SUMMER FLOWERS OF THE HIGH ALPS


[Illustration: CIRCIUM SPINOSISSIMUM. SCOP.

The Spiny Fuller’s Thistle. Le Chardon le plus épineux. Stachlige
Kratzdistel.

FRONTISPIECE, _see page 50_.]




                             SUMMER FLOWERS
                                   OF
                              THE HIGH ALPS

                                   BY
                           SOMERVILLE HASTINGS
                                  M.S.
          AUTHOR OF “ALPINE PLANTS AT HOME,” SERIES I. AND II.

                             [Illustration]

                      ILLUSTRATED BY REPRODUCTIONS
                     FROM DIRECT COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHS
                              BY THE AUTHOR

                     LONDON: J. M. DENT & SONS, LTD.
                      NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.




Preface


The coloured plates of Alpine plants, which are the special feature of
this book, are all reproduced from colour photographs taken directly from
nature. The plants were all photographed exactly as they were found,
with two exceptions, in the immediate neighbourhood of Rosenlaui in the
Bernese Oberland during the month of July 1909; so that the pictures are
true portraits of the flowers “at home.”

The Lumière process of colour photography which was used, depends on the
action of light on a photographic plate after its passage through various
coloured starch grains. The process is entirely beyond the control of
the operator, and the exact colours are automatically reproduced. These
photographs have in turn been carefully reproduced for this work by the
three colour process.

The flowers here photographed were selected as good examples of common
and typical species; and, of course, they represent but a very small
portion of the rich flora of Switzerland. The present volume is intended
as a short introduction to the subject, for the fuller study of which the
following works are recommended:—

    A. Gremli, “The Flora of Switzerland.” Translated by Paitson.

    A. W. Bennett, “The Flora of the Alps.”

    G. Hoffmann, “Alpine Flora.” Translated by E. S. Barton.

    L. and C. Schröter, “Coloured Vade-mecum to the Alpine Flora.”

    C. Schröter, “Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen.”

    F. E. Hulme, “Familiar Swiss Flowers.”

    “Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps,” being the General
    Introduction to Ball’s Alpine Guide.

They have all been freely referred to in the preparation of the
accompanying notes.

Wherever possible the common name of each plant in English, French, and
German has been given on the corresponding plate. It is hoped that this
may be of use to the reader.

In conclusion I would like to thank the publishers for the great trouble
they have taken in the preparation of the plates, and Mr Howard Farmer,
of the Polytechnic School of Photography, for much valuable advice.

                                                     SOMERVILLE HASTINGS.

    NEW CAVENDISH STREET, W.
    _April 1910._




Illustrations


    THE SPINY FULLER’S THISTLE                         _Frontispiece_

    FACING PAGE

    THE NARCISSUS-FLOWERED ANEMONE                                 2

    THE GLOBE FLOWER                                               4

    THE COMMON MONK’S-HOOD                                         6

    THE YELLOW WOLF’S-BANE                                         8

    THE TWO-FLOWERED VIOLET                                       10

    THE LONG-SPURRED PANSY                                        12

    THE BOX-LEAVED MILKWORT                                       14

    THE CREEPING GYPSOPHILA                                       16

    THE MOSS CAMPION OR CUSHION PINK                              18

    THE WOOD GERANIUM                                             20

    THE ALPINE CLOVER                                             22

    THE BROWN CLOVER                                              24

    THE COLD MOUNTAIN-LENTIL                                      26

    THE DULL-FLOWERED SWEET CLOVER OR ALPINE SAINFOIN             28

    THE WHITE DRYAS                                               30

    THE ALPINE ROSE                                               32

    FLEISCHER’S WILLOW-HERB                                       34

    THE MOUNTAIN HOUSE-LEEK                                       36

    SEMPERVIVUM FUNCKII                                           38

    THE EVERGREEN SAXIFRAGE                                       40

    THE LARGE ASTRANTIA                                           42

    THE ALPINE STARWORT OR ALPINE ASTER                           44

    THE CAT’S-FOOT, MOUNTAIN EVERLASTING OR MOUNTAIN CUDWEED      46

    THE ARNICA                                                    48

    THE ROUND-HEADED RAMPION                                      52

    THE BEARDED BELL-FLOWER OR CAMPANULA                          54

    THE DWARF HAIR-BELL OR BELL-FLOWER                            56

    THE HAIRY-LEAVED ALPENROSE                                    58

    THE LESSER WINTER-GREEN                                       60

    THE STEMLESS GENTIAN                                          62

    THE SHORT-LEAVED GENTIAN                                      64

    THE ALPINE TOAD-FLAX                                          66

    THE ALPINE BALSAM                                             68

    THE LEAFY LOUSEWORT                                           70

    THE YELLOW AURICULA                                           72

    THE MARSH ORCHIS                                              74

    THE LADY’S SLIPPER                                            76

    THE WHITE VERATRUM                                            78




Introduction


No one can visit Switzerland for the first time without being struck
with the singular beauty of its wild flowers. In the early summer the
whole country from the lowland meadows right up to the snowline is ablaze
with beauty. Probably in no other part of the world are the forms of
the flowers more pleasing and their colours more brilliant. Hence it is
that almost everyone who visits the Alps, however little interest he may
take in the wild flowers of his own home, desires to know something of
the wonderful new forms that everywhere meet his gaze. Here the charm
of novelty also comes in, for at least half the flowers met with in the
Alps are absent from the plains, and many of the species that occur in
both situations have, as we shall see later, acquired such different
characters at high altitudes as to be with difficulty at first sight
recognised. Those who would see Switzerland in all its beauty, and as
far as its floral treasures are concerned, at its best, must visit it in
early June before the hay is cut. Otherwise they will miss the glory of
the unmown meadows, and although many of the spring flowers, like the
Crocuses and Primulas (Plate 35), may still be found in small quantities
at high altitudes even in July, the striking effect of the large masses
of these flowers will be entirely wanting.

If we travel to Switzerland by the ordinary tourist route, across Germany
or France, and then ascend the mountain peaks, we shall, in the first
part of our journey, notice but few differences in the vegetation from
that to which we are accustomed. The wild flowers of France and Germany
are very like those of the South of England and, except that perhaps the
yellow Fuller’s Thistle (_Circium oloraceum_) may be seen in damp places
near the railway, very little of botanical interest will be observed
until the customs are passed and Switzerland itself is reached. Even
here the traveller may be for a time a little disappointed. The first
unfamiliar plant to be noticed will very likely be the Red-berried Elder
(_Sambucus racemosa_). A little later, in some shady wood, the tall
feathery Spiræa (_Spiræa Aruncus_), or the beautiful little May-Lily
(_Maianthemum bifolium_), may be seen. Or a glimpse of the white-flowered
Rampion (_Phyteuma spicatum_) or the Alpine Honeysuckle (_Lonicera
alpigena_), with its twin red berries, may be had in passing. But not
until the mountains themselves are reached will the tourist discover that
he has entered into an entirely new plant world.

The main factor which determines the character of the flora of any given
region in the Alps is its altitude. But we must not forget that there are
other things to be considered beside the absolute height above the sea
level, and the local conditions of exposure to the sun and protection
from the cold winds are quite important factors. Generally speaking,
it may be said that the climate is a good deal milder on the southern
slopes of the Alps than in the north. Olives can be grown in some of
the lower mountain regions of the south, and with them are found many
of the plants of Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region which are
never seen in places of the same altitude on the northern slopes. It
is exceedingly probable that most of the lower parts of the Alps were
originally covered to a large extent by forest trees. The oak, ash, and
beech still flourish in many parts, although much of the original forest
has been removed long ago, and used for building purposes or as fuel,
and large areas have been thus cleared for meadow and pasture land. In
many districts the spruce and the pine appear to be usurping the place of
the other forest trees mainly because the young plants are less eagerly
devoured by browsing animals, especially the goats. Below 4000 feet on
the northern slopes and 5000 feet or a little over on the south side of
the Alps may be described as the REGION OF FOREST TREES, and above this
level the ordinary deciduous trees become dwarfed and scarce. That this
altitude corresponds fairly well with a transition to a colder climate
is seen by the change in the character of the herbaceous plants also.
For the next 2000 feet we have the SUBALPINE REGION covered mainly by
Coniferous trees. Here are vast forests, particularly of Spruce (_Picea
excelsa_) and Silver Fir (_Abies pectinata_). The former is the familiar
“Christmas tree,” which grows to a great height on the mountain sides,
its lower branches festooned with grey lichens. Besides these trees the
Larch (_Larix Europæa_) on primary rock, and the Scotch Fir (_Pinus
sylvestris_) and the Arolla (_Pinus Cembra_) are also to be seen.

Above 6000 feet in the north and 7000 in the south the Conifers become
dwarfed and stunted, and gradually disappear to give place to the ALPINE
REGION. Sometimes as we look along a valley the line of transition is
seen to be abrupt and straight, at other times irregular and undulating.
Bushes of Alpenrose, Juniper, and Alpine Willow extend upward to the
Alpine region, but larger trees are entirely absent. Here are found in
profusion the greater number of the plants and flowers peculiar to the
Alps. Many of the species may of course be found in sheltered or secluded
spots at much lower levels, but here are to be seen in abundance the
bright-coloured Saxifrages, Gentians, Anemones, and Pansies, which make
the Alps their particular home. Here are the _alps_ or upland pasture
grounds of the Swiss, and here are situated the _châlets_ or summer homes
of Swiss herdsmen. In June or July, when the pasture is becoming scarce
in the valleys and when all the snow is melted on the mountain slopes,
the native farmer packs a large copper caldron and whatever else he may
require for making cheese into his bullock waggon, and accompanied by his
cattle, and often by his family as well, treks upward. The “alps” may be
two or three days’ journey from his home, so that he must take with him
all that he will probably require for his two or three months’ stay.

The Alpine region extends from the upper tree limit to the snowline,
which may be taken as somewhere between 8000 and 9000 feet. Some of the
most charming and brightly coloured of Alpine plants like _Eritrichium
nanum_ and the Cushion pinks (Plate 9) are to be found just below the
snowline. Even above this level flowering plants may be met with, for
even at the highest altitudes bare rock is to be found from which the
snow has been blown by the wind or melted by the sun, or where the slope
is too great for more than a very thin covering to remain lodged. The
Glacier Crowfoot (_Ranunculus glacialis_), a pink-flowered buttercup,
has for example been found within a short distance of the summit of the
Finsteraarhorn, the highest peak in the Bernese Oberland.

Just over two thousand different species of flowering plants are to be
found in Switzerland, and a little over half of these are exclusively
Alpine. In contrasting the flowers of the Alps with those of our own
country, it may be first of all well to consider what we have that
Switzerland has not. Of course our seashore plants will be mainly absent,
but strange to say a few species of Thrift are here and there found,
and the yellow Horned Sea-poppy (_Glaucium luteum_) even grows in the
neighbourhood of Lake Neuchâtel. We are so used to the bluebells of our
woods, the purple heather of our heaths, and the yellow gorse of our
commons, that we hardly realise how glorious they are. In Switzerland
the gorse is very rare, the bluebells are not found at all, and the
bell-heathers are absent though the ling is found everywhere. Even the
purple foxglove is replaced by a yellow variety. These facts should be
borne in mind, lest a too unfavourable comparison be made with our own
rich flora.

But the flowers of the mountains are truly wonderful, and it is their
abundance as well as their bright colours that make them so striking.
At the same time, it must be remembered that though so numerous neither
the flowers themselves nor the plants that bear them are really
larger than their lowland relatives. Indeed, in spite of their bright
conspicuous flowers, the plants that grow at the higher altitudes are
generally stunted and dwarfed. Most of the peculiarities of Alpine
plants, which we will now enumerate, are to be accounted for by the
conditions under which they live. That this is really so is shown by the
fact that “within the bounds of what must unquestionably be regarded
as a single species, individuals change in character as we ascend to
higher altitudes, the leaves become more hairy and more fleshy, and the
flowers brighter and larger.” Even more direct evidence of this is to
be obtained by cultivating Alpine plants at lower levels and lowland
plants at high altitudes. Not a few of the plants of the mountains when
grown in our gardens at home change in character very considerably.
They tend to elongate so that their leaves are separated by longer
intervals of stem, and their hairy characters very largely disappear.
The Bearded Bell-flower (Plate 26) may lose its bearded character,
and the familiar Edelweiss may, in some cases, develop smooth green
leaves almost as hairless as those of an ordinary plant. Conversely, we
have the observations of Professor Bonnier, who cultivated the plants
of the lowlands at high altitudes in the Alps and Pyrenees. Where the
plants were able to grow at all they became, in most cases, stunted and
dwarfed. The Jerusalem Artichoke, for example, which forms a tall leafy
stem like a sunflower in the plains, became a short stumpy plant with
leaves arranged in a rosette at its base. Generally speaking, the plants
developed a better marked underground stem, and thicker, darker green
leaves than the same species grown under more ordinary conditions.

One of the principal characteristics of Alpine plants is the extensive
development of the rootstock and underground stem. This is required to
protect them against the strong winds, and to extract as large a supply
of water and nourishment as possible from the frequently scanty soil. But
there is another consideration of at any rate equal importance. During at
least half of the year owing to the white coverlet of snow, all activity
in the Alpine plant world ceases so that the production of flowers and
seeds, indeed all the vital processes of the plants must be crowded into
the few months when the ground is clear. Crocuses and Snowbells and
other plants are found blooming at the very edge of the snow, therefore
everything must be ready for immediate flower production directly the
snow melts. For this to take place a reserve store of nourishment
is essential, and accordingly Alpine plants are furnished with thick
underground stems and fleshy roots where the food substances can be
stored.

It is further interesting to note that the number of plants that go
through their life cycle in a single year and then die off (annuals as
they are called), is in the Alps comparatively small, for most of the
plants persist from year to year. Kerner states that while only 44 per
cent. of the plants on the Danube plains are perennials, there are as
many as 96 per cent. in the Alps. That this has something to do with
the conditions under which the plants grow is seen by the fact that the
annual meadow-grass (_Poa annua_) becomes perennial in the Alps. Annuals
persist through the winter season, only in the form of seed, so that
a single wet summer such as the last (1909), by interfering with the
ripening of the seeds, might threaten with extinction an entire species.
Annuals have but little food stored up for a sudden outburst of activity
on the approach of spring, nor can the tiny root of a budding seedling
obtain from the soil all that is necessary for the rapid production of
flowers and seeds. Moreover, as we shall see immediately, the production
of seeds is in most plants very largely dependent on the presence of
insect visitors, and without them either less fertile seeds or no seeds
at all are in most cases formed. Insects are said to be less numerous
in the Alps than in the plains, and thus the assumption of a perennial
character makes the existence of the plant less dependent on external
conditions.

Another point which has already been referred to is the low stature
and stunted character of so many Alpine plants. Undoubtedly there are
marked exceptions, such as the tall Gentians; but, generally speaking,
it must be admitted that mountain plants are short stemmed and dwarfed,
the vegetative part of the plant being often merely represented by a
wreath of leaves. This is also very largely the result of the peculiar
conditions of plant-life at high altitudes. The bright sunlight by day
and intense cold at night have both a retarding effect on the growth
of the stem. As regards light, the converse result is well seen in the
long, lanky shoots of a potato growing in a dark cellar. But there is
also another factor of some importance. The green leaves of plants are
constantly giving out as watery vapour the fluid which has been absorbed
by the roots. The decreased atmospheric pressure at high altitudes, the
general dryness of the air, and the bright sunlight by day all unite to
accelerate this process. During the day the ground is warmed even to
a larger extent than the air, and thus the absorption of water by the
roots is correspondingly hastened. During the night the intense radiation
rapidly cools down the soil on which the plant grows, but the surrounding
air is not cooled to anything like the same extent. The result is that
the absorption of fluid by the roots is diminished in a much larger
degree than the effusion of watery vapour from the leaves, and the plant
is in imminent danger of being dried up. To this danger the plants of
high altitudes respond in various ways. In the first place, their stunted
character not only diminishes the area of leaf surface for the exhalation
of watery vapour and protects them to some extent from strong winds, but
it also places them in the lowest stratum of air which is most likely
to assume the temperature of the soil. The felted, cushion-like habit
(Plate 9) of so many Alpine plants, and the rosette-like arrangement
of their leaves (Plate 19), are also of advantage to the plants by
exposing less leaf surface directly to the air. The succulent leaves of
plants like the house-leeks (Plates 18 and 19), and the hairy covering
of the Cat’s-foot (Plate 23), Edelweiss, and others, seem also designed
to counteract the tendency to too rapid desiccation, and the tough
leathery character of many leaves (Plate 7), and the thickened cuticle of
others (Plate 30), are clearly of like value. The relatively increased
thickness of the leaves of many Alpine plants is also, no doubt, due to
the intensity of the sunlight, for direct experiments have shown that
increased illumination has this effect. Their usual dark green colour is
thought to result from an excess of the green pigment by which plants
are able to extract the carbon required for their growth from the air.
The rarefaction of the air and shortness of the season of growth at high
altitudes, as well as the low stature of most Alpine plants, make it
essential that assimilation should take place as rapidly as possible when
conditions are favourable for it.

But it is in connection with their flowers that the wonderful adaptation
of Alpine plants to their surroundings is perhaps best seen. The plants
of high altitudes generally bear more numerous and more brightly coloured
flowers than do their relatives of the plains. The low stature of the
plants that bear them gives rise to the impression that the flowers of
the Alps are also larger than those of lowland districts, but though
undoubtedly more numerous and more crowded together they are of about the
same size as those of other nearly related species. The colours of the
flowers are, however, undoubtedly deeper and more intense. If we examine
specimens of the same kind of flower, for instance the Forget-me-not or
Eyebright, that have been found growing at different altitudes, we shall
be struck with the deeper tints of the flowers from the higher regions.
That this character has something to do with the conditions of life in
Alpine districts is shown by the disappointment that we sometimes feel
at the diminished brilliancy of the flowers of Alpine plants when grown
in our gardens at home. The flowers of the Alps are also, as a rule, of
a more highly organised type than those of the plains, and corresponding
with this increase in complexity is a relative increase in the number of
pink and blue flowers, and a diminution in that of the yellow and white.
Alpine plants, too, seem to produce more honey than do the corresponding
plants in the plains; at any rate, the yield of honey from bee-hives is
greater, and Bonnier has shown that the secretion of honey by flowers of
the same kind increases with the altitude, and that in some cases there
is a corresponding increase in the intensity of the scent of the flower.

While many of the characteristics of Alpine flowers are to be explained
as a direct result of the conditions of life at high altitudes, it is
probable that the process of natural selection has also had a good
deal to do with their production. One of the principal objects of the
life of a flowering plant is to produce seeds. It has been shown that,
generally speaking, more numerous and healthier seeds are produced when
the seed-producing apparatus of a flower is fertilised by pollen from
the stamens of a flower of a different plant. Hence arrangements have
to be made by plants for the conveyance of their pollen from flower
to flower. This is sometimes effected by the wind, but much pollen is
lost, so that this is manifestly a very wasteful method. Plants have
therefore adopted the more economical plan of getting insect visitors to
do this carrying business for them. The bright colours and sweet scents
are to attract insects to the flower, and honey is provided for their
entertainment there. It is generally believed that the total number of
insect visitors in the Alps is less than in the plains, and therefore the
competition for their services being more severe, greater attractions in
the form of brighter coloured flowers and more abundant honey have to
be provided for them. But, unfortunately, the direct observations of H.
Müller do not confirm this view. There can be no question, however, that
the relative proportion of the several varieties of insects in the Alps
is very different from that in the plains. There are comparatively few
flies, bees, and wasps, but numerous humble-bees, butterflies, and moths
in the mountain regions. These insects have longer tongues and prefer to
visit flowers of a more complicated structure, where the honey cannot
be reached by their shorter tongued relatives. Flowers of this sort
with less easily obtained honey are more often of a red or blue or pink
colour, and more rarely of a yellow tint. Not a few Alpine flowers like
the Aconites (Plates 3 and 4) are entirely dependent on humble-bees for
their fertilisation, and an even larger number, such as the Long-Spurred
Pansy (Plate 5), and several of the Gentians are exclusively visited by
butterflies and moths. Müller even goes so far as to suggest that not a
few of the Alpine flowers, especially those of a pale crimson colour and
with a clove-like smell, such as the Pinks (Plate 9), have been evolved
in the Alps under the influence of butterflies and moths. In spite of
this it is curious to note that the number of flowers that are habitually
self-fertilised is greater in the Alps than in the plains. But when it
is explained that these are for the most part of the same type of flower
that is pollinated by flies, bees, and wasps in lowland districts the
apparent anomaly becomes clear.

The question of the origin of the Alpine flora is a subject upon which
botanists are by no means completely agreed at the present time. A large
number of the thousand different plants that are found in the high Alps
reappear in distant mountains and the Arctic regions, though absent in
the intervening country. Thus the late John Ball calculated that 17 per
cent. of the Alpine species were met with in the Arctic regions, and 25
per cent. in the Altai Mountains of Northern Asia. That this is not due
to the conveyance of seeds from place to place by the agency of wind
or birds is shown by the fact that the resemblance of the plants of
different mountain chains to one another is in no way proportional to
their geographical proximity, even when their climate is similar. The
true explanation is probably to be sought in the Glacial Period, in which
the greater part of Europe was covered by ice, so that the climate of
the plains was very similar to that of the high Alps and Arctic regions
at the present time. At this period the flora of the extreme north was
able to mingle with that of the mountain regions. When the climate of the
intervening districts became once more less severe, the competition with
the present lowland flora became so keen that the Alpine-Arctic plants
retreated to high altitudes or the far north. It may be that the high
mountain regions have formed centres for the evolution of new species, as
Mr John Ball believed, but there is but little direct evidence for this
view.

Nearly every visitor to Switzerland who regards its rich flora in any
way worthy of notice is desirous to obtain some permanent record of the
pleasing impressions obtained. Either the flowers are pressed, or the
plants are pulled up with more or less of their roots to be planted in
some garden at home, or, as the author would suggest is by far the best
method, photographs of the plants are taken. May we here, first of all,
protest against the wholesale destruction of Alpine plants that goes on
every year by careless visitors. Where a few flowers are required for
study or to be preserved by pressing, they may, by all means, be picked.
There seems no reason also why a few of the more common or abundant
plants should not be dug up with their roots, carefully packed, and taken
home, although the Swiss authorities do not permit even this, but it is
disgraceful that large nosegays of choice flowers should be gathered
for the mere pleasure of watching them wither in the hand, and then
thrown away. The Swiss natives, unhappily, set us a very bad example
in this respect; but it is fortunate that the Edelweiss and Alpenrose
are the only flowers that they at all extensively attack. Many of the
more frequented tourist routes have become almost bare of any but the
commonest flowers. One has only to ascend to some peak or glacier by two
paths, one that is well-trodden, and a second but little used, to see how
complete this destruction of wild flowers has been.

Excellent little presses for preserving plants and flowers can be bought
in Switzerland. They take up no more room in one’s bag than a Baedeker
or Bradshaw’s Guide, and do the work much more efficiently. Their only
disadvantage is that they are generally too small to display any but
the tiniest plants completely, and it is really wiser to take out from
England a couple of boards with straps and a good supply of blotting
paper. The special paper sold for pressing plants is much to be preferred
to ordinary white or pink blotting-paper, as the plants tend to stick to
it much less. A fair amount will be required, as the plants need frequent
changing and the paper must be dried. Specimens should be carefully set
out by pressing on them with the finger till they take up the required
positions, and stored when dry in some exercise book or between sheets of
paper.

The cultivation of Alpine plants in our gardens at home is by no means
as easy as might at first be supposed. The climate and conditions of
life in Peckham are very different to those at the summit of Pilatus,
and unless the thing is done carefully and thoroughly it had better not
be attempted at all. The chief difficulty in growing Alpine plants in
our climate is not the cold but the excessive moisture of winter, which
tends to rot their roots, and from which they are protected in their
native home by their snowy covering. Our object should be to reproduce,
as far as possible, in our gardens the conditions under which the plants
grow in the high Alps. For the rockery a porous stone will be required,
such as limestone or sandstone, and it is essential to select a kind
that does not crumble with the frost. The partially fused masses of
brick, which can be obtained very cheaply as a waste product from brick
kilns, when washed over with a mixture of cement and sand do very well.
The rocks and stones must be so laid that every bed or pocket in which
the plants are to grow is thoroughly well drained, for nothing is so
destructive to them as water-logging of the soil. Plants that grow in
the clefts of rocks should be planted in a sloping position, as water is
then less liable to collect in the rosettes of leaves. Those that grow
in cool, moist, spongy soil are best planted in a mixture of peat moss
and earth. It is also important to notice whether the plant which is
being cultivated was previously growing on limestone or granitic soil,
for it is easy to add a little chalk to the earth if this is required. In
planting out one has to be careful not to curl up the roots, and it is
wise to sprinkle the plant with water two or three times a day for the
first week or so. Alpine plants should never be manured. It should be
remembered that mountain plants grow slowly, and though very many species
can be successfully cultivated, the Houseleeks and Saxifrages are likely
to give the best results with a minimum of trouble.

It is impossible in such a book as this to give more than a few general
suggestions as to the photography of Alpine plants. One of the chief
difficulties with which one has to contend is the wind. When the plant is
photographed anywhere near its natural size the smallest stop has to be
used to obtain depth of focus, and this greatly increases the duration
of the exposure. Many of the colour photographs herein reproduced were
given as long as five or ten minutes. When the wind is intermittent it
is quite safe to give repeated exposures of a few seconds at a time,
being careful in removing and replacing the cap not to shake the camera,
for the plant is sure to return to exactly the same position after being
blown to and fro by the wind. Where tall plants are being taken it is
wisest to select a time in the early morning or near sunset, for though
the intensity of light is diminished at these times, there is usually but
little wind. The writer has found a strip of white calico, some 12 or 15
inches wide, with long knitting needles sewn on to it at intervals, of
great value as a wind screen in plant photography. The knitting needles
can be pushed into the ground, and the plant surrounded on three sides or
completely by such a screen, and thus very largely shaded from the wind.
With a little care the screen does not appear in the photograph, and it
is easily rolled up and carried from place to place. For near objects
the intensity of light in the Alps is only slightly greater than that in
England at the same time of day, but it is always wiser to make use of an
exposure meter if the best results are desired. By the use of the swing
back any plane surface, whatever be its inclination to the vertical, can
be easily focussed. This will be found of especial value where a blurred
background is desired, and the slight distortion thus obtained, which is
so noticeable in architectural subjects, is quite negligible in the case
of plant portraits. The deep shadows that are produced when flowers are
photographed in bright sunlight are generally best avoided.




SUMMER FLOWERS OF THE HIGH ALPS

    HERE FOLLOW COLOURED PLATES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF 39 SWISS
    PLANTS, WITH THEIR NAMES IN LATIN, ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN




The Narcissus-Flowered Anemone

(_ANEMONE NARCISSIFLORA_)


Many varieties of Anemone are found in Switzerland. Not only have we the
common English Wood Anemone (_A. nemorosa_) of the early spring, and the
much rarer Pasque Flower (_A. Pulsatilla_) of our downs, but there is
also the white or yellow Alpine Anemone (_A. alpina_), which forms so
marked a feature of the Alpine pastures in early summer. Even in July and
August, when most of the flowers have faded, the feathery tufts of seeds
of the Alpine Anemone are still to be seen as the so-called “Chamois’
beards.”

The Narcissus-flowered Anemone, here photographed, is a widely
distributed plant. It occurs on grassy slopes and in pastures between
4000 and 7000 feet above the sea level, and seems to prefer a limestone
soil. The finely divided leaves are well seen in the photograph. Unlike
every other species of Anemone found in Switzerland the flower stalk
bears not a single flower only but two to eight, or even more, and at the
point where the flower stalk divides a green collaret or involucre is
seen. The flowers are pure white inside, and their external surfaces are
often slightly woolly and tinged with pink, especially in the bud. The
seeds have no feathery appendages like those of the Alpine Anemone. The
flowers are without honey. They are visited by pollen-collecting insects,
and should these fail will become self-fertilised. The plant blooms in
May and June, and some flowers may still be found even in July in the
highest Alpine pastures. It is met with widely distributed over Central
Europe, North America and Northern Asia, but is absent in Scandinavia.
On account of the numerous closely allied species which are found in
Northern Asia, it is thought that this plant may have originated in that
region and then spread east and west to America and Europe respectively.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

ANEMONE NARCISSIFLORA. L.

The Narcissus-flowered Anemone. Anémone à fleurs de Narcisse.
Narcissenblüthige Anemone oder Berg-Windröschen.]




The Globe Flower

(_TROLLIUS EUROPÆUS_)


THIS large and stately plant is common in mountain pastures from the
lower levels right up to 7000 feet. It has finely divided leaves and
bright yellow globe-like flowers, borne on long stalks which are
usually unbranched. It is evidently a near relation of the buttercups,
but differs from them in the possession of numerous brightly-coloured
sepals, which enclose and conceal the much smaller tongue-shaped petals.
Although not exclusively Alpine, being found all over Central Europe,
in Scandinavia, and the north of England, it has been included in this
series because it is sure to be noticed by anyone visiting Switzerland
for the first time.

It flowers in May, June, and July, and flourishes best in damp places. A
much smaller form, bearing only a single flower, is found exclusively on
high mountains (_var. humilis_). It should probably be regarded merely as
a variety and not as a distinct species.

The Globe Flower, the Anemones, and the two species of Aconitum
illustrated in the two following plates are all examples of the buttercup
order, the Ranunculaceæ. The common yellow buttercup so abundantly
found in Alpine meadows is _Ranunculus montanus_. This species very
closely resembles the ordinary upright buttercup of our English fields
(_Ranunculus acris_), which it replaces in the Alps, but differs from it
in the possession of a solid (not hollow) stem and a hairy disc beneath
the seeds. It is a somewhat smaller plant, with less numerous—generally
only two or three—flowers.

[Illustration: PLATE II.

TROLLIUS EUROPÆUS. L.

The Globe Flower. Trolle d’Europe ou Boule d’Or. Echte oder Europäische
Trollblume.]




The Common Monk’s-Hood

(_ACONITUM NAPELLUS_)


Several species of Aconitum are met with in Switzerland. They have
all bright-coloured flowers, especially adapted for fertilisation by
humble-bees. It is only where there are humble-bees to convey the
pollen from flower to flower that seeds can mature, so that where these
insects do not exist the Aconites cannot spread. The five sepals of
the Aconite flowers are coloured for attractive purposes, the highest
being especially large and helmet-shaped. Protected by this are the
representatives of the petals, so modified and reduced that they no
longer have any attractive function, and are only of use to the plant by
producing honey. They form a couple of nectaries on long stalks inside
the helmet-shaped sepal.

The Common Monk’s-Hood is found in rich moist meadows between 3000 and
7000 feet. It seems to be especially common in the neighbourhood of
Alpine dairies and cow houses. It flowers in June and July, and is very
poisonous. From the conical root, resembling that of horseradish, the
preparations of aconite used in medicine are prepared. When applied
externally, aconite causes tingling and numbness and may relieve the pain
of neuralgia. Internally, it depresses the action of the heart and lowers
the temperature of the body. Homeopathists still use it for this purpose,
but in doses so small as to have no appreciable action whatever. The
single straight flower stalk, closely packed with blossoms, is rarely
branched in its upper part, though small branches may be met with below.

The Panicled Monk’s-hood (_Ac. paniculatum_) resembles the above rather
closely, but differs from it in the more open arrangement of the flowers
on the hairy flower stalk, which is usually branched near the top. The
leaves of both plants are finely divided, but the sub-divisions of those
of the common Monk’s-hood are longer and narrower, more strap-shaped in
fact, than those of the panicled form.

[Illustration: PLATE III.

ACONITUM NAPELLUS. L.

The Common Monk’s-Hood. Aconit Napel ou Napel bleu. Rübenwurzliger
Eisenhut.]




The Yellow Wolf’s-Bane

(_ACONITUM LYCOCTONUM_)


This plant is a species of Aconite, and a close relation of the common
Monk’s-hood illustrated on the previous page. It is common on the
borders of woods and in bushy places between 3000 and 7000 feet above
the sea level. In this species, which, like the common Monk’s-hood, is
visited almost exclusively by humble-bees, the upper helmet-like sepal
which conceals the honey is especially long. It is interesting to note
that the humble-bees do not, in all cases, obtain the honey in the way
intended by the plant. A dark spot is often to be seen near the tip of
the helmet where a humble-bee has nibbled through the flower leaf and
obtained access to the nectary direct. In this way the designs of the
plant for cross fertilisation may be frustrated, for where the honey is
obtained in this manner no pollen is carried from flower to flower by the
insect visitor. _Aconitum Anthora_, which is rather like the above, has
more finely divided leaves and darker yellow flowers which are much less
elongated than those of the Wolf’s-bane. The flowers, in fact, closely
resemble those of the common Monk’s-hood except that they are yellow
instead of blue. Both plants are poisonous.

[Illustration: PLATE IV.

ACONITUM LYCOCTONUM. L.

The Yellow Wolf’s-bane. Aconit Tue-loup ou Cappe de Moine. Wolftödtender
Eisenhut.]




The Two-Flowered Violet

(_VIOLA BIFLORA_)


This pretty little plant is common in moist shady places between 3000 and
7000 feet all over Switzerland. It is also found in Bohemia, Silesia,
the Vosges, and other parts of Central Europe. It flowers from May to
August in the clefts of rocks, and amongst the boulders on the banks of
streams. It was in just such a place as this that the present photograph
was taken. The flowers are bright yellow, streaked with brown, and the
dark green leaves are kidney-shaped and entire. Although there are
several other violets with yellow flowers to be found in Switzerland, no
other species has broad kidney-shaped leaves. The smooth, erect flower
stalk, which also bears some leaves, frequently divides into two near
the middle, each branch being terminated by a bright yellow flower.
This character, which has given to the violet its name, is, however, by
no means constant, and flower stems bearing a single or three or more
flowers are also often seen. The number of flowers borne by the plant
would seem rather to be determined by its size and vigour, which, of
course, again depend largely on the conditions under which it grows.

[Illustration: PLATE V.

VIOLA BIFLORA. L.

The Two-flowered Violet. Violette à deux Fleurs. Zweiblüthiges Veilchen
oder Zwillings-Veilchen.]




The Long-Spurred Pansy

(_VIOLA CALCARATA_)


The Long-Spurred Pansy flowers in June and July, and is a typical Alpine
plant. The high mountain pastures are sometimes literally carpeted with
its large purple flowers, all turned towards the sun. It is common on
sunny slopes and among rocky débris between 5000 and 9000 feet, and
prefers a limestone soil. The underground stem of the plant bears at its
extremity a small rosette of leaves, and a short flower stalk terminated
by the single large flower. The flower, which has a delicate and sweet
scent, is usually of a rich purple colour, much more rarely yellow (_var.
flava_). Sometimes the purple becomes paler and a lavender variety
results, and, rarest of all, the flower may be pure white. From the many
other violets and pansies which are found in Switzerland, the species
we are now considering is recognised by its narrow, notched leaves, by
the upward direction of the lateral petals, and especially by the long,
narrow spur, which is quite as long as the corolla.

Unlike most of the violets which are fertilised by bees, the Long-Spurred
Pansy depends entirely on butterflies for the conveyance of its pollen.
The narrow opening to the flower and the long spur, at the bottom
of which the honey is concealed, are only suited to insects such as
butterflies and moths with relatively long tongues. It is pretty to see
the butterflies flitting from flower to flower, and Müller observed a
single insect visit no less than one hundred and ninety-four different
blossoms in 6¾ minutes.

[Illustration: PLATE VI.

VIOLA CALCARATA. L.

The Long-spurred Pansy. Violette à long éperon ou Violette éperonnée.
Langgesporntes Veilchen.]




The Box-Leaved Milkwort

(_POLYGALA CHAMÆBUXUS_)


The Box-leaved Milkwort is a shrubby mountain plant with a woody
branching stem and leathery evergreen leaves, which resemble those of the
common box but are somewhat thicker. The flowers occur singly or in pairs
in the axils of the upper leaves. They consist of a boat-shaped corolla
of a pale yellow colour, which becomes darker towards the tip, and two
wing-like appendages, which look like petals but are really sepals. These
are usually white but are sometimes purple red. It is stated that their
colour is determined by the soil on which the plant grows and is white or
pure slate; on calcareous, slate coloured.

The Box-leaved Milkwort is widely distributed in Switzerland, Germany,
and Austria, between 1500 and 7000 feet, and grows on wooded hills and in
dry rocky places, where it is often extremely abundant. It flowers from
May till the end of August. The plant is quite distinctive and will be
readily recognised. Although belonging to the Milkwort tribe it is quite
different from all other species, which have red, white or blue, never
yellow, flowers and deciduous, not evergreen, leaves.

The Common Milkwort (_Polygala vulgaris_) of our English downs and heaths
is also found in the Alps. It is a small herbaceous plant with a slender
stem, perhaps three or four inches long, which is thickly covered with
leaves, and terminates in a cluster of pink, blue, or white flowers.
_Polygala calcarea_, a nearly-related species found only in limestone
districts, has sky-blue flowers and leaves for the most part clustered in
the form of a rosette at the base of the stem.

[Illustration: PLATE VII.

POLYGALA CHAMÆBUXUS. L.

The Box-leaved Milkwort. Polygala faux-buis. Immergrüne Kreuzblume.]




The Creeping Gypsophila

(_GYPSOPHILA REPENS_)


The Creeping Gypsophila is a perennial plant with a woody stem, from
which branches arise bearing the narrow strap-shaped leaves and pale
crowded flowers. It is found in all the limestone regions of the Alps,
amongst the rocky boulders beside mountain streams, and in dry torrent
beds between 1000 and 7000 feet, and even descends to the plains with
certain of the rivers. It is found, for example, near Munich on the banks
of the Isar. The plant is also widely distributed in the mountain regions
of Central Europe and extends from the Pyrenees to the Carpathians. The
flowers, which open in July and August, are white with more or less of
a tinge of pink about them, which may be quite marked in certain cases.
Together they form what is botanically known as a corymb. The numerous
flower stalks branching off from different points of the ascending stem
are of such a length that all the flowers are approximately on the same
level. In this way they are displayed to the best advantage, so that
their insect visitors may find it easy to pass from flower to flower.
There are several species of Sandwort and Chickweed to be found in
Switzerland that closely resemble the Creeping Gypsophila. Apart from
technicalities the chief points to keep in mind in the identification of
the plant are the woody creeping stem, the much-branched flower stalks,
and the entire absence of hairs.

[Illustration: PLATE VIII.

GYPSOPHILA REPENS. L.

The Creeping Gypsophila. Gypsophile rampante. Kriechendes Gipskraut.]




The Moss Campion or Cushion Pink

(_SILENE ACAULIS_)


Wherever conditions are unfavourable to plant life, not only on high
mountains but also in deserts and by the seashore, the plants that manage
to survive frequently respond by a process of co-operation and form dense
cushion-like masses. In the high Alps many examples of this are seen. The
individual plants are closely huddled together in the form of a tuft, not
only on account of warmth and natural protection and to prevent their
being blown away by rough winds, but also because the cushion acts as a
sort of reservoir or sponge and prevents the little plants being dried up
by the fierce rays of the sun.

The Moss Campion is a typical “Cushion plant.” It is found abundantly
all over the Alps, especially in the limestone regions between 5000 and
10,000 feet or even higher. It grows in open rocky places, often on the
bare rock itself, and in the neighbourhood of glaciers, and may be found
close up to the snowline. The bright green moss-like cushions formed of
the dense clusters of leaves become sprinkled over with pinkish-purple
star-like flowers in June, July, and August. Occasionally the flowers are
white. The long conical root penetrates far into the soil or into some
fissure in the rocks, thus securely anchoring the plant, and divides
above into numerous branches, which radiate in all directions and are
thickly covered below with brown dead leaves and terminate above in a
rosette of bright green linear leaflets. The flowers, which are visited
by many kinds of insects, are of three kinds. Rarely we find cushions
of flowers containing both stamens and pistil in the same flower, but
even here the pistil becomes ready to receive pollen before the stamens
open so as to prevent self-fertilisation. Usually, however, the flowers
are unisexual and contain stamens or pistil only, and staminate and
pistillate flowers are borne on different cushions.

The Moss Campion is widely distributed in the mountain regions of
Southern Europe, North America, and the Arctic regions. _Silene exscapa_
closely resembles the above, but is much less common. Its flowers are
smaller and less brightly coloured, and the separation between calyx and
flower stalk is more gradual and less abrupt than in the Moss Campion.
Its seed-vessel or capsule is, moreover, hardly longer than the remains
of the calyx which encloses it, whereas the capsule of the Moss Campion
projects well beyond the enclosing calyx leaves.

[Illustration: PLATE IX.

SILENE ACAULIS. L.

The Moss Campion or Cushion Pink. Silène à Courte tige. Stengelloses
Leimkraut oder Moos-Leimkraut.]




The Wood Geranium

(_GERANIUM SYLVATICUM_)


Seventeen species of Geranium or Crane’s-bill, so named from the shape
of the seed, are met with in Switzerland, and several of them are rather
difficult to distinguish from one another.

The Wood Geranium is found in England, but is not very common. In
Switzerland it is exceedingly abundant on the borders of woods and in
rich mountain meadows and pastures between 3000 and 7000 feet. Though
a beautiful plant it is by no means welcome to the herdsman, for it is
not good for fodder. The finely divided leaves are well seen in the
photograph. The purple-blue flowers have more of a tinge of red in them
when they first open. The Wood Geranium will be recognised by its erect
stem, hairy above, leaves which are arranged opposite to one another,
purple-violet flowers with petals that are not notched in the middle,
and sepals drawn out to a long point. The Brook Crane’s-bill (_Geranium
rivulare_) has white flowers varied with red, and the Meadow Crane’s-bill
(_Geranium pratense_) has larger flowers which tend to hang down, and the
Blood Geranium (_Geranium sanguinum_) has unbranched flower stalks and
notched petals.

[Illustration: PLATE X.

GERANIUM SYLVATICUM. L.

The Wood Geranium or Wood Crane’s-bill. Géranie des Forêts.
Wald-Storchschnabel.]




The Alpine Clover

(_TRIFOLIUM ALPINUM_)


This plant is the most beautiful and most sweetly scented of all the
clover tribe. The long conical root stock which penetrates far into the
soil terminates above in many radiating branches. On these are borne the
long stalked leaves, composed of three narrow leaflets with serrated
margins. The flowers, which are larger than those of any other clover,
are borne in a group of four to twelve on top of a long flower stalk.
They begin to appear early in June and continue coming out till the end
of August; they are usually of a delicate pinkish-purple colour, but
occasionally a cream or white variety may be found. The Alpine breezes
are often filled with their delicate fragrance. When the flower fades the
petals are not shed, but remain attached to the seeds and act as wings
which aid in their dispersal. Unlike most of our English clovers, which
are annuals, the Alpine clover is a perennial and lives for many years,
throwing up fresh leaves and branches every spring. The thick solid
rootstock of some of these plants must be many years old. This species
is very common in the meadows and pastures in the central Alps between
5000 and 8000 feet, where it grows in greatest abundance and especially
luxuriantly on primary granitic rock. It is probably a true native
of the Alps, but is also found in South Tyrol, the Pyrenees, and the
Carpathians.

The Alpine clover will be readily recognised by its few-flowered
flower-heads and narrow pointed leaflets arranged in groups of three.
The much rarer _Trifolium pallescens_ is perhaps a little like the
pale flowered variety, but it has many flowered flower-heads and ovate
leaflets.

[Illustration: PLATE XI.

TRIFOLIUM ALPINUM. L.

The Alpine Clover. Trèfle des Alpes ou Réglisse des Alpes. Alpenklee.]




The Brown Clover

(_TRIFOLIUM BADIUM_)


Unlike the greater number of Alpine plants which persist from year
to year the Brown Clover is a biennial, that is to say, its life is
limited to two years, and at the end of its second summer the plant dies
off. It is found abundantly in the limestone districts of Switzerland
between 4000 and 7000 feet, and flowers in July and August. It grows in
meadows and pastures, and seems to prefer a moist, open spot, where the
competition with other plants will be less severe. Thus it is met with
on moraines, on the fresh soil brought down by avalanches and streams,
and even on the dirt heaps around Alpine cow houses. The much-branched
brownish stem bears the rather long-stalked leaves, composed of three
leaflets with serrated margins and blunt points. The flower-heads,
made up of numerous florets closely packed together, are at first of a
golden yellow colour. As the individual flowers fade—and the lowest fade
first—they become brown and scale-like and turn downwards, and the dry
brown corolla remaining attached to the seed forms an important aid in
its dispersal by the wind. The Brown Clover is widely distributed in the
mountain regions of Central Europe. It will be readily recognised by its
globular flower-heads of yellow flowers and bright green leaves made up
of three leaflets, which are arranged opposite to one another on the
upper part of the stem.

_Trifolium spadiceum_ is very like the above, but is not so common. Its
flower-heads become more elongated and change to a darker brown tint than
those of the plant here photographed as the flowers fade.

[Illustration: PLATE XII.

TRIFOLIUM BADIUM. SCHREB.

The Brown Clover. Trèfle brun. Braunklee.]




The Cold Mountain-Lentil

(_PHACA FRIGIDA_)


The Cold Milk-Vetch or Mountain-lentil—to give a literal translation
to its popular Swiss name, for it has no English—is a typical Alpine
plant, found in fair abundance between 5000 and 8000 feet, perhaps most
frequently in limestone districts. In rocky places or mountain meadows
it often grows in profusion, but it seems to avoid the pastures. The
stem is usually unbranched, about 6 or 8 inches high, and bears the pale
yellow or cream-coloured flowers and the bright green leaves, made up of
four or five pairs of leaflets with an odd one at the tip. The leaves are
arranged in pairs opposite to one another, and where they join the stem a
couple of pale broad wing-like stipules are attached. It is unfortunate
that these are not well seen in the photograph, for they are the most
characteristic thing about the plant. The Cold Mountain-lentil has an
extensive range, being found in mountain districts all over Europe,
Northern Asia, North America, and in the Arctic regions. It is thought to
have originated in the Steppes of Northern Asia.

_Phaca alpina_ differs from the above in being a somewhat taller plant
with branched stem, deeper yellow flowers, leaves made up of nine to
eleven pairs of leaflets, and smaller, narrower, stipules.

[Illustration: PLATE XIII.

PHACA FRIGIDA. L.

The Cold Milk-Vetch or Mountain-Lentil. Phaque Froide. Kalte Berglinse
oder Einfache Gletscherlinse.]




The Dull-Flowered Sweet Clover or Alpine Sainfoin

(_HEDYSARUM OBSCURUM_)


The Alpine Sainfoin is the only member of the sixteen European species
of _Hedysarum_ (Sainfoin) that is found in Switzerland. The plant
consists of a thick, dense underground stem which persists from year to
year and serves as a storehouse for food. Underground branches extend
outward from this in various directions and give rise to ascending shoots
bearing leaves and flowers. The short stalked leaves bear eleven to
nineteen leaflets which are arranged in pairs; the purple-red flowers
occur in clusters. The flowers are visited by bees on account of the
honey they contain. By means of a sort of catapult arrangement, which
only goes off when the bee settles on the flower, the body of the insect
becomes dusted with pollen and as the bee travels from flower to flower
pollination is effected. In the Western Alps a variety of this plant
with yellowish flowers is occasionally to be found. The seed vessel of
the Alpine Sainfoin is very characteristic. It is not unlike an ordinary
pea-pod, but is smaller, more flattened, and divided into two or three
oval segments by constrictions. The plant is fairly abundant between 5000
and 8000 feet, and flowers in July and August. It is rare in meadows,
but is found on the rocky borders of Alpine pastures and on the banks
of streams. It is met with in all parts of the Alps, in the mountainous
districts of Europe and Asia, and in the Arctic regions, and is thought
to have taken origin in the Steppes of Northern Asia. It should be very
easily recognised. The drooping habit of the flowers and the constricted
seed-pods are most characteristic.

The flowers of this species have generally more red in them than those of
the specimen photographed.

[Illustration: PLATE XIV.

HEDYSARUM OBSCURUM. L.

The Dull-Flowered Sweet Clover or Alpine Sainfoin. Esparcette des Alpes.
Dunkler Süssklee.]




The White Dryas

(_DRYAS OCTOPETALA_)


The White Dryas, or Silver-herb as the Swiss call it, is a characteristic
Alpine plant which is found all over Switzerland between 3000 and 8000
feet, and even descends to the plains with some of the rivers. It is
common in dry mountain pastures and rocky places, and seems to grow best
on limestone soil. Often the bare surfaces of rocks and boulders are
thickly covered with its matted growth, which persists from year to year
as soil gradually accumulates around it.

The thick dense rootstock gives rise to long trailing branches, which
extend in all directions and bear the leaves and flowers. Associated
with the root tips is a curious fungus growth, which from its constant
presence is thought to be of value to the plant. The tough leathery
evergreen leaves have rolled back notched edges. Their upper surfaces are
dark green, smooth, and polished, and devoid of the stomata or little
pores by which air is absorbed by green plants generally; the lower
surfaces are covered by thick white felt-like hairs. The flowers, which
appear from May till July, resemble those of the Alpine Anemone, but are
smaller. They have usually eight petals, hence the Latin name. Inside
the petals are a large number of stamens arranged in the form of a ring,
and inside these again a honey secreting gland which surrounds the mass
of closely packed carpels in the centre of the flower. The carpels bear
long silky styles, which grow out into beautiful feathery appendages
as the seeds ripen—another point of resemblance to the Alpine Anemone.
The carpels become ready for pollination before the stamens shed their
pollen. Then the outermost stamens open, and only after several days have
elapsed do the innermost stamens become mature. A little consideration
will show how wonderfully this arrangement is adapted to favour the
cross-fertilisation of the carpels by pollen brought from another
flower by the agency of insect visitors. Should this, for any reason,
fail, self-fertilisation will almost certainly be effected by means of
the pollen from the innermost stamens. If a large number of plants of
the White Dryas be carefully examined some will be found with flowers
containing both stamens and carpels, as above described, while others,
less numerous, have flowers with stamens only. These will of course
produce no seeds. Some plants, again, will be seen to bear both kind of
flowers. The White Dryas is found in the mountainous districts of Europe
and in the Arctic regions of the new and old worlds. The plant will be
readily recognised, for its leaves are quite different from those of an
anemone.

[Illustration: PLATE XV.

DRYAS OCTOPETALA. L.

The White Dryas or Silver-herb. Dryade à huit pétales. Echte Silberwurz.]




The Alpine Rose

(_ROSA ALPINA_)


THE Alpine Rose or Dog-Rose must not be confounded with the Alpenrose.
The resemblance is only in the names, for the Alpenrose so much beloved
by the Swiss is really a rhododendron and quite a different plant. The
Alpine Rose is a shrub sometimes 8 or 10 feet high, and only a single
branch is shown in the photograph. It is found on the borders of mountain
woods and in bushy places, from the lower slopes up to about 7000 feet,
and flowers in May, June, and July. The leaves consist of seven to
eleven leaflets, and there are broad stipules at the base of each leaf.
The sweet-scented flowers are of a rich rose-red colour. The sepals are
exceptionally long and project beyond the petals; this is especially
noticeable in the bud. The fruit or hip is flask-shaped and rather
narrowed at the base. Thorns are as a rule absent from the flowering
branches, but are generally to be found on the lower and younger shoots,
which point downwards. Sometimes they are absent altogether. The Alpine
Rose is found pretty abundantly in the mountain woods of Southern and
Central Europe, but does not extend to the North. Thus it grows in the
Pyrenees, Auvergne, the Balkans, and in one part of the Black Forest.

The Dog-Roses are phenomenally difficult to distinguish from one another,
and as many as fifty Swiss species are described. The characteristics
above mentioned, and especially the high elevation at which it is found,
will assist in the recognition of the present species. By the arrangement
and character of the leaves and spines and the shape of the fruit, the
Alpine Rose itself has been sub-divided into some thirty sub-species.

[Illustration: PLATE XVI.

ROSA ALPINA. L.

The Alpine Rose. Eglantine des Alpes. Alpen-Heckenrose.]




Fleischer’s Willow-Herb

(_EPILOBIUM FLEISCHERI_)


This plant is fairly common in the Alps and grows in dry stony places,
especially amongst the boulders of dried-up torrent beds and beside
some of the streams; with some of these it descends towards the plains.
Like not a few of the less common Alpine plants, where it is found at
all, it is usually met with in great abundance. The flowers which open
out in July are of great beauty, and their arrangements to prevent
self-pollination are of considerable interest. The stamens first ripen,
and while these are held erect the stigma is bent downward and the four
segments into which it is divided above are closely pressed together.
(Most of the flowers are in this stage in the photograph.) When the
pollen is shed the stamens bend downward, and not till then does the
stigma rise in the centre of the flower and its four lips become
separated from one another.

The flowers of Fleischer’s Willow-herb closely resemble those of the
Rose-bay (_Epilobium angustifolium_), common in bushy places all over
England, Switzerland, and Central Europe. But the Rose-bay is a bigger
plant with tall, usually unbranched stem and much larger leaves, which
are veined underneath. As will be seen by the photograph, the leaves
of Fleischer’s Willow-herb are narrow and lance-shaped, and the few
veins that can be made out are all parallel to one another. Closely
resembling the plant here photographed is the Rosemary-leaved Willow-herb
(_Epilobium rosmarinifolium_). Its leaves are usually more numerous,
narrower, and more strap-shaped, and its stem is taller and, as a rule,
more branched. But the most constant difference between the two plants is
to be found in the length of the stalk which bears the stigma (style).
This is as long as the stamens in _Epilobium rosmarinifolium_, but only
half this length in _Epilobium Fleischeri_.

[Illustration: PLATE XVII.

EPILOBIUM FLEISCHERI. HOCHST.

Fleischer’s Willow-Herb. Epilobe des Moraines. Weidenröschen.]




The Mountain House-Leek

(_SEMPERVIVUM MONTANUM_)


Several varieties of House-leek are found in Switzerland. They grow in
dry, rocky places, where moisture is scarce and where they are exposed
to the fierce heat of the sun. Their succulent leaves, covered by a
thick, almost leathery, cuticle, are arranged in rosettes, and serve
as storehouses for water. The plants grow slowly and in clusters, and
when each one has accumulated sufficient strength it throws up a long
central stalk bearing star-like flowers, and dies as the seeds mature.
The house-leeks are reproduced not only by means of seeds, but also by
runners, which extend outward and bear a small rosette of leaves at their
extremities. Some of these can be made out in the photograph. Some of the
Saxifrages closely resemble the house-leeks in habit of growth, but are
less succulent.

The Mountain House-leek is common all over the Alps between 4000 and
8000 feet, or even higher in certain parts. It seems to grow best on
primary granitic rock. The wedge-shaped rosette leaves are covered with
short glandular hairs. The rosettes are unfortunately not well seen in
the photograph, the leaves that can be made out being mainly those of
a species of Primula. From the centre of the rosette the flower stalk
arises. It is some 3 to 6 inches long and is covered with succulent
leaves with reddish tips. Above it divides into branches which bear
the beautiful star-like flowers. The flowers, which appear in July and
August, are usually of a pale red colour with a darker central stripe to
each petal. A variety with cream-coloured petals is very occasionally
found.

The Cobweb House-leek (_Sempervivum arachnoideum_) is not unlike the
plant here photographed, but will be readily distinguished from it by the
long white hairs borne at the tips of the rosette leaves, which become
interwoven with those of adjoining leaves to form a spider’s-web-like
structure. Its flowers are a brighter crimson than those of the Mountain
House-leek.

[Illustration: PLATE XVIII.

SEMPERVIVUM MONTANUM. L.

The Mountain House-leek. Joubarbe des Montagnes. Berg-Hauswurz.]




Sempervivum Funckii


Not unlike the Mountain House-leek photographed on the previous page
is _Sempervivum Funckii_. It is not a common plant, being only found
in Eastern Switzerland, the Tyrol, the Carpathians, and a few other
mountainous districts, and does not seem to have acquired any local name.
Compared with the Mountain House-leek the rosettes of leaves are a little
smaller. They are covered with much longer hairs, which are not, however,
twisted together into a spider’s web like those of the Cobweb House-leek.
As will be seen the flowers are of a beautiful pale pink colour, and each
petal has a stripe of a darker tint running down its centre. The plant
grows in rocky places.

The Common House-leek (_Sempervivum tectorum_), which is often seen in
England growing on old walls and on cottage roofs, where it is supposed
to protect from lightning, is also found in Switzerland. It is fairly
common in dry, rocky places, and ascends from the plains to 7000 feet.
Its purple flowers are not unlike those of _Sempervivum Funckii_, but
its wedge-shaped rosette leaves are only provided with hairs along
their margins, and are armed with sharp spines at their extremities. It
is, moreover, a much larger plant. The rosette leaves of _Sempervivum
Wulfeni_, another Alpine species, are very like those of the Common
House-leek, but the plant is readily distinguished by its yellow or
greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on primary rock between 6000 and 8000
feet, and is rather uncommon.

[Illustration: PLATE XIX.

SEMPERVIVUM FUNCKII. BRAUN.

Funcke’s House-leek. Joubarbe de Funcke. Funcke’s Hauswurz.]




The Evergreen Saxifrage

(_SAXIFRAGA AIZOIDES_)


THE Saxifrages have been extraordinarily successful in the Alps. Some
thirty different species, some of them exceedingly common, are met with
in Switzerland.

The Evergreen Saxifrage is one of the most abundant. It grows in moist
rocky places, at the foot of glaciers, and on the banks of mountain
streams and waterfalls. It ascends to 9000 feet in places and descends
almost to the plains with some of the rivers. The plant grows in tufts.
The erect flower stems are covered by the narrow, succulent leaves, which
have hairs along each margin; they terminate in branches bearing four to
eight flowers. The star-like flowers, which appear in July and August,
are made up of five brightly coloured petals alternating with five green
sepals. The petals may be lemon yellow with orange red spots, or, as in
the specimen here photographed (var. _atrorubens_), pure orange red. Next
comes a ring of ten stamens with dark red pollen, and then the showy
ring-like nectary and the two styles in the centre of the flower. The
honey is so obvious and abundant that insects of all kinds—flies, bees,
butterflies, and beetles—visit the flowers; but self-fertilisation is,
in the main, prevented by the pollen being shed before the ovaries with
their stigmata are ready for fertilisation. The Evergreen Saxifrage is to
be found in all parts of the Alps, and is also met with in the Arctic
regions.

With the help of the photograph no difficulty should be experienced in
recognising the plant. From the Stonecrops, notably the Biting Stonecrop
(_Sedum acre_), it is recognised by its possession of two styles. But
several of the other Saxifrages resemble it much more closely. The
Rough Saxifrage (_S. aspera_) has paler flowers and more hairy leaves.
The Moss-like Saxifrage (_S. bryoides_) has a moss-like growth and the
flowers are borne on long, usually unbranched, flower stalks. _Saxifraga
Sequieri_ has more flattened leaves, and _Saxifraga Hirculus_, which is
rare, has two raised spots at the base of each yellow petal.

[Illustration: PLATE XX.

SAXIFRAGA AIZOIDES. L.

The Evergreen Saxifrage. Saxifrage toujours verte ou Saxifrage pain
d’Oiseau. Immergrüner Steinbrech oder Borsten-Steinbrech.]




The Large Astrantia

(_ASTRANTIA MAJOR_)


This tall and handsome plant is common from the lower mountain region up
to 6000 feet all over Switzerland. It grows in meadows, bushy places,
and mountain woods. Several long-stalked leaves rise directly from the
root stock. They are of a large size, circular in general outline, and
consist of five or six radiating lobes with deep depressions between
them. The branched flower-stem, perhaps some 2 or 3 feet in height,
bears relatively few leaves. Its various branches terminate in what
appear to be single flowers, but what are really masses of tiny flowerets
with short stalks all of the same length, surrounded by a sort of cup
made up of radiating leaves. The individual flowers are greenish-white,
often with a pinkish tinge, and the radiating leaves are pale pink,
with a central green stripe and greenish tip. The flower-masses of
the Astrantia are an excellent example of the way in which small and
unattractive flowers combine together and form a structure, both large
and conspicuous, to attract insect visitors. These floral societies are
even better seen in the large natural order the Compositæ, of which our
next four photographs are examples. The Large Astrantia flowers in July
and August, and is met with in many of the mountain woods of Central
Europe as well as in the Alps. It is occasionally found in England.

The Small Astrantia (_Astrantia minor_) is a much smaller and more
slender plant. The notches in its leaves extend right up to the stem,
thus completely separating the eight or nine leaflets from one another.
The Hare’s-ear (_Bupleurum ranunculoides_) somewhat resembles the Large
Astrantia, but its flower-masses are entirely devoid of any tinge of pink
and its leaves are strap-shaped.

[Illustration: PLATE XXI.

ASTRANTIA MAJOR. L.

The Large Astrantia or Master-wort. Astrance Majeure ou Radiaire. Grosse
Sterndolde.]




The Alpine Starwort or Alpine Aster

(_ASTER ALPINUS_)


The beautiful little Alpine Aster is found all over the Alps. It flowers
in July, August, and September, but occasionally it may be found in bloom
even as early as May. It grows in dry Alpine pastures, sunny meadows, and
rocky places, not infrequently in company with the Edelweiss, between
4000 and 9000 feet; in a few places it extends much lower. The plant
consists of a rosette of woolly tufted leaves, with a central stem
bearing the solitary flower-head. In the higher regions the flower-stem
is short, perhaps only 4 inches in length, but nearer the plains it may
be 8 or 9 inches. In any case, however, the flower-head is large, an
inch or two in diameter, and conspicuous on account of the broad purple
ray florets, which contrast strongly with the golden yellow centre.
The Alpine Aster is very widely distributed, being found in Northern
Asia, Arctic America, and in most of the mountain ranges of Central and
Southern Europe, but not in the far North.

Closely resembling this plant is the Alpine Fleabane (_Erigeron alpina_).
It has narrower ray florets, which are arranged in several rows and
not in a single row like those of the Alpine Aster, and a branched
flower-stem bearing several separate flower-heads. The much rarer _Aster
Amellus_ differs from the Alpine Aster in the possession of a branched
flower-stem and blue, not purple, ray florets.

[Illustration: PLATE XXII.

ASTER ALPINUS. L.

The Alpine Aster or Alpine Starwort. Aster des Alpes. Alpen-Aster.]




The Cat’s-Foot, Mountain Everlasting or Mountain Cudweed

(_ANTENNARIA DIOICA_)


The Cat’s-foot, which is, after all, perhaps the most suitable name for
this curious plant, is abundant in the Alps from the lowest levels right
up to 7000 or 8000 feet. It is found in dry places, on moors and heaths,
and in dry open woods. It sometimes forms an unwished-for inhabitant of
the mountain pastures where it is disliked by the herdsmen, for it is an
undesirable plant for fodder. The leaves, like those of the Edelweiss,
are covered with white woolly hairs, and the flower stems are also hairy.
The flowers, which are pink or white, are dioicious, that is to say, the
same flower does not produce both pollen and seed, and seed-forming and
pollen-producing flowers do not occur on the same plant. As the pollen
is not carried by the wind from flower to flower, the plant is entirely
dependent upon its insect visitors for the fertilisation of its seeds,
and without them no seeds will be formed. The plant is also spread by
means of runners, which extend over the soil and take root at intervals.
The Swiss peasants make wreaths of the Mountain Everlasting, which
they wear as a charm, especially on Ascension Day. The plant is widely
distributed, and is found in the North of England and Scotland, as well
as most parts of Europe and the Polar regions.

The Carpathians Cudweed (_Antennaria carpathica_), which is also common
in Switzerland, differs from the Cat’s-foot in that its flowers are brown
rather than white or pink, and that it does not send out runners.

[Illustration: PLATE XXIII.

ANTENNARIA DIOICA. GÄRTNER.

The Cat’s-Foot, Mountain Everlasting, or Mountain Cudweed. Gnaphale
dioique ou Pied de Chat. Echtes Katzenpfötchen oder Mayensässblume.]




The Arnica

(_ARNICA MONTANA_)


A bright conspicuous plant is the Arnica, with its yellow star-like
flower-heads. It grows in meadows, pastures, and on sunny moors, and is
widely distributed in the Alps, from the lower mountain regions up to
8000 feet. It is much less common in limestone than in other districts.
Four broad green leaves grow from the root in the form of a cross. In
the centre of these rises the erect flower-stalk some 8 or 9 inches
long, and covered with glandular hairs. On the flower-stalk are borne
the one or two pairs of leaves, without stalks, and arranged opposite
to one another. The flower-heads are drooping in the bud, but when they
open they are large and conspicuous and of a deep yellow colour. They
give forth a faint, resinous, not very pleasing, odour. The outer or ray
florets of the flower-head have long projecting strap-shaped petals.
Their purpose is to attract insects to the floral society, and the less
conspicuous florets in the centre of the flower-head produce just as good
seeds. At first but a single flower-head is formed, but later on, if the
plant is vigorous, buds appear in the axils of the opposite stem-leaves,
and two more flower-heads appear. This is what has happened in the two
specimens here photographed, and a second pair of buds is seen in one
of them. It is interesting to note that a mould-like fungus is found
constantly associated with the roots of the plant. It is believed that
the two plants grow together to the mutual advantage of each, the fungus
assisting the Arnica to obtain nourishment from the soil, and in return
receiving from it some of the organic matter manufactured from the air
with the help of light. The root has a bitter aromatic taste. From it
is made the tincture of Arnica, which is often applied to bruises,
apparently, however, without any very considerable influence upon them.

Several other Alpine plants, the Doronicum and Aronics, for example, have
bright yellow flower-heads like the Arnica, but as no similar Alpine
plant has pairs of opposite leaves on the flower-stem, the recognition of
the Arnica becomes a very simple matter.

[Illustration: PLATE XXIV.

ARNICA MONTANA. L.

The Arnica. Arnica. Echtes Wohlverlei.]




The Spiny Fuller’s Thistle

(_CIRCIUM SPINOSISSIMUM_)

(_See Frontispiece_)


This stately and beautiful plant is common in all parts of the Alps,
but is found nowhere else. It grows in moist places in the meadows and
pastures, and beside the streams, between 4000 and 7000 feet. It is
generally looked upon as a noxious weed by the herdsmen, but in one or
two places the upper and more succulent parts are gathered and preserved
as pigs’ food for the winter.

The thick evergreen leaves, armed with formidable spines, are paler
at the upper part of the stem where they surround the large brown
flower-head. Usually but a single flower-head is borne by each plant,
but each one produces some hundreds of seeds. Each seed has a feathery
wing-like appendage, so that it may be more easily distributed by the
wind. The Spiny Fuller’s Thistle is usually some 3½ or 4 feet high, as
was the specimen photographed, but in high altitudes the plant is more
bushy and stunted. Under these conditions it is not unlike the Stemless
or Alpine Carline Thistle (_Carlina acaulis_), which, in spite of its
name, has sometimes a stem some 8 or 10 inches long. But the Carline
Thistle has a larger and more flattened flower-head, and when the flowers
are in bloom they are of a purple colour, though they soon turn brown as
they get dried up.

Probably the nearest relation of the plant here photographed is the
Common Fuller’s Thistle (_Circium oloraceum_), abundant in moist places,
both in the Alps and lowlands. It is a plant that would seem to be
protected by its resemblance to other members of its family, for though
it appears spiny, it is soft and succulent, and bears not a single
prickle anywhere. The leaves, which are sparsely distributed on the
slender stem, are of a dirty grey-green colour, and though as tall as its
spiny relative, the plant is much less robust.




The Round-Headed Rampion

(_PHYTEUMA ORBICULARE_)


In England we have only two kinds of Rampion and both are rare, but in
Switzerland there are no less than ten different species, with blue
and white flowers, and some of them are extremely abundant. One of
the commonest of the blue-flowered varieties is here photographed. It
grows in mountain pastures and poor meadows between 3000 and 8000 feet,
and is found not only in the Alps but all over Central Europe, though
absent in the North. It flowers in July, and the size of the plant
undergoes considerable variation according to the altitude at which it
grows. Sometimes the flower-stalks are but 3 or 4 inches long, at others
16 or 18. The leaves, which grow from the root stock, have serrated
edges, and are frequently a good deal larger than those of the specimen
photographed. The methods adopted by the plant for the distribution
of its pollen and the fertilisation of its seeds through the agency
of insect visitors are of particular interest. Each flower of the
flower-head is formed of a blue tubular structure (corolla), which is at
first closed above. In the centre of this is the style covered by short
hairs and surrounded by the five stamens. While still in the bud the
stamens shed their pollen, which collects in the tube around the style
and is retained in position by the short hairs. Now the flower opens
at its tip, and while maintaining its tubular character above splits
longitudinally below into five or six segments, so that linear openings
are formed. The result is that when an insect settles on the flower the
tubular corolla is very easily depressed, exposing the style surrounded
on all sides by pollen. Any pollen that is not removed by the insect
falls from the style, for the short hairs on the style by which it is
held in position very soon fade. The style then splits above into three
segments, exposing for the first time the sticky stigmatic surface now
ready for pollination.

The Round-headed Rampion is one of the five Swiss species with rounded,
not elongated, flower-heads. Three of them can at once be put aside,
because they are usually much smaller plants and have less than twelve
flowers to a flower-head, whereas the Round-headed Rampion has always
more. _Phyteuma Scheuchzeri_ is distinguished from this plant by its
lilac flowers, longer stalked and usually broader basal leaves, and
especially by the circle of leaves immediately beneath the flower-head,
which are longer than the flowers themselves.

[Illustration: PLATE XXV.

PHYTEUMA ORBICULARE. L.

The Round-headed Rampion. Raiponce à Capitules Arrondies. Kugelköpfige
Rapunzel.]




The Bearded Bell-flower or Campanula

(_CAMPANULA BARBATA_)


Of the numerous Bell-flowers which abound in the Alps none is more
quaint and beautiful than the one here photographed. The whole plant,
stem, leaves, and flowers, is covered with short hairs, but around the
mouth of the bell the hairs are longer and stiffer, and pure white. It
is interesting to note that when cultivated in rockeries in England the
hairy character of the plant almost entirely disappears. Some three to
five pendent flowers are borne by each flower-stalk, all turned in the
same direction. Occasionally a single flowered variety is met with,
usually at a high altitude. The ordinary pale blue colour of the flower
may disappear entirely, and specimens with pure white blossoms are not
infrequent. The plant is found abundantly all over the Alps and Sub-Alps,
in meadows and pastures, and to a less extent in open woods, from 3000
feet almost to the snowline (7000 to 9000 feet). It is usually less
abundant on limestone than on other rocks. The Bearded Bell-flower is
also met with in the Carpathians, Jura, southern parts of Norway, and in
other mountainous districts in Europe. It is probably a native of the
Alps.

No difficulty will be experienced in recognising the Bearded Campanula.
No other Bell-flower has little projections between each of the five
teeth of the calyx which are turned back towards the stem. Only one
other Bell-flower (_Campanula Zoysii_), and that a species not always
recognised as distinct, has a light blue corolla with long hairs around
its mouth. But here there is a constriction just immediately below the
opening of the bell, and the plant is smaller and very rare, and occurs
only in Eastern Switzerland.

[Illustration: PLATE XXVI.

CAMPANULA BARBATA. L.

The Bearded Bell-flower or Campanula. Campanule Barbue. Bärtige
Glockenblume.]




The Dwarf Hair-Bell or Bell-Flower

(_CAMPANULA PUSILLA_)


The photograph gives a good general idea of the tufted growth of the
Dwarf Bell-flower. The plant is quite small, rarely more than 3 or 4
inches high, and forms dense close-growing tufts of some size. The
smooth or hairy flower-stalks bear one to six pale blue flowers and the
narrow leaves, which are most numerous and have serrated edges below.
There are also short flowerless branches covered with similar leaves,
and a few broader leaves with longer stalks grow directly from the root
stock. These last are not well seen in the photograph. The plant is very
abundant in dry rocky and sandy places, in dried up torrent-beds, by the
roadside and on the tops of walls. It is found from the lower mountain
region up to some 8000 feet, and descends with some of the rivers towards
the plains. It is also found in the Jura and parts of the Black Forest.

The Dwarf Bell-flower will be recognised from most of the other species
of Campanula which abound in Switzerland by its broad basal leaves, its
narrow stem leaves, and its erect seed pod. But, unfortunately, there
are three other Swiss species to which this description equally well
applies. Of these the rare _Campanula excisa_ is at once picked out by
the deep rounded clefts between the five segments of its bell-shaped
flower. _Campanula Scheuchzeri_ is a larger plant of more open and less
tufted growth and with fewer flowerless leafy shoots. Its bell-shaped
flowers are usually of a darker blue, are more conical, and have a
wider opening; they are, in fact, less truly bell-shaped. _Campanula
rotundifolia_, the common Hair-bell of our heaths and downs, which occurs
also in Switzerland, is slightly taller than our plant and has also more
cone-shaped flowers. Its flower buds are held erect, while those of the
other three Bell-flowers we are considering are dependent. In a general
way, the low stature and tufted growth of the Dwarf Bell-flower will, in
most cases, suffice for its recognition.

[Illustration: PLATE XXVII.

CAMPANULA PUSILLA. HÆNK.

The Dwarf Hair-bell or Bell-flower. Petite Campanule ou Campanule Naine.
Kleine Glockenblume.]




The Hairy-Leaved Alpenrose

(_RHODODENDRON HIRSUTUM_)


The Alpenrose is the commonest and best known of all the Alpine plants.
It abounds almost everywhere; were it not so it would have become
practically extinct years before, for it is gathered unmercifully. Nor
are the visitors to Switzerland alone responsible for this. Every Sunday
throughout the summer, crowds of the native peasants, both children and
adults, may be seen returning home, each bearing in his arms an immense
bunch of the favourite flower, and often with a second and smaller
nosegay tied round the top of his alpenstock.

There are really two distinct species of Alpenrose, the Hairy-leaved
(_Rhododendron hirsutum_), and the Rusty-leaved (_Rhododendron
ferrugineum_) varieties, and a hybrid or cross between them is also
less commonly found. Both varieties are low evergreen shrubs with thick
leathery leaves which only fade after three or four years. Both have
raised brown spots on the lower surfaces of the leaves, only they are
much more numerous on the Rusty-leaved species, so that the under surface
of the leaf is completely covered with them while they are only sparsely
scattered on the leaf of the Hairy-leaved variety. They contain a balsam,
and are thought to be of use to the plant in preventing its drying up.
They may also assist in the absorption of water. The flowers of both
species are admirably adapted for cross-fertilisation by the humble-bees
which visit them. The stamens first mature, and not until the great
part of the pollen is shed does the stigma lengthen and become ready
for pollination. The long hairs growing from the stalks which bear the
stamens interlock with similar hairs on the inside of the corolla, and
thus effectively prevent the entrance of smaller insects which might
visit the flower in search of the abundant honey, but which would fail
to effect its fertilisation. The flowers of the species here illustrated
are usually a little paler in colour, slightly smaller, and open a
little later than those of the Rusty-leaved variety. The plant usually
forms a lower and more thickly branched shrub, with rather shorter
twigs. But the essential distinguishing features between the two are
to be found in their leaves. The leaves of _Rhododendron hirsutum_ are
usually broader and less pointed, green underneath, and have well-marked
hairs all round their edges. In _Rhododendron ferrugineum_ the leaves
tend to be narrower, darker green above, and brown underneath, and are
entirely devoid of hairs, but have rolled back edges. Both species are
found abundantly in rocky places between 4000 and 8000 feet, and flower
in June, July, and August, and may be seen at their best in July. The
Rusty-leaved variety seems to prefer a rather moister spot and may also
be found on peat. It is most abundant on primary granitic rock, while the
other species grows best on limestone.

[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.

RHODODENDRON HIRSUTUM. L.

The Hairy-leaved Alpenrose. Rhododendron cilié ou hérissé. Bewimperte
Alpenrose, oder Wimpern-Alpenrose.]




The Lesser Winter-Green

(_PYROLA MINOR_)


The plant here photographed derives its English name from the evergreen
character of its leaves. It is in fact a British plant, being found
somewhat rarely in Scotland and in the North, but is much more common
in Switzerland. It grows among the moss in shady woods, from the plains
right up to the tree-limit and may even reach 8000 feet or higher, where
protected by shrubs and bushes. The plant is widely distributed in
Switzerland and is also found in Vosges, Pyrenees, and Jura. It flowers
in July.

The Lesser Winter-Green will be recognised by its short, straight style,
which does not project beyond the flower and which is closely surrounded
by the stamens which converge toward it. Of the four other Swiss Pyrolas
which resemble the above, two only are at all common, and these two will
alone be mentioned. _Pyrola secunda_ will be recognised by its longer
straight style, which projects beyond the petals and by its greenish
white flowers, which are all turned in the same direction. Its leaves are
more pointed and have deeper notches than those of our plant. _Pyrola
rotundifolia_ has also a style that projects beyond the petals, but it is
curved so that the stigmatic surface at its extremity is far below the
centre of the flower.

[Illustration: PLATE XXIX.

PYROLA MINOR. L.

The Lesser Winter-green. Petite Pyrole. Kleines Wintergrün.]




The Stemless Gentian

(_GENTIANA ACAULIS_)


Many species of Gentian are met with in the Alps. One of the best known
of the smaller varieties is the Stemless Gentian or Gentianella, which is
a frequent inhabitant of heaths, meadows and pastures all over the higher
parts of Switzerland, and is also found in the Jura and Carpathians,
being less common on limestone soil and more abundant on primary granitic
rock. The plant grows at an altitude of 4000 to 8000 feet, and flowers
in June, July, and August. Occasionally it descends much lower and may
even be found below 1500 feet in a few special localities. Each plant
consists of a small rosette of leaves, a very short stem, and a single
bell-shaped flower of deep azure blue. Very often two or three plants
are found growing together and a small group such as that photographed
is not infrequent. Occasionally also specimens with pale blue, rose red
or even white flowers may be seen. When the flower has been fertilised,
and while the seeds are maturing, the brightly coloured corolla shrivels
up and surrounds the seed vessel, at the same time becoming of a green
colour and perhaps taking on a vegetative function. The leaves are rather
leathery, narrow, and pointed.

It is often quite a difficult matter to distinguish between the Stemless
Gentian, here illustrated, and the Carved Gentian (_Gentiana excisa_),
not only because the two plants are so much alike but also because
intermediate forms exist; indeed, it is open to question whether the
two plants are really to be regarded as distinct species. In the Carved
Gentian the calyx lobes become contracted just above their bases, to
widen out again above, and the recesses between the lobes are more
rounded and less pointed. The leaves also are broader, less leathery, and
not nearly so sharp pointed as those of the so-called stemless variety.
The flowers of the Marsh Gentian (_Gentiana Pneumonanthe_) are also not
unlike those of the plant here photographed, but it should be readily
distinguished because its leaves are much narrower and several flowers
are borne by a single plant.

[Illustration: PLATE XXX.

GENTIANA ACAULIS. L. (GENTIANA CLUSII).

The Stemless Gentian. Gentiane à Tige Courte. Stengelloser Enzian oder
Erd-Enzian.]




The Short-Leaved Gentian

(_GENTIANA BRACHYPHYLLA_)


A particularly fine group of this beautiful little Gentian is here
photographed. It is typical of the high Alps or snow region, and is
rarely found below 6000 feet, and while scarce above 9000 is to be
gathered even at 12,000 feet on the Matterhorn. But a single flower is
borne by each little plant at the top of a short stem, which also bears
the small, thick, closely packed leaves. The plant is found growing in
the turf of mountain pastures and rocky places in the central parts of
the whole Alpine chain. It is moderately common particularly on primary
rock, and is also met with in Dauphiny and the Pyrenees.

Of the twenty or more species of Gentian that occur in Switzerland,
some are tall, stately plants, bearing numerous blue, yellow, or purple
flowers. Others are much smaller and bear relatively few flowers, or
even one only in small feeble plants. A few never have more than a
single blossom to each little plant. Among these last are the Stemless
Gentian with its bell-shaped flower, figured on the previous plate,
and the Short-leaved Gentian with its star-like flower, which we here
illustrate. As a matter of fact, there are really three single-flowered
Star-Gentians and to distinguish between them is not easy. Of these the
Bavarian Gentian (_Gentiana bavarica_) is recognised from our plant by
its longer stem, perhaps 2 to 3 inches long, on which only two or three
pairs of opposite leaves are borne, and by the fact that the lower leaves
are smaller than the upper. The Spring Gentian (_Gentiana verna_) has a
very short stem, covered by closely packed leaves like the short-leaved
variety, and like it, too, the lower leaves are the larger, but its
leaves are harder, narrower, and more pointed, and short wing-like
projections are found on its calyx.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXI.

GENTIANA BRACHYPHYLLA. FROL.

The Short-leaved Gentian. Gentiane à Feuilles Courtes. Kurzblättriger
Enzian oder Eiförmiger Enzian.]




The Alpine Toad-Flax

(_LINARIA ALPINA_)


This beautiful little plant is abundant in all parts of the Alps. It
is one of the first to take possession of fresh soil, but disappears
rapidly under the stress of competition with other plants. Its numerous
winged seeds are carried far and wide by the wind, and take root and grow
rapidly on any open space. Hence it is found among the general rocky
débris of the mountain-side, on the moraines of glaciers, and on the
fresh soil brought down by avalanches, and is most abundant in limestone
districts. Its true home is the high Alps and the snow region, and it
flourishes best between 5000 and 9000 feet; but it is often carried down
to a much lower level by the rivers, and is even found locally in the
plains of Southern Germany. The Alpine Toad-flax is an inhabitant of most
of the mountain ranges of Central and Southern Europe, and is thought to
have taken origin in the South. It flowers from June till September, and
seems to have derived its name from its flax-like foliage.

From the root stock arise one or more prostrate branches which creep over
the rocks and soil, and turn upward at their extremities to terminate
in a bunch of the brightly-coloured flowers. The grey-green leaves are
narrow and succulent, and are arranged in whorls of four on the stem. The
flowers are furnished with a long spur which contains the honey, and
are only visited by bees and humble-bees. The common humble-bee has a
long enough tongue to reach to the tip of the spur and is the chief agent
in the fertilisation of the plant. The orange-yellow spot at the only
opening to the flower is equivalent to a notice “this way to the honey.”
Should no insect visit a flower self-fertilisation will nevertheless
occur and seeds will be produced all the same. A variety of this plant,
with flowers of a uniform red-violet colour and without any orange-yellow
spot, grows on primary granitic rock. A second and much rarer type has
pure yellow blossoms.

The plant is sure to be easily recognised. The prostrate stem, narrow
leaves, and entirely closed up flowers that grow together in bunches are
some of the more characteristic features.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXII.

LINARIA ALPINA. MILL.

The Alpine Toad-flax. Linaire des Alpes. Alpen-Leinkraut.]




The Alpine Balsam

(_ERINUS ALPINUS_)


The Alpine Balsam is a characteristic rock plant of the limestone Alps.
Taking root in the clefts of the rocks, it sends out radiating branches
in all directions, which adhere closely to the surface. It may also be
sought in dry mountain meadows and among the grass of dry stony slopes,
and is fairly common between 4000 and 7000 feet. Sometimes it is met
with at a lower altitude in rocky places. The leaves, which are broader
at their free extremities and covered by short hairs, are crowded
together at the base of the stem. They have deeply serrated edges.
The violet-purple or occasionally white flowers, which are formed of
five petals united at their bases, are borne at the extremities of the
branches. The Alpine Balsam is found not only in the Swiss Alps but also
in the Tyrol, the Jura, the Vosges and Pyrenees. It flowers from early
June till August.

The flowers of the Bird’s-eye or Mealy Primrose (_Primula farinosa_) are
not unlike those of the Alpine Balsam, at any rate at first sight. But
each Mealy Primrose plant bears but a single leafless flower-stem which
terminates in a cluster of flowers. Moreover, the Mealy Primrose is found
in moist meadows and boggy places, and rarely among rocks, and its leaves
have a grey, powdery bloom on their lower surfaces.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXIII.

ERINUS ALPINUS. L.

The Alpine Balsam. Erine des Alpes. Alpen-Leberbalsam.]




The Leafy Lousewort

(_PEDICULARIS FOLIOSA_)


The Louseworts as a whole have been exceedingly successful in the Alps.
No less than fourteen different species are to be found, and some of
them are exceedingly common. In spite of their unpleasant name they
are for the most part really beautiful plants, and as a group they are
interesting in several ways. In the first place, they are all in some
degree parasites on other plants. Branches arise from the roots which
attach themselves to the roots of neighbouring plants and absorb from
them water or salts or even organic nourishment. The Leafy Lousewort
is not a great offender in this respect, but other species are capable
of completely destroying many of the surrounding plants. The method of
pollination of the Lousewort flowers is also somewhat remarkable. The
flowers are only visited by humble bees, for no other insect appears to
be strong enough to force an entrance into the flower. As may be made out
from the photograph, the flower consists of two lips. In the upper is a
vertical slit through which the stigma alone projects, but immediately
behind the slit are the four stamens. The lower lip forms practically a
landing stage for insect visitors. When the humble-bee alights on the
flower his head is sure to come in contact with the projecting stigma
and some of the pollen which he unconsciously carries with him will be
removed. As he bends forward and thrusts his head into the flower to
suck the honey the vertical slit in the upper lip will be widened out
and the stamens will protrude and strike the insect’s head. When the
humble-bee at last leaves the flower to continue his journey its various
parts will resume their former relative positions. Should no insects
visit the flower self-pollination will occur. This appears to be the
usual course of events in the North where humble-bees are scarce. In
Spitzbergen, where there are no humble-bees, a nearly-related species,
_Pedicularis lanata_, is said to be regularly self-fertilised without
apparently suffering in any possible way.

The Leafy Lousewort here illustrated is the commonest variety in most
districts. It is a tall, stately plant, often some two feet high, which
is found on grassy slopes and in rocky places between 3500 and 7000 feet,
and grows best on a limestone soil. The large fine-divided leaves are
even found among the pale yellow flowers on the flower-stem. The plant
flowers in June and July, and is found in the Alps, Pyrenees, Vosges, and
Jura. It will be readily recognised by its alternate leaves, and pale
yellow hairy flowers, without any beak-like projection at their summits.
_Pedicularis Oederi_, which is a little like it, has no foliage leaves
between the flowers, which are devoid of hairs, and have a blackish red
spot on either side of the upper lip.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXIV.

PEDICULARIS FOLIOSA. L.

The Leafy Lousewort. Pédiculaire à épi feuillé. Reichbeblättertes
Läusekraut.]




The Yellow Auricula

(_PRIMULA AURICULA_)


Directly the snow melts up come the Auriculas, but only on limestone
soil. The Auricula is really a spring plant, and usually flowers in
May, but where protected by slowly melting masses of snow it may not
bloom till much later; the accompanying photograph was taken in July.
The thick, dense rootstock penetrates deep into the clefts of the rock.
The leaves are smooth, rather fleshy, and of a bluish-green colour. The
upper surface of the leaves, the flower-stalk and the calyx are covered
with a white mealy substance. The leaves appear to serve the plant as a
means of absorbing or storing water. Although the thick, dense cuticle
usually present on leaves which have this function is here absent, they
are found to dry up very slowly. It is probable that the thick cellulose
walls between the individual cells replace the cuticle in the leaves of
this plant. The flowers give forth a pleasant odour, something like that
of the cowslip, but rather sweeter. Like the flowers of the primrose,
they are of two kinds. The one has a long stigma which projects as far
as the opening of the flower, and short stamens, and the converse is the
case in the other. The object of this arrangement is to facilitate the
pollination of the flowers by the agency of insect visitors as they pass
from the one type to the other. Darwin found that very few seeds were
formed when the flowers were self-fertilised.

The Auricula grows in rocky places between 3000 and 7000 feet. It is only
found in limestone districts, and is rather local. It is also to be met
with in the Jura, Dauphiny, the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, and in one or
two places in the Black Forest.

The Auricula will be readily recognised. From the Oxlip (_Primula
elatior_) and Cowslip (_Primula officinalis_ or _veris_), it is
distinguished by its smooth, not wrinkled, leaves and mealy stem. It is
probable that most of the brilliantly coloured garden Auriculas were
originally derived from this species.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXV.

PRIMULA AURICULA. L.

The Yellow Auricula. Primevère Auricule. Felsen-Aurikel oder
Flühblüemli.]




The Marsh Orchis

(_ORCHIS LATIFOLIA_)


A large number of Orchids are to be found in the Alps. They form a
well-defined group of plants which are particularly interesting in
view of complicated devices which they have adopted to ensure the
fertilisation of their seeds by the agency of insect visitors. Nearly all
the English species are found in Switzerland, and most of them are met
with in much greater abundance there. The beautiful pink Helleborine, the
sweet-scented Butterfly Orchis, may be found in profusion on the lower
mountain slopes, and the dark red Nigritella, with its odour of vanilla,
and the ghost-like Coral-root, in the higher regions.

Of the genus Orchis alone there are no less than seventeen Swiss species.
Many of these are much alike, and by no means easy to distinguish from
one another. One of the most abundant is the Marsh Orchis, which is also
met with in England, but is not nearly so common there. The plant grows
in damp meadows and boggy places, where an average sized plant may be 18
inches or two feet high. Its large purple spotted flowers appear in June
and may last until July.

The methods adopted by the plant to ensure the fertilisation of its
flowers by means of insect visitors are most elaborate and exact, but
without the aid of diagrams they are a little difficult to explain. It is
curious that no honey is contained in the spur. It is probably the cell
sap in it that is attractive to insects.

The Marsh Orchis will be recognised by its spreading spotted leaves,
hollow stem, the palm-shaped tubers of its root, and the thick spur to
the flower.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXVI.

ORCHIS LATIFOLIA. L.

The Marsh Orchis. L’Orchis à Feuilles Larges. Breitblättriges
Knabenkraut.]




The Lady’s Slipper

(_CYPRIPEDIUM CALCEOLUS_)


This is one of the most striking plants of the Swiss flora, and while
nowhere common is pretty widely distributed in the limestone districts of
the Alps. It is a plant of some size, perhaps 12 to 24 inches in height,
and grows in stony woods from the lower mountain region up to 6500 feet.
One to three large yellow flowers are borne by each plant. Their method
of fertilisation is of exceptional interest. Close to the attachment of
the yellow slipper-shaped petal to the rest of the flower is a projection
bearing on each side a stigmatic surface below and a mass of pollen
above. The large yellow petal is smooth inside and has overhanging edges,
rather like those of the familiar beetle-trap that is used for catching
cockroaches, and as we shall see in a moment it acts in a similar manner.
There is no honey in the flower, and it is not quite clear what the small
bees that have been seen visiting it go there for. But at any rate when
they once get in they have the greatest possible difficulty in getting
out again, and only succeed in doing so by climbing up the attached side
of the flower where the edges are not overhanging, that is on either side
of the central projection. In doing this they are sure to brush first
against the stigmatic surface, leaving behind some of the pollen they may
chance to have sticking to them, and then against the viscid mass of
pollen, some of which is sure to become attached to them. This process
has been actually observed by Dr Herman Müller in the Alps.

The Lady’s Slipper Orchid is found also in the Jura, Tyrol, Dauphiny,
Pyrenees, in certain parts of Central and Southern Germany, and even in
the North of England. It is everywhere rather rare, but specially so
in this country. It flowers in May and June, and is sure to be easily
recognised, for there is no other plant in the least like it.

No doubt such names as the Lady’s Slipper, Lady’s Mantle, and
Lady’s-Tresses refer to the dedication of the plant to the Virgin in
mediæval times. The French name, “Sabot de Vénus,” refers to a very
different personage. A comparison between the English, French, German,
and the scientific names, for the last of which Linneus is responsible,
is a good example of the way in which the goddess Venus and the Virgin
Mary were often confounded with one another in the early days.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXVII.

CYPRIPEDIUM CALCEOLUS. L.

The Lady’s-Slipper Orchid. Sabot de Vénus. Gemeiner Frauenschuh.]




The White Veratrum

(_VERATRUM ALBUM_)


The White Veratrum is a tall weed with large green leaves, very abundant
in moist meadows and pastures in all parts of the Alps between 2000 and
6000 feet. Before the flowers appear it strongly suggests one of the
larger Gentians, but the flowers, which come out in July and August,
are quite different. It is a widely distributed plant, being found in
Russia, Siberia, Lapland, as well as in most of the mountain ranges of
Central and Southern Europe. It appears to have been left as a relic of
the glacial period in the higher parts of Silesia and the Black Forest.
The large green leaves are downy beneath, and the flowers, which are
always green externally, may be pure white (var. _typicum_), or more
commonly yellowish-green (var. _Lobelianum_), internally. Some would
regard these two varieties as distinct species. The whole plant is
extremely poisonous. Sometimes it is eaten by the sheep and goats with
disastrous results to the herdsmen, but the cattle are wiser and rarely
make this mistake. The poison is an alkaloid Veratrin, which is contained
in largest quantities in the root from which it is extracted for medical
purposes. If the root be tasted it will at first appear sweet, but its
acrid, bitter flavour soon overpowers this first impression. The Swiss
herdsmen look upon the White Veratrum as a noxious weed, not only because
of its poisonous properties but also because it grows in the richest
soil and robs the true fodder plants of nourishment. In the Jura, on the
other hand, the farmers rather welcome it. They say that the shade of its
large leaves preserves the grass for the cattle and prevents it becoming
dried up by the scorching sun.

The White Veratrum will be easily recognised. Its nearest relative, the
Black Veratrum (_Veratrum nigrum_), is a much rarer plant that grows in
woods. It has reddish-black or chocolate flowers, which grow in large
spikes like those of the plant here illustrated, but each individual
flower has a relatively longer flower-stalk.

[Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII.

VERATRUM ALBUM. L.

The White Veratrum. Hellébore blanc ou Vératre blanc. Weisser Germer.]




Index


  A

  _Abies pectinata_, xi

  Aconites, 6

  _Aconitum Anthora_, 8
    _Lycoctonum_, 8
    _Napellus_, 6
    _paniculatum_, 7

  Alpenrose, the Hairy-leaved, 58
    the Rusty-leaved, 58

  Alpine anemone, 2
    Aster, 44
    Balsam, 68
    Carline Thistle, 50
    Clover, 22
    Fleabane, 44
    Honeysuckle, x
    Region, xii
    Rose, 32
    Sainfoin, 28
    Starwort, 44
    Toad-flax, 66

  _Alps_, xii

  Altitude, x

  _Anemone alpina_, 2
    _Narcissiflora_, 2
    _nemorosa_, 2
    _Pulsatilla_, 2

  _Antennaria carpathica_, 47
    _dioica_, 46

  _Arnica montana_, 48

  Arnica, 48

  Arolla, xii

  Aronics, 49

  _Aster alpinus_, 44
    _Amellus_, 45

  Aster, the Alpine, 44

  _Astrantia major_, 42

  _Astrantia minor_, 43

  Astrantia, the Large, 42
    the Small, 43

  Auricula, the Yellow, 72

  Auriculas, garden, 73


  B

  Ball, John, xxii

  Balsam, the Alpine, 68

  Bavarian Gentian, 64

  Bearded Bell-flower, 54

  Bell-flower, the Bearded, 54
    the Dwarf, 56

  Bird’s-eye, 68

  Biting Stonecrop, 41

  Black Veratrum, 79

  Blood Geranium, 20

  Bonnier, Professor, xv

  Box-leaved Milkwort, 14

  Brook Crane’s-bill, 20

  Brown Clover, 24

  _Bupleurum ranunculoides_, 43


  C

  _Campanula barbata_, 54
    _excisa_, 56
    _pusilla_, 56
    _rotundifolia_, 57
    _Scheuchzeri_, 57
    _Zoysii_, 55

  Campanula, the Bearded, 54

  Campion, the Moss, 18

  _Carlina acaulis_, 50

  Carline Thistle, the Alpine, 50

  Carpathians Cudweed, 47

  Carved Gentian, 62

  Cat’s-foot, 46

  “Chamois’ beards,” 2

  Chickweed, 16

  Christmas tree, xi

  _Circium oloraceum_, 51
    _spinosissimum_, 50

  Climate of Alps, xi

  Clover, the Alpine, 22
    Brown, 24
    Dull-flowered Sweet, 28

  Cobweb House-leek, 37

  Cold Milk-Vetch, 26
    Mountain-lentil, 26

  Colours of Alpine flowers, xix

  Common Fuller’s Thistle, 51
    Milk wort, 14
    Monk’s-Hood, 6

  Cowslip, 73

  Crane’s-bill, Brook, 20
    Meadow, 20

  Creeping Gypsophila, 16

  Crocuses, xv

  Cudweed, Carpathian, 47
    Mountain, 46

  Cultivation of Alpine plants, xxiv

  Cushion Pink, 18

  “Cushion plant,” 18

  _Cypripedium calceolus_, 76


  D

  Destruction of Alpine plants, xxiii

  Dog-Rose, 32

  Doronicum, 49

  _Dryas octopetala_, 30

  Dryas, the White, 30

  Dull-flowered Sweet Clover, 26

  Dwarf Bell-flower, 56
    Hair-Bell, 56


  E

  Edelweiss, xv, xviii, 46

  _Epilobium angustifolium_, 34
    _Fleischeri_, 34
    _rosmarinifolium_, 35

  _Erigeron alpina_, 44

  _Erinus alpinus_, 68

  _Eritrichium nanum_, xiii

  Evergreen Saxifrage, 40

  Everlasting, the Mountain, 46

  Eyebright, xix


  F

  Fleabane, the Alpine, 44

  Fleischer’s Willow-herb, 34

  Flowers of Alpine plants, xix

  Forget-me-not, xix

  Fuller’s Thistle, the Common, 51
    the Spiny, 50


  G

  Gentian, the Bavarian, 64
    the Carved, 63
    the Marsh, 36
    the Short-leaved, 64
    the Spring, 65
    the Stemless, 62

  _Gentiana acaulis_, 62
    _bavarica_, 64
    _brachyphylla_, 64

  _Gentiana excisa_, 63
    _Pneumonanthe_, 63
    _verna_, 65

  Geranium, the Blood, 20
    the Wood, 20

  _Geranium pratense_, 20
    _rivulare_, 20
    _sanguinum_, 20
    _sylvaticum_, 20

  Glacial period, xxii

  Glacier Crowfoot, xiii

  _Glaucium luteum_, xiii

  Globe Flower, 4

  Gypsophila, the Creeping, 16

  _Gypsophila repens_, 16


  H

  Hair-bell, the Common, 57
    the Dwarf, 56

  Hairy-leaved Alpenrose, 58

  Hare’s-ear, 43

  _Hedysarum obscurum_, 28

  Horned Sea-poppy, xiii

  House-leek, the Cobweb, 37
    the Common, 38
    the Mountain, 36


  I

  Insects in the Alps, xx


  L

  Lady’s Mantle, 77
    Slipper, 76
    Tresses, 77

  Larch, xi

  Large Astrantia, 42

  _Larix Europæa_, x

  Leafy Lousewort, 70

  Lesser Winter-Green, 60

  _Linaria alpina_, 66

  Long-Spurred Pansy, 12

  _Lonicera alpigena_, x

  Lousewort, the Leafy, 70

  Low stature of Alpine plants, xvii


  M

  _Maianthemum bifolium_, x

  Marsh Gentian, 63
    Orchis, 74

  May-Lily, x

  Meadow Crane’s-bill, 20

  Mealy Primrose, 68

  Milk-Vetch, the Cold, 26

  Milkwort, the Box-leaved, 14
    the Common, 14

  Monk’s-Hood, the Common, 6

  Moss Campion, 18

  Moss-like Saxifrage, 41

  Mountain Cudweed, 46
    Everlasting, 46
    House-leek, 36
    -lentil, the Cold, 26

  Müller, H., xx, xxi, 13


  N

  Narcissus-flowered Anemone, 2


  O

  _Orchis latifolia_, 74

  Orchis, the Marsh, 74

  Origin of Alpine flora, xxi

  Oxlip, 73


  P

  Panicled Monk’s-hood, 7

  Pansy, the Long-Spurred, 12

  Pasque Flower, 2

  _Pedicularis foliosa_, 70
    _lanata_, 71
    _Oederi_, 71

  Perennials in the Alps, xvi

  _Phaca alpina_, 26
    _frigida_, 26

  Photography of Alpine plants, xxv

  _Phyteuma orbicular_, 52
    _Scheuchzeri_, 53
    _spicatum_, x

  _Picea excelsa_, xi

  _Pinus Cembra_, xii
    _sylvestris_, xii

  _Poa annua_, xvi

  _Polygala calcarea_, 15
    _chamæbuxus_, 14
    _vulgaris_, 14

  Preserving Alpine plants, xxiii

  Pressing Alpine plants, xxiii

  Primrose, the Mealy, 68

  _Primula auricula_, 72
    _elatior_, 73
    _farinosa_, 68
    _officinalis_, 73
    _veris_, 73

  _Pyrola minor_, 60
    _rotundifolia_, 60
    _secunda_, 60


  R

  Rampion, the Round-headed, 52
    the White-flowered, x

  _Ranunculaceæ_, 4

  _Ranunculus acris_, 5
    _glacialis_, xiii
    _montanus_, 4

  Red-berried Elder, x

  Region of forest trees, xi

  _Rhododendron ferrugineum_, 58
    _hirsutum_, 58

  Rock gardens, xxiv

  _Rosa alpina_, 32

  Rose-bay, 34

  Rose, the Alpine, 32

  Rosemary-leaved Willow-herb, 3

  Rough Saxifrage, 41

  Round-headed Rampion, 52

  Rusty-leaved Alpenrose, 58


  S

  “Sabot de Vénus,” 77

  Sainfoin, the Alpine, 28

  _Sambucus racemosa_, x

  Sandwort, 16

  _Saxifraga Aizoides_, 40
    _aspera_, 41
    _bryoides_, 41
    _Hirculus_, 41
    _Sequieri_, 41

  Saxifrage, the Evergreen, 40
    the Moss-like, 41
    the Rough, 41

  Scotch Fir, xii

  _Sedum acre_, 41

  _Sempervivum arachnoideum_, 37
    _Funckii_, 38
    _montanum_, 36
    _tectorum_, 38
    _Wulfeni_, 38

  Short-leaved Gentian, 64

  _Silene acaulis_, 18
    _exscapa_, 19

  Silver Fir, xi

  Silver-herb, 30

  Slipper, the Lady’s, 76

  Small Astrantia, 43

  Snowbells, xv

  Spiny Fuller’s Thistle, 50

  _Spiræa Aruncus_, x

  _Spiræa_, x

  Spring Gentian, 65

  Spruce, xi

  Star-Gentians, 64

  Starwort, the Alpine, 44

  Stemless Carline Thistle, 50
    Gentian, 62

  Stonecrops, 41

  Stunted character of Alpine plants, xvii

  Subalpine Region, xi

  Sweet Clover, the Dull-flowered, 28


  T

  Toad-flax, the Alpine, 66

  _Trifolium alpinum_, 22
    _badium_, 24
    _pallescens_, 23
    _spadiceum_, 25

  _Trollius Europæus_, 4

  Two-flowered Violet, 10


  U

  Underground stem of Alpine plants, xv


  V

  _Veratrum album_, 78
    _nigrum_, 79

  Veratrum, the Black, 79
    the White, 78

  _Viola biflora_, 10
    _calcarata_, 12

  Violet, the Two-flowered, 10


  W

  White Dryas, 30
    Veratrum, 78

  Willow-herb, Fleischer’s, 34
    the Rosemary-leaved, 35

  Winter-Green, the Lesser, 60

  Wolf’s-bane, the Yellow, 8

  Wood Anemone, 2
    Geranium, 20


  Y

  Yellow Auricula, 72
    Wolf’s-bane, 8


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