of civilization and prosperity
without some powerful and efficacious method of transportation. The
railroads, proving themselves to be more efficient than either the
public highways or the waterways, without perhaps intending any
maliciousness, put them practically out of business. Now that improved
roads and automobiles and motor trucks are giving the railroads a race
for their life some unthinking persons are gloating over the fact and
shouting “to the victor belongs the spoils.” The evolutionary law
that the “fittest will survive” does not necessarily mean that what
is best for the world, for government, for society, for business will
always survive. Weeds will often choke out the corn unless prevented by
outside influence. A beautiful elm stands on the corner. Every spring
it sheds an abundance of seeds; soon these germinate and there springs
up throughout the lawn, flower and vegetable gardens, myriads of young
elm trees. Now elm trees in their proper place are desirable, are
useful, are ornamental and furnish pleasure, but when they become weeds
they should be rooted up that the lawn, the vegetables, and the flowers
may persist. Here the fittest for society survives only because of
artificial regulation. The railroads, steam and electric, the waterways
and the highways all have spheres of usefulness; let each perform its
function and there need be no incongruity or discord.

Experience has proved time and again that any machine has a particular
capacity at which it can be most efficiently operated. A simple stone
crusher kept half full is running at a loss; if crowded and speeded up
it will wear and break unduly. It would be foolish to run continually a
50 horse-power engine to serve a 2 horse-power motor. An electric light
plant is most economical when operated at its “capacity.” Horse and
wagons, motor trucks, railways, canals, and ships, are but machines,
and the law holds with all of them that they are most efficient when
operated at their proper capacity.

Another economic truth is that the unit cost of production is usually
lowest when the output is great. Quantity production is the goal of
practically all successful manufacturing enterprises. Automatic and
near-automatic machines replace the human hand. One person by the
aid of mechanical and electrical devices produces as much in the same
time as could a score or even a hundred without such help formerly.
The chief reason why quantity production is cheaper than individual
production is that it allows for a division of labor, a separation
of the preparing processes into several operations or occupations.
Growing the grain, transporting it to market, grinding it into flour,
baking it into bread, and selling the bread, indicate some of the
several occupations, that arise in the simple preparation of “our daily
bread.” The meat-packing industry affords an excellent example of the
principle: The animal is surveyed and “laid off like a map”; and each
workman as the carcass passes him has one operation to perform. One
man sticks the pig, another scalds it, another pulls the hair from a
particular portion of the body, one cuts the slits for the gambols,
another inserts the sticks, still others hoist the body to the hanger,
and so on as it proceeds along its course scores of persons are each
doing a very limited portion of the work until the entire animal is
prepared and packed for shipment. The workmen are classified and the
highest paid are put to the most delicate or important parts while for
the less delicate and less important duties the pay is very much lower.
But each workman having only a small variety of work to perform soon
becomes adept and can do a much greater amount than if he attempted the
entire round of labor. The building of automobiles wherein materials
start from different places and eventually coalesce as they proceed on
their journey through the shops by each workman as they pass adding one
thing or performing one operation until the whole emerges a complete
machine ready to run away under its own power, is another case in point.

Mr. James J. Hill, when president of the Great Northern, Northern
Pacific and Chicago Burlington & Quincy railroad companies, applied the
principle of quantity production to railroad transportation. Under his
supervision locomotives and cars increased in size; this necessitated
heavier rails and more substantial track; trains were not allowed to
leave the terminals until a full load had been accumulated; regular
schedules were of course done away with except for passenger and a few
local freight trains. Other trains were to be run only at the full
capacity of the locomotive. This was not conducive to speed, but the
unit cost of hauling a ton of freight one mile was very materially
reduced. The same crew with comparatively small increase in costs may
operate a train of many cars about as easily as one of few cars.

The same principle underlies the efforts of motor transport companies.
They are increasing the size of trucks and loads to decrease cost.
They have not used discretion, however, in this and their heavy trucks
have ground to powder high-cost roadways with the result that public
sentiment is reacting against them and regulatory laws are being passed
by many legislatures.

Increasing the size of the plant, train, or truck will not bring
economies unless it can be run at its capacity load, consequently when
the trade or traffic will not utilize full loading a smaller plant
should be adopted. To run a 12 horse-power gasoline engine to turn
a 1¹⁄₄ horse-power washing machine motor is no more foolish than to
run 100-car locomotives to pull 2-car trains, or 7-ton trucks where
the load never exceeds 2 tons, or 7-passenger automobiles with 1 or
2 passengers. The contention is well founded that western railroad
methods are futile on New England railroads[160] and that if prosperity
is ever to come to New England roads they must reduce their rates
and rates can only be reduced by making the size and number of cars
commensurate with the character and amount of traffic. In England where
shipping distances are comparatively short the small van or car and
quick deliveries have been evolved. In well-settled portions of this
country, as in New England, similar practices might well be adopted
that the railways may not be entirely eliminated and the public forced
eventually to resort to more expensive transportation methods when both
direct and indirect costs are considered over the public highways.

The railroads are also complaining that the automobile is cutting
into their passenger earnings. This is no doubt true. What else can
be expected with approximately 11,000,000 machines now in operation?
Thousands of tourists are daily traversing the country. They find the
outing pleasant and when several occupy one car it is cheaper than
railroad travel. Free camping along the way avoids hotel bills which
have grown inordinately during the past few years. If these rates
continue, simple inns as in the olden days may grow up and cut into the
business of the high-priced hotels. Lower charges for both railroads
and hotels will mitigate but not entirely eliminate the automobile
competition. The motor car is here to stay and automobile travel will
continue to increase. It is no longer a theory but a condition which
exists, and the railroads and hotels should adopt the policy of the
wily politician,--who said, “If you can’t lick ’em, jine ’em,”--meet
the automobile half way and make the most of it.

If predictions of those in close touch with the automobile business be
any criterion the railroads will feel the influence of the motor car
more and more. H. F. Blanchard, writing in _Popular Science Monthly_,
January, 1923, p. 26, claims that the $150 passenger car is in sight,
and that the “saturation point” which has been a worry for years has
not yet arrived and will not if the lowering of prices keeps pace
with increased production. It is pointed out that the production of
automobiles and trucks is still increasing. The 1922 output (2,577,220
machines) is more than the 1920 output (2,276,000) and these are bought
by the public as fast as made. Mr. Durant, a prominent manufacturer, is
quoted as saying that: “The development of a cheaper car than we now
believe possible is only a question of the development of the highways.
Millions more of automobiles would be in use in America to-day if
the conditions of our highways permitted. When our automobiles can
be built to run on highways that are on the average as good as our
city streets--and this is bound to come sooner or later--we shall have
lighter, better and far cheaper cars. And the time is not far distant.”

In Roger W. Babson’s weekly comment dated September 30, 1922, we read:

  Railroads have already felt the effects of pleasure automobiles, but
  they have not really begun yet to feel the effects of auto trucking.
  The trucking of goods within a radii of 50 or 100 miles has only
  begun and this radius may readily be extended to cover 200 or 250
  miles. Transcontinental systems ... have nothing to fear from trucks.
  In fact the trucks may help them. Other roads [those intermediate in
  length] can survive and perhaps profit under this competition. With
  roads such as [short-line roads] this is not true. These roads are
  bound to suffer far more from the truck than they now think possible.

  We shall live to see great highways built by the state exclusively
  for truck use. Railroads are destined ultimately to lose all of their
  short haul business and hence the roads which are in comparatively
  small and compact territories are sure to suffer. The only hope for
  some roads ... is to sell certain of their rights of way to the state
  in order that the tracks may be removed and concrete highways laid
  in their place. Many roads have parallel lines to-day under their
  control. The wise railroad company will develop one of these for
  itself and will sell the other at a good price to the state for a
  concrete truck highway.

If the steam railroads are feeling the competition of the motor, the
interurban trolley lines and the street-car companies are harder hit.
The interurban lines are most of them short and depend upon local
traffic. Their cars stopped at any cross-road along the way to pick
up passengers and freight. But the motor transport is going them one
better; it picks up its load at the front gate, saving the trouble of
even a short walk, or in the case of freight, of loading and unloading
and a short haul to the track.

The case of street-car lines is slightly different. So many persons are
purchasing and daily using automobiles to go to and from business that
the street-car people have complained bitterly. Many lines are running
behind and one at least, Des Moines, Iowa, entirely stopped operation
(August, 1917). The moment they found their revenues decreasing they
ran to the railway commissions and city councils with requests for
permits to increase rates of fare. The increase when allowed not only
failed to alleviate but aggravated the trouble. Even old-fashioned
persons who formerly traveled home for luncheon and back afterward
began patronizing cafeterias and clubs. The habit of eating noon
luncheon down town was soon formed. Others emulated their example,
resulting in the loss of hundreds and even thousands of fares per
week. Riding to and from work in an automobile has a fascination for
most men, and every one in a street car who sees his neighbor whizzing
along by the side vows that he, too, will drive a car as soon as he can
save enough money to make the first payment. Useless for the street
car managers to try to prove to him that the expenses of a car--gas,
oil, tires, repairs and depreciation--are vastly greater than street
car fares; everybody knows that, but he must be in the style. Farmers,
as the implement dealers have found to their sorrow, will do without
or tinker up old harvesters and plows in order to enjoy the pleasure
of owning an automobile. The mechanic may change his seven-passenger
for a light-four as wages go down but he still insists on riding his
own car. The merchant while complaining that others should give up
their machines and pay their bills, hangs on to his own with the grip
of death. Women, even, are willing to give up pretty dresses and wear
khaki overalls at least half the time. It looks as though many will
hereafter live a nomadic life using their cars and garages more than
their one- and two-room apartments. Stop the people from using motors
and force them back to the street cars? Never, until the hardships of
living reach the state of starvation and nakedness.

In addition to the owners of automobiles there are the taxicabs,
“jitneys,” and buses. If the street car system is the logical plant
it is desired to maintain for the good of the community then these
others are weeds if allowed free rein. If, when the street-car
companies go bankrupt and quit business, the motor cars could give a
better service, outside of the fact that property had been destroyed
without compensation, no particular damage would be noticeable to the
community as a whole. But the experience of Des Moines shows that
while special efforts were made to transport every one; buses were
brought in from distant cities and owners of cars most freely picked
up the pedestrians, nevertheless, there was much inconvenience and
discontent. Private cars cannot long be depended on to carry free the
throng; taxicabs are too expensive, insufficient in number and have no
regular schedule; jitneys are unreliable sporadic cars, and half of
them go out of business on days of bad weather. There is left then the
buses. These may be made of such size and be run with such regularity
as to be really valuable for local transportation service. No doubt
they will survive and always be a strong competitor of the electric
surface street car. Not being confined to a track they load and unload
at the curb thus eliminating an element of danger from passing vehicles
much feared by timid people. Not having to keep up a track, trolley
lines, or a plant for generating electricity the expenses are not
particularly great per bus, from $25 to $35 per day will cover them, it
is estimated,[161] which puts the bus on a par in this respect with the
small street car.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

TRACKLESS TROLLEY OPERATED ON STATEN ISLAND, N. Y.]

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

GASOLINE LOCOMOTIVE AND TRAILER

Operated by the Chicago & Great Western R. R.]

There is a legitimate field for these buses in the smaller cities and
on streets in large cities not easily reached by, or upon which it is
desirable not to have street-car tracks. But they should not be free
lances--they should be under regulations as street cars are under
regulations, they should make scheduled trips, they should be backed
by capital or insurance sufficient to pay indemnities in cases of
accident and upon payment of license fees are entitled to protection
and possibly monopoly in their prescribed territory.

A cheap form of transportation, either electric trolley, with or
without track, or buses, is absolutely necessary. Buses and individual
jitneys cannot, where the business is heavy, carry passengers as
cheaply as the electric street car, but for a more limited traffic the
buses may take their place, and for still less traffic jitneys can find
a useful occupation. If buses and jitneys are allowed absolute freedom
without restrictions as to schedule or route they will skim the cream
from the street transportation business and so reduce the revenues
of the street cars that they will have to discontinue operation. A
thing so undesirable that the public will have to subsidize the street
cars and guarantee a certain percentage of earnings or take over
their ownership, run them at a nominal fare and let the taxpayer take
care of the deficit. By these means those persons who ride their own
automobiles, the heavier taxpayers, who are, or should be, most vitally
interested in maintaining cheap transportation for the unfortunate
residue who cannot possibly afford automobiles, yet whose labor is
absolutely essential to the industrial and commercial prosperity of the
city, will be required to pay a portion of the upkeep of street-car
transportation. If a subsidy be adopted it would be better that it
should not be a direct guaranty of a fixed percentage of earnings for
in that manner there is no premium on efficiency as our Government
found to its cost in dealing with the railroads during the recent war.
It would be better if some sort of a sliding scale could be worked out
whereby the lines should be relieved of occupational taxes or license
fees in proportion as they lowered fares, and such that the lower the
fares the greater the percentage of profit they might earn.

The contract or charter might provide that all earnings above a
specified percentage, due allowance having been made for operation,
repairs, and upkeep, on bona fide capital invested should be turned
over to the city as a license for the use of the streets. For example
with a fare of three cents the city might guarantee a 5 per cent
income, but allow, by reduction of taxes and all payments to the city
an earning of 10 per cent; on a five cent fare guarantee 3 per cent and
allow earnings of 8 per cent; and so on as shown by the accompanying
table the figures of which are merely illustrative:

  +--------------+----------+-------------+
  |With a fare of| The City |And allows an|
  |              |Guarantees| earning of  |
  +--------------+----------+-------------+
  |    3 cents   |4 per cent| 10 per cent |
  |    4         |3¹⁄₂      |  9          |
  |    5         |3         |  8          |
  |    6         |2         |  7          |
  |    7         |1         |  6          |
  |    8         |0         |  5          |
  +--------------+----------+-------------+

To make a workable contract of this sort there would first have to
be an agreement as to the corporation capital upon which earning
percentages are to be based. If this could be made equal to the real
investment it would be absolutely just to both the public and the
corporation. However, the so-called unearned increment would in some
cases have to be considered. Publicity in accounting, capitalization,
bonded indebtedness and earnings, and the feeling engendered that the
public is in a sense a co-partner with the corporation would add to
more harmonious relations between the two.

Similar contracts might be arranged between bus lines and the city,
or between bus lines and the state where rural roads are used, and
between railroad and other transportation corporations and the Federal
Government for interstate lines.

Objection may be raised to this plan on the ground that it violates
usury laws. Nearly every state in the Union provides by law for a
maximum rate of interest. Laws of this kind have existed almost since
the beginning of history and are so imbedded in the minds of the people
that they believe 6 or 7 per cent is all a public service corporation
should be allowed to make on its investment, when as a matter of fact
all sorts of private businesses are making profits many times that
amount without hindrance by law or public sentiment. People who risk
money in adventures which are in general for the good of the public
should be allowed returns fully as high as those suggested, even though
they do go beyond the customary 7 percent. Whatever the right figures
are careful accounting and publicity will have a tendency to establish,
and once established they ought to be as stable and permanent as life
insurance rates and thus encourage the investment of funds in such
enterprises.


=Legitimate Fields of Transportation Agencies.=--Agreeing, then,
that the present systems of transportation should not be put out of
business by less efficient ones, what seems to be the most feasible
interrelations that will allow all of them to live and let live?

There seems to be no doubt but what the railroads can and do transport
large quantities long distances quicker, better, and more efficiently
than can be done on the highways. Highways may be considered as feeders
of the railways. With good roads the zone from which the railway can
profitably draw products for long distance or quantity transportation
is widened, and again widened very materially when better roads allow
the use of motors in place of horses. This, if no other railway
interferes, means a larger grand total of traffic hauled. Again the
character of the farming along the zone served by a railroad will
depend upon the facilities for marketing as well as soil and climate.
Those products ordinarily called perishable may be raised if the roads
are good so that they may be marketed quickly and cheap enough to
compete with other localities. Such produce yield a larger net return
per acre than the staple grain products. Intensive farming is usually
necessary in such cases so that a smaller farm will support a family
allowing an increase in rural population, a thing most highly desirable
in this country. The railroad benefits again, then, because of the
increased produce raised by intensive farming brought about by quick
marketing facilities, and by increased freight and passenger traffic
necessary to supply the greater population.

Furthermore, if roads were good throughout the year marketing would be
spread over the entire period and there would not at times be a glut
with corresponding scarcity of cars, and other facilities for handling.
If cars, warehouses and elevators were sufficient to care for these
periods there would be an over supply of facilities at other times
and capital would be unnecessarily tied up producing larger overhead
charges. With good roads there would likewise be less need for large
quantities of money at particular periods of the year as uniform
marketing would allow a smaller capital to be turned oftener. Moreover,
unproductive branch lines would by the increased traffic brought to
them by the improved highways be either made productive or they could
be dispensed with altogether. The unproductive short-haul traffic would
then be cared for by electric railways, motor trucks or even by horse
wagons.


=Intra City Traffic.=--Mr. J. C. Thirlwall, of the railway and tractive
engineering department of the General Electric Company (_General
Electric Review_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 974-985), discussing the fields of the
rail car, trolley bus and gasoline bus, tabulates the respective costs
of these types on a comparative basis for a variety of conditions. In
general the calculations indicate that:

  (_a_) Where rush hour headways of 3 min. or less are required with
  safety cars, rail cars are the most economical and up to 6 min.
  headways offer successful competition to the other types where the
  road is a going concern.

  (_b_) On longer headways the trolley bus appears to have the
  advantage due to the lower fixed charges.

  (_c_) The gasoline bus on account of higher operating expense does
  not offer competition to the rail car until minimum headways of 10
  min. are reached on new routes and 20 min. on existing lines.

  (_d_) The trolley bus is more economical than the gasoline bus up to
  headways of 60 min. or longer.

  A tabulation of the respective fields is as follows:

  Minimum headways, 3 min. or less; rail cars.

  Minimum headways, 3 to 6 min.; rail cars or trolley bus.

  Minimum headways, 6 to 60 min.; trolley bus.

  Minimum headways, 60 min. or more; gasoline bus.

This does not mean that existing lines with headways of 7¹⁄₂ to 10
minutes should be scrapped and replaced with the newer forms of
transportation. It would not pay to do this until a headway greater
than 15 or 20 minutes has been reached.


=Length of Haul for Economical Trucking.=--The railroads would not
be alone in the benefits due to better roads. Truck lines could be
established to care for freight and passenger traffic between farm and
station. Here the truck and railroads would coöperate, there would be
no competition, for each would be performing a function incapable (or
unprofitable) of performance by the other; the net result would be a
benefit to the entire community. But most transport lines that are
being established come into actual competition with existing railroad
lines. Just how far a motor truck may profitably compete with the
railway depends, of course, on the relative costs of transportation.
Mr. Cabot[162] calculates that twelve miles is the dividing line
between motor truck transport and rail transport. He figures the cost
of delivery and removal from the railway station at 15 cents per
hundred weight, or $3 per ton at each end for terminal charges and that
the cost of motor truck haul is at least 50 cents per ton mile. A ton
may be hauled, therefore, on truck, 12 miles to balance the railway
terminal expense or charge.

A formula might be worked out this way.

  Let _x_ = the number of miles where rail and truck charges just
            balance;
      _m_ = motor truck charge per ton-mile;
      _r_ = rail charge per ton-mile;
      _t_ = terminal railroad charge-cost of collecting and delivery to
            the railroad plus the cost of removal from the railroad.

Thus motor charge for _x_ miles is _mx_ and railroad charge for same
distance is _rx_ + _t_, equating these,

  _mx_ = _rx_ + _t_.

Solving for the distance traveled,

           _t_
  _x_ = ---------.
        _m_ - _r_

With Mr. Cabot’s figures this formula gives

           6.00       600
  _x_ = ---------- = ---- = 13.5.
        .50 - .055   44.5

Using the cost 25 cents per ton mile made up by actual averages
compiled by the Motor Truck Association of America and 5.5 cents used
by Mr. Cabot as the railroad cost charge, there results

           6.00     600
  _x_ = --------- = --- = 30 miles.
        .25 - .05    20

It will be noticed that this formula contemplates no terminal charge
for the motor truck as it is expected to pick up and deliver the
freight at the doors of the consignor and consignee and that the
cost of doing this is absorbed in the cost per mile. The dividing
distance between profitable rail and freight transportation, _x_,
is seen by the formula to vary directly with the terminal charge
and indirectly with the difference between motor and rail cost per
mile. To lessen this distance is in the interest of the railroads
and can be accomplished by decreasing the terminal charges and the
cost of transportation per ton-mile. Express companies have for years
accomplished this by employing the system of free collection and
delivery, and railways in England do likewise. The motor transport
companies will have to decrease their cost per ton-mile in order to
increase the distance that it is profitable for the shipper to utilize
motor trucks. If the difference in cost per ton-mile could be reduced
to twelve cents with terminal costs at $6 per ton, and doubtless
this may be done under favorable circumstances, the distance would
be lengthened to 50 miles. This is probably the maximum motor truck
haul which can in general profitably compete with rail transportation.
With better roads, larger trucks, trailers, or, in special cases,
with certain classes of goods and commodities, longer hauls will be
profitable.

The distances which it seems profitable to do trucking are continually
being lengthened. Forrest Crissey, writing in the _Saturday Evening
Post_ of December 16, 1922, relates a case in which household goods
were hauled from Boston to Cleveland at a saving over rail rates and
expenses incurred by delays of $417.50 on the shipment.

His figures summarized are as follows:

  Rail--
    Crating and Hauling to Station                     $ 300.00
    Freight                                              150.00
    Hauling and Uncrating at destination                  75.00
    Hotel Bill of Family of five, two rooms and board,
    while waiting                                        525.00
    House rental while waiting                            67.50
                                                       --------
      Total                                            $1117.50
  Van company’s charge from home to home               $ 700.00
                                                       --------
    Calculated saving                                  $ 417.50

It should be remembered that certain kinds of goods, such as
household, lend themselves readily to truck shipments. With this class
of goods expensive packing and several handlings are eliminated. Such
is true of much merchandise which can be delivered directly from the
store of the seller to the door of the buyer; to many varieties of
manufactured goods which are sold within comparatively short distances
of the factory. Each case should be worked out for itself and all the
various kinds of transportation used that prove to be practical and
economical. Where large concerns like packing houses are supplied with
railway tracks right to their doors, shipping in car load and train
load lots is not only more economical but absolutely necessary where
such large quantities are transported in refrigerator cars. But for
distribution to towns near-by the truck is much more convenient and
economical. It is impossible to say for so-many-miles it is cheaper to
ship by truck, because each commodity must be considered individually
in connection with the character of the roads, the conditions of
weather and climate, and the time of delivery. While the case of
shipping household goods alluded to above proved very successful the
next one might meet inclement weather, the truck might have to remain
out in the rain and some of the goods become damaged, as was the
case of one such shipment that came under the writer’s observation.
A single swallow does not make a summer, but the trend is no doubt
toward much longer truck trips. And as the roads and vehicles become
stabilized and standardized this will be even more evident. For
example, milk collected at stations 50 and 60 miles from the large
cities can be hauled in to market in large tank cars which are built
somewhat on the thermos or vacuum bottle principle, the milk arriving
at its destination cooler and in every way better than if hauled in
small containers. The truck has a large field open for its especial
qualities. Let it confine its operations to these and rail competition
will not injure it.


=Short-Haul Roads Reduce Express Rates.=--The Boston & Maine Railroad
is reducing express rates between Boston and towns within a radius of
50 miles in an effort to win back short-haul traffic lost to motor
trucks.[163] The average reduction is given as about 40 per cent on
less than carload lots. The old rail service rate between Lynn and
Boston was $1.50 per ton, 7¹⁄₂ cents per hundred, with a minimum
loading of 20,000 pounds per car, while the truck service charge is
about $3 per ton, yet it is estimated that 80 to 90 per cent of the
business was by truck. The reduced rail rate is 5 cents per hundred,
$1 per ton with the minimum loading eliminated. It remains to be seen
whether people are willing to pay a higher rate to ship by truck, or
whether the trucks will meet the express rates. The railroads may
still lower costs by one or two other devices: They may use lighter
weight cars and locomotives; they may use gasoline motor cars such
as the McKeen used on several branch line runs by the Union Pacific,
or a motor car now being tried out capable of running on rails or
on the pavements at will. Such a car would take advantage of the
light traction on the rails between stations but could go through
the main streets to pick up its load. A rail-motor bus following the
main features of the street bus and embodying “the same elements of
simplicity in construction, reliability in performance, flexibility
in operation, light weight, and low first cost,”[164] has been built
and operated at an average of 14 miles to the gallon of gasoline, a
sufficient indication that it can save in operating expenses. The car
weighs 11,000 pounds and has a maximum speed of 30 miles per hour, and
when required trailers may be used without materially decreasing the
speed.


=Avoiding Waste.=--Such methods of cheapening and bettering railroad
transportation together with a lowering of rates generally to a point
that the traffic can bear, and the adoption of managerial methods that
will lessen avoidable wastes, which the railroad unions estimate at
one billion dollars per year,[165] may eventuate in a rehabilitation
and stabilization of the railway industry. The taking over by motor
trucks of short-haul freight and passenger traffic, even though it
cause the discontinuation of unprofitable branch lines may prove
to roads but a pruning which will be beneficial and inure to the
growth of the main trunk and remaining healthy branches.  William H.
Manse, a member of the Congressional Joint Commission of Agricultural
Inquiry,[166] has called attention to another economic waste. He states
that “city freight houses were established when team hauling was the
only hauling.” These now are the cause of much congestion because of
the delivery there of tremendous amounts of less-than-carload freight.
The loading and unloading tracks being limited much of the freight must
pass through the depot necessitating double handling. Again, in the
large cities a considerable percentage of land in the business section,
stated to be from 25 to 30 in Chicago, is occupied by the railroads for
tracks, road and station purposes. This land is worth from $10 to $50 a
square foot, and if freight cars stand upon it intermittently for the
receipt and discharge of l.c.l. freight, it is not earning continuously
but, on the other hand, it is spending every minute in interest, taxes
and maintenance. With demountable containers, which are described in
Chapter VII, and the motor truck, and with concerted action of the
railroads, much of this high-value land could be given over to other
business and cheaper land farther out purchased for trackage.

Enough has been said to intimate a firm belief that the railways as
purveyors of secondary transportation will persist. On economic grounds
if for no other reason, for no cheaper method of transportation, except
by water, has been devised; and secondary transportation over canals
and rivers ought, for the good of the country, to be revived. There is
a large class of freight that could with proper management travel at a
slow rate of speed without any detriment or inconvenience whatsoever to
the public.


=Carve Out New Fields of Usefulness.=--It is quite likely that the
newer systems of transportation, by inter-urban electric railways, by
automobile and motor-truck, and by air-plane and dirigible, will all
carve out for themselves new grooves of usefulness, thus opening up
for labor and capital new fields of endeavor. The telephone did not,
as many believed it would, replace the telegraph; neither, yet, has
“wireless” put “wires” out of use. The telephone, rural free delivery
of mail, and the automobile have already put new life into agriculture.
Farming has rapidly reached the enchanted plane of professionalism
and men are as proud now of being farmers as they were formerly of
being lawyers or ministers. And of the three instrumentalities named,
the motor car, including the improved roads it makes necessary, has
probably been most influential. In return the farmers have supplied
themselves with motor vehicles most generously. These will result
in the marketing of increased quantities of food and products that
prior to improved roads and the introduction of the motor car it
was unprofitable to raise because of the cost of transportation, or
the time consumed in transportation, or the condition in which they
reached the consumer. This, then, is one of the ways in which the
motor car may be beneficial to both producer and consumer, that is
to the entire public. In the more thickly populated districts the
dairy interests practically depend upon the motor truck; milk reaches
its destination in better condition than when hauled by horses and
wagons or when delivered to the railway station, shipped by train,
and hauled again to the distributing agency. Also in regions near the
large cities vegetable gardeners and orchardists are becoming more and
more dependent upon the motor truck for the rapid transit of their
perishable products to the jobber, retailer, or even consumer. During
the railway congestion in the period of the war, not only the dairymen,
gardeners, and orchardists that supplied the large eastern cities were
saved from ruin but the consumers themselves were saved from food
shortage and hunger by the motor car.

This condition is not peculiar to the Eastern states, but applies to
the grower of perishable products near every large market; it also
applies to the raiser of live stock. During the congested period
mentioned there was difficulty to get stock cars in which to ship
hogs, sheep, and cattle. Motor trucks were seized upon and last year
there came to the Omaha stock yards in them more than 200,000 head of
live stock, St. Joseph, Missouri, yards are said to be receiving 2500
head of live stock per day by motor truck. Sioux City, St. Paul and
other markets report similar receipts. The record day at Indianapolis
is given as 6800 head of live stock delivered to the stock yards in
500 motor trucks from a radius of 50 miles. Hogs delivered by truck to
the early market at Omaha are said to be in much better condition than
those received by train.

In some sorts of transportation light automobile delivery wagons will
give best service; this is especially true where the distance between
stops is such that considerable time may be saved by rapid transit.
In still other lines a horse and wagon may be most efficient; this is
especially true where the stops are continuous or nearly continuous
along a street like a milk or ice route, and where a trained team can
be started and stopped by the attendant from the street by word of
mouth.

It seems then that there is room in this country for various kinds of
transportation. The horse and wagon; the light motor and the heavy
motor; the waterways; the electric railroad and the steam railroad.
All should work together in harmony for the good of the Nation. The
little handwheel that opens and closes the throttle valve is of as much
importance to the big Corliss engine as the large and more spectacular
flywheel; the black iron foundation, grimy with grease, as the bright
highly polished brass band around the cylinder lagging darting and
reflecting beams of light into the eyes of the beholder. Each has its
own work to perform and if done well is deserving of equal honor.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on, Published by
  order of Congress, 1922, Washington, D. C.

  BABSON, ROGER W., “Weekly Comment” of September 30, 1922, Syndicated.

  BANHAM, W. J. L., “Motor Truck and Railroad Freighting,” Address
  delivered at Highway Transport Conference, 1920, published as a
  bulletin by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York.

  BLANCHARD, HAROLD F., “Is the Day of the $150 Car in Sight,” _Popular
  Science Monthly_, January, 1923, p. 26.

  BROSSEAU, A. J., “Is Highway Transport an Aid to Railroads?”
  _Commercial Vehicle_, Jan. 15, 1922. Also published in bulletin form
  by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce.

  CABOT, PHILIP, “Root, Hog or Die: The New Englander and His
  Railroads.” _Atlantic Monthly_, August, 1921, p. 258.

  CHATBURN, G. R., “Highway Engineering,” p. 5. John Wiley & Sons, New
  York.

  CRISSEY, FORREST, “Our New Transportation System,” _Saturday Evening
  Post_, December 16, 1922.

  GRAHAM, GEORGE M., “Highway Transportation,” Proceedings of the
  Eighth Annual Meeting of the United States Chamber of Commerce. “The
  Motor Vehicle--Competitor or Ally?” National Automobile Chamber of
  Commerce.

  GREEN, G. A., “Motor Bus Transportation,” Society of Automotive
  Engineers, _Journal_, 1920.

  JOHNSON, EMERY R., “Elements of Transportation,” D. Appleton &
  Company, New York.

  MACDONALD, THOMAS H., “Federal Aid Highways,” Proceedings of the 8th
  Annual Meeting of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States.

  NORTON, S. V., “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Business,” Part I. A. W.
  Shaw Company, Chicago.

  RIGGS, HENRY E., “Report of the Committee on Interrelation of
  Highway, Railway, and Waterway Transport,” National Traffic
  Association of Chicago, N. A. C. C., 1920.

  THIRLWALL, J. C., “Fields of the Rail Car, Trolley Bus and Gasoline
  Bus,” _General Electric Review_, Vol. XXIV, pp. 974-985.

  WHITE, WINDSOR T., “Benefits of War Experience,” Proceedings of the
  Eighth Annual Meeting of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States.


FOOTNOTES

  [159] Chatburn’s “Highway Engineering,” Wiley & Sons, N. Y.

  [160] Cf. “Root, Hog or Die,” by Philip Cabot, _Atlantic Monthly_,
  August, 1921.

  [161] This estimate includes the following items:

  --------------+-----------+--------------+---------
                |           |  Heavy Car   |Light Car
  --------------+-----------+--------------+---------
  2 Drivers     |$8.00-10.00|$10.00 per day|  $10.00
  Tires         | 4.00- 6.00|  6.00        |    4.00
  Oil, etc.     |  .75- 1.00|  1.00        |     .75
  Gasoline      | 3.50- 5.50|  5.00        |    3.50
  Depreciation  | 4.00- 6.00|  6.00        |    4.00
  Interest      | 1.00- 1.50|  1.50        |    1.00
  Insurance     | 1.00- 1.50|  1.50        |    1.00
  Garage        |  .50- 1.00|  1.00        |     .50
  License, taxes|  .75- 1.50|  1.50        |     .75
  Repairs       |  .50- 1.00|   .50        |     .50
                |-----------|------        |  ------
                |24.00-35.00|$34.00        |   26.00
  --------------+-----------+--------------+---------


  [162] “Root, Hog, or Die: The New Englander and His Railroads,” by
  Philip Cabot, in _Atlantic Monthly_, August, 1921, p. 258.

  [163] _Wall Street Journal_, August 26, 1921.

  [164] _The Railway Review_, Chicago, July 30, 1921.

  [165] W. Jett Lauck, a union-labor economist, in a report laid before
  the Railroad Labor Board, specifies the avoidable wastes as follows:

  1. Modernizing locomotives.--Gross reparable deficiencies are pointed
  out which it is claimed might be avoided by the applications of
  improvements such as superheaters, brick arches, mechanical stokers,
  feed-water heaters, there would result an annual saving of at least
  $272,500,000.

  2. Locomotive operation.--The magnitude of the railways’ coal bill
  is considered and certain of the larger wastes calculated, and it
  is concluded that by use of better methods of coal purchase, coal
  inspection, careful receipt, and efficient firing of the locomotives,
  an annual saving could be effected of at least $50,000,000.

  3. Shop organization improvements.--The sad and almost incredible
  inadequacy and out-of-date equipment of the railway shops is
  reviewed, and defenseless wastes considered, and it is conservatively
  estimated that by a proper shop organization an annual saving could
  be effected of at least $17,000,000.

  4. Power-plant fuel savings.--The obsolete and wasteful condition
  of the power plants in the railway shops is considered, and it is
  estimated that in this field the possible saving of fuel would by
  itself amount to an annual total of $10,000,000.

  5. Water-consumption savings.--The railroads’ expenditure in
  maintenance of way and structure is reviewed, necessary wastes noted,
  and it is estimated that easily attainable savings in the consumption
  of water alone would amount annually to $12,600,000.

  6. Service of supply savings.--The expenditure of the railways for
  supplies has been inquired into and the avoidable losses surveyed,
  and it is estimated that the wastes and abuses amount annually to not
  less than $75,000,000.

  7. Shop accounting savings.--Attention has been given to the matter
  of uniform railroad statistics and the use of efficient methods of
  cost accounting. An annual saving would be feasible to the amount of
  $10,900,000.

  8. Labor turn-over savings.--The industrial losses due to unnecessary
  labor turn-over and to inadequate training of personnel have been
  reviewed, and it is estimated that the avoidable wastes incident to
  labor turn-over alone amount to more than $40,000,000.

  9. Loss and damage savings.--Inquiry has been made into the amount of
  the annual damage account of the railways and into preventable causes
  of such losses, and it is estimated that an annual saving might be
  effected to the amount of $90,000,000.

  Other alleged losses, he says, would bring the total waste to over a
  billion.

  [166] Report of the Joint Commission on Agricultural Inquiry.




CHAPTER VII

AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORTATION


Automotive transportation is a matter of such recent growth that
only a few of the elements entering it have as yet become fixed or
standardized--the whole question is still in the experimental or
growing stage. The next few years will probably see as many, if not
as radical, changes in equipment and operation as have the past few.
The law of evolution seems to include a period of slow growth or sort
of weak feeling-out; then a period of very rapid growth, developing
usually along several lines; and finally a ripening or fixing period
in which standardization is reached. The automotive industries are
now beginning the third period. Revolutionary changes are not to
be expected, but there will be many minor ones seeking efficiency
or economy. The machinery of transportation, the motor car and the
roadway, are, perhaps, in a later stage of standardization than are
the social and legal phases of the subject. The relative rights of the
people on the street and driver of the car have yet to be determined.
The relation between automotive transportation and the older forms
of transportation is still in a very formative stage. Plans and
organizations for operating systems of highway transport and methods
of accounting which shall be fair to owner and patron have in a large
measure yet to be developed.

These things must necessarily be true in a new and growing industry.
Why, encyclopedias published in the ’eighties make no mention
whatever of the motor car or automobile. In fact, the first practical
automobiles were put on the market after 1893, and trucks were not
sold as such until 1903, ten years later. This was about the period
when automobiles were being made over by change of body into “business
wagons.” But so rapidly has the use of the motor car grown, automobile
registrations increasing from about one million in 1912 to more than
eleven millions in 1922, that, so it is stated, 80 per cent of all cars
manufactured are still in use.

Automotive transportation may be considered to include all conveyance
from one place to another by means of motor vehicles. A motor vehicle
is one which carries within itself the source of mechanical power which
propels it providing that source be not muscular. This definition would
include the tractor, the road roller, the torpedo, and the locomotive,
which are ordinarily excluded. For the purposes of this discussion an
automobile or motor car may be considered as a self-propelled vehicle
which transports a burden other than itself as a weight upon its own
wheels. This will exclude the tractor and the locomotive, which though
self-propelled, are intended to draw other vehicles rather than to
carry the load; also the road roller and the torpedo, which have no
burden to transport other than their own weights. Some definitions
would confine a motor vehicle to one designed to move on common roads
or highways. However, motor cars are now being used on railroad tracks;
they are entitled to and should be allowed the use of the name. The
automobile may have as the source of power internal-combustion engines
using such fuel as gasoline, kerosene, benzol, and alcohol; it may use
steam generated by these fuels; or an electric storage battery charged
by sources outside the engine may furnish the propelling force. The
load transported will either be passenger or freight. Passenger traffic
may be classified as business or pleasure. If a vehicle is used mostly
for business, first cost and economy of operation may play a more
important part in the purchase of the car than if used for pleasure, in
which case appearance and luxurious appointments may be the deciding
factor.

[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF THE STEAM AUTOMOBILE

  1. The Cugnot Steam Carriage--1770.
  2. The Trevithick & Vivian Steam Carriage--1801.
  3. The Gurney Steam Carriage--1827.
  4. The Church Automobile Carriage (Steam)--1833.
  5. Gaillardit’s Steam Carriage--1894.

(Courtesy of the _Scientific American_.)]


=Business Passenger Traffic.=--All machines that haul passengers for
hire, that are used as a means of performing, promoting, or extending
business relations, while so used, may be rightly considered business
machines and the traffic business traffic. The physician who finds that
he can quadruple the number of his daily calls; the traveling salesman
who can double the territory covered and do it much more efficiently;
the business or professional man, of whatever kind, who uses his
automobile in going from one place to another in the performance of his
duties; the farmer who comes to town to get his mail and information
relative to markets or otherwise to assist him with his farm industry;
and the multifold other uses which are for the advantage of financial
or industrial enterprise may constitute a legitimate business passenger
traffic. The transportation, however, by taxi-cab, jitney or bus is
considered by many persons to be the type that should be classified
under the term business passenger traffic.

Jitney and taxi-cab traffic are of vast importance in the cities and
are of real economic use in furnishing a rapid means of transit from
point to point. The jitney is usually a privately owned vehicle not
especially constructed for the business, which plies with more or less
regularity over a route that may or may not be set out in the owner’s
license. In early days the price of a ride was a “nickel” or “jitney”
hence the name.

Taxi-cabs are regularly licensed automobiles that carry passengers
for hire, usually making the charge dependent more or less upon the
distance traveled, which is registered by a taximeter. For example, the
charge may be 25 cents plus 15 cents per mile or fraction thereof. This
would make the charge for distances less than 1 mile, 40 cents; from 1
mile to 2 miles, 55 cents; from 2 to 3 miles, 70 cents; and so on. The
driver usually turns the taximeter up to the fixed charge plus 1 mile,
if fractions are counted as full miles, when the passenger enters, and
the instrument adds on as the cab travels. Of course the taximeter
may be made to register every quarter, every fifth, or every tenth
of a mile, or even continuously. A special waiting charge is made if
the cab is held by the passenger. Taxicabs are variable in form, from
“flivvers” to limousines. Many of the larger cities are supplied with
cabs owned in quantity by substantial companies which put on a line of
cars usually all alike and painted with some striking feature or color.
The larger ones are limousines seating five or seven passengers in the
tonneau and one on the seat with the driver. Some of these cars are
almost luxuriously fitted with fine cushions and special lighting. They
have speaking tubes or electrical devices to signal the driver. The
drivers for the large companies wear the livery of the company. Taxis,
as may be inferred, have no established routes, but go wherever the
passenger may desire.

The motor-bus is well established both in city and cross-country
traffic. As at first made motor-buses consisted of special bodies
with seats placed upon freight truck chassis. This did not prove
altogether satisfactory because of their excessive weight, too much
of which is “unsprung.” They also have a high center of gravity, high
floors, long turning radius and rather rigid suspension. A bus, to be
efficient, durable and comfortable, should be especially designed.
There should be lightness and strength; small unsprung weight; a low
center of gravity; a flexible control; special transmission; wide
treads; ample wheel base; short turning radius; low step entrance and
exit; low top clearance; curb receipt and delivery of passengers; ample
brake capacity; and high lowgear efficiency.[167] Pneumatic tires on
account of their resiliency make the bus much more comfortable for
the passengers by absorbing shocks, and for the same reason they also
increase the life of the car and make it possible to travel faster.
Cushion tires are next in order of merit and are an effort to combine
the durability of the solid tire with the easy riding qualities of the
pneumatic. Tests made by the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads show that the
cushion or semi-solid tires stand between the solid and the pneumatic
as regards riding comfort. With many bus operators a combination
equipment is being used--pneumatics are used on the front to protect
the engine and gasoline tank from vibration and cushion tires on the
rear where the hardest wear comes.

[Illustration: A MODERN RURAL PASSENGER BUS]

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A NEW YORK CITY “STEPLESS BUS”

It Has an Emergency Door, with Wire Window Guards, and will Seat 30
Persons.]

Buses are made both single and double deck. The latter are in demand
where traffic is large and also where sight-seeing is an important
item, the upper deck being usually open to the weather.

The fare charged by the bus is either the same or in many cases a
little higher than that by the trolley car, but the bus has the
advantage in that it can travel over streets where the trolley is not
allowed, can usually make better time, and can load and unload at the
curb, thus avoiding danger from passing vehicles, a matter of no little
importance to timid passengers. The trolley car is able to haul large
numbers at a less expense. In such cases no passenger transportation
is cheaper. But the field for the auto bus is wide and no doubt it
will come more and more into competition with the street car and
steam railroad lines. The former, whose single and primary business
is transporting passengers, are already complaining bitterly of the
inroads made upon their business by the privately owned automobile and
motor bus. The automobile is the larger factor because there are more
automobiles than buses. Since about every tenth person owns a machine
which can accommodate from two to seven passengers, one can readily
see the importance of this item to the traction companies. The result
has been a falling off in passenger fares, which the companies have
endeavored to offset by increasing rates, and this in turn has only
accentuated the trouble by driving more men to automobiles. The only
way the street car can hope to compete with the motor car is by keeping
its rates low and hauling large numbers of passengers. The handiness of
the automobile, going at the instant wanted, avoiding the usual walk
of two or three blocks to and from a car line at the beginning and the
end of the journey, the consequent saving in time, coupled with the
exhilarating effect of riding rapidly through the open air furnishes
a great handicap which the traction companies will have difficulty
in overcoming. About the only things the street car has in its favor
are cheapness and dependability. It can no doubt be shown that it is
cheaper to patronize the trolley than to own and operate the average
car. The street car will go in rainy or snowy weather when motor cars
must be laid up. But the average American does not count cost; he
thinks more of his own comfort and doing as his neighbors do, i.e.,
being in style. It may become necessary, as stated in another chapter,
for the public to take over the street-car lines, run them at as low
rates as possible for the accommodation of those who cannot afford
motor cars, since their work is an absolute necessity to the community,
and charge any deficit to the taxpayers.

There seems to be another feasible and legitimate use for the motor bus
which may help the street car companies as well. That is extensions
by means of buses at the ends of the car lines or into territory not
well served by them. The bus might collect passengers from an outlying
district and bring them to the car line where the trolley can take
them on to the heart of the city. Thus motor buses will become feeders
rather than competitors of the regularly established traction lines.
The car companies should attempt to take advantage of this sort of
thing, using either the trackless trolley or gasoline motor, as may be
thought the more suitable for the situation in hand.

Cross-country motor service has proven quite feasible and scores of
buses now leave every large city for the surrounding smaller towns.
The bus seems to negotiate a 50-mile trip very easily at a speed of
approximately 20 miles per hour including stops. These buses or stages
carry from 12 to 20 passengers and are operated by one man; they are
well sprung and equipped with pneumatic tires. For country traffic
seats cross ways of the car are much more comfortable to the rider than
lengthwise seats. Their usefulness seems to lie in suburban traffic or
as feeders to railroads.

Such buses are also largely used as carriers of children to and from
consolidated schools. The little red school house, wherein began the
educational training of so many of our great men, of which silver
tongues have orated, whose virtues have been painted in poetry, and
praises commemorated in song, cannot stand against the superior
advantages of the consolidated graded school brought near to the pupils
by the advent of the automobile. Since each consolidated school with
about five teachers replaces eight to ten ungraded schools, and since
it is easier and cheaper to maintain and heat one consolidated school
than eight ungraded schools, the advantage is economical as well as
educational.

Another place where the motor bus seems extremely well adapted is
in the transfer of travelers from one railroad terminal to another.
Railroads contract with transfer companies to do this and a coupon, a
portion of the traveler’s ticket, is detached by the bus-man when the
transfer is made. To one who is not used to the city this is a great
convenience. In the city of Chicago, through which many long-distance
tourists pass and through which no or at least few railroads extend
in both directions, hundreds of such transfers take place daily.
Passengers and baggage are thus taken care of on a through ticket with
despatch and little inconvenience.


=Pleasure Passenger Traffic.=--Vast and important as may have become
the business passenger motor traffic, purely pleasure travel by
automobile probably exceeds it. Of the more than ten million motor
cars licensed in the United States perhaps 80 per cent of them were
purchased not for their use in the business of the owner, although
that might have been the final excuse that consummated the deal, but
for the pleasure the purchaser and his family would get from owning a
car. The great car industry which has sprung up like a mushroom during
the past quarter century may thank the people’s desire for personal
pleasure for its tremendous prosperity. The movie picture industry is
another instance of the same character; likewise the newest epidemic
to attack the people--radio. It is not claimed that these have no
economical uses. But the business and economical uses have followed
rather than preceded the pleasurable uses. There are many who think the
automobile fad, like the bicycle fad, will eventually wear out and the
whole automobile question settle down to a purely business basis. Such
a thing is not likely to occur, however. The automobile is a much more
perfect pleasure machine than is the bicycle. The knack of riding a
bicycle has to be learned and requires considerable muscular exertion.
It is not the thing a tired person eagerly turns to for recreation and
rest. Anyone without exertion and with complete relaxation may ride in
an automobile. Soon there comes a desire to drive the machine; then
complete relaxation while no longer possible is replaced by a mental
effort which drives out all thought of business, all care and anxiety
regarding the ordinary affairs of life. The mind for the driver’s own
safety must be confined to his effort to manage the machine and make it
go where and as he wants it to go--change of work is often better than
complete relaxation, although the latter has its beneficial effects in
the treatment of diseases.

For these reasons then, if for no other, the use of automobiles to
cater to the pleasure propensities of the people will continue. There
are very few persons who do not enjoy an automobile ride--they are only
the timid who fear accident. The recreational and pathological benefits
to be derived cannot be overestimated. During the recent war the
Government gave much attention to the entertainment of the soldiers and
endeavored in many, many ways to divert their minds from the serious
side of war. So with the people generally. They are much better off for
pleasurable diversions and the automobile furnishes these in a very
high degree.

[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF THE GASOLINE MOTOR CAR

  1. Panhard & Levassor Carriage--1895.
  2. Duryea Motor Wagon--1895.
  3. The Benz Motocycle.
  4. Hertel’s Gasoline Carriage--1896.
  5. The Olds Horseless Carriage.
  6. Winton’s Racing Machine.

(Courtesy of the _Scientific American_.)]

If, then, there be included under the head of pleasure passenger
traffic all not purely business it may with propriety be estimated that
three-fourths of all automobile travel is for pleasure. Considering ten
million automobiles in use in the United States, that they average 4000
miles per year and carry two passengers each, there results a total
passenger mileage of

  10,000,000 × 4,000 × 2 = 80,000,000,000

80 billion miles. A number beyond ordinary comprehension. The passenger
mileage upon the steam railroads is roughly speaking about 37¹⁄₂
billion miles, a little less than half as much as that by automobile.
It is evident that all this travel, even though a large percentage be
local, must affect seriously the earnings of the steam and electric
railway lines. Since 75 per cent may be estimated to be for pleasure
purposes, it will not be possible for the steam and electric lines ever
to regain it. The people who do the dancing are perfectly willing to
pay the piper, and even though automobile riding cost more than trolley
or train riding the people will continue to have it as a means of
entertainment.[168] Most men who own cars pay the expenses in lump sums
and forget about them. To have the speedometer register in dollars and
cents instead of miles, while it might be a deterrent on the use of
the automobile, would “take the joy out of life.”


=Freight Traffic.=--When it comes to freight traffic cost and time
will be the principal factors to determine the type of performance.
The element of pleasure is here eliminated and only cold economical
features remain. Already horse trucking is rapidly disappearing as it
seems to be able to compete with the motor only where many stops are
to be made. In large cities motor trucks are utilized to haul packages
to certain districts at considerable distances from the store, where
they are turned over to small wagons for delivery. Ice and milk are
often distributed in the same manner, thus taking advantage of long
rapid hauls upon fully loaded trucks and less expensive delivery wagons
where many stops are to be made and smaller loads are to be carried.
Even in delivery service some merchants have by carefully arranging and
timing their routes brought the cost of delivery to below ten cents
per parcel. All purchasers of goods at the store whether delivered or
not should be interested in reducing this cost because usually in the
accounting it is spread out over the entire turnover and charged to
the expense of doing business. It may be possible that in a few years
horses will be barred from the streets for sanitary reasons; then it
will be necessary to use motors for all sorts of deliveries, possibly
large ones for hauling to the distant districts and small ones for the
house to house delivery in the district.

In very congested districts motor trucks are at a great disadvantage
because they cannot be used at their most efficient speed. If the
congestion can be eliminated or at least relieved by such means as
one-way traffic, paving parallel streets, removing buildings which
obstruct passage, widening driveways, elevating railroads and street
cars, supplying overhead crossings, making subways, or by careful
rearrangement and planning of terminal facilities, warehouses, and
other accommodations, the cost of transportation in the large cities
may be materially reduced. In many such cities public service
commissions are studying these questions and applying remedies which
will allow motor trucks to operate at a greater rate of speed and much
more efficiently.

Accurate observations of motor truck performance in city trucking
business has shown that a large part of the day is given up to loading
and unloading, that the truck stands still so much of the time that the
cost is more nearly proportional to time than to mileage. Since certain
charges such as interest and insurance go on whether the truck is
idling or not, it is better to keep it moving. To do this effectively
depots, warehouses, and other terminal facilities are provided to
lessen the time of loading and unloading. It may be wise to hire an
extra stevedore or two to assist with these operations, or mechanical
devices may be installed where the saving will justify it. Usually
there is not only a saving in time when a mechanical device is used but
the amount of expensive manual labor is decreased.

Among the practical devices used are removable bodies. The whole
body of the truck may be swung by means of a crane from the chassis
to a platform where it is loaded or unloaded while the truck with
another body is proceeding on its way. Other bodies are so arranged
on rollers that they may be readily rolled from the chassis to the
platform. Railways are also taking advantage of removable bodies for
the shipment of less than car-load lots. These bodies are made to fit
a truck and also of proper sizes so that several of them may be nested
or interlocked upon a flat car. One of these units or containers may be
left for any length of time for loading then rolled upon the truck and
off it to the steam train. At the other end of its journey it is rolled
from the car to the truck and from that to the unloading platform with
a great saving of time at each terminal. The New York Central railway
places nine containers of 6000 pounds capacity on one flat car. These
are unloaded by means of a crane in less than five minutes for each
container, or the whole car in approximately forty minutes. By this
means the railroad is able to take advantage of what has been called
store-door delivery. Instead of the consignor hauling its goods to the
station and unloading them on the platform to be loaded into cars by
stevedores, transported, unloaded into the warehouse, and the consignee
notified to come for them, the railway leaves a container which when
filled is hauled by truck to the railway yard and in five minutes’ time
placed upon the car, which upon reaching its destination is placed upon
a truck and hauled to the consignee. Goods shipped in these containers
which may be made of steel and securely locked are considered just
as safe from predacious hands and the weather as in a way car, and
possibly are safer.

The demountable container which is rapidly coming into general use, and
which has for some time been used by the New York Central Railroad and
the interurban railways of Australia, consists of a large steel box or
safe, the doors of which can be locked. When it is placed upon a steel
flat-car with sides two feet high it cannot possibly be opened as the
doors are on the side of the container. And it cannot be removed from
the car without the use of a derrick, the top corners of the container
being equipped with hooks for this purpose. The containers have a
capacity of 438 cubic feet and will hold from 6000 to 8000 pounds of
package freight. When the packages are locked and sealed within the
containers they are safe from fire and rain as well as marauders. One
flat-car will accommodate from 4 to 9 containers, depending upon their
size.

In addition to the safety furnished by these containers they
are economical in saving time of transportation. Re-handling is
unnecessary. The transfer of the entire container from truck to car and
from car to truck is very quickly made. The mileage of the flat cars
is thus greatly increased--with mail cars it is claimed to be doubled.
Expensive packing and crating is avoided and the checking at each
rehandling of parcels is eliminated.

Mass loading or unloading, whether the whole truck body is swung off
by a crane, rolled off, or even if trailers and semi-trailers are left
to be worked upon after the truck has gone, save little in the way of
manual labor. On the other hand they require the installment at each
end of the route of special arrangements to facilitate their use.

Another class of devices are those connected with the truck itself.
For example it may have a winch on it to draw up an inclined plane at
its rear such heavy articles as pianos, safes, and large castings. It
may have a crane with a pulley running along a central beam over it
to facilitate loading and unloading heavy boxes or other things. A
swinging crane is also used with some trucks. On others, hoists are
arranged to tip the body backward for unloading building and road
materials, grain, and so on. Many of these devices make use of the
truck power for their operation. Pumps with suction hoses empty catch
basins, cess-pools, stopped-up sewers and flooded cellars, pumping the
fluid to a tank body of the truck, whence it can be hauled away and
dumped by elevating the front end of the tank and opening a gate in its
rear. Devices for lifting and dumping coal truck bodies directly into
the bin save much time over hand shoveling.

Still another class of devices are entirely separate from the truck and
may or may not be connected with the warehouse. For example a chain
conveyor which can be rolled up to the back of a truck elevates barrels
and boxes, sand and stone, and is operated by a small electric motor
the lead wires of which are plugged into a suitable socket, up to the
floor at the rear of the truck from which place they can be easily
pushed or shoveled to proper position. Elevated bins are utilized to
store road materials from which the materials run by gravity into the
body of a small motor-car which then goes to the mixer where it is
grabbed by a device that empties the body into the mixer, thus saving
much handling of material.

Many special types of bodies are made for peculiar purposes. These
often facilitate loading and unloading, for example tank ears for
hauling water, milk, gasoline or other fluids; or trucks fitted with
shelves on which are placed trays containing fruits and so forth. As
the motor truck enters newer fields of usefulness multiple devices will
be developed to lessen the time of loading and unloading. The financial
importance to both the owner and the public of keeping the truck moving
will no doubt lead to the adoption of these devices providing they are
practical and will accomplish the desired result.


=Traffic between Towns.=--Wherever the roads are dependable and
passable at all seasons of the year truck and bus lines have sprung up
to ply regularly between the towns. The length of haul most profitable
seems to be that over which the motor can make the round trip each
day and have sufficient time at terminals for loading and unloading.
Forty to 50 miles for trucks and 60 to 65 miles for buses seem to be
negotiable and double these distances are proving to be practicable.
In many of the states such enterprises have been declared to be common
carriers subject to the laws governing such carriers, and must secure
licenses to do business from the public service commissions. It is but
reasonable that the public should be safeguarded and these concerns be
required to take out insurance or give indemnifying bonds to cover loss
of goods to shippers by carelessness or theft or injury to passengers
by accident. On the other hand the licensed motor transport is entitled
to protection against irresponsible truckers. The modern method of
state regulation does not contemplate competition as an economic
factor in the determination of rates and routes. The old doctrine of
“everyone for himself, and the devil take the hindmost,” is certainly
most wasteful. This is about the way that method worked. A starts
a bus line between two towns. After he has run it a short time and
built up a trade B, seeing his success, decides to put a competing
bus on this same route. Then there is a period of competition. Rates
may be cut and speeds quickened until each bus is running at a loss.
This cannot continue indefinitely. The result is that either one
man goes out of business or there is a combination of interests by
actual coalescing or by a “gentlemen’s agreement,” so that there is
practical monopoly anyway. The modern method is to regulate all common
carriers as far as rates and routes are concerned so that each may make
a justifiable profit. This may be tending toward socialism and away
from individualism; it may be a violation of the Darwinian doctrine
of a survival of the fittest. But that is departed from every day.
Our cornfields and gardens would amount to nothing if the weeds were
allowed undisputed sway.

It would seem to be the duty, therefore, of public service commissions
to grant licenses to truck and bus lines, to establish routes and
equitable rates, to require careful and complete accounting and to make
public from time to time such items as the people may be interested in.

The Railway Commission of the state of Nebraska was, perhaps, the first
public service commission to exercise the right of regulating highway
transport (1918). Colorado, California, and other states soon followed.
In California the matter came upon a complaint that adequate service
was not given by the railway and the decision was:

“We are of the opinion that the public deserving transportation of
freight and express ... is entitled to a more expeditious service
than that at present being given by the Southern Pacific and American
Railway Express.”

It went on further to state that notwithstanding their ability to give
service the evidence was to the effect that it was not given, hence
motor highway transport was licensed.

The first highway transport freight rates established by the Railway
Commission of Nebraska placed the freight under four classes,
describing 103 items. The rates were:

  1st Class 20 c. plus (1¹⁄₂ c. per mile per 100 pounds).

  2d Class 85 per cent of the 1st class.

  3d Class 70 per cent of the 1st class.

  4th Class 60 per cent of the 1st class.

In addition they established rules and regulations, standard bills of
lading, etc. These rates have since been rescinded.

In Colorado two sets of rules were adopted, one for the prairie and one
for the mountain division. For the prairie division the minimum charge
was 25 c. and the mountain 30 c. per 100 pounds. The rates for motor
truck hauling was made, for the prairie division, 30 c. per 100 pounds
for 5 miles and for distances up to 100 miles graduated 5 or 10 c. for
each additional 5 miles until they reached $1 per 100 miles. For the
mountain division, the rate for 100 pounds carried 5 miles is 36 c.,
graduated to $1.20 per 100 miles.


=Motor Bus Traffic.=--Suburban and interurban motor bus passenger
service is growing rapidly. Buses accommodating as high as sixty
persons are being used on the haul where the roads are well paved, but
twenty to thirty seems more popular. At present these buses seem to
be well patronized, usually bringing their passengers to the larger
city in time for business or shopping and returning them home in the
afternoon or evening. The rates of fare for bus travel are about the
same as those for steam car travel, or approximately 4 c. per mile.
The rate of travel depends upon the character of the roadway and the
condition of traffic, being usually routed upon dependable but less
congested roads.

Just what may be the outcome of this traffic is problematical. Can the
buses compete with other forms of transportation in fares and speed? If
so, they will survive; otherwise they will gradually discontinue. Some
writers seem to think they will not only live but will eventually kill
the older forms of transportation. Although they will no doubt take
over very much of that transportation it seems highly improbable that
all transportation can be taken care of by motors.


=To and from the Farm.=--Farm trucking seems to be firmly established
and very much if not all farm hauling will eventually be done by
automobiles. Very many farmers now own their own trucks and the number
is constantly being increased. Glowing statements by government
officials, reports of investigational committees, and propaganda
by manufacturers and dealers have worked up the farmers’ desire for
trucks. A congressional joint committee on agricultural inquiry has
recently stated that,

  No single development since the railroads were first constructed has
  had so marked an economic and sociological effect upon productive
  life as the motor vehicle. Previous to its appearance the economic
  zone of transportation was sharply defined by the haulage range of
  the horse and the cost of such transportation.

There is the evidence of no less a person than Secretary of Commerce
Herbert Hoover that the farm motor truck will be of vast importance to
the agricultural interests of the country. Here is his statement:

  Fifty per cent of our perishable foodstuffs never reach the consumer
  because the farms on which they are raised are too remote from
  the market at which they are sold.... Forty to 60 per cent of our
  potato crop is lost each year by rotting in the ground owing to poor
  transportation to market because of inadequate transportation over
  long distance.... By motor trucks the farmer will be able to reach
  better markets farther away than now by horse and wagon. He will be
  able to spend more time actually producing on his farm and be able to
  sell food more cheaply by eliminating the present tremendous waste.
  By use of the motor truck the farmer will be able to produce more and
  sell at less cost.

Some of the arguments advanced in favor of the farm truck are:

(_a_) The motor truck allows the farmer to haul larger loads, longer
distances in less time, thus reducing the actual cost of haulage.

(_b_) That he can better take advantage of market fluctuations and thus
be able to sell at high markets.

(_c_) That a truck on the farm will replace several horses; that the
cost of keeping these horses far exceeds the cost of keeping a truck.

(_d_) That the truck may be used to market produce while the horses are
busy in the field.

(_e_) That the truck will allow land otherwise too far from market to
be farmed with perishable but better paying crops.

(_f_) By means of trucks the farmer is often enabled to put his hogs or
other live stock on the early morning market in less time from the farm
and consequently fresher, gaining the advantage of better prices.

While there may be some question as to the validity of all these
assumptions they are no doubt, in the main, correct. The United States
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Crop Estimates, collected data
showing that in 1918, the hauling in wagons from farm to shipping
point cost on the average for wheat 30 cents per ton-mile; for corn,
33 cents; for cotton, 48 cents. For hauling by motor truck the average
costs were: wheat, 15 cents; corn, 15 cents; and cotton, 18 cents.
These unit costs were, consequently, reduced to less than half by the
use of the truck. The same bulletin gives the average length of wagon
haul for these products to be 9 miles, and of motor truck haul, 11.3
miles; furthermore the average number of round trips by wagon per day
was 1.2 while by truck it was 3.4.

Whether or not the truck on the farm will release any horses will
depend on what determines the number of horses kept. To do his hauling
does the farmer keep more than is necessary for farm operations alone?
The passenger automobile, no doubt, did release many driving and
riding horses, but will the truck release many more? The thoughtful,
foresighted farmer usually plans his yearly work so that he may do
his hauling when the horses are not otherwise busy. This of course
limits his farm operation to products which, like wheat and corn, can
be stored indefinitely. This limits also diversified cropping which
farmers find in the long run to be very much safer than “putting all
eggs in one basket” by raising a single product. It is seldom that
a wheat crop, a corn crop, a beet crop, a hay crop, an apple crop,
and gardening crops all fail by drought, wet weather, hail, or other
untoward events during the same season. Good roads, trucks or anything
else which will lend assistance to diversified cropping are without
doubt beneficial to the farmer.

Intensive farming of perishable crops can be done only where the roads
allow daily contact with the market. The truck, because of its more
rapid speed, will widen the zone of such farming very much over the old
zone when the horse-drawn vehicle was in vogue. Because of the risk
involved and the labor necessary the net returns per acre for this sort
of farming are high, allowing small parcels of land to keep a family.
As the distance, or rather time, the “fourth dimension,” from market
increases the less intensive the farming operations and the less net
returns per acre. The community as a whole is deeply interested in
widening the zone of intensive farming in order that more people may
profitably make a living upon this land.

Persons who are not familiar with stockyard activities will be
surprised on visiting them early in the morning at any one of the
packing-house industries to see the large number of hogs and other farm
animals arriving for the early market in motor trucks. These animals
have been brought from distances up to 60 miles, but have been on the
way less than three or three and one-half hours. Careful stockyard
figures show that in 1921 more than 6,000,000 cattle and very many
more hogs were transported in motor trucks. These animals upon arrival
are very much fresher and show less shrinkage than those that have
been driven to their home station and loaded into stock cars the day
previous. Other things being equal, the top of the market is accorded
to the fresher animals. Also for short hauls, say up to 60 miles, the
transportation costs are in favor of the trucks.

The farmer may obtain the benefits of motor transportation in at least
four different ways: (_a_) He may own and operate his own truck. This
pays when the farm is of sufficient size to keep the truck reasonably
busy. (_b_) Two or more neighbors may coöperate in the ownership of a
truck. This is applicable to small and medium-sized farms. (_c_) By
patronizing truck lines privately owned which haul products, freight,
and express upon a charge basis. (_d_) By the trucks of the United
States Postal Service.

Whether or not it pays for a farmer to own and operate a truck depends
upon the size of the farm, kind and quantity of the commodities hauled,
distance from market, character of the roads, and the loading on the
back trip. A small farm could not be expected to furnish sufficient
hauling to keep a truck busy unless intensively farmed and producing
commodities which require frequent marketing. Even a small farmer,
though, might by hauling for neighbors keep his truck reasonably busy.
Or several neighbors may coöperate in the purchase of the truck and
arrange how it shall be operated. They may even form an express line
and go into the transportation business as a side issue.

The parcel-post service has been very successful in handling packages
of produce even as large as a case of eggs. The post-office department
allows its carriers to pick up and deliver packages along the route
the same as letter mail. Privately owned Rural Motor Express vehicles
are also operated successfully which pick up and deliver all sorts of
express packages, farm produce in small quantities, fruit, butter,
eggs, and cream. Trucks which haul nothing but milk and cream are quite
common. The farmer leaves his full cans of milk or cream at a specified
place, usually a platform at a level with the truck floor, on the
roadway. The driver of the milk truck picks up the full cans, leaving
empties in their place. Or he may pick up the full on his way to the
market, creamery, or railway station, and leave the empties on his
return. Such routes are both privately owned and coöperatively owned by
the several farmers patronizing them. Often these trucks deliver the
milk and cream to the railway in time to catch a special milk train
into the city.

[Illustration: HAULING BEANS BY MOTOR TRUCK AND TRAILER

Sacramento Valley, Calif.]

[Illustration: HAULING SUGAR BEETS TO MARKET IN A MOTOR TRUCK]

Since the trucks come directly to the farmer’s gate to pick up and
deliver express or freight, the convenience is much greater than the
service given by either the steam railway or the interurban trolley. As
a result the trucks will probably be patronized when the railways would
not. The habit of sending eggs, cream, and other perishable products
daily to the market is formed. The daily credit the farmer receives
amounts to a considerable sum by the end of the month when he collects
from the dealer. Many farmers much more than pay living expenses from
the sale of small items utterly ignored before the days of the motor
express.[169] Even the farmer who owns his own truck could hardly
afford a daily trip of several miles and the time entailed to market
small amounts of cream, eggs, vegetables, and fruits, but the express
man by combining the incoming and outgoing commodities of many farms
can without much expense to anyone do a very good business for himself
at an economic benefit to his patrons.

If the farmer, or several farmers, desire to purchase a truck it
would be well first carefully to consider the question with an idea
of finding out the character and amount of trucking at hand and then
purchase a machine best adapted for the purpose. The kind of bodies
available should be studied, remembering that he may wish to haul grain
on one trip, hogs or sheep on another, then cream and vegetables. He
will want, probably, to haul back groceries, flour, feed, lumber,
hardware, implements, fertilizer, cement, and gravel. In looking
ahead he should estimate the increase in the quantity of hauling that
more rapid transportation, the going to more distant markets, and the
possible raising of different products which may come about through
the owning of a truck, will bring to his farm. In this connection the
reader is referred to the chapters on “Highway Transport Surveys” and
“Effects of the Ease and Cost of Transportation on Production and
Marketing,” given later.


=Terminal Facilities.=--Railways have found it advantageous to spend
enormous sums of money upon terminal facilities. Depots and warehouses,
garages and repair shops will be necessary if truck lines are to prove
efficient and successful. It would be quite feasible and profitable
for all the truck lines leading from a city to have a union or common
terminal station. Portland, Oregon, has such a station owned by a
corporation composed of bus lines that operate from there to every city
of any importance within a radius of 100 miles. The terminal resembles
a railroad depot with waiting rooms, ticket office, announcer, and
conveniences. Buses load and unload on a platform at the rear of the
building reached by a drive-in from the street. Patrons remain in the
waiting room until the bus is announced. Two buses are sent out if more
than enough tickets are sold for one. Under the present schedule 150
departures in 21 different directions are provided for. This gives the
farthest cities two stages per day while many closer ones are served
hourly.

Some of the advantages of a terminal station may be inferred from the
above. Another is that the total number of clerks and employees may
be cut down, for one clerk can route goods on half a dozen different
lines almost as easily as on one, and there will be no competition
between lines, except by service, if the public service commission
has allowed no duplication of lines and establishes rates. Much of
the freight and express will be brought by the shipper to the depot,
where bills of lading will be made out and charges paid. To be sure,
large shippers may desire freight to be picked up elsewhere, or small
express trucks may be used for this purpose, but orders for this can
conveniently be phoned to the central office and directions given from
there accordingly. Similarly one garage and one repair shop may easily
look after the cleaning, repairing, oiling, and fueling of several cars
more economically than could each keep its separate shop or even go to
a commercial shop.

The terminal building may be arranged, if desired, so that it can be
used jointly for a passenger station, a freight depot and a storage
warehouse. If for a passenger station there would be need for the
agent’s office, waiting rooms, and toilet accommodations for men and
women. The freight depot is a place for the collection of freight and
should be arranged for convenience and rapid loading and unloading of
the trucks. The installation of devices for this purpose may become
advisable as the amount of traffic increases. Storage room should
be provided for those articles which are to wait some little time
for shipment. A check stand to care for parcels is a convenience to
passengers and furnishes the company some revenue.


=The Social Aspect of Motor Transportation.=--The change from poor
roads and horse-drawn vehicles to good roads and motorized vehicles has
produced in society changes quite as radical. These changes are not
entirely separate from economic changes and one cannot always say that
this particular thing or that particular thing is due to the automobile
alone because every activity in life has its effect on every other
activity. As the waves upon a pond circling about the point of shock
come into contact with other waves their effect is enhanced, minimized,
or transformed, and just what part of the resultant may be due to one
agency or to another agency is impossible to decipher. That each has
entered into a combination with the whole and affected the result there
is no doubt. For example it is claimed that because of the prevalence
of pleasure riding the giving and receiving of dinners and teas have
very greatly diminished. No doubt the high cost of living has had its
effect also. Clothiers and haberdashers complain that automobile owners
finding it impossible to keep grease spots from their clothing, are now
buying an inferior grade and losing the art of good dressing. Builders
claim that the expense of buying and maintaining an automobile has
prevented many persons from making needed repairs on houses or even
building new ones. As people live most of their leisure time in the car
a very small apartment will accommodate them for the remaining time.
Fewer books and newspapers are read, it is claimed, and there is less
attention paid to the cultural niceties of life. People go riding in
the evening, so the Sunday evening church service is not attended.

An editorial in the _Nebraska State Journal_ of August 31, 1921, puts
the matter piquantly, at least:

  The savage determination with which the American is sticking to
  his automobile despite the drop in his income is an occasion for
  wonderment and no little irritation with a lot of us. For the sake
  of economy we may have to exchange our seven passenger for a light
  six or one of the little fours. Beyond this we need not go. But the
  farmer, yelling his head off at the fall in corn prices, what does he
  mean by sticking to his car? Your mechanic resisting the inevitable
  fall in wages, would be well enough off if only he would give up
  trying to ride like a millionaire. These merchants, claiming they
  aren’t making a living, don’t give up their cars, you will observe.
  Why pity them, then?

  Thus does the general assumption that the automobile is a
  super-luxury impinge upon the fact that the automobile has become
  a prime necessity. You laugh. Well, go inquire what are the other
  things the people will sacrifice before yielding up their speed
  machines. A sharp automobile manufacturer assured a gloomy harvester
  manufacturer the other day that not only would the men do without
  harvesters rather than lose their cars, but the women would yield up
  their very chewing gum. Yea, more than that, their pretty clothes.
  Food is, of course, a superior necessity, but even that can be
  reduced and simplified in favor of gasoline.

  As to houses, we like to be conservative, but there is a perfectly
  obvious disposition to put house shelter second to automobile
  shelter. That is why the house shortage isn’t hurting us as we
  expected it to hurt. The people are in automobile camps. Observe the
  sudden energy in developing automobile camps. They are wise. It looks
  now as if half the population will have deserted houses and flats for
  their automobile tent within another year or two.

  In winter time a corner of the garage will do well enough for a
  living room during the few minutes at a time we are at home. If we
  insist on a separate house, then the tendency is toward a very small
  one. What is the sense in maintaining a big house not to live in?
  That is the way our minds run now. This will help the lumber men to
  understand why building doesn’t pick up as it should. And that is how
  we manage to keep the car while incomes fail. It is done by cutting
  out such unnecessaries as houses and furniture and clothes and heavy
  dinners.

  America has been living at a fast gait on its nerves. Isn’t that
  which we see now the natural reaction from the nervous overstrain of
  fixed habitation and the relaxing ways of the nomad? The automobile
  came along in the nick of time to furnish the transportation, and off
  we go. The universal gypsy is breaking out in us. This isn’t more
  than half moonshine. It is at least half solid fact, with economic
  and social consequences which, whatever they prove to be, will be
  important.

The above editorial indicates that people are beginning to notice the
social changes being brought about by the automobile, and more, they
are ascribing them to the automobile. Changes usually come about so
gradually that, like the hands on a watch, the movement can be noticed
only by comparing what is with what was some time previous.

Rapid transportation and rapid communication has extended Broadway
clear across the continent. One writer by taking an automobile tour
found the American world extends from ocean to ocean, that the hat
she purchased in New York had its duplicate in every millinery window
all the way across to Los Angeles. She further found that the people
between were not all “hicks,” and that farmers did not go around with
alfalfa on their chin and straws in their mouths as shown in the
cartoons of the funny section. Some farmers play golf on their own
pastures. The fact that the sack containing their clubs is often tied
with binding twine is of no consequence.

The social intercourse which good roads and the rapid moving automobile
makes possible between neighbor and neighbor and between country and
town tends to produce a more homogeneous people. Each gets the view
point of the other, which reacting modifies his own. Factions are
largely broken up. Tolerance gains sway and more satisfaction and
happiness results.

High wages and profits during and following the war led the average
citizen to purchase some of those luxuries which before then he was
unable to afford. He has had a taste of a “higher standard” of living.
No wonder he objects to a return to pre-war conditions, no wonder he
objects to giving up his automobile, the thing which has furnished
him with more pleasure than his previous humdrum life believed
possible. No, he will fight to maintain the new standard and new living
conditions. A social revolution has taken place, and in traveling about
the spiral the world is one step higher.

And while some will for a short time be content to live in one corner
of the garage, as the editorial writer opines, the natural longing for
a home will assert itself. By the aid of the automobile property will
be bought in farther-out district where lots are cheaper, where taxes
are not so high, where there is more breathing space, and healthful
conditions are more likely to prevail. Men of wealth can build suburban
estates, and men of less means comfortable homes leaving the downtown
apartments and tenements to those who cannot yet afford motor cars, and
many there be, more’s the pity.

It will be a good thing to have the farms near large centers of
population divided into smaller tracts whereon by intensive cultivation
can be supported many families. Here there is always a demand for
garden products which by means of a small car, or through the agency of
motor express lines, can be marketed daily. It does not require a very
great deal of land to support a poultry farm from which there will be a
continuous income. By diversifying crops something will be coming in at
all seasons.

Good roads and the automobile not only make it possible to diversify
farming but make the home life in the country less monotonous. No
trouble to go after supper 12 or 15 miles to the town to take part in
civic affairs, to attend a lecture, watch the movies or go to church.
No extra horses need to be kept for these purposes, neither are the
farm horses deprived of their rest. While the swift ride through
bracing air rests the weary farmer after his day’s toil in the fields
and gives new life to his faithful spouse upon whom the lonesomeness of
isolation lies the much more heavily.

Salesmen have in great numbers provided themselves with automobiles
large enough to carry their samples. With these they can make many more
towns than when they were compelled to depend upon trains and the
small-town livery stables. The result is either a wider territory or
more frequent calls upon customers.

Hotels, during the summer season, especially, if located on one of
the popular cross country roads, are seldom without tourist guests.
Nina Wilcox Putnam[170] states that from Washington westward the “wily
tourist will always wire ahead for rooms, and preferably two days
ahead. The truth is that the best places to stop are not nearly large
enough to accommodate the crowd.” Speaking of these hotels she finds
them well equipped, clean, and well cared for. There is no doubt but
that the automobile tourist traffic has had its effect, too, upon
them. Each spring they clean and spruce up with the idea of securing
as much of this traffic as good service reported by the camaraderie of
travelers all along the way will bring to them.

Mention has been made of the country people going to the larger
cities to market their products and purchase goods wanted. It is not
considered at all unusual for country and small town people to auto 30
miles to patronize the large department stores in the city. If a trade
which satisfies both trader and tradee is beneficial and of economic
importance to both then this would seem to be a good thing. The selling
of the goods is beneficial to the store-keeper because he makes his
profit. The trader has a large variety to select from and having made a
voluntary selection is satisfied, because he or she may secure exactly
what the city cousin gets.

But what is to become of the business of the country store-keeper? How
is he to get along? The best thing he can do is to put upon his shelves
goods of a standard quality. His rents and overhead are less than those
of the city competitor; he, therefore, can sell at a less profit. This
is so true that the writer has known of city dwellers going to the
country store for these standard articles. Such interchange while of
economical importance is also sociological in differentiating between
city and country merchandising and in bringing together in a new way
the city and country dwellers.


=Consolidation of Rural Schools.=--The people of the United States have
been justly proud of her public schools. No one has ever considered
them to be perfect, but the influence exerted upon the minds of the
growing children has been wholesome. The very life of a republic
depends upon an educated citizenry. With thorough education along
right lines there is no reason why the nation should not live forever.
To obtain such an education as is commensurate with right living and
with the upbuilding and maintenance of our government and civilization
requires that every means at hand should be utilized. The broadening,
informational, and unifying influence of the automobile should not
be underestimated. Edison’s theory that the movie should supplement
the textbook because visual education is remarkably interesting and
effective, needs more than a passing thought. The instruction which the
young people receive from parents, from associates, from newspapers,
magazines, and miscellaneous books, from civic organizations of various
kinds, and from Sunday school and church cannot be overestimated.
Neither should be forgotten the vast and important education which
comes through the hard knocks of experience.

An illustration of what the public schools may do for the preservation
of the country can be drawn from the history of the Great War, the
worst and the fiercest the world has ever seen. During that war the
patriotism of the people shone forth with undiminished luster. The
response to the President by the citizenry of the country, whether of
his own or opposite political faith, by every honest organization,
public or private, by business and professional men, by Congress and
legislatures, was all but unanimous. This surprising unanimity was, no
doubt, due to the influence of the public schools. The public schools
have always inculcated patriotism and loyalty, and these lessons were
potent as was evident because even before the draft many young men
with Teutonic names took their places with others whose forebears
were of other nationalities as well as with those of long-standing
American descent. Therein went astray one of the guesses of the enemy,
namely, that our Teutonic citizens with their children would prove more
loyal to the “fatherland” than to democratic America. The lessons of
patriotism the children brought home from school, the stories of Valley
Forge and Yorktown, of Gettysburg and Appomattox, were communicated to
their parents and penetrated deep, so that only a moiety of our foreign
born element could be classed with the enemy. Thus have the public
schools in this great melting pot of the world been the conservators of
liberty.

The effect of the public school upon the ideals of peace is no less
than that upon their state of mind during war. Every day examples are
so plentiful they need not here be mentioned. Suffice it to say that
it should be made possible for all the young people to come under the
influence of the public school learn the American’s Creed, and be
steeped in the symbolism of the flag that stands for true democracy.


=Changing Concepts of the Public Schools.=--Schools have continually
had to change with changing society. During the pioneer period, and
that extended through many years from the first settlements along the
coasts, and the occupation of the great fertile areas of the mid-west
to recent efforts to subdue the semi-desert and desert regions of
the farther west, the schools taught for a few months only a little
reading, writing, and arithmetic. The farm and home life supplemented
this with manual labor and the attainment of skill in making and
repairing necessary articles and machinery by the boys, and the arts
of home making, weaving, and cooking, by the girls, thereby completing
a well-rounded education for the times. But with the increase in
population there came a division of labor and specialization. This
meant that the simple school of the pioneers could no longer fit for
life, hence new and additional subjects were added to the curriculums,
until at the present time no one pupil can hope to complete all the
work given by the larger secondary schools. The changing character of
society caused the earliest private schools to be transformed into
semi-private and semi-religious schools, and these to tax-maintained
schools. The graded schools in the larger communities were found to be
more efficient than the ungraded. In country districts the advantages
of the graded system could only be brought about by consolidating
several small schools thus enlarging the districts to get sufficient
pupils. This made distances from home so great that walking to and from
school was no longer possible; pupils must be hauled. Considerable
progress was made in such schools with horse-drawn vehicles, but
not until the advent of the motor bus was attained anything like a
practical solution of the problem. So rapidly has the consolidated
school made its way that now there are more than 12,000 such schools
served by motor buses. Since a six-room consolidated school will
replace about nine small schools the greater efficiency of a graded
school extending through a longer school period is gained at little if
any increased cost. In the years to come the results of these schools
must have a marked beneficial effect upon the entire country.


=Rural Mail Delivery.=--The development of the Rural Mail Delivery and
its relation to the better roads movement has been touched upon in
Chapter V. It will only be necessary to say here that the psychological
effect of a daily mail upon the inhabitants of the rural districts
has been most remarkable. Through its means these people are no
longer isolated, they know daily what is transpiring in the world;
they are thinking of the great questions of finance, politics, and
what not, at the same time as their fellows in other parts of the
country. The nation is thus more or less unified, the country dweller
looks and thinks of himself as an integral part of the whole. Rural
mail, telephone, the automobile, modern home conveniences and, now,
radio telephony are rapidly making agriculture one of the great
and desirable professions. The rural home need no longer be a place
where there is nothing but ten hours’ work and six hours’ chores. The
farmer of to-day, with his daily paper, his market reports, his books
and magazines, his furnace-heated and electric-lighted house, his
automobile ready at hand, is better off, more independent, and should
be more happy and contented than those who dwell in the murky city.


=The Automobile and Health.=--“Health is something more than strength,
it is a universally good condition,” according to Munger. The
automobile, by inducing people to get more into the open air, may be
considered to be a prophylactic, and something that will bring them
into that universally good condition. The forgetting of business, the
obliteration of household cares, the unstringing of high-tensioned
nerves by a swift run like a swallow in its flight over smooth and
undulating roads brings rest with relaxation, and cure with comfort.
Then away from the mad’ning crowd, away from close poorly ventilated
rooms, away from foul-smelling germ-laden cars, to the roads, to the
hills, to the country with their varied shades of living carpets,
with freshening winds and glad’ning brooks, with bees, and birds, and
flowers into nature’s great laboratory where are brewed nectars and
panaceas for the ills which infest mankind.

But all cannot have automobiles, pity ’tis, ’tis true, but all may have
the benefit of fresh air and the style for an open air life set by
those who can afford to drive the “red flyers,” the “quivering arrows,”
the “bear cats” or the “poodle dogs,” have been followed by the less
fortunate _hoi polloi_. Thus outdoor exercises and amusements have been
popularized.

While motoring may not be the best form of exercise, may not bring
into play as many muscles as walking, horseback riding, or rowing,
say, it must be remembered that not many can have horses to ride or
boats to row and walking is too slow. Gymnasium exercises or even home
gymnastics are not exciting enough to keep one practicing, so that
the outdoor life of the present day, brought about largely by the
automobile, has had a more wholesome effect on the people generally
than perhaps any other measure.

Styles of clothing have kept close pace, and the garments now worn by
both men and women are both comfortable and sanitary, allowing freedom
of bodily movement. It is to be hoped that the same influences which
induced such hygienic clothing will continue and that never more
may the autocratic demands of style force people into close-fitting
uncomfortable, unsanitary wearing apparel. For years hygienists, health
reformers, and physicians preached against tight lacing for women
without results until the automobile came to their assistance. Until
very recent years women’s long skirts have swept clouds of germ-laden
dust into the air from sidewalks to be breathed by all passers-by. All
men know that their present dressing, while it might be bettered, is
so much more comfortable than formerly that they have much reason for
rejoicing. Formal dressing except for an occasional party has almost
disappeared. In the summer time men may be comfortable on the streets
without coats. But the women, though more responsive to style changes,
now go the men one better and abandon long sleeves and high collars.

Medical science, always alert to adopt modern improvements, was one
of the first to take advantage of the time-saving benefits of the
automobile. Its universal use by physicians and surgeons, allowing them
to reach the bedside of sick patients more quickly and allowing them
to visit more patients in the same time, is certainly a pathological
asset of great value. Automobile ambulances called in emergency cases
save the lives of many injured persons by getting them quickly to
the hospitals and under the care of competent medical and surgical
attention.

From a purely sanitary point of view good roads have been great
agencies for health. Clean streets, clean pavements, and clean roads
are much more wholesome than the mud puddles and quagmires that
formerly served as passageways for man and beast. In order to get
better roadways drainage was resorted to. Ponds and standing water
along the side of the road were done away with, at the same time
obliterating the breeding places of the myriads of mosquitoes that
always abounded in summer time. Since mosquitoes are carriers, as
is well known, of such diseases as malaria and yellow fever, the
consequence has been a very great reduction, almost elimination, of
these ailments.

Again just as the use of the horse on the highways has diminished, so
has the summer pest of flies grown less. The favorite breeding place
of the housefly is horse dung. When nearly every house in both city
and country had its stable with a pile of horse manure by the door
flies bred abundantly. The fly has been convicted of being a most
energetic distributor of typhoid and other bowel complaints, hence the
distruction of its breeding places will be the most effective means
for its extermination, and with it one of the most virile sources of
contagion.

Thus, upon analysis, it may be seen that the influence of the
automobile extends throughout the whole domain of life, changing and
modifying nearly all social customs. It is called into use at the birth
of the babe to bring the physician to the bedside of the prospective
mother. It is the correct equipage at the wedding and starts the bride
and groom upon their honey-moon and, it is to be hoped, a happy journey
through life. And finally, it bears the remains to their last resting
place in the silent city of the dead.


=The Automobile and Crime.=--But not always have the changes produced
by automobiles been in the interest of better living. Criminals and
those who verge upon criminality have been quick to employ the superior
advantages of modern means of rapid transit to assist them in their
nefarious work. Automobile theft has taken the place of horse thievery,
and automobiles are used daily as a means of getting to and getting
away from the place of the crime. Trucks are utilized to haul the loot.
Since the adoption of prohibition laws motor cars have been seized
upon by booze runners as a convenient vehicle for transporting liquor
from one place to another, thus becoming an aid to “bootlegging.” In
several of the states cars used for illegally transporting intoxicants
are confiscated upon discovery and sold by the state. Drastic laws also
deal with operators and owners.

Highway robbery of trucks hauling goods across country is reported. In
New Jersey two trucks were robbed of $120,000 worth of merchandise. In
other places express drivers have been held up and relieved of their
money. One of the earliest improvements of the roadways of England was
due to the prevalence of highway robbers--the brush and trees were
ordered to be cut from the highway in order that their might be fewer
lurking places for robbers.[171]

Here the results of robbery may lead to interesting possibilities. For
instance if the trucks above mentioned as robbed in New Jersey were
owned by the shipper the $120,000 is a dead loss to him unless he had
insurance. Even if the trucks were owned by a small capitalist he would
probably not be able to recompense the shipper. Had it been lost on a
railway it would have been paid for. If motor shipping is to continue
shipments must be covered by bonds or insurance. Even then there is
a loss to the public when outlaws seize a loaded truck and drive it
into wilds whence its contents can be disposed of at leisure. Shall
truckers, like the ancient caravans of the deserts maintain guards with
long guns to fight off marauding Bedouins? The western stages of some
years ago furnished employment as guards to the quickest shots in the
world. Is it the duty of the community to make its highways safe for
transportation or must the shipper take the risk and employ guards and
machine guns?


=Vandalism.=--Complaints are made that those who drive or walk to the
country are often guilty of vandalism and disregard for the rights of
property. Note this editorial utterance in the _Saturday Evening Post_
of June 17, 1922:[172]

  On Sunday one dare not leave one’s farm or country place unwatched or
  unprotected for a moment. The whole countryside is aswarm with Nature
  lovers from the near by city. First come the makers of forbidden
  beverages, trooping across fields and lawns, picking the once
  despised dandelion and anything else that happens to be loose; then
  the happy motorists in long procession, embowering their cars in the
  spoil of orchards, woodlands, and wayside shrubberies. If there are
  no flowers near the road these free-and-easy visitors will penetrate
  one’s garden and break off the blooming branches of the rhododendrons
  or lilacs or whatever other bush happens to engage their fancy.
  With trowel and spade the woods are looted and sometimes, if it
  looks safe, an unwatched garden. Following come shy maidens, in
  twos and threes, daintily pulling up the woodland flowers by the
  roots--arbutus, azalea, and a hundred little blossoms that wilt in
  the hand that picks them; and everywhere are bands of half-grown
  hoodlums helping in the spoiling of the countryside.

  The bolder spirits are usually those who come in motors. They can
  destroy more, steal more, and get away faster than the man on foot.
  They meet remonstrance with effrontery and resent the notion that
  a hick has any rights of property and privacy that they are bound
  to respect. The flowers, the shrubs, the orchards, and occasionally
  the unguarded gardens are their prey. They camp beside the woodland
  brook or the shaded spring, hack the trees, trample the flowers, and
  turn the spot into a garbage hole with their greasy papers, tin cans,
  bottles and refuse food. Then up and away to the snug flat in the big
  town, throwing out the wilted flowers as they go.

Spooning in automobiles parked along the roadways is a subject of
regulation in the city of Omaha. An ordinance makes it a misdemeanor
subject to fine.

However, the motor car will not be discarded or outlawed because
unscrupulous persons put it to illegal and immoral purposes. A net cast
into the sea gathers fishes of every kind, and among the wheat there
will always spring up tares.


=Conclusion.=--The world cannot now get along without the motor car.
What was a luxury yesterday has become a necessity to-day. Automotive
transportation is carving out a path for itself. While it perhaps will
take much from the older forms of transportation it can never hope to
supplant them. The final result will come only after the world has
had opportunity through competitive experience to determine which is
most economical in time and money and which is most desirable and
comfortable from a personal or a sociological standpoint for the
various purposes and various kinds of transportation.

At present it would seem as though the automobile will be used more
largely than ever: I. As a pleasure and business vehicle driven by its
owner for passenger traffic: (_a_) for local travel near home; (_b_)
for short runs from town to town; (_c_) for more extended tourist
traffic, and (_d_) for the use of salesmen. II. For pay passenger
traffic: (_a_) Taxi-cabs in the cities: (_b_) Motor-bus service in
the cities either in competition or in conjunction with street car
service; (_c_) motor bus service to suburban and outlying districts;
(_d_) motor bus service between towns up to 75 or 100 miles, with
towns not more than two hours apart, (_e_) motor bus service between
railway terminals. III. For freight and express traffic: (_a_) Haulage
of farm products to market or shipping point in owner’s truck; (_b_)
Haulage to market of perishable farm products in rapid going privately
or coöperatively owned trucks; (_c_) Heavy trucking lines through farm
districts; (_d_) Light express lines through farm districts; (_e_)
Suburban or radial distribution of goods from large cities; (_f_)
Short-haul traffic between towns; (_g_) Short branch-line or stub-end
transportation to be taken over by trucks either in competition or
conjunction with railways; (_h_) Trap car and store to door service
by railways; (_i_) Terminal distribution allowing cars to be loaded
and unloaded at a greater distance from congested centers; (_j_)
Terminal distribution between different lines of railway or between
railway and waterway either to relieve congestion or where there is
no physical connection; (_k_) Longer hauls where there are no rail
facilities; (_l_) Logging and lumbering formerly done by horses, oxen,
or even light railway, (_m_) Rural mail service, and IV. By modified or
combination motors: (_a_) Trackless trolley; (_b_) Rail motors.


=Addendum.=--Since the above was written President Harding has issued
the annual legislative message to Congress (December 8, 1922), in which
he discusses at some length the transportation problem in the United
States. Among other things he says:

  Manifestly, we have need to begin on plans to coördinate all
  transportation facilities. We should more effectively connect up
  our rail lines with our carriers by sea. We ought to reap some
  benefit from the hundreds of millions expended on inland waterways,
  proving our capacity to utilize as well as to expend. We ought to
  turn the motor truck into a rail feeder and distributor instead of a
  destroying competitor.

  It would be folly to ignore that we live in a motor age. The motor
  car reflects our standard of living and gauges the speed of our
  present-day life. This transportation problem cannot be waived aside.
  The demand for lowered costs on farm products and basic materials
  cannot be ignored....

  Government operation does not afford the cure. It was government
  operation which brought to us the very order of things against which
  we now rebel, and we are still liquidating the costs of that supreme
  folly.

  Surely the genius of the railway builders has not become extinct
  among the railway managers. New economies, new efficiencies in
  coöperation must be found. The fact that labor takes 50 to 60 per
  cent of total railway earnings makes limitations within which to
  effect economies very difficult but the demand is no less insistent
  on that account.

The President then urged merger of railroads, pooling of equipment and
a central agency to aid in their financing and to suggest economies.
This portion of his message was evidently inspired by the great labor
strike during the summer of 1922, and the subsequent shortage of cars
and inadequacy of transportation facilities. He argued that there
“should be a guaranty against suspended operation. The public must be
spared even the threat of discontinued service.” He then recommended
an abolition of the Labor Board as not being “so constituted as best
to serve the public interest.” This board is composed of three members
selected by the railways and three by railway employees, and three
by the Government. According to President Harding “it is inevitable
that the partisan viewpoint is maintained throughout hearings and
in decisions handed down. Only the public group of three is free
to function in unbiased decisions.” He, therefore, suggested the
abolishment of the partisan membership and that the work of the board
be performed by or in very close contact with the Inter-State Commerce
Commission which already has supreme authority in rate making to which
“wage cost bears an indissoluble relationship.”

When a president of the United States takes up so much of his annual
message with transportation and the relationship which the different
forms bear to each other, when he argues for harmony between them and
between them and their employees, there is certainly reason for study
and legislation which will bring about just and adequate methods of
administration, operation and regulation.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on, Part III deals
  with Transportation, Washington, D. C., 1922.

  ALDEN, H. W., “Automotive Obligations Toward Highway Development,”
  _Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers_, Vol. VIII, pp.
  161-162, 426-432.


  _Automotive Industries._--“Automobile Service Stations,” Vol. XLVII,
  pp. 174-175; “Automobiles in Postal Service,” 178-179; “Cost of
  Operation of Bus Lines,” 482-483; “Motor Trucks on the Farm,” 315;
  “Railroad Officials Recognize Truck as Transportation Ally,” Vol.
  XLIII, 1201-1203.

  BAKER, C. W., “Relative Economy of Truck and Railway,” _Engineering
  News-Record_, Vol. LXXXIII, pp. 52-67.

  BASSETT, W. R., “Avoiding Industrial Traffic,” _Industrial
  Management_, Vol. XLI, pp. 342-346.

  BLANCHARD, A. H., “Traffic and Transportation,” _Canadian Engineer_,
  Vol. XL, pp. 129-131.

  BLUM, H., “Transportation of Bulk Freight,” _Kali_, Halle, Germany.


  _Bus Transportation._--“Baltimore Service,” Vol. I, p. 484; “Motor
  Buses,” 479-80; “Bus and Electric Railways as Essentials in
  Transportation,” by G. A. Green, 293-295; “Battle of the Bus and the
  Street Car,” by F. H. Warren, 85-88; “New Englanders Hold Meeting to
  Study Motor Bus and Trackless Trolley,” 124-129, 191-193; “Railway
  Men Discuss the Bus and its Relation to Rail Transportation,” 195-196.

  DAVIS, F. W., “Motor Truck Transportation,” _Engineering
  News-Record_, Vol. LXXXV, pp. 1194-1195.

  DONNELLY, WILLIAM T., “Comparison of Cargo Transportation,” _Marine
  Engineering_, Vol. XXV, pp. 899-903.


  _Engineering._--“Bringing the Food to the Table,” Vol. VI, pp.
  387-391.


  _Electric Railway Journal._--“Report of Committee on Trackless
  Trolley Transportation to the American Electric Railway Association,”
  Vol. LX, pp. 576-577; “Freight and Motor Truck Competition,” Vol.
  LVI, pp. 157-160.


Development of the Automobile:

  HISCOCK, GARDNER D., “Horseless Vehicles,” Norman W. Henley & Co.,
  New York, 1901.

  HOMANS, JAMES E., “Self-Propelled Vehicles,” Theo. Audel & Company,
  New York, 1902.

  “History of Automobile Carriages,” reprinted from _La Nature_ by the
  Scientific American, Vol. LXXII, p. 389, June 22, 1895.

  Many other articles in the _Scientific American_, some of which are:
  “Ponchain’s Electric Carriage,” Vol. LXX, p. 69; “The Tachocycle,”
  p. 181; “Gaillardet’s Steam Carriage,” p. 200; “Simonds’ Steam
  Wagon,” p. 398; “Bicycle of 1816,” Vol. LXVII, p. 180; An Account of
  an automobile race from Paris to Bordeaux with descriptions of some
  of the machines participating, LXXIII, p. 40; “An English Horseless
  Carriage of 1827,” p. 214; “Duryea Motor Wagon,” p. 293; “Petrolium
  Tricycle,” p. 234; “Kane-Pennington Victoria,” p. 293; “The Benz
  Motocycle,” p. 315; “De La Vergne Motor Drag,” p. 377; “Steam Omnibus
  in London, 1833,” p. 404.

  Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Bulletin No. 6, “Consolidated Rural
  Schools and the Motor Truck”; Bulletin No. 7, “The Motor Truck
  Terminal.” Akron, Ohio.

  Facts and Figures, 1922. “Motor Bus Aids Rural Education,” National
  Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York.

  GREENOUGH, M. B., “Motor Trucks and Highway Transportation,”
  _Engineering and Contracting_, Vol. XLIX, pp. 157-158.

  JOHNSON, EMORY R., “Elements of Transportation,” D. Appleton & Co.,
  New York, 1909.

  LACY, V. E., “Inland Waterway Transportation,” _Journal of the
  Society of Automotive Engineers_, Vol. VIII, pp. 59-62.

  LANE, F. VAN ZANT, “Motor Truck Transportation,” D. Van Nostrand
  Company, New York, 1922.

  MACKALL, J. N., “Motor Bus as a Factor in Highway Transport,”
  _Engineering News-Record_, Vol. LXXXIII, p. 234.

  MANTELL, JOHN J., “Transportation Problems of the Metropolitan
  District,” Official Proceedings of the New York Railroad Club, Vol.
  XXXI, pp. 6369-6393.


  _Mechanical Engineering._--Discussion on Motor Truck Transportation,
  Inland Waterways, etc., Vol. XLIII, pp. 181-183.


Motor Rail Cars:

  _Railway Review._--Vol. LXIX, pp. 753-755, 792-796; 860, Vol. LXX,
  49-50, 191-192, 389-392, 501, 656, 669-673, 741-747, 928-929, 930.


  _Railway Age._--Vol. LXXI, pp. 841-843, Vol. LXXII, pp. 749-750, 886,
  920, 1008-1009, 1069-1070, 1183-1184.


  _Electric Railway Journal._--Vol. LXIX, pp. 419, 513, 685-686.

  _Municipal Engineering._--“Text of Colorado Decision Affecting
  Commercial Use of Highways.” Vol. LXIII, sup. pp. 17-18.

  National Automobile Chamber of Commerce.--Graham, George H., “The
  Motor Vehicle--Competitor or Ally,” 1920.

  NORTON, S. V., “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Transportation,” A. W.
  Shaw Company, Chicago.


  _Power Wagon._--Various articles March, July, October, November, and
  December, 1921, and during the year 1922.

  STOCKS, C. W., “The Bus Transportation Field,” _Electric Railway
  Journal_, N. Y., Vol. LVIII, pp. 517-522.

  SPENCE, LEWIS J., “New Era of Railroad Transportation in America,”
  Paper before the National Industrial Traffic League, _Railway Age_,
  Vol. LXIX, pp. 1153-1154.

  UPHAM, C. M., “Car Shortage and Its Relation to Highway Work,”
  _Engineering News-Record_, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 1099-1100.

  WHITE, W. T., “War Development of Motor Transportation,” _Good
  Roads_, n. s. Vol. XIX, pp. 291-292.

  WHITESIDE, W. J., “Motor Truck Competition,” _Electric Railway
  Journal_, Vol. LIV, pp. 981-982.

  WILLARD, DANIEL E., “Railroad Transportation. Fundamentals for
  developing a complete and well-articulated national transportation
  system,” _Mechanical Engineering_, Vol. XLIII, pp. 17-18.

  WILLIAMS, C. C., “When Ship Freight by Motor Truck and When by Rail,”
  _Engineering News_, Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 315-316, 660-661.

  YOUNG, H. E., “Freight Movements by Motor Truck,” _Western Society of
  Engineers’_ Journal, Vol. XXVI, p. 204.


FOOTNOTES

  [167] See “The Motor Bus Field as a Market for Trucks,” _Automotive
  Industries_, September 29, 1921.

  [168] One method of estimating cost of automobile riding, for a
  machine costing originally $1000, which having a life of 30,000 miles
  is then worth for scrap $100, may be given thus:

  Original cost expressed in cents per mile
  (1000-100)100
  -------------                              3.0
     30,000
  Cost of repairs, estimated,                0.5
  Gasoline and oil                           2.5
  Tires                                      1.5
  Garage    }
  Interest  }
  Taxes     }                                1.5
  Insurance }
  License   }
                                             ---
                                             9.0

  The cost is about 9 cents per car mile. If an average of two
  passengers ride that is 4¹⁄₂ cents per passenger mile. The above is
  merely an illustration and cannot be applied generally.

  [169] See Bulletin 770, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of
  Markets, “Motor Transportation for Rural Districts,” Also Bulletin
  931.

  [170] “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fé Trail,” _Saturday Evening
  Post_, June 10, 1922.

  [171] The statute of Winchester enacted during the reign of Edward I,
  of England, provided “that highways leading from one market town to
  another shall be enlarged, where woods, hedges or dykes be, so that
  there be neither dyke, tree nor bush, whereby a man may lurk to do
  hurt, within two hundred foot on the one side and two hundred foot on
  the other side of the way.”

  [172] Reprinted by permission from _The Saturday Evening Post_,
  Copyright 1922, by the Curtis Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.




CHAPTER VIII

PLANNING HIGHWAY SYSTEMS: SELECTION OF ROAD TYPES


A road is a strip of land set apart or appropriated for travel, public
or private. When a road has been dedicated to the public or has been
used so long that the public has a legal right of easement therein, it
becomes a highway.[173]

The object of a road is to provide a way for transportation. It goes
without saying, therefore, that its situation should be such that it
can perform this function most efficiently, and a system of highways
should perform the same function for the public in the same manner.
Efficiency here includes the ideas of economy and satisfaction combined.

In order to make a layout of a system of highways they should first
be classified as to use, for the proper treatment will depend upon
the use to which the roads are to be put. Anyone attempting a layout
will make his own classification suitable to the inherent conditions
pertaining to the district covered. The classification of Mr. T. H.
MacDonald, Director of the Bureau of Public Roads, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, made for another purpose may be adopted:[174]

  1. Those used chiefly related to agriculture.

  2. Those which are recreational in character.

  3. Those which are commercial.

  4. Those which are military.

Agricultural roads comprise those leading from farm to town and are
used chiefly for marketing, and for social, educational, and religious
activities.

Recreational roads are either local, upon which driving is done for
pleasure, or through, those followed by tourists in traveling over
the country. Either of which may lead to places of interest within or
without the state. The national park roads and forest highways can be
classified under the head of recreational.

Commercial highways comprise those exclusive of agricultural, upon
which the haul is chiefly of a business nature such as freight and
express and bus traffic.

The War Department of the United States during the war refused to
designate any roads as special Military Highways, saying a road which
would adequately serve the agricultural; recreational, and commercial
interests would serve the military. However, it might be well to keep
in mind this possible use of the highways. A classification of roads
into National, State, County and Town has frequently been suggested.
Since national roads do not exist as such in the United States the most
densely traveled routes and those used largely for through traffic are
usually designated state roads, and all others local roads.

Keeping the cost and use of the roads in view the problem before the
road planner is:

(1) To secure the most economical routes in construction and
maintenance and future haulage, taking into account topography,
alignment, grades, and amount of traffic.

(2) To accommodate the greatest number of people commensurate with the
money available for expenditure.

(3) To utilize existing roads as far as practicable.

The system will ordinarily consist of one or more trunk lines to be
laid down first and several branch lines connecting with the trunk
lines. Some of the essentials to be considered are:

(1) Ruling points. These ordinarily will be (_a_) the main community
centers--the large cities and villages, for to and from these will
naturally flow the greatest traffic; (_b_) Natural configurations
such as mountain passes, low points in hills, ridges and valleys,
rivers and bridge sites; (_c_) Parks, scenery, and recreational and
amusement centers; (_d_) Articulation with the highways of adjoining
jurisdictions, so that they may eventually be united into one
continuous passage.

(2) Branch lines and detours. The question will frequently arise
whether to run a branch line to some locality or detour the trunk.
Much pressure will be brought by the inhabitants along the way and the
deciding power will needs have firmness and fairness in the highest
degree.

(3) Alternate routes. If two roads of equal or almost equal importance
are available a choice must be made between them.

(4) Existing highways and principal streets of cities should be
utilized as much as practicable. Although sometimes betterments so
great may come through changes that old routes should be discontinued,
in which case the

(5) Vested rights of citizens living along discontinued routes and
damages caused by any improvements made must be considered.

(6) The widening of existing roads and streets and costs of the same.

(7) The location of railways, trolley lines, and street car tracks may
influence the layout for grade crossings should be eliminated, or at
least placed where there is clear vision each way for a considerable
distance.

(8) Bridges, culverts, and railroad crossings should, preferably, be
directly along the highway and at right angles to the obstruction.

(9) Ruling grades, dependent upon the class of road will also affect
the layout.

(10) Esthetics. Perhaps the people of the United States have been too
materialistic and have paid too little attention to the beauty and
interest elements in highway location. Especially for pleasure riding
and recreation should the esthetic side be considered.


=Motor Transport Efficiency Outline.=--At this point it would be well
for the road planner to consult an excellent paper by M. C. Horine and
his efficiency chart which is substantially as follows:[175]

ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

  Highway Efficiency
    Adaptability of road to carrier
        Road capacity
            Width of road
            Pressure capacity
            Impact capacity
            Seasonal limitations
        Tractive resistance
        Grades
        Route
        Curves and corners
    Adaptability of carrier to road
        Dimensions
        Capacity and weight
        Speed
        Climbing ability
        Accelerating ability
        Stopping ability
        Turning radius
        Tractive effort
  Transport Efficiency
    Adaptability of carrier to volume and character of load
        Total load units to be carried
        Range of load units to be hauled
        Average load units to be hauled
        Density of load
        Length of haul
        Route
        Number and probable duration of stops
    Comparative adaptability of motor transport
        Horse transport
            Highway efficiency
            Transport efficiency
            Vehicle efficiency
            Public health
        Railway transportation including trolley express
            Transport efficiency
            Economy
            Haulage cost
            Packing cost
    Adaptability of carrier to traffic
        Legal restrictions on equipment and operation
        Possible average running speed
        Bridges and ferries
  Vehicle Efficiency
    Operation
        Moving factor
            Loading delays
            Unloading delays
            Waiting for loads
            Clerical delays
            Loafing
            Traffic delays
        Load factor
            Body capacity
            Special deliveries
            Return loads
            Outside hauling (custom work)
            Pickups
            Deliveries
            Trailers
    Maintenance
        Active factor
            Disability layups
                Chassis repairs
                Body repairs
                Accessory repairs
                Tire repairs and replacements
                Overhaul and painting
                Driver’s disability
            Requirement layups
                Seasonal fluctuations
                Off-peak period
                Shut downs
                Labor troubles
    Economy
        Earning factor
            Unit miles
            Packing cost
            Loading cost
            Unloading cost
    Time in transit
        Marketability
        Insurance
        Interest on value
        Shrinkage and breakage
        Perishability
        Tracing and follow up
    Advertising value
    Goodwill of trade
    Increased radius of trade
        Increased business turnover
  Cost factor
    Operating cost
        Fixed charges
        Maintenance charges
        Running charges
    Overhead
        Loading devices
        Shipping room devices
        Office and clerical expenses
        Telephone
        Labor
            Loaders
            Watchmen
            Clerks
            Supervisors
            Accountants
        Traffic department
        Miscellaneous


=The Highway System Unit.=--Ordinarily the units will be the same as
the political divisions, that is, national, state, or local. A national
system would include the whole United States and will comprise trunk
lines paralleling each other across the country east and west and north
and south, considering, of course, ruling points, with a few branch
lines of importance. The total number of miles of such highways should
probably never exceed 2 per cent of the total mileage in the United
States, or about 50,000 miles. A national highway committee estimated
that this mileage of roads would serve 87 per cent of the people. The
arguments made in favor of a national system of highways may be briefly
summarized as follows:

(1) Political lines would be obliterated, thus welding together and
unifying all the people. Commercial and social intercourse would wipe
out sectional differences, hatreds, and enmities. The people of one
section would learn that the people of another section are human beings
as they themselves are, and are actuated by the same instincts and
inspirations.

(2) Economic, commercial, and pleasure routes cut across state
lines and it would be much better to have the roads continuous and
administered by one central control. They would then be kept in a more
uniform condition of usefulness. The roads radiating from New York City
are mentioned as an example. They pass out of the state of New York
and into the states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia.
On any one of these roads it would be difficult to say which state you
are in by observing the license tags on the trucks and automobiles.
A Connecticut traffic census on a road carrying approximately 3000
passenger cars and 500 trucks per day showed that 47 per cent of the
cars in the analysis came from without the state.

(3) Military. All roads would become military during war. It is
frequently stated that the good roads of France saved Paris from
invasion and probably saved the war to the allies. The German General
Kluck admits that while he was advancing upon the British and French
south of the Marne, an army of which he had no suspicion had struck
outward from Paris and put his flank in deadly peril.[176] This army
was one that Joffre had concentrated in Paris under General Maunouri,
which had been brought over two or three good French roads from Paris
by motor trucks and lorries to a point within striking distance of the
German right flank, where he attacked and began the First Battle of
the Marne. In the Second Battle of the Marne, motor cars performed a
very important part in the concentration of troops which were to make a
surprise attack. In addition the motorized armed cars known as tanks
played an important part.

On this side of the ocean the trunk line roads during the war
supplemented the railways, which were badly congested at the eastern
terminals, by hauling large quantities of men, materials and munitions.
It is said that 16,000 trucks were engaged in this work.

(4) The benefit of example. The federal government not hampered by
local prejudices may construct roads of the highest type along best
possible locations which when completed will serve as an example for
state and local officers to pattern after. The people having seen such
roads will more willingly vote bonds and taxes for road betterment.


=State System.=--The benefits to be derived from and the arguments
for a national system of roads apply with equal force to a state
system. In fact it may be better to avoid the two extremes of one
consolidated central control for the whole country and a very highly
dispersed decentralized local control. The state seems to be a
sufficiently large unit to do good work and sufficiently small to be
approachable. Competition with other states may bring out developments
which under a single central control would never have been thought of.
Notwithstanding the excellent research work that is being carried on
by the Bureau of Public Roads there is no doubt but that that which
is being done by the several states more nearly solves those special
problems arising on account of climate, topography, soil, and so on of
the particular state.

The state system should cover a greater per cent of the roads than a
national system can hope to do. The effort seems to be to take over
about 10 per cent of the established roads as state highways. Such
roads, if carefully selected and located, can accommodate from 90 to 95
per cent of the inhabitants of the state.

The remaining roads would continue under local--county and
town--authorities. A county system might be laid out and money
expended upon its roads about in proportion to their use.

Again there is a feeling on the part of many that the first expense of
improving a road (that would include grading, bridging, and paving,
even if the latter should be done some time subsequent to the former)
should be borne by the state and the abutting property, that the
maintenance should be under the direction of the local authorities, and
paid for by local taxation and by a portion of the state automobile
license and gasoline taxes to be returned to the county for this
purpose.


=The Procedure of Laying out a Road System.=--To fix the mind
definitely suppose it to be a state road system that is to be laid
out. It is generally conceded that the planning should be done by an
unprejudiced commission headed by an engineer of wide experience,
one who is fair but will show no favoritism. The first question,
after deciding to make a layout and who shall make it, is what shall
be the determining factor of the lay-out. Shall it be primarily a
farm to market system, primarily a commercial system, or primarily
a recreational system? A wise commission will, no doubt, attempt to
embody all these features in one system, as they should be, for,
nowadays, more than half the population of the country reside in the
cities and villages. They pay taxes and are as much entitled to road
facilities for their particular industries and pleasures as are the
“farm bloc,” and every fair-minded person will admit this.

Good maps must of course be obtained. Government contour maps when
available will assist materially in selecting roads that will come
within a ruling grade. On these maps will first be noted the trunk
line terminals and other ruling points. The trunk lines should be as
direct as practicable from one ruling point to the next. An endeavor
should be made to have the roads with the greatest travel upon them the
straightest, so that the total future haul may be a minimum. The roads
having the greatest travel will usually be those connecting the largest
cities of the state or articulating with roads leading to large cities
of other states. Then will be drawn in branch lines and detours so that
when the plan is complete every county seat, every village of more than
1000 inhabitants, and every manufacturing, scenic, and pleasure resort
of importance will have been reached, as well as connections with the
main roads of adjacent states.

This will form a tentative system. Observation upon the roads
themselves will now be necessary. A reconnaissance survey may be made
quite rapidly from an automobile. Two men are necessary. The engineer
will ordinarily drive while the topographer will be supplied with a
clip board and ruled sheets of paper. The straight line up the center
of the sheet represents the roadway. Small squares on the sheets
represent distances and areas. The scale should be made according to
the work. On a road with few houses and few topographical features to
be recorded 1 inch to the mile might be sufficient. With more houses,
and other features, 1 inch to the quarter mile might be none too
much. As speedometers (odometers) usually read to a tenth of a mile
cross-section paper with ten smaller divisions equal to one larger is
convenient. The engineer will observe features and the recorder will
record them as the machine is driven along. The miles may be marked
off on the sheets ahead then very quickly by a series of notations,
such as a [Illustration] for a farm house, a dot with a roof over
it [Illustration] for a school house, a steeple or cross on top
[Illustration] makes a church. A crossing wagon road [Illustration],
railroad track [Illustration], a trolley line [Illustration], stream
[Illustration], and so on. Written explanations can be made along the
margin where necessary.

The reconnaissance survey should cover all routes on the tentative
map together with alternative or competitive routes and others
when found to be worthy of consideration. The record will show all
farm houses within a prescribed limiting distance of the roadway,
factories, stone quarries, sand and gravel pits, schoolhouses, and
churches. All intersecting roads, railroads, trolleys, mail routes,
creeks, canals, rivers, drainage and irrigation ditches, culverts and
bridges, together with the approximate angle of crossing the highway.
Note should be made whether grade crossings may be eliminated by
underground or overhead crossings, or by change of route. The character
of the soil whether clay, loam, gumbo, or sand, when it differs from
the general run of soil should be recorded, also hills, swamps, bad
condition generally with brief notes as to how they may be bettered.
Turns in the road itself may be noted by an angle thus [Illustration],
[Illustration], [Illustration], [Illustration]. Where no turn is
shown, straight away is understood. Other information and natural or
artificial features that may prove interesting or helpful will suggest
themselves for record as the survey proceeds. Of course the mileage
of each route as measured by the odometer or speedometer from fixed
and known points on the map will be taken. By tabulating and mapping
the information recorded it will be possible to get at the comparative
merits of alternative routes.

A few simple surveying instruments will be useful in the work of
reconnoitering. A steel 100-foot tape, a hand level and inclinometer, a
pedometer, a pocket compass, a small aneroid barometer in mountainous
countries, a pioneer ax for blazing, and a small spade may be mentioned.

After the reconnaissance, hearings should be held, usually at county
seats, notice of such hearings having been given ahead of time. At
these hearings the maps are shown and a statement made relative to the
procedure. After which an invitation for suggestions and constructive
criticism and even complaints is given. From these people who are
locally interested in the roads many valuable suggestions will be
received, and if they cannot be followed the reasons therefor may be
stated. The people will thus know the investigation and the location of
the road have been fairly made and that any suggestions that cannot be
settled offhand will be duly considered before final location.

The final location will usually be arrived at or at least influenced
by the following considerations: Alignment and distance, population
served, grades, amount and character of haulage, other kinds of
transportation available, character of soil (sand, clay, gumbo, loam),
structures, bridges, railroad grade crossings and their possible
avoidance, discovery of entirely new routes, topography, geological
formation, and other natural features and numerous local conditions,
including availability and freight charges of road materials. These are
not intended to be in the order of importance, for no two roads may
have the same determining factors. The character of the road surface to
be used in construction may greatly affect the location. For example
it does not pay to use steep grades with hard smooth pavements. But
steeper grades may be used with earth and gravel roads without material
loss in efficiency.

It will seldom be necessary to resort to preliminary or complete survey
to lay out the plan. Sometimes further viewing of alternative roads may
be desirable and many times compromises will have to be made. A traffic
census on the several routes would be extremely valuable for it would
determine to which class, agricultural, commercial, or recreational,
the road belongs, and also the character of the traffic and what type
of construction is best suited. Especially where there are alternative
roads, as is usually the case in midwestern states where the roads were
established along the section lines of the U. S. land survey, it is
very difficult to determine which is the important highway without a
traffic census. It must be remembered, however, in this connection that
the improvement of a road will often draw to it much traffic from an
equally short competing line. It is quite likely that if 10 per cent of
all roads, provided they are properly selected, should be well improved
they would carry 90 per cent of all traffic.


=Financial Considerations.=--While little has been said of financial
considerations they are, of course, of prime importance. The amount of
money as a whole that may be expended is usually limited by the taxes
voted or the bonds issued. The planner must cut the garment according
to the cloth. He must know the approximate unit costs of the roads
that will be constructed as well as the mileage of the several types.
To know this he must estimate the amount of traffic that will pass over
the road, he should know also about what part of this is local and what
part through, in order that a just division of the cost may be made
between the local and larger units. If all the money of construction
were to be furnished by the national government, say, and only through
traffic were considered, directness and grades between controlling
points would be the determining factors. But since local traffic cannot
be excluded from the use of such roads it is but just that part of the
cost of building be paid locally, and if so, that modifications in the
lay out be made to accommodate the local conditions.

While the first cost of the road or the road system is of very great
importance and will probably be the greatest influencing factor for any
particular improvement or layout, the continued cost or cost covering a
series of years approximating the life of the road surface should also
have consideration.


=Traffic Census.=--An important consideration in the selection of
a road alignment, of its grades, its width, and of the type of its
foundations and surfacing, is the amount and the character of the
traffic which will pass over the roadway after it is built. The best
way to get a reasonable estimate of this is to take a traffic census.
This is to be used as a basis and to it should be added an estimate
of the increase in traffic which the improvement itself will produce
by drawing from parallel and contributing lines, and by the probable
change that the improvement will work in the character of the farming,
the industries and the settlements along its way.

The alignment will be affected by the quantity of traffic, for the
cost of haulage depends, though not proportionally, upon the length of
haul. No less will the alignment be affected by the class of traffic.
With horse-drawn vehicles curves of 40-foot radius were perfectly
acceptable, but with the automobile a 200-foot radius is none too
great. The new road systems now being adopted by states quite generally
endeavor to make all curves to have radii greater than 200 feet except
in mountainous regions, with a preference of 500 to 800 feet.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

TRAFFIC ON FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY]

The longer radii allow the turns to be made without slowing up the
traffic, providing there is proper superelevation of the outer
edge. The longer the radius, that is, the flatter the curve, the
less superelevation is required, and the less the tipping sensation
experienced by slow-moving vehicles on the turn. Moreover, on short
curves a considerable widening of the pavement is required in order
that the inner and outer edges, and therefore all traffic lanes, may
have the same degree of curvature. Also, clear vision for the longer
distances necessary for fast-moving traffic is easier to obtain on flat
than on sharp turns.

The minimum grade of a roadway is usually a question of drainage,
but the character and quantity of traffic is a determining factor in
the establishment of steeper grades. Passenger cars can more easily
negotiate grades than can commercial trucks. The average passenger car
shifts to second gear at about a 7 per cent grade and there is very
little shifting necessary on a long 6 per cent grade, hence for such
cars 6 per cent may be considered a maximum for the high-speed gears.
This same car will have to drop into low at about 10 per cent. Hence
from the standpoint of the convenience of operating a passenger car
there is no justification in going to great expense to cut a 10, or a
9, or an 8 per cent grade to a 7 per cent grade. For the average 5-ton
truck 4 per cent and 8 per cent are the maximum grades for convenient
running in high and intermediate. There may and possibly are many other
reasons for cutting grades wherever possible. Where time is an element
economy is effected by the possible speeds on grades.

The width of the roadway will likewise be influenced by the quantity
and character of traffic. With slow-going wagons a width of 8 feet was
sufficient for one lane of traffic, but with the automobile safety
demands 10, and the Good Roads Conference of 1922 voted that no road
should be less than 22.

The best type of foundation and surface is a factor of quantity and
class of traffic, and while as yet all engineers do not agree, the
numerous experiments now being made may lead to standardization.
Just as an example may be mentioned the change that has taken place
in the effect of vehicles on waterbound macadam. Under horse-drawn,
iron-wheeled wagons and carriages this was considered an ideal
pavement. The horses’ shoes and the iron tires wore off of the stones
a sufficient amount of dust to keep the road crust well cemented. The
rubber tires of the automobile do not do that; furthermore, what dust
is on the road is picked up and scattered to the winds. The force of
the drive wheels also is sufficient to loosen the stones and roll them
from their bed, causing the roadway to ravel and disintegrate rapidly.

These arguments might be multiplied indefinitely, but enough has
been given to demonstrate the value to the road planner and the road
designer of a traffic census.


=Methods of Taking Traffic Censuses.=--It is well known that the
traffic on any road is not constant. A count, then, made on a single
day could not be applied for an entire year. Counting every day for the
year would, of course, give a correct total, but that is impracticable.
It is customary, therefore, to take the count on a limited number of
days and consider their average to be the average for the year. There
seems to be a seasonal variation in traffic and a weekly variation. The
season variation in crops affects all sorts of commercial enterprises,
of which the road traffic is one. Sunday traffic is largely pleasure
traffic, and is more dense as a rule than week-day traffic, which
is partially pleasure and partially business. In France, where more
regular and scientific censuses have been made than in any other
country, the counting days are divided uniformly between the seven days
of the week and the four seasons of the year, in order to eliminate,
as far as possible, the periodic variation. The number of counting days
per year is therefore, 28, and these are so arranged that each of the
days of the week figures once in each quarter. The interval between
counting days is, consequently, 13. For 1923, then, the count might be
made as follows:

  -----------+-----------+----------+----------+-----------
  Days of the|           |          |          |
     Week    |1st Quarter|2d Quarter|3d Quarter|4th Quarter
  -----------+-----------+----------+----------+-----------
  Monday     |  Jan.  1  |  Apr.  2 | July   3 |  Oct.  2
  Sunday     |       14  |       15 |       16 |       15
  Saturday   |       27  |       28 |       29 |       28
  Friday     |  Feb.  9  |  May  11 | Aug.  11 |  Nov. 10
  Thursday   |       22  |       24 |       24 |       23
  Wednesday  |  Mar.  7  |  June  6 | Sept.  6 |  Dec.  6
  Tuesday    |       20  |       19 |       19 |       19
  -----------+-----------+----------+----------+-----------

This method distributes the counting days uniformly over the entire
year, but evidently the expense would be considerable unless it can
be done by the regular patrolman. For the purpose of laying out a
system of highways quicker results might be desired. In Massachusetts,
Connecticut and other states two counts were made about two or three
months apart. If one were taken in July, say, and another in October
and the results averaged it is thought they might fairly represent the
year. Each period could cover an entire week, thus giving an average of
14 days during those seasons of the year when traffic might most nearly
represent the normal. Blanchard’s method[177] contemplates taking the
census in four periods of three days each, one in April, May, or June,
one in July, one in August, and one in September or October, as local
conditions may dictate. The days selected should include Sunday in
order to include the heavy automobile traffic on that day. If further
information is desired additional three-day periods could be taken
during the winter season.  Most of the authorities seem to think that
the daylight hours from 5 A.M. to 9 P.M. are sufficient. But in the
light of the tests being conducted by the Illinois Highway Commission
which show alternate convex and concave warping of pavements from day
to night it might be well to take account of night traffic.

Some of the latest censuses, namely Iowa and Connecticut, placed scales
on the highways and actually weighed the vehicles. In Connecticut road
scales were used which weighed the individual wheel loads.

The observers are supplied with cards on which is printed the
classified list of vehicles and animals likely to pass with columns
for tallying them during the separate hours. The in-and-out-of-town
vehicles are recorded separately, and, if actual weights are not taken,
whether loaded or unloaded. Information relative to the weather and
condition of the roads is also noted, and there are blank spaces for
the station, the date, and the signature of the observer.

The station, or stations, should be so placed that the road or
district will be fairly represented, since it will not be practicable
to get exact data on every portion of a highway, for every turn-out,
branch line, or tributary will alter results. Each station should
be established in some place where a good view of the road for some
little distance may be had, and where the observers may be reasonably
comfortable. The number of observers will depend upon the amount of
traffic and the detailed information desired. With considerable traffic
it may be necessary to divide up the work, giving one set of observers
the in-traffic and another the out-traffic, one man to observe
passenger automobiles another trucks and delivery wagons, or one man to
jack up and weigh front wheels and another rear. System will result in
more accurate results, and in less loss of time for the drivers, and
less congestion of traffic. It is customary to take the census over
the entire system on the same days although that is not absolutely
necessary.


=Classification of Traffic.=--The object of a classification is to
obtain: (_a_) the maximum loads and average number of heavy loads per
day. (_b_) The lighter loads, whether horse drawn or motor driven,
iron, solid rubber or pneumatic tire, trailers, traction engines,
animals, harnessed and unharnessed, and any other load which might
affect the wear of the roadway. (_c_) Any other interesting data
regarding the traffic, such as, local or through, cars belonging within
or without the state or county, camping parties, and so on.

Maximum wheel loads are required, primarily, to see if state
regulations regarding them are being complied with. In the Connecticut
census it was found that a majority of trucks were loaded beyond their
rated capacity and many of them beyond the legal maximum wheel loads.

Again heavy loads stress a pavement near to its elastic limit every
time they pass over it. It is well established that any structural
material when stressed near, to, or beyond the elastic limit will
become fatigued with repeated stresses. The higher the stress the
quicker they will fail by fatigue. It is not considered good practice
to stress a material, especially a brittle material, repeatedly to a
point half-way to its elastic limit. (The elastic limit is that stress
that may be given to a body without producing a permanent set; below
which it will return to its original shape upon the removal of the
stress.) A walnut may not crack at the first blow but with a sufficient
number of no harder repeated blows will crack. The higher the stresses
the sooner the crack occurs. So it is important to know how many
loads daily are stressing a pavement near to its elastic limit. From
all the loads it has been the endeavor of road engineers to work out
“importance factors” that will measure the relative damage done by
the several classes. The Road Board of Great Britain has adopted the
British ton as a unit and calculations are based on the traffic in tons
per yard of width per year or per mile.[178]  The British Road Board
Unit Weights are as follows:

  -------------------------------------+---------------
                                       |Assumed Average
       Classification of Vehicles      |Weight in Tons.
  ------------------------------------+---------------
  Ordinary cycles                     |      0.09
  Motor cycles                        |       .13
  Motor cars (including motor cabs and|
  any other motor vehicles)           |      1.6
  Motor vans (covered)                |      2.5
  Motor omnibuses                     |      6.0
  Motor lorries (rubber tires)        |      6.0
  Trailers to rubber tired lorries    |      5.0
  Motor lorries (steel tires)         |     10.0
  Trailers to steel tired lorries     |      5.0
  Light tractors                      |      5.0
  Trailers to light tractors          |      5.0
  Traction engines                    |     12.0
  Trailers to traction engines        |      8.0
  Light vehicles (one horse)          |      0.4
  Light vehicles (two or more horses) |      0.6
  Heavy vehicles (one horse)          |      1.25
  Heavy vehicles (two or more horses) |      2.5
  Omnibuses (two or more horses)      |      3.0
  Tram cars (electric, steam or horse,|
  as the case may be)                 |     ....
  Horses (led or ridden)              |      0.5
  Cattle                              |      0.3
  Sheep and pigs                      |      0.1
  Hand carts and barrows              |     ....
  Horses drawing vehicles (to be      |
  calculated from number of vehicles) |      0.5
  ------------------------------------+---------------

The French unit of traffic is technically known as the “collar,” a
draft animal harnessed to a wagon being counted as 1.0. The metric ton,
1000 kg., is also sometimes used. The French, feeling that the dead
weight of a vehicle or animal did not truly measure its effect as to
wear on a road surface, classified the traffic and assigned importance
factors to the several classes. From 1882 to 1903 the classification
consisted of: 1st, Trucks and farm wagons, loaded; 2d, Public vehicles
designed for transporting passengers and their baggage; 3d, Light
vehicles, such as private vehicles, and empty farm wagons; 4th, Larger
animals, such as horses, mounted or not, mules, and large cattle;
5th, Small beasts, such as sheep, goats, and pigs. In 1903 motor
vehicles were separately listed; they were divided into five classes:
1st, Metallic-tired automobiles, “which in general are heavily loaded,
have a slow movement and produce the effect of wearing away the road
surface”; 2d, Elastic tired automobiles licensed to make a speed of
not more than 30 km. per hour; 3d, Automobiles whose speed was less
than 30 km. per hour; 4th, Bicycles or velocipedes propelled by the
feet of the rider; and 5th, Motor cycles, whether having two, three,
or four wheels. The report of the second international road congress
further states that “it is necessary to attribute to each element of
the traffic an importance which belongs to it from the viewpoint of
the destructive effect exercised on the road crust.” Consequently the
numbers of vehicles or animals in the several classes were modified by
multiplying them by importance factors arbitrarily assumed.

                                                   Importance
                    Classification                  factors

  An animal harnessed to a loaded vehicle           1 collar
  Loaded trucks and farm wagons                     1
  Public vehicles for transporting passengers       1
  Light vehicles, and empty farm wagons              ¹⁄₂
  Harnessed horses to light vehicle or empty wagon   ¹⁄₄
  Mounted horses or with load on back                ¹⁄₄
  Unharnessed horses                                 ¹⁄₅
  Cattle                                             ¹⁄₅
  Small beasts (sheep, pigs, goats)                  ¹⁄₃₀
  Automobiles with metallic tires, weight in metric
  tons times 1¹⁄₄ = No. of collars
  Automobiles with elastic tires
    Motor cycles                                     ³⁄₁₀
    Vehicles licensed to make a speed over 30 km.
    per hour                                        3
    Vehicles licensed to make a speed of less than
    30 km. per hour                                 1

From this it was possible to reduce all traffic to the unit “collar,”
which was used as a comparative measure of the use of the several
roadways. The tonnage was calculated by multiplying the numbers by
average weights obtained by weighing a sufficiently large number of the
units in each class.

Consideration was also made of the weight of the useful load as
separate from the weight of the vehicle itself. Animals not harnessed
were considered as a part of the useful load.

In Italy traffic censuses followed practically the same classification
and methods as in France.

In the United States some of the states have used coefficients of
reduction, or importance factors, while many others have contented
themselves with a count of vehicles only.

In 1910 Maryland used the following:

   1. Ridden horse and one-horse vehicle  2
   2. Two-horse vehicles                  4
   3. Three-horse vehicles                6
   4. Four-horse vehicles                 8
   5. More than four-horse vehicles      12
   6. Motor cycles                        2
   7. Motor runabouts                    10
   8. Four- or five-seat touring cars    20
   9. Six- or seven-seat touring cars    40
  10. Motor trucks or drays              20

The New York State Highway Department took a census in 1909 in which
the following classification and reduction coefficients were used:

     Class of Traffic         Relative
                               Weight
  Horse-drawn traffic
    Horses with vehicles         1
    One-horse vehicle, light     2
    One-horse vehicle, heavy     3
    Two-horse vehicle, light     3
    Two-horse vehicle, heavy     4
    Three-horse vehicle, heavy   5
    Four-horse vehicle, heavy    6
  Motor vehicles
    Motor cycles                 1
    Two-passenger cars           2
    Three-passenger cars         3
    Four-passenger cars          4
    Five-passenger cars          6
    Seven-passenger cars         7
    Trucks, omnibuses, etc.     10
  Miscellaneous
    Traction engines            15
    Two traction engines        30
    Miscellaneous heavy traffic  5
                               upward

The Massachusetts Highway Commission, 1912 Report, say, “After all it
is not numbers which tell the story, it is weight, and it is not weight
alone, but the vehicle by which it is transported, whether by horses or
by motor.... All these considerations are probably not so important on
many road surfaces as the actual weight imposed upon the road per inch
width of tire resting upon the road.” There was used in this census the
following weights:

  Motors                       Tons
    Runabouts                  1.43
    Touring cars               2.23
    Trucks                     6.25
  Horse-drawn vehicles
    One-horse, light            .36
    One-horse, heavy           1.12
    Two or more horses, light   .54
    Two or more horses, heavy  2.46

James and Reeves, with the United States Bureau of Public Roads,
recommend the ton-mile basis and give the following weights:

                                                 Tons
  One-horse wagon, loaded, 0.88; unloaded        0.28
  Two-horse wagon, loaded, 1.57; unloaded        0.47
  Four-horse wagon, loaded; 3.88; unloaded       0.54
  Pleasure vehicles, one-horse, 0.28; two-horse  0.47
  Rubber-tired pleasure vehicle                  0.28
  Saddle horse                                   0.50
  Motor cycle                                    0.20
  Excessively heavy vehicle                      3.94
  Motor, runabout, 1.68, touring car             2.00
  Motor dray, loaded, 2.43; unloaded             1.23
  Draught horses                                 0.50

In a traffic census taken by the Borough of Brooklyn, New York, the
weights were reduced to traffic units per minute per foot width of
roadway which was called density. By this rule, “the number of vehicles
passing a given point in eight hours times the traffic unit divided
by 8 times 60 times the width of the roadway equals the density.” The
weights and traffic units used were:

                                    Weight in  Traffic
  Rubber-tired vehicles               tons      value
    Large automobile trucks, loaded    9          5
    Large automobile trucks, empty     4          4
    Small automobile trucks, loaded    3          3
    Small automobile trucks, empty     1¹⁄₂       2
    Pleasure automobiles               1³⁄₄       1
    Carriages                          2          2

  Steel-tired vehicles ranged in weight from 1 to 7¹⁄₂
        tons and in traffic value from 2 to 10.

A suggested form for a traffic census sheet presented by a committee
appointed to study the question of traffic censuses to the New Jersey
State Association of Roads is shown on p. 245. This sheet also bears,
for the use of the office, blanks for the tabulation of the traffic by
classes:

  -------------------------+-----+------+------------
       Kind of Vehicle     | No. |Weight|Vehicle-Tons
  -------------------------+-----+------+------------
  Motor cycle              |.....|  0.25| ..........
  Light-horse, empty       |.....|  1.25| ..........
  Light-horse, loaded      |.....|  2.00| ..........
  Heavy two-horse, empty   |.....|  3.20| ..........
  Heavy two-horse, loaded  |.....|  6.00| ..........
  Light pleasure motor car |.....|  1.50| ..........
  Heavy pleasure motor car |.....|  2.50| ..........
  Light motor truck, empty |.....|  1.00| ..........
  Light motor truck, loaded|.....|  2.50| ..........
  Heavy motor truck, empty |.....|  5.00| ..........
  Heavy motor truck, loaded|.....| 10.50| ..........
  Specials: 10 tons        |.....| .....| ..........
            15 tons        |.....| .....| ..........
            Over 15 tons   |.....| .....| ..........
    Total                  |.....| .....| ..........
  -------------------------+-----+------+------------
  Tonnage per foot width of pavement ...............
  Tonnage per foot width of roadway  ...............

SUGGESTED FORM OF TRAFFIC CENSUS SHEET

  Traffic Census Sheet County Number....... Station No...... County.....
  State Highway Department of New Jersey........................ 192 ...
  ................................ Road at..............................
  Exact location........................................................
  Count taken.............from.......to.........from........to..........

  --------------------+-----+------------+------------+-----------+
       Time Count     |Motor|   Light    |   Heavy    | Pleasure  |
       Was Taken      |Cycle|   Horse    |   Horse    |   Motor   |
                      |     |            |            |   Cars    |
                      |     +-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
                      |     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
                      |     |Empty|Loaded|Empty|Loaded|Light|Heavy|
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   6 a. m. to  7 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   7 a. m. to  8 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   8 a. m. to  9 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   9 a. m. to 10 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
  10 a. m. to 11 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
  12 noon  to  1 p. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   1 p. m. to  2 p. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
         .        .        .        .        .        .        .
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   3 a. m. to  4 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   4 a. m. to  5 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
   5 a. m. to  6 a. m.|     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+
    Total             |     |     |      |     |      |     |     |
  --------------------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+-----+-----+

  --------------------+------------+------------+
       Time Count     |   Light    |   Heavy    |
       Was Taken      |   Motor    |   Motor    |
                      |   Trucks   |   Trucks   |
                      |-----+------+-----+------+
                      |     |      |     |      |
                      |Empty|Loaded|Empty|Loaded|
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   6 a. m. to  7 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   7 a. m. to  8 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   8 a. m. to  9 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   9 a. m. to 10 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
  10 a. m. to 11 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
  12 noon  to  1 p. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   1 p. m. to  2 p. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
         .        .         .        .        .
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   3 a. m. to  4 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   4 a. m. to  5 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
   5 a. m. to  6 a. m.|     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+
    Total             |     |      |     |      |
  --------------------+-----+------+-----+------+

  --------------------+----------------------+------+------
       Time Count     |                      |Street|Hourly
       Was Taken      |                      | Cars |Totals
                      |      Specials        |      |
                      |-------+-------+------+      |
                      |       |       | Over |      |
                      |10-tons|15-tons|15-ts.|      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   6 a. m. to  7 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   7 a. m. to  8 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   8 a. m. to  9 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   9 a. m. to 10 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
  10 a. m. to 11 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
  12 noon  to  1 p. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   1 p. m. to  2 p. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
         .        .          .        .        .
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   3 a. m. to  4 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   4 a. m. to  5 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
   5 a. m. to  6 a. m.|       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------
    Total             |       |       |      |      |
  --------------------+-------+-------+------+------+------

  Of above motor vehicles....carried foreign licenses as follows........
  ...................... Weather........................................
  Type of pavement.................. Condition of pavement..............
  Width of roadway....... Width of pavement....... Traffic... Narrow ...
  Tires............ Special........ Inspector...........................
  Notes.............................. Checked by........................


=Destructive Factors.=--From the above it appears that there is a
general opinion that there should be some common measure for the
destructive effect of vehicles upon road surfaces. As yet no unanimity
of opinion has crystallized. While density of traffic influences the
surface wear of the road crust--considerably in the case of earth and
gravel, less for macadam and asphalt, and still less for brick and
concrete--the actual weight of the wheel load seems to have a much
greater destructive effect. The impact due to speed and irregularities
of the road surface, the resiliency of the tires, the proportion of
sprung to unsprung weight, and the shoving forces of the wheels all
have their effects which are usually in some way connected with either
the weight or the speed, or both, of the vehicle. The many experiments
now being carried on by the United States Bureau of Public Roads, and
the several states may furnish data from which a practical measure will
some day be devised. Mr. Older, Chief Highway Engineer of the State
of Illinois, under whose direction the comprehensive investigational
and endurance tests under way in that state are being carried on,
recently stated to a party of visitors, of which the author was one,
that in his opinion weight, including impact, is the prime factor
in the destruction of a pavement. Wear is of very minor importance,
temperature and weather is of considerable importance.

Road surfaces must be considered as bodies acted upon by forces. Some
day the stresses produced by these forces will have been analyzed,
then will it be possible to standardize the importance of the several
vehicle loads. At present it is known that the weight of the load
and the weight of the pavement itself are under some circumstances
sufficient to produce cracks in the pavement and disruption of the road
crust. Bearing tests and bending tests are being devised to measure the
effects of such loads. Road crusts, earth, gravel, macadam, asphalt,
brick, concrete, are to varying degrees elastic bodies and when loaded
they give, as an elastic band stretches, a spring shortens, or a bow
bends, until the internal stresses reach a limiting point where the
crust is broken or permanently distorted. It is well known that the
effect on an elastic body of a suddenly applied load is twice as
destructive as the same load gradually applied. And when the action is
an impact the destructive effect may be very great indeed, depending on
the physical properties of the impinging bodies. But however the load
is applied, whenever the internal stresses reach the limiting strength
of the material of which the road crust is composed it will go to
pieces. The sudden application of the load by fast driving is a sort
of impact. The stresses produced by this impact are now being studied.
Much good is expected to come toward the solution of the problem of
destructive vehicle influence from these researches.

Another effect of speed is noted on the more or less viscous materials
of which road surfaces are composed. The pushing of the wheels against
the surface causes wrinkles which continue to grow until the wrinkles
become waves entirely across the pavement. Such waves may also be
produced by expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature,
but are probably always accentuated by wheel pressure. Side thrust of
wheels often produces longitudinal waves in viscous road crusts.

In the classifications given no one seems to have considered the
proportion of sprung and unsprung weight in the motor car. There can be
no doubt but that the resiliency of the springs relieves the pavement
of very much of the shock of impact. This is illustrated by an attempt
to drive a nail into a springy board. It can hardly be done because
the springiness of the board uses up, absorbs, the work of impact.
A mechanical statement is, the work of impact equals the change in
kinetic energy, or algebraically stated

         _Wv_²
  _Fs_ = -----
          2_g_

when the entire energy has been absorbed. Here _F_ is the acting force
and _s_ the distance through which it acts, _Fs_, is the work done by
the force _F_. _W_ is the weight of the ram or moving body (vehicle,
wheel load), _v_ the velocity of impact and _g_ the acceleration of
gravity, a factor that enters the equation in the expressing of mass in
terms of weight. Solving this equation for _F_ there results,

        _Wv_²
  _F_ = -----,
        2_gs_

which shows that the smaller _s_ is the greater the force of impact
_F_. When _s_ is made long by means of a spring the force _F_ becomes
smaller. This is illustrated by the old method of catching a baseball
without gloves--the hands were allowed to go backward so that the work
of stopping the ball was spread over a greater distance, the impact
force thus becoming so small it did not sting the hands.

The effect upon the road, and also the vehicle, is like that of the
hammer which hits a nail on the anvil. The nail is flattened, pounded
to pieces very soon. But if the nail were not placed upon the solid
anvil but upon a slab of springy steel, it might be pounded all day
without doing it much harm, the spring at all times absorbing the
shock. So with the weight of the vehicle largely sprung the damage
to the roadway is comparatively small. Therefore, it would seem, as
though a fair classification would take into account the springs of the
vehicle.

The pneumatic tire, and the cushion tire and wheel, each act as springs
and shock absorbers in varying degrees. In some of the censuses,
pneumatic or solid tires were noted, and very many of the earlier noted
whether rubber or steel tires were used.

Just how far all these things should be taken into account is
questionable. Whether or not just as good results would not come for
even a simpler classification is not yet determined. It might be that
only the heavy loads and their frequency is all that need be considered
if the destructive effect of traffic alone is aimed at.

The great amount of pleasure riding and the tremendous desire for such
riding should be considered in laying out a system of roads and in the
selection of a type of road, therefore all passenger cars and motor
cycles should be counted and given an influence number.


=Other Methods of Estimating Amount of Traffic.=--The amount of road
traffic may be roughly estimated from the area served by the highway.
Upon a map is outlined the tributary territory and its area measured by
any one of several means. The area may be divided into small squares
of known size and the number of squares counted; it may be divided into
strips and the length of the strips measured with a scale and thence
the area computed, or a planimeter may be used. Having found the area
the unit tonnage is estimated from a knowledge of the character of the
crops raised and the industries in the territory from which the haulage
is calculated. The average haul may be determined, if desired, by
finding approximately the center of gravity of the area and measuring
its distance from the market. If the market place is at the center of a
circle surrounding it and the products are uniformly distributed over
the circle the mean distance is two-thirds the radius of the circle.

The tonnage, arising from farms, which is transported over the roads
varies with the kind of crop, the fertility of the soil, the amount of
stock fed, or kept for dairying, and numerous other local conditions.
Studies made by various authorities[179] indicate that the marketable
products vary from ¹⁄₁₀ to ¹⁄₂ ton per acre. If a circular area with
market place at the center is served by six uniformly distributing
radial roads a mathematical analysis will show that the tonnage upon
each one of these roads, one-sixth that from the whole circle, will be

  _T_ = 335.12_qr_²

  where _T_ = total tons per year,
        _q_ = yield of marketed crops in tons per acre,
        _r_ = maximum haul-radius of the circle.

Dividing _T_ by the number of working days per year (usually taken as
300) gives the average daily haul into the market. The average length
of haul may be taken as ²⁄₃_r_. The haul over any zone whose edges are
concentric with the circle is considered to be all that originating
in the area outside the zone plus that originating within the zone
times the mean distance from the inner edge of the zone. The result of
the analysis gives this equation, for the haul over any zone having an
outer radius _a_, and an inner radius _b_,


  _H_ = _T__{_r_} - _T__{_a_} +


  2_a_² - _ab_ - _b_²
  -------------------(_T__{_a_} - _T__{_b_}),
     3(_a_ + _b_)

where _T__{_r_}, _T__{_a_} and _T__{_b_} represent the tonnage
originating on the sectors of radius _r_, _a_ and _b_ respectively.

For the first mile,

  _a_ = 1, _b_ = 0.

  _H_ = _T__{_r_} - ¹⁄₃(_T__{_a_}).

For the eighth mile,

  _a_ = 8, _b_ = 7.

  _H_ = _T__{_r_} - _T__{8} + ²³⁄₄₅(_T__{8} - _T__{7})

THEORETICAL AVERAGE TONNAGE OF SIX UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED MARKET
ROADS[180]

  -----+-----+--------------------------------------------------------
       |     |               UNIFORM YIELD PER ACRE OF
       |     +-----------------+------------------+-------------------
       |     |  One-tenth Ton  |  One-fourth Ton  |   One-half Ton
       |     +-----+-----------+------+-----------+------+------------
       |     |     |Tons Hauled|      |Tons Hauled|      |Tons Hauled
       |     |     |  per day  |      |  per day  |      |  per day
       |     |Total+-----+-----+ Total+-----+-----+ Total+------+-----
  Maxi-|Aver-|Tons |Over |Over | Tons |Over |Over | Tons | Over |Over
   mum | age | per | 1st |8th  |  per |1st  | 8th |  per | 1st  |8th
   Haul| Haul|Year |Mile |Mile | Year |Mile |Mile | Year | Mile |Mile
  -----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----
    1  | 0.67|  33 | 0.07|     |    84| 0.17|     |   168|  0.34|
    2  | 1.33| 134 | 0.40|     |   335| 1.00|     |   670|  2.01|
    3  | 2.00| 302 | 0.96|     |   754| 2.40|     | 1,508|  4.80|
    4  | 2.67| 536 | 1.74|     | 1,340| 4.36|     | 2,681|  8.71|
    5  | 3.33| 838 | 2.75|     | 2,094| 6.87|     | 4,189| 13.74|
       |     |     |     |     |      |     |     |      |      |
    6  | 4.00|1206 | 3.98|     | 3,016| 9.95|     | 6,031| 19.90|
    7  | 4.67|1642 | 5.43|     | 4,106|13.58|     | 8,211| 27.15|
    8  | 5.33|2145 | 7.11| 0.85| 5,362|17.76| 2.13|10,724| 35.52| 4.25
    9  | 6.00|2714 | 9.00| 2.75| 6,786|22.51| 6.88|13,572| 45.02|13.75
   10  | 6.67|3351 | 4.13| 4.87| 8,378|27.82|12.18|16,756| 55.63|24.35
       |     |     |     |     |      |     |     |      |      |
   11  | 7.33|4056 |13.47| 7.22|10,138|33.68|18.05|20,279| 67.35|36.10
   12  | 8.00|4826 |16.04| 9.79|12,064|40.10|24.48|24,128| 80.20|48.95
   13  | 8.67|5663 |18.83|12.58|14,158|47.08|31.45|28,316| 94.15|62.90
   14  | 9.33|6568 |21.85|15.59|16,420|54.63|38.98|32,840|109.25|77.95
   15  |10.00|7540 |25.09|18.83|18,850|62.73|47.08|37,700|125.45|94.15
  -----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+------+------+-----
 The table shows the theoretical average tonnage on each of six
uniformly distributed radial roads. It is taken from Bulletin 136, U.
S. Department of Agriculture. Since roads do not run in practice in
this manner the results can only be used for comparison in confirming
estimates.

Mr. E. W. James, of the Bureau of Public Roads, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture, makes an analysis of the distribution of traffic over
the roads of a township located along the section lines of the United
States land survey. The market place is taken at the center of the
township.[181]

[Illustration: Graphic representation of distribution of traffic on
roads located along section lines.]

His analysis assumes the lay of the country makes all roads equally
traversable and that the traffic seeks the nearest highway thence to
the main traveled road east and west or north and south through the
market center. This analysis shows that 4.8 per cent of the total
mileage carry 39.3 per cent of the traffic; that 9.5 per cent of the
roads carry 71 per cent of the traffic. In his opinion this analysis
corroborates the observation of engineers to the effect that 20 per
cent of the roads carry 80 per cent of the traffic. Of course the most
important roads, measured in traffic, are the ones nearest the market,
15-22, 15-16, 16-21, 21-22. Following these naming only one of the four
symmetrical roads, in the order of importance are 14-23, 14-13, 13-24,
13-x, 14-15, 11-12, 12-x, 12-13, 1-x, 11-14, and 1-12.

  ------------+----------
  Road between| Relative
    Sections  |Importance
  ------------+----------
     15-22    |   100
     14-23    |    60
     14-13    |    25
     13-24    |    20
     13-x     |    15
     14-15    |    13
     11-12    |     7
     12-x     |     7
     12-13    |     2
      1-x     |     2
     11-14    |     1
      1-12    |     1
  ------------+----------

The same objections to this method hold as to the preceding. Local
conditions always affect the travel on roads; hills, valleys, soil,
drainage, nearness to other cities, railways, streams, and location of
farmhouses, schoolhouses, churches, and factories, all enter into the
estimate. A reconnaissance and the good judgment of the observer must
supplement any method of formal procedure.


=The Selection of a Suitable Type of Road.=--The highway plan should,
if it has been carefully and scientifically made specify the type
of roadway as well as the location of the highway. However, when
the improvement is to be paid for by a special tax on the abutting
land, it is customary to allow the taxpayers to have something to
say about the type. Road engineers often object to this as being
unscientific and unsound, on the theory that the layman is ignorant of
the properties and behavior of road materials and that only an expert
can make the proper selection. The author’s observation is, however,
that hard-headed business men and farmers who have passed through the
experiences of rough knocks are no more likely to make a mistake in
the selection of a road type than is the young engineer fresh from the
halls of college, or the engineer whose experience has prejudiced him
in favor of particular types of road surfacing. The best and fairest
of engineers cannot agree, then why not give the man who must pay the
fiddler an opportunity to dance?

It will be well, nevertheless, for the engineer to suggest a type,
or types, of roadway with his reasons for its or their suitability.
If he can show that one type is superior to another the tax-payer
will usually follow his advice, and agree to the type suggested.
The final decision must rest with the road officials. They should
know the requirements of the road, whether, for example, it is to be
largely commercial or used largely for pleasure; whether durability
or noiselessness is a determining factor; or whether a pleasing
appearance and convenience to the inhabitants living along the way are
of greater importance than directness and low grades. The decision must
be made after taking all things into consideration even to the whims
of the property-holders. The best road for a given location is the
one which at a reasonable cost will give over a long period of time a
service which is most satisfactory to the majority of its users. What
is a reasonable cost and what is satisfactory service are debatable
questions and usually must be compromised to a greater or less extent.

An ideal road is one that is cheap to construct and maintain, one that
is durable, presents light resistance to traffic but is not slippery,
is comfortable to travel and not annoying to users or dwellers along
its side, and one that is easily cleaned and is sanitary. No road can
contain all these qualities to the same degree, neither are they all of
equal importance, but each should be given some weight in the selection.

Perhaps the first and most important item to be considered is the
economic one of cheapness in construction and maintenance. In making
a decision between two types of pavement the first cost will probably
have more weight than will the ultimate cost. The fact that a higher
priced article will last longer and in the end prove to be a saving
has little charm for the man who has not the ready money to pay for the
article. He will content himself with the cheaper until he can afford
the better. If a community cannot pay for a certain type of road, no
matter how desirable that may be, that type cannot be used. Types of
roads must be selected which will utilize the materials most available.
It would seem to be unwise for brick to be shipped from the Middle West
to New England, or granite blocks from New England to the Middle West.
Gravel, being plentiful in many states, is being used, and rightly so,
more than any other road material notwithstanding the durability of a
gravel roadway is less than that of many other types.

Durability is an important factor from an economical standpoint, as
it enters vitally in the long-run cost of a pavement. It is also of
importance on account of the infernal nuisance of having a roadway full
of pot holes and rough places, to say nothing of the inconvenience to
users of frequent repairs. Road officers are no more given to regarding
the adage “a stitch in time saves nine,” than are other people,
consequently non-durable roads are usually more or less out of order.

Durability depends upon the materials used in construction and their
manipulation, proportioning, and other treatment; the character weight
and density of traffic; system or lack of system in making repairs; the
opening up of pavements for water, gas, and sewer or other purposes;
building operations along the street; cleanliness; the absence or
presence of street-car tracks; climate and possibly other factors.


=Materials and Design.=--The physical properties of materials--their
tensile, compressive, and shearing strengths, their elasticity,
brittleness, etc.--while important elements in the durability of
pavements, the design of the pavement, its thickness, the proportioning
and mixing of parts, the laying, as well as the subgrade and its
treatment are all elements that count very much also. No matter
how good a material it can easily be spoiled in the handling. Some
materials like vitrified brick and stone will last indefinitely on a
little-used street while others like asphalt and creosoted wood block
are much better for considerable wear. The use of definite and often
meticulous specifications is to insure good materials and proper
manipulation of the same, while the plans are carefully prepared ahead,
so that durability and satisfaction may result.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

GIVING A MACADAM ROAD AN APPLICATION OF TARVIA BINDER

This is Followed by a Coat of Screenings and then the Road is Rolled
Again.]

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A ROAD OF MIXED ASPHALT AND CONCRETE BEING TESTED OUT]

The effect of character, weight, and density of traffic has been
frequently mentioned and will again be referred to in what follows.
There is no doubt a relationship between materials and design and
the character and amount of traffic. A cinder road may be perfectly
acceptable for a park drive where the traffic is light, but absolutely
worthless under heavy commercial trucking.

Resistance to traffic varies with different road surfaces. A smooth
hard surface offers a very great deal less resistance than does a
rough or soft surface. To illustrate, a horse is said to be able to
pull directly on the traces one-tenth his own weight without being
overworked. With a resistance of 100 pounds per ton (earth road in
medium condition) a team of horses weighing 1200 pounds each could draw
over a level road

  2 × 1200
  -------- = 2.4 tons.
  10 × 100

On a concrete, asphalt or brick pavement having a tractive resistance
of 30 pounds per ton the team could draw

  2 × 1200
  -------- = 8 tons.
   10 × 30

In other words the load that can be drawn is inversely as the tractive
resistance. Here speed was not considered. It was the natural walking
gait of the horse about three miles per hour. If the speed is greater
the load must be cut down proportionally. With a truck the direct pull
is the effective power of the engine in foot-pounds per minute divided
by distance in feet per minute; and the load that can be drawn is the
direct pull times the tractive resistance. Thus if a truck may exert
_h_ effective horse power = 33,000_h_ foot-pounds per minute, and the
speed is v miles per hour, the load _T_, in tons, that may be hauled
on a road having a tractive resistance of _t_ pounds per ton, is

          33,000_h_     375_h_
  _T_ = ------------- = ------.
        5280_v_          _vt_
        ------- · _t_
          60

Therefore a truck of 20 effective horse-power will haul over a road
whose tractive resistance is 100 pounds per ton at a speed of 10 miles
per hour a load of

        375 × 20
  _T_ = -------- = 7.5 tons;
        10 × 100

and on a smooth road with a tractive resistance of 30 pounds per ton at
the same speed, 25 tons, or the same load 7.5 tons may be drawn at a
speed of 33¹⁄₃ miles per hour.

It must be remembered that when the speed is increased the tractive
resistance is likewise increased. The air resistance is in about the
ratio of the square of the velocity, so that 33 miles per hour would be
too great in the last case.

Experiments to determine the tractive resistance due to the surface
vary considerably, for it is impossible to secure like conditions of
surface smoothness and cleanliness, to say nothing of hardness. The
tractive resistance will with some materials vary with the temperature.
That of sheet asphalt, for example, may be twice as much in summer as
in winter. The tractive resistance may not be directly proportional to
the load although it is customary to express it in pounds per ton. It
is conceivable that a heavy load because it sinks into the road crust
may require a greater number of pounds to move it than a light load
that does not greatly sink in. This also leads to the effect of width
of tire and diameter of wheel. Many experiments have shown the tractive
force to be less with wide than narrow tires, due, no doubt, to the
unequal sinking into the road crust. Likewise wheels ought, for the
same reason, to show less resistance for large diameters; in fact some
engineers give it as varying inversely as the diameter of the wheel.

The results of tests, while varying much, show in a general way, the
direct pull necessary to draw a load at slow speed on the level in
well-lubricated wagons to be approximately as follows:

  ----------------------------------------+------------+---------------
                                          |            |μ = coefficient
                                          |Lbs. per Ton|of Resistance
  ----------------------------------------+------------+---------------
  Upon Steel rails                        |     10     |     ¹⁄₂₀₀
       Sheet asphalt, good condition      |     20     |     ¹⁄₁₀₀
       Asphaltic macadam or concrete, good|            |
       condition                          |     20     |     ¹⁄₁₀₀
       Concrete, good condition           |     20     |     ¹⁄₁₀₀
       Brick, good condition              |     20     |     ¹⁄₁₀₀
       Broken stone water-bound macadam,  |            |
       good condition                     |     30     |     ³⁄₂₀₀
       Gravel, good condition             |     30     |     ³⁄₂₀₀
       Sand clay, good condition          |     60     |     ³⁄₁₀₀
       Earth, best condition              |     67     |     ¹⁄₃₀
       Earth, medium condition            |    100     |     ¹⁄₂₀
       Earth, poor condition              |    300     |     ³⁄₂₀
  ----------------------------------------+------------+---------------


=Resistance Due to Grade.=--The resistance due to grade is just as
marked as that due to surface. The work necessary to draw a load up an
inclined plane is the same as that of drawing on a level along the base
of the plane and lifting it directly up to the height of the plane. A
mathematical analysis[182] based upon this fact leads to the formulas:
For a horse-drawn load,

        _t_ - _g_
  _L_ = ---------_H_.  (1)
         μ + _g_

For a tractor,

          _P_
  _L_ = ------- - _T_.  (2)
        μ + _g_

For an automobile or truck,

          _P_
  _L_ = -------,  (3)
        μ + _g_

  where _L_ = weight of load drawn, including weight of vehicle
              (subtract weight of vehicle for net load);
        _H_ = weight of horse;
        _T_ = weight of tractor;
        _P_ = effective tractive force exerted (available engine
              effort);
         μ  = coefficient of road resistance;
        _g_ = grade (gradient) = tangent of angle of incline, nearly the
              same for small angles as the sine of the angle of incline,
              that is, the height of the incline divided by its length;
        _t_ = the direct pull of the horse divided by the weight of the
              horse;
        _h_ = horse-power = work of 33,000 ft.-lb. per minute.
        _v_ = velocity in miles per hour.

Equation (3) indicates that the load, including its own weight, that
a truck or an automobile can draw varies directly as the horse-power
exerted effectively, and inversely as the velocity. Also it decreases
as the coefficient of road resistance, μ, and the gradient _g_
increases.

The resistance coefficient, μ may include axle or internal resistance
of the vehicle plus road surface resistance plus air resistance. The
axle resistance is nearly a constant, the road resistance likewise, but
the air resistance depends upon the speed _v_, varying approximately as
the square of the velocity. W. S. James, in the _Journal of the Society
of Automotive Engineers_, June, 1921, uses the formula

  _F_ = _CAV_²

  where _F_ = the wind force in pounds;
        _C_ = a constant, varies from .003 to .004;
        _A_ = frontal area of automobile in square feet
              approximately 26;
        _V_ = velocity in miles per hour.

His researches show that the available engine effort _P_ of equation
(3) or horse power _h_ is not quite constant but varies with the speed.
His table follows:

  ---------+-----------------------+---------------------------
           |Available Engine Effort|
  Car Speed|  Per 1000 lb. of Car  |Air Resistance Per 1000 lb.
   m.p.h.  |     Weight, Lbs.      |    of Car Weight, Lbs.
  ---------+-----------------------+---------------------------
     15    |         107.3         |            4.9
     16    |         105.2         |            6.8
     20    |         107.6         |            8.8
     25    |         106.0         |           13.4
     30    |         103.9         |           19.2
     35    |         101.2         |           26.0
     40    |          98.0         |           34.1
     45    |          94.1         |           43.4
     50    |          86.8         |           53.8
  ---------+-----------------------+---------------------------

Returning to Equation (3) which has been plotted in two different ways
on page 260, it may be seen that the load that can be hauled up a grade
decreases with the per cent of grade very rapidly for the roads having
a small coefficient of resistance and very much less rapidly for larger
resistances. For example, on steel rails, resistance 10 pounds per ton,
μ = ¹⁄₂₀₀, a 1 per cent grade reduces the load to one-third the load
that may be hauled on the level, and a 5 per cent grade reduces it to
less than one-tenth of the same load. With a good asphalt, brick or
concrete road, resistance 20 pounds per ton, μ = ¹⁄₁₀₀, a 1 per cent
grade reduces the load to one-half, while a 5 per cent grade reduces it
to about one-sixth the load that can be drawn on a level road. While
for an earth road in bad condition or a dry sand road, 300 pounds per
ton resistance, μ = ³⁄₂₀, a five per cent grade only reduces the level
grade load by one-fourth. This shows clearly that the better the road
surface the less the grade must be in order to benefit by it. The plots
on page 260 show the same thing in different ways, and also that the
maximum load that can be hauled with a given force at a constant speed
is greater, no matter what the grade, on the better types of roads than
on the poorer, but that the very great advantages due to hard roads
come with the better type of roads. Incidentally this plot shows that
the load that may be hauled, other things being equal, on steel tracks,
is very much greater than that that can be hauled on the best hard
surfaced road with same power, therefore it will never be possible to
haul loads on highways as cheaply as on railways unless the operating
expenses on the highways can be made materially less than on railways.

[Illustration: Graphical representation of the effect of grade on the
load that can be drawn.]

[Illustration: Graphical representation of the effect of road
resistance on the load that may be drawn.]


=Slipperiness.=--Road surfaces which become slippery not only decrease
the tractive effort of horses and motors but are very dangerous also.
Non-slipperiness ought then to be given weight in the selection of
the type of roadway. Observations in London in 1873 by Heywood on
slipperiness of pavements indicated granite-block most slippery,
then asphalt and wood-block. Greene, in 1885, analyzing a series
of observations made in the principal cities of the United States,
gave the order of slipperiness as wood-block, granite-block, and
sheet-asphalt.

Slipperiness increases with grade. A special committee upon road
materials of the American Society of Civil Engineers[183] recommend the
following maximum grades for various kinds of pavements:

  --------------------------------+-------------
                                  |Maximum Grade
          Kinds of Roadway        |  Per Cent
  --------------------------------+-------------
  Gravel                          |     12
  Broken stone                    |     12
  Bituminous surface              |      6
  Bituminous macadam              |      8
  Bituminous concrete             |      8
  Sheet asphalt                   |      5
  Cement concrete                 |      8
  Brick, cement grout filler      |      6
  Brick, bituminous filler        |     12
  Stone-block, cement grout filler|      9
  Stone-block, bituminous filler  |     15
  Wood-block                      |      4
  --------------------------------+-------------

This would indicate that in the belief of the committee slipperiness is
about in the inverse ratio of the grades. Those on which the steepest
grades are allowed being the least slippery.

Climatic conditions affect slipperiness. Roads which are non-slippery
in dry weather may be very slippery in wet weather. Pavements having a
small amount of clay or earth on them are quite slippery when dampened,
but after a hard rain may be much less slippery. Earth roads that have
been thoroughly dragged are much more slippery immediately after a
small shower than after a hard or soaking rain. Stone blocks and brick
are worse after they have worn turtle-backed. Ice and sleet render all
pavements slippery, but some more than others.


=Sanitariness.=--The sanitariness of a road is the measure of the
effect it has on the health of its users and the dwellers along its
side. A dusty road is ordinarily an unsanitary one because of the
germs of disease carried on the dust particles and which may be widely
spread by the wind. An earth or gravel road when not dry or dusty is
a sanitary road. A concrete or asphalt pavement when clean is very
sanitary, but because dirt and debris brought upon it soon becomes
ground into dust may become more unsanitary than an earth road. Mud,
when clean, if that expression may be allowed, is sanitary, but when
mixed on the road with the droppings of animals, sputum and other
unclean things may become very unsanitary.


=Noisiness.=--Noisiness is a real source of disease, especially mental
disorders. The less noisy types of pavement are usually laid in front
of hospitals.


=Acceptability.=--The acceptability of a roadway depends in addition
to the things mentioned on its looks, appearance, esthetics; on the
degree of heat and light which it reflects; upon its springiness and
comfortableness to travel over as well as its easiness upon horses’
feet and rubber tires.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

CROWNING A CALIFORNIA DIRT ROAD WITH TRACTOR DRAWN GRADER]


=Some Types of Roads and Their Qualities.=--_Earth Roads._--The good
qualities are: low first cost, not slippery, noiseless, easy on horses’
feet and on rubber tires, comfortable when in first-class condition.
The poor qualities are: high tractive resistance, not durable, high
cost of maintenance when traffic becomes dense, requiring constant
attention to be kept in good condition, difficult to clean, muddy in
wet weather, dusty in dry weather, choppy when dust blows away, rut
easily, wear down rapidly under heavy traffic especially in windy
localities, uncomfortable except when in prime condition. Adaptability:
Satisfactory for light or medium traffic when properly drained and
constantly maintained. It will probably pay to put in better roads when
the traffic amounts to more than 400 vehicle-tons per day.


_Sand-clay Roads._--The good and poor qualities are about the same as
for earth roads. In fact they are earth roads with a selected mixture
of sand and clay. They are more durable, harder and smoother than the
ordinary earth road. They are appropriate for a light or medium traffic
and are especially adaptable for sandy stretches or over clay or gumbo
soils. The cost will depend upon the availability of materials; the
cost of maintenance should be no more or very little more than earth
roads. They should be good up to 800 vehicle-tons per day.


_Gravel Roads._--The good qualities are: moderately hard, compact,
and smooth, not slippery, noiseless, easy on horses’ feet, and not
very hard on tires, not muddy, are comfortable, and low in first cost.
Poor qualities: rut rather easily and require constant attention to
keep them in first-class condition, dusty in dry weather. Gravel
sometimes becomes loose on top and rolls under fast moving vehicles,
causing skidding. When not thoroughly compacted gravel roads have high
tractive resistance. They are particularly well adapted to country
roads under medium traffic, especially where gravel may be obtained
at a reasonable cost near at hand. At the present time more miles of
gravel roads than of any other type of surface are being constructed in
the United States. This is because of their low first cost and general
satisfactory character for medium traffic.


_Macadam Roads._--Moderate first cost and when well compacted smooth
but not slippery. They require new dust continually to keep the stones
cemented together. Under rubber tires the dust is not worn off the
stones and what little there is on the roadway is picked up and spread
to the winds. If covered with tar or asphaltic oil the stones cement
together and form excellent roadways under medium traffic, where there
are no extremely heavy trucks to cut through the surface. Traffic up to
1200 vehicle-tons per day is accommodated well by these roads.

_Bituminous macadam roads_ are ordinary macadam roads impenetrated
with bituminous materials. When well made they are excellent roadways,
and unless extremely heavy trucking comes upon them ought to prove
satisfactory for medium to moderately heavy traffic.

_Bituminous Concrete Roads_ are made of broken stone mixed with a
bituminous cement before laying and rolling. They, like bituminous
macadam, are smooth, non-slippery, easy riding, have small tractive
resistance and the first cost and cost of maintenance are moderate.
Such roads have proven very satisfactory where the traffic is dense but
not composed of real heavy units. On account of their dustlessness and
general sanitary character as well as for their durability they are
deservedly popular.


_Brick Roads._--Vitrified paving brick give a hard durable surface,
reasonably smooth and not slippery. The cost of maintenance is low and
the appearance is good. Brick roads are expensive as a heavy concrete
foundation is necessary, and they are noisy. They are well adapted for
heavy hauling.


_Concrete Roads._--This type of roadway is rapidly forging to
the front. With the exception of gravel it leads in mileage of
hard-surfaced roads. When made of good concrete sufficiently thick
it has proven itself to be durable, hard, smooth, of small tractive
resistance, comfortable, and not particularly expensive in first cost
or maintenance.

With horse-drawn iron-tired vehicles it is doubtful if it would prove
as durable as some other types but for rubber tired motorized vehicles
it seems to be extremely well adapted. There is no doubt but that this
type will continue to be popular. It has a tendency to crack under
the action of temperature and moisture. It is customary to fill these
cracks with tar, pitch or asphalt, giving an appearance which some
people think not pleasing. The pavement is rigid and noisy, therefore
objectionable for some localities.


_Creosoted Wood Block Roads._--Wood blocks treated with creosote to
preserve them from decay make an excellent pavement. They are smooth,
durable, noiseless and sanitary, have small tractive resistance and
are comfortable to ride upon. The principal objection is their habit
of “bleeding” in the summer time. The sticky oil tar that oozes out
is very objectionable, as it adheres to shoes and is tracked into
houses. The first cost is considerable, but maintenance is low for many
years after laying. Wood block roadways seem well adapted for bridge
floors, for stable and shop floors, and for heavy teaming when placed
on a substantial concrete foundation. They seem to last better for a
moderate or semi-heavy use; when left idle they are more subject to
decay.

_Asphalt Block Roads_ have proven satisfactory for both country and
city roads where the traffic is reasonably heavy. They are laid on both
cement concrete and asphaltic concrete bases. They are smooth, easy
riding, have light tractive resistance, are not very noisy, and are
sanitary. The dark color is rather pleasing.

_Sheet Asphalt Roads and Streets_, considering their cost, durability,
smoothness, ease of riding, low tractive resistance, and general
acceptability, are among the most popular roads. What has been said
of sheet asphalt will apply to asphaltic concrete of the Topeka
specification and bitulithic types. The road is better for use. The
asphalt and sand surface has the habit of swelling and cracking when
not used. The proportioning and laying of a sheet asphalt surface is
a particular job and requires a person of technical knowledge and
experience to do it properly. Sheet-asphalt pavements seem well adapted
for city streets and roads where there is a medium or dense traffic.
With a firm foundation it stands up well under the heaviest traffic.
Its popularity is truly deserved. The pavement under some conditions of
moisture is inclined to be slippery but when dry is not. Neither is it
very noisy.


_Miscellaneous._--There are numerous other types of roads that have
their proper uses in many localities. Burned clay, shell, furnace slag,
coal slack, cinders, plank, corduroy, hay, bagasse, and possibly other
materials have and will continue to be used with more or less success.
The proper places for their use will depend upon local conditions which
every good engineer always takes into account before deciding upon a
type of roadway.


=Comparison of Roads.=--In order to compare the relative merits of
different types of roads weights are usually given to the different
qualities entering into the roadway that they may be compared with
a predetermined ideal. It must be remembered that such tables apply
only to the particular road for which they are made out. No two can be
exactly alike.

Here is one adapted from the author’s work on “Highway
Engineering.”[184]

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF SEVERAL TYPES OF ROADWAY FOR SOME PARTICULAR
LOCALITY

  -----------------------+----------+-----+----+------+-------+-----+
                         |Ideal Road|     |    |      |       |     |
           Qualities     | for this |Best |Sand|      |       |     |
                         |Particular|Earth|Clay|Gravel|Macadam|Brick|
                         | Location |Road |Road| Road | Road  |Road |
  -----------------------+----------+-----+----+------+-------+-----+
  Low first cost         |    20    | 20  | 16 |  16  |  15   | 10  |
  Low cost of maintenance|    20    | 15  | 15 |  10  |   8   |  9  |
  Ease of traction       |    10    |  1  |  4 |   6  |   8   | 10  |
  Non-slipperiness       |    10    |  9  |  9 |   9  |   9   |  8  |
  Noiselessness          |     5    |  5  |  5 |   5  |   4   |  1  |
  Healthfulness          |    10    |  5  |  5 |   6  |   8   |  9  |
  Freedom from dust and  |          |     |    |      |       |     |
  mud                    |    10    |  1  |  2 |   3  |   4   |  9  |
  Comfortable to use     |    10    |  3  |  4 |   5  |   6   |  8  |
  Appearance             |     5    |  2  |  3 |   3  |   4   |  3  |
                         +----------+-----+----+------+-------+-----+
    Total                |   100    | 61  | 63 |  63  |  66   | 69  |
  -----------------------+----------+-----+----+------+-------+-----+

  -----------------------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------
                         |        |       |         |          |
                         |        |       |Creosoted|          |
                         |Concrete|Asphalt|  Wood   |Bituminous| Sheet
         Qualities       |  Road  | Block |  Block  | Concrete |Asphalt
  -----------------------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------
  Low first cost         |   12   |  10   |    8    |    14    |  13
  Low cost of maintenance|    8   |   8   |   10    |     8    |  10
  Ease of traction       |   10   |   9   |    9    |     9    |  10
  Non-slipperiness       |    5   |   5   |    5    |     5    |   5
  Noiselessness          |    1   |   2   |    4    |     2    |   2
  Healthfulness          |    9   |   9   |    8    |     9    |   9
  Freedom from dust and  |        |       |         |          |
  mud                    |    9   |   9   |    9    |     9    |   9
  Comfortable to use     |    8   |   9   |    9    |     9    |   9
  Appearance             |    4   |   5   |    5    |     5    |   5
                         +--------+-------+---------+----------+-------
      Total              |   66   |  66   |   67    |    70    |  72
  -----------------------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------

Tilson gives the following weights for city pavements having heavy
traffic:[185]

  --------------------+----------+-------+-----+-----+-------+----------
                      |          |Granite|Wood |     | Sheet |
   Pavement Qualities |Percentage| Block |Block|Brick|Asphalt|Bitulithic
  --------------------+----------+-------+-----+-----+-------+----------
  Cheapness           |    14    |   8   |  8  | 13  |  14   |    12
  Durability          |    21    |  21   | 16  | 12  |  15   |    15
  Easiness of cleaning|    15    |  10   | 14  | 15  |  14   |    14
  Light resistance to |          |       |     |     |       |
  traffic             |    15    |  13   | 14  | 15  |  11   |    12
  Non-slipperiness    |     7    |   7   |  4  |  6  |   5   |     6
  Ease of maintenance |    10    |  10   |  8  |  6  |   6   |     6
  Favorableness to    |          |       |     |     |       |
  travel              |     5    |   2   |  5  |  3  |   4   |     4
  Sanitariness        |    13    |   9   | 13  | 10  |  12   |    12
                      +----------+-------+-----+-----+-------+----------
    Total             |   100    |  80   | 82  | 80  |  81   |    81
  Less cheapness      |          |  72   | 74  | 67  |  67   |    69
  --------------------+----------+-------+-----+-----+-------+----------

The Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture presents the
following table:

  --------------------+----------+-------+-------+------+-------+-----
                      |          |Granite| Sheet |      |       | Wood
   Pavement Qualities |Percentage| Block |Asphalt|Brick |Macadam|Block
  --------------------+----------+-------+-------+------+-------+-----
  Cheapness           |    14    |  4    |  6¹⁄₂ |  7   | 14    | 4¹⁄₂
  Durability          |    20    | 20    | 10    | 12¹⁄₂|  6    |14
  Ease of maintenance |    10    |  9¹⁄₂ |  7¹⁄₂ |  8¹⁄₂|  4¹⁄₂ | 9¹⁄₂
  Ease of cleaning    |    14    | 10    | 14    | 12¹⁄₂|  6    |14
  Low resistance to   |          |       |       |      |       |
  traffic             |    14    |  8¹⁄₂ | 14    | 12¹⁄₂|  8    |14
  Non-slipperiness    |     7    |  5¹⁄₂ |  3¹⁄₂ |  5¹⁄₂|  6¹⁄₂ | 4
  Favorableness to    |          |       |       |      |       |
  travel              |     4    |  2¹⁄₂ |  4    |  3   |  3    | 3¹⁄₂
  Acceptability       |     4    |  2    |  3¹⁄₂ |  2¹⁄₂|  2¹⁄₂ | 4
  Sanitary qualities  |    13    |  9    | 13    | 10¹⁄₂|  4¹⁄₂ |12¹⁄₂
                      +----------+-------+-------+------+-------+-----
                      |   100    | 71    | 76    | 74¹⁄₂| 55    |80
  --------------------+----------+-------+-------+------+-------+-----

Crosby gives three sets of ideal crusts for country roads: _V_ for main
roads, carrying a fairly heavy mixed traffic, _W_, secondary roads
carrying moderate traffic, and _X_ on minor roads with light farm
travel almost wholly.[186]

  -----------------------+-----------+-----+--------+----------+--------
  Components             |   Ideal   |     | Plain  |          | Water-
                         +---+---+---+     | Cement |Bituminous| bound
                         |_V_|_W_|_X_|Brick|Concrete| Macadam  |Macadam
  -----------------------+---+---+---+-----+--------+----------+--------
  First cost, cheapness  | 15| 15| 15|  8  |   10   |    10    |   15
  Maintenance, cheapness | 25| 25| 20| 25  |   20   |    20    |   10
  Durability             |  7|  7|  7|  7  |    5   |     5    |    3
  Ease of maintenance    |  8| 10| 10|  7  |    8   |     8    |   10
  Cleanliness            |  5|  5|  5|  3  |    3   |     5    |    2
  Low tractive resistance| 10|  5|  5|  5  |    4   |     4    |    4
  Non-slipperiness       | 10| 10| 10|  4  |    7   |     5    |   10
  Sanitariness           |  5|  5|  5|  4  |    4   |     5    |    3
  Noiselessness          |  5|  5|  5|  3  |    3   |     5    |    4
  Acceptability          |  5|  5|  8|  2  |    3   |     4    |    5
  Favorableness to travel|  5|  8| 10|  3  |    5   |     6    |    8
                         +---+---+---+-----+--------+----------+--------
      Total              |100|100|100| 71  |   72   |    77    |   74
  -----------------------+---+---+---+-----+--------+----------+--------

Anderson gives the following economical table to assist in arriving at
a proper type of surfacing:[187]

METHOD OF MAKING ECONOMICAL COMPARISON OF ROAD SURFACES

  -----------------------------------------+---------------------------
                                           |Possible Types of Surfacing
                     Item                  +--------+--------+---------
                                           |  _A_   |  _B_   |   _C_
  -----------------------------------------+--------+--------+---------
  Estimated life of surface with proper    |        |        |
  maintenance, years                       |   4    |   8    |   12
  Original construction cost per mile      |$ 8,000 |$15,000 | $30,000
  Annual charges for interest, depreciation|        |        |
  and resurfacing                          |  2,364 |  2,528 |   3,797
  Cost of maintaining surface per mile,    |        |        |
  average, annual                          |  1,000 |    750 |     200
  Total cost per mile at end of 12th year, |        |        |
  period                                   | 40,368 | 39,336 |  47,964
  Value of road surface per mile at end of |        |        |
  12th year period                         |  ....  |  7,500 |  12,000
  Net outlay per mile of road              | 40,368 | 32,836 |  35,964
  -----------------------------------------+--------+--------+---------

The choice of selection here is evidently between _B_ and _C_, with
the figures so close together that the one with the least number of
uncertainties would probably be adopted if economy is the determining
factor.

Another method of making economical comparisons is shown in the table
and plot following:

  ---------------------+------+------+----------+--------+
                       |   1  |  2   |    3     |   4    |
                       |      |      |Bituminous|        |
          Item         |      |      | Macadam  |Portland|
                       |Earth |Gravel|   and    | Cement |
                       | Road | Road | concrete |Concrete|
  ---------------------+------+------+----------+--------+
  First cost per mile  |$1,000|$5,000| $10,000  |$20,000 |
  Annual Interest, 5   |      |      |          |        |
  per cent             |    50|   250|     500  |  1,000 |
  Annual Maintenance   |   250|   250|     500  |    100 |
  Life of surface, yrs.|     0|     5|      10  |     20 |
  Cost of resurfacing  |  $  0|$2,500| $ 5,000  |$15,000 |
  Annual Sinking Fund  |      |      |          |        |
  3¹⁄₂ per cent        |     0|   466|     427  |    530 |
  Annual Total Cost    |   300|   966|   1,427  |  1,630 |
  Daily Cost, per mile | 0.82 | 2.74 |   3.90   |  4.45  |
  ---------------------+------+------+----------+--------+

  ---------------------+----------+-------+-------
                       |    5     |   6   |   7
                       |          |       |
          Item         |  Sheet   | Brick |
                       | Asphalt  | Stone | Wood
                       |Bitulithic| Block | Block
  ---------------------+----------+-------+-------
  First cost per mile  | $30,000  |$40,000|$50,000
  Annual Interest, 5   |          |       |
  per cent             |   1,500  |  2,000|  2,500
  Annual Maintenance   |     100  |     50|     50
  Life of surface, yrs.|      20  |     25|     25
  Cost of resurfacing  | $15,000  |$25,000|$35,000
  Annual Sinking Fund  |          |       |
  3¹⁄₂ per cent        |     530  |    884|    899
  Annual Total Cost    |   2,130  |  2,934|  3,449
  Daily Cost, per mile |   5.84   | 8.03  | 9.46
  ---------------------+----------+-------+-------

[Illustration: _Plot showing cost of several types of roads under
varying traffic density. When the traffic density of road No. 1 (Earth
and sand clay) becomes greater than 300 or 400 vehicles per day the
curve would turn up because the maintenance costs would be increased.
Similarly for Nos. 2 and 3 for 1600 to 2000 vehicles per day._]


SELECTED REFERENCES

  “American Civil Engineers’ Pocket-Book,” Sec. 15, Art. 4, John Wiley
  & Sons, New York.

  “American Highway Engineers’ Handbook,” p. 1360, John Wiley & Sons,
  New York.

  American Society of Civil Engineers, _Proceedings_, 1918, p. 2327.

  ANDERSON, ANDREW P., “Modern Road Building and Maintenance.” Hercules
  Powder Co., Chicago.

  _Automotive Industries_, “The Motor Bus Field as a Market for
  Trucks,” Vol. XLV, pp. 627-628, Sept. 29, 1921; “Weight of Trucks,”
  May 18, 1922.

  BLANCHARD AND DROWNE, “Textbook of Highway Engineering,” Chap. II,
  John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  BULLARD, GENERAL ROBERT LEE, “The Motor Truck’s Importance on the
  Battle Front of France,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New
  York.

  CHATBURN, GEORGE R., “Highway Engineering--Rural Roads and
  Pavements,” pp. 22-28; John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  COLLINS, J. A., “Transportation Surveys for Rural Express Routes,”
  _Good Roads_, March 17, 1919.

  Cornell Agricultural College Bulletin No. 205; Ithaca, New York.

  CRISSEY, FORREST, “Our New Transportation System,” _Saturday Evening
  Post_, December 16, 1922, p. 14.

  CROSBY, W. W., “The Scientific Selection of Pavements,” _Municipal
  Journal_, May 29, 1913.

  DALTON, JAMES C., “Highways Must Be Made Self-supporting,”
  _Automotive Industries_, May 25, 1922.


  _Good Roads._--“Benefits of a National Highway System,” A committee
  report of the American Road Builders Association, Jan. 19, 1919.

  HAYDOCK, WINTERS, “The Pittsburgh Traffic Count,” _Proceedings of the
  Engineering Society of Western Pennsylvania_, Vol. XXVII, pp. 477-513.

  HIRST, A. R., “Laying out Wisconsin Trunk Line Highways,” _Good
  Roads_.

  HORINE, M. C., “Economics of Motor Transport,” _Journal of the
  Society of Automotive Engineers_, May, 1922.

  JAMES, E. W., “Distribution of Traffic on a Rectangular System,”
  _Engineering Record_, Vol. LXXIV, p. 439.

  JOHNSON, A. N., “The Traffic Census,” _Public Roads_, Dec. 1920,
  Appendix; also p. 16.

  “Traffic Census and its Use in Deciding Road Width,” _Public Roads_,
  July, 1921, p. 7.

  JADWIN, COLONEL EDGAR, “Relation of the War Department to Improved
  Highways.” Bulletin No. 25 of the Texas Engineering Experiment
  Station, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, May 1, 1922,
  p. 40.

  MACDONALD, “Classification and Uses of Highways,” _Engineering
  News-Record_, Vol. LXXXIII, pp. 984-985, 635.

  Massachusetts Highway Commission Report, 1912.

  SIMONDS, FRANK H., “History of the World War,” Vol. I, p. 118, Vol.
  V, p. 115. Doubleday, Page & Company, New York.

  New Jersey State Highway Commission, Committee Report on Traffic
  Census--_Engineering News-Record_, Vol. LXXXVI, p. 338.

  TAYLOR, COLONEL B., “Similarity of Military and Commercial Motor
  Transportation,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York.

  United States Bureau of Public Roads, “A Study of the California
  Highway System,” _Public Roads_, pp. 124, 136-138, 196-197, 200-209.

  United States Census Reports.

  United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Statistics
  Bulletin 49. Bureau of Forestry Bulletin.


FOOTNOTES

  [173] Highway is sometimes used in the sense of greater importance
  and road in that of less, as in the expression “highways and roads.”
  Baker in his “Roads and Pavements” uses roads to indicate unpaved
  highways.

  [174] See _Engineering News Record_, Vol. LXXXIII, p. 985.

  [175] “Economies of Motor Transport,” by Merrill C. Horine, Engineer
  International Motor Company, New York City, in the _Journal of the
  Society of Automotive Engineers_, May, 1922.

  [176] See Simonds’ “History of the World War,” Vols. I and V.

  [177] “Am. Civ. Eng’s. Pocketbook,” Sec. 15, Art. 4, Wiley & Sons, N.
  Y.

  [178] Report of Third International Road Congress, 1913.

  [179] Bulletin 205, Cornell Agricultural College; Bulletin 136, U. S.
  Department of Agriculture; Bulletin 49, Bureau of Statistics, U. S.
  Dept. of Agr. Reports of the 1910 U. S. Census.

  [180] From Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

  [181] _Engineering Record_, Vol. LXXIV, p. 439.

  [182] See “Highway Engineering,” by G. R. Chatburn, pp. 22 to 28,
  Wiley & Sons, New York, publishers.

  [183] Am. Soc. C. E. Proceedings, 1918, p. 2327.

  [184] “Highway Engineering--Rural Roads and Pavements,” by George R.
  Chatburn, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  [185] “American Highway Engineers’ Handbook,” p. 1360, Wiley & Sons,
  New York.

  [186] “The Scientific Selection of Pavements,” by W. W. Crosby, in
  _Municipal Journal_, May 29, 1913.

  [187] “Modern Road Building and Maintenance,” by Andrew P. Anderson.




CHAPTER IX

EFFECT OF EASE AND COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON PRODUCTION AND MARKETING


The creation of economic utilities by the application of the mental and
physical powers of man to the materials of nature is called production.
Grass grew abundantly for thousands of years over the great plains
of the Mississippi valley, but there was no production until it was
utilized by the hand of man for economical purposes. Just so far as
change came to that grass through the application of labor, physical
or mental, or stored up in capital, there was production. Productive
activities may be classified as those which have to do with: (1) a
change in form, (2) a change in place, (3) a change in the potential
time of use. Productive activities add to the materials as received
other values, namely, form utilities, place utilities, and time
utilities. The farmer through the processes of sowing, cultivating
and harvesting, is instrumental in changing the elements of nature
into grain, of adding form utility; it is transported over the roads
and railways to elevators, thus is added place utility; it is there
stored until needed thereby the third or time utility is attached. In
the illustration just given wheat stored in the bin is considered the
finished product. But a finished product of one productive activity may
be the raw product of another. For instance, the wheat is taken from
the bin and ground into flour, the flour transported to the place of
storage, and held as a finished product until it is wanted by another
productive activity in which the flour is the raw product. The baker
takes the raw product, flour, molds and bakes it into bread, which is
held by the merchant for sale. The wheat thus has passed through the
three productive processes three different times. Other things may have
passed through more before the final consumptive process occurs.

Production is very commonly thought of as being only the first one of
the three operations, but the changes brought about by the transporter
and the merchant are productive of economic wealth through the
application of human physical and mental efforts hence are as truly a
part of production as is the first operation.

The factors which enter into production are by some economists given as
nature and labor, by others as land, labor, and capital. Under nature
or land are included all natural elements, external to man, such as the
forces of cohesion, gravitation, of moving air and water, and also the
stored-up riches of nature. Under labor are placed all those things or
utilities which have been added by the application of human endeavor,
either mental or physical. Physical strength in and of itself is not
sufficient, for the productive output increases with mental strength.
The ox or the horse is capable of exerting greater physical force
than is man, but without the guiding, directing force of man’s mind
it would produce nothing. Moral qualifications are also placed under
the general heading “labor” as they affect production. Temperance,
dependability, prudence, frugality, etc., have in them productive
elements of importance the same as the intellectual qualifications of
quick perception, alertness, imagination reason and judgment.

Capital has been frequently defined as stored-up labor. It is the
finished product of some previous effort, but as wheat and flour may
be considered as intermediate products between nature and bread,
so capital may be looked upon as an intermediate product between
nature and more labor necessary to produce anew. “Its own origin,
its existence, its subsequent action are nothing but stages in the
continuous working of the true elements, nature and labor.”[188]
Capital--raw materials, tools, machines, buildings, equipment, means
for transportation and selling, stored products--is absolutely
essential to more production, hence may be considered as an independent
factor, although it may have been the product of previous labor allied
to natural powers.

From what has been said it will be readily seen that transportation
and marketing (selling) are a part of the process of production.
Transportation can be divided into two classes: primary, transportation
upon the public roads; and secondary, transportation on railroads,
canals, steamboats and steamships. Marketing is likewise divided into
two classes: wholesaling and retailing. The wholesaler buys goods in
quantity from the manufacturer and sells them to the jobber who in
turn sells them to the retailer. The jobber usually divides the larger
purchased quantities into smaller or job lots in any quantity suitable
to the retailer. The wholesaler and the jobber may be combined into one
individual or firm. The jobber will, usually, not sell directly to the
consumer; he sells only to retailers. The retailers frequently have a
sort of “gentlemen’s” agreement with the jobber not to buy directly
from the producer. This sort of complicated machinery often involves
more expense than direct trading. After each of the transactions
mentioned there is usually a change of place and a waiting in store.


=Grain Exchanges.=--In the grain business there has been developed a
great system of selling through commission merchants, that is, the
selling agents take commissions on the sales for their remuneration.
A limited number of the commission merchants of a particular city
organize themselves into incorporated bodies for the purpose of
providing themselves with houses and facilities for doing business and
establishing rules for the transaction of the same. Such organizations
with places of doing business are known as Grain Exchanges or Boards of
Trade. The Board of Trade of Chicago, the most noted grain market in
the world, was established in 1846.

Mr. Vincent of the Omaha Grain Exchange explains the matter as
follows:[189]

  Suppose that a group of twenty-five mule breeders in Missouri came to
  Omaha to sell several hundred mules, and buyers assemble from several
  states. The mule dealers find a vacant lot in a convenient locality
  and secure permission to use it temporarily. It is the mule market,
  or mule exchange. The buyers and sellers meet and dicker, each trying
  to secure the best bargain he can. Every purchase or sale is an
  individual transaction--between one seller and one buyer. The vacant
  lot or “mule exchange” has nothing to do in the transaction--it
  occupies no place in the trade. It is simply the location where the
  traders gather for their own convenience. If the traders hire a clerk
  to act for all in settling the trades and collecting the money, it
  is simply because the clerk has the knowledge of a technical nature
  not possessed by all traders and his employment is a convenience to
  all concerned. He represents the individual traders and not the mule
  market.

  Now translate mules into cars of grain and the “vacant lot” into
  a board of trade building erected for the convenience of traders
  engaged in a permanent business. The transactions held on the board
  of trade are the individual trades between the individual seller
  and buyers, just the same as in the mule market. The board of trade
  is simply the location where buyers come to meet sellers (or their
  agents the commission men.)

Vincent’s theory that the board of trade is the “location where” is
hardly inclusive enough, for only a favored few who have “purchased
seats” or are stockholders of the incorporation are privileged to buy
and sell on the board of trade, that is, are a part of an organization
known as a board of trade. His own pamphlet states that he is a “Member
of the Omaha Grain Exchange.”

Vincent defines a commission merchant as “the agent of men (1) who do
not have enough grain to sell so they can afford the time and expense
to come with the grain so as personally to make the sale, and (2) who
would be meeting strangers and who would not know which of the buyers
might want the particular kind or grade he might have for sale.” He
contends that it is not only an economy to the seller to employ the
services of the commission merchant but that it is necessary to have
the selling done by some one “who knows who the buyers are in the
various lines--corn, oats, barley, and wheat of the different kinds
and qualities,” and who knows “the inspection rules and sees that the
grain is properly graded--in short” one who “does for his employer, or
principal, all those things that he would do for himself if he were in
the central market and acquainted with the buyers.”

Vincent upholds the custom of dealing in futures, as it furnishes a
sort of insurance to the legitimate dealer in grain. When the local
dealer buys, say, 10,000 bushels of wheat which by ordinary methods
of business may require from two to four weeks to get to the terminal
marketing point, he at the same time sells on board of trade 10,000
bushels for future delivery, thus “hedging” the purchase. If wheat goes
up he gains on the actual wheat in transit but loses on his hedge. If
wheat goes down he loses on the 10,000 bushels in transit, but gains on
his hedge; thus, either way, the one transaction balances the other so
there is no gain, and no loss, except the cost of the hedge, and hence
no speculation. Hedging is, in short, a sort of insurance that protects
the dealer should the price of grain fall between the time he purchased
it and the time of selling it at the terminal. The process of hedging
when honestly carried on is a stabilizing operation and according to
Vincent “effects the commercial transfers of grain from farmer to
miller at a less expense than is involved in the marketing of any other
product of human endeavor--at less expense than would be possible if
grain merchants alone carried all the risk--the speculation.”


=Coöperative Marketing.=--Coöperative marketing associations and the
intermediate dealer, that is a man who buys directly from the producer
and resells to other purchasers, are said to have two points of
superiority over the commission merchant: (_a_) The care and solicitude
of the owner replaces the zeal of the agent; (_b_) by combining the
products of many they are able to handle large quantities and thus
secure better shipping rates, and take advantage of other benefits
of quantity business. The farmer or local dealer, or coöperative
association, ships to the commission merchant only in carload lots.
The freight charge, nowadays, no matter what the custom may have been
in the past, is the same whether one or a dozen cars are shipped at a
time. There may be some favoritism in the securing of cars when asked
for by the large shipper. The inspection charges are fixed by law. The
commission merchant’s fee is a percentage of the sale and thoroughly
regulated by custom and the rules of the grain exchange. The commission
merchant being acquainted with buyers can usually place all grain the
day it is received, so the advantage, if any, of an intermediate dealer
are more in name than in reality.

With the idea of eliminating some of the cost of marketing coöperative
associations have sprung up over the whole country. While there are
many advantages of coöperation, such as by pooling interests, larger
quantities can be handled in one bulk, thus getting any advantage that
might come in freight rates. Also where large quantities are collected
it is practically always possible to take care of buyers; or, the
agency may know where to find buyers when an individual would not. The
buyer for overseas exports wants to get his grain in as large lots
as possible to reduce handling charges. The association usually has
facilities to examine and separate the grain or other commodities into
the several grades, and the buyer can rely on the grade being as stated
by the seller. In the case of some perishable goods, such as fruit, the
association advertises freely, spreading the cost over many raisers,
and creating a desire on the part of consumers for the association’s
named brand of fruit. “Sunkist” lemons and oranges and “Sun Maid”
raisins are household words due to extensive advertising by their
respective coöperative associations. Coöperative associations purchase
from non-members and profits on these purchases go to the association
and in due time are distributed to its members. The California Fruit
Growers’ Exchange advertises itself as “A non-profit coöperative
organization of 10,500 growers.” The object of all such associations is
two-fold: (1) To decrease the cost and trouble of marketing, and (2) to
increase the common desire for their products. Both of which will tend
to increase the grower’s profits.

The grain merchant, whether in business as a dealer for himself, or a
coöperative concern must have an elevator, or place, where the grain
may be collected and prepared for the larger market. Fruit dealers
have houses for the collection and care of the fruit. Since these
commodities are collected a little from one, a little from another, or
for ripening, grading, or other purposes, they must be kept usually
several days before the car is loaded. After it is loaded there is
quite a little time before it reaches its destination. During this
time there is money invested in these products, that is, capital
is required. The local banker is called upon to help finance the
purchases. The elevator company or fruit company has some capital, he
depends upon borrowing for more. The banks when commodities are freely
moving are frequently severely taxed to furnish the required money
for the movement of crops. The banks at the terminal markets are also
stressed for they are furnishing money to the buyers there, and the
export commodities are paid for by money from abroad. So that many
financial institutions are intimately interested in the crop movement
capital.

Whenever a local dealer consigns a car load of wheat to a responsible
merchant he can deposit the bill of lading with his banker and draw
upon the merchant for some 90 per cent of the value of the grain,
providing the dealer has hedged so that there is no chance of loss.
The banker will honor the dealer’s checks and hold the credit of the
merchant as collateral.

When grain or other food commodities have been stored the warehouse
receipt is considered the best possible collateral for bank loans.
Mr. Forgan, president of the National City Bank of Chicago, is quoted
as saying:[190] “I have seen the time more than once when high-class
stocks and bonds, and even government bonds, could not readily be
sold, but I have never seen the time, nor do I ever expect to see it,
when anything that has to be eaten could not be sold.” The warehouse
receipts, therefore, above alluded to, constitute a collateral which
is always available for the payment of debts. Furthermore, if the
grain or provisions represented by the warehouse receipts are sold for
future delivery, that fact adds a great element of strength to the
loan, because there is a third party obligated to take the grain at a
certain time for a given price.... The sale for future delivery--the
‘hedge’--is the final link in the chain that makes such loans the best
in the world.”

It has been shown that in the production of grain or other farm
commodities the three elements, change in form, change in place, and
potential change in time enter; while the factors entering are, nature,
labor, and capital. These all must be present no matter which method
of procedure is followed in the marketing. The cost of marketing must
always be counted in the cost of production. A decrease in the cost of
any element or factor will of course have its effect on the cost of the
whole process. For example, it is claimed by grain merchants that where
there is an opportunity to hedge there is less risk and consequently
the profits of the middlemen may be less thus decreasing the cost of
production.

To get a concrete example of what part transportation bears in
marketing the following analysis is made:

_Elements Entering into the Cost of Marketing Wheat Grown in Kansas or
Nebraska_

  Farm Expense                                          Cents per bushel
    Loading                                                0.25
      If sacked, add about 5 cents per bushel.
  Highway Haulage
    A bulletin of the Bureau of Crop Estimates, U. S.
    Department of Agriculture gives the cost at 30 cents
    per ton-mile when horses are used and 15 cents per
    ton-mile by motor-car, the average distance being
    9.4 miles, rough average, say                          6.00     6.25
                                                                   -----
      Total cost of getting to local market                         6.25

  Local Elevator
    Unloading, storage, cleaning, and mixing, shrinkage.
    Overhead--interest on investment, taxes, insurance,
    office expense, depreciation, repairs, hired help,
    etc., and profit                                       3.00     3.00
                                                                   -----
      Total cost up to the commission merchant                      9.25

  Freight
    Terminal and hauling charge                           16.00
    Inspection and weighing at terminal                     .25
    Profit of commission merchant                          1.25    17.50
                                                                   -----
      Total cost up to the exporter                                26.75

  Exporter’s cost
    Elevation, loading into boat, etc.                     1.25
    Ocean freight (very variable), say                     6.00
    Insurance, leakage, etc., in transit                    .75
    Overhead expenses of exporter                          1.00
    Profit of exporter                                     1.25    10.25
                                                                   -----
      Total to Liverpool market                                    37.00

The above would indicate that if all wheat were shipped to Liverpool
the local price in Nebraska or Kansas should be about 27 cents per
bushel below the New York price and 37 cents below the Liverpool price.
As a matter of fact the Omaha and Kansas City prices are frequently
equal to or exceed the New York prices because there is quite a large
local demand for wheat from the mills of the Middle West. It is said
nearly one-half the Kansas wheat is milled in that state.


=Highway Transportation from Farm to Local Market.=--The table
indicates that the highway transportation amounts to about 6 cents
per bushel. Had the cost been based on all team hauling it would have
been 8¹⁄₂ cents; on truck hauling, 4¹⁄₄ cents. The grand total cost of
production would be the

  Cost of growing;
  Cost of transportation;
  Cost of marketing.

Taking up only the transportation from the farm to the local market
point, the question arises, what, if any, effect would a change in it
have on the character and amount of farm production?

Let there be considered a zone around a local market point; suppose
the width of this zone limited the distance from the market at which
wheat can be grown profitably when the hauling is all done by horses.
Since it can, according to government authority, be hauled at half the
cost by motor truck, other things being equal, the zone of profitable
productions would be widened to twice its former width with no greater
expense to the wheat grower. Or, looking at it another way, the size
of the farm could be somewhat lessened and the farmer still make the
same gross sum on his crop. This latter would allow a few more people
to live in the same territory as formerly. If again by means of paved
roads the cost was further reduced one-half the zone could again be
doubled; it is then four times its original width. Also, since a living
could be made on smaller farms the tendency would be to increase the
rural population. But it is not likely that all farmers under increased
advantages would continue to raise wheat. Other crops, more perishable
but more profitable, would venture forth.

Such perishable crops as vegetables, head lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers,
cantaloupes, watermelons, etc., require dependable marketing
facilities. They must be harvested and put on the market at just the
right time or they deteriorate in quality and price very rapidly. Crops
that could be hauled by team only 4 or 5 miles could be hauled by truck
over a hard road easily 20 miles. Near the large cities truck gardeners
by virtue of the truck and the good roads have been able to go out 15
to 20 miles and secure land at a very much lower rent, or purchase
it on an amortization scheme at no more annual expense for double or
treble the amount of land than they formerly paid in rent near the city
for the smaller tract. According to Norton outside the large cities of
the East market gardening extends back 25 to 30 miles. That it is not
uncommon to haul vegetables to market in trucks 40 miles, and that a
New Jersey fruit farmer was accustomed to make a 65-mile trip daily to
market his fruit in New York City.[191]

Likewise small fruit farming. One acre of land highly cultivated this
year, 1922, produced more than $1000 worth of strawberries, which were
brought to the railway station every day on a small truck a distance
of 15 miles. Raspberries and blackberries will give almost as good
returns. Vegetables of all kinds, and cantaloupes and watermelons in
favorable localities, will probably bring larger returns. Even potatoes
sometimes give a gross return of from $100 to $300 per acre.

It should be remembered that in every case there must be a keen, avid
market and adequate transportation facilities. The market, since
more than half the people of the United States live in the cities,
is likely to be sufficient if the marketing machinery is ample and
properly functioning. Horse-drawn wagons may answer the purpose in some
places, in others the motor truck, but other crops cannot be marketed
without access to the steam railway. For instance, could trucks carry
cantaloupes from the Imperial Valley in California to New York City?
This requires the steam railway and refrigerator cars drawn in rapid
trains. The trucks will greatly widen the zone of cantaloupe culture
near the shipping point. The same may be said of citrus fruits from
Florida and California, tomatoes and watermelons from Texas, plums
from Idaho, apples from Washington, grapes from New York and Michigan,
and, indeed, some product from nearly every state of the Union, to say
nothing of the non-perishable products.


=Stock Raising.=--Marketing facilities and road transportation is
greatly changing the character of stock raising. Not so very many years
ago the great western plains were covered with large herds of cattle
whose owners and caretakers were known as ranchers. The ranch usually
consisted of the owner’s residence, which he also used as an office,
sleeping and eating quarters for the cowboys, a corral or two for the
horses and possibly cattle during the round-up and branding season,
though this latter was usually on the open. The cattle ranged and fed
upon the wild grass, the cowboys riding around the bunch daily in
order to keep track of them. The round-up was held in the late summer
while the calves were still running with their mothers and could be
identified. The cattle of several ranches ran together and at branding
periods had to be cut out--separated. Then the unbranded calves and
mavericks were roped, thrown and branded; the bull calves were altered
and the herd again turned loose upon the prairies. A little later in
the fall they were again rounded-up and those to be sold selected and
cut out. These were driven to the nearest railway track and shipped
to market, sometimes a train load from one shipping point. During
the winter season and in violent storms there were many hardships as
well as loss of cattle. The cowboys also had to be on the lookout for
“rustlers”--thieves who stole the cattle outright, branded unbranded
mavericks they knew did not belong to them, or mutilated brands by
placing their own over the rightful one.

Meat from these more or less wild, grass-fed animals was seldom
better than second class, and never brought on the market the equal of
corn-fed cattle. However, they did furnish a reasonably cheap food and
kept down the price of meat.

Along with better roads and markets came a demand for other products;
land that furnished the open range was fenced in, and later subdivided
into farms upon which were raised grain, hogs, poultry, and perhaps a
few cattle. Dairying in many places took the place of stock raising.
No longer were the animals driven to market on the hoof. They were
fattened upon grain and hay and carried to market in wagons and trucks.
Hogs replaced cattle. The turnover is more frequent and they do well
on maize, requiring no hay or straw except perhaps a very little for
bedding. The corn fed to hogs usually brings about twice as much a
bushel as that sold to the dealer.

Since about 12 to 15 miles is the greatest distance hogs may with
profit be hauled to market in horse-drawn wagons on dirt roads, there
grew up at every small railway station a stock market. The railway
company provided stockyards, a series of pens with a chute for loading.
The dealers bought from the farmers and placed their animals in the
railway pens until a car load was obtained, when they were sent on
to the packing house located in one of the large cities. Therefore,
between the farmer and the packer there were at least two middlemen,
the local dealer and the commission merchant at the terminal stock
yards which are nominally under a different corporation than the
packing houses.

With the good roads and the motor truck has come much marketing
directly by the farmer at the packing-house yards. The Firestone Ship
by Truck Bureau, a subsidiary organization of the Firestone Tire
and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio, made a careful study of the use
of the truck in marketing live stock, and in 1921 issued a bulletin
thereon.[192] A detailed showing of the marketing of animals at
St. Joseph, Omaha, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis is given. From that
bulletin will be copied some statistics and other information that may
be of interest. Those wishing the full discussion should write for the
bulletin.

Tables are given which “show that at each yard the driven-in receipts
during the years 1918, 1919, and 1920 were very much in excess of
those of 1917. Of the total receipts (the tables give them each month
of the four years) of driven-in hogs at the St. Joseph yards in 1917
approximately 10 per cent were hauled to the yards by motor truck.
While the driven-in hog receipts at the same yard during 1918 were
twice those of 1917, 40 per cent of this total was driven by truck.
In 1920, 60 per cent of driven-in hog receipts were truck hauled. The
St. Joseph figures clearly indicate that the truck movement commenced
about 1917 and that each of the following years have witnessed decided
increases.

“At Omaha truck-hauled receipts appear to have commenced earlier than
at St. Joseph; for during the years 1917 and 1918 the best estimates
placed the truck-hauled receipts about 90 per cent of the total
driven-in receipts, while the year 1919 amounted to 95 per cent of the
total driven-in receipts. In 1920 virtually all driven-in receipts were
truck-hauled.

“At Cincinnati in the year 1918 more than 90 per cent of driven-in
receipts were truck-hauled while in 1919 at least 95 per cent of all
stock delivered at this yard other than by freight car came on motor
trucks. In 1920 driven-in receipts which were not truck-hauled were
negligible.

“Indianapolis has shown the most conspicuous increase in truck
delivered stock of any yard in the country. During the last year more
than 95 per cent of all driven-in hogs to this yard were delivered by
motor truck. It is seldom that team equipment is seen at this yard.
At both Cincinnati and Indianapolis on an average day 100 trucks can
be seen coming into the yards, while as many as 300 trucks have been
counted at Cincinnati in one day, and as many as 450 at Indianapolis.”

From tables given in the Bulletin are extracted the following data for
the Omaha and the Indianapolis yards:

  OMAHA YARD
  ----+------------------+--------------+---------------------
      |                  |              |Percentage, Driven-in
  Year|Driven-in Receipts|Total Receipts|      to Total
  ----+------------------+--------------+---------------------
  1916|      46,542      |  3,116,820   |        1.47
  1917|      65,922      |  2,796,596   |        2.36
  1918|     188,417      |  3,429,533   |        5.38
  1919|     179,036      |  3,179,116   |        5.64
  1920|     181,946      |  2,708,482   |        6.67
  1921|     .......      |  .........   |        ....
  ----+------------------+--------------+---------------------
  INDIANAPOLIS YARD
  ----+------------------+--------------+---------------------
      |                  |              |Percentage, Driven-in
  Year|Driven-in Receipts|Total Receipts|      to Total
  ----+------------------+--------------+---------------------
  1912|     110,624      |  1,824,260   |         6.06
  1913|      90,821      |  1,994,624   |         4.04
  1914|      96,521      |  2,099,787   |         4.58
  1915|     136,441      |  2,435,319   |         5.61
  1916|     173,191      |  2,576,611   |         6.74
  1917|     271,994      |  2,350,730   |         7.84
  1918|     462,313      |  2,749,976   |        16.8
  1919|     709,584      |  2,936,493   |        23.7
  1920|     787,100      |  2,896,894   |        27.2
  1921|     .......      |  .........   |        .....
  ----+------------------+--------------+---------------------

A graphical representation shows the continuous increase of driven-in
to the total receipts. The table of percentages and the graphical
representation are not given in the bulletin. They show very clearly
what happened when the motor truck began to function in 1917. The
truck has made a very much more effective showing at Indianapolis
than at Omaha. No doubt this is because (1) the average haul at Omaha
is longer; Omaha draws from a more sparsely settled country and from
longer distances; (2) the roads adjacent to Omaha are nearly all, as
yet, earth-surfaced. Only a few hard roads have been built; (3) many of
the farms in the Omaha territory are large and sell so many animals at
a time that they can easily fill one, two, or three railway cars at a
shipment. The percentage of truck-hauled stock will no doubt continue
to increase until practically all hogs within the economic radius of
truck operation are marketed by motor. When the time comes, if it ever
will, when abattoirs are established at distances no farther apart
than 100 to 150 miles, making the maximum haul 50 to 75 miles, the
percentage of stock handled by the railroads to these abattoirs will
be very small indeed. The larger packing houses with the advantages of
great quantity production will still be able to reach out into the more
remote districts and secure that proportion of animals necessary to
keep them going which can not be obtained locally.

[Illustration: Showing the increase of truck-delivered hogs at
Indianapolis and at Omaha.]

That there is still an opportunity for increases of motor-hauled stock
a further quotation from the Firestone Bulletin will show:

“The territory served by trucks in marketing live stock is principally
within a 50-mile radius of the market center. In the course of
investigation the longest haul which came under observation was 140
miles. The average haul on the days the investigators were at the
markets was about 30 miles. The following table gives some idea of the
length of hauls at the four different yards:

  ------------+--------+-------+--------+-------
              | No. of |Longest|Shortest|Average
              | Trucks | Haul, | Haul,  | Haul,
      Yard    |Observed| Miles | Miles  | Miles
  ------------+--------+-------+--------+-------
  St. Joseph  |   48   |  100  |   9    |  27
  Omaha       |   62   |   75  |   6    |  28.2
  Cincinnati  |   40   |   72  |   3.5  |  28.9
  Indianapolis|   40   |   97  |   7    |  32.5
  ------------+--------+-------+--------+-------

“While the average haul is 28.95 miles, most of the trucks observed
in the course of investigation use solid-tire equipment. This type of
equipment had a tendency to restrict the mileage.”

The bulletin also is authority for a statement that 91.3 per cent of
the hogs within a 50-mile circle about the Indianapolis yards are
carried by trucks, but that only 18.3 per cent at Omaha move that way,
and at St. Joseph 10.8 per cent, which indicates to them that there are
still great possibilities for the truck, especially as the truck has
not come into as extended use at many other packing centers as at the
four places treated in the bulletin.

There is no doubt but that pneumatic-tire equipment, and to a lesser
extent, the cushion-tire equipment will extend the average haul to 50
miles. Hard-surfaced roads will again extend it 25 to 50 miles, making
a haul of 75 to 100 miles not uncommon.

A further effect of the truck and the ease of marketing which it will
bring about is that hogs will be marketed in smaller quantities but
oftener. The farmer instead of turning off his marketable animals twice
a year will send them in four times a year, possibly monthly. The
tendency will be to stabilize the market over the several seasons. As
yet, the stabilizing, influence of the truck is hardly noticeable.

[Illustration: Average number of driven-in hogs marketed at
Indianapolis each month; years 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 being
averaged.]

[Illustration: Average number of driven-in hogs marketed at Omaha each
month; years 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 being averaged.]

Diagrams on pages 290 and 291 show the average monthly number of
hogs received at the yards of Indianapolis and Omaha by truck; the
years 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 being averaged. At Indianapolis,
where the roads are good the year around, the receipts from June to
December are much larger than those from December to June, the peaks
occurring in December and June. In Omaha, on the contrary, the greater
number of driven-in hogs came in the other half of the year the peaks
occurring in January and July. These may be partially accounted for,
in the West, on the theory that January 1st and March 1st are regular
settlement days and farmers arrange to meet their obligations then by
selling off a batch of hogs. They also plan to reduce the number of
their hogs to the minimum during the months of May, June, and July,
so as to have few fat hogs to carry through the hot weather. In the
Eastern states the farmers seem to work on a different basis. If the
selling of live stock could be spread out uniformly over the year
prices would be more uniform. An analysis of prices on the Chicago hog
market shows that they are usually highest during the summer months,
from April to August, the months when the fewest numbers are sold. The
advantage which those crops which can be stored without deterioration,
such as grain, cotton, wool, and lumber, is manifest. The price of meat
is less fluctuating than that of live stock because meat can be kept
indefinitely in the cold storage houses at a very small expense. It is
quite likely that more good roads and a more extensive use of the truck
will tend to a better distribution of live stock marketed throughout
the several seasons of the year.

One of the principal advantages of marketing by truck is the less
liability of losses in transit. Dealers and owners often crowd too
many hogs into a freight car and as a result some smother. Or, if
hogs from different farms are placed together in a car there may be
fighting, which unduly heats up the hogs with equally dire results. It
is reported that at the Chicago yards in 1918 there were removed from
cars 24,785 dead hogs and in 1919, 28,356. To be sure many of these
cars came from a distance and were, perhaps, several days on the way.
But a fat hog is a delicate animal and a stream of cold water from a
hose on a hot hog will often kill him instantly. Government figures
state that one out of every 319 hogs shipped died in transit; of cattle
one out of every 998; of sheep one out of every 936. Losses by motor,
because the animals are not crowded so many together, because they are
acquainted and do not fight, because the distances traveled are usually
such that only three or four hours elapse between the times of loading
and unloading, and because the driver is always at hand to quell
disturbances and to see that there is no undue crowding, are said to be
negligible.

The local buyer at points near packing houses has almost become
extinct. These men formerly bought from the farmers and held the stock
until they had sufficient number to fill a car. Since they would often
have to hold them several days they had to buy on a wide margin to
insure themselves against loss, from ³⁄₄ to 1¹⁄₂ cents a pound. Even
where the farmer does not own a truck he can get the hogs hauled at a
cost of ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ cents a pound, or a saving of about $15 per truck
load. If a return load is to be had, such as lumber or feeders the
saving will be greater. One difficulty about the return load is the
necessity of thoroughly cleaning the truck body. A shovel, a hose with
a fair pressure of water, and a hard floor upon which to stand the
truck while it is being cleaned are necessary.

Incidentally it may be mentioned that the local stockyards in the way
they are often kept are very unsanitary and certainly a nuisance as far
as bad smells are concerned as well as a menace to health.


=Shrinkage.=--The argument that there is less shrinkage in motor-hauled
hogs than in rail-hauled may be as a general rule true, but, according
to the Firestone Bulletin, will not net the farmer much, because buyers
base the price they are willing to pay on the dressed weight and not
the live weight. It is stated that the buyer from long experience is
able to estimate with considerable accuracy the weight at which a
hog will dress, and that he makes his price offer accordingly. The
percentage loss of weight in dressing is, of course, greater for thin
than for fat hogs. By grading the hogs into classes the buyer is
enabled to discount the price paid enough to take care of the “fill,”
which is said to range from 3 to 5 pounds per hundred weight. But
notwithstanding this the fact that the animals are fresher and livelier
must have some effect on the mind of the buyer. This may be the reason
for the rapid increase of hogs received by truck at the packing houses,
being as many as 6800 in a single day at Indianapolis.


=Dairying.=--The use to which the motor truck has been put in other
industries is fully as important. Many industries use several hundred
trucks in their work. Creameries have already been mentioned. The very
fact that trucks make regular trips along designated routes is an
invitation to the farmers to do more dairying. If John Jones can draw
from $50 to $75 a month from the creamery for a few hours’ work each
day, Henry Smith living on the next farm is anxious to do likewise.
Many good farmers find it to their advantage in the long run to allow
the women folks to have all the poultry and creamery money while the
men content themselves with the returns from grain, livestock, woodlot,
and hay land. Thus is created a division of labor which if carried out
to the limit will interest every member of the rural family in some
particular part of the farm work.

Without going into detail it may be said that from raising beef on the
natural grass of the plains region to the raising of stock for butter,
milk and cheese may seem a far cry, but with adequate markets and
dependable transportation this is rapidly coming to pass. Dairying has
already reached enormous proportions, and since it is estimated that
dairy products should constitute for the sake of health and economy
about one-fifth the average diet, it can easily be seen that dairying
always will be of great importance. Over $18,000,000 a year is now
received for milk and cream by Nebraska farmers, and Nebraska is not a
leader in this line. No doubt with better roads and better marketing
facilities that will be doubled or trebled in a few years.


=Poultry.=--We have just mentioned the Nebraska income from milk and
cream sold by the farmers. It may be surprising that the sum received
from the humble hen is nearly twice as much (given by state authorities
as $35,000,000 from the fowls and eggs produced each year).

But the only way this can be successful is by quick and adequate
markets. Dressed fowls and eggs are highly perishable products and
must be put into the cold storage warehouses at the earliest possible
moment. The motor car and the rural express, with their necessary
accompaniment good roads, make this possible and thus increase the
returns to the poultry industry as well as widen the territory over
which it will pay to keep fowls for commercial purposes.

As an illustration of the efficacy of the motor truck in the poultry
business this quotation from the _New York Times_, June 8, 1920, is
given:[193]

  At 6 o’clock one morning a motor truck was loaded at Lancaster, Pa.,
  with 18,000 eggs in crates, and 1000 chicks a day old, and started
  for New York City, one hundred miles away, says the writer. At the
  same time a similar shipment was sent to the consignee by railroad.
  It took the truck twelve hours to reach New York. Four of the little
  chicks were dead and nine eggs were broken when the goods were
  delivered at the door of the consignee.

  The train shipment was four days in reaching Jersey City. It took
  another day to send a notice to the consignee that the shipment had
  arrived. He was then compelled to send his own truck to Jersey City
  for the shipment. When it reached his door thousands of the eggs had
  been smashed and half the chicks were dead.


=Diversified Farming.=--Before leaving the farm it might be well to
say that easy marketing makes for diversified farming. All eggs are
not put in one basket, and in case of a failure or partial failure
in one crop the effect is not felt so much because there are others
from which returns will be received. Often drought will injure a wheat
crop but later rains will “make” the corn crop; or, earth soaked by
winter snows will mature a wheat crop while the corn may, due to a few
days of hot dry weather, be a partial failure. While chinch bugs may
get the wheat, it is possible to kill potato bugs by spraying. And
the year the potatoes die by blight may be excellent for alfalfa and
timothy. Diversified farming also allows of the rotation of crops,
thus conserving the fertility of the soil. And it all can be done over
a wide range from the market place because of good roads and easy
marketing facilities.


=Forestry.=--Realizing that the lumbering methods in vogue in this
country since its earliest settlement are most wasteful and are
destructive of the future usefulness of the timbered regions the United
States Government has set aside as forest reserves several hundred
thousand square miles. A forest crop is like any other crop. It must
grow from the seed and at maturity be harvested. Those trees that
have reached the point in life where years do not add materially to
the lumber content are marked for cutting. So that each year brings a
harvest. New trees are planted or allowed to spring up where the old
were cut so that there is a continuity. It is estimated that there yet
remains some 550,000,000 acres of forest land unsuited for agriculture.

The older lumbering methods meant that a company gained control of
a tract of timber land, sometimes they had not purchased it, it was
really government owned, and cut and slashed all the trees that were
upon it. No attempt was made to utilize any of the tree except the
bole; the limbs, containing thousands of cords of good wood, were left
with the slash to become the prey later of fierce fires, which often
got beyond the bounds of the cutting and destroyed millions of acres
of growing timber.[194] At a still earlier day the trees were cut so
that they would fall with their tops together, then they were burned in
order to clear the land for farming purposes. The only reason settlers
did not go to the great prairie lands of the Middle West where such
wanton destruction was unnecessary, was the lack of means for rapid
transportation, and communication.

Even the loggers and lumbermen were often isolated from all
civilization except their own party or neighboring parties of like
kind, with no roads but the trails of their own making. The highways
of commerce were the streams and rivers to which the logs were rolled
or snaked by oxen, mules, or horses, and down which they were floated
in the spring when the flow was sufficient to carry them. When they
reached the larger rivers they were often bound into rafts and
floated hundreds of miles to the mills for sawing, a cheap means of
transportation.

As the timber was cut off near the streams it was necessary to go
farther back for logs. Then developed the logging railways. Usually
narrow gauge lines with small locomotives which brought logs down
from the forests to the streams or to other lines of railway. But as
yet scientific means of lumbering had not been adopted. Not until
the government by making large forest reserves and by insisting that
loggers should clean up and burn the slashes in such a manner as not to
injure standing timber, and leave the ground in such a condition that
new trees of good varieties would spring up to take the places of those
cut, did there come any real advancement along these lines.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A MILK TRUCK

Equipped with both Cans and Tank]

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A LUMBER LOG TRUCK

Used in the Northwest]

In order that the better methods of lumbering and forest management
could be successfully carried out it became necessary to supply roads
of such a character that transportation would not be unduly burdensome.
If the trees to be cut were to be selected hither and yon, getting the
logs and wood from the tops would be a much more expensive process than
the mere rolling of boles to the stream and leaving the slash to decay
or burn. The Government, realizing this, is now expending millions of
dollars on the forest roads making them usable not only by teams but by
trucks and automobiles.

The truck and trailer have rapidly made their way in the logging and
lumbering industries. By the use of the trailer and the Government-made
good roads the truck is able to haul logs of almost any length down
from the logging grounds. Trucks and tractors are utilized in the
forests, too, for snaking logs and pulling stumps. In places where
the grades are steep or on the interior where the roads have not yet
penetrated causeways have been built of timber; these usually being
cross-ties, and under trussing across draws, with lengthwise planks for
the wheels to run on and side planks or logs to keep the machine on
the track. Down this causeway by means of a two-wheeled semi-trailer,
immense logs are transported. As they are sometimes very steep, chains
on the wheels are necessary to prevent slipping and assist in braking.

The average load that a logging truck and trailer will haul is from
3000 to 5000 feet. Larger loads are hauled over snow on sleds, but
when distance and time are considered the truck is claimed to be more
efficient. F. W. Fenn states that a lumber camp truck to be efficient
“must have maximum traction, ample clearance, and proper service and
care and be stout enough and strong enough to stand the severest
strains.”[195] He further claims that the truck is replacing the
older means of transportation, dragging by horses and oxen, skidding
down mountain sides, rafting upon rivers, not because it is cheaper
but because the great stands of timber are gradually decreasing and
the modern method of cutting only properly developed trees is coming
into vogue. “Thus the logging industry has developed from one of
independence to almost total dependence upon improved transportation
facilities, with its consequent problems and expense.”

The hauling of logs down to the water edge by trucks upon natural earth
roads and upon specially prepared skidways is said to be cheaper than
the narrow-gauge railways formerly in use in the state of Washington.

One of the types of trailers worked out has four wheels, 44 inches in
diameter for the front and 46 for the rear with a 10-inch tread all
around. The trailer is fastened to the truck by a long pipe coupling.
The most satisfactory trailer, according to Fenn, is the two-wheeled
rubber-tired with wheels 40 to 44 inches in diameter. Roads which
theoretically require steel tires for ironing out ruts would better be
planked or otherwise hard surfaced.

Proper attention and routing will greatly prolong the life of the
truck. A longer smoother road is rather to be preferred to a short
rough one. The depreciation of the truck is figured on a basis of
100,000 miles as its minimum life.


=Other Uses of the Truck.=--But the use of the truck in the lumbering
industries is not limited to logging. About the saw mills it is used
for getting the logs to the saw and taking the sawed lumber away. And
at yards, all over the country, for taking the lumber from the railroad
tracks to the storage piles and for delivering it to customers. Special
loading devices save much time. A gantry or other type of crane will
pick up and handle an entire load of lumber at one time.


=Amos Log Loader.=--The Amos log loader is described as an efficient
loading machine in which a friction drive takes power directly from the
drive shaft of the motor truck and by means of a worm gear transmits
it to a long winding shaft, or small diameter drum, which extends the
length of the truck bed, being mounted parallel to it just under the
bed. Loading chains are attached to this drum either at the ends or
middle as the driver wishes. The movement is regulated by means of a
lever just over the truck step. By a small movement of his foot the
driver has control of the friction drive while his hands are free to
operate the engine. He can raise or lower the log or stop it at any
point. Stopping it if desired so he can leave his position to make
needed adjustments of the log, chains, or skids. The small diameter
of the winding drum insures steady strong pull. It may also be used
for skidding logs into position for loading. It is claimed the truck
driver soon becomes very expert as he realizes the possibilities of the
loading device. After the logs are loaded the loading chains are used
to bind them to the truck.


=In the Yards.=--After the logs are sawed the lumber is stacked up in
yards either at the point of sawing or elsewhere. It must be hauled
to the shipment point and from the cars to the yards. Trucks are
applicable for all these purposes. When it comes to delivering the
lumber to the consumer a wagon known as a dolly is of great assistance
for collecting materials to load on the delivery truck. Most retail
yards now deliver their lumber by truck even to a distance of 15 or 20
miles. When an order for mixed grades, sizes, or kinds of materials
is received, a light wagon or cart having a dolly upside down for
its floor, the whole known as a “dolly,” is used in the loading. The
dolly has a roller placed cross-ways of the wagon bed and the lumber
is piled directly upon it, care being taken that some long pieces are
used for the bottom of the load. The dolly is pushed by hand from
place to place in the yard until the order has been filled with the
various pieces desired. The truck, which may be out during the time
the selection is being made, is backed up to the end of the dolly, the
floor of the truck body passing under the lower boards; then by turning
the cross roller with a crank the whole load is conveyed to the truck.
To facilitate the action another roller is placed in the floor of the
truck near its rear end. Both rollers may be turned at the same time.
The dolly may have two or four wheels.

A short truck is often arranged for a semi-trailer which may be loaded
in a manner similar to the dolly. With two or three of these trailers
a busy yard will keep the truck and driver on the road practically all
the time at a considerable saving in expense over waiting time if the
lumber is loaded directly upon the truck.


=Mining.=--The building of railway tracks to mines was at one time a
very expensive part of a railroad’s business. It required much expert
knowledge on the part of the railroad officials to determine whether or
not such a road would pay. In fact a great many miles of such tracks
have been abandoned and very likely the loss to the railroad has been
equal to that of the mining companies. Motor trucking is to a large
extent doing away with the enormous track building that formerly went
on in the mining communities. This eliminates the switching charge
which seldom paid the railroad, and possibly the trucking is more
convenient and cheaper to the mining company. Here again the use of
trailers, special bodies, and mechanical loading and unloading devices
will greatly expedite the work. When the mine has grown so that the
quantity of ore or coal taken out will pay for it a railroad track may
be laid without risk of loss to either railroad or mine.

The hauling of mine products a long distance is not altogether
uncommon. Transporting borax from Death Valley, California, was
formerly done by twenty-mule teams. It is now much more expeditiously
and cheaply hauled by motor trucks. And the transport of supplies from
point of purchase to interior and isolated mines, or to depots from
which they may be continued by pack horses is common practice.


=Factory Products.=--Scarcely a manufacturing industry but that owns
motor trucks, some of them running into the hundreds. No doubt these
trucks have had their effect on the goods manufactured just as any
other machine introduced into the process might do. In some instances
goods that were marketed through jobbers are being sold directly to the
retailer and sent to them by routings which return to the same customer
every day, every two days, twice or once a week, or once a month, or in
such regular periods the customer may look forward and depend upon the
coming. Packing houses by delivering meat with truck directly to the
retailer’s butcher block daily have practically driven out of business
the old slaughter houses with their unpleasant odors and unsanitary
conditions.

Special bodies have been devised for the different manufactured
products. A slatted rack accommodates nearly 300 empty barrels; tanks
are made to haul milk, gasoline, or other liquids; cracker factories
have racks which will accommodate cardboard cartons without injury
by crushing; low long-bodied trucks upon which cotton bales may be
placed without much lifting lessens the time and labor of loading;
different-sized drawers on the inside of a body have been used to take
clothing-store goods to customers in outlying districts; plumbers fit
up shops on wheels, claiming thereby to save time and expense to their
patrons by not having to go back to the shop numerous times in the
course of a job to get tools and supplies; furniture and automobile
trucks have large roomy bodies to carry bulky but not very heavy goods.
Hoists, cranes, tipping bodies, combination bodies, conveying belts and
chains and many other devices facilitate rapid unloading and loading.

By sending goods from factory to retailer by motor railway terminal
expense is cut out. Just how far it is profitable to send goods by
truck is a question depending on the relative terminal charges, the
hauling rate, and the collecting charges. The collecting charges at a
factory might or might not be the same for shipments by rail and by
truck. If the railroad switch is such that there is no hauling from
factory to car except that on the floor of the factory itself, there
would be no difference, otherwise there would be the expense of hauling
to the loading tracks. If the expense of selling is not affected by
motor hauling the only thing to be considered is the actual cost of
transportation. If this be taken to be made up of two items, namely,
terminal costs, and hauling costs, the distributing charge by railway
may be written:

  _D_ = _T_ + _Rx_

  where _T_  is the railroad terminal cost;
        _R_, the railroad rate per mile cost per unit-package, barrel,
             cwt. or ton;
        _x_, the number of miles hauled.

The distributing charge by truck would be a similar equation

  _d_ = _t_ + _rx_

where the letters represent the same items referred to the truck. If
_D_ is made equal to _d_, there results,

  _t_ + _rx_ = _T_ + _Rx_

and,

  _rx_ - _Rx_ = _T_ - _t_

        _T_ - _t_
  _x_ = ---------.
        _r_ - _R_

Railroads do not separate the terminal and hauling charge for the good
and sufficient reason that if this be done there are a number of other
factors of transportation that could with equal reason be segregated.
The terminal costs, and by that is considered all the expense except
the actual cost of haulage, has been variously computed. G.M. Jones,
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of
Commerce, estimates “that the average expense of hauling a ton of
freight 240 miles is 74 cents while the cost of handling the same
freight at the terminals is 75 cents.”[196]

A more definite and possibly more accurate statement is that of the
Inter-State Commerce Commission, also quoted by Lane, p. 53:

  The combined average terminal cost at one end is shown to be 10.4
  cents per hundred pounds. For two terminal buildings (origin and
  destination) this figure doubled results in 20.8 cents per hundred
  pounds; and as this figure contains no elements of overhead costs, or
  taxes, such costs are arrived at by dividing the terminal cost by the
  operating ratio.

  The operating ratio of the Trunk Line roads for 1915, 1916 and 1917
  is 69.6, and the result of dividing the terminal cost of 20.8 cents
  by the operating ratio is 30 cents per hundred pounds, which covers
  terminal expenses and overhead for less than carload freight.

An example may be worked out with the assumption that the railway
terminal charge is 30 cents per hundredweight, the truck terminal
charge is 10 cents, the railway haulage charge is 0.02 cent per
hundredweight mile and the truck haulage charge 0.3 cent per
hundredweight mile. Then the economical length of the haul must not be
less than

         30 - 10    20   2000   500
  _x_ = -------- = --- = ---- = --- = 71 miles.
        .3 - .02   .28    28     7

The length of haul varies directly as the difference in terminal
charges and indirectly as the difference in rates.

The example given should not be applied generally, but each case must
be considered by itself. If there are collecting and marketing costs,
they may be added to the terminal costs and the sum treated as a
terminal charge.


=Construction.=--It will hardly be necessary here to take up more
individual cases. The almost universal use of trucks in the handling
of materials of construction no doubt has affected the quantity and
cost of construction, truly a productive process. Everyone is familiar
with one or more of the many devices for loading and unloading, for in
this class of haulage these things have reached a very high state of
development.


=Other Agencies.=--It is not the intention here to claim for the
motor car entire credit for the manifold changes in marketing--buying
and selling--which have occurred during the past two decades. Many
other factors have entered into these changes and the corresponding
advancement in the average standard of living. Transportation of all
kinds, upon the highways, upon the railways, upon the waters, by
telegraph, by telephone, by improvements in the postal service, and
by the general increase in knowledge through the schools and printed
literature, have all been instrumental in the development. But the
automobile directly and indirectly has stimulated each of these
activities and hence deserves credit with the rest.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  Agricultural Inquiry, Report of Joint Commission on Part IV deals
  with Marketing, Washington, D. C., 1922.

  _American Forestry_, “Forest Fires,” Dec., 1920, p. 707.

  BOHM-BAWERK, “Positive Theory of Capital,” Translated by W. Smart,
  Books I-II. Macmillan & Co., London, 1891.

  BOYLE, JAMES E., “Speculation and the Chicago Board of Trade,”
  Macmillan Company, New York; “The Chicago Board of Trade, What it is
  and What it Does,” Distributed by the Chicago Board of Trade.

  COLLINS, J. H., “Motor Transportation for Rural Districts,” Bulletin
  770 of the United States Department of Agriculture.

  COWAN, D. R. AND HART, F. C., “Motor Transportation in Rural
  Ontario,” Bulletin 227, Ontario Department of Agriculture, 1920.

  DANA, RICHARD T., “Hand Book of Construction Equipment,” pp. 550-559,
  767-772.

  Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Akron:

  Bulletin No. 1, “Ship by Truck among Farmers through Coöperative
  Associations”; Bulletin No. 2, “How and Where to Establish Truck
  Routes”; Bulletin No. 3, “The Motor Truck at the Coal Mines”;
  Bulletin No. 4, “The Farmer and the Motor Truck”; Bulletin No. 5,
  “Costs and Their Relation to Truck Transportation.”

  Highway and Highway Transport Education Committee.--“Proceedings
  of a Conference on the Economics of Highway Transport, Held at the
  University of Maryland, July 27, 1921,” Washington, D. C.

  Kentucky, University of, College of Agriculture Circular No. 130,
  “Marketing Farm Products.” Lexington, Ky., June, 1922.

  LANE, F. VAN ZANT, “Motor Truck Transportation,” D. Van Nostrand
  Company, New York.

  National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York:

  “Facts and Figures of the Automobile Industry, 1921.”

  “Factors in Food Transportation.”

  “A State Endorses the Motor Express.”

  By Arthur Capper, “The Midwest Farm Market for Motor Trucks.”

  By F. W. Fenn: “The Field of the Motor Truck in the Petroleum
  Industry”; “The Motor Truck as an Aid in Extracting Raw Materials”;
  “Motor Truck Operation at the Mines”; “Motorizing the Factory”;
  “Organization and Operation of a Rural Motor Express Line.”

  By R. O. Patten, “Merchandising Motor Trucks.”

  By R. O. Patten and F. C. Horner, “The Evils of Overloading.”

  NORTON, S. V., “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Business Profits,” pp.
  155-156, 406-410, 484; A. W. Shaw Co., Chicago.

  _Power Wagon_ Reference Book.

  TOLLEY, H. R. AND CHURCH, L. M., Bulletin 910, “Experiences of
  Eastern Farmers with Motor Trucks”; Bulletin 931, “Corn Belt Farmers’
  Experience with Motor Trucks”; and Bulletin 1201, “Motor Trucks
  on Eastern Farms,” The United States Department of Agriculture,
  Washington.

  VINCENT, C., “Letters on Grain Marketing Problems,” Privately
  published, Omaha, 1921.


FOOTNOTES

  [188] Bohm-Bawerk, “Positive Theory of Capital,” translated by W.
  Smart, p. 96.

  [189] “Letters on Grain Marketing Problems,” by C. Vincent, Secretary
  of the Farmers’ Grain Company, Author of Nebraska Co-operative Law,
  and Member of the Omaha Grain Exchange, pamphlet privately published,
  1921.

  [190] “Letters on Grain Marketing,” by C. Vincent.

  [191] “The Motor Truck as an Aid to Business Profits,” by S. V.
  Norton, A. W. Shaw Co., Chicago.

  [192] Bulletin No. 8. “Marketing Livestock by Motor Truck,” issued by
  The Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Firestone Park, Akron, Ohio, 45
  pages.

  [193] From a reprint by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce.

  [194] During the year 1919 there were reported 27,000 forest fires
  which burned over 8,500,000 acres.--_American Forestry_, Dec., 1920,
  p. 707.

  [195] “The Motor Truck as an Aid in the Extraction of Raw Products at
  the Source,” by F. W. Fenn, National Automobile Chamber of Commerce,
  New York.

  [196] Quoted by Lane in “Motor Truck Transportation,” p. 6. Van
  Nostrand Co., New York.




CHAPTER X

FINANCING HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION LINES


Highway financing may be divided for consideration into two parts,
namely: financing the road and financing the operation of the road.
Both are necessary if goods are to be transported from where they are
plentiful, grown, manufactured, or stored, to where they are needed for
sale, consumption or transshipment. Money is required for both parts
and it must be obtained in some legal manner.

As has been shown roads developed from mere trails that originally were
paths along which by common consent, force, or otherwise the privilege
of passing was gained. This, when ownership in land was recognized,
became an easement. After the development of civil governments the
right to traverse and transport goods over such roadways, that is, the
easement, was vouchsafed to the inhabitants and protected by laws. In
England the right of way over another’s land became known as the king’s
highway, as all public property was held and measures taken in the
name of the king. In the United States it is known simply as a public
highway. The highway is in reality the right of passage, not the beaten
track, for in both England and the United States the laws recognize
the privilege the traveler has when for any reason the road becomes
blocked or obstructed of taking to the fields and making another track.
Equity courts may grant damages for such usage of private land by the
public but no court will attempt to prevent it; if necessary they
will, however, by writ of mandamus command road officers to repair
the established roads so as to make them passable. In England the
law allowed the traveler to turn into the adjacent field, whether
cultivated or not, whenever the track became worn or rutted. In order
to keep the used way within due bounds and at the same time maintain it
in a passable condition the freeholders, perhaps at first voluntarily
then by force of laws, worked the roads once or twice a year. By doing
this they saved their lands and crops from being trampled down. It has
also been shown how Edward I took up the question of improving the
highways as a police measure in order that it might be safe for man
and goods to pass along the road without being attacked from ambush by
robbers.

Such robberies have taken place in the development of every land,
and those who have made a profession of it are variously styled
highwaymen, bandits, brigands, and so on. Even to the present day, as
has been shown in a preceding chapter, highway robbery still exists,
although the profession of highwayman no longer commands the respect of
reputable society as was the case during the time of Robin Hood, and
Claude Duval of England, and of the Robber Barons of Germany.

Thus the public good demanded that the time of the freeholders and the
money of the government be expended upon the highways. Of late years
in the United States the “working out” of road or poll taxes has been
practically abolished and the taxes are collected in money which is
expended in road construction and maintenance by persons regularly
delegated for that purpose. With the increased use and the building
of better types of roadways more and more money is demanded so that
the financing of highway improvements has become a matter of vast
importance. The money must come from either private sources or from
the public. If from the public it results directly from taxation or is
borrowed and the obligations paid off by taxation.


=Private Financing.=--A few persons of wealth have built roads as a
benefaction to the public. Perhaps one of the most ambitious projects
of this sort is the DuPont Road, which is located through the state of
Delaware from north to south. The intention of the DuPont family is
to make this road eventually one of the finest in the world. It has
been very carefully laid out and constructed. Later it is to be widened
and beautified. Some $3,000,000 have already been expended, and it is
contemplated to spend $1,500,000 more. It might be well if more men of
wealth would commemorate their names by constructing and endowing roads.

In spaces about wharfs and depots, although on privately owned ground
and privately constructed, the pavement is often used generally as a
highway. Such places are of course primarily for the convenience of
the steamship or railway companies and they are maintained at their
own expense. However, all such expense forms a part of the cost of
operation and no doubt is charged to the patrons in the overhead, or
it is intended to be a means of advertising in the hope that it will
increase business.

In timbered and rough mountainous countries, roads have frequently been
built and maintained by the companies interested in lumbering, mining,
or other enterprises therein, and thrown open to the general use of
the public. Here the companies figure that the benefit to be derived
by them more than balances the expense. Furthermore, the use of them
by the public, while a minor consideration as far as the road itself
is concerned, is a means of maintaining a friendly feeling with the
inhabitants.

Turnpike or toll roads, as has already been pointed out, were very
extensively built in the days preceding the advent of the steam
railway. These were built with money raised by the ordinary methods
for financing industrial enterprises. A good many thousands of miles
of such roads were chartered and constructed by private capital
amounting to millions of dollars before the steel tracks put them out
of business. Only a few now remain in Pennsylvania and Virginia with
now and then scattered short stretches of roadway, and bridges over
larger streams elsewhere, and ere long they, too, will be taken over
by the states and become a part of the great public highway. As late
as 1915 a private toll road in Tuolumne County, California, operated
by a mining company was purchased by the state and nation, a portion
of it being within the Yosemite National Park, and made a part of the
California state system. The people will never be content to go back to
the inconvenience of being stopped by a turnpike every 4 or 5 miles to
pay a toll amounting in many cases from 1 to 2 cents per ton-mile, when
the same amount of money in the form of licenses and taxes will keep up
magnificent systems of public “free” highways.


=Public Financing.=--Every civic government has its methods for the
collection of revenue to pay its necessary expenses. One of the easiest
things theoretically to do, then, is to collect by a tax on the
property of the district--state, county, township--sufficient money to
meet expenses, including the building and maintenance of roads, from
the property holders in proportion to their wealth and turn it over
to the proper officers for expenditure. When roads were yet simple
things, before they had become elaborate and complicated structures,
that might have been done. Practically, however, even then the working
of the roads was a farce; men sat around, told stories, retailed the
neighborhood gossip and smoked their pipes or whittled sticks, while
the horses hitched to the scraper or plow stood limp with one hip lower
than the other, eyes half shut lazily swishing at the flies with their
long tails. Soon the necessary hours were passed, their poll or road
tax had been “worked out.” The roadway was left in an almost impassable
condition to be gradually worn smooth during the intervening six months
until it came time again to work the roads. To most of those old timers
the working of the road was a necessary evil and done only because the
law required it. When occasionally a road supervisor insisted on a
full day’s work for a day’s credit he was a skinflint and at the next
election lost his job.

The tremendous amount of money necessary to construct present types of
roads must, in the long run, be obtained from the citizens through some
medium of taxation. A tax is a compulsory contribution levied upon
persons, property, business, occupations, privileges, or enjoyment of
the people for the support of government or governmental functions.
When levied upon persons it is usually called a poll or head tax; when
upon property, a property tax; when upon business it may be a capital
tax, sales tax or an income tax; when upon occupations, an occupation
tax; when upon privileges, a license; and when upon enjoyment, a
pleasure tax. A good many of them may be lumped together under the name
of revenue taxes. Some are collected personally by a specified officer
of the government, while others are collected indirectly by the sale of
stamps which are attached to the article or transaction taxed.

Taxes may also be classified as direct, indirect and special, all of
which are of great importance to the highway.


=Direct Taxes.=--Direct taxes are levied directly upon property or
persons. State laws usually prescribe that general property taxes shall
be levied uniformly over the assessed values of the district concerned.
A poll tax is levied on all persons of a particular age or class, as
all able-bodied males between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years.
An income tax is levied according to some prescribed rule on the annual
incomes of persons and corporations. An income tax is really a tax on
business, either present or past.

In either case, whether the levy is on his poll, upon the assessed
valuation of his property, or upon his declared income, the taxpayer
contributes, theoretically at least, in direct proportion to his
ability to pay. The amount of the tax is definitely ascertained some
little time in advance of payment and is collected directly by an
officer of government.

The levying of labor or poll taxes on persons living within a
particular road district easily expanded to the levying of property
taxes to care for the local roads. However, as the cost of road
building and maintenance increased the fronting or contiguous property
could not stand the entire burden, the zone of taxation was widened to
include larger areas, the township, the county or the state, depending
on the importance of the highway.


=Indirect Taxes.=--Indirect taxes are those not levied upon the various
persons or the property of the district, but are placed upon some
article of consumption or some article of manufacture, upon imports and
exports, or some privilege or pleasure. The government does not look
to each individual for its money, but to the seller or manufacturer or
importer of the article taxed, or the licensee, or the operator of the
theater or other pleasure resort. The amount of the tax is added to
the price at which the article is sold or to the fee charged so that
it is at last borne by the ultimate consumer, in proportion to his
consumption of the article taxed, or the privilege enjoyed.

Federal aid moneys all come from indirect taxes, for the Constitution
forbids the national government to levy direct taxes.

In Alaska 65 per cent. of the “Alaska Fund,” a fund derived from all
returns from liquor, occupation or trade licenses obtained outside
incorporated towns, must by Congressional law of 1905-1906; be spent in
Alaska for roads, trails, and bridges.

License fees on motor cars and sales taxes on gasoline belong to
the class of indirect taxes, and are attempts to charge the user
of the road in proportion to the wear and tear produced by him or
his consumption of it. If the motor car is an express truck, a bus,
or a taxicab the tax is passed on to the patron, and this patron
charges it to the cost of living and attempts to pass it on to his
employer through increased wages or those who do business with him.
It is finally paid for by that visionary personage the ultimate
consumer--everybody.


=Special Taxes.=--Special taxes are those levied upon property for a
particular improvement that is demanded by public interest. They are
not uniform but must be levied in proportion to the benefits accruing
to the property from the improvement. This class of taxes is very
popular for financing the building of roads and the paving of streets
as well as other public construction. The area adjacent to the road or
pavement for a certain specified distance back, or possibly, halfway to
the next thoroughfare, is assessed for the improvement and in road work
is technically known as “fronting property.” Each piece of fronting
property is required to pay toward the whole cost of improvement an
amount proportional to the benefits derived from the improvement.

These benefits evidently decrease as the distance from the improvement
increases. They may not always vary in the same ratio, but appraisers
will usually follow some definite rule and deviate from it only in
extreme cases and as local conditions demand. That they should not
decrease directly as the distance but in some geometrical ratio, most
engineers agree. Law courts have frequently upheld assessments made
upon some such basis.

For the purpose of initiating an improvement by petition it is
customary to adopt a fixed scale for the measure of the benefits, based
upon distance, that will probably be derived from the improvement.
Some legislative bodies have enacted definite rules for evaluating
“influence” in petitioning. Generally the rule is based upon some
mathematical variation. For example that the assessed value or
influence of property of uniform width extending back from the roadway
shall vary as the square root of the maximum distance back. In the
figure on page 313, a lot of one-unit area fronting the street is given
a value of 31.62. This is from the mathematical formula

  _y_² = 1000_x_

where _y_ represents the assessed value or influence in petitioning,
and _x_, the distance back, considering the value of _y_ = 100 for _x_
= 10.

To draw the curve mark off on a straight line ten equal distances; at
the mid-point of these distances or units erect perpendiculars. From
the formula calculate values for _y_ as shown in the table; lay these
off on the verticals and plot the curve through their extremities. To
clarify this some, suppose that upon the center of the first space,
there being one unit area or lot here, there is stacked up the value
of the assessed benefits 32 (31.62) silver dollars. On the next space,
since there are two lots extending back from the street, the stack
would contain 45 (44.72) silver dollars--continue this for each space
and for the number of lots extending back. A curved line passing
through the tops of the stacks representing the assessed values will be
the influence curve plotted.

[Illustration:

  +---+------+------+
  |_x_| _y_² |  _y_ |
  +---+------+------+
  | 1 | 1,000| 31.62|
  | 2 | 2,000| 44.72|
  | 3 | 3,000| 54.77|
  | 4 | 4,000| 63.25|
  | 5 | 5,000| 70.71|
  | 6 | 6,000| 77.46|
  | 7 | 7,000| 83.67|
  | 8 | 8,000| 89.44|
  | 9 | 9,000| 94.87|
  |10 |10,000|100.00|
  +---+------+------+

Assessment curve.]

For the purpose of initiating an improvement the unit in which the
prospective benefits are to be measured is usually adopted by the
governing or assessing authorities. Dollars will not do because the
cost will not be known until after the improvement has been finished.
In the case of roads and streets the unit quite generally used is the
“front-foot.” The number of front-feet in any paving district will
be the same as the number of abutting feet along the street to be
improved. A different definition for “front-foot” is given on page
318. The petitioning power or influence of the several properties
constituting the whole frontage is proportional to the number of
front-feet assigned to each property, and these are assigned according
to the adopted rule which is supposed more or less closely to measure
the benefits to be derived from the improvement.

When it comes to paying for the improvement the total cost up to
the time of payment, including all charges against the district of
whatsoever character, is divided by the number of front-feet giving
the cost per front-foot, from which may readily be determined the cost
to be assessed to each property according to the number of front-feet
assigned to it.

To illustrate this more concretely, consider a road one mile long.
Its abutting length is 2 miles, one on each side, or 10,560 feet. The
total number of units of influence in the whole assessed area, and
the number of units of assessed benefits, is 10,560 front-feet. The
number of these units assigned or assessed to a particular plot of land
is technically called its “frontage.” Since all land for a specified
distance from the roadway must share in the benefits and in the cost,
therefore, a piece of property may have frontage even though it does
not touch the street or roadway to be improved.

In order to facilitate computation, more or less arbitrary variations
are made from the theoretical curve of assessment thought to be ideal.
Each infinitesimal portion of land bears a different assessment value
according to its position in relation to the improvement. It would be
impracticable to divide the land into an infinite number of strips
of infinitesimal width and calculate the assessment for each. This
could be done by mathematical analysis if all the boundary lines were
straight lines and mathematical curves, but the work would be even then
too laborious to pay. It is customary to divide the assessed territory
along each side of the roadway into zones with edges parallel to the
road, and to each zone is given a weight or proportional part of all
the assessed value. The weights are obtained from the mathematical
curve and are given values corresponding approximately with theoretical
calculations.


=Zone Weights.=--To determine the proper zone weights the influence
curve is plotted as in figure on page 319. The base line, AB, is
divided into as many parts as it is desired to have zones; from the
mid-point of each part a perpendicular to the base line is erected to
meet the curve, shown in the table, as mid-ordinates. These are each
multiplied by 100 and divided by the longest, in the case of five
zones, 94.85, to get them into percentages of the whole. These are
now adjusted to near numbers for easy multiplication. For example, to
multiply by 33¹⁄₃ add two ciphers and divide by 3; to multiply by 25
add two ciphers and divide by 4; and so on.

FIVE-ZONE TABLE

  ----+------------+----------+------+---------------+-------
  Zone|Mid-ordinate|Percentage|Weight|Adjusted Weight|  Sum
  ----+------------+----------+------+---------------+-------
   1  |   31.62    |   33.3   | 33.3 |    33¹⁄₃      |  33¹⁄₃
   2  |   54.77    |   57.7   | 24.4 |    25         |  58¹⁄₃
   3  |   70.71    |   74.6   | 18.9 |    16²⁄₃      |  75
   4  |   83.67    |   88.5   | 13.9 |    15         |  90
   5  |   94.87    |  100.0   | 11.5 |    10         | 100
  ----+------------+----------+------+---------------+-------

To get weights for six zones take the mid-ordinates at 8¹⁄₃, 25, 41²⁄₃,
58¹⁄₃, 75, and 91²⁄₃, as follows:

  ----+------------+----------+------+--------+-------+--------+-------
      |            |          |      |        |       |Another |
      |            |          |      |Adjusted|       |Adjusted|
  Zone|Mid-ordinate|Percentage|Weight| Weight |  Sum  | Weight |  Sum
  ----+------------+----------+------+--------+-------+--------+-------
   1  |   28.86    |     31   |  31  |  30    | 30    | 33¹⁄₃  | 33¹⁄₂
   2  |   50.00    |     52   |  21  |  20    | 50    | 20     | 53¹⁄₃
   3  |   64.45    |     67   |  15  |  15    | 65    | 16²⁄₃  | 70
   4  |   76.70    |     80   |  13  |  12¹⁄₂ | 77¹⁄₂ | 10     | 80
   5  |   87.02    |     91   |  11  |  12¹⁄₂ | 90    | 10     | 90
   6  |   95.73    |    100   |   9  |  10    |100    | 10     |100
  ----+------------+----------+------+--------+-------+--------+-------


=To Calculate the Frontage.=--As has already been stated, in some
states in order to initiate a road improvement to be paid for by
special assessment a petition for the same signed by the owners of
a majority of the frontage is necessary. To determine the frontage
for this petition general rules are laid down by proper authority or
laws enacted, stating the necessary procedure and the weights allowed
for calculating frontage based upon distance from the roadway to be
improved. In one state the land up to a distance of 2 miles back on
each side of the roadway may be formed into an improvement district
which constitutes the fronting territory or frontage. The frontage on
each side of the roadway is divided into four zones equal in width.
The first zone, the one nearest the road, has a weight of 50, or it
may be said to contain 50 per cent. of the total frontage; the second
zone has a weight of 25, or contains 25 per cent. of the frontage; the
third, 15 per cent.; and the fourth, 10 per cent. Along a mile of the
road there are, of course, two miles or 10,560 front-feet frontage.
This 10,560 front-feet is not considered to be uniformly distributed
over the entire 4 square miles (assuming the district 2 miles each side
the road) of assessed territory abutting the mile of roadway. Nor to
be decreased according to the mathematical laws stated above. But the
distribution is by arbitrary rule laid down by legislative authority.
In this particular case, assuming a straight roadway and equal zones,
the first one will contain 50 per cent. of 10,560 = 5280 front feet.
Since the actual area of the zone is 1 square mile = 640 acres, there
are 5280 ÷ 640 = 8¹⁄₄ front-feet per acre in this zone. The table will
show similar results for each of the four zones:

  ----+------+--------+-----------------------------------
      |      |        |  Front-feet for varying acreages
      |      |  Front +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
      |      |   feet |  1  | 10  | 20  | 40  | 80  | 160
  Zone|Weight|per mile| acre|acres|acres|acres|acres|acres
  ----+------+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
   1  |  50  |  5280  |8.250|82.50|165.0| 330 | 660 |1320
   2  |  25  |  2640  |4.125|41.25| 82.5| 165 | 330 | 660
   3  |  15  |  1584  |2.475|24.75| 49.5|  99 | 198 | 396
   4  |  10  |  1056  |1.650|16.50| 33.0|  66 | 132 | 264
  ----+------+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----

As an illustration, suppose two taxpayers have farms of exactly the
same size, 800 acres each, but placed differently in regard to the
road, see figure below. Their influences or petitioning power may be
calculated in front-feet from the preceding table thus:

[Illustration: ASSESSMENT INFLUENCE

Two farms of the same shape but situated differently with regard to
the improved highway have different “petitioning influences” and are
assessed differently for improvements. Farm _A_ is in contact with the
road for 5280 ft., and has an influence or assessment value of 4158
front-feet. Farm _B_ is in contact 1320 ft. and has an assessment value
of 2442 front-feet.]

  ----+------+----------------+----------------
      |      |     Farm A     |     Farm B
      |      +-----+----------+-----+----------
      |      |     |Influence |     |Influence
  Zone|Weight|Acres|Front-Feet|Acres|Front-Feet
  ----+------+-----+----------+-----+----------
    1 |  50  | 320 |   2640   |  80 |    660
    2 |  25  | 240 |    990   | 160 |    660
    3 |  15  | 160 |    396   | 240 |    594
    4 |  10  |  80 |    132   | 320 |    528
      |      +-----+----------+-----+----------
  Total      | 800 |   4158   | 800 |   2442
             |     +----------+-----+----------
  Contact Feet     |   5280   |     |   1320
  -----------------+----------+-----+----------


=Procedure with Unequal Zones or Irregular Lots.=--Where the zones are
not equal in area or the property lines do not intersect the roadway
at right angles or the lots are irregular in shape, the method of
procedure is not quite so simple, although the principle is the same.
While it is customary to make the zones of uniform width this is not
absolutely necessary. Likewise the ratio of weights vary with different
states and cities. One city uses 33¹⁄₃, 20, 16²⁄₃, 10, 10, 10 for the
weights in its six zones; another uses 33¹⁄₃, 25, 16²⁄₃, 15 and 10.
Neither of these, as shown in the tables on pages 315 and 316 varies
materially from the theoretical ratio.

Using the latter of these ratios a small district has been worked out
as shown in the figure and table on page 320. Incidentally this also
shows a good method of recording lot assessments during the process of
computations. The work is readily checked. The sum of the lot areas
must equal the sum of the zone areas and that of the whole district.
The sums of the weighted areas for the same divisions must balance. The
sums of front-feet likewise. Also cross and vertical summations may be
made to check.

[Illustration]


=Second Method of Apportioning Assessments.=--A second method based
upon a different definition has something in its favor. If the
front-foot is defined as a lot 1 foot wide measured in the direction of
the street extending directly back through all the zones to the limit
of the assessed area it will have a weighed area of _W__{1}_z__{1} +
_W__{2}_z__{2} + _W__{3}_z__{3} ... and so on, where _W__{1} represents
the weight of the zone, whose width is _z__{1}, and _W__{2} the weight
of the zone, width _z__{2}, etc. If _z__{1} = _z__{2} = _z__{3} ...
etc., as is usually the case the weighted area of 1 front-foot is
(_W__{1} + _W__{2} + _W__{3} ... ) _z_ = _Wz_ = 100_z_, since _W_ is
always = 100. The total number of front-feet in the district, or in any
lot, will be the number of weighted feet in the district or in the lot,
divided by 100_z_. In the district represented on p. 320, the number
of front-feet is the total frontage, 1,936,000 divided by 4000 = 484;
and for each lot the amount shown in the table. The results obtained by
the two methods are directly proportional, so that either may be used
for making assessments. In fact they are proportional to the weighted
areas, so that the weighted areas may be used instead of the front-feet
if desired.


=Rule for Assessment.=--To get the assessment for any particular
lot divide the total cost of the improvement by the total number of
front-feet in the district and multiply the quotient by the number of
front-feet in the lot.

[Illustration:

  +----+-----+-----------------+--------------+---------------+
  |ZONE| WT. |      ZONES      |    LOT 1     |     LOT 2     |
  |    |     +------+----------+----+---------+-----+---------+
  |    |     | AREA | WTD. AREA|AREA|WTD. AREA| AREA|WTD. AREA|
  +----+-----+------+----------+----+---------+-----+---------+
  |  1 |39¹⁄₃|22,800|  760,000 |4800| 160,000 | 3600| 120,000 |
  |  2 |25   |20,400|  510,000 |2400|  60,000 | 3600|  90,000 |
  |  3 |16²⁄₃|18,000|  300,000 | 300|   5,000 | 3300|  55,000 |
  |  4 |15   |15,600|  234,000 |    |         | 1200|  18,000 |
  |  5 |10   |13,200|  132,000 |    |         |     |         |
  +----+-----+------+----------+----+---------+-----+---------+
  |Total     |90,000|1,936,000 |7500| 225,000 |11700| 283,000 |
  +----------+------+----------+----+---------+-----+---------+
  |Front Feet 1^{st} Method 600|    |   69.73 |     |   87.71 |
  +----------------------------+----+---------+-----+---------+
  |  „    „   2^{nd}   „    484|    |   56.25 |     |   70.75 |
  +----------------------------+----+---------+-----+---------+

  +----+-----+-----------------+---------------+---------------+
  |ZONE| WT. |      ZONES      |     LOT 3     |     LOT 4     |
  |    |     +------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |    |     | AREA | WTD. AREA| AREA|WTD. AREA| AREA|WTD. AREA|
  +----+-----+------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |  1 |39¹⁄₃|22,800|  760,000 | 2400|  80,000 | 3000| 100,000 |
  |  2 |25   |20,400|  510,000 | 2400|  60,000 | 3000|  75,000 |
  |  3 |16²⁄₃|18,000|  300,000 | 2400|  40,000 | 3000|  50,000 |
  |  4 |15   |15,600|  234,000 | 2400|  36,000 | 3000|  45,000 |
  |  5 |10   |13,200|  132,000 | 1200|  12,000 | 3000|  30,000 |
  +----+-----+------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |Total     |90,000|1,936,000 |10800| 228,000 |15000| 300,000 |
  +----------+------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |Front Feet 1^{st} Method 600|     |   70.66 |     |   92.97 |
  +----------------------------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |  „    „   2^{nd}   „    484|     |   57.00 |     |   75.00 |
  +----------------------------+-----+---------+-----+---------+

  +----+-----+-----------------+---------------+---------------+
  |ZONE| WT. |      ZONES      |     LOT 5     |     LOT 6     |
  |    |     +------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |    |     | AREA | WTD. AREA| AREA|WTD. AREA| AREA|WTD. AREA|
  +----+-----+------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |  1 |39¹⁄₃|22,800|  760,000 | 3000| 100,000 | 6000| 200,000 |
  |  2 |25   |20,400|  510,000 | 3000|  75,000 | 6000| 150,000 |
  |  3 |16²⁄₃|18,000|  300,000 | 3000|  50,000 | 3000|  50,000 |
  |  4 |15   |15,600|  234,000 | 3000|  45,000 |     |         |
  |  5 |10   |13,200|  132,000 | 3000|  30,000 |     |         |
  +----+-----+------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |Total     |90,000|1,936,000 |15000| 300,000 |15000| 400,000 |
  +----------+------+----------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |Front Feet 1^{st} Method 600|     |   92.97 |     |  123.97 |
  +----------------------------+-----+---------+-----+---------+
  |  „    „   2^{nd}   „    484|     |   75.00 |     |  100.00 |
  +----------------------------+-----+---------+-----+---------+

  +----+-----+-----------------+---------------+
  |ZONE| WT. |      ZONES      |     LOT 7     |
  |    |     +------+----------+-----+---------+
  |    |     | AREA | WTD. AREA| AREA|WTD. AREA|
  +----+-----+------+----------+-----+---------+
  |  1 |39¹⁄₃|22,800|  760,000 |     |         |
  |  2 |25   |20,400|  510,000 |     |         |
  |  3 |16²⁄₃|18,000|  300,000 | 3000|  50,000 |
  |  4 |15   |15,600|  234,000 | 6000|  90,000 |
  |  5 |10   |13,200|  132,000 | 6000|  60,000 |
  +----+-----+------+----------+-----+---------+
  |Total     |90,000|1,936,000 |15000| 200,000 |
  +----------+------+----------+-----+---------+
  |Front Feet 1^{st} Method 600|     |  61.99  |
  +----------------------------+-----+---------+
  |  „    „   2^{nd}   „    484|     |   50.00 |
  +----------------------------+-----+---------+

  First Method

  Front-Feet = 600
  Weighted Area
  per front Foot
    1,936,000
  = --------- = 3226²⁄₃
       600

  Lot frontage
  = Weighted area
  of Lot ÷ 3226²⁄₃

  Second Method

               1,936,000
  Front Feet = ---------
                 4000

             = 484

  Frontage of each lot
  = weighted area of
  lot ÷ 4000]

It should be remembered that the assessment of cost must be in
proportion to the benefits to be derived from the improvement. The
assessors will therefore have to use sound judgment and modify the
mathematical results if deemed wise. As a rule it is best never to
deviate, though, unless there are extraordinary good reasons.


=Miscellaneous Sources of Revenue.=--A few years ago much was said
relative to the right of a city to take a portion of the earnings of
public service corporations as compensation to the public for the use
of its streets. Many cities granted franchises under such agreements
and until the automobile depleted the earnings of street railways
and the general costs of manufacturing gas and electricity went up
received considerable revenue from these public utility organizations.
While in most cities this went into the general fund money was usually
appropriated from that fund for street maintenance and improvement,
so indirectly, at least, the roadways profited. In the large cities
franchises for the use of the public streets at, above, or beneath
the surface are sufficiently valuable to warrant good returns to
the public. It seems logical that such money be used for street
improvements. Bus and truck lines fall directly under this head, and
since they are very largely conducive to the distruction of pavements,
it would seem as though they ought to pay for at least a part of this
damage. The tax might be graduated according to weight as is now in
most states the automobile license tax.

A number of cities are entering the commercial and industrial
enterprises such as the sale of water, gas, electricity, ice and
coal. While usually these are operated on a low margin so as not to
make money there is nevertheless, here, an opportunity to secure
necessary funds for public improvements. And if the operation of these
enterprises is such that private competitors can make reasonable
profits the people will be the gainer by having more available funds
for worthy objects. It may not be the proper province of the government
to go into gainful enterprises in competition with its own citizens. In
fact, public opinion in America has been so one-sided on such questions
that wherever private enterprises have been taken over by the states
or the nation they have thereafter been conducted free or at the bare
cost of operation. The turnpike roads were bought by the states and
made part of the free public road system. Cities like Cleveland and
San Francisco have handled their street railways at the bare cost of
operation. Efforts are being made to make the Panama Canal free to
certain classes of commercial shipping. Government land reclamation by
irrigation and drainage has been made so that it could be paid for by
the settlers in small amounts, running through long periods of time.
But notwithstanding all this there is an awakening to the possibilities
that may come from the development and operation by government
of resources that were formerly considered fair game for private
exploitation.

Such disputes as the two nation-wide industrial strikes of 1922, the
coal miners and the railway craftsmen, are rapidly forcing those not
directly connected with the “operators” or the “strikers” to the
opinion that government ownership is the remedy for industrial ailments
of this character. They point to the Post Office Department as an
argument in favor. While it is a fact there has been no trouble so
far with postoffice employees, it does not follow that the same would
be true with the railway, coal mining, and cotton industries. And if
the Government should begin taking over industrial and commercial
enterprises, where would be the end of such paternalism, and would it
lead to sovietism? It is barely possible that governmental regulation
has already gone too far.

But, nevertheless, from some such sources as have been mentioned or
from a sales tax on gasoline may eventually come a relief to the burden
of taxation which now and increasingly so in the future must otherwise
be borne by the land.


=Bonds.=--It is not always possible to raise by taxes sufficient
money to make public improvements on a pay-as-you-go basis. It would
not be economical to attempt to pave one-tenth the width of a street
each year. One patch would be worn out before the next is put down.
The whole must be done at the same time in order not to be vastly
wasteful. And, in order to enjoy the improvement while money is
being collected for its payment, the municipality must resort to
borrowing. It is also argued that since future generations will enjoy
the improvement they should be required to help pay for the same.
The indebtedness represented by the bonds become a lien against the
assessed property in the state, county, township, or district over
which they have been laid. The taxes to pay off the bonds will be
levied uniformly over all property or specially in proportion to
accruing benefits according to conditions prescribed at the time the
improvements were made.


=Kinds of Bonds.=--Bonds are certificates of indebtedness by means
of which the repayment of borrowed money may be spread over a series
of years. They are classified as Sinking Fund, Annuity and Serial,
depending on their manner of payment.

_Sinking fund_ bonds are paid as a whole at the end of their term,
interest being paid annually, or at some other fixed regular period,
upon their face value. The name arises because of the custom of
establishing a sinking-fund into which a certain proportion of the debt
is to be paid annually, and this loaned out so that at the end of the
period it will amount to the face of the bonds. Since there is always
time lost between the collection and loaning of the sinking fund money
the interest derived therefrom will not usually be the same as that of
the bonds. For this reason and from the further fact that sinking funds
are frequently drawn upon for other purposes than that for which they
were created this type of bonds is less economical than either of the
other two types.

The sinking fund which must be raised annually to discharge a debt of
_P_ dollars in _n_ payments, if it can be loaned at _i_ per cent, is
given by the formula:[197]

                         _i_
  Sinking fund = ------------------- . _P_
                 (1 + _i_)^{_n_} - 1

To illustrate the use of the formula let the debt be $10,000, the
average rate that can be expected from the sinking fund 4 per cent, and
the time five years. Substituting in the formula,

             .04
  _S_ = ------------- . $10,000
        (1 + .04)⁵ - 1

To solve, the denominator is first evaluated:

  Log (1 + .04)⁵ = 5 log 1.04
                 = 5 × 0.017033
                 = 0.085165

Taking the antilog,

  (1 + .04)⁵     = 1.21665

and

  (1 + .04)⁵ - 1 = 0.21665

Then

        0.4 × $10,000
  _S_ = ------------- = $1846.27.
           0.21665

Annuity tables, which may be seen at nearly any bank or brokers’
office, or in Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture, give
the annuity which will amount to 1 in five years at 4 per cent as
0.1846271; this multiplied by $10,000 gives $1846.27.

To the nearest cent the following tabular statement shows the growth of
the sinking funds:

  ----+------------+---------------+---------------+------------------
      |Sinking-fund|               |Annual Payments|Total Sinking-fund
      |at Beginning|Interest during|     into      |      at End
  Year|  of Year   |     Year      | Sinking-Fund  |      of Year
  ----+------------+---------------+---------------+------------------
   1  |      0.    |       0.      |   $1,846.27   |    $ 1,846.27
   2  |  $1846.27  |    $ 73.85    |    1,846.27   |      3,766.39
   3  |   3766.39  |     150.66    |    1,846.27   |      5,763.32
   4  |   5763.32  |     230.53    |    1,846.27   |      7,840.12
   5  |   7840.12  |     313.61    |    1,846.27   |     10,000.00
  ----+------------+---------------+---------------+------------------

If this loan, the bonds, bore 5 per cent interest the cost to the
borrower would have been the principal plus the interest on principal
less the interest on the sinking fund:

  $10,000 + $2500 - $768.65 = $11,731.35;

or the interest on the loan plus the sinking-fund payments:

  $2500 + $9231.25 = $11,731.35

_Serial Bonds_ are such that a fixed amount of the principal is retired
at definite periods of time. Usually the amount retired is an aliquot
part of the whole. The payments to be made at any particular time is
the fixed portion of the principal plus the interest on the unpaid
portion up to that date. The periods of retirement are usually annual
or semi-annual.

Assuming the principal to be _P_ and that one nth part of it is paid
each year, the formulas are:

                                              ( 1       (    1 - _k_))
  Annual payment for the _k_th year      = _P_(--- + _i_(1 + -------)).
                                              (_n_      (      _n_  ))

                                               (    1 - _k_)
  Interest for the _k_th year            = _Pi_(1 + -------).
                                               (      _n_  )

  Total amount of interest to the end of        (    1 - _k_)
  the _k_th year                         = _Pik_(1 + -------).
                                                (      2_n_ )

  Total amount of interest and principal       ( 1       (    1 - _k_))
  paid up to the end of the _k_th year   = _Pk_(--- + _i_(1 + -------)).
                                               (_n_      (      2_n_ ))

The following table shows how a debt of $10,000 bearing 5 per cent
interest would be discharged by equal annual payments in five years:

  ----+------------+------------+----------------+------------
      |Principal at|            |Principal Repaid|
      |Beginning of|Interest for|   at end of    |Total Annual
  Year|    Year    |    Year    |      Year      |  Payment
  ----+------------+------------+----------------+------------
   1  |  $10,000   |   $  500   |    $ 2,000     |  $ 2,500
   2  |    8,000   |      400   |      2,000     |    2,400
   3  |    6,000   |      300   |      2,000     |    2,300
   4  |    4,000   |      200   |      2,000     |    2,200
   5  |    2,000   |      100   |      2,000     |    2,100
      |            +------------+----------------+------------
      |Totals      |   $1,500   |    $10,000     |  $11,500
  ----+------------+------------+----------------+------------

_Annuity Bonds_ are those wherein a uniform periodic payment is made
to discharge the debt in a given time. The formula for the necessary
payment to discharge a debt of _P_, with interest rate _i_ in _n_ years
is,

                            _i_
  Annual payment = -------------------- . _P_.
                   1 - (1 - _i_)^{_-n_}

Results may be taken from books of tables already referred to or by
means of logarithms the formula may be solved. For example let it be
required to discharge a debt of $10,000 in five equal payments, the
rate of interest being 5 per cent.

Solution:

    (1 + _i_)^{_-n_} = 1.05⁻⁵.

            Log 1.05 = -0.021189
         -5 Log 1.05 = -0.105945
                     =  9.894055-10
  Log⁻¹(9.894055-10) = 0.783529
        1 - 0.783529 = 0.216471
  Log Annual Payment = Log _i_ - Log 0.216471 + Log _P_
                     = Log 0.05 - Log 0.216471 + Log 10,000
                     = (8.698970 - 10) - (9.335398 - 10) + 4.000,000
                     = 3.363572
      Annual Payment = Log⁻¹ 3.363571 = $2309.748.

The following table shows the repayment of the loan by annual payments
of $2309.75:

  ----+------------+------------+----------------+-------------
      | Principal  |            |                |
      | Owing at   |            |Principal Repaid|
      |Beginning of|Interest for|     at End     |Total Payment
  Year|   Year     |   Year     |    of Year     |   for Year
  ----+------------+------------+----------------+-------------
    1 | $10,000.00 |   $500.00  |  $1,809.75     |  $2,309.75
    2 |   8,190.25 |    409.51  |   1,900.24     |   2,309.75
    3 |   6,290.01 |    314.50  |   1,995.25     |   2,309.75
    4 |   4,294.76 |    214.74  |   2,095.01     |   2,309.75
    5 |   2,199.85 |    109.99  |   2,199.75     |   2,309.74
      |            +------------+----------------+-------------
      |Totals      |  $1548.74  | $10,000.00     | $11,548.74
  ----+------------+------------+----------------+-------------

Since it is more convenient to have the bonds in even hundreds
of dollars and the interest in dollars some adjustment from the
theoretical amounts are usually made but such that the annual payments
will be near the theoretical. Sometimes, too, the bonds are made
smaller for the first few years then gradually increase so that the
natural growth in population and wealth may bear its proportional
burden. One adjustment for the example just given is shown:

  ----+------------+------------+----------------+-------------
      |  Principal |            |                |
  Year|  Owing at  |            |Principal Repaid|
      |Beginning of|Interest for|     at End     |Total Payment
      |    Year    |    Year    |    of Year     |   for Year
  ----+------------+------------+----------------+-------------
    1 |  $10,000   |     500    |     $1,800     |    $2,300
    2 |    8,200   |     410    |      1,900     |     2,310
    3 |    6,300   |     315    |      2,000     |     2,315
    4 |    4,300   |     215    |      2,100     |     2,315
    5 |    2,200   |     110    |      2,200     |     2,310
      |            +------------+----------------+-------------
      |   Totals   |  $1,500    |    $10,000     |   $11,550
  ----+------------+------------+----------------+-------------


=Total Cost by the Three Kinds of Bonds.=--The total cost of a loan, as
shown by the following table taken from Bulletin 136, U. S. Department
of Agriculture, is generally greatest under the sinking fund plan and
least under the serial. The serial, too, is the simplest to compute.

TOTAL COST OF A $100,000 LOAN FOR 20 YEARS

Interest Compounded Annually[198]

  --------+--------------------------+--------+--------
   Annual |  Sinking-fund Bond Com-  |        |
  Interest|    pounded Annually at   |        |
     on   +--------+--------+--------+Annuity |  Serial
    Bonds |   3%   | 3¹⁄₂%  |   4%   |  Bond  |   Bond
  --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
    4     |$154,431|$150,722|$147,163|$147,163|$142,000
    4¹⁄₂  | 164,431| 160,722| 157,163| 153,752| 147,250
    5     | 174,431| 170,722| 167,163| 160,485| 152,500
    5¹⁄₂  | 184,431| 180,722| 177,163| 167,359| 157,750
    6     | 194,431| 190,722| 187,163| 174,369| 163,000
  --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------

The sinking-fund bonds are made out to run the full period and are
paid for from the proceeds of the sinking-fund at the end of the term.
Serial and annuity bonds are made to mature in proportion to the
amounts paid each year. In the example used the serial system would
retire $2000 worth of bonds each year, while with the annuity system
$1800 would be retired at the end of the first year; $1900, the next;
$2000, the third; $2100 the fourth, and $2200 the fifth.

Interest coupons, that is, notes for the payment of interest at stated
intervals and providing for interest upon the interest if not paid at
maturity, are usually attached to the bonds for the entire period that
they run, one to be clipped at each interest pay day.


=The Term of Bonds.=--Several states and some of the large cities have
issued bonds for road improvements for long series of years. This has
met considerable opposition on the ground that the bonds should not
run longer than the life of the improvement, otherwise there may be
another series of bonds lapping upon the first, and perhaps a second
and third upon these. The arguments in favor of the long terms are
that some parts, at least, of the improvement will be permanent, that
reconstruction will cost less than original construction so that
lapping will do little harm, and that money may be obtained at a lower
rate on long-term than on short-term bonds.

It is a quite general practice for the abutting property-holders to pay
for the first pavement by special assessment. Resurfacing is frequently
and general repairs almost universally paid for by the city as a whole.
It would seem, especially where property-holders pay on the installment
plan, that a term of bond well within the life of the pavement ought
to be adopted. Ten years seems a reasonable time, fifteen years at the
longest. If borrowing is continued and one loan lapped upon another
there comes a time when the charges for paying off the debt and the
interest will more than equal the amount that can be borrowed. For
instance suppose a man can continue to borrow $1000 per year on five
years’ time, $200 to be paid each year. During the first year he would
owe $1000, and at the end of the year he pays $200 on the principal and
the interest. He borrows another $1000, so during the second year he is
in debt $1800 and must pay at the end of the year $400 principal and
$108 interest. The third year he is in debt $2400 and pays on principal
$600 and interest $144. The fourth year his debt is $2800, and payment
on principal $800 and the interest, $168. The fifth year and every year
following the debt is $3000 and the payment necessary on principal
$1000 and the interest $180. The payments on the principal amount is
equal to exactly the sum he can borrow. While the amounts used in
the illustration are small the principle is the same for loans upon
long-term bonds.

It would be better for cities and states to progress more slowly than
to have saddled upon them a debt in perpetuity. There are times,
however, when municipalities or other districts will find it the best
policy to borrow money and issue bonds. Serial and annuity bonds have
this advantage that as the improvement depreciates in value with time
the burden of indebtedness for the improvement becomes less. But it
can scarcely be considered the part of wisdom to have the bonds run
longer than the life of the pavement for which they were issued. The
pay-as-you-go plan is by far the most economical method of procedure,
but it cannot always be followed. There are times when budgetary
appropriations are insufficient and the people will not stand for
heavy taxation. In one city it had been the custom for the city by
general taxation to pay for paving intersections. As the intersections
amounted to about 30 per cent. of the total area paved that was thought
to be an equitable division, because the entire city receives some
benefit from each pavement put in. But the applications for paving
were much more each year than the city could pay for from its ordinary
budget. The amount of paving done each year was limited by the area of
intersections that the city was able to lay. Some districts said, “We
will pay for the whole pavement, intersections and all, rather than go
without or wait over one or two years.” The city council allowed this
to be done, and, soon, even went further and passed an ordinance taxing
the whole cost including the intersections to the fronting property.
This method has been in use for several years and the city of less than
70,000 inhabitants has more than 200 miles of pavement, and no citizen
was ever known to protest the scheme. Of course the public as a whole
could have paid for all these intersections by general taxation just
as easily as the private property-holders could, but if taxes had been
raised for that purpose there would have been many complaints that the
poor were being taxed to pave the streets in front of the residences of
the rich.

In fact, the last idea mentioned is one of the arguments in favor of
large bond issues such as are found in several of the states like New
York, Maryland, Illinois, California, Missouri and other states, to say
nothing of cities and counties. The argument is that the entire state,
county or city system should be constructed about the same time that
all may have equal benefit of it and that there shall be no intentional
partiality. Nelson P. Lewis states in the American Highway Engineers’
Handbook in effect that on a 4 per cent basis the $100,000,000 bonds
of the state of New York will mean an annual tax of $4,890,000 for
interest and sinking-fund charges, to say nothing of the annual
maintenance and renewal expenses, running through two generations. He
claims the same system of roads could have been built, at no greater
annual appropriations, in twenty years’ time and the people would not
have been saddled with debt, and it will require at least half that
time to complete the system with the bonds and the debt.

In Illinois, on the other hand, the debt, some $60,000,000 is to
be paid from the automobile licenses, which will be used for its
amortization. In Maine automobile licenses are also being used to pay
bonds, but only $500,000 will be issued in any one year and the total
outstanding cannot by law exceed $2,000,000.

Maryland uses a short-term-bond--fifteen years--and provides that
any road renewals required before that time shall be paid for out of
general appropriations.

New York city had issued bonds until more than two-thirds of the total
taxation for streets had to go to interest and amortization so some
years ago a change was made to what they called the pay-as-you-go plan.
It took four years to make the change, so, now, non-revenue-producing
improvements are made without issuing bonds. Revenue-producing
enterprises, such as water supply, transit lines, and water-front
improvements, are still financed by long term, 50-year bonds.


=Stocks and Bonds.=--Railways, interurban trolley lines, street-car
lines, and toll roads have been financed largely by stock
subscriptions. Public roads, being without a revenue-producing power,
cannot be financed in this manner, except perhaps in exceptional
cases where a few persons are willing to donate their money or are
building for private use but are willing to share the same with the
public. Large bridges may occasionally be built in this manner, the
stockholders exacting toll for passage in order to get a return on
their investment. However, such cases are negligible in the great
national scheme of public highways.


=National and State Aid.=--The history of National and State Aid in the
United States has been treated quite fully in Chapter V. It will not
be necessary to repeat that here. Suffice to say that with possibly a
few exceptions all the states in the Union now have some form of state
aid--money, engineering advice, testing materials, convict labor,
etc.; also the territories of Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippine Islands,
and Porto Rico, or else the governments of these divisions directly
take charge of the construction of a part or a whole of the roads. The
acceptance of Federal Aid practically made it necessary for the states
to have highway departments to distribute the Federal Aid money and the
equal amount the state had to put up to match it. Several of the states
like New York and California had raised by bond issues large sums of
money before federal aid was available and distributed it to counties
that would coöperate in the building of roads to be united into a
comprehensive state system. New Jersey, the first State Aid state, and
Massachusetts, a close follower, had already “paved the way” as an
example for other states to follow.


=Federal Aid.=--The Federal Aid road act, approved July 11, 1916,
appropriated “out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise
appropriated, for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1917, the sum
of $5,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918, the sum
of $10,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1919, the
sum of $15,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920,
the sum of $20,000,000; and for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1921, the sum of $25,000,000.” In addition there was appropriated
$10,000,000--$1,000,000 per year until 1926--for the survey,
construction and maintenance of roads within or partly within the
national forests in coöperation with the states in which these forests
are located.

The Secretary of Agriculture was by the Act, after making a deduction
of 3 per cent, to cover expenses of administration, authorized to
apportion the remainder “among the several states in the following
manner: One-third in the ratio which the area of the State bears
to the total area of all the States; one-third in the ratio which
the population of each State bears to the total population of all
States...; one-third in the ratio which the mileage of rural delivery
routes and star routes in each State bears to the total mileage of
rural delivery routes and star routes in all the States....”

States desiring to avail themselves of the benefits of the act
were required to “submit to the Secretary of Agriculture project
statements setting forth proposed construction of any rural post road
or roads therein.” If approved the states were further to “furnish
to him surveys, plans, specifications and estimates therefor as he
may require.” Only such projects as were “substantial in character”
might be approved. “Items included for engineering, inspection, and
unforeseen contingencies” may not be greater than 10 per cent of the
total cost of the work. Upon the final approval by the Secretary
of Agriculture of the plans, specifications and estimates and its
certification to the Secretary of the Treasury the Act provides that
there should be “set aside the share of the United States payable under
this Act on account of such project,” not to “exceed fifty per centum
of the total estimated cost thereof.”

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A NATIONAL HIGHWAY IN THE MOUNTAINS OF MARYLAND]

It was not the intention to take away from the states any right which
they might enjoy for the construction work was to be done in accordance
with the laws of the state within which a project lay but subject to
the inspection of the Secretary of Agriculture. He also has power to
pay to the states the amount of money set aside when a project has been
satisfactorily completed and also to make payments on the same during
the process of construction not to exceed the United States’ pro rata
part of the value of the work done, and not to exceed $10,000 per mile
of road exclusive of bridges more than 20 feet clear span.

The states snapped up this money greedily and the demand for more
money became so great that in 1919 Congress appropriated $200,000,000
more, and still later, 1921, appropriated $75,000,000, and $15,000,000
for national forest roads. And still later, June 18, 1922, there was
authorized an appropriation of $65,000,000 to be expended during the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1923, and $75,000,000 for the succeeding
fiscal year. At the end of five years after the passage of the Federal
Aid road act, there had been completed under its terms 7469 miles of
road and 17,977 miles additional were under construction. Texas ranked
first in the number of miles completed, with 682; and Illinois had
received the greatest amount of federal aid on projects completed and
under construction, with $11,807,906; while Texas was a close second
with $11,393,485.

While the mileage built by Federal and state aid is less in the more
compact densely populated Eastern states, the cost per mile is much
more as much more expensive types of roads are being built. In the
West and South earth roads largely make up the mileage. It has been
objected that these do not properly come under the wish of Congress
when it provided that the fund should be used only in the construction
of “substantial” roads. Earth road advocates argue that such features
as grading, draining and straightening roads may be considered
permanent, in so far as the road is ready for any type of surfacing
that may be desired to be laid at a later date. Recognizing the merits
of both contentions The Bureau of Public Roads issued, in 1922, a
decision practically as follows:

  The question of a more definite policy to be followed in connection
  with the approval of earth road Federal Aid projects which
  involve grading and drainage only, has for some time been under
  consideration, and it has been decided that hereafter such projects
  will only be approved on condition that The (State) Highway
  Department agree, in so far as it may legally do so, that within a
  reasonable time after completion of the improvement of the project
  as an earth road, it will place or cause to be placed thereon, an
  adequate and substantial type of surfacing.

  By adequate and substantial type of surfacing is meant such type as
  will carry the prospective traffic with such maintenance expenses
  that the total annual charges will represent a reasonable expenditure
  for the public service rendered by the highway.

It seems, therefore, that the Government expects to assist in the
financing of roads that appear adequate for the purposes intended.


=State Aid.=--The machinery of paying state money to finance local
roads throughout the counties varies greatly with the different states.
For example half may come from Federal Aid, half the remainder from
State Aid, and half the remainder from County Aid, leaving only a very
small amount for the local abutting property. In other states a large
part falls on the abutting property. It would seem as though through
main traveled roads should be largely financed by nation and state
while local marketing roads which will not require such expensive
surfacing should be largely locally financed.


=Present State of Federal Aid.=--The Bureau of Public Roads gives out
the information that 11,930 miles of road have been constructed during
the year 1921 by the States in conjunction with Federal Aid, at a total
cost of $231,963,682, toward which the government allotted $94,057,089.
There were under way during the year 31,228 miles, which was about
one-half the road work carried on in the United States during the year.
It is safe to assume, then, that through the stimulus of Government
Aid, direct and indirect, more than 20,000 miles were built during
1921, and that more than 40,000 more miles are under way.

The effects of Federal Aid is just now beginning to be felt; a few
years more will see the United States so well supplied with good
roads that the national appropriations for Federal Aid may be reduced
materially.

It is estimated that the $190,000,000 available for allotment,
$65,000,000 for the year ending 1923, $75,000,000 for the year 1924,
and $50,000,000 remaining from previous appropriations, will result
in the construction of more than 25,000 miles of road, which added to
the 46,000 miles that are expected to result from previous federal
appropriations, makes a total of 71,000 miles, or nearly 40 per cent of
the estimated 180,000 miles of good roads in the System of Federal Aid
roads now being outlined.

The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads gives out the figures up to December
31, 1921, as follows:

  Federal Aid Apportioned, 1917 to 1922 inc.,  $339,875,000
    Projects under Construction:
      Total Estimated Cost                      275,652,104
      Federal Aid                               117,049,690
      Miles                                          15,834
    Projects on which Construction is Completed:
      Total Estimated Cost                      221,739,710
      Federal Aid                                95,054,184
      Miles                                          12,907


=Matching Federal Aid Dollars.=--The main argument that brought the
Federal Aid law into being was the need of farm to market roads and the
fact that in the past the expense for building and maintaining roads
fell most heavily upon the farmer. In an excellent report made by
Senator Bankhead (Senate Report 250, 64th Congress, 1st Session) for
the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, the statement is made
that “it is probably conservative to say that at least 75 per cent of
the money raised for road purposes” at that time, 1916, “is paid by
the owners of country property.” He gives statistics to show that the
owners of less than one-third of the real property of the United States
were paying more than three-fourths of the cost of the public roads.
This did not seem to be equitable, since the country people did not
have a monopoly on their use. The burden of building and caring for the
roads should be distributed among all who were benefited by them. There
is no very adequate method of doing this, but inasmuch as all citizens,
both city and country, share in the raising of national revenues, the
result of federal appropriations would be to tend in some measure to
equalize the cost of roads as between city and country.

It was not thought wise to make a direct gift of money from the federal
treasury, as that would favor too much of paternalism, would result in
“pork barrel” scandals, and would stifle local initiative, energy, and
self-help. If the federal government were to enter upon the building
outright of a system of roads, there would be a temptation for the
states and counties to cease building in the hope the government would
eventually get around to them. Likewise the demand for “pork” would
be enormous. The plan was therefore devised of requiring the state to
pay half the expenses of road building, that is, of matching dollars,
fifty-fifty, with the federal treasury. It was further decided that
federal money should go into road extensions, leaving repairs and
renewals to the states. If states refuse to perform the necessary
maintenance the only recourse the government has is to withdraw future
Federal aid. The object of the government was to add to the stock
of good roads, and eventually secure the necessary 20 per cent upon
which engineers state, 80 to 90 per cent of the entire traffic can be
adequately accommodated.

Many of the states were devoid of the necessary machinery to take care
of this money and expend it efficiently in the construction of roads
or to maintain them in good condition afterward; so the Government
asked that highway departments be created, if they did not already
exist, in order that there might be skilled supervision and efficient
organization on the parts of the states as that was the best insurance
that these duties would be thoroughly performed. Furthermore there
would be some centralized authority at Washington and some at each
state capital; the initiative and the choice of location, types,
and materials for road building would not be left wholly to local
administrations which were more likely to be swerved to meet the
selfish interests of prominent local personages than is possible in
larger political units. The judgment of Congress is less likely to be
biased by local conditions or by selfish individuals than would that
of a township or county board, or even the State Legislature. On the
other hand from the very beginning of the national federation states
have jealously guarded their rights, giving up very reluctantly to
the Federal Government in any attempts toward centralization. So “no
policy,” states the committee report, “should be adopted which does not
permit the retention by the States of the fullest measure of control
consistent with the necessary inspection and safeguarding which is
customary with all federal appropriations.” Hence the states were
left the power or not as they saw fit of availing themselves of the
Government Aid money. Nearly if not all the states in the Union have
availed themselves of Federal Aid. It is claimed by opponents of the
system that this is because if a state does not take its quota the
money will be appropriated to other states while this state will still
have to pay its proportional part to the fund from which the money
comes. This they claim is pernicious and has caused states to ask aid
when voting the taxes to match the same was extremely burdensome to the
people. In other words the people “are forced into a position where
their only justification is a presumption that they are grabbing while
the grabbing is good.”[199]

It was the intention of the framers of the law that the contribution
from the government would be so substantial that results of magnitude
might be accomplished and still at the same time not raise taxes higher
than the people could stand. The plan adopted seemed just. First the
road is primarily for the use of the people hence population should
be a factor. A secondary consideration was to make accessible the
best products of the farm and to develop the land which on account
of its remoteness to markets and the conditions of the highways was
not in the highest or best state of culture. Area then was a second
factor. The third factor was the post roads--rural delivery and star
routes. This last as has been pointed out in a previous chapter was
possibly the peg upon which the garment could be hung in the closet of
constitutionality. However, it was thought that “the interests of the
East are protected by the factor of population, the interests of the
West should receive consideration through including area as a factor of
apportionment. Finally, the direct interest of the federal government,”
according to the Committee, “as represented by the great mileage of
rural delivery and star routes for the transportation of mail and
parcel post should have some weight in the granting of federal funds.”

Federal Aid has now been in operation for five years. Most people think
it has demonstrated its worth. But it must be remembered that five
years is a short time for the stupendous task of transforming an almost
impassable conglomeration of roads into a usable system of comfortable
highways. The soldiers who went to France during the World War came
back enthusiastic converts of good roads. Foreigners traveling in this
country have frequently marveled at the paucity of good roads. The
natives having grown up here knew no better. The Federal Aid experiment
has been the means of bringing the people to a partial knowledge of the
benefits of better highways. They will not be content to go backward.
In the words of a committee report to the Legislature of the State
of Nebraska[200]: “The (Federal Aid) System seems to be well grounded
and is nourished and sustained by nation-wide organizations, that
are banded together for the purpose of maintaining and extending the
system, and inasmuch as they seem to be powerful enough to influence
the maintenance of the system, it will no doubt be maintained until
some organization equally influential makes of the matter an issue
and overturns the system.” The Committee, while evidently prejudiced
against matching dollars with the Federal Government, admitted the
value to the state of the work done and that “there is no more
important internal improvement in which the state can engage.”

Under a Federal highway act signed November 9, 1921, $75,000,000
becomes available by Federal Aid for road construction in the several
states for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, and in addition
$15,000,000 for roads in national forests. This new Federal Aid Act
is very similar to the act of 1916. The method of allotment is as
before; the ratio of allotment nearly the same, but a new feature is
that the minimum allotment to any state shall not be less than one-half
of 1 per cent of the total to all states, which in this case amounts
to $365,000. This increases the apportionment to the four states of
Delaware, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

The new Act changes the manner in which a state may use its allotment.
Each state must select a connected road system not exceeding 7 per cent
of its road mileage for improvement with Federal Aid. This system will
be divided into two classes, one to be known as “interstate highways”
the other as “intercounty highways.” The interstate highways must not
exceed three-sevenths of the system selected; on them not more than
60 per cent of the Federal Aid Allotment can be spent without the
joint approval of the Secretary of Agriculture and the State Highway
Department. The intercounty highways will receive the remainder of the
allotment.

Some of the Western states where there are large areas of
unappropriated public land due to the desert or mountainous nature
of the country, found it to be impossible to continue the matching
of Government funds. The new act provides that in states where the
unappropriated public land amounts to more than 5 per cent of the area
of the state, the 50 per cent allotment is increased by an amount equal
to one-half the percentage of unappropriated public land in the state.

Before any funds can be paid to any state, the state must appropriate
money under the direct control of the Highway Department to match the
Federal apportionment or so much as it desires to avail itself of.
Likewise it must provide suitable means for the maintenance of Federal
Aid highways.

The allotment to each state of Federal Aid funds available June
30, 1922, under the act signed November 9, 1921, authorizing an
appropriation of $75,000,000, follows:

  ----------------------------
      State          Allotment
  ----------------------------
  Alabama           $1,553,420
  Arizona            1,053,281
  Arkansas           1,264,142
  California         2,462,098
  Colorado           1,341,175
  Connecticut          480,897
  Delaware             365,625
  Florida              886,825
  Georgia            1,997,957
  Idaho                938,536
  Illinois           3,246,281
  Indiana            1,958,855
  Iowa               2,102,872
  Kansas             2,102,281
  Kentucky           1,417,178
  Louisiana            996,989
  Maine                695,160
  Maryland             640,629
  Massachusetts      1,096,176
  Michigan           2,249,532
  Minnesota          2,123,597
  Mississippi        1,294,906
  Missouri           2,448,128
  Montana            1,546,885
  Nebraska           1,581,189
  Nevada               953,436
  New Hampshire        365,625
  New Jersey           942,870
  New Mexico         1,189,823
  New York           3,696,447
  North Carolina     1,709,333
  North Dakota       1,164,714
  Ohio               2,823,004
  Oklahoma           1,752,339
  Oregon             1,182,663
  Pennsylvania       3,398,925
  Rhode Island         365,625
  South Carolina     1,061,237
  South Dakota       1,204,060
  Tennessee          1,647,692
  Texas              4,425,172
  Utah                 849,417
  Vermont              365,625
  Virginia           1,456,828
  Washington         1,103,709
  West Virginia        802,359
  Wisconsin          1,894,815
  Wyoming              934,617
  ----------------------------

The question of whether or not it is wise for a state to match the
Federal Aid appropriation for the purpose of building roads is a
debatable one. When people see the amount of their taxes going up by
leaps and bounds they naturally look for some place for retrenchment.
The road tax being, now, one of the largest in the state is naturally
subject to attack.

In the consideration of the problem two questions stand out
prominently: Do the results so far obtained justify the expenditure?
and can the United States and the States afford to continue the
expenditures?

Reports from the Bureau of Public Highways indicate that with the
aid of the $350,000,000 previously appropriated by the Government,
17,000 miles of road had been completed up to May 31, 1922, and in
addition nearly 14,500 miles were under construction involving more
than $287,500,000 of Federal Aid. To match this fund the states
have appropriated approximately $380,000,000, making a total of
$667,500,000. The Bureau states the average cost of roads per mile of
all types of construction with Federal Aid has been $17,120, of which
43 per cent has been the cost to the government. About one-fifth of the
Federal system, that it is thought will be sufficient to accommodate
80 per cent of the traffic, has been completed. This seems to be
reasonable progress considering the stupendousness of the task.

The expenses so far are a little more than $6 per person in six years
or approximately $1 per person per year, counting the population of
the United States as 110,000,000. If any one is anxious to save this
expense it can easily be done by a little economy. Refraining from
smoking one cigar a month, from drinking one ice-cream soda a month,
from going to three picture shows in a year, or by allowing the
automobile to stand in the garage one or two Sundays per year.

Practically each state in the Union could easily collect its share of
the match money by a one-cent tax per gallon on gasoline. A score of
states have adopted this method and more will, as by this means the
land which is highly burdened with general and school taxes will be
considerably relieved, and the road tax shifted to the road users. The
man who owns an automobile will not thus have the ultimate amount which
he pays for roads decreased, but the man who does not own an automobile
will be relieved in so far as the gasoline tax is not passed on in the
way of increased charges. But the gasoline tax will not appear on the
annual tax receipts and therefore is less noticeable.

The answer to the question, “should the states continue to match the
Federal Aid dollar?” in the opinion of the writer is, “yes, until the
Federal system of 180,000 miles of road is completed.” This ought to be
accomplished in about ten years.

Most of the Mid-west and Western states pay into the national Federal
Aid fund, as duties, revenue taxes, etc., less than they receive in
the way of Federal Aid. These states, therefore, are the gainers in
the matching process. Even where there is no financial advantage as in
some of the more populous states, there is a psychological advantage
in the stimulus which this money gives toward the building of good
roads. Good, dependable, 365-days-a-year roads must come. They are
demanded by the 10,000,000 pleasure automobile owners and their
30,000,000 additional passengers; they are demanded by the more than
2,000,000 commercial vehicle owners and their 50,000,000 patrons; they
are demanded by the man who lounges along in a smooth-riding silent
$10,000 car; and they are demanded by the driver of the sputtering,
rough-riding, ear-splitting $400 car. Yes, good roads must come, and
the Federal Aid movement begun at the behest and in behalf of the farm
element will continue even if the burdens of building and maintenance
be shifted through the gasoline tax and the automobile license, from
the farm and city real estate to the owners and users of motor-driven
vehicles. With all these influences working it is not likely
legislatures will refuse to match dollars with the Government.


=Financing Highway Transportation.=--There are at least three methods
of financing highway transportation: (1) Individual; (2) Partnership;
and (3) Corporation.


_Individual._--The individual method may be divided into two classes:
(1) Those that are a part of auxiliary to or accessory to other
business, and (2) those that make up or compose the business itself.

The highway transport lines that are auxiliary to other business may
be illustrated by the delivery truck of the grocer, the trucks for
hauling to and from the depots of large department stores, or better
the trucks owned by creameries which perform a sort of express service
for the producers of milk and cream. The Fairmont Creameries, with
headquarters at Omaha, operate more than 140 trucks, many of which
make regular trips over established routes, picking up at the farmer’s
gate full cans of cream and milk and leaving empty ones. The cost
of these services, while ostensibly borne by the creamery, must of
necessity be accounted for and charged to the expense of doing business
or to the individual sellers of cream. The business is not run as a
trucking or transportation business, but as a creamery, a department
store, or a grocery, and is reckoned in as part of the annual expense
or overhead charges. The motor to the truck gardener is of as much
importance as any other part of his business. In fact his plant would
be as handicapped without it as would a clock without its hour hand.
The same may be said of practically all enterprises which depend on
transportation upon the highways as a function of their business.

All such transportation, therefore, is financed in exactly the same
manner as the business itself, in fact it is a part of it.

In the other class of individual ownership the business is usually
so small that one person, the owner, can look after the whole of it.
He may or may not have any assistants. However, he finances it as an
individual. He either has the money at the beginning or is able to
borrow it. If he borrows it he gives his note acknowledging the debt
and stating the time or times for payment, rate of interest and any
other stipulations that might have been entered into at the time of
securing the loan. He will probably give a mortgage on his property,
that is a writ showing the debt to be a lien on the property under
which the loaner of the money may, if it is not paid as stipulated,
foreclose and sell the property for the settlement of the debt. It
becomes null when the note on which it is based has been paid. If,
however, it has been “recorded” in the office of the Register of
Deeds or other place set aside for that purpose, it will have to be
“released” and the release recorded in order to clear the title to the
property.


_Partnership._--An agreement of two or more persons to combine their
property, labor, or skill for the purpose of transacting any particular
business for their joint profit is called a partnership. The agreement
may be oral or written. The partnership is just as extensive as the
business it is proposed to do, but no more so. Each partner is entitled
to his share of the profits as arranged for in the agreement but in
the absence of any stipulation the law will presume equal shares. The
partners may agree on a way of dividing the losses, but such agreement
will only hold as against those to whom it is made known and credit
has been given accordingly. The laws usually provide that articles
of partnership may be made known generally to the public by proper
publication and recording in a place designated for that purpose.
Although long neglect of any articles of agreement will act as a waiver
against an innocent creditor.

In a partnership the action of one partner with some exceptions, binds
the whole partnership, so that rather than have several members to
a partnership it is better to form a corporation. A partnership may
borrow money and mortgage its property just the same as an individual.

A transport line then could be financed by each partner putting in
a definite proportion of the capital. Two men might enter into a
partnership and one man furnish all the capital, the other the skill
and experience necessary to operate the business, the profits and
losses to be shared in a manner agreed upon. However, without notice to
a creditor at the time the debt was entered into each partner could be
held for the entire debt if partnership property would not take care of
it.

The advantages to be derived from a partnership are that larger capital
may be obtained and more business done, the benefit of business skill
and experience may be procured, and the work of management may be
sub-divided among the several partners so that each may become more
proficient, or more efficiently administer his own department.

There will be no particular difference between the financing of the
partnership and the individual ownership, except perhaps more capital
will come in with more partners. The partnership agreement should,
to prevent misunderstanding, be carefully drawn up in writing and
signed by each partner. It should state the amount and kind of capital
each partner puts into the business, the relations and duties of the
partners, and the manner in which profits and losses are to be shared.


_Corporation._--A corporation is a legal combination of two or more
persons into an artificial personage for the purpose of carrying
on some lawful business under such grants as secure to it a legal
existence and power to act even though the individual memberships
change.

In this type of proprietorship the individual owners called
stockholders are liable for the debts of the business only to the
extent of their stockholding, in some states to double the par value
of their stock. The stockholders have a voice in the affairs of the
business only to the extent of their ownership of stock, such ownership
being evidenced by certificates of stock issued in proportion to
the number of shares of stock owned. State laws are voluminous and
restrictions are numerous for the regulation of corporations. The
organization must be made according to law and then incorporated. It
must conduct its work according to definite requirements, file regular
reports, pay special taxes, and so on. The business is conducted
through a board of directors elected by the stockholders at regular
intervals of time specified in the articles of incorporation. The board
of directors usually elects its own officers and appoints a manager
or managers for the business. The operation of the business is under
the direction of a manager, who may as a rule appoint his assistants
and employees, unless this latter be designated to under officers. The
manager is under the supervision of the board of directors, and the
directors hold their office at the hands of the stockholders. So that
the real owners have only an indirect supervision over the affairs of
the business. The corporation is given a name and seal and is empowered
to act as an individual, may borrow money, own property, sue and be
sued. Notwithstanding its somewhat cumbersome machinery the corporation
is a favorite form of organization possibly because of its limited
liability feature, its close centralized control even though the
ownership be spread over large numbers, and the amount of money handled
be great.

The large transportation companies, the railways, the steamship lines,
electric street cars, canals, trolley lines, pipe lines, and so on,
when held under private ownership, are all organized in this manner.
There are many bus lines and many truck lines already incorporated, and
with time the number will, no doubt, rapidly increase.

The shares of stock usually have a par value of $100. These are sold
to investors to obtain the working capital. The amount of stock is
limited by the articles of incorporation and must not exceed by the
laws of most states an amount conducive to good business. The stock may
be either common or preferred. Holders of preferred stock have some
preferment such as drawing a definite fixed rate of interest while
common stock receives no dividends until the interest on the preferred
stock is paid.

Corporations may also raise money by selling bonds. These are
certificates of indebtedness, bearing a fixed rate of interest, payable
at definite fixed periods. Like other bonds they may be either
sinking-fund, serial or annuity. Bonds differ from stocks in that their
owners have no voice in the affairs of the corporation.

Money may also be borrowed on the notes of the corporation signed by
its officers, when authorized by the board of directors.

Since the laws of the several states vary so widely and there are so
many of them, it is impossible to give even a brief synopsis here.
Should any highway transport company wish to incorporate it would be
well to seek the advice of a lawyer and have him draw up the articles
of incorporation and see that the laws of the state are fully complied
with.


_Public Ownership._--It is not the intention here to go into a lengthy
discussion of the merits and demerits of public ownership, but merely
to mention this as a method of financing transportation lines.

On the continent of Europe public ownership of railways and canals
has long been the practice. In England there is private ownership of
railways, but the post office department operates the telegraph lines.
In this country the Government has built and operates several ship
canals, including the great Panama canal. The state of New York owns
and operates the Erie Canal. During the War the operation of railways
was taken under supervision by the Government, but this has now been
turned back to the several lines. The public regulation, however,
of railways is so strict, that they have so little initiative and
freedom left, so little power to make rates, so little choice as how
to deal with employees, that they might just as well be operated by
the Government. Indeed, it is frequently stated that there is quite a
large minority of the American citizenship that would like to see the
Government take over all the railways and operate them as it does the
Post Office at the mere cost of operation and maintenance.

On the other hand, a very large number of persons believe that the
best governed nation is the one least governed and that the ordinary
commercial and financial laws of supply and demand should regulate
prices and that private capital should govern all industries.

There are places, however, where it seems to be the part of wisdom to
establish public ownership. First, where the amount of money necessary
to finance and operate the enterprise becomes a menace to the rest
of the country, or where it is so large that it becomes a practical
monopoly, then it would seem just for the Government to step in and, as
in the case of the Standard Oil Company, force an unscrambling, or else
take it over and run it as a public industry.

Second, where the work is so large that it is difficult to get private
enterprise to take it over without grants of privileges that would be
exorbitant and, perhaps, scandalous. The building of the Panama Canal
proved too great a task for a French private company. This does not
say that an American company could not have completed it, but to get
money for a doubtful or uncertain proposition is not easy. The great
Sault Ste. Marie locks under Government control are very satisfactory,
probably more so than if they were operated by private capital for
private profit.

Third, public ownership is advisable where private lines of
transportation fail to accommodate the public. Numerous applications
are being made nowadays by railroads for the privilege of discontinuing
trains on branch lines. In some cases these have been allowed by
railway commissions, in others refused. But if they are not paying, the
public will not indefinitely force the railways to maintain them. Then
it will be proper for the Government to take them over, finance and
operate them, even at a loss if necessary, providing the same work can
not be done by private highway transport lines.

Likewise, street-car lines are complaining bitterly at the inroads of
the automobile upon their business. But street-car lines are necessary
to the social and business functions of a city. It cannot very well get
along without them. The streets are hardly wide enough to accommodate
the passenger and commercial traffic as it is. With the street cars
off that would be doubled with very much increased congestion and loss
of time and a correspondingly greater number of accidents.

The street cars in every considerable municipality must be kept
going. The Des Moines strike of 1921 proved that conclusively. It may
be necessary for the city governments to take them over and pay any
deficit from public taxation. But even that will be money well expended.

The same arguments apply to those lines of railroad whose traffic
consists largely of short haul and comparatively small lots. If they
cannot be made to pay it may be necessary for the public to take them
over and keep them running on their longer hauls even at a loss in
order to prevent the congestion that would ensue to the public roads
should all the traffic be forced to the truck. Also, trucks and buses
are not altogether dependable in spells of bad weather, and there may
be other conditions that would make the steam train the better and more
economical transportion agent, as it always is where large quantities
are to be transported. It would be better to try to regulate all
transport service that each might be made into a paying proposition.
If it cannot be done by regulation the powerful long arm of government
will have to take charge.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  BLANCHARD, A. H., “Elements of Highway Engineering,” Chapter II, John
  Wiley & Sons, New York.

  BLANCHARD, A. H. AND DROWNE, H. B., “Text-book on Highway
  Engineering,” Chap. XXVII, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  BRADT, S. E., “Financing Permanent Roads,” Proceedings National
  Conference on Concrete Road Building, 1914, p. 26, Chicago.

  CHATBURN, G. R., “Highway Engineering,” pp. 335 et seq. John Wiley &
  Sons, New York.

  “Financing and Bonding Highway Work,” Proceedings Am. Soc. C. E.,
  Vol. XLVIII, four articles by F. S. Green, pp. 511-512; H. S. Sisson,
  pp. 513-515; E. C. Lunt, pp. 337-339; and J. N. Cole, 326-330.

  HEWS, L. T. AND GLOVER, J. W., “Highway Bonds,” Bulletin 136, U. S.
  Department of Agriculture.

  LEWIS, NELSON P., “The Planning of the Modern City,” Chap. XIX;
  “Financing of Highway Improvements,” American Highway Engineers’
  Handbook, Section 28; John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  NOLEN, JOHN, “City Planning,” Chap. XVI, D. Appleton & Co., New York.

  ROBINSON, C. M., “City Planning,” Chap. XVII, G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
  New York.

  TILSON, G. W., “Street Pavements and Paving Materials,” Chap. VI,
  John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  VAN ORNUM, “Theory and Practice of Special Assessments,” Transactions
  Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 336-422.


FOOTNOTES

  [197] See Chatburn’s “Highway Engineering,” Wiley & Sons, New York,
  p. 335 et seq.

  [198] From Bulletin 136, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

  [199] Newspaper article.

  [200] Report of a Joint Committee appointed by the Governor and the
  1921 Session of the Nebraska Legislature regarding the relative cost
  of road construction by the state and by various counties.




CHAPTER XI

HIGHWAY ACCIDENTS AND THEIR MITIGATION


It may be true that accidents are commonly the result of disorder, but
as there seems to be no panacea for disorder, accidents cannot entirely
be prevented. The best thing that can be done at present is to arrange
everything connected with the road so that the chance of accident will
be kept as low as it is possible for imperfect humanity to keep it.

Transportation accidents have always occurred and probably always
will occur. In the early days of the railway such papers as _Harper’s
Weekly_ ran weekly illustrated accounts of railway accidents. If it
was the intention to induce the people not to patronize the train
service it utterly failed. To prevent shipping accidents the Government
has spent millions in lighthouses and water-front protection. Great
quantities of money have been spent to make safe river transportation.
Elaborate national and international codes of rules for navigation have
been adopted. Laws to regulate railways have been passed. The newest
form of transportation, aviation, has already been a subject for the
law makers’ wisdom.

Of all classes of accidents, whatever, as reported by life and accident
insurance companies, that coming under the heading “Automobile”
is by far the largest. The Insurance Press stated that during the
year 1920 the automobile caused 12,000 fatalities and 1,500,000
non-fatal injuries. The 1921 statistics show approximately the same
results.[201] Since it is quite likely that many accidents never get
into the enumeration it may be assumed without fear of successful
contradiction that about one car out of every seven has an accident
causing injury to human beings each year. The number of accidents in
which no human injury results must be fully as many more.

With ten million automobiles in every conceivable state of repair, with
ten million drivers with every imaginable diversity of expertness, with
many millions of unexpected conditions constantly turning up it would
be, indeed, very strange if no accidents occurred.

Classification of and remedies for accidents can only be made in a most
general manner. In some of what follows the mere calling attention
to the nature of the accident will suggest the remedy; in others
precautions will be mentioned.


=The Driver.=--No matter how careful a driver may be there will be
accidents, but the greatest number occur with drivers who may be
classified as: (1) Mentally or physically unfit, (2) Ignorant, (3)
Indifferent, (4) Reckless by nature.

The unfitness may be caused by sickness, acute or chronic, business
worry, overwork, loss of sleep, intoxication, the undevelopment of
youth or the feebleness of old age. Men of ordinarily good judgment
have become nervous and lost their heads in times of crises. The good
driver must react quickly, his foot must press the brake pedal, his
hand turn the steering wheel almost unconsciously. His mind works
reflexively; the gas, the brake, the steering are operated and related
to each other so perfectly that the car goes where it should without
the conscious mind giving it any particular attention except in cases
of emergency. With an untrained mind the car will frequently go where
it should not quite as unconsciously as in the other case it goes
where it should. The driver looks at a bump in the road and thinks,
“I must not hit it,” but he watches it intently and almost as surely
hits it. Instances are not uncommon of men who have become drowsy while
driving and allowed the car to run into the ditch. Mental and physical
alertness have saved many cars from serious accident. Ignorance of
how to operate a car may not mean ignorance in other things. Too many
persons try to operate a car without knowing anything whatsoever about
it except to put on the gas, shift gears, and turn the steering wheel
to the right or the left. They frequently lack decision, will power and
imagination, or they go to the opposite extreme forget to be courteous
and hog the whole road. The driver of a car is like the soldier going
into battle, thinks the other man may be hit but not he. The driver,
too often, believes himself to be immune. He knows there are bound to
be accidents to some but he continues to take chances. Inexperience is
as bad as any other kind of ignorance except that the tyro imagines
continually that he may have an accident and is always on the watch.
He usually, too, drives slowly until self confidence leads him to a
quicker pace. Many an ignorant driver may, as the tyro mentioned, be
absolutely careful, but not knowing how to manipulate his machine kills
the engine in the most dangerous places, or otherwise brings about an
accident.

The indifferent or “don’t care” personage is one of the worst
offenders. He passes through a string of cars without paying any
attention, taking it for granted that the other fellow will do the
looking out. He runs over the walk lines without giving thought to
the pedestrians who have as much right there as he. It is said that
women are more likely to be afflicted with indifferency than men. If
this be so, no doubt the scientist could explain it on the theory
that for ages women have been given first place by the men, they have
seldom been called upon to look out for themselves, but have always
depended upon being cared for especially in times of danger, hence
now they unconsciously expect all cars, especially those with men
drivers, to avoid them. The indifferent person does not look both ways
before crossing a railroad track. He starts to walk across a street
without noticing whether or not automobiles are coming. He pays no
attention to signs and danger signals along the way. He takes dangers
as nonchalantly as though driving in the lonely desert. He knows that
accidents do happen and imagines that some day or other he will “get
his” but thinks that day is always a long time in the future. When
spoken to in regard to his careless driving he laughingly puts it off
with, “Oh, I am all right. Nothing will happen to me.” But, all too
frequently something does happen.

The reckless by nature are not so uncommon as one might think. There
is more or less recklessness in all mankind. Else why do they enjoy
reading of and seeing deeds of daring? An aeronaut looping-the-loop
used to draw hundreds to a fair. When that became common and ceased
to produce thrills the daring air man leapt from the plane descending
by parachute, or passed from one plane to another. The papers will
fill their columns with accounts of a daring flight across the ocean,
the people pay for and read these papers because they in a measure
satisfy the natural reckless longing of mankind. Wild west stuff in the
movies receives a large patronage when everyone knows that the days
of uncouth and reckless cow-boyism are gone forever. Horse races and
automobile races because of the elements of contest and danger cater to
the same wild propensities. When two race horses come beside each other
they champ their bits and throw their heads in a wild endeavor to be
off. The human animal, too, when another machine tries to pass him, has
the same instinctive inclination to keep it from doing so.

Of course there are all degrees of recklessness and it certainly is not
to be condoned on the theory that it is an inherited tendency. Might
as well say that civilized man should continue the barbarous customs
of head-hunting and cannibalism. The time has arrived when all such
barbarian actions should absolutely cease. The slogan, “Wreckless,
not Reckless,” should govern. Perhaps two-thirds of the automobile
accidents can be charged either to carelessness or recklessness on
the part of drivers. Can these propensities be done away with? Only
by creating a sentiment in favor of careful and safe driving. DRIVE
CAREFULLY should not only be posted on the wind shield of every
automobile but in the mind and consciousness of every driver.


=Driving and Operating.=--Mention has already been made of reckless
driving. Speeding might be looked upon at times as reckless, at other
times not, although it at all times is more or less dangerous, for
there is always a chance that some part of the mechanism might suddenly
go wrong, that another machine may come in from a side road, or that
there may be an unseen bad place in the road. Reckless and fast driving
together are almost sure, sooner or later, to lead to accident and
perhaps loss of life. The Maryland State Road Commission has its
patrolmen collect and report accident data. During the three months of
May, June and July of 1921, their records show that 90 per cent of the
accidents are due to speeding.

It has been suggested that automobiles ought to be installed with
governors which will limit the vehicle-speed to twenty-five or thirty
miles per hour. This is a very doubtful expedient for very many
accidents occur when vehicles are traveling at a very much less speed.
Even trucks with governors that limit them to 12 or 15 miles per hour
frequently have accidental collisions. Laws limiting speeds to 8, 12,
or 15 miles through villages while possibly wholesome will not wholly
prevent accidents. In congested cities speeds as high as 25 miles per
hour are at times not only allowable but highly desirable to relieve
the congestion. The driver in such instances must have his wits about
him and drive with utmost care.

The sudden rounding of a sharp corner has caused many a car to turn
turtle; likewise suddenly turning a car from a rutted track will
sometimes cause the driver to lose control and the car to go into
the ditch. If there is snow, ice, loose earth or mud on the roadway
or pavement, skidding, which may result in a broken wheel or more
disastrously, is quite likely to take place. The remedy, of course, is
to slow up before turning.

Passing or attempting to pass a car on the wrong side, and driving on
the wrong side of the street are sources of danger. So, also, is every
infraction of road customs and rules such as driving rapidly over
crossings and those portions of the street where the public have a
right to walk, failure to slow down at railway crossings, not watching
the car ahead for hand signals, or not giving hand signals when turning
or stopping the car. How many drivers run on past a street car when it
is stopped for taking on or discharging passengers. How many drivers
watch the sidewalks, the store fronts, or turn around to talk to the
passengers on the rear seat instead of watching the street with its
many passing vehicles and pedestrians.


=Horns.=--Every car is supposed to be equipped with a good horn
and it should be used with caution when necessary but never when
unnecessary or so often as to become a nuisance. Horns should be
regulated by law in just the same manner as lights. The standard
horn is one which honks, not one which whistles or screeches. The
siren is almost universally the property of fire-fighting motors and
many cities reserve its use to the fire departments, making it a
misdemeanor for any one else to use it. Screeching and whistling horns
should be relegated to the scrap pile. The honking horns are now so
well recognized that every one knows what they mean, and if they are
used properly and not too close to crossings will not frighten the
pedestrian. If honked too close a pedestrian may become excited and
rush back right in front of the car. Boys, and bicycles should not be
allowed to have honking horns, they should belong exclusively to the
automobile.


=Stopping Cars on Grades, Streets, etc.=--The stopping of machines
on grades without thoroughly braking them or blocking the wheels, or
leaving them without wheels blocked on ferries may be and has been
productive of accidents. September 3, 1922, the papers reported that a
taxi which had been left on the brink at Niagara Falls and whose brakes
failed to hold, had carried a woman passenger over the cliff to her
death.

Trucks, delivery wagons, ice-wagons, etc., frequently stop back of
the line of parked automobiles in the street restricting the way and
causing all passing vehicles to go over to the wrong side of the street
thus congesting traffic and furnishing a source of danger. Deliveries
should, if possible, be made at the alley or rear entrance. If that is
impossible space might be reserved at each end of the block for this
purpose. There must also be space reserved at the ends of blocks for
the entry and discharge of street car and bus passengers. Likewise the
space about a fire hydrant should be kept absolutely clear.


=Backing.=--Mr. L. A. Held, adjuster for the American Railway Express
Company, writing in the _Express Messenger_ of July, 1922, says:

  In those claims presented for damage arising out of accidents caused
  by our vehicles backing, settlement in most every case is necessary
  as there is not the slightest chance of successfully defending an
  action for damages resulting from such an accident. The handling
  of an automobile while in reverse calls for the greatest care and
  continual vigilance. It is not sufficient to merely look once before
  starting to back. On the contrary, the operator should continually
  watch the rear of his truck and take almost extraordinary precautions
  to see that no harm befalls any person or property.

  Where there is no one to guide him, it becomes quite difficult to
  avoid collisions, especially in congested thoroughfares, for truth to
  tell, there appears to be an absolute lack of road courtesy on the
  part of most automobile drivers. When more than one man is assigned
  to a vehicle, the helper should take the position on the ground where
  he has an unobstructed view of traffic and pedestrians approaching
  from all directions. This by no means is always done. It can be
  accounted for by no other reason than neglect and laziness.

What Mr. Held says regarding express trucks applies with equal force to
all other motor cars.


=Other Forms of Carelessness.=--Mr. Held also speaks of claims
presented because drivers cut in ahead of street cars and were
caught, demolishing the truck and injuring the street car and some
of its passengers. Also, he continues, “there are a fair proportion
of accidents from vehicles being turned to and from the car tracks.
The driver should always determine whether the way is clear before
diverting the course of his vehicle.”

There are many other forms of careless or reckless driving that might
be mentioned, such as, driving too close in heavy traffic, cutting in
on traffic--“stealing the road,” turning in the middle of a city block,
attempting to turn in too small a space, failure to go slowly near a
school house or children’s play ground, failure to be on the lookout
for playing children elsewhere, failure to try to anticipate what the
other fellow is going to do.


=The Car.=--The car itself may be the cause of accidents. Faulty design
may result in the breaking of essential parts when the car is going
at a rapid gait. It must be said to the credit of modern design and
manufacture that while many parts break, few of those that may cause
the car to turn turtle or otherwise injure the passengers are found in
the number. It is remarkable that they are so few.


=Skidding.=--Failure to use wheel anti-skid chains on a slippery road
or pavement is a fertile source of danger. Skidding may break a wheel
or cause a collision with another car, or the car itself may slide
off an embankment into the ditch. Sometimes, too, cars skid on loose
gravel, or clods of earth, or even on slightly rough roads where a
sufficient contact between wheel and ground is not obtained for a good
grip.


=The Brake.=--Perhaps the most serious danger in the car mechanism
is the brake. Mr. Harold F. Blanchard writing in _Motor_ (New York),
argues that more than half, probably as much as 90 per cent of all
motor accidents may be eliminated by making the stopping ability of
motor vehicles a maximum instead of 25 to 50 per cent, as is now the
rule. He would have brakes put on all four wheels and claims thereby
the braking power of the machine can be more than doubled. He further
maintains that the braking power of the ordinary car is extremely
low, due, sometimes to the design of the braking system and sometimes
to the failure of the owner to adjust the brakes properly. He states
that a car equipped with an efficiently constructed system of brakes
on four wheels may be stopped from a speed of 30 miles per hour in 36
feet, whereas an average car in the hands of the average motorist will
require from 100 to 150 feet. He thinks the brake should be powerful
enough to lock the wheel through which it acts. This is not possible on
many cars, especially trucks, and it is the reason, he says, why there
are so many truck accidents in spite of their low speed. He argues
that since very few crises arise so abruptly that the accident takes
place before there has been some opportunity to slow down, and that
a majority of accidents occur during the latter part of the stopping
period, therefore, the substitution of 100 per cent braking power on
four wheels instead of the present 25 per cent, the decelerating period
will be reduced to one-half or one-quarter its former length, and
consequently the number of “accidents would be reduced to a mere shadow
of their present magnitude.”

Some automotive engineers think it best not to lock the wheels
completely in braking. That the best plan is to apply the pressure
only until incipient locking has been reached but the wheels are still
rolling. The driver has little control of a skidding car, and certainly
would have none whatever with all four wheels locked. While the wheels
are still moving there is a chance to guide the car so as to avoid an
obstruction even though it can not be stopped in time. Steering and
braking should go together.

On some of the steep mountain roads, which, because of their length
and relative grade with the bottom of the canyon, appear to be nearly
level, it is impossible to hold the car with the brake alone. It is
customary in such cases to assist the brake with the engine; unless
the driver is very expert at changing gears the engine should be put
in low, or intermediate, depending on the steepness, at the top of the
hill, then with brakes and clutch the car may be controlled and kept to
a safe speed.

The brakes being under the car are more or less difficult to get at,
they form no part of the ornamental finish, and as a consequence
usually are neglected until they become so very bad that they scarcely
brake the car at all. They receive the mud and water from the roadway.
The joints and pivots become rusted so that even with good bands they
are only a quarter to a half efficient. It will pay better than life
insurance to keep the brakes in first class condition.


=Flexibility.=--While the brakes are most useful in the prevention
of accidents, it frequently happens that a quick pick-up is also
important. In crossing the street ahead of a car coming at right
angles, for instance, there may be no time to stop, no chance to turn,
the only thing that can be done is to “give her gas” and shoot ahead at
full speed. A flexible engine with ability to change quickly from fast
to slow and from slow to fast velocities will in the hands of an expert
driver prevent many an accident.


=Steering and Turning Ability.=--It has been mentioned several times
that steering is a matter of importance in the prevention of accidents.
Designing engineers should, therefore, take that into account. It was
formerly thought that turning ability is a function of the length of
wheel base, but there are other things to be taken into account and
some late designs with reasonably long wheel bases are able to turn in
half the radius that was required for some of the older designs with
shorter wheel bases.


=Lights.=--The lights whether on your car or another car are often
serious sources of danger. If there is not enough illumination one is
always liable to get off the roadway. If there is a large amount of
illumination improperly controlled the glare is quite as dangerous
to approaching vehicles. State regulations usually require two white
lights ahead and one red light behind. The two-light regulation is
wise. When one approaches a single lighted machine he can not tell
which of the two lights is out, or whether or not it is a motorcycle.
Many accidents have been caused on account of this fact by not giving
sufficient clearance to pass the approaching vehicle. When meeting a
one lighted machine the driver should always slow down and give as much
clearance as the road will allow. Safety first. The red light behind of
course saves many a rear end collision. As to whether it should be red
or white is questionable.

Glaring lights became such a menace to safety that most of the states
have enacted laws requiring all lenses used to comply with certain
requirements, and providing that they be approved after tests by some
competent authority. By doing away with plain lenses and properly
corrugating the glass, lenses have now been produced which go far
toward removing the glare. With proper lenses and reflectors the lights
may be so regulated that the beam of light will illuminate the roadway
almost completely across its width and from 200 to 300 feet ahead of
the vehicle and at no place go higher than 56 inches above the ground.
But even with the best lenses and best adjustments it is impossible to
see beyond an extremely bright light so in passing such a light there
is always the chance of running into an unlighted parked car, or other
obstruction, or a ditch at the side of the road. In passing such a
light the eyes should be kept on the road and shielded, if possible,
from the glare of the other machine. The precaution of driving slowly
under such circumstances goes without saying.


=Unlighted Vehicles.=--Unlighted, horse-drawn vehicles, bicycles, and
animals driven or walking in the street frequently give the automobile
driver palpitation of the heart. Even if the law does not require it
horse-drawn vehicles ought to bear lights or reflectors which would
give a warning to the coming automobilist. Bright reflecting surfaces
will flash back the rays of light from the automobile lamps and are
much better than no lights at all. A California freighter who had many
pack mules going along the automobile highway to and from the mountains
continually kept such reflectors on both the head straps and cruppers
of his animals with the result that very many less were struck by
automobiles than before the reflectors were used. It is only by the
reflections from lenses and bright parts of automobiles parked without
lights, contrary to law, along the streets that saves them from being
run into and smashed, to say nothing of personal injuries and the
probable loss of lives.


=Speedometer.=--Every automobile should be equipped with a good
speedometer. Speed limits are known to most drivers and if constantly
stared in the face by good clear speedometer numbers they are not so
likely to exceed them as if they depended entirely upon a sense of
velocity, which is merely relative at the best. A motorist is driving
along a country highway at a speed of 25 miles an hour, say, when
he comes to a village with a sign out, “Speed Limit, 15 miles.” He
slacks to that speed by speedometer but feels he is only traveling
5 or 10 miles an hour. Railroad companies found it advantageous to
equip their locomotives with self-registering speedometers in order to
reduce the number of accidents due to speeding. The automobilist with a
speedometer before him has no excuse, at least, for speeding.


=Bad Roads Cause Accidents.=--It is not always the fault of the driver
or the vehicle that there is an accident. The roads may be at fault,
and while careful driving may decrease the number it can not eliminate
all.

Slipperiness is hard to combat. This will vary of course with the
types of road, with grades, and with height of crowns. But even a
pavement, which in dry weather is perfectly safe, will, when it becomes
moist, especially if there is a small amount of dust or clay on it,
be extremely slippery. Earth roads when they are wet on top and hard
below are very treacherous. All types become slippery in the winter
when there is ice and snow. A thorough flushing of pavements, which
will remove surplus dust and clay, preferably done at night, is a
good remedy for slipperiness. The use of sand or cinders on turns is
sometimes resorted to where absolute cleanliness can not be obtained
by flushing. Extra precautions by the drivers over the slippery roads
and streets is always a good thing. The investigations of the Maryland
Highway Commission indicate that about 20 per cent of all the accidents
can be attributed to wet and slippery roads.

In the construction of roads high crowns should be avoided. On earth
roads the crowns should never exceed one inch per foot and if the road
is one that is much used and carefully maintained so that it is hard,
should be about one-half inch per foot. A crown of one inch to the
foot is equivalent to an 8¹⁄₃ per cent grade down which vehicles will
easily run and off which they will slide in slippery weather. Vehicles
seek the center of the road when the crown is high both for comfort
and safety but two passing vehicles can not be there at the same time.
On hard pavements a quarter of an inch per foot will furnish ample
drainage, and that is all the crown is for anyway.


=Embankments and Guard Rails.=--Too many roadways are built on narrow
embankments and often there are no guard rails. The embankment should
always be wide enough to accommodate the traffic with an ample factor
of safety. It is not uncommon for vehicles to slide off embankments
with fatal results. The writer has before him a recent newspaper
clipping of one such case where a bus slipped off the roadway and
toppled into the ditch killing one man and injuring several others; the
busman had no indemnity insurance. Chains on the wheels of the bus or
heavy guard rails might have prevented the accident.

=The danger from sharp turns= in roads is so well recognized that
state systems are now specifying a minimum radius of 200 feet and when
practicable laying curves out very much flatter. The pavement is also
being widened at the turns so as to allow the same turning radius
on the inner as on the outer track in order that the temptation for
vehicles to cross over to the other track may be lessened.

[Illustration: Pavements should be widened on a curve so that the inner
row of vehicles may pass around on the same curvature as the outer row.]


=Superelevation.=--The superelevation of the outer side of a curved
roadway can not at one and the same time be made suitable for all rates
of speed. Works on mechanics give the formula for the elevations of the
outer edge as

        _av_²
  _e_ = -----
         _gR_

  where _e_ = the elevation in feet;
        _a_ = the width of road in feet;
        _g_ = acceleration of gravity in ft. per sec. per sec.;
        _v_ = velocity in ft. per sec.;
        _R_ = radius in feet.

Or if the velocity, _V_, is given in miles per hour and the elevation,
_E_, in inches this reduces to

        121_aV_²   0.807_aV_²
  _E_ = -------- = ----------
         150_R_       _R_

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

A DANGEROUS CURVE AT LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN

A DANGEROUS CURVE MADE SAFE BY AN ARTISTIC CONCRETE WALL The Tennessee
State Highway at Lookout Mountain, Built of Cemented Concrete.]

The country pavements are usually superelevated for 12 miles per hour.
Even this with the minimum radius gives a surface so tipped that it is
difficult for horse-drawn wagons to remain on it unless the horses trot
around the curve. Substituting for a velocity of 12 miles per hour, a
width of 20 feet, and a radius of 200 feet there results

  _E_ = 11.6 inches.

The following table gives the necessary elevation in inches that there
shall be no side thrust at various speeds, for a road one foot wide. To
get the elevation for any width multiply by the width.

TABLE OF SUPERELEVATION IN INCHES PER FOOT OF WIDTH

  ------+---------------------------------------
        |        Speed in Miles per Hour
  Radius+----+------+------+------+------+------
   Feet | 10 |  12  |  15  |  20  |  30  |  40
  ------+----+------+------+------+------+------
        |Inch|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches
   100  |0.81| 1.16 | 1.82 | 3.23 | 7.26 |12.91
   200  | .40|  .58 |  .91 | 1.61 | 3.63 | 6.46
   300  | .27|  .38 |  .61 | 1.08 | 2.45 | 4.30
   400  | .20|  .29 |  .45 |  .81 | 1.81 | 3.23
   500  | .16|  .23 |  .36 |  .64 | 1.45 | 2.58
  ------+----+------+------+------+------+------

Unless the road is intended for a speedway, 12 miles per hour would be
about the right speed to use. In rounding a curve of radius 200 feet at
a speed of 30 miles per hour, superelevated as shown in the table for
12 miles per hour the coefficient of friction would have to be about
one-fourth to prevent skidding. In dry weather this would practically
always be exceeded. A committee of the National Highway Traffic
Association, 1922, recommends “that on all curves of more than three
degrees the pavement and inner-half of the earth shoulder should be
banked. This superelevation should vary from 0 for a 3-degree curve to
1 inch per foot of width for curves of 20 degrees or sharper.”


=Clear Vision.=--Clear vision is another thing that should be insisted
upon as a means for safety. Weeds, brush and trees are all too
frequently allowed to obscure the sight. With ordinary brakes on smooth
roads from 100 to 150 feet is needed to stop a car moving at 30 miles
per hour. With first-class brakes this might be decreased, but since
it usually takes a driver a short period to react from the time a
car heaves in sight or he sees a break in the pavement or some other
obstruction, there should be allowed 150 feet to stop if the roads
are smooth and hard. In order that there might be a good factor of
safety it is desirable to get at least 250 feet clear vision. This will
require for a 200-ft. radius that the brush, trees and so on should be
cut back about 27 feet from the traveled way. As the radius becomes
larger the distance necessary to clear back becomes less: 300-ft.
radius, clearance, 12 ft.; 400-ft. radius, 7 ft.; 500-ft. radius, 4 ft.
In case the curve is in a cut the bank on the inside at the height of
the eye should be excavated far enough back to give the necessary clear
vision.

At the corners of city streets it will, of course, be impossible to
get a 200-ft. radius. A 12- or 14-ft. radius may usually be obtained.
The rule to turn close to the curb may then be accomplished with the
ordinary automobile providing it is not going very fast. With a square
angle or a short 2- or 3-ft. radius as it was formerly the custom to
put in, and still is in places, it is practically impossible to keep
from going at least to the middle of the street thus endangering motors
on the other side. The cut shows the lines of travel.

[Illustration: Diagram to show why curb corners should be cut back.]


=Curves.=--Notwithstanding curves are dangerous the records of the
Maryland State Commission, heretofore referred to, show that the
largest number of accidents occur at places which always have been
considered safe, while the sections that have been regarded as very
dangerous are relatively free from accidents. On the long straight
stretches, with good vision and free from any elements that might be
considered dangerous, have occurred the greatest number of accidents.
The commission accounts for this on the theory “that even the less
careful motorists drive cautiously in the presence of recognized
dangers, such as steep grades, sharp curves, grade crossings, etc.,
while the absence of such dangerous features gives the driver a sense
of security which prompts him to take a chance and yield to the well
nigh universal passion for speed.”[204]


=Bridges and Culverts.=--Many road accidents can be attributed to poor
and poorly located bridges and culverts. Wooden bridges and culverts
soon decay and become so weak that a heavy vehicle will break them
down. Often culverts of the best type are not cared for as they should
be or there is no abutment protection with the result that a freshet
will wash under and about them so that they are real sources of danger.
Frequently the damage is not visible to the driver and the first
warning is when his vehicle goes down.

In order to shorten them and thus lessen the cost, bridges are often
built straight across the stream or draw, but at a skew to the roadway,
thus requiring a sudden turn to get on to them. Very frequently, too,
bridges and culverts are built too narrow with no guard rails or
markers leading up to them. Notwithstanding the fact that thorough
bridging constitutes a considerable portion of the expense of road
construction, the best plan is to put in substantial structures, wide
as the traveled way, and straight with it, thus lessening a grave
source of danger.


=Railway Crossing Accidents.=--The great number of fatalities at
railway crossings has for years been a theme for much talk, and many
suggestions for the elimination of grade crossings have been made.
The public seems to think that the railways are the ones that oppose
the elimination. As a matter of fact they would welcome elimination
if it could be done at reasonable cost. In 1919 there were eliminated
399 crossings “but there are still 251,939 crossings on Class 1
Railroads (revenue of over $1,000,000 annually) alone and the
conservatively estimated sum which would be required to eliminate all
remaining crossings in the entire United States is placed as high as
$12,500,000,000, which cannot be immediately available.”[205] It is
estimated that more than 2000 persons are killed annually in the United
States at these crossings. The Pennsylvania R.R. Bulletin, February,
1914, states that 430 crossings were eliminated on that road from
1904 to 1913 at a total cost of $27,742,433--an average of $64,518 per
crossing. In Illinois the average cost of eliminating ten crossings
was $58,000. In California the average cost is estimated at $30,000;
in Colorado, $40,000; in New York, $48,000; and in Wisconsin, $25,000,
according to the bulletin mentioned. Even at pre-war prices the average
cost for the whole United States was put at $40,000. Since there are in
the whole country something over 300,000 crossings that will account
for the $12,000,000,000 necessary.

The public must remember that the elimination of crossings even if
the railways could finance such a vast operation would eventually be
charged up to and paid for by the public. While the railroads have a
direct interest in checking crossing accidents, yet in the first and
last analysis the public itself suffers the pain, the mutilation, and
the passing to the Great Beyond, in addition to bearing the financial
burden.[206]

F. T. Darrow, Asst. Chief. Engr., C. B. & Q. R.R., makes this
calculation[207] for the State of Nebraska.

  Population                     1,350,000
  Miles of railway track             6,516
  Number of grade crossings         11,300
  Cost of entire removal      $452,000,000
  Cost per mile of track            70,000
  Cost per person                      330

Nearly doubling the cost value of the railroads, at a price 11 times as
much as railroad service now costs per annum per person.

But suppose the cost were put upon the public at the beginning, the
state would have to finance the $452,000,000, and if it were placed as
a charge against the 80,000 miles of rural highway and the 45,000 miles
of city and village streets, it would amount to $3600 per mile. Similar
calculations could be made for each of the States.

From the above it does not appear probable that either the railroads
or the state or both together, can afford to pay for the elimination
of all grade crossings right away. It is probable that they will be
gradually done away with, although Mr. Darrow states that at present
two or three crossings are added to the list for each one subtracted.
The railroads realize that it is incumbent on them to make the
crossings as safe as possible but that they must look to the education
of the public as a means of immediately reducing fatalities. Hence the
“Cross Crossings Cautiously” campaign in 1922. The bulletin states that
the “Safety First” organized effort had reduced the number of deaths
among railway employees from 4354 in 1907 to 2578 in 1920. A thing
well worth while and a similar campaign against carelessly crossing
crossings may change, at least, the rate of acceleration of crossing
accidents, which have increased in the past thirty years 345 per
cent in fatal and 652 per cent in injury cases, while the country’s
population has increased in the same time only 68 per cent.


=The Automobile and Crossing Accidents.=--To the automobile is
attributed much of the increase. And to careless, indifferent and
reckless driving the greater per cent of it. The railways have made
numerous counts which show the carelessness of the people at railway
crossings. Those given below are typical of them all.

In December, 1913, St. Louis:

                                                      Per Cent
  Stopped and looked in both directions--pedestrians      1
  Kept moving and looked in both directions (of all
  pedestrians, vehicles, teams and autos)                 2
  Kept moving and looked in one direction                 7
  Kept moving and looked straight ahead                  91
    (on a total of over 30,000 individual movements)

On the Baltimore and Ohio, Southwest, 1914:

                                                      Per Cent
  Stopped and looked both directions                      5
  Kept moving and looked in both directions              13
  Kept moving and looked in one direction                18
  Kept moving and looked straight ahead                  69

In California, 1913:

                                                      Per Cent
  Stopped and looked in both directions                   0.2
  Kept moving and looked in both directions              35
  Kept moving and looked in one direction                 7
  Kept moving and looked straight ahead                  58

The California Railway Commission in 1917 tested 17,000 motor vehicle
drivers:

  27.8 per cent looked both ways
   2.7 per cent looked only one way
  65.5 per cent looked neither way before crossing.

A Southern Pacific Railway folder gives these figures for automobile
accidents during the period from January 1 to August 1, 1917, taken
from the figures of eighteen railroads:

  Total number of accidents             769
  Trains striking autos                 426
  Autos striking trains                 112
  Autos running through crossing gates  143
  Accidents at protected crossings      766
  Accidents at unprotected crossings      3
  Accidents at night                    168
  Accidents during daylight             540
  Persons injured                       515
  Persons killed                         99

The fact that practically all these accidents occurred at protected
crossings would seem to indicate that most people trust the railway to
look out for them, and do not assume any individual responsibility. It
is to be noted, also, that those who did not look either way are in the
majority in every count. Also the number of automobiles that run into
trains is about one-fourth as many as those that try but fail to get by
in front of the train.

Enough has been said to prove this to be an important item in the vital
and financial economies of the nation. The question then is, what
is the remedy? No specific can be given but relief, partial, may be
secured.

(1) Eliminate grade crossings as rapidly as possible. For this a
coöperation between public and railroad by legislation might be fair.
Some States already do this going “fifty-fifty” on the expense.

(2) By combining public roads, that is vacating some, changing others
by relocation following along the railroad rather than cross over
the track twice as may be necessary if section lines be followed.
Frequently the shortening of the distance and betterment of grades will
pay for the improvement.

(3) By taking advantage of natural features in the location of new
lines of road and railway, and the relocation of old, to avoid grade
crossings. This has been done to a considerable extent in the more
recent locations.

(4) By proper location and construction details:

(_a_) Sharp angles in crossing should be avoided. The crossing should
be made as nearly at right angles to the track as possible. Flat easy
curves can usually be made to lead up to the crossing to accomplish
this. Secure an angle greater than 60° if possible. Catching wheels in
the flangeways or slipping along the track is common when the angle is
sharp. Also a view of the track to the rear is difficult.

(_b_) Steep grades near the track should be avoided. In Kansas and
Colorado the rule is for a level grade for 20 feet from the track. It
would be better to have this read “not steeper than a 2 per cent grade
downward from the track for at least 40 feet.” The roadway would by
this slight slope of not more than 2 feet in 100 feet be better drained
and therefore would keep in better condition. Level roads are liable to
hold water in the ruts and depressions softening them and the railway
track as well. A definite rule should not be made, for circumstances
alter cases. The rails are not always level. If the track is in curve
at point of crossing one rail will be superelevated above the other. If
the track is in cut, or half cut, it may require different treatment
than if in fill. The following sketches will illustrate this.

[Illustration: Steep grades at a crossing should be avoided. The grade
of the highway must conform to the elevation of the rails.]

(_c_) For the same reason the road should have a crown, the amount
depending on the type, earth, sand-clay, and gravel roads from ¹⁄₂
to 1 inch per foot of width, concrete, asphalt, brick and other hard
surfaces may have less.

(_d_) Clear vision for several hundred feet from the roadway along the
track should be secured if possible. This may often be done by the
removal of brush and weeds and the trimming of trees. During certain
seasons of the year cornfields may obstruct the view from some little
distance down the road, but if there is a comparatively level stopping
place near the crossing the driver ought to be able to slow down his
machine, to have it under thorough control, so that it could be stopped
quickly and far enough away from the track for safety, while he looks
both ways along the track. A little coöperation between railroad and
farmer may result in the planting of low growing crops where the view
would be obstructed by the high growing corn. The farmer might also
be willing to have hedges trimmed low and trees trimmed high in such
localities. In some states the laws provide for the annual trimming of
trees and hedges near railway crossings.

(_e_) The railways at the request of the road officers will usually
arrange the rails so that no joint will come upon the crossing, thus
keeping both road and track in better condition.

[Illustration: Safety turn at a railway crossing.]

(_f_) The building of a right-hand turn along the railway track at each
crossing on to which the motorist seeing that he could not pass ahead
of the train or stop his car could drive. See the figure above.

(5) Drivers when they see a train approaching should make it a point to
stop at least 100 feet away from the track. If a flying stop is made
right near the track the engineman will be at a loss whether to apply
the air for the train to stop or take a chance of hitting the vehicle.
Enginemen will appreciate a little courtesy of this kind. Also it will
be much easier to get a start to make the grade over the crossing if a
longer distance is allowed.

(6) Markers indicating the approach to a railroad crossing placed 300
feet back will serve as a caution warning. A good many states are
providing their highways with standard markers. In Illinois certain
crossings are designated with a stop sign and it is a misdemeanor to
go over without first coming to a full stop. In another state the law
requires a stop at all crossings and a ditch, or “thank-you-ma’am”
practically enforces the law.

(7) Automatic electrically driven gongs, bells, colored disks, waving
arms, or red lights are expedients in quite common use.

(8) Crossing gates and watchmen are used where the traffic is heavy.
They are expensive and railroads like to avoid them wherever possible.
On Long Island it is said light gates were run down by the motorists.
Very heavy gates are said to have proven more efficacious.

(9) Locomotives should be equipped with whistles and bells sufficiently
penetrating to be easily heard by drivers of moving automobiles. Mr.
Byron Clark, Chief Counsel of the Burlington railway west of the
Missouri River, called the author’s attention to what he believes to
be a fact, namely, that automobilists when traveling at a rapid gait
do not hear the locomotive whistle which the state law and the railway
rules require to be sounded before each crossing. Since my attention
has been called to this matter I have watched it quite closely and
believe Mr. Clark to be right. Frequently I hear the engine bell but
not the whistle. It might be well to experiment with whistles and
bells of various types. Is there a difference in the audibility of
high-pitched and low-pitched whistles and bells?

(10) But no matter what mechanical devices there are, how carefully the
enginemen obey the law about whistling, or how vigorously the watchman
swings his signal, lack of care on the part of the driver will be
productive of accidents. Before they can be avoided or even decreased
materially it will be necessary for the people generally to come to a
full understanding that they owe it to themselves, to the public and to
the nation to be careful. Life and accident insurance is only a method
of spreading the cost of loss due to death and accident over a larger
number. The economic loss to the people as a whole is just as great
whether there is or is not any insurance. An accident is always an
economic waste. “A careful man is the best safety device known.”


=Clearance.=--The New York State Highway Commission makes it a rule to
secure the following clearance:

When a highway passes under a railroad the crown elevation is made 13.5
feet below the bottom of the bridge girder, and the minimum right angle
distance between abutments is taken as 26 feet. The distance from the
base of the rail to the bottom of the girder varies with the span of
the bridge and ranges from 2 ft. 2 in. for a 30-foot span to 2 ft. 4¹⁄₂
in. for a 110-foot span.

Where the highway crosses over the railroad a minimum clearance of 21.0
feet is required from the top of the rail to the bottom of the highway
bridge girders. The span or right angle opening will vary with the
number of tracks and the standards of the railways. It is, of course,
well to have a clear opening over the entire used roadway. The practice
in some places, of having piers or piles in the center of the road,
unless there is placed around these a safety zone or park extending
each way along the street so that traffic may be separated some little
distance before coming to the pier, is not to be commended.


=Pedestrians.=--While it has been said that 90 per cent of the
accidents are due to lack of caution on the part of the driver, it must
not be thought that there is no contributory negligence.

Pedestrians constantly go across the street without looking up to right
or left. Others look with a leer as much as to say, “hit me if you
dare,” and leisurely proceed. They will not hurry one bit, thus causing
a slow down of the approaching motor and that in turn of the next, and
the next, producing a congestion in traffic with its known liabilities.
Each party has a right to the street, but courtesy should be extended
on both sides. When there is no traffic officer, motorists should
remember to give pedestrians time to cross, and pedestrians should
hurry a little so as not to delay motor traffic.


=Jay Walking.=--Another source of danger which can not be too strongly
condemned is the practice of “jay walking.” The driver of a car along
a crowded thoroughfare is never sure but what some person will pop out
from behind a parked vehicle and start across the street directly ahead
of his machine. By the ordinances of most cities parking is prohibited
near the ends of blocks and the proper walking spaces. Vision is there
clear to the sidewalks. The motorist is expecting pedestrians and is on
the lookout for them. But in the middle of the block with parked cars
along each side with travel more rapid than over the walking spaces it
is difficult to avoid hitting the exasperating jay walker.


=Obstacles that Obscure Vision.=--Many pedestrians have received injury
or been killed by stepping around the rear of street cars, trucks, and
other obstructions to clear vision, directly in front of a passing
vehicle. So suddenly does the pedestrian come into the path of the
moving vehicle that the driver can not stop before hitting him. The
remedy is care on the part of the pedestrian. Look before crossing, is
always an excellent slogan.


=Pedestrians on Country Roads.=--When pedestrians walk along country
roads they should habitually take their left-hand side. Thus they will
meet face to face those machines that are passing along that side of
the roadway, whereas if they walk on the right-hand side the machines
are coming up from their rear and may come near before sounding the
horn. A startled person often jumps in the wrong direction, thus moving
in front of instead of away from the impending danger.


=Slow-Going Vehicles.=--Horse-drawn vehicles should travel on the outer
side of the road if possible in order to allow faster going vehicles
to pass them readily. Often a slow-going truck will take the middle
of the roadway and stubbornly keep it even when asked courteously by
horn to get over. In trying to pass by going partially off the paved
way motors have slipped down due to the soft earth shoulders, with
serious injuries to both persons and machines. Where traffic is heavy
congestion results from slow-going vehicles not taking the outer side
of the way, with its usual disastrous effects.


=Bicycles.=--Boys on bicycles become extremely careless and fool-hardy.
They cut in front of rapidly moving cars and weave from one side of the
roadway to the other. They dart in from behind a parked car or from
a side street. When moving not straight along the wheels are always
likely to slip on wet spots in the pavement or catch in the flangeway
of the street-car tracks.

The bicycle is in itself a very useful machine and, perhaps, the most
economical vehicle built. Its use is to be encouraged by furnishing
special pathways for it to run upon wherever that is practicable.
When used on the main thoroughfares extreme care is necessary. The
motorcycle is a rapidly going machine and should be treated in the same
category as the automobile.

The matter of lights for non-motorized traffic has been mentioned. It
would be well for all to carry lights or reflectors. Motor-cycles with
side-cars should carry two lights in front, one for the cycle and the
other for the side-car.


=Road and Traffic Regulations.=--Very great credit for the development
of traffic regulation in the United States during the past two
decades is due to the persistent and unselfish efforts of William
Phelps Eno,[208] who in the latter part of the last century began
an agitation to reform the traffic situation in New York City. In
December, 1899,[209] he published an article on “Reform in Our Street
Traffic Most Urgently Needed,” followed by many others, with personal
letters and visits to the city officers, and with the publication of
circulars and pamphlets. At first he was not received very favorably
by city officers who seemed more interested in “what personal benefit”
Eno expected to get out of it, than to the good that would come to
the public through such regulation. He later received favorable
consideration by Maj. Gen. Francis V. Greene, Police Commissioner, and
by Capt. A. R. Piper, U. S. A. Retired, who had been placed in charge
of traffic. In a letter dated October 14, 1909, General Greene gives
due credit to Eno, thus,[210]

  The plan for street traffic regulation owed its inception to you, and
  you have followed it up consistently and persistently to its present
  almost perfect development; and in so doing you have conferred a
  benefit upon New Yorkers and the dwellers in other large cities, of
  very large proportions.

As a result of the combined work of the city officers and Mr. Eno, a
code was compiled which later furnished the basis for the code adopted
by the Highway Transport Committee of the Council of National Defense,
U. S. A., May 8, 1919. Most of the larger cities in the United States,
together with Paris and other European cities, have adopted this or
similar codes. A universal standardization of the National Defense Code
is being sought now by a national organization--The Eno Foundation for
Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc.[211] This code has been revised once
or twice since first adopted by New York. The Foundation will be glad
to receive suggestions for its betterment from any persons interested.
 Campaigns like the “Safety First” and the “Cross Crossings
Cautiously” and other “No Accident” campaigns have marked effects. If
the necessity of care could be instilled into the mind of every person,
if each could be made to realize that the next accident might be his,
that accidents are not only painful and disagreeable but always result
in the destruction of property, in personal injury or the loss of life,
the sum total of savings in money and humanity would be tremendous.
All the devices of human ingenuity, all the laws of the sages, and
the education of all agencies will not bring absolute safety. The
human race is too ignorant, too indolent, too self-complacent, too
near, in short, the outskirts of civilization, and the person who
suggests the utmost care, who would curtail the thrills of chance and
danger is a “joy killer” and a “crèpe hanger.” Perhaps so. Infinite
care might result in “innocuous desuetude.” It is said that there was
introduced into a western legislature a bill providing that two trains
on different tracks approaching their crossing point “should both stop
and neither proceed until the other had passed.” The other extreme is
fatalism: “on with the dance, let joy be unconfined”; “eat, drink and
be merry.” Is there not a golden mean?


SELECTED REFERENCES

  Accidents, Symposium on Automobile Hazards, by Ralph Stickle, James
  L. Roche, Joseph H. Handlon, and William G. Fitzpatrick. _Electric
  Railway Journal_, Vol. LVI, pp. 913-921.

  American Railway Association, Bulletin issued as a part of the “Cross
  Crossings Cautiously,” campaign, 1922.

  DARROW, F. T., Asst. Chief Engr., C. B. & Q. R. R., “Grade Crossing
  Elimination,” _Nebraska Blue Print_, May, 1920. Lincoln.

  ENO, WILLIAM PHELPS, “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation,”
  published by himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York.

  “Facts and Figures of the Automobile Industry,” 1922, National
  Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York.

  _Harper’s Weekly_, Accounts and pictures of early railway accidents,
  years 1840-1860.

  HELD, L. A., Adjuster for the American Railway Express Company,
  _Express Messenger_, July, 1922.

  WILLIAR, HARRY D., JR., “Maryland Road Accident Map.” _Public Roads_,
  September, 1921.


FOOTNOTES

  [201] “Facts and figures of the Automobile Industry,” 1922, published
  by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, gives the following
  table under the heading “Ratio of Accidents to Traffic Declines”:

  ----+---------+-----------+------------+----------+----------
      |Number of|  Total    |            |Number of |   Auto
      |  Auto   |  Number   |            |  Cars    |  Deaths
      | Deaths  | Auto[202] |Registration| per 1000 | per 1000
  Year| per Car |  Deaths   |  of Cars   |Population|Population
  ----+---------+-----------+------------+----------+----------
  1917| .0019   | 9,184     |  4,983,340 |    48    |  .0887
  1918| .0016   | 9,672     |  6,146,617 |    59    |  .0919
  1919| .0013   | 9,827     |  7,558,848 |    71    |  .0936
  1920| .00123  |11,358     |  9,211,295 |    87    |  .1040
  1921| .00119  |12,500[203]| 10,448,632 |    99    |  .1100
  ----+---------+-----------+------------+----------+----------


  [202] Estimated of entire U. S. by National Workmen’s Compensation
  Service Bureau applying Census Bureau for registration area to grand
  total.

  [203] Estimated from incomplete figures. Later statistics of the U.
  S. Census Bureau gives automobile accidents in 1921, 9103; in 1922,
  10,168.

  [204] Harry D. Williar, Jr., Assistant Chief Engineer, in _Public
  Roads_, September, 1921.

  [205] Bulletin issued by the American Railway Association as a part
  of the “Cross Crossings Cautiously” campaign, June to September,
  inclusive, 1922.

  [206] “Cross Crossings Cautiously” Bulletin.

  [207] Nebraska _Blue Print_, May, 1920. Published by the Engineering
  Society of the University of Nebraska.

  [208] Formerly Chairman of the Citizens’ Street Traffic Committee of
  New York City, Honorary President of the Highway Traffic Association
  of the state of New York, Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the
  Highway Transport Committee of the United States Council of National
  Defense, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Eno Foundation for
  Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc., etc.

  [209] “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation,” by W. P. Eno.
  Distributed by Brentano’s, New York.

  [210] Eno, op. cit.

  [211] Main Office, Saugatuck, Fairfield County, Conn.




CHAPTER XII

HIGHWAY ESTHETICS


One test for success is the degree of satisfaction produced. A
successful book satisfies the majority of its readers. A machine is
successful when it performs the duties intended to the satisfaction of
its operators. In business satisfaction brings repeat orders; in art it
gives emotional pleasure, and we return again and again to look upon
it. The ancient writer Vitruvius says the three indispensable elements
of architecture are _Firmitas_, _Utilitas_, _Venustas_, stability,
utility, beauty. That one which in the long run is most pleasing to the
builder and gives the greatest degree of satisfaction is beauty.

Most people are sensible to the charms of nature and art, that feeling
excited in the mind when observing those things called beautiful,
and to a feeling of revulsion and, possibly, disgust when brought
in contact with the ugly. The so-called esthetic sense enables us
to appreciate and admire the beautiful in nature and art, to enjoy
literature and music, to delight in wit and humor, and even to
recognize beauty in a mathematical problem.

Can the principles of esthetic construction be applied to the humble
road? Most assuredly, everyone recognizes that the first two elements,
stability and utility, are very essential qualifications, but the
public fails to get the greatest possible satisfaction from the road
because it neglects the element of beauty. Until the profession of
Road Aesthete has been evolved, therefore, it might be well, in at
least a crude way, to apply to the highway some of the principles
of architecture and landscape gardening. Since the roadway is of
necessity flat it blends in well with landscape gardening and the
characteristics of unity, variety, and fitness are fundamental. All
parts that are above the surface may receive a true architectural
treatment. Bridges are especially amenable. With the very large
bridges there is present the element of size, vastness, and when
properly proportioned they excite in the mind of man a feeling of
awe akin to appreciation of the sublime in nature and impress upon
him a deep sense of the greatness of human power. In all bridges the
elements of proportion, harmony and symmetry are applicable. And
with the beauty and grandeur of form comes the heightened effect
of embellishment--ornament and color. Here, however, the skill,
experience, and taste of the artist must come in. Embellishment may
be carried too far. A simple decoration of constructive parts is
usually sufficient. Massive concrete is itself pleasing, but possibly
a rubbing of the surface will enhance the effect of light and shade
and bring into prominence the lines which the bridge architect desires
to emphasize. The coloring due to the materials used is usually deemed
sufficient, although there may be places where harmony demands a
special treatment.

Much the same principles are involved in landscape gardening. It
might be well if every road engineer also had a course in the art of
landscape gardening, and some have gone so far as to contend that the
need for the services of an expert landscape architect to assist in
the design of highways is obvious. The artistic qualities of landscape
gardening applicable to the beautification of highways may be conceived
to be unity, variety, and character.

Unity means that in the landscape composition some leading idea,
motive, shall prevail, and that details shall be subordinate to it.
In order that a motive may be most effective one master mind should
have charge of the landscape work for an entire road; plans should be
completely made and all planting within and along the edges of the
right of way should be absolutely under his supervision. In only a few
instances has road gardening been carried to this extent. Perhaps this
may be due to a lack of art education on the part of the public, to
a sort of inherent feeling that Nature will take care of her own and
cover without artificial aid all ugly spots, or to a lack of necessary
funds.

Two great styles ordinarily mentioned are the Natural and the
Architectural. They are sometimes spoken of as the English and the
Italian, because they have been respectively most highly developed in
these countries. Another style called the Picturesque has its adherents
for certain locations.

The natural style attempts to retain naturalness as far as possible--in
extreme cases refusing to prune trees or clear out trees weakened
by decay and blown down by the wind. Generally the best effects
are obtained by not going that far. Open lawns, curved lines, and
grouped trees are utilized to obtain the appearance of naturalness.
Shrubs and flowering perennials are used to furnish a natural and
pleasing connection between the open lawns and the wooded portions of
the landscape. They may be used in profusion to hide unnatural and
inartistic features, and often will be low enough to look over and
therefore beautiful vistas need not be eliminated.

The Architectural style seeks to carry the architectural composition
of the buildings into the landscape. The extreme Italian style is
diametrically opposed to the extreme English. It has been said that
they are mutually exclusive. For best effects that may be true, but the
modern tendency seems to be to recognize that each has its advantage in
special situations. Modern landscape architects are not adverse to a
proper mixture of the two.

The writer is of the opinion that road gardening will be best as a
compromise between the two extreme styles. The fact that the road must
be laid down through a long, narrow stretch of land, that ditches must
be maintained for drainage, that embankments and cuts must continually
alternate, makes a purely naturalistic treatment impossible. The
geometrical must be in evidence. In country districts with wide right
of ways--in some places they are as much as 200 feet--the road may be
considered as separating two plots in which there is room for much open
grassy space and group planting along the outer edges. With narrower
roads the trees will necessarily be planted in rows uniformly spaced,
depending upon the width of the street and species of trees, giving an
“avenue” effect. In cities greater formality is necessary than in the
country, but even there planting the less formal trees will tend to
give more or less naturalness to the whole.

The architects will not agree with me in believing that satisfactory
combinations of the two great styles may be obtained. They believe
that street planting, for example, should be in (1) parallel rows
with the street, (2) the trees should be uniformly spaced, and (3)
the individual trees should be just as nearly uniform as possible. I
will admit that the main lines of trees should be parallel with the
street but do not admit that irregular groups of shrubbery and flowers
will destroy the artistic effect. That the larger trees should be
uniformly spaced and of the same variety and size for the same block
or street is also admitted. But, that such trees as the American elm,
for instance, because it is lacking in formality, is not a good street
tree, cannot be admitted. Neither do I believe that an avenue made up
of palms, Lombardy poplars, or dwarfed catalpas, is any more beautiful,
harmonious or restful than a street of long curving pendulant elms,
although geometrical boldness has not been so thoroughly carried out in
the latter case. Clipped trees, occasionally in fantastic shapes, are
sometimes seen. It scarcely needs to be said, that however appropriate
they may be in an Italian villa, they have no place along an American
highway. But neatly clipped hedges of privet or mulberry may add
materially in outlining the geometrical arrangement.

It is my opinion that the main trees along a country highway should be
much farther apart than they are usually planted. Two to three times
the spread of a grown tree of the same variety in that region is none
too much. Or the distance may equal the height plus the spread. If
they are placed on both sides of the roadway they should be alternated,
staggered. This gives the trees each individually an opportunity of
undisturbed growth, and if they are adapted to the locality and well
fed will form large symmetrical trees. American elms, for the Mid-west
states should be placed not less than 100 feet apart along country
roads. Lombardy poplar closer, say 75 feet; while they do not spread
so very far they do grow high. Another reason, in addition to that of
unrestricted growth, for setting the trees far apart is that for some
distance from a tree, perhaps because of the spread of its roots or the
shade, crops do not grow well. And as the tree must usually be planted
near the edge of the right of way, the farmer who owns the adjacent
land is being robbed of the fertility of his soil. The fewer trees that
may be set and still give a good appearance the better. The improved
appearance of the highway and its benefit to the farm fully compensates
for the loss of land, without doubt, when the trees are spaced wide as
has been suggested.

The varieties of trees that should be planted along highways depends
upon the location of the land. Those species that will thrive on low
bottom land may not thrive on the table and upland. The eucalyptus
grows rapidly into a tall, dignified stately tree in California, but
would not live at all in Minnesota. The paper birch of Michigan and
New York might be out of place entirely in Texas. Only those trees
should be planted that experience shows are fitted for the region and
locality. In Europe it is common practice to plant apple and other
fruit trees along the highway. Such trees might not thrive under
American vandalism. Mr. C. A. Reed of the United States Department of
Agriculture[212] recommends the planting of nut trees. Among others
he mentions black walnut, hickory, Japanese walnut, beech, chestnut,
filbert or hazel, and pecan. Of non-nut-bearing trees he thinks the
elm the best all-around tree. He also mentions the sugar maple, the
linden, the apple, and especially a native variety known as thorn
apple, hawthorn or red haw.

There are many other species that grow well. The pin oak and other
varieties of oak may be transplanted; two or three poplars--a variety
of cottonwood known commercially as Carolina poplar is a rapid growing
but short-lived tree; ashes, locusts, catalpa, sycamore, the pines,
spruces, cedars, and larches, all do well in some localities. Plums,
choke-cherries, and black haws make good screening thickets and furnish
fruit for the birds. The wild grape and the Virginia creeper will soon
completely cover unsightly fences, rocks, and stumps; the birds also
like their fruits. For low planting practically all the shrubs used
in decorative gardening are available, while the perennial herbaceous
flowering plants become veritable splotches of color to delight the eye
of the discerning wayfarer.

In the language of Oliver Wendell Holmes, “It will not do to be
exclusive in our tastes about trees. There is hardly one of them
which has not peculiar beauties in some fitting place for it.” Even
a blasted and wind-torn tree, or those trees which have the quality
of picturesqueness, such as the gingko, cut-leaved maple, Kentucky
coffee, weeping larch, or those artificially dwarfed trees, catalpa and
mountain ash, all may be utilized in their appropriate places.


=Trees.=--_Apple._--A rather good-looking tree with a beautiful show of
blossoms in the spring. Used extensively as a road tree in Europe. The
native crab-apple and the thorn-apple (red haw) are both fine for their
blossoms. They do not grow large so can be used in group planting.

_Arbor vitae._--A species of cedar used for screens, wind-breaks,
and hedges, and for filling in shrubbery where a variety of color is
desired.

_Ash._--There are some half dozen or more varieties found native in the
United States covering a region from the Atlantic to the Rockies and
extending into Oregon and Washington. Nearly all of them are suitable
for road and street trees. In parks they are good for massing as they
stand close planting.

_Aspen._--A species of poplar, rapid growing and often springs up in
the pine forests after the conifers have been cut off. The color of the
leaves makes it desirable in some plantings. Will grow in close masses.

_Balm of Gilead._--A species of poplar (black cottonwood); a
good-looking tree but like other poplars not especially desirable as a
road tree, but in all the Northern states where quick growth is wanted
might be used.

_Bamboo._--Native of South Sea Island, Philippines, southern Asia,
other southern countries and a species in Florida. A rapid growing
plant, quite graceful, and can be utilized for group and massive
planting where acclimated.

_Basswood._--See Linden.

_Bay._--See Laurel.

_Beech._--A beautiful tree both in summer and winter. Best when grown
individually. There are fifteen or more species belonging to the genus
(_Fagus_). The blue beech or ironwood, a rather small tree, may be used
where its peculiar color is desired.

_Birch._--Some twenty-four species are known in the United States,
inhabiting mostly the northern part, extending into Canada and Alaska.
The birches, especially the paper or white birch, are distinguished
by their light-colored bark. That of the white birch was used by the
Indians for canoes. It is an excellent park tree if it can be saved
from being peeled by the ubiquitous vandal.

_Box Elder._--A species of maple found quite generally from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. It grows to a height of
approximately fifty feet with a spread about the same. It casts a dense
shade and since it will stand severe climatic changes is a good tree
for the naturally treeless sections. Has been used much as a street
tree, although not particularly shapely as to trunk.

_Buckeye._--The buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same
genus. To the native species is usually given the name buckeye. The
Ohio buckeye is from 30 to 45 feet in height and is useful in mass
planting and not at its best in road planting.

[Illustration: PIN OAK STREET TREES

About 15 Years Old on Land that Was Once Considered to be a part of the
“Great American Desert.”]

[Illustration: A COTTONWOOD WIND BREAK

Formerly very Common in the Prairie Region.]

_Camphor._--The Camphor Tree (_Cinnamomum camphora_) is quite commonly
planted for street trees in the Southeastern, Southern and the
Southwestern states. The tree is a thrifty grower and is nice and
straight. The leaves and wood have the characteristic aromatic camphor
odor, and from them can be extracted the juice. Another tree of the
same genus _C. zeylanicum_ has also been imported from Asia and may be
found in the same states. From the roots is obtained cassia bark.

_Catalpa._--Was planted extensively a few years ago because it was
thought it would quickly develop timber large enough for fence posts
and ties in a few years. The best variety is the _Catalpa speciosa_,
which grows under favorable conditions to a height of 60 feet, with a
spread of 30 feet. The leaves are large and of good color, but slow
to appear in the spring and drop at the first frost in the fall.
The flowers are very showy. For this reason, its general shapely
appearance, and its rapid growth, it is a good road tree. It does not
seem to be very long lived, and as a street tree it is objected to by
those having close cropped lawns because of its bad habit of shedding
its long seed pods all summer.

_Cedar._--There are many species of cedars, both red and white. The
arbor vitae has already been mentioned. _Juniperus virginiana_ is
perhaps the best road tree. It grows from 50 to 80 feet tall with a
spread of one-quarter to one-third its height. It is suitable in nearly
every place where evergreens can be utilized. Its pyramidal shape makes
it well adapted to formal landscape architecture and hence would make a
good road tree for avenue planting.

_Citrus Fruit._--Orange, lemon, grapefruit, and citron are freely
planted in Florida and California. Where these come up to the highway
they answer for road trees. The citrus trees have a beautiful dark
green shiny foliage with a round top, and with their flowers and
ripening fruit are always interesting.

_Coffee Tree._--A good lawn or park tree, but a very few specimens will
be sufficient.

_Cherry._--The wild cherry, _Prunus serotina_, also called
black-cherry, grows native over much of the eastern and central
portions of the United States. It is the tree from which the cherry
wood is obtained. It is hardy, grows to a good height, 40 to 80 feet,
with a spread of 20 to 40 feet. It is a good road tree spoken of by
one writer as “charmingly unconventional,” and bears a slightly bitter
pea-sized fruit of which the birds are fond. It is deserving of larger
planting as a road and street tree. The chokecherry is a much smaller
tree, from 5 to 20 feet high and can be used in massing and screening.
The blossoms in the spring and a little later the fruit of which birds
are extremely fond, make it worthy of attention. The Japanese flowering
cherry and tame cherries are sometimes used for their blossoms.

_Cottonwood._--A species of poplar found native from Maine to Florida
and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Being so hardy and a rapid growing
tree, it was planted freely by the early settlers in the plains regions
of the Mid-west. A variety known as Carolina poplar grows especially
straight and tall, from 75 to 100 feet, with a spread of 25 to 30 feet.
The cottonwood is not strong and is liable to be broken in the wind,
because of this fact old trees are usually more or less unsightly. The
shedding of cotton from the pistilate tree is objected to, but this
trouble may be avoided by propagating only from staminate trees by
cuttings. Nevertheless it is a valuable tree where rapid growth and
quick shade is desired.

_Chestnut._--The chestnut (_Castania vulgarus_) and one or two other
species was formerly an important timber tree in the Eastern states.
The tree when not in foliage looks something like red oak. It grows
to a height of 75 to 100 feet, 5 to 12 feet in diameter. In Europe a
chestnut is mentioned 204 feet in circumference. The spread of the
tree is from one-fourth to one-half its height. The nuts are edible. A
bark disease has carried off most of the Eastern trees, and the larvæ
of insects almost universally infect the nuts. However, it is a rapid
grower and might be worth planting where it is known to thrive.

_Cucumber Tree._--A large, handsome tree, symmetrical, 50 to 75 feet in
height of the magnolia family, its fruit resembling cucumbers. It is a
native of the Eastern states.

_Cypress._--The bald cypress, though a large tree and of commercial
importance, has little value as a road tree because it grows in swamps,
the very worst place for a road. It might be utilized in the lake of a
park.

_Dogwood._--A native shrub of several varieties. Its low growing
tendencies, its beautiful flowers and showy fruit make it a valuable
ornamental shrub for parks. A species _Cornus Florida_ grows into a
tree some 25 feet high.

_Douglas Spruce or Fir._--Snow[213] states this (_Pseudotsuga_) genus
“is neither a true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard
hemlock. The name ‘pseudotsuga’ is from _pseudo_, or false, and _tsuga_
or hemlock.” These trees are among the largest known and the wonder of
the traveler through the forests of Oregon and Washington. Along the
lines of these roads it were well, if the pleasure of the tourist be
of import, to retain the most beautiful specimens. It grows from 175
to sometimes 300 feet in height, and 3 to 5, and sometimes 10 feet in
diameter.

_Elm._--The American elm (_Ulmus americana_) is considered by many
to be the best street and road tree in this country. It has a large
rounded top with long graceful branches. The shade is not very dense
and the lack of foliage near the ground allows the free circulation of
air. It grows into an exceptionally fine individual specimen and will
also group well. The general good appearance of the tree both in summer
and in winter makes it a favorite. There are some fifteen different
species of elm distributed over the temperate portions of the Northern
Hemisphere, except along the western coast of North America. The wood
being tough and fibrous it withstands damage from the wind fairly well.
Occasionally the long branches become so heavy they break down, but
usually the tree is so well balanced that it stands up well. The white
or American elm is the favorite for road work. The red or slippery elm
(_U. pubescens_) is a beautiful tree and would be used more frequently
in road and park work were it not that its delectable mucilaginous
inner-bark makes it the mark of the road vandal. White elm grows from
90 to 100 feet in height with a spread of 50 to 75 feet. There is a
tree now being featured by the nurseries called English elm which has a
smooth bark and very shapely appearance. The cork elm (_U. racemosa_),
grows from 75 to 90 feet in height, best developed in southern Ontario
and Michigan, with a somewhat rough shaggy bark, is also a good road
tree.

_Eucalyptus._--This genus includes about 400 species. They are
variously and locally known as gum trees, stringy-barks, iron-barks,
mahoganies, and box, and are natives of Australia and neighboring
islands. They have been widely planted throughout the world in warm
climates. The blue gum (_Eucalyptus globulus_) does well at least as
far north as Sacramento, and has practically changed the landscape
of Southern California and Arizona. The tree has an extremely rapid
growth, reaching a height of 200 and sometimes 300 feet. Some of the
trees have a shaggy exfoliating bark while others seem smooth. The
leaves of the young tree in some of the species, very noticeable
in the blue gum, change their form and color as the tree reaches a
certain age. Likewise the color and shape of the leaves and flowers
differ widely with different species. They all are “evergreen” but the
leathery leaves are blue, gray, or green. The leaves of the blue gum
are blue, oval, and stalkless when the tree is young while the leaves
of the older trees have stems, are dark green, some 10 or 12 inches
long, an inch wide, and sickle shaped. In southern California they
have been known to grow 25 feet in one year. The various varieties may
be used in various ways, some for wind breaks and massing and some
for individual specimens. Some are brilliant with flowers during a
period of year when other flowers are scarce. Eucalyptus oil extracted
from them is used as a medicine. For dry warm climates they make an
excellent road tree.

_Fir._--There are a large number of species and like other evergreens
have their uses in landscape work. They look much like the spruces. In
the West many of them grow to tremendous sizes.

_Gingko._--A picturesque tree, sometimes called the maiden-hair, has
been used about the city of Washington for street purposes. _Gingko
biloba_ is a native of Japan. While beautiful it would require much
care to get it properly started.

_Gum Tree._--The name is applied to trees of diverse species. Sweet
gum (_Liquidambar styraciflua_) grows from Connecticut to Florida, and
westward, intermittently to Illinois and Texas. Greatest development in
the basin of the Mississippi River. This is a tall, straight tree with
symmetrical top, rather smooth bark with corky ridges. A good-looking
road tree. The star-shaped leaves turn brilliant scarlet in the fall.
The seed pods are a sort of bur or rounded ball. Black, or sour gum,
while the wood is difficult to work and does not burn easily, ought to
be a fairly successful road tree in some localities. Grows from 45 to
100 feet high.

_Hedge._--See Osage Orange.

_Hackberry._--In the Western prairie states has proven itself to be a
very good street tree. Grows to a height of about 50 feet with a spread
of 30 feet. The bark is corky and deep cut, giving it a rough surface.
In general appearance resembles the elm. Deserves more general planting.

_Hemlock._--Is found native, in several species, over the northern
part of the United States and southern Canada. Frequently found with
broad-leaved and other needle-leaved timber. _Tsuga canadensis_ grows
from 60 to 80 feet in height, has short leaves, green above and light
beneath, a straight trunk and beautiful appearance. Western hemlock is
found as high as 6500 feet above sea level.

_Hickory._--The several species of this genus are recommended highly
for road purposes in the Eastern half of the United States. Probably
at its best from Michigan to Missouri. The shagbark (_Hicoria ovata_)
grows to a height of 75 to 90 feet with a spread of half as much. The
bark is rough and shaggy--hence the name. It bears fine edible nuts
in abundance. It will well repay planting along the roads. Pignut
(_H. glabra_) a fine tree of about the same height has a smooth bark
and nuts that are rather bitter and sometimes astringent, but from
its fine appearance and useful wood is worthy of planting. Pecan (_H.
pecan_) is especially adaptable to the more southern climates, growing
very thriftily in Texas and other Southern states. Reed says,[214]
“it is the noblest nut tree of all American species. Beautiful trees,
sometimes 3 or 4 feet through at the base and from 100 to 150 feet
tall, occur in the alluvial soils of the Mississippi River and its
tributaries and in the Southwest. In the Southern states it forms
a splendid roadside tree and orchards of it are worth going long
distances to see. Very often enough nuts are gathered from a half dozen
trees on a city lot to pay the taxes and keep up the insurance on the
home.”

_Holly._--Occasionally 50 feet in height but more often much smaller,
particularly in the North. Occurs from Massachusetts to Texas. The
foliage is evergreen and the beautiful red berries remain until spring.
Might be utilized in park plantings.

_Horse Chestnut._--See Buckeye.

_Juniper._--See Cedar.

_Koelreuteria._--_Koelreuteria paniculata_ is recommended for a park
tree for middle ground planting, being a small tree, 15 to 30 feet
high, with feathery pinnate leaves and yellow blossoms.

_Larch._--The larches are deciduous, needle-leaved conifers. A tall,
straight, slender tree. If planted at all should be in groups or
masses. The winter aspect is not particularly inviting.

_Laurel._--The laurels, known as magnolia trees, _Magnolia grandiflora_
found along the Atlantic as far north as Washington, and _Umbellularia
californica_ and _Arbutus menziesii_ found in California, are
ornamental trees of the highest rank. They make fine individual
specimens reaching a height from 50 to 100 feet and a spread fully half
as much. The dark evergreen foliage and large showy flowers give them a
most beautiful appearance. A magnolia avenue is certainly worth seeing.
Several other varieties of laurel are recommended for planting as far
north as New York.

_Lemon._--See Citrus Fruit.

_Lignum vitae._--A low gnarled tree grown in semitropical regions.
Could be used in picturesque landscape work.

_Linden._--Variously called basswood, whitewood, linn, beetree; is
found intermittently throughout the eastern half of the United States.
It is, when grown, 60 to 90 feet in height and has a spread of 30 to
45 feet. It has large, smooth leaves and in the spring its flowers
are very productive of honey. It is quick growing but said to be long
lived. The American linden (_Tilia americana_) is perhaps the most
thrifty for a road tree. It can be used individually and deserves more
extensive planting.

_Locust._--The name locust seems to have been applied to three distinct
genera of the family _Leguminosae_. The black locust (_Robinia
pseudacia_) is a fine appearing tree but in the Middle West is much
subject to attack by borers. In other regions it does not seem to
suffer that way. It attains a height of 50 to 75 feet, and a spread
half as great. The honey locust, a little larger tree, 75 to 90 feet
high, with a spread of 30 to 40 feet, is less subject to borer attack,
and is one of the hardiest trees for Western Kansas[215] upland
planting. The long compound thorns are sometimes objectionable, but
these may be avoided by selecting only those specimens having no
thorns, for the thorns are frequently absent. As a road tree the
honey locust is worthy of much attention. Another genus of locusts is
the ordinary mesquite (_Prosopis juliflora_) of the so-called desert
regions. They sometimes grow to 40 or 50 feet in height, sometimes they
are a shrub. They are naturally a dry country plant and should be used
in places where the moisture is scanty. It is said,[216] “The easily
agitated foliage cools the air to a surprising degree.” The “cool
shade of the mesquite” is a characteristic phrase. A valuable tree in
its own region. The roots furnish wood, the pods are filled with a
sweetish pulp from which the Indians, it is said, made “bread, cake,
and fermented drink.” “A black dye is obtained from the sap, and a good
mucilage from the gum.”

_Magnolia._--See Laurel.

_Maple._--One of the best road trees, by some considered superior
to Elm. The hard maple (_Acer saccharum_), the soft maple (_Acer
saccharinum_), are the principal American species of the genus,
comprising very many, which grow in the Northern Hemisphere. The Norway
maple (_Acer platanoides_) similar to the hard or sugar maple, has
been imported and is used to a considerable extent. The hard maple in
New York state and the east is a rapid growing tree; when transplanted
to the plains region its growth is very slow. The Norway maple seems
to be more rapid, but that too, is slow in those regions. Hard maples
grow to 70 or 100 or more feet in height with a spread of nearly the
same. When allowed to grow individually and branch from the ground,
they form an oval top nearly as wide as high. The shade is dense and
the numerous branches in winter and heavy foliage in summer give to the
tree a very fine appearance. The leaves turn yellow and scarlet in the
fall giving to the woods a most fascinatingly gorgeous aspect. What
has been said about the hard maple is true in a lesser extent of soft
maples. In the western part of the Mississippi Valley the soft maple is
a much more rapid grower. The height attained is not quite so great,
40 to 90 feet. They have when allowed room a fine shape sometimes
suggesting elm. The leaves are silvery white beneath, which is why they
are sometimes called silver maple. They do not turn so yellow or so
red in autumn as the hard maple. On the whole a road tree that may be
recommended. The red maple has been mentioned under the name box elder.
The Oregon maple (_Acer macrophyllum_) about the same size as the soft
maple is one of the most ornamental broad-leaved trees on the Pacific
Coast.

_Mulberry._--Red and white, named from the color of the ripe fruit,
under good conditions attain a height of 40 to 60 feet, and are quite
ornamental. The fruit is sweet, lacking in acid, but is liked by the
birds and by some people. A Russian shrub variety is used for low
hedges and stands trimming remarkably well.

_Oak._--The oaks not only furnish the finest of building lumber but
are practically all good ornamental trees. The principal reasons they
are not used more are the difficulty of transplanting them and their
slow growth. However, they are well worth the trouble and wait. The
oaks, of which there are some 300 species, are found native in most of
the Northern Hemisphere and in a few places south of the equator. They
are usually classified as white oaks, red oaks and live oaks. They are
quite easily distinguished by the foliage, bark, and general appearance
of the trees, but not easily, always, by the wood. In all cases the
fruit is an acorn, an oval or oblongly lanceolate smooth nut having a
thin shell and partly enclosed in a scaly woody cup. A dozen or more
species could be described as good road and park trees, but a few will
suffice. White oak (_Quercus alba_) is widespread throughout the north
central and eastern United States. It rises to 75 or 100 feet in height
and spreads nearly as much. It is truly a magnificent tree when grown.
The cow oak (_Q. michauxii_) grows best in a slightly more southern
region, is nearly the same size. The chestnut oak (_Q. prinus_) is
slightly smaller, is found along the eastern border, has leaves
somewhat resembling a chestnut, and reaches 75 to 80 feet in height.
Post oak (_Q. minor_), still smaller, inhabits the Gulf states. Bur oak
(_Q. macrocarpa_), one of the largest of the oaks, extends farthest
west and northwest of the eastern oaks. It is recommended for prairie
planting. The red oak, (_Q. rubea_) best in the Northeastern states,
is found native as far west as Nebraska. It is 90 to 100 feet in
height, is rather more upright than the white oaks, the spread not so
great. The pin oak (_Q. palustris_) has proven itself well adapted for
transplanting. Since it has a straight upright trunk and symmetrical
body is a good street and road tree, at least as far west as Nebraska.
The live oaks (_Q. virginiana_), (_Q. agrifolia_), (_Q. chrysotepis_)
do well in the Southern states and in California. They grow from 50 to
80 feet in height and are evergreen. _Q. bicolor_, and the scarlet oak,
_Q. coccinea_, are also recommended for landscape gardening.

_Orange._--See Citrus Fruit.

_Osage Orange._--Used extensively for hedges, hence the name sometimes
given to it, “hedge.” Fruit resembles an orange. Long thorns. Wood
hard, but checks badly in drying; heart, a beautiful orange, sapwood
yellow. Makes very durable fence posts.

_Palm._--Palms come under the division Endogenous, or those that
increase from within. Yuccas, cornstalks, sugar cane, bamboos are other
examples of endogens. There are 1000 or more species of palms. Some
of them are very decorative and in regions where they grow, such as
Southern California and Florida, may be used very effectively for road
and park embellishment. The Washington palm (_Washingtonia filifera_)
grows to a height of 30 to 60 feet, with a tuft of fan-shaped leaves at
the top. Old leaves die and hang down the tree like a thatched roof.
Sometimes these are trimmed off, leaving a smooth stem nearly the same
size all the way up. They are very effective in producing rows or
avenues. Cabbage palmetto (_Sabal palmetto_) also has a long stem with
a tuft of leaves at the top. The date palm (_Phoenix dactylifera_) has
been grown quite successfully in Arizona. Several other species are
available.

_Pecan._--See Hickory.

_Pepper._--Snow[217] states that the California pepper tree or Peruvian
mastic (_Schinus molle_) was introduced into California from Peru by
the early Spanish missions. It is now a very popular street and road
tree. In general appearance it suggests the drooping foliage of the
weeping willow. It is very irregular and grows to 30 or 50 feet high
with a spread nearly as great. The fine fern-like foliage and the long
sprays of rose tinted berries make it very ornamental. It gives off a
pleasant pungent peppery odor, and it is claimed to have the property
of stopping dust, something greatly needed during the summer season in
California.

_Pignut._--One of the Hickories, q. v.

_Pine._--Nearly forty species of pine are found in the United States.
They have high ornamental qualities and are used extensively in nearly
every part of the country. Except on the great plains, one or more
species are to be found. The different species grow from mere dwarfs to
immense trees. For park purposes the white pine (_Pinus strobus_), an
imported Scotch pine, an imported Norway pine, and the dwarf mugho have
been very popular. (The sugar pine (_P. lambertiana_) grows in the high
regions of California, is a fine tree and has cones 16 to 18 inches
long).

_Plane Tree._--See Sycamore.

_Plum._--Is used in thickets for screening and for its flowers and
fruit. Pissard’s plum has been largely used for ornamental planting.
The American plum (_Prunus americana_) works well in a general
composition and is very thrifty.

_Poplar._--The aspen, cottonwood, and balm of Gilead, have already
been mentioned, one more needs attention, whitewood or tulip tree
(_Liriodendron tulipifera_), found native in the eastern part of the
United States. It is the tree from which the whitewood of commerce is
mostly obtained. It grows to a height of 90 to 150 feet, and to a
diameter of 6 to 12 feet, with a corresponding wide spread. It has been
cut out until it is not particularly common any more. On account of the
wood being soft, without knots, and free from season checks, the logs
were utilized by the Indians for “dugout” boats. Hough states some were
large enough to carry twenty or thirty persons. This, one of the most
useful of American deciduous trees, deserves more liberal planting.

_Quercus._--See Oak.

_Redwood._--These trees are native to California. There are two
species--the mammoth trees (_Sequoia washingtonia_) of which a
comparatively few large specimens remain, and the common redwood
(_S. sempervirens_) which is now being rapidly cleared off by lumber
companies. “Big or mammoth trees have been measured up to 320 feet in
height and 35 feet in diameter” (Snow). These trees on account of the
thick bark, on the large trees some 2 feet, resist fires very well.
This is shown by ring counting and investigations on a fallen tree by
Professor Dudley.[218] This tree dated back to 271 years before the
Christian Era and showed that fires had occurred during the years A.D.
245, 1441, 1580, and 1797. The last fire charred a space 30 feet high
and 18 feet broad, but full recovery had been made. The tree grows
rapidly. Snow states that trees have been known to develop a height of
80 feet and a diameter of 16 inches in thirty years. In the Mariposa
grove, at least partially under U.S. Forest Reserve, the roads wind
about through the great natural avenues formed by these trees. On
account of the great commercial value of redwood the trees might, in
places where they will grow, be utilized for road planting to encourage
their growth by others, and assist the government in its long-time
forest plans.

_Sassafras._--Native to the eastern part of the country is a good
looking tree of small size, rising to a height of 30 to 50 feet with a
spread one-third as great. It has the characteristic sassafras odor,
the bark of the roots being used for medicine. Will mass well. The
leaves being some lobed and some not lobed lend a pleasing variety. Is
best in naturalistic planting.

_Sequoia._--See Redwood.

_Shagbark._--See Hickory.

_Spruce._--Perhaps the most important evergreen used in landscape
gardening, sharing that position with the pines. They seem to enjoy
long winters and short summers, hence are well adapted to the Northern
states. As they have a very trim symmetrical shape they can be utilized
exceptionally well in formal planting. They go well also with informal
planting, lending a splotch of green on an otherwise gray winter
landscape. When planted at uniform spacing along an avenue they outline
it exceedingly well without very much obstruction to clear vision
if they are not set close together. The black (_Picea nigra_) and
white (_Picea alba_) spruces rise from 40 to 100 feet in height with
a compact symmetric conical shape. The black spruce has the darker
foliage. The Colorado blue spruce (_P. parryana_) has been much in
vogue as an ornamental tree, the new foliage having a blue tinge.
Norway spruce (_P. abies_) has been used very largely in ornamental
cultivation. The cones are large, 5 to 7 inches, nearly cylindrical,
and the branches droop in artistic fashion. The Sitka Spruce (_P.
sichensis_) of the Pacific coast region from Alaska to Northern
California is a large tree of great commercial importance, and will
grow well on low grounds.

_Sugar Tree._--See Maple.

_Sycamore._--The plane tree or buttonwood (_Platanus occidentalis_) is
found in the central and eastern portion of the United States, best in
the Ohio and Mississippi River basins. It attains a height of 90 to 100
feet, and a spread of half as much. The outer bark peels off, leaving
the inner exposed in white patches. Its straight, upright trunk and
symmetrical form when allowed free growth ought to commend it for road
planting. The fruit are rough balls about an inch in diameter which
dangle in the air like ornaments on a Christmas tree. The California
sycamore (_P. racemosa_) is a smaller tree with a poorer quality of
wood, but in general appearance somewhat the same.

_Tamarack._--See Larch.

_Teak._--A tree of great commercial importance in India and Africa. Has
been transplanted to some extent in the Southern states but not yet
sufficiently numerous to be considered a road tree.

_Thorn._--Several members of the Cratægus family are suitable for
landscape planting. _Crataegus crus-galli_, _C. tomentosa_, and _C.
coccinea_, native plants, and the English hawthorn, _C. oxyacantha_,
are all recommended where small trees are desired.

_Tulip Tree._--See Poplar.

_Tupelo._--Same as Black or Sour Gum.

_Ulmus._--See Elm.

_Walnut._--Three species of walnut are used for road trees--black
walnut, butternut, and English (Persian) walnut. The black walnut
(_Juglans nigra_) makes a handsome tree when allowed to develop
individually, from 90 to 125 feet high, and 3 to 8 feet in diameter
with a normal spread about one-half the height of the tree. The edible
nuts are the delight of the small boy and as they are usually gathered
up from the ground after they fall their collection will not injure
the tree. The foliage is not very dense and it will not take away
greatly the fertility of neighboring ground hence, makes an almost
ideal road tree. Since the World War, according to Reed[219] it has
been considered a favorite as a memorial tree. Its native habitat is
the eastern half of the United States intermittently from the Atlantic
to Nebraska and Texas, but it thrives when transplanted to the states
of Oregon and Washington and is being used extensively by the State of
California as a road tree. The trees grow well from the nut or they may
be transplanted from a nursery by cutting the tap root one year ahead
of transplanting as is necessary for most nut trees. The butternut (_J.
cinerea_), sometimes called white walnut, is a very similar tree,
a little smaller and has not quite so extensive a native range. The
nuts are not round like the black walnut, but lanceolate in shape.
On the whole the black walnut is the better road tree. The English
walnut (_J. regia_) is a native of Persia, but is grown very largely
in orchards in California where the annual crop of nuts is more than
20,000,000 pounds. Hardy varieties suitable for more severe climates
are advertised but it is not here recommended that they be planted
where experience has not shown them to thrive. The tree itself is of
fine appearance, and in the warmer climates makes a good road tree.

_White Wood._--A name given to trees of various genera. See Basswood,
Poplar.

_Willow._--Willows may be used in decorative planting to a considerable
extent, especially along banks to keep them from washing and other low
places. The black willow (_Salix nigra_) grows into an interesting tree
with a rough trunk and long pendulous limbs and narrow lance-shaped
leaves. It resembles in general appearance the pepper trees of
California. It should be used more as a road tree across low bottoms.
It grows only 40 to 50 feet high, but its spread is fully as much,
giving it a rounded, ball-shaped top. _Salix regatis_, _S. alba_,
_S. vitillina aurea_, and _S. laurifolia_ are all recommended for
decorative effects.

_Yucca._--Many of the yuccas are merely herbaceous plants with
beautiful flowers, but the Joshua tree (_Yucca arborescens_) grows to
be 25 to 40 feet in height, and two feet in diameter; it is so very
ungainly that it is picturesque.


=Shrubs.=--Any nursery catalogue will give a wilderness of shrubs from
which a good selection may be made. But the discerning road gardener
will take advantage of the native plants and not only preserve them
but so arrange them along the roadside as to give unity and variety to
a complete stretch of road. We notice the large trees because their
size thrust them upon us, but we are likely to overlook the smaller
plants or think of them simply as weeds to be got rid of. The native
wild plants are all too fast disappearing. Practically the only places
where they may now be found are along the highways and the railways,
and in the farther forests where the cattle have not yet trampled
them out. The road man who has a love for nature in his heart will
take interest in preserving for future generations, that they may
know what this land looked like before the hand of man changed it for
better or for worse, these narrow strips of natural loveliness. Then
let the graceful wild flowers and the sturdy shrubs be a connecting
link between the sordid interests of man, symbolized by the hard, hard
pavement and the boundless breadth of God’s goodness exemplified by
the abundance in the vast outspread of fertile fields and the deep and
reverent dignity of the mighty forest.

If nature’s wild flowers and shrubs are selected there will be no
need of artificial fences and pergolas for support or straw and hay
covering in the winter thus losing to the passerby at least one-half
the pleasure that Nature herself can furnish. Nature is liberal and
will furnish artistic pleasure the year around if given a reasonable
opportunity to do so.

_Alder._--The green or mountain alder (_Alnus virdis_), 3 to 8 feet
tall. Also _A. incana_, a little larger--8 to 20 feet. Adapted to damp
soils.

_Barberry._--Plant only the Japanese barberry (_Berberis thunbergii_)
as the common variety has been convicted of carrying the spores of
wheat rust. The barberry has slender graceful branches with fine bright
green foliage. Small yellow flowers in June with berries turning
scarlet and remaining on bushes all winter. Colors up nicely after
frost. Three to 5 feet high.

_Button Bush_, _Cephalanthus occidentalis_.--Hardy native shrub, 4 to 8
feet high. Globular heads of white flowers in the spring. Foliage good.

_Bush Honeysuckle_, _Lonicera tartarica_.--Four to 10 feet. Upright
somewhat spreading branches; bright green foliage. Flowers freely in
May and June. A good background for smaller shrubs.

_Buck Brush_, _Ceanothus_.--North American species of the buckthorn
family. Yellow or blue flowers in terminal clusters, small shrub.

_Butterfly Bush_, _Buddleia Variabilis Magnifica_.--This is advertised
highly as an ever bloomer, beginning in early spring and continuing
until frost. Hardy except in extreme Northern states.

_Cinque Foil_, _Potentilla fruticosa_.--Three to 4 feet. Hardy native
shrub. Bright yellow flowers.

_Cherries_, _Prunus_.--The native plums and cherries are nearly all
so small as to be called shrubs. They are worthy of planting for
ornamental purpose. The sand cherries are natives of the western
sandhill regions; _P. besseyi_, and _P. pumila_ are excellent. For
massing the common chokecherry is one of the best small trees known,
the flowers are beautiful and the fruit is excellent food for the birds.

_Coral Berry, Indian Currant_, _Symphoricarpus vulgaris_.--Common
native shrub, graceful, and holds through the winter bright little red
berries. Two to 3 feet high.

_Currant._--See Ribes.

_Dogwood_, _Cornus_, _several species_.--About thirty species
distributed over the Northern Hemisphere. Chiefly shrubs, all hardy
and ornamental, handsome foliage, stems, flowers, and fruits. The
unfortunate name “dogwood” seems to have been fastened upon these
beautiful plants because a decoction of the astringent bark was used
to wash mangy dogs.[220] The dogwoods are mostly shrubs, except three
or four species in the Southern states. Some of the smaller ones were
called Kinnikinick[221] by the Indians, applied to at least the red
osier (_C. stolonifera_) and the silky cornel (_C. amomum_). The highly
colored red and purple stems give them a striking appearance in the
winter. In the summer the foliage bright green in some, grayish green
in others, the white flowers and white berries changing to blue,
always prominent even after the foliage has taken on gorgeous coloring
in autumn, makes them stand out prominently from other bushes in their
neighborhood. By all means let the dog-woods be preserved by planting
along not too dry places in our roadways. The species especially
desirable are, in addition to the two mentioned, _C. baileyi_, _C.
sericea_, _C. mas_, _C. sanguinea_, and _C. horida_.

_Daphne._--_D. mezereum_, a low shrub, 1 to 3 feet, with rose-colored
flowers. _D. cneorum_, a hardy evergreen shrub from Europe.

_Deutzia._--Not quite hardy in the North. There are several species.

_Elder._--The common elder, _Sambucus canadensis_, is a rapid-growing
plant with ornamental qualities of high rank. Its pinnately compound
leaves, its beautiful little lacy flowers which combine into
broad compound cymes giving them a very showy appearance, and its
fruit--small berries in the same showy cyme bunches--make it worthy the
notice of road gardeners. The golden elders give bright color but are
probably freaky. In the South the Mexican elder (_S. mexicana_) grows
into a tree 30 feet high. Likewise the pale elder (_S. glanca_) on the
Pacific coast; it is said to grow 50 feet tall in Oregon. The fruit of
the elder is edible; is used for wine and pies.

_Exochorda grandiflora._--A shrub bearing white blossoms in spring.

_Evergreens._--A number of the evergreens are dwarf or so slow growing
that they may be very effectively used for shrubbing. The arbor vitæ
has been used in hedges. Pines, cedars and spruces are commonly used to
heighten architectural effects.

_Fringe Tree_, _Chionanthus virginica_.--A shrub or small tree
blossoming profusely about lilac flowering time. Foliage not
particularly good.

_Flowering Almond_, _Amygdalus nana_.--A dwarf almond cultivated for
its flowers, imported from Russia. Grows 4 or 5 feet high and in the
spring the slender stems are almost wholly covered with the blossoms.

_Flowering Crab._--Nearly every state has the wild crab-apple, which is
hardy and a most beautiful flowering plant when in bloom. The fruit is
usually small and sour, but the early settlers found it fine for jelly,
and the wild tang is delightful. Crab trees have been domesticated so
that now nursery men claim a double flowering crab, extremely beautiful
with fragrant double flowers of delicate pink. The tree is of medium
height.

_Golden Bell_, _Forsythia viridissima_, and _F. Fortunei_ bear great
quantities of yellow flowers in early spring. At their best in the
Eastern states. _F. syspensa_ is a weeping or semi-prostrate form.

_Hercules Club_, _Aralia spinosa_.--Six to 18 feet high. Its large
leaves give it a somewhat tropical effect.

_Hydrangia paniculata grandiflora._--The shrub hydrangeas furnish large
showy white flowers in the autumn after most flowers have gone. Very
effective between the greens of the shrubs and trees and of the grass.

_Indian Currant._--See Coral Berry.

_Japan Quince_, _Pyrus japonica_.--Cultivated for its brilliant scarlet
flowers in early spring.

_Judas Tree._--See Red Bud.

_June Berry_, _Amalanchier canadensis_.--Also called service berry (in
the Black Hills, sarvice berry) or shad bush. A slender tree, 6 to
20 feet, with pretty flowers forming early before the leaves. Fruit,
berries, one-third of an inch in diameter, edible, extremely well liked
by the birds. Two other species, _A. oboralis_ and _A. alnifolia_, are
equally useful as ornamental trees. The first and second species native
in Canada and North Central states; the third west of the mountains
from Alaska to Oregon.

_Kerria japonica._--Three to 8 feet. A pretty shrub with slender twigs
and yellow flowers.

_Lilac._--The common cultivated lilacs, an important gardening
shrub, belongs to the genus _Syringa_. They may be used in clumps
or in hedges, and require very little care except to cut them back
occasionally and clean out dead wood. Several fine varieties are now on
the market.

_Mock Orange._--See Syringa.

_Oleaster_, _Elaeagnus Longipes_, _E. argentia_ and _E.
hortensis_.--Sometimes called wild Olive. Said to have edible fruits.

_Pea-Tree_, _Caragana frutescens_, a low shrub bearing yellow pea-like
flowers in spring. _C. arborescens_, similar, larger.

_Plums._--A number of wild plums are very suitable for road planting.
In fact they plant themselves if given an opportunity. Good for massing
and screening. _Prunus americana_ and _P. maritima_ are especially
recommended.

_Privet._--Hardy shrubby hedge plants. Best adapted for carefully
trimmed low hedges 2 to 3 feet high. _Ligustrum vulgare_ and _L.
ovalifolium_ are both used. For the North Central states it is
recommended that “Amoor River” privet be used as the “California”
privet is not altogether hardy. May also be used for massing.

_Raspberry_, _Rubus odoratus_.--The flowering raspberry grows from 3
to 5 feet tall and may be used in clumps for small massing wherever
brambles may be desired.

_Red Bud, Judas Tree_, _Cercis canadensis_.--A very striking small
tree, from 10 to 30 feet high, in the early spring when its bright
red-purple flowers appear before the leaves. Very noticeable in the
bluffs along the large rivers where it dots the gray and greening
hillsides with splotches of color. The foliage and bark are also good,
so that it is well worthy of note for roadside planting.

_Ribes aureum._--Sometimes called the flowering currant. A very hardy
native, useful for massing. It bears bright yellow flowers, whose spicy
fragrance soon call attention to it when in bloom. Grows from 4 to 7
feet high and spreads rapidly by suckers. Other species of currant and
gooseberries are valuable for massing.

_Rhododendrons._--In the Eastern states as far north as Massachusetts
these ornamental plants are very popular. As a road shrub it could
hardly be used on account of the thieving propensities of some people.

_Roses._--The hardy flowering roses in massed groups will give color
and interest to the roadside. The sweet-brier and single prairie rose
grow profusely in the Central West. The ramblers may be used to cover
old fences. The difficulty with most roses is a lack of artistic beauty
after they have ceased flowering. A few have good foliage for massing.
In Oregon and other Coast states the perpetual blooming roses may be
utilized.

_Shad Bush._--See June Berry.

_Snowball._--There are several species and varieties. _Viburnum opulus_
and its varieties are probably best. Very hardy, good foliage, from
4 to 10 feet high, and when in bloom in the spring a most impressive
sight with each bunch of blossoms looking like a truly big snowball.

_Snowberry._--Similar to the Indian currant, but has white berries. A
very hardy native; blooming in the late summer its berries remain on
the bush-like small pearls until late into the winter. _Symphoricarpus
racemosus_ is the native shrub well worthy of cultivation. Will make
its way wild along the roads if given a chance.

_Spice Bush_, _Calycanthus floridus_.--A small shrub bearing spicy
flowers.

_Spirea._--The several species are all very artistic shrubs and worthy
of the popularity which they bear. Can be used as a single bush, in
hedges or in masses. The long graceful bends of the slender stems,
reminding one of the streams of water from a fountain, their beautiful
foliage and above all the foaming flowers in the spring time make them
the horticulturist’s favorite. _Spirea van houttei_, bridal wreath,
is considered to be the best, although _S. prunifolia_, and _S.
Thunbergii_ have their admirers. _S. anthony waterer_ bears crimson
flowers.

_Squawberry._--A local name sometimes given to Indian currant and
snowberry, q. v.

_St. Johnswort._--A number of small shrubs of the family _Hypericum_.
_H. aureum_ has a height of 3 feet and flourishes in the Southern and
Western states. Wild it prefers rocky situations and shady spots.
Yellow flowers.

_Strawberry Tree_, _Euonymus atropurpureus_.--Also called burning
bush. Hardy in the South. Bright ornamental fruit persists into the
winter.

_Sumach._--Several species of the family _Rhus_. They are native over a
wide range and very hardy. The leaves are pinnately compound and hang
down from the top of the stem something like a palm leaf, giving a
suggestion of the tropics. Of about 120 species of _Rhus_ some sixteen
are found in North America; all but four are shrubs. The poison sumach,
_Rhus vernix_, should never be allowed to grow along the roads as
touching the plant is said to be far worse than handling poison ivy.
It grows in wet or swampy ground and the white berries are in drooping
clusters. The ornamental sumach, _R. glabra_, is the ordinary common
roadway plant, with its upright fruit clusters persisting late into the
winter showing deep red against a gray or snowy white background. Its
foliage is bright and clean during the summer and turns to rich colors
in the autumn. Many ugly spots can with very little trouble be covered
with this harmless roadside friend.

_Sweet Gale_, _Myrica gale_, and sweet fern, _M. asplenifolia_, are
native small shrubs that can be well used in shrubbery border.

_Syringa._--Sometimes called mock orange. This shrub grows to about 8
or 12 feet high and on account of its many white flowers in late spring
or early summer is a favorite garden shrub. In shape and fragrance the
flowers resemble orange blossoms. It may be used in clumps, masses or
in hedges. It is very satisfactory because it seldom fails to bloom and
has good appearance afterward. Old wood should be cut out. The best
species to plant are _Philadelphus coronarius_, _P. grandiflorus_, and
_P. gordonianus_.

_Tamarix_ or _Tamarisk_.--A shrub of the genus _Tamarix_, which has
been imported from the Mediterranean regions. The feathery foliage
reminds one of the cypress vine. The species best adapted to the United
States is _T. gallica_. It bears pink flowers in late summer. Is good
for covering unsightly banks. May be propagated from cuttings. It will
kill out in extreme winters.

_Wegelia_, _Diervilla florida_.--Several varieties. Good blooming
plants and usually hardy. Rather poor foliage.

_White Alder_, _Clethra alnifolia_.--Native shrub 3 to 10 feet high.

_Willow._--Many of the _Salix_ family are shrubby and can be used well
in low places. As they come into foliage early in the spring they are
often used by the landscape artist. The shining twigs and leaves lend
variety.

_Yucca._--The yuccas may be used effectively with formal plantings, or
to lend variety to naturalesque schemes.


=Climbing Plants.=--A few climbing plants, perhaps, will be needed to
complete the plan, but they can readily be found in such plants as:

_The Wild Grape._--It will grow 50 feet in a season and cover the
nakedness of an old fence or stump with lovely foliage and furnish
quantities of fruit for bird or human consumption.

_Ampelopsis quinquefolia._--Another rapid grower, also furnishing
beauty and bird food. _A. veitchii_ and _A. englemanii_ are fine for
covering brick and stone work.

_Bittersweet._--Another native climber showing beautiful red berries
throughout the winter.

_Clematis._--Several varieties, some of them native, perfectly hardy,
such as _Clematis virginiana_, not only gives its flowers but extends
the pleasure long into the winter with the “old man’s beard.” _C.
paniculata_ is a favorite, flowering profusely late in the fall.

_Honeysuckle_, _Lonicera_.--White, red and yellow are found. _L.
sempervirens_ will be satisfactory for roadside work.

_Trumpet Creeper._--A hardy rapidly growing vine with large
trumpet-shaped red flowers.

_Wistaria._--A rapid growing favorite with large spike like flowers,
violently purple.

There are a number of other climbers available. The hop vine is a good
grower, coming up year after year from the root. The several morning
glories, from the old fashioned white that was the bane of the corn
cultivator and the purple glory our grandmothers loved to the Japanese
variety and the moon flower, are all good in place.

There is not time to go into the wealth of hardy perennial flowers,
and the annuals which seed themselves, nor the grasses that may be
utilized. The author would refer those who are interested to works on
landscape gardening and horticulture. For a brief discussion of “the
principles governing outdoor art with sundry suggestions for their
application in the commoner problems of gardening,” see “Landscape
Gardening,” by F. A. Waugh, Orange Judd Company, New York.


=Semi-Formal Style.=--In what precedes much has been said about
beautifying the highway by proper planting. Perhaps one of the nicest
and most ornamental pieces of road is that with a single row of trees,
uniformly set and of uniform size, down each side; the grass from the
roadway out neatly clipped; and the edge of the roadway where it joins
the ditch a distinct line parallel to the road center line. This is the
geometrical or formal style fully carried out. Hard maples set, say,
75 feet apart will give satisfactory results. For long level stretches
the Lombardy poplar will give a pleasing variety to the landscape.
Careful attention to the small details of keeping the road surface well
smoothed, the side lines straight and the grass and weeds mowed, will
add wonderfully to the pleasure of traveling on any highway. It is not
the intention to have the grass smoothed with a lawn mower--however,
with the horse-drawn and motor driven mowers now available that would
not be impossible, and the road would look all the better for such
clipping--but to have it mowed two or three times a season to give the
grass a chance to overcome ugly weeds. For this reason the side ditches
should be as wide and shallow as possible in order that they might grow
grass on their bottoms and the mowing be done with a machine.


=Telephone and Other Poles.=--The matter of telephone, telegraph,
electric light, and other poles is one that will bother. Telephone
companies pay no more and not as much directly for the use of the
highway as do trucks, but upon the theory that telephone communication
is necessary for the transaction of community business and for the
general dissemination of information, and from the further fact that
any charge made for the use of the right of way would be passed on to
the public as a sort of indirect tax, they are in most states allowed
to set their poles along the roadside. The poles are more or less
unsightly and as far as the beauty of the highway is concerned it would
be better if they could be removed. In cities and villages the wires
are being carried in cables and in many places under ground.


=“The Ideal Section.”=--The so-called ideal section of pavement being
sponsored by the Lincoln Highway Association, located about 40 miles
south of Chicago, between Dyer and Schererville, Lake County, Indiana,
is to have all pole lines and other unsightly features removed, that
the natural beauty of the right of way may be enhanced. A prominent
landscape gardener has made extensive studies of the land and natural
features, it being in a wooded country, and has developed a plan
of beautification which will be worked out along the roadside. The
general specifications of the “Ideal Section” calls for 40 feet of
concrete paving, 10 inches thick and reinforced with steel in such a
manner that it is hoped to prevent cracking. Shoulders of 5 feet on
each side will make the used roadway 50 feet wide. It is to be placed
in the middle of a 100-foot right of way, allowing 25 feet each side
for landscape gardening. The plans for the “Ideal Section” follow the
advice of a highly trained technical committee of road engineers and
road enthusiasts, and while they do not claim this represents the
ultimate in highways, the Association believes an attempt should be
made to crystallize the ideas of the foremost highway authorities of
the country into a tangible expression of the ideal, even though the
expression must lack perfection.

Of course, it is not possible that all roads in the country can be made
“ideal sections.” Nor even can telephone poles be banished from the
right of way. To do this, no matter how desirable it might be from an
esthetic standpoint, is impracticable at the present time. It would
not only be a very great hardship to the pole-using companies but the
expense of removal and the cost of new right of way, or, if they be
forced under ground, the cost of conduits, cables, and installation
would become a part of the capital investment on which dividends must
be earned. Since this would not bring extra business it would be passed
on to the public by increased rates. As “it is a condition and not a
theory that confronts us,” we must make the best of it and design the
roadside treatment with the poles and wires as a part of it.


=Location of Poles.=--In prairie district where there are no trees to
interfere it is customary to set the poles either on the fence line
or half the length of the cross-arms into the right of way. In case
there are high hedges, trees or other obstructions, the poles are set
near the side ditch, and trolley poles often on the very edge of the
traveled roadway. On the whole it would seem best in most places to set
the poles just outside of the ditch, leaving if possible the extreme
edge for the planting of trees and shrubs. Neither poles nor trees
should be set on the middle of the space between the edge of the ditch
and the right-of-way boundary. In either case the limbs of the trees
and the wires will interfere and the wiremen will hack the trees and
leave them unsightly. In some states an attempt is made to prevent this
and other vandalism by legal enactment, making it unlawful to cut any
trees on the right of way without express permission of the highway
commissioner.

No definite fixed rule can be made for the position of the poles. It
is a problem to make the best of them. Also having once been set the
pole owners may refuse to reset them, and it might be difficult to
get courts to see the necessity of doing so. Therefore the landscape
gardener will have to make his design with reference to them or, in
cooperation with the pole users, get them changed. In the design
natural condition should be preserved as far as possible. It might be
wanted rightly to preserve large trees standing near the roadway; this
would force poles to the fence line. When the poles are thus placed on
the right-of-way boundary it may be necessary for the company to secure
an easement from the owner of adjacent property. The highway officials,
no doubt, under such circumstances would coöperate with the company in
securing it.

By considering the poles as a part of the formal or semi-formal
treatment of the roadside, having them arranged uniformly as to
setting, distance, height, and length of cross-arms, they will not
appear very ugly and even may unite interestingly, at least, with the
landscape. Trees may be trained and pruned so that their branches will
be above the wires, and shrubs may be grown below them. Anyway, the
wires look like business.


=Legislation.=--Michigan, California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New
Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and possibly other
states have legislation covering some or all features that have been
mentioned for improving and making attractive the appearance of the
highway. Other states require property owners to mow the roadside
abutting their land each year before weed seeds ripen, but this is
not for the purpose of beautifying the roadway. The laws of Michigan
provide for the planting and care of trees along state trunk line
roads and national aid roads and allow counties and smaller political
divisions to appropriate funds for this purpose. The injury or cutting
of trees without authority from proper road officials is made a
misdemeanor. Arrangements are also made for the Agricultural College to
furnish trees and advice for roadside planting.

The laws of Michigan contemplate first a formal application by the
counties for roadside improvement, then the plans are made by the staff
of the Agricultural College. The necessary trees and shrubs will be
obtained from the Agricultural College, or from local sources; nearby
groves often furnishing all that are necessary, and the owners are
willing to donate them for thinning often betters their own property.
In other cases automobile clubs and other local organizations pay for
them.


=Local Conditions Determine Planning.=--It cannot be too much
emphasized that local conditions must determine the planning. The soil
and topography, the future development of the roadway for the probable
amount of traffic it is to carry, are all factors that should be
considered. Neither must the planting be so profuse that the roadway
is hemmed in with no lookout. Vision of the interesting points of view
as well as vision along the highway itself must not be obstructed.
Long vistas of fields, of hills and valleys, of mountain peaks and
ranges, of lakes and rivers, are more interesting usually than all the
planting that could be made on the right of way. Long, straight rows
of trees uniformly spaced, while excellent in some places, might if
continued too far become monotonous. Fit the planting to the landscape;
possibly a clump here a clump there, or a small grove leading up a
draw on land unfit for farming may be arranged in coöperation with the
owner. Woodland should be purchased and parks prepared for picnics
and outings. Massachusetts has done much in this way. The Government
invites the public to make use of the National Parks and National
Forest Reserves, but they are too far away from most people to fill
an every-day want, therefore a need of local road beautification and
roadside parks.

“Cover up ugliness and leave beauty,” is a good slogan, and it must
not be thought to be inapplicable upon our home roads. But season
everything with reason. A bold rock jutting out may be more interesting
than the same rock covered with ivy. Appropriateness and fitness are
fully as essential as beauty alone. So a bold line setting out clearly
the safe boundary of the road may be more fitting than any attempt to
harmonize the road with its surroundings. Good judgment and a sense of
artistic fitness are the key to road esthetics.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  BOEHLER, C. F., “The Appearance of our Highways,” _Good Roads_,
  Vol. LXII, p. 205; “Selection, Arrangement and Planting of Roadside
  Trees,” _Engineering and Contracting_, Vo. LVIII, pp. 233-234.

  BRYANT, RALPH C., “Logging,” John Wiley & Sons, New York.

  DAME, L. L. AND BROOKS, HENRY, “Trees of New England,” Ginn &
  Company, New York.

  DUDLEY, WM. R. Report to the U. S. Senate through Senator O. H.
  Platt, of the record obtained by counting concentric rings of a
  felled sequoia tree, Senate Document 156, Vol. V, 58th Congress.

  FERNOW, B. E., “The Care of Tree in Lawn, Street and Park,” Henry
  Holt & Co., New York.

  GOING, MAUD, “Our Field and Forest Trees.” A. C. McClurg & Co.,
  Chicago.

  HOUGH, ROMEYN B., “Handbook of the Trees of the Northern U. S. and
  Canada, East of the Rocky Mountains.” Hough, Romeyn B., Lowville, N.
  Y.

  KELLOGG, R. S., “The Lumber Industry.” Ronald Press Company, New York.

  Lincoln Highway, Ideal Section of, _Engineering and Contracting_,
  Vol. LVI, pp. 537-538.

  MUIR, JOHN, “Our National Parks.” Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

  PARKHURST, H. E., “Trees, Shrubs and Vines of the Northeastern United
  States.” Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.

  REED, C. A., “Useful Trees for Roadside Planting,” A paper before the
  Michigan Good Roads Association, 1921, _Good Roads_, Vol. LXI, pp.
  173-176.

  ROGERS, JULIA, E., “The Tree Book,” in “New Nature Library,”
  Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1914.

  SARGENT, CHARLES SPRAGUE, “Trees and Shrubs.” Vols. I and II, 4 Parts
  to a Volume. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

  SNOW, C. H., “The Principal Species of Wood,” John Wiley & Sons, New
  York.

  SOLOTAROFF, WILLIAM, “Shade Trees in Towns and Cities.” John Wiley &
  Sons, New York.

  “Trees for City Streets,” _Public Works_, Vol. LIII, p. 63.

  WAUGH, F. A., “Landscape Gardening,” Orange Judd Company, New York.


FOOTNOTES

  [212] In a paper presented, 1921, at the meeting of the Michigan
  State Good Roads Association.

  [213] “The Principal Species of Wood,” by C. H. Snow, Wiley & Sons,
  New York.

  [214] “Useful Trees for Roadside Planting,” a paper before the
  Michigan State Good Roads Association, 1921.

  [215] “Forestry and Irrigation,” August, 1903.

  [216] Snow: “The Principal Species of Wood.” 2d Ed., Wiley & Sons, N.
  Y.

  [217] Op. cit.

  [218] Congressional Record, Senate Doc. 156, Vol. V, 58th Cong.

  [219] Op. cit.

  [220] New Nature Library, Vol. III, p. 411, “The Tree Book,” by Julia
  E. Rogers. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, 1914.

  [221] This Indian word seems to have been applied to many plants the
  leaves or bark of which was used for smoking.




CHAPTER XIII

AIDS AND ATTRACTIONS TO TRAFFIC AND TRAVEL


It is a well-recognized fact that pleasure riding constitutes by far
the greater part of automobile riding. With ten million pleasure cars
and two million trucks that is obvious, notwithstanding every pleasure
car is used more or less for business.

Assuming that the pleasure cars average 3000 miles per year each,
a conservative estimate, and that two-thirds of this is purely for
pleasure,[222] and that the average number of passengers is 2¹⁄₂, there
results the almost inconceivable number of fifty billion passenger
miles. If one person did all that traveling he would have to circle
the earth two million times, or about one circuit every quarter of
a minute. Each of the hundred million people in the United States,
therefore, joy rides annually to the extent of 500 miles, at an expense
of about $50, one-fourth of which is for gasoline and oil. Or, stating
it another way the expense of this pleasure, recreation, outing,
release from business cares, is about $1 per week per person.[223]
This hardly seems to be too much for the returns received, but if it is
it cannot be helped. The automobile is here. It is here to stay. It is
going to be used more and more. And economy is not the most stimulating
element toward its use. Like the telephone, it is rapidly being
emancipated from the luxury class and is establishing itself among the
necessaries.

This being true, the road must not only be made usable in an economic
sense but must also cater to the comfort and pleasure of the user.
“Make business a pleasure and pleasure is business.” This means new
developments not only in the road construction, surfacing, maintenance,
but in the many other things that always follow improvements. The road
was made smooth and hard and level because larger loads at less expense
could be hauled; they were widened and the curves flattened that there
might be more speed, thus cutting down the cost of transportation. All
these things came along as a matter of economy, but at the same time
they brought increased safety and much pleasure to the traveler. Now
the beautification of the highway, discussed in the last chapter, while
primarily for pleasure, has been found to increase the use of the road
and bring money in new ways to the pockets of many. The beautiful and
the scenic are truly economic assets of great worth. California will
realize many times over from the tourist traffic alone the cost of
her wonderful roads. The famous Columbia River Highway will return to
Oregon again and again its cost through tourists and other pleasure
riders attracted to it as bees to sweets by the lure of its scenic
vistas. Standing upon the streets of my home city it is an unusual day
if I do not see license tags from a half dozen states within a few
minutes, sometimes ranging from coast to coast and from the Great Lakes
to the Gulf.

Think what it means to a community to have all these people pass
through it. If they have good roads to travel upon, few hardships
and a hospitable treatment along the way, they are bound to feel
kindly toward the community, speak well of it when they go home.
This, unintentionally perhaps, suggests to others to travel over the
same roads, and some, no doubt, will return for the purpose of taking
up their abode in a community so hospitable and up to date in its
activities. If there are factories that make articles for sale the
traveler having seen their signs and buildings as he passes by feels
a kindly interest in them ever after. The manufactories, the stores,
wholesale and retail, the farms, and all others will directly or
indirectly benefit from the travel and interchange of social courtesies
brought about by it.

The direct sale of goods and supplies, the sums spent at garages and
hotels constitute a very small part of the benefits received from
those who use the roads, yet it is by no means negligible, for “many
mickles make a muckle.” It may be sordid to think of the money brought
in by these persons, and taken out in almost equal amounts by our own
travelers, but the money certainly is put into circulation and flows
from those who have more to those who have less, balancing, as the
rains do the rivers, the backward flow through various channels from
those who have less to those who have more. If the transportation
of commodities and goods from market to market over the country can
be likened to the life blood of the human body, then the passage
of citizens from place to place is like the lymphatic circulation
repairing wastes due to ambition, greed, and ignorance.


=Ranking and Parking.=--Frequently the things which will attract the
motorist are those which also prevent accidents, which cause vehicles
to interfere with each other as little as possible, relieve congestion,
which make it easier for the stranger to find his way, as well as make
it more pleasant and more comfortable for passenger and driver. All
road regulations might be considered under the heading of conveniences
and comforts, for they all tend to make traveling more safe and
pleasant. Of arrangements of this character the first to be discussed
will be ranking and parking.

Ranking is defined by the “General Traffic Regulations of the Council
of National Defense, U. S. A.” as “standing vehicles behind one another
parallel with the curb,” and parking as “standing vehicles along side
one another at an angle to curb.”[224]

Notwithstanding these definitions by common usage the word “parking” is
made to include any method whatsoever of “standing automobiles.” Just
as the generic term “man” includes both “man” and “woman” so the term
“parking” includes both “parking” and “ranking,” and the verb “park”
both “park” and “rank.” Usage makes this so whether it be scientific or
not.

People who come to the city or have business in the city must have
some place to stand their vehicles. The question of where this shall
be is becoming one of great importance, as the number of vehicles
is constantly increasing and the parking space does not increase
correspondingly. A number of cities are making local regulations
limiting the time of parking in certain localities. Such limitations
seem just, for the reason that near large office buildings, for
instance, all available space is appropriated by cars parked early
in the day which remain there until their owners, the occupants of
the offices, are ready to go home at evening. Outsiders and others
wishing to park near places where they desire to do business find it
impossible to do so. As a result they either walk back several blocks
or make their purchase where they can find parking space. The writer
has frequently done the latter when he really wanted to patronize the
store near which he could not park. The stores at such places actually
lose considerable trade that they are entitled to and for which they
pay large rent or other overhead. Such practice may in the long run
help the little store farther out and cause a corresponding decrease
in property and rental prices.

[Illustration: “RANKING”--STANDING VEHICLES BEHIND ONE ANOTHER PARALLEL
TO THE CURB.

1 2

VEHICLES RANKED AT CURB

VEHICLES RANKED IN CENTER

VEHICLES RANKED NEXT TO CAR TRACKS]

[Illustration: “PARKING”--STANDING VEHICLES ALONGSIDE ONE ANOTHER AT AN
ANGLE TO THE CURB.

VEHICLES PARKED AT CURB

VEHICLES PARKED AT CENTER

VEHICLES PARKED NEXT TO CAR TRACKS

AFTER END]


=Parking Spaces a Convenience to Motorists.=--The figures above show
several methods for parking. Spaces in front of fire hydrants and
certain building entrances, at crossings, and street car stops are
usually marked with no-parking signs and the curb painted a distinctive
color. There may be other places where general parking and unlimited
time may be allowed. If these spaces happen to be paved it would be
well to have the parking stalls marked, as more machines will park
when this is done. Such general parking places may be alongside public
parks, vacant lots, in wide streets, and elsewhere where parking will
not interfere with the flow of traffic. Special and limited parking
spaces, such as those set aside for buses, cabs, and trucks, or those
on which the parking is limited as to time should be marked by the city
with a standard sign.

[Illustration: Space required for backing out.]

The angle of parking depends upon the width of street and other local
conditions. On narrow streets it may have to be zero degrees, that
is, ranking; on others 30°, 45°, 60° or 90°. Since it is best to have
machines head in, the 90° angle is difficult unless there is ample
turning space. Likewise in backing out the same difficulty occurs.

The following widths are suggested[225] for parking spaces if in the
middle of the street, and parking is at an angle of:

  90°, the space should be at least 15 feet wide
  45°,                              15
  37¹⁄₂°,                           14
  30°,                              13

When the parking space is next to the curb the widths can be reduced
1 foot each. For any angle of stalls between 90° and 45° the parking
space width must be greater than 15 feet; for 60° about 16 feet. There
are streets where this could be allowed and more machines accommodated
than at 45°. Ranking spaces should be marked off 9 feet wide. Some
cities have special rules that ranked cars shall stand 6 feet apart to
allow any one to get out. The stalls, whether the parking is to be on
one side, both sides, or in the middle, should be slanted toward the
approach of traffic.

[Illustration: Rotary scheme for traffic around a danger zone where
streets meet at right angles.]

There is an advantage to parking in the center of the street in that
other vehicles may drive up to the sidewalk for loading or unloading
passengers. It is objected to, however, on the theory that more space
is required for mid-street parking. Where possible parking spaces
should be paved with hard surfaces, like concrete or brick. Vehicles
parked upon asphalt for a considerable time sink in, and as there is no
ironing out by traffic of these depressions the pavement soon becomes
rough, retains rain and sprinkling water and rots.

An asphalt strip for driving and a concrete strip for parking is ideal,
for this separates distinctly by color the two spaces. On fairgrounds
and picnic grounds where many cars are to be taken care of two rows
of parked cars are headed together, then a lane and two more rows,
another, lane, etc. Parking should usually be at 90° to the lane.


=One Way and Rotary Traffic.=--In the crowded cities it has been found
necessary to confine traffic to one direction in some of the streets.
All streets not wide enough for two vehicles must of course have
one-way traffic. Streets a little wider may wish to park or rank cars
along one side and have one-way traffic on the other. With parallel
streets near together, wide streets even, may be used advantageously as
one-way streets with two or more lines of vehicles.

For the convenience of the public clear and distinct signs should be
placed at every entrance to a one-way street. Of these more will be
said further on.

At intersections there are two methods of procedure: The block and the
rotary. The block requires a traffic officer who stops for a short
time the traffic in one direction to allow the other to pass, then in
the other. Even the short spaces of time between his whistle blasts
are productive of much congestion. To alleviate this condition a
movement about the center of the intersection in one direction has been
devised. On the intersection of streets where there are small parks,
monuments or safety zones the rotary method is most successful. The
movement around is such as to leave the center of the intersection,
the park or monument, on the left, thus avoiding all left-hand turns.
In establishing one-way streets attempts are usually made to avoid
left-hand turns whenever possible. The figures on pp. 424 and 426 show
sketch plans for rotary service. When there are street-car tracks or
other local obstructions slight changes may have to be made. Note
only two full passing places for vehicles, _A_, and as only a part
of the traffic will want to cross congestion and danger are largely
eliminated. There may be one, two, or more lines of traffic at _B_;
depending on the width of the street. This scheme, according to Eno, is
so practical that after it was put into use in New York in 1908, it was
adopted the same year at Boston, by Paris in 1909, by Buenos Aires in
1910, and now is in use in many cities throughout the world.

[Illustration: Rotary scheme for traffic around a danger zone where
streets meet at an acute angle. Right angle passing at _A_. One, two or
more lines of traffic depending on width of street at _B_.]


=Taking Care of Opera House Traffic.=--Special arrangement must be made
in large cities in front of opera houses and other places where there
are large gatherings.[226] A most difficult problem occurs in New York
city between 38th and 41st streets, where several large theaters, opera
houses, and halls are located. Mr. Eno suggests that a numbered check
be given to the owner of each vehicle with a duplicate to the driver
on which are printed directions for lining up to be followed by the
driver. As each vehicle comes along the line the number is flashed on a
board continuously. Or, a roller blackboard could be used and as each
number is rolled out of sight at the top a new number is written in
at the bottom. As there might be several lines, at least one for each
entrance, there would be several boards and the owner’s ticket would
direct which one he is to watch.


=Public Garages.=--As it was found necessary to go up into the air in
large cities to accommodate the demands for room for offices, stores,
and other businesses, so now some cities are preparing to build public
garages of the sky-scraper type for its automobiles. If press items
are correct Chicago is about to make a trial of the sky-scraping
garage near the heart of the retail district for the accommodation of
automobilists who wish to drive to business, leaving the streets where
they now park their cars free for transient motor cars.

There is nothing particularly new in a sky-scraper garage. They have
been used for private and for hire purposes for some time. The novelty
lies in a municipality considering itself obligated to furnish parking
places for automobiles. But why not? The public provides, now, roads
for them to travel upon, and parking places upon the ground level. If
extension to this space is made by piling one parking place on top of
another instead of one beside another, what is the difference? It is
presumed that a nominal fee would be charged and that outside parking
places would be limited in time of occupation by any particular car.

The distinguishing feature of several-story garages is the manner in
which the cars are taken to the upper floors--whether by elevator
propelled from some outside source or whether they are driven up
inclined planes by their own power. The press notice regarding the
Chicago scheme indicates the car will be driven up to its stall in
any one of the ten stories, and when ready to go home the driver will
ascend to his car and drive it down the exit ramp and go on his way. It
will be an interesting experiment. If it succeeds central garages will
be built in even the smaller cities.

The elevator garages are quite common. The car is driven onto an
elevator large enough to handle it and taken to any story desired,
then driven off to its stall. A reverse operation brings it back down.
The elevator will probably be run by electric power. The present
cost of installing a bus elevator[227] is practically as follows:
First cost, $7500; repairs and depreciation, per annum, $500; cost of
current, $750; interest on investment at 6 per cent, $450; assuming
one operator, salary $1200. Total yearly charge $2900. These figures
are claimed to be very conservative, as some run as high as $5000. The
possibility of a break of the moving machinery tying up the rolling
stock will make a second elevator imperative, the annual charges would
be, assuming no extra man to be required, $1700; making altogether
an annual charge for elevators of $4600, and the total cost of the
installment, $15,000.

On the other hand it is claimed that when the ramps are constructed
with the building the extra cost is slight, being little more than that
of the floors which would be necessary to cover their spaces were they
not put in. After being put in they are claimed to be superior because
there are no moving parts to break down, there is no maintenance
expense, no salaried operators, and they provide quicker service, as
several machines may be run up or down in the same time it would take
to transport one on an elevator.

The ramps are said to take up more space than the elevators, but the
claim is made that by dividing the garage into two parts and having
the floors in one part come approximately half way between those in
the other part, much shorter ramps may be used, and the space taken up
is not so very much greater than would be required for elevators. The
ramps are made about 16 feet wide, and the grade approximately 15 per
cent.


=Terminal Stations.=--For the purpose of accommodating patrons bus and
express terminal stations are being installed. So far these have been
established and financed by private companies. Where several bus lines
or express lines radiate from a city a union depot may be expected not
only to pay, but greatly to convenience the public. Small hotels and
out-of-the-way places are ordinarily used when there is no central
station. It is difficult to keep these in mind, and as they use the
telephones of the hotels, restaurants, shops, etc., that they occupy
for headquarters it is difficult for everybody to remember where they
are located and find them when needed. Coöperation between the hotel
employees and the bus lines for the giving of patrons information
relative to schedules, fares, rates, etc., is not always satisfactory.

The organization of a stock company with bus lines, express lines, and
merchants as stockholders for the purpose of building and operating a
terminal depot may be formed. It will be necessary that the merchants
be brought to see the financial returns that will come to them from the
passengers which will be brought to the city every forenoon, allowed
time to shop and return home in the afternoon; and that the number of
passengers will be increased if convenient and accommodating terminal
facilities are at hand.

Experience at Omaha shows that a large percentage, 85, of the
passengers carried by the buses are residents along the routes and
not commercial travelers, and are therefore potential customers. Many
of these people when making their purchases ask that the purchased
articles be delivered to the central depot in time to meet a particular
bus. The purchaser is given a check upon the surrender of which he
receives his package at the depot. Of course the more central the
location of the depot may be the better the accommodation to the
passengers. On the other hand the rent of the station may and probably
will increase as it is brought nearer to the center of the retail
district. Anyway it should be within walking distance of the principal
retail stores.

The main costs of such a station will be rent, light, heat, water,
taxes, insurance, upkeep, and the personal service of an agent and
janitor. At Omaha seven bus lines and eighteen merchants entered into
an arrangement whereby the merchants were to guarantee the rent while
the bus operators were to furnish, maintain, and operate the terminal.
The rent was $200 per month. For current expenses each member pays $2
a month dues and a service charge of $15 a month in advance for each
scheduled in-and-out daily trip. Thus the Omaha-Weeping Water line with
one in-and-out bus would pay about 50 cents a day; Omaha-Lincoln line
with two buses each way, $1 a day; and the Omaha-Fremont line with four
buses in-and-out every day, $2. A small additional income is received
from a cigar, candy, and miscellaneous sales concession, it being
12¹⁄₂ per cent of the gross sales less $7 a week which the association
pays toward the salary of the clerk who acts as their information and
ticket agent. A limited free checking service is maintained for the
accommodation of passengers and shoppers. A colored porter presides
over a shoe-shine stand and calls the departure of buses and assists
the passengers with their baggage. He also serves as janitor. Special
courtesy to patrons is maintained as a means of increasing business.
The depot has 36x80 feet space and is divided into a general waiting
room and office, a ladies’ rest-room, a smoking room, and space for
baggage.

Here is a joint terminal for a few bus lines running out of one of the
smaller large cities of the country into an agricultural community with
unpaved but excellent earth roads. The operators feel that even though
small it has proven its worth, as they have a definite business center
where patrons can get information about schedules and buses and find
comfort while waiting. It also makes for an _esprit de corps_ among the
several bus companies which very frequently loan buses to each other in
cases of emergency. The compensation in such cases is 15 cents per mile
if the borrower furnishes gasoline, oil and driver, or 22 cents a mile
if these are furnished by the owner. In case one line does any work for
another the basis of pay is cost plus 10 per cent.

It is considered that the bus lines are themselves a convenience to the
public as their schedules and routes are planned to give service where
the railroads do not. For example, a resident of Wahoo wishing to go
to Omaha by train leaves at 11:15 A.M., there being only one train a
day, arrives at Omaha at 1:15 P.M.; but must wait until the next day to
return, as the only train leaves Omaha at 12:41 P.M.; arriving at Wahoo
at 2:31 P.M. The citizen has, therefore, spent practically two days to
make the trip. By bus he can make the round trip the same day--leave
Wahoo 9:10 A.M.; arrive Omaha 11:30 A.M.; leave Omaha 2:00 P.M. and
arrive back home at 4:20 P.M.; or he can have still more time in the
city by leaving at 5:10 and arriving home at 7:30 P.M.

A number of instances like the above could be cited. On the contrary
one of the bus lines runs between Omaha and Lincoln, passing through
the same towns that are already well served by several trains per day.
The time of making the trip from Omaha to Lincoln by bus is about one
hour longer than by train. There seems little use for such a bus line
except to pick up passengers between train stations.

Much more elaborate terminal stations have been established in other
cities, for example Indianapolis, Indiana, and Portland, Oregon. A
Minneapolis terminal to accommodate 100 buses a day has been opened and
the company expects ultimately to spend $100,000 to create an adequate
terminal.

At Poughkeepsie, New York, a city of 40,000 people, the Chamber of
Commerce learning that an ordinance had been introduced in the
Common Council prohibiting the parking of motor buses on the streets,
evolved the idea of a central waiting room for the convenience of all
passengers from the rural districts, the establishment of a definite
bus schedule and the installation of a checking department.[228]
After a year’s operation the merchants were extremely well pleased
with results. The bus drivers were invited to use the accommodations
provided at the entire expense of the merchants, of a little less than
$1500 a year. Rental is at the rate of $50 and janitor service $12 a
month. The room is steam heated and made as comfortable and cozy as
possible, so that women and children find it a pleasure to wait there.
From 150 to 300 persons use the bus terminal daily. The bus drivers
have formed an association and taken over the care of the building,
as they believe this one of the best things ever put forward for the
development of their own business.

As an example of how it works this is given:

  A lady in Red Hook desires one of the Poughkeepsie merchants to
  send her certain goods, she simply telephones her order to the
  Poughkeepsie merchant, who then consults his time table regarding
  buses operating in that direction. He next selects the merchandise;
  makes up his package and his boy takes it to the motor bus terminal,
  where the attendant in charge receipts for the package. This bundle
  is then put by the attendant in the proper bin and the right driver
  takes it just previous to leaving the station. The driver delivers
  the package the same as the parcel post man would, with promptness
  and dispatch. No charge is made by the attendant for taking the
  package but a charge of 10 to 50 cents is put on the parcel by the
  bus driver, which he collects from the recipient of the package, or
  it is prepaid as the merchant prefers.

It is said there has been no loss by theft. The drivers each carry a
key to the Bus Terminal Station which is opened by the first driver
to arrive about 6:30 A.M. and closed by the last to leave about 11:00
o’clock at night.

This is not a freight-trucking depot, only packages being handled. From
the customers which the buses have brought it is estimated the trade
in the first year was over a half million dollars, a large part of
which is partly traceable to the courtesy and convenience rendered to
out-of-town patrons by the establishment of the depot.


=Gas, Air, and Water Stations.=--Another business of great importance
that has followed the increased use of motor cars is that of the sale
of gasoline and oil. Of course there are the large manufacturing and
wholesale companies; of those it is not the intention here to speak,
but of the retailer who is endeavoring to accommodate the motoring
public.

There is no city of any size now but what is supplied with one or more
filling stations. Much money is being spent on the stations to make
them convenient and attractive to the motorist. The modern filling
station consists of the necessary storage tanks, usually placed under
ground, for gasoline and oil, and the pumps for measuring and forcing
the “gas” into the tank of the motor, with other pumps or facilities
for care of oil. Then there is the building containing an office,
a storeroom for oil and supplies, rest and toilet rooms for women,
and possibly also for men. There is usually a marquise extending out
over the place where automobiles stop for filling, to keep off rain
and sun from the pumps and also from driver or passenger in case he
or they desire to get out of the car for any purpose. Water and air
are available at these stations and are looked after by attendants
if desired. There are also pits where crank cases may be rapidly
drained and refilled. While these accommodations are for the purpose
of attracting trade, the very fact that they do, shows them to be real
conveniences.

Of course, there are also those things which the automobile dealer
calls “service.” That is places where may be purchased and repaired
broken parts, where batteries may be filled with distilled water, and
so on. Usually water, either fresh or distilled, is free, but in some
places in the “deserts” out West it has to be hauled miles and a cost
charge is made.


=Named and Numbered Roads.=--For a number of years road enthusiasts,
automobile clubs, and chambers of commerce have been selecting and
marking main lines of road across the country or through their
particular cities. Some of these roads such as the Lincoln Highway,
the Santa Fé and the Yellowstone Trails extend across the continent
from coast to coast; or north to south as the Dixie, the Jefferson,
and the Jackson Highway. There are very many of these volunteer
organizations; they attempt to secure the improvement of highways,
ranging in length from transcontinental routes to short county lines,
by bringing influence to bear on road officials and creating in the
minds of the public generally an interest for better roads. Some states
like Iowa and Nebraska passed laws enabling an association promoting
any route to register it together with the marker that is to be used,
providing penalties for injuring or defacing any sign board, and making
it unlawful for others to use the name or marker design on any other
road. It is said over a hundred routes were marked in Iowa, fifty in
Illinois, and other states somewhat proportionately.

Opposition has been offered on the theory that it is the State’s
business to mark and maintain signs along roads. It has been suggested
that since the General Government has selected a system of national
roads and since these must be by law continuous, that they be numbered
continuously by the same number. For example the transcontinental road
farthest north should be numbered 1, the next continental road, 3, the
next, 5, and so on. That the roads running north and south beginning
on the east be numbered with even numbers. Several of the New England
states have already agreed to a common number or name for roads running
through them. The point is that when a road has been marked a tourist
may travel clear across the continent on the same number and would not
have to look up a new number or name when he crossed a state line. Also
when once made public a map of the roads would be good next year or the
year after, and the traveler need not fear its having been changed. It
might be possible that places would be located by certain roads as they
were once by rivers. In the practical work of drafting, numbers are
more easily placed on the map than are names.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--“Road Closed” Sign as Furnished by Department. The Engineer
in Charge Inserts Routing of Detour and Mileage in the Space Under the
Words “Follow Marked Detour.”

  ROAD
  CLOSED

  BY ORDER OF--

  CLIFFORD OLDER, CHIEF HIGHWAY ENGINEER
  VIOLATORS SUBJECT TO ARREST
  PENALTY: FINE, IMPRISONMENT OR BOTH
  OPEN ONLY TO RESIDENT AND CONTRACTOR’S TRAFFIC
  FOLLOW MARKED DETOUR

  Engineer in Charge Will Indicate Exact Routing of Detour Giving
  Mileage and Direction

Fig. 1. Standard Warning Sign for Barricades.

  SLOW
  BARRICADE -- 400FT

Fig. 3.--Standard Detour Sign as Furnished by Department. The Engineer
in Charge Prints on the Sign the Route Number, Name of Trail, its
Emblem if the Road has a Name and Emblem, the Next Town and County Seat
or Main City On the Road.

  DETOUR FOR ROUTE

Fig. 4.--Map Showing Position of Barricade and Detour Signs.

WARNING AND DIRECTION SIGNS USED IN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS]


=Marks, Signs and Guides.=--Whether or not the Government will
take over the numbering of through roads the states and volunteer
associations will no doubt continue marking. The marks are very
comforting to a person traveling on an unknown road, and few there are
who do not at sometime travel unknown paths. Not only does it keep him
going along the right way but signs giving mileage to the next town are
always watched for anxiously.

One of the most common and most effective methods of marking a road
is to paint a band of distinguishing color around the telephone poles
along the way. In addition to the color band a letter or insignia may
be used. The Lincoln Highway uses a red strip at the top and bottom of
the white band and a blue L. The Detroit, Lincoln, Denver route uses
black strips at the top and bottom of the white band and black monogram
made up of the letters D. L. D. The state of Nebraska erects markers
showing the number of the road in its state system and the number of
the mile on the road. This is partly for the convenience of travelers
and partly to assist in systematic filing of records in the office. In
case it is necessary to make a special report the patrolman can give
the location almost exactly, for example, “Road 14, mile 32, north
quarter, washout,” or more simply, “14, 32, N Q, washout.” This is
very definite. The state of Wisconsin uses a triangle as an insignia
in which is placed the legend “State Trunk Highway,” the number of the
highway and the abbreviation Wis.

Several of the states have adopted the method of setting quite large
signs alongside the roadway and forbid the placing of advertising
signs, even though they give road information, or signs by local
volunteer associations. This would seem to be going a little too far
for volunteer associations have done much for better road construction
in this country as well as to give publicity to the advantages of
traveling over the particular road in which they are interested.
The influences which they have been able to bring upon local road
officers by various means has had a wonderful effect in keeping in good
condition the marked road and by emulation other roads joining with it.
The most of these associations have contented themselves with marking a
route from one terminal to another. They have not asked for a special
kind of surfacing. They have aided by advice and perhaps occasionally
assisted to put in a sample mile of good road. For example the Lincoln
Highway is at the present time interesting itself in financing and
constructing an “ideal section” of road in Indiana. (See Chapter XII,
p. 413.) On the whole it is the belief of the writer that the good done
by these associations inures to the great benefit of the general public
and until a comprehensive plan can be agreed upon by all the states
they should be allowed to continue their work.


=Distance and Direction Signs.=--Direction signs are such as point out
the direction which a traveler must take to keep on a particular route.
Distance signs also give information as to distances from the sign to
particular places. These two classes are often combined. In addition to
these there are warning and detour signs which may also be direction
signs.

Mile posts are not new. It was the custom to plant them along the
old Roman roads. It has already been mentioned that board markers
are frequently placed along the state numbered highways. It would be
better to have well-designed cut stones or concrete posts set at even
miles, and, perhaps, also at ¹⁄₂ or ¹⁄₄ mile points as well. The post
should bear the number or insignia of the highway and the mile number,
measured from some particular terminal. Wisconsin uses a triangle
as an insignia; other states use an outline map of the state, which
is usually not so simple and requires larger sign boards and hence
greater expense, and is not so symmetrical and neat looking. The
abbreviation of the state name is sufficient. This is to be placed on
the side facing the road. It has been suggested that on the side toward
the approaching traveler may be placed the name of the next village,
town or city in that direction with the distance in miles. On the other
side visible after passing would appear the name of the last village
passed. The only difficulty with this scheme would be the size of the
post required. To get the name on in readable letters would require
a post 16 to 24 inches square. So large a post would run the cost up
materially.

A hollow circular post with a cap cast on its top could be made of
cement.

Iron signs have been successfully used. The Automobile Club of
Minneapolis used a malleable cast-iron form 30 inches long, ⁵⁄₈ inch
thick, and 3 inches wide. The letters are 2 inches high and the letters
and a half-inch border are raised about ¹⁄₈ of an inch. The sign is
bolted to a 2¹⁄₂ inch galvanized-iron pipe set in concrete. The sign
is galvanized, the background painted white and the raised border and
letters finished in black. The cost was approximately $7 per sign.

Steel signs with letters spot welded to them are on the market.

Concrete posts with board signs are common and if occasionally
repainted make a durable comparatively cheap sign.

One of the chief objections to the advertising signs placed along some
highways is that the information relative to the highway occupies
a very small portion of the space and is not easily read while the
advertisement stands out very prominently. If the road authorities put
the signs up at public expense they could be much smaller and would
desecrate the landscape correspondingly less.


=Uniformity of Signs.=--It would be well if simple standards could
be adopted for the entire United States, or at least for each state,
and that all signs be set with uniformity. If placed consistently at
the same distance and height from the roadway the eye of the traveler
will naturally seek them and they will be more easily read. Evans and
Batchelder[229] recommend that double-distance board signs be 36 inches
long by 17 inches deep when they carry three rows of names and a fourth
row for the authority responsible for the sign. If the fourth row is
not on the sign 15 inches deep will be sufficient. They recommend that
the size of the plain block letters be graduated according to the
importance of the places mentioned. The top line for the most important
places 4-inch letters; the second row, less important, 3-inch letters,
and the third, least important, 2-inch letters. Single direction
signs to be 20 inches long and the same depth. All signs on posts are
recommended to be placed an average height of 6 feet above the roadway,
on houses 9 feet. If the double direction names are placed below each
other the board will not need to be so long.

[Illustration: A New Jersey distance and direction sign.]


=Letters and Colors.=--The letters should be clear and distinct; the
style known as block letter is good. The colors should be highly
contrasting. Black and white is as good as any; however, Eno[230]
thinks that black with yellow and red with white are the best
combinations; yellow on black being better than black on yellow. Eno
would classify signs as:

  Primary, those for warning and directing moving vehicles, vivid
  yellow letters, arrows or graphics, on a black background.

  Secondary, those for stationary vehicles, designating public
  parking spaces, cabstands, car and bus stops, etc., black on yellow
  background.

  Tertiary, those for the control of pedestrians, designating
  crosswalks, safety zones, etc., red on white background.


=Warning Signs.=--The name indicates their purpose, that they are
intended to warn against danger or to indicate that extra precautionary
measures should be exercised. They give notice of sharp turns, bad
bridges and culverts, railroad crossings, cross-roads, and so on.
Frequently the word “danger” is printed followed by a descriptive
word indicating the kind of danger; for example, “Danger--sharp
curve,” “Danger--bad bridge,” “Danger--railroad crossing.” Or there
are used such words as “Slow” or more simply “Slo,” with a graphic or
descriptive word following, as, “Slow--school,” “Slo--drawbridge.”

The International Road Congress suggested a standard graphical sign, 24
by 16 inches, with white symbols on a black background. Some American
roads use a modification of these, p. 440.


=Map Signs.=--There seems to be a tendency toward map signs and the
necessary large boards which they entail. It is the opinion of the
writer that it would be better except for exceptional places to keep
to as small a marker as can be seen readily. The sizes recommended by
the International Road Congress are plenty large enough and probably
could be decreased without impairing their utility. An ordinary sign
is itself an unsightly thing, and after the campaigns that have been
made against the advertising bill boards it seems hardly consistent
for the state to put up almost equally unsightly disfigurements of the
landscape.

In Maryland the direction signs between towns are 30 inches wide by
20 inches high and display in white letters on a black background the
name of the road, the distance to and from important points, and all
principal connections. Evidently “the wayfaring men though fools shall
not err therein.” Other states are putting up similar signs. Illinois
is using about the same size boards setting them for each turn in the
road, each entering road, whether or not it comes in from one or both
sides, each school and other places where special care should be taken.
On a map attached to some of these signs is a point or star indicating
the position of the sign on the road.

[Illustration:

  CROSS ROADS
  TURN TO RIGHT
  TURN TO LEFT
  DANGEROUS DESCENT
  RAILROAD CROSSING

INTERNATIONAL ROAD CONGRESS WARNING SIGNS

WHITE ON BLACK BACKGROUND

  GO STRAIGHT AHEAD
  TURN TO RIGHT
  TURN TO LEFT
  STOP SIGN
  RAILROAD CROSSING

WARNING SIGNS AS USED ON SOME AMERICAN ROADS

BLACK ON WHITE BACKGROUND]

In addition to direction and distance signs Maryland erects large,
10 feet square, map signs at the limits of each of the larger towns.
Upon this map is delineated the main routes through the town in
white and the secondary routes in gray, the names of the streets and
well-established landmarks, so that a person can make a decision of the
route he wishes to take and follow it without difficulty. The color
scheme is white letters on black background. They are oriented to read
in the direction of travel so that if the signboard were pushed over
ahead on its back the road would point in the direction of travel. On
the map in red is a star with the words, “You are now at this point.”

On the top of mountain grades Maryland erects boards similar in size
to the map boards, which state the number of miles down the mountain,
indicate curves and give concise instructions how to drive down so as
to avoid accident and personal injury. This is to assist inexperienced
drivers and those unacquainted with the region by telling how to brake
their cars by putting them into “high,” “intermediate,” and “low” at
certain places, which, of course, will be very helpful, and may save an
accident.

Where the state roads cross from Maryland into neighboring states a
large sign 15 to 25 feet is erected on which is displayed the salient
features of the state motor vehicle law. No one, therefore, need be
ignorant of the law and thus unpleasantly encounter the state police.
The contract price of these signs range from $12 for a single face
direction sign to $347.50 for a state-line motor vehicle law sign. They
are kept in repair by the contractor at prices ranging from $3.50 to
$20 each per year.[231]

=Detour Signs.=--Perhaps nothing is more exasperating to the tourist
than to come to a barricade with the word “Detour,” and then find the
detour road practically impassable. In many states the contractor on a
piece of construction work is obligated to care for detour roads and
detour signs during the time the road is closed. Finding the obligation
not well fulfilled several of the states are taking over that work
in order that it might be done in a manner to satisfy the traveling
public. Wisconsin[232] considers the proper marking and maintaining of
detours more important than similar work of the regular trunk routes,
for well-marked detours are necessary to keep enthusiasm for good road
construction alive. Minnesota, North Carolina, and other states have
adopted similar plans.

Before a road is closed a detour is selected and marked and thus
automatically becomes a part of the state trunk line system. A map
sign is placed at the ends of long detours showing the road under
construction, the detour, the location of railways, cities, and
prominent natural features. The traveler thus gets a definite idea of
the way he must go to return to the main highway. Ordinary markers are
placed along the line of detour.

In Connecticut and some other states a half width of the roadway is
paved at a time, allowing the other half to be used while the first
half is under construction. This is possible where the detour is not
too long, or if there is passing room in the one-half way. Concrete is
well adapted for this sort of construction. The joint down the center
is a benefit rather than a detriment to this type of road surface; it
acts as an expansion joint and allows a certain amount of flexibility
under the warping action of heat, and furnishes a mid-line mark to keep
passenger traffic in proper lanes.

[Illustration: Yellow on Black.

Yellow on Black.

Yellow on Black.

White on Blue.

An improved form is given below:

Yellow on Black.

TRAFFIC GUIDES (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic
Regulation.”)]

Widening the roadway before reconstruction has begun will also furnish
room for the passage of vehicles. Of course under either of these two
last methods the passing vehicles are more or less of a nuisance to the
constructor and if a reasonably direct detour entirely away from the
work under construction can be maintained in satisfactory condition
so much the better. While the traffic must be inconvenienced to some
degree by detours the fact that an effort is being made by the road
authorities to make the substitute as pleasant as possible will leave a
“good taste in the mouth” of the traveling public which is worth while
whether that traffic is local or from a distance.


=Location of Detour Markers.=--The location or arrangement of detour
markers in reference to the traveled way has received considerable
attention. Of course the first signs are the barricade warning and at
the barricade. In Illinois the State Department of Highways requires
the barricade warning to be placed about 400 feet from the barricade.
The map signs of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Carolina are used also
as barricade signs. Any driver, not authorized, passing a barricade is
by the laws of some states subject to arrest and fine. Detour arrows
are placed at road intersections in such a manner that traffic going in
either direction may follow the arrow. Illinois uses a black arrow on a
white background. Iowa has somewhat similar signs except that the color
scheme is a white arrow on a black background. The word “detour” is
printed above and below the arrow and the one painted out that is not
needed after the sign is erected. In Iowa upon primary (State) roads
the district engineer, and upon county roads the county engineer, is
held responsible for the following:

  First.--He shall determine whether or not a detour is needed.

  Second.--He shall coöperate with the local officials in choosing a
  detour.

  Third.--He shall provide for the proper marking of the detour.

  Fourth.--He shall provide for the maintenance of the detour and
  report such provision in the central office.


=Speed Signs.=--Most cities and towns have speed limits lower than
that allowed in the open country. Some of them even divide the city
into zones and make a different limit for each zone. On the outer
edge of these zones and the outer edge of the city are often placed
signs of warning such as “Speed Limit, 15 miles per hour.” In one
city was facetiously added “Go slow and see our city, go fast and see
our jail.” On the backs of these signs, the side seen by the traveler
as he leaves, are sometimes painted the words “You’re Welcome--Come
Again.” All of which is to give the traveler a good impression and thus
advertise the community.


=Traffic Guides.=--Before leaving the subject perhaps something more
should be said about traffic guides in the cities as most of what
precedes has been written with a view to country roads, although many
of these signs are applicable to city streets.

Lines upon the pavement should be used to define crosswalks, parking
spaces, and restricted and reserved zones. Curbstones may be painted
white or yellow to indicate no parking against them. In parking
spaces the stall lines are painted, as this will keep vehicles close
together and more will be able to park. If they are allowed to drive in
promiscuously there will often be half and three-quarter spaces which
cannot be used. Painted lines should be about 4 inches wide. If well
put on with good paint they will wear for a considerable period. A
painted line down the center of a roadway, especially on curves, is a
great convenience and safety device for passing vehicles.

Eno tells us that the earliest traffic regulation signs in New York
were worded “Slow moving Vehicles, Keep Near Curb.” These were followed
gradually by many others.

It is not necessary to place on signs the name of the department
authorizing them as, “Police Department,” “Department of Streets and
Alleys,” as these take up room and make the signs no more impressive.
The simpler and shorter the wording the better. I have been told, I
did not see it, that in Boston instead of having a sign read “One-way
Traffic,” it is made to say, “Vehicles Using This Street Will Follow
in the Direction of the Arrow Only.” This may be merely a slam at the
Bostonese but it illustrates the point.

[Illustration: Yellow on Black.

Yellow on Black.

Improperly worded signs.

Properly worded

Black on Yellow.

Black on Yellow.

Yellow on Black.

Yellow on Black.

Yellow on Black.

NEW YORK CITY TRAFFIC GUIDES

“In November, 1903, one hundred blue and white enameled signs,
directing slow-moving vehicles to keep near the right-hand curb,
were put in use in New York. These were probably the first traffic
regulation signs ever used.”

(From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation.”)]

There are several types of signs in use. Most of them are made of
enameled metal and may be placed on stationary or portable standards.
The stationary standards may be made of iron pipe set in cement with
the sign attached to its top. The sign should be just above a tall
man’s head, say 6 feet 6 inches from the walk. Portable standards are
frequently used, having an elongated (nearly elliptical) iron base,
sufficiently heavy to hold them upright, and a pipe extending from a
hole in the center vertically about 4 feet high, to bear the sign.
These signs are placed on sidewalks to designate parking and no parking
places, safety zones, etc.


=Dummy Cop.=--A post, column, or monument designed to stand at the
intersection of streets in place of a traffic officer has been called a
dummy cop. Mushrooms or cement bumps are sometimes utilized in the same
manner. Bumpers are used, too, to indicate restricted and safety zones,
isles of safety, etc. A dummy cop at night ought to carry a lantern or
be illuminated from some outside source.


=Semaphores.=--A traffic officer sometimes uses a Go-Stop sign so
arranged at the top of a standard that by turning a handle he can
present one or the other of these two words to the traffic. Some of
them carry a light at night, and an umbrella to shade the officer
during the day. They are objected to on the ground that there is no
neutral position, they always say either “Go” or “Stop.” If by a change
in plan they could be designed so as to show neither word when the
officer was not at his post they could act as dummy cops.

Crow’s-nest, or traffic tower, is a term given to a lookout or sentry
box supported about 7 feet 6 inches above the street by a strong post.
The crow’s-nest has a roof for shade and shelter and may carry a
semaphore above it, and another lower down to attract the eye of nearby
persons. As used in New York the arms have electrical control, and
at night carry red lights. The semaphore is for the block system and
may be made superfluous when rotary traffic methods are in vogue. Mr.
Eno, who is given credit for the suggestion of the crow’s-nest, does
not believe that they should be installed at every intersection, as a
“continuous block system wastes too much of the traffic capacity of the
street because between the time the signal is given to stop and the
time the signal is given to go the vehicles (just ahead of the break)
have gone ahead a long distance.... This leaves a large proportion of
the street surface unoccupied by vehicles.”[233] The rotary system is
advocated as one which will distribute the traffic uniformly over the
whole surface of the street, and also equalize the speed of vehicles to
a safe mean. Crow’s-nests may be used where there are street cars by
making them high enough to clear the top of the cars.


=Signal Lights and Colors.=--The railroads in all these years have not
come to a common usage of colors in signaling. All roads use red for
stop, danger. Some use white and some green to proceed with caution;
white and green are both used for clear, proceed. Here white is the
same as yellow, because lanterns using oil burn with a yellow light
which railroad men call white. Electric signals may be white in reality.

There now seems to be a demand for standardization and at a meeting
of the American Association of State Highway Officers (1922, at
Raleigh, N. C.) a color scheme was recommended that may become a
standard for both motorists and railroads. One of the difficulties is
that red and danger are no longer properly associated because of the
common use of the red for tail lights of automobiles, for sandpiles
or other street obstructions, for the tops of semaphores, and for
various other purposes. The story is told that not long ago a bridge
was being repaired and a red light was placed at one side. The signal
was intended as a warning that the autoist slow down and proceed with
caution. The driver of an approaching car took the lantern to be
the tail light of an automobile. He swung to the left to clear the
obstruction and plunged down an embankment.

[Illustration:

  © _Underwood and Underwood_

TRAFFIC TOWER ON FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY]

It would be better if red should never be used as a precaution signal
but only as a stop signal, but at the present time that cannot be done
because automobiles now carry, and most states require it by law, a red
light behind. The color once considered a sign of danger has become
almost meaningless. Red lanterns are placed on roads, or at bridges,
or in the street where the road is not impassable but merely hazardous
and the light in reality means proceed carefully. If colors are to be
signals to tell whether or not to stop on account of danger, to proceed
cautiously or to go ahead without fear, they should be standardized and
their proper use protected.

The code of colors as recommended by the Association of State Highway
Officials is:

  Color Green to mean proceed, the way is clear.

  Color Yellow to mean that caution shall be exercised.

  Color Red to mean stop.

The Association urges abolishment of the red for automobile tail lights
and the substitution of yellow (white). There are other reasons why
this should be done; one of them, a white light will illuminate the
number tag much better than a red light. In fact Ohio requires a red
light shining out behind and a white light to illuminate the tag. On
the other hand by the different colored lights one can distinguish
whether one is going toward the front or back of an automobile, a thing
of importance, sometimes.

This may be far enough to go at the present time, but later the
standardization of other signal and guide lights would be well. The red
light on street obstructions should be abolished. Better a bright white
light for with good illumination the danger will often disappear.


=Road and Street Lighting.=--While road and street lighting are
primarily for the purpose of promoting safety, they, as signs and
guides, are here treated under the heading of comfort and convenience
to the user.

Like other things pertaining to roads, lighting has during the past
few years seen wonderful development. Open-arc lights have all but
passed out of use. Even in the field of incandescent lighting many
improvements have and are still being made. Efforts have been made
to cater to the esthetic sense and create beauty by artistic shapes
and sizes of lamps and by harmonious groupings. Safety, comfort, and
esthetic design cannot always be combined, then one or the other must
give way.

Silhouette vision, that is, where the object appears dark against a
lighter background, requires a much less illumination intensity than
direct or detail vision. In the first case the object is between the
observer and the light while in the second case the light is reflected
from the object to the observer. Then there are spot lights and flood
lights where the light is thrown directly upon the object and as
little as possible allowed to disperse into surrounding space. Dean
Ferguson[234] has pointed out that safety lighting is secured by any
illumination that will reveal clearly the presence and nature of a
danger, and also that low illumination intensities used in silhouette
effect may serve for safety at a greatly reduced expense. Much of
street lighting is of the silhouette type, depending on the relative
positions of the observer, the illuminant, and the object to be seen.
As we approach a post or sand pile on the street it appears first as
a black object in silhouette, as we come nearer the reflected light
becomes more intense and the object is seen in detail. There seems
to be a sort of twilight zone between these two conditions where the
visibility is least. The silhouette vision appears to be best when
the intensity of the reflected light is least, and _vice versa_ for
the detail or direct vision. The indeterminate place between the two
where visibility is least is, of course, where the light behind is
equal in intensity to the reflected light in front. One object of the
illuminating engineer is so to arrange the lights as to avoid as far as
possible points of low visibility. This he does by the size and spacing
of the light units, their height of suspension and the shape and
setting of the reflectors. These same elements enter into the avoidance
of glare.

In city and street lighting it is nearly always desirable to illuminate
the buildings as well as the road surface, so that the type of lamp
used is entirely different from that desirable on country roads where
only the surface of the roadway needs to be lighted. Ornamental lights
of the luminous arc and the incandescent types are used. The former
where a large amount of intense light is wanted, and the latter where
smaller units will answer the purpose.

The latest road lighting is, perhaps, that developed for the “Ideal
Section” mentioned heretofore.[235] Here it was important to
concentrate the light on the roadway instead of diffusing it upward
and over the adjoining fields, to have a flexibility of arrangement
that would keep the light in line with the surface of the roadway, and
that the cost should be reasonable. The scheme developed contemplates
placing the lighting units on adjustable brackets 35 feet above the
surface of the road, spaced 250 feet, staggered. They can be set for
varying grades, for curves, or for the lighting of a portion of the
roadside if thought necessary. The unit consists of a nest of three
reflectors, one within another, and with an opening in each one side of
the lamp. These collect and reflect the light to the surface as shown
in the figure. The detailed article should be consulted by those who
are further interested.


=City Traffic.=--Projectors suspended above a traffic officer
illuminates him and his semaphore much as spot lights are used in
theaters and flood lights to illuminate statuary and buildings.
Many of the busy cities are installing color lenses in the towers
(crow’s-nests) to regulate the traffic. The colors which are used both
day and night are standardized as follows: Red, to indicate “Stop”;
amber, to indicate “Change of traffic”; and green, to indicate “Go.”


=Touring.=--Stand for a few minutes on any one of the transcontinental
highways and note the tourists who have their bedding and baggage piled
in and tied to the sides of their cars. Note the brown and healthy
faces of the brown-clad travelers. Dust has no horrors to them; they
expect it; they are prepared for it. Their khaki clothing cost little
when purchased and wears well, and even if thrown away at the end of
the journey has more than paid its way. The author of “Let me live by
the side of the road and be a friend to man” could certainly enjoy
himself during these mid-summer gypsying days. For one has the world
brought to his own dooryard. Wait and there will come to you Maine,
and California, and Texas, and Oregon, Michigan, Canada, Mexico. A man
drove on my driveway a few days ago and used my hose to wash Texas soil
from his fenders, and now that yellow dirt is nourishing a spirea bush
in Nebraska.

Come around in the evening just after the supper, not dinner, utensils
have been cleared away, and from these roadside campers in the course
of the summer you may hear the Vermonter drop the “r” from “qua’teh”
and put it into “idear,” the Georgian with his delightful Southern
drawl, a Minnesotan with high-pitched voice and Scandanavian accent, or
a musically soft Spanish from the Rio Grande regions. All the world’s
make of automobiles may be inspected, their good and bad features
discussed. Outing outfits of all characters and descriptions from the
small compact bundle scarcely big enough for a flea, to the cumbersome
behemoth mountain of canvas, boxes, and poles. There is the man who
believes Detroit is destined to be the largest city in the world, and
the man who is certain nothing can compare with Los Angeles. Truly the
man who lives beside the road may have, if he is endowed with gumption,
a joyful time as the perennial reel runs on.

But if such things come to the man who sits in his house beside the
road and watches the race of men go by, what must be the feelings of
the man of gypsying instinct as he climbs into his car, caring not for
time or place, who has not painstakingly scheduled his route and must
perforce make a certain hotel every night, who is no “speed lizard” but
expects to take in as he journeys along all the scenic beauties and
interesting features along the way. His only care is to head-about at
the proper time to bring him home again at the end of his vacation.

It is estimated that more than a million persons are following
some such nomadic life each year in the United States. The term
“motor-gypsy,” has been quite definitely applied by the people to
those who tour leisurely and camp more or less as they go. A part of
the people set aside six months or a year to a long tour, seeking the
north, south, coast or mountain as fancy, heat and cold dictate, a
greater number travel from two to four months, going one year to the
Michigan forests, another to the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota,
passing through the great granaries of the world to the cooling breezes
of Colorado, ambling along the coast to Georgia and Florida, following
the windings of the Mississippi to the old Creole districts of
Louisiana, up the Platte or through the Black Hills, to trout fishing
in Wyoming, or stopping at the borders for walking trips over the
wildernesses in the Yellowstone and Glacier National parks. The entire
expanse of a most wonderful nation is open to the motor-gypsy.


=Camping Grounds.=--So important has this sort of travel become that
it is estimated that about 3000 cities and towns over the country,
beginning in the Middle West and now spread to both coasts, have
public automobile camping grounds for the traveling visitors. These
are provided and kept up by the cities themselves or by chambers of
commerce or automobile clubs; sometimes by combinations of these
organizations.

The question often arises, “Does it pay?” From a financial standpoint
it probably pays the community as a whole even if every individual
who subscribes does not receive reimbursement. In the first place
the tourist’s impression of a city is influenced by the treatment
he receives. If an effort is made to furnish him with a safe and
comfortable camping site and with facilities for cooking and cleaning
he returns home with praises for that city. He tells other tourists
that he meets on the way, he tells his neighbors after he gets home,
and other and still other tourists come. On the contrary if no
provision is made for the tourist, if he is not met with a glad hand
he naturally warns others to keep away or plan to pass through in
the daytime, spending what spare time they have farther on in more
hospitable centers.

Secondly, tourists always spend some money for food and supplies, for
gasoline, tires, accessories, repairs, and with increasing frequency
for hotels. Clothing and dry-goods stores profit to some extent. Since
thousands of dollars are brought to those towns lying on the main
thoroughfares having good camping facilities, and since this money will
be respent by those receiving it directly, the entire community in the
long run benefits by the touring traffic. Denver possibly averages 400
to 500 campers per day during the summer season. Omaha, Kansas City,
Lincoln, Deadwood and all the smaller places to the Rocky Mountains
entertain from 25 to 100 per day. The actual tourists are many more,
for not nearly all camp along the way. The Omaha Auto Club registered
cars in 1921 carrying over 40,000 tourists. Other gateways passed fully
as many, and not nearly all took the trouble to look up the club office
to register. During the winter season the gypsying traffic turns south
and Georgia, Florida, and on west to California, benefit by it.

A traffic census made simultaneously on eighteen Nebraska roads,
distributed widely over the state, of vehicles passing in one week
(August 20-26, 1922), showed a total of 88,958 divided as follows:

  ----------------------+------+------+------+------+--------------
                        |      |      |      |      | Percentage
                        |      |Inter-|Inter-|      +---+----+-----
                        |County|County|State |Total |Co.|I-C.|I-S.
  ----------------------+------+------+------+------+---+----+-----
  Automobile            |40,598|25,595|13,560|79,753| 51| 32 | 17
  Light Truck           | 2,465|   886|   242| 3,593| 68| 25 |  7
  Heavy Truck           | 1,547|   556|   140| 2,243| 69| 25 |  6
  Horse-drawn, passenger| 1,303|      |      | 1,303|   |    |
  Horse-drawn, freight  | 2,066|      |      | 2,066|   |    |
                        +------+------+------+------+   |    |
      Total             |47,979|27,037|13,942|88,958|   |    |
  ----------------------+------+------+------+------+---+----+-----

What is especially interesting in this connection is that nearly
one-sixth of all the automobiles or one automobile in six, comes
from without the state, and one in three from without the county.
Connecticut censuses, Connecticut being a small state between thickly
populated states, shows a much higher ratio, 47 per cent without the
state.

All sorts of cars from the most expensive to the cheapest are found and
they seem to be harmonious when on the camping ground; the Pierce-Arrow
and the Rolls-Royce do not look disdainfully at the Ford and the
Chevrolet, neither do the latter pretend an importance greater than
their due.

Democracy of cars and democracy of people ought to lead to a better
understanding all around. Some very excellent and well-to-do ladies
of a western city went to a hotel in one of the national parks for
luncheon. They were clad in khaki trousers and blouses which had seen
considerable wear. The dining room was full and they were placed at
a table where some distinguished looking and well-dressed men were
talking stocks and bonds. The ladies in such garb were nonplused, they
were embarrassed to the limit; but the men, being also gentlemen, gave
their names and became acquainted. So pleasant proved this little
dinner participated in by the khaki-clothed ladies and stylishly
attired men that at its conclusion they shook hands heartily and bade
each other Godspeed for the remaining journey and hoped that, not like
ships that pass each other in the night, they would again meet to renew
an acquaintance so happily begun. Such is the democracy of touring.

On the contrary an editorial writer in the _Saturday Evening Post_,
November 18, 1922, expresses incredulity of the offhand opinion “that
travel of any kind must rub off the sharp edges of provincialism.”
He says the “American tourist in Europe has long been the subject
of ridicule,” and that travel in many cases “appears to accentuate
narrow-mindedness.” It is further argued that “too much travel means
practical disfranchisement and a total lack of interest in local
affairs.” There is no doubt but that anything, even touring, can be
carried to extremes. The editorial concludes with the statement,
however, that travel “can teach no lesson of more value than the
knowledge that everywhere, whether the climate be hot or cold, the
towns large or small, men of upstanding character are spending their
lives to make those communities better places in which to live.” It
must be acknowledged that the fact that only about one-half of the
persons eligible to the franchise exercise the right of voting at
the general elections indicates that not enough interest is taken in
affairs of government. Anything which tends to decrease the interest
is, therefore, bad. But moderate touring in our own country ought to
give a person a wider view, a stronger love of country, and a deeper
sense of the importance and benefits of citizenship therein.

A majority of the cars are of the type that would cost less than
$1500, because there are more cars of that type in use. One of the
most elaborate caravans seen on the D. L. D. highway this summer is
a Winton six, with a lengthened frame on which is built a square
van-like structure, with doors and windows and a rear observation
platform. The driver’s seat is completely enclosed. By its side is a
door which gives entrance to the interior of the car. Its size may be
judged from the fact that the wheel base is 202 inches. In the front
part of the car are rattan arm chairs deeply upholstered for all the
members of the party. There is an ample aisle. In the rear of the
car is a kitchenette, a lavatory, storerooms, cloak rooms and many
miscellaneous conveniences. At night the car is run to a convenient
place by the side of the road or in a special camping place. The end
of the observation platform is let down, a tent is hooked over the
rear hood, and there is room in a jiffy for cots for three people. Two
double beds are made up in the aisle of the main car, giving plenty of
room for seven.

In the morning it takes but little time to prepare breakfast in the
kitchenette. The car has running water from a tank holding about thirty
gallons. It is lighted by electricity and has every convenience that
one can think of. This is the fourth car designed by its owner, Dr. E.
J. Fithian of Grove City, Pennsylvania. It cost him a little less than
$10,000. He believes it possible to plan a shorter car that will serve
every purpose for a little more than $5000. The car makes from 150 to
200 miles a day over ordinary roads. It weighs 8200 pounds fully loaded
with gas, water, and supplies. It is said to ride as easily as an
ordinary automobile. The passengers sit in their chairs and watch the
scenery glide by very much as from the window of a Pullman, but with
this difference, that they are free to go and pause at will, and can
see interesting sights, if they desire, off the main lines of travel.

Another caravan built on a Ford car passed through Lincoln last summer.
It carried Mr. and Mrs. C. B. Hays of Great Falls, Montana, who have
lived in it for two years, winter and summer. Failing health induced
Mr. Hays to take to the simple life, and a stroke of paralysis made it
impossible for Mrs. Hays to walk. Two years’ outdoor life and roughing
it have restored health to both, besides during that time they have
saved much on house rent.

In their caravan, the windows along the sides could be pushed out like
an awning and an oil cloth curtain dropped down. On one side of the
car a long cushion served as a seat during the day and by adding other
cushions it made a bed at night. A large flat box did duty as a linen
closet while fastened around the sides were numerous bags or pockets
for taking care of articles which at home are kept in bureau drawers.
In one corner was a small oil stove with a tiny oven upon which was
cooked wholesome meals well relished by the outdoor wanderers.

When dinner was ready, the door of the china cupboard swung down on its
hinges and a table large enough for two was soon dispensing nourishment
for the hungry nomads. They dine, too, in the restful atmosphere of
delightful music. No, not a phonograph. From the beamed ceiling of this
unique house swings a yellow canary in his gilded cage. Can you imagine
any music more alluring to perfect joy and rest or more alarming to the
dread monster indigestion?

Even the crumbs are not wasted, for they are relished by the pug, who
likes to sleep curled up on his bed on top of the fender.

At the side of the car Mr. Hays has apparently solved the hand signal
problem for closed cars. A stuffed glove attached to a broad arm may
be raised partially for a left-hand turn, fully for a right-hand turn,
straight out to stop, and dropped to the side of the car when not in
use. A white enamel water cooler was an attractive accessory to the
dining room. A wash-board and a small tub told the story of how wearing
apparel was laundered. Mrs. Hays wants a sewing machine, and although
space is very much limited she says she will find the room.

Is there any wonder that health and youth return with this sort of
“play” housekeeping. “Can you beat it?”


=Something More Moderate.=--While there are many persons of means, the
owners of expensive cars, pitching their tents in shady nooks, enjoying
the sociability of glowing camp fires, and sleeping to the music of
gurgling trout streams, there are also those who drive cheaper cars
who are enjoying the same starry nights, the hum of bees and the flash
of birds, who take the gamy trout to help out their daily rations,
who stop to regale themselves with wild berries and chokecherries,
who relish the chuck-chuck of the red squirrel, and the flirt of the
saucy chipmunk’s tail as he scurries to a hiding place. Wealth has no
monopoly on the enjoyment of nature, and most any one who is able to
own a car of any kind is able to take a more or less lengthy gypsying
tour.

Mr. Elon Jessup[236] says “Motor camping is the only way in which many
people can afford to travel at all.” He tells of meeting in Banff,
Canada, a farmer, his wife and five children, who were enjoying the
wondrous sights in that region, and while their car was somewhat
rickety, nevertheless it had drawn them there. The farmer’s explanation
was to the effect that he had wanted for years to take his family to
that country but had never been able to stand the expense until he got
the flivver. Then going did not cost much more than staying at home.

There will be all sorts of conveyances ranging from the simple
touring car with no modifications whatsoever to the elaborate
caravan described. There are also on the market all sorts of special
accessories. A pantograph luggage-holder clamps on the running board.
Tents that cover the car at night and extend out sidewise, or endwise,
to shelter cots, beds, or cooking and eating equipment. Beds that
attach to the running board and fold up during the day; beds that fit
on top of the seats. Sets of dishes and cooking utensils are now made
to nest into each other in such a manner as to take up very little
space.

Mr. Jessup in “The Motor Camping Book,” already referred to, elaborates
considerably on equipping the camping outfit but intimates that it
is a matter for individual judgment. No two persons can agree. This
is right, as it gives flexibility and zest. Summed up there are two
fundamentals: Only necessities should be taken and these should be
selected for compactness. But what are necessities? blankets to roll up
in on the ground? or should a cot or bed be included? Would a folding
table and a chair help to make one more comfortable. It is a compromise
between what one would like and what one has room for.

Mrs. Nina Wilcox Putnam[237] thinks that for a transcontinental
trip a touring car of medium size with good under clearance to avoid
hitting the high centers in some of the western roads is best. As she
patronized hotels exclusively no camping equipage was necessary. For
clothing for women she says that east of the Mississippi she and her
husband found it practical to wear just such motor clothes as one
would wear at home, but they should be “dirt-colored.” West of the
Mississippi “khaki for all hands becomes positively _de rigueur_.”
West of Kansas City, both men and women wear trousers. She assures
ladies they can “walk into the best hotels through the Far West in the
aforesaid garments without the slightest embarrassment.” A complete
list of the clothing carried by Mr. and Mrs. Putnam is given in the
article above referred to and those who expect to take the trip might
do well to look it up.

Heavy as well as light clothing will be needed when traveling through
the Rocky Mountain region. The nights and mornings are always cool, but
under the direct action of the sun the valleys often become extremely
hot. The only rule is, carry as little as you can and still be
comfortable.


=Camp Sites.=--A gentleman, who with his wife and a Chevrolet coupé,
the rear of which was modified into a large box about 5 feet square
and 2 feet deep, who has “gypsied” across the United States several
times from east to west and from north to south, says the problem
of a camping ground for an average town is simple. Only a small
tract is needed, and if it is properly looked after he thinks the
tourists will not complain of a modest charge that will make it self
sustaining. The average tourist would prefer the small charge and clean
surroundings.[238] “A block is enough space, if the affair is in the
hands of a competent caretaker, who will see that cars and tents are
properly placed and guarded. People who tour in ordinary cars like
to be close together. They are not aristocrats. They are folks. They
like to visit around and talk roads, and examine outfits and discuss
their plans. The best camps are divided into small plots by wooden
palings on three sides. The caretaker shows you your place and it is
your home for 25 cents a day. This money pays the caretaker and gives
you the use of shower baths and lavatory. The best camps have city gas
for cooking, bought through a slot meter. Some of them have ovens, but
gas is better. The stoves are in a shed, which becomes the club house
of the women. They meet there and cook and wash and complain about
the reckless driving of their husbands, and tell where their married
children live and have a glorious time.

[Illustration: CAMPING GROUND AND CARAVAN]

[Illustration: A GIPSYING TOURING CARAVAN]

“The men spend their spare hours buying supplies and talking and
smoking, chewing, and pitching horseshoes. They also have the best time
in the world. If the auto camp is next door to a good garage so much
the better. Between here and the coast the common thing is the private
auto park.”

Camps, in Mr. Harrison’s opinion, should not only be near a garage, for
convenience and information, but also as near the business center as
possible “because the tourists like to go up town to get a restaurant
meal, buy soda water and postal cards, and take a squint at the
movies.” As the car is usually a part of the tent and usually more or
less cluttered up with baggage the camp site should preferably be in
walking distance of the center of town. Too many towns have the camp
sites away out where more land is obtainable, and possible natural
shade. They should be near the main lines of travel and as stated the
nearer a garage and grocery store the better.

The time will no doubt come when garage men with business acumen will
establish camping facilities, though the space be small, in connection
with their garages and charge a small fee the same as they do now for
stabling the car overnight.

Possibly the Denver public camp ground is the most liberally patronized
of any in the United States. El Paso, Texas, has a small park not more
than 200 feet square that tourists claim to be the best cared for of
any in the west. Olympia, Washington, is praised by tourists for her
camping facilities. Only very recently has the camp idea reached the
eastern coast, but the newspaper accounts indicate that it is taking
hold.


=Hotels.=--For those persons who do not care to camp there are always
hotels. During the busy season, however, those in the larger towns
which have gained a reputation with the traveling public are usually
full to overflowing. Many tourists telegraph ahead, from one to two
days, for accommodations. Rooms can be obtained in all the towns but
not always bath in connection, or even running water. Throughout the
well-settled communities meals and luncheons may be obtained at most
any hour. In the sparsely settled regions lunches are put up by the
hotels which can be carried in the car for the noonday refreshment,
care being taken to reach the next settlement for dinner in the evening.

The evening scene in a popular tourist hotel reminds one of the old
wayside inns. There the tourists, usually spruced up for the evening,
with the travelers’ camaraderie, are talking, smoking, and enjoying
each others’ company.


=Parks.=--The great National parks are being used more each year by
automobile tourists. Good hotel and camping facilities are available.
These parks are set aside by the Government for the preservation of
marvelous natural beauty and grandeur, and the government desires
that they be used to the utmost by the citizenry. Perhaps 100,000
people will visit the Yellowstone National Park this (1922) season,
of which 75 per cent will come by private automobile. Naturally the
larger number come from the nearby states, but last year practically
all states were represented. Montana sending 2892 and Maine 1. The
patronage is likely to continue and grow. Other National parks and the
United States Forest Reserves will also receive their share.

Several states are beginning to recognize the need for play and
recreational grounds. New York has built a magnificent automobile
road up the Bronx River Parkway Drive and through the Adirondacks,
and the State Conservation Commission has built along these highways
many stone fireplaces for the special use of motorists. Colorado is
building an automobile road up Mount Evans, thus heading off private
parties who wished Government permission to build a toll road. Michigan
will develop tourist roads to attract the summer traveler. The field
secretary of the State Good Roads Association maintains that such roads
will bring an annual revenue to Michigan of $75,000,000 to $100,000,000
annually through the resort trade. Scarcely a state but has some
attraction to the tourist; it would be well to make its advantages
known to the public that they might be enjoyed to their fullest extent.


=Information.=--The last sentence brings us to an important topic. The
tourist at the present time inquires at the nearest garage or hotel
for information relative to routes and condition of roads, detours,
accommodations, etc. This is well, but all these people do not have at
hand a knowledge of the information sought, so the traveler must pass
on and trust to luck that he may get through. Chambers of Commerce and
automobile clubs have endeavored to fill the want, and in the Middle
West these places are sought by hundreds of people daily. Some of
the large newspapers have drawn on their advantageous news-gathering
facilities and publish each morning a statement of road conditions and
detours.

The _Minneapolis Journal_ says that when it established its bureau of
travel and resort information, “the new agency was overwhelmed from the
start with eager inquirers for facts and advice.” Information is the
one thing that a tourist fairly yearns for, even more than for food,
gas, and oil; he knows where to go to satisfy these wants. The manager
of the _Journal_, Perry S. Williams, who is also vice-president of
the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World, has in mind a plan for
“dotting the whole countryside with little information bureaus, where
the traveler can learn what’s what and feel easy in relying on what he
learns. Every community under this plan is to have its own bureau and
to make it easily accessible to the wanderer.”

But the state of Wisconsin which has long been among the foremost in
the development of new road ideas, has beaten them to it, for already
the Commission conducts a department of “Highway Information Service.”
A blueprint map of the state trunk highway system is furnished weekly
to all subscribers. The map shows the type of road on every mile of the
system, the location of all construction jobs and of all detours and
the condition of the detours. The map is revised weekly. Information up
to Tuesday is mapped and in the hands of subscribers by Thursday, in
time to supply information for week-end motor trips. This information
is sold by the state to hotels, commercial associations, automobile
clubs, garages, and other places where touring information is sought.
The map is 54 by 60 inches in size and mounted on a frame or bulletin
board to be placed in a conspicuous place. A charge of ten dollars is
made for this service for the season from June 1 to September 15. The
charge barely covers the cost of blueprinting.

While it may be the duty of the state to furnish the roads and do all
possible to promote transportation, local bureaus will be able to
supplement the State’s information in a very acceptable manner.


SELECTED REFERENCES

  BELL, H. H., “Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln
  Highway,” _Electrical World_, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 731-732.

  BLANCHARD, HAROLD F., “A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Types of
  Garages,” _Bus Transportation_, June, 1922.

  BROOK, MARK, “Highway Signs,” American Highway Engineers’ Handbook,
  pp. 1390-1394.

  CAPPER, ARTHUR, “The Midwest Farm Market for Motor Trucks,” National
  Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York.

  ENO, WILLIAM PHELPS, “Science of Highway Traffic,” Published by
  himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York.

  EVANS, P. AND BATCHELDER, A. G., “Direction and Distance Signs,”
  _Engineering and Contracting_, July 30, 1913.

  FERGUSON, O. J., “Electric Lighting,” Chap. XXI, McGraw-Hill Book
  Company, New York.

  Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Akron, Bulletin No. 7, “The Motor
  Truck Terminal.”

  HARRISON, J. L., “Color Schemes for Highway Signs,” _Engineering and
  Contracting_, Oct. 13, 1915, p. 280.

  ISABELLA, N. M., “The Wisconsin Idea as Applied to Detours a Source
  of Satisfaction to Motorists,” _Concrete Highway Magazine_, April,
  1922, Chicago.

  JENKINS, ALFRED, “A Motorized City,” National Automobile Chamber of
  Commerce.

  JESSUP, ELON, “The Motor Camping Book,” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York.

  LEWIS, NELSON P., “The Planning of the Modern City,” pp. 240-246,
  John Wiley & Sons.

  “Omaha Union Stage Depot,” _Bus Transportation_, Vol. 1, p. 45.

  PUTNAM, NINA WILCOX, “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fé Trail,”
  _Saturday Evening Post_, June 10, 1922.

  HALVORSON, C. A. B., JR. AND HUSSEY, R. B., “Illumination of
  Highways,” _Engineering and Contracting_, Vol. LVI, pp. 535-536.

  UNDERWOOD, W. E., “The Trend of Modern Practice in Street Lighting,”
  _Engineering World_, Vol. XVII, pp. 348-351.

  WILLIAR, HARRY D., JR., Articles on Road Signs, _Public Roads_,
  August, 1921, and _Engineering and Contracting_, October 5, 1921.


FOOTNOTES

  [222] Senator Arthur Capper in an address delivered before the
  Highway Transport Conference, New York, 1920, said: “A recent
  investigation showed over 75 per cent of the Middle Western farmers
  bought their cars not for pleasure, but for business.” But he did
  not say how they use them. He did, in the same address, say, “A good
  road, plus a good motor truck, begets almost six motor trucks in
  any community and in any locality.” Emulation and rivalry are great
  selling agents.

  [223] After the above was written there appeared in the _New York
  Herald_ this statement: “This country consumed in May (1922), more
  than 13,000,000 barrels of gasoline. This is a matter of some
  700,000,000 gallons.” The article goes on to calculate that in the
  use of this gasoline there was a travel of 10,000,000,000 car miles,
  and “at an average of four persons to the car, 1,600,000 individual
  motor trips around the world (in distance) in May.” The United States
  Bureau of Mines gives the domestic consumption of gasoline in the
  United States for 1921 as 4,516,012,979 gallons, an average of only
  about 7,000,000 barrels per month.

  [224] See also “Science of Highway Traffic,” by William Phelps Eno.
  Published by himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York City. A
  very valuable contribution to the literature of road regulation.

  [225] Eno, op. cit.

  [226] See Eno, op. cit., p. 53.

  [227] “A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Type Garages,” by Harold F.
  Blanchard, _Bus Transportation_, June, 1922.

  [228] “A Motorized City,” by Alfred Jenkins, Secretary of, and
  published by, the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, 7 East 42d
  Street, New York.

  [229] “Direction and Distance Signs,” by P. Evans and A. G.
  Batchelder, _Engineering and Contracting_, July 30, 1913.

  [230] Op. cit., p. 11.

  [231] The information about Maryland’s signs is taken from articles
  by Harry D. Williar, Jr., Assistant Chief Engineer of the Maryland
  State Highway Road Commission, in _Public Roads_, August, 1921, and
  _Engineering and Contracting_, October 5, 1921.

  [232] “The ‘Wisconsin Idea,’ as Applied to Detours a Source of
  Satisfaction to Motorists,” by N. M. Isabella, Assistant Maintenance
  Engineer, in _Concrete Highway Magazine_, April, 1922.

  [233] An article entitled “Prevent the Proposed Permanent Traffic
  Towers on Fifth Avenue,” by Wm. P. Eno.

  [234] “Electric Lighting,” by O. J. Ferguson; McGraw-Hill Book
  Company, New York.

  [235] “Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln
  Highway,” by H. H. Bell, _Electrical World_, April 15, 1922.

  [236] “The Motor Camping Book,” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York.

  [237] “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fé Trail,” by Nina Wilcox Putnam,
  in _Saturday Evening Post_, June 10, 1922.

  [238] Interview with Frank A. Harrison in _Nebraska State Journal_,
  July 12, 1921.




INDEX


  Accidents, highway, and their mitigation, 351-380

  Agriculture, stage of, in development of civilization, 4-6. _See_
  Farms

  Amos log loader, working of, 299

  Anderson, A. P., tables from “Modern Road Building and Maintenance”
  by, 269

  Appian Way, famous highway, 23-24

  Ashley, Wm. H., founder of Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 54

  Asia, early highways in western, 19-21

  Asphalt and asphalt block roads, good qualities of, 265-266

  Assessments for highway improvement, 311-321

  Astor, John Jacob, exploring expedition organized by, 55

  Automobiles, railway passenger earnings affected by, 163; effects
  of, on street-car lines, 164-166; great use of, for pleasure
  passenger traffic, 187-189; estimate of cost per mile of riding in,
  189 n.; changes in society produced by, 203-208; effects on health,
  211-213; and crime, 213-214; percentage of accidents due to, 351-352;
  responsibility of the driver for accidents and their avoidance,
  352-355; horns for, 356-357; stopping on grades, backing, etc.,
  357-358; miscellaneous causes of accidents, 358 ff.; ranking and
  parking of, 420-425; ramp and elevator garages for, 427-429; gas,
  air, and water stations, 433-434

  Automotive transportation, analysis and discussion of, 181-218

  Auto trucks, effects of, on railroads, 163-164. _See_ Trucking by
  motor


  Babson, Roger W., quoted on relations between railways and auto
  trucks, 163-164

  Backing of cars, accidents due to, 357-358

  Baldwin Locomotive Works, origins of, 102

  Beautification of roads, discussion of, 382-416

  Bible, references in, to highways, 19-20

  Bicycles, influence of, on roads, 127-136; highway accidents due to,
  378

  Bodies, removable, a device for loading and unloading freight, 191-192

  Bonds, issuing of, for highway financing, 322-323; kinds of, 323-327;
  total cost of a loan, by the three kinds, 327-328; the term of,
  328-331

  Boone, Daniel, “Autobiography” quoted, 40-42

  Boone’s Trace, account of, 39-43

  Boston, early railroads centering at, 105

  Brakes, parts played by, in automobile accidents, 359-360

  Brick roads, good qualities of, 264

  Bridger Pass, discovery of, 54

  Bridges, road accidents caused by, 368

  Buses. _See_ Motor-buses


  Cabot, Philip, article by, on New England railways, cited, 162;
  calculations and figures by, 171-172

  Calk, William, “Diary” of, quoted, 43-46

  Camden & Amboy R.R., chartering of, 104

  Camping grounds for motor tourists, 451-456

  Canals, era of, in England, 14-15; in America, 70-75; passenger
  traffic on, 75-76; inability of, to compete with railways, and
  results, 76-77; ship, 77; Sault Ste. Marie, Welland, and Cape Cod,
  77; Panama Canal, 77-88

  Canoes, travel and transportation by, 34-35

  Cape Cod, ship canal across, 77

  Cattle. _See_ Stock raising

  Census. _See_ Traffic census

  Central Pacific Ry., building of, 112

  Charleston & Hamburg R.R., building of, 103

  Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, building of, 73

  Civilization, transportation a measure of, 1 ff.; five stages
  in, 1-2; stage of Direct Appropriation, 2-4; Pastoral Stage, 4;
  Agricultural Stage, 4-5; Handicraft Stage, 6-12; Industrial Stage,
  14-18

  Clark, William. _See_ Lewis and Clark

  Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, terms of, 83

  _Clermont_, Robert Fulton’s steamboat, 89

  Clinton, De Witt, efforts of, in behalf of canal-building, 71

  Coaches. _See_ Stagecoaches

  Colonial days, transportation in, 34-46

  Concrete roads, good and poor qualities of, 264

  Consolidated Rural Schools, importance of motor transportation to,
  208-210

  Container, the demountable, 176, 192-193

  Cooper, Peter, locomotive built and operated by, 100-101

  Coöperative marketing, advantages of, 277-282

  Corporations, financing of highway transportation by, 345

  Crédit Mobilier, notorious railway-construction scandal, 115-116

  Crime, the automobile and, 213-214

  “Cross Crossings Cautiously” campaign, 380

  Culverts, road accidents caused by, 368

  Cumberland Road, building of, 62-64; extension of, 64-66

  Curves, dangers of, 367


  Dairying, use of motor truck in, 293-294

  De Lesseps, Ferdinand, and Panama Canal, 80-84

  Des Moines, Iowa, good roads, movement at, 132-133

  Destruction of highways, factors in, 245-248

  Detour signs, 442-443; location of, 443

  Distance and direction signs for motorists, 436-437

  Driver, responsibility of the, for automobile accidents, 352-355

  Dunlop, J. B., inventor of pneumatic tire, 128

  Du Pont Road, example of private financing of highway, 307-308

  Durability, an important factor in road building, 254


  Earth roads, good and poor qualities of, 263

  Efficiency outline of motor transport, 225-227

  Electric-light poles along highways, 412-413

  Electric traction, operation of street cars by, 122-124

  Elevator garages, 427-428

  Engine. _See_ Steam engine

  Eno, William Phelps, development of traffic regulation due to efforts
  of, 378-379; cited on width of parking spaces, 423; cited on opera
  house traffic, 426, 427

  Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc., 379-380

  Erie Canal, building of, 70-72; small profit from, 75

  Esthetics, highway, 382-416

  Express rates, reduction of, due to short-haul motor trucking, 174-175

  Express terminal stations, 429-433


  Factory products, transportation of, by motor truck, 301-303

  Farms, meaning of the automobile to, 177; motor trucking to and from,
  196-201; Rural Mail Delivery one of many modern advantages, 210-211

  Federal aid, financing of highways and transportation lines by,
  332-334; present state of, 334-335; plan of local matching of Federal
  Aid dollars, 335-342

  Federal Aid Road Act, passage of, 152-153; provisions of, 153-154;
  rules and regulations for carrying out, 154-156; marked success of,
  156

  Feudal system, government under the, 5-6

  Financing, highway, 343-349

  Forestry, use of motor truck in, 295-298

  France, traffic censuses in, 236-237, 240-242


  Garages, public, 427-429

  Gardening, road, 382-387

  Gasoline, stations for selling, 433

  Gila Trail, 55; route of, 58

  “Good roads” movement, growth of, 128-129

  Government, U. S., attitude toward river improvement, 94-97;
  ownership of railways by, 112; aid of state and Federal, for better
  roads, 147-156

  Grain exchanges, account of, 275-277

  Gravel roads, good and poor qualities of, 263-264

  Greece, effects on ancient, of lack of roads, 21-22

  Greeley, Horace, quoted on canals, 76

  Guides, highway, for motorists, 435-445

  Guilds, medieval, 6-8; destruction or lapsing of, 9-10; functions
  taken over by government, 10


  Handicrafts, stage of, in growth of civilization, 6-12

  Harding, President, discussion of transportation problem by, 217-218

  Harriman interests, railway lines held by, 117

  Haulage. _See_ Trucking by motor

  Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, terms of, 84

  Health, the automobile and, 211-213

  Henderson, James, early American pioneer, 39-43

  Highway, distinction between road and, 222

  Highways, important early, 19-22; of ancient Rome, 22-27;
  classification of, 222; planning systems of, 222 ff.; units of
  systems, 227-229; principles of esthetic construction applied to,
  382-416. _See also_ Roads

  Hogs. _See_ Stock raising

  Hoover, Secretary, quoted on farm motor trucks, 197

  Horine, M. C., “Economics of Motor Transport” by, quoted, 225-227

  Horns for automobiles, 356-357

  Hotels, accommodations for tourists in, 460

  Humboldt River route, discovery of, 54

  Husband, Joseph, “Story of the Pullman Car” by, 120-121


  Individual financing of highway transportation, 343-344

  Information, supplying of, to automobile tourists, 461-462

  Interurban railways, effects of motor competition on, 164

  Intra-city traffic, calculations concerning, 170

  Inventions, industrial stage of civilization brought about by, 14-15

  Iron, invention of new methods of smelting, 15

  Italy, traffic censuses in, 242


  Jay walking, as a cause of accidents, 377

  Jefferson, Thomas, Louisiana Purchase arranged by, 48

  Jerusalem, effects upon, of strategic position, 20

  Jitneys, earnings of street-car lines diminished by, 165; importance
  of business done by, 183

  _John Bull_, locomotive, 102

  Joliet, Louis, early explorer, 46


  Kay, John, inventor of fly shuttle, 16

  Kentucky, Boone’s path into, 42; early railroads in, 106

  Knight, Jonathan, coning of engine wheels invented by, 101 n.


  Lancaster turnpike, building of, 60-61

  Land, grants of, to railways, 110; grants to Pacific roads, 111-114

  Later California Trail, route of, 57

  Lauck, W. J., quoted on avoidable railway wastes, 175 n.

  League of American Wheelmen, organization of, 128; good roads
  movement sponsored by, 129-136

  Lewis and Clark Expedition, account of, 48-53

  Lighting of roads and streets, 447-449

  Lights, on cars, as sources of danger, 361-362; for non-motorized
  traffic, 378

  Loading and unloading freight, devices for, 191-194

  Locomotive, invention and early development of, 18; the first,
  99-103; progress in mechanical development of, 119-120

  Louisiana Territory, purchase of, 48

  Lumbering, improved methods in, due to motor truck, 295-300


  Macadam, J. L., road construction by, 60

  Macadam roads, good and poor qualities of, 264

  MacDonald, T. H., classification of highways by, 222

  Manse, W. H., cited on waste by railways, 176

  Map signs, sizes of, 439-441

  Marketing, effect of ease and cost of transportation on production
  and, 273-304

  Marks, highway, for motorists, 435-445

  Marquette, Jacques, explorations of, 46-48

  Massachusetts, state aid for highways in, 150-151

  Merger, railway consolidation by, 117

  Michigan Central R.R., beginnings of, 106

  Mining, use of motor trucks in connection with, 300-301

  Mississippi River, steamboat transportation on, 90-91

  Mohawk & Hudson Company, chartering of, 103

  Moore, W. H., “good roads booster,” 139

  Morgan interests, railway lines held by, 117

  Motor-buses, relations between street-car lines and, 165-166;
  character of business done by, 184-187; extent of suburban and
  interurban, 196; terminal stations for, 429-433

  Motor transport efficiency outline, 225-227


  National Good Roads Association, activities of, 139

  National Road. _See_ Cumberland Road

  National system of highways, arguments for, 227-229

  _Nebraska State Journal_, editorial from, 204-205

  New England, early railways in, 105

  New Orleans, importance of, due to river traffic, 90-91

  New York Central & Hudson River R.R., beginnings of, 103-104

  New York City, Governor Clinton’s prophecy concerning, 71-72

  New York State, canal-building in, 70-74; automobile roads in, 460-461

  Nicaragua, canal route across, 84

  “No Accident” campaigns, 380

  _Novelty_, Ericsson’s locomotive, 100 n.

  Nye, Bill, quoted on roads, 130-131


  Office of Public Roads Inquiry, instituted, 136-137; duties and scope
  of, widened, 143-144

  O’Hanlon, J., “Irish Emigrant’s Guide to United States,” quoted, 93

  Ohio, first railway in, 105-106

  Ohio Valley, early lines of travel to, 37-38

  _Old Ironsides_, first Baldwin locomotive, 102

  Opera house traffic, special arrangement for, 426-427

  Oregon Trail, traffic over, 54-55; origin of the, 55-57; final route
  of, 57


  Pacific railways, building of and land grants to, 111-114

  Packing of goods on turnpikes, 58-60

  Page, L. W., worker for good roads, 142, 144

  Palestine, roads and highways of, 19-20

  Panama Canal, history of, 77-88

  Parking of automobiles, 421-422; spaces for, a convenience to
  motorists, 422-425

  Parks, National, visited by automobile tourists, 460-461

  Partnership, financing of highway transportation by, 344-345

  Pedestrians, contributory negligence of, toward accidents, 376-377;
  rule for, on country roads, 377-378

  Pennsylvania, turnpikes in, 61

  Pennsylvania R.R., railways held by same interests, 118

  Peru, roads in ancient, 27-31

  _Pioneer_, Illinois Central locomotive, 108

  Pittsburgh, Pa., growth of, 72

  Plants, climbing, for use in road gardening, 411-412

  Pleasure passenger traffic, use of automobiles for, 187-189

  Poles, telephone and other, along highways, 412-415

  Pope, Albert A., worker for good roads, 133, 136

  Portages, importance of, in early American period, 36-37

  Potter, I. B., good roads advocate, 129

  Poughkeepsie, Bus Terminal Station at, 431-433

  Poultry business, efficiency of motor truck in, 294-295

  Prescott, W. H., “Conquest of Peru,” quoted, 28-31

  Production and marketing, relation between ease and cost of
  transportation and, 273 ff.

  Public ownership, as a method of financing transportation lines,
  347-349

  Pullman cars, development of, 120-122


  Railway crossings, accidents at, 368-370; increase in accidents due
  to automobiles, 370-372; means of diminishing fatalities, 372-376

  Railways, early development of, in England, 17-18; effects of,
  on canals, 76-77; account of growth and development of, 99-116;
  consolidation of, 116-118; mechanical development of, 119-120;
  street, 122; relation between transportation on, and on highways,
  159-168

  Ramp and elevator type garages, 427-429

  Ranking of cars, 421-425

  Regulations, road and traffic, 378-380

  Resistance of road surfaces, 255-257; due to grade, 257-261

  Richmond, Va., first electric railway operated for profit in, 123

  River and Harbor Improvement Bills, 96-97

  Rivers, government’s attitude toward improvement of, 94-97

  Road, distinction between highway and, 222

  Roads, prehistoric American, 27-31; early, in North America, 35-36;
  evolution of modern wagon, 126 ff.; influence of bicycle on, 127-136;
  building of object-lesson, 142-144; state and Federal aid for,
  147-156; good, as agencies for health, 212-213; selection of suitable
  type, 252-254; types of, and their qualities, 263; comparison of
  types of, 266-270; bad, as causes of accidents, 363-364; naming and
  numbering of, 434-435. _See also_ Highways

  Robbery, automobiles used in, 213-214

  _Rocket_, George Stephenson’s locomotive, 100 n.

  Rome, roads of ancient, 22-27

  Roosevelt, Theodore, and the Panama Canal, 85-86

  Rotary scheme for traffic, 424-426

  Rural Free Delivery, an agency for better roads, 144-147; effects of,
  on farmer’s life, 210-211


  “Safety First” campaign, 380

  St. Louis, Mo., as a fur center, 53-54

  Salt Lake Trail, route of, 57

  Sand-clay roads, good and poor qualities of, 263

  San Francisco, cable cars in, 122

  Sanitariness of roads, 262

  Santa Fé Trail, traffic over, 54-55; route of, 58

  _Saturday Evening Post_, quoted on vandalism, 215

  Sault Ste. Marie, ship canal and locks at, 77

  Schools, motor transportation and the consolidation of, 208-210

  Semaphores, use of, by traffic officers, 445-446

  Service stations for automobiles, 433-434

  Shrubs, for planting along roads, 403-411

  Signal lights and colors, 446-447

  Signs, highway, for motorists, 435-445

  Skidding, accidents due to, 359

  Sleeping car, evolution of the, 120-122

  Slipperiness of road surfaces, 261-262

  Smith, Jedediah, discoveries of, 54

  South Pass, discovery of, 54

  Spanish Trail, traffic over, 54-55; route of, 58

  Speedometer, as an essential, 363

  Speed signs for motorists, 444

  Spooning in automobiles, 215

  Stagecoaches, era of, in England, 11-12; on Cumberland Road, 64-65

  State aid, 147-152; financing highways and transportation lines by,
  334

  State system of highways, arguments for, 229-230

  Steamboats, the first, 89-90; on Mississippi River, 90-91; increasing
  luxuriance of, 91-93; dangers connected with early, 93; fares on, 94

  Steam engine, Watt’s improvements on early, 15-16; attempts to use,
  in locomotives, 99-100

  Stephenson, George, improvement of locomotive by, 18; first
  locomotive put out by, 100

  Stevens, John, called father of American railroads, 100

  Stock raising, effect of marketing facilities and road transportation
  on, 284-293

  Stock subscriptions for highway financing, 331

  Stockton & Darlington R.R., completion of, 101

  Stock watering, meaning of, 116

  Stopping cars on grades, streets, etc., 357

  Street-car service, progress in, 122; effect of motor transportation
  on, 164; effects of taxicabs, jitneys, and buses, 165-167;
  competition between motor-buses and, 185-186

  Superelevation of outer side of curved roadway, 364-366

  Systems of highways, planning of, 222-270


  Taxes for road construction, 309-321

  Taxicabs, character and importance of business done by, 183-184

  Telephone poles, highways disfigured by, 412-413; location of, 414-415

  Telford, Thomas, road construction by, 60

  Terminals, waste at railway, 176; transferring between, by motor-bus,
  187; improvement of facilities at, caused by motor transportation,
  201-203; for buses and express service, 429-433

  _Tom Thumb_, Peter Cooper’s locomotive, 101

  Touring by motor, amount of, 450-451; camping grounds for use in,
  451-456; camp sites, 458-460

  Towns, truck and bus lines between, 194-196

  Traffic, one way and rotary, 425-426; taking care of opera house,
  426-427; guides for, in cities, 444-445

  Traffic census, taking a, for planning of highway, 234-236; methods
  of taking, 236-238; classification of traffic in, 239-245

  Transcontinental railway lines, land grants to and construction of,
  111-115

  Transportation, a measure of civilization, 1-32; classified as
  primary and secondary, 159; interrelation between highway and other
  kinds of, 159 ff.; legitimate fields of agencies of, 168-170;
  analysis and discussion of automotive, 181-202; social aspect of
  motor, 203-208; effect of ease and cost of, on production and
  marketing, 273-304; financing of lines of, 306-343; financing
  highway, 343-349

  Transylvania Republic, early settlement called, 43

  Trees, for planting along roads, 385-403

  Tresaguet, French highway engineer, 60

  Trucking by motor, effects of, on railway earnings, 163-164; length
  of haul for economical, 170-174; reduction of express rates due to
  short-haul, 174-175; freight traffic cost under system of, 190-194;
  traffic between towns, 194-196; general effect of ease and cost of,
  on production and marketing, 273-304

  Turnpikes, era of, in America, 58-60; construction of, 60-61; effects
  of railways on, 61-62

  Types of roadway, comparison of, 266-270


  Uniformity in distance and direction signs for motorists, 437-438

  Union Pacific Ry., building of, 112-114

  United States, transportation development in, 34-67

  Units, of highway systems, 227-229; of traffic, 240-242


  Vandalism by visitors to country, 215

  Vanderbilt interests, railway lines held by, 117

  Vehicles, unlighted, as sources of danger, 362-363

  Vincent, C., “Letters on Grain Marketing Problems,” quoted, 276-277,
  280

  Virginia, transportation improvements in early, 61; first railroads
  in, 107

  Vision, clear, as a means of safety, 366-367; obstacles that obscure,
  a cause of accidents to pedestrians, 377


  Wagon road, the modern, 126-156

  Walker, American filibuster in Nicaragua, 80

  Warning signs for motorists, 439

  Washington Turnpike Company bill, 67

  Waste, methods of avoiding, by railways, 175-177

  Waterways, settlement near, in early American period, 36-37. _See_
  Canals _and_ Rivers

  Watkins, Albert, quoted on Oregon Trail, 56-57

  Welland Canal, traffic through, 77

  Wilderness Road, the, 39-43

  Williams, Perry S., plan of, for information bureaus for travelers,
  461

  Wood block roads, qualities of, 265




Text of Chart of the Organization of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering, 1917


  DIRECTOR
    MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS
      Chief of Management
        MANAGEMENT
          Correspondence and Files
          Cooperation with Solicitor
          Accounts
          Editorial & Library
          Quarters & Stock
        ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
          Economic Investigations and Advice
          Statistical Investigations
          Legislative Investigations and Advice
          Lectures & Exhibits
          Illustrations and Models
    GENERAL INSPECTION
      General Inspectors
    ENGINEERING
      Chief Engineer
        ROAD MATERIALS TESTS AND RESEARCH
          Chemical and Physical Tests
          Microscopic Examination and Classification of Rocks
          Standardization of Methods of Testing
          Investigations of Non-Bituminous Materials
          Research on Dust Preventives and Road Binders
          Concrete Investigations
          Field Experiments
          Inspection & Advice
        HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
          Post Road Construction
          Forest Road Construction and Maintenance
          Object Lesson Roads
          Cooperative and Experimental Maintenance
          Bridges & Culverts
          Inspection & Advice
            1st. District
              Wash.
              Ore., Idaho
            2nd District
              Berkely, Cal.
              Cal., Nev.
              Ariz., N. M.
            3rd. District
              Denver, Colo.
              Mont., Wyo.
              Utah, Colo.
            4th. District
              N.D., S.D.
              Minn., Wis.
            5th. District
              Nebr., Iowa
              Kan., Mo.
            6th. District
              Texas., Okla.
              Ark., La.
            7th. District
              So. Chicago, Ill.
              Mich., Ill.
              Ind.,  Ky.
            8th. District
              Tenn.
              Miss., Ala.
              Ga., S.C., Fla.
            9th. District
              Me., N.H., Vt., N.Y.
              Mass., Conn., R.I.
              N.J., Del.
            10th. District
              Washington, D.C.
              Ohio., Penn., Md.
              W.Va., Va., N.C.
        IRRIGATION
          Utilization of Water Power and Appliance Equipment
          Flow of Water in Ditches, Pipes, etc.
          Duty, Apportionment and Measurement of Water
          Customs, Regulations and Laws
          Drainage of Irrigated Lands
          Inspection & Advice
        DRAINAGE
          Farm Drainage
          Drainage of Swamps and Wet Lands
          Removal of Surplus Water
          Field Experiments
          Investigating and Developing Equipment
          Inspection & Advice
        RURAL ENGINEERING
          Farm Water Supply
          Drainage Disposal
          Construction of Farm Buildings
          Rural Engineering Problems Involving Mechanical Principles
          Traction Tests
          Instrument Making and Repairing
          Inspection & Advice




  Transcriber’s Notes


  Archaic, unusual, erroneous and inconsistent spelling,
  capitalisation, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained,
  except as mentioned below. Accents on non-English words have not been
  added or corrected, except as mentioned below. Quoted and possibly
  deliberately misspelled words and phrases have been kept unaltered.

  Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text, not
  all elements may display as intended.

  Page 19: “leather from Cordavan”: possibly an error for “leather from
  Cordova”.

  Page 245, Suggested Form: the row 11 a. m. to 12 noon is not present
  in the source document.

  Page 280, paragraph starting “When grain or other food commodities
  have been stored”: either the final closing quote mark is erroneous,
  or the starting quote mark is missing.

  Page 320, table: The entire table was printed in hand-written
  italics; the italics mark-up has been removed for better readability.

  Page 387 ff.: the (almost) alphabetical order of description of trees
  and shrubs has not been corrected.


  Changes made:

  Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter, illustrations
  and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs.

  Some of the larger tables, forms, etc. have been split or otherwise
  re-arranged.

  The text version of the organisational chart has been created for
  this text and is placed in the public domain.

  In the source document, the List of Inserts in several cases
  contains more detailed descriptions than the captions with the
  actual illustrations. Where relevant, these descriptions, as well as
  text from the illustrations, have been transcribed underneath the
  illustrations.

  Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been
  corrected silently.

  Page xvii: Insert numbers have been added.

  Page xx: opening quote marks inserted before In November, 1903, ....

  Page 8: “the workmen performs” changed to “the workman performs”.

  Page 64: closing quote mark inserted after ... trade along its
  highway.

  Page 97: “enchanced his chances” changed to “enhanced his chances”.

  Page 117-118 (table): minor (cosmetic) adjustments made for
  consistency.

  Page 134: “O. H. Platte” changed to “O. H. Platt”.

  Page 170: “J. C. Thirwall” changed to “J. C. Thirlwall”.

  Page 175: closing quote mark inserted after ... and low first cost,

  Page 208, “shown forth” changed to “shone forth”.

  Page 262 (illustration caption): “TRACTOR DRAWN GRADES” changed to
  “TRACTOR DRAWN GRADER”.

  Page 276: “(of their agents the commission men.)” changed to “(or
  their agents the commission men.)”.

  Page 332: “surveys, plants, specifications and estimates” changed to
  “surveys, plans, specifications and estimates”.

  Page 368: clsoing quote mark added after ... which cannot be
  immediately available.

  Page 388: “the genus (_Flagus_)” changed to “the genus (_Fagus_)”.

  Page 393: “Tsuga conadensis” changed to “Tsuga canadensis”.

  Page 398: “Q. bicolar” changed to “Q. bicolor”.

  Page 399: “Liriodendron tulipitera” changed to “Liriodendron
  tulipifera”.

  Page 404: “Barberis thunbergii” changed to “Berberis thunbergii”;
  “Louicera tartarica” changed to “Lonicera tartarica”.

  Page 406: “D. mezerum” changed to “D. mezereum”; “Sambacus
  canadensis” changed to “Sambucus canadensis”.

  Page 444: “Department of Streets and Allies” changed to “Department
  of Streets and Alleys”.