Transcriber’s Notes

  Text printed in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_,
  bold faced text between =equal signs=. Small capitals have been
  replaced with ALL CAPITALS.

  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.




  FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION

  WILEY




  =BY THE SAME AUTHOR.=

  =BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATION.=


  OUTLINE OF CONTENTS.

     I. Spring, well, and other potable waters.

    II. Potable mineral waters.

   III. Contamination of waters and how to avoid them.

    IV. Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Chocolate, etc.

     V. Soda Waters, Pops, Seltzers, etc.

    VI. Fermented Beverages--Growth of Raw Materials, Manufacture,
  and Storage:
    (_a_) Beers. (_b_) Wines. (_c_) Ciders, Perrys, Meads, etc.

   VII. Distilled Liquors:
    (_a_) Whiskey. (_b_) Brandy. (_c_) Rum. (_d_) Gin and other flavored
    compounds. (_e_) Imitation and compound liquors. (_f_) Blends.
    (_g_) Cordials, denatured alcohol, etc.

  VIII. So-called temperance drinks.

    IX. Beverages of a miscellaneous character.


  =Octavo. Illustrated. In Preparation.=


  =P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO., Publishers, Philadelphia.=




  FOODS AND
  THEIR ADULTERATION

  ORIGIN, MANUFACTURE, AND COMPOSITION OF
  FOOD PRODUCTS; DESCRIPTION OF COMMON
  ADULTERATIONS, FOOD STANDARDS, AND
  NATIONAL FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

  BY
  HARVEY W. WILEY, M.D., PH.D.

  WITH ELEVEN COLORED PLATES AND
  EIGHTY-SIX OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

  PHILADELPHIA
  P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO.
  1012 WALNUT STREET
  1907


  COPYRIGHT, 1907, BY P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO.


  WM. F. FELL COMPANY
  ELECTROTYPERS AND PRINTERS
  1220-24 SANSOM STREET
  PHILADELPHIA, PA.




PREFACE.


This manual is descriptive in character and aims to give, within its
scope, as thoroughly and intelligibly as possible, an account of the
various food-products in common use in their natural and manufactured
conditions, with the usual adulterations which have been found therein.

It includes information regarding Methods of Preparation and
Manufacture, Food Values, Standards of Purity, Regulations for
Inspection, Simple Tests for Adulterations, Effects of Storage, and
similar matters pertaining to the subject.

It has been designed to interest the consumer, as well as the
manufacturer, the scientific, as well as the general reader, all of
whom it is hoped will find in it something useful. The consumer is
entitled to know the nature of the product offered, the manufacturer
and dealer the best methods of preparation. It will give the physician
and sanitarian knowledge of the value of foods, their proper use and
inspection, and, while not analytical in purpose, will provide the
chemist with information which will guide him in his work of detecting
impurities.

It has been thought advisable to give in the appendices extracts from
the national laws relating to the subject, as well as the rules and
regulations for their enforcement and official standards of purity,
as these are now of general interest to all classes. In revising the
manuscript and in reading the proofs, especial recognition is made of
the valuable aid of Dr. W. D. Bigelow, Chief of the Division of Foods
of the Department of Agriculture; Dr. F. V. Coville, Botanist of the
Department of Agriculture, and Dr. B. W. Evermann, of the Bureau of
Fisheries. Acknowledgement is also made of the favors of the Bureaus of
Plant Industry, Animal Industry, and Forestry. Many helpful suggestions
from other sources can only be acknowledged in this general way. All
opinions respecting adulterations, misbranding, nutritive value, and
wholesomeness are the individual expressions of the author and are not
to be considered in any other manner. Honest and truthful practices of
manufacture and labeling are to be promoted in every possible manner.
In the end the true, the ethical, and the just in these practices will
prevail.

  HARVEY W. WILEY.

  WASHINGTON, D. C., _May 1, 1907_.




TABLE OF CONTENTS.


                                                                    PAGE

  INTRODUCTION                                                      1-10

  Proper Ration, 3; Social Function of Food, 5; Definition and
  Composition of Foods, 6; Classification of Foods, 7;
  Explanation of Chemical Terms, 8.


  PART I.--MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS                                 11-94

  Definition, 11; Edible Animals, 11; Classification of Meat
  Foods, 12; Preparation of Animals, 12; Inspection, 13;
  Tuberculosis, 13; Consumers’ Rights, 14; Slaughter and
  Preparation of Carcasses, 14; Names of Parts, 15-20; Delivery
  of Fresh Meat, 21; Storage, 23; Disposition of Fragments, 23;
  Detection of Different Kinds of Meat, 24; Dried and Pickled
  Meat, 25; Composition of Pig’s Flesh, 26-33; Preserved Meats,
  34-38; Argument of Small Quantities, 38-40; Preparation for
  Canning, 41; Parboiling, 41; Sterilization, 42; Special
  Studies of Canning, 43-48; Relation of Canned to Fresh Beef,
  48; Canned Ham and Bacon, 48-50; Canned Tongue, 50; Fat as a
  Test for Adulteration, 51; Potted Meats, 51-56; Canned
  Poultry, 56; Canned Horse-meat, 57; Canned Cured Meats, 59-60;
  Magnitude of Industry, 61; General Observations, 62; Lard,
  63-77; Soups, 77-78; Beef Extract, 79-80; Beef Juice, 82;
  Soluble Meats, 83; Preparations of Blood, 83; Beef-tea, 84;
  Dried and Powdered Meats, 85; Active Principles in Meat
  Extracts, 86; Relation between Juice and Nutritive Value, 87;
  Nitrogenous Bases, 88-90; Gelatine, 90-92; Terrestrial Animal
  Oils, 93.


  PART II.--POULTRY AND EGGS AND GAME BIRDS                       95-116

  Application of Name, 94; Domesticated Fowls, 95-116; Chicken,
  95-104; Duck, 104; Goose, 105; Pigeon, 107; Turkey, 107;
  Forced Fattening, 109; Slaughtering and Preparing for Market,
  111; Poisonous Principles in Eggs, 116; Parasites in Eggs,
  116.


  PART III.--FISH FOODS                                          117-166

  Classification, 117; Edible Portion, 119; Principal
  Constituents, 119; Alewives, 121; Anchovy, 122; Black Bass,
  122; Bluefish, 122; Carp, 123; Catfish, 123; Codfish, 124;
  Eels, 126; Flounder, 127; Graylings, 128; Haddock, 128; Hake,
  128; Halibut, 128; Herring, 129; Horse Mackerel, 130;
  Hog-fish, 130; Mackerel, 131; Menhaden, 132; Mullet, 132;
  Muskallunge, 133; Pickerel or Pike, 133; Pompano, 134; Red
  Snapper, 134; Rock Bass, 135; Salmon, 135-138; Sardines,
  139-140; Scup, 141; Shad, 141-142; Sheepshead, 143; Smelt,
  144; Spanish Mackerel, 144; Sturgeon, 144; Caviar, 145;
  Striped Bass, 146; Sole, 146; Tautog, 147; Tilefish, 147;
  Trout, 147-148; Turbot, 149; Weakfish, 149; Whitefish, 150;
  Fluorids in Fish, 151; Marketing, 151; Cold Storage, 151;
  Canning, Drying, and Adulteration, 152; Value as Food, 153;
  Shellfish, 153; Clams, 153; Lobster, 155; Crabs, 155;
  Crawfish, 156; Shrimp, 157; Aquatic Reptiles, 157; Turtle,
  157; Terrapin, 158; Mussel, 158; Oysters, 158-164; Animal
  Oils, 165; Marine Animal Oils, 165-166.


  PART IV.--MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE             169-216

  Milk, Limitation of Name, 169; Composition, 169; Method of
  Production, 169-174; Cream, 175; Curd Test for Purity,
  176-178; Whey and Koumiss, 179; Buttermilk and Bonnyclabber,
  181; Butter, 182-187; Oleomargarine, 187-189; Cheese, 190;
  Kinds, 191; Adulteration and Misbranding, 192; Coloring, 193;
  Cottage Cheese, 195; American Cheese Manufacture, 196-200;
  Grading Cheese, 200; Cream Cheese, 201; Foreign Types,
  201-202; Sage Cheese, 203; English Cheese, 203-205; French
  Cheese, 206-208; Limburger, 208; Edam, 210; Bacterial
  Activity, 211; Chemical Changes in Ripening, 212-214;
  Digestibility, 214; Effect of Cold Storage, 215; Preparations
  of Casein, 215.


  PART V.--CEREAL FOODS                                          217-273

  Barley, 217-218; Buckwheat, 219-221; Indian Corn (Maize),
  222-232; Oats, 232-236; Rice, 236; Rye, 237-239; Wheat,
  239-242; Wheat Flour, 243-245; Gluten, 245-247; Bleaching,
  247; Adulterations, 248; Standard Age and Substitutes, 248;
  Bread, 249; Yeast, 250; Ferments, 250; Chemical Aerating
  Agents, 251; Baking Powders, 251-254; Composition of Bread,
  254-255; Comparative Nutritive Properties, 256-257; Biscuit,
  258; Sugar Lost in Fermentation, 259; Texture of Loaves, 259;
  Macaroni, 260-264; Cakes, 265-267; Breakfast Foods, 267-271.


  PART VI.--VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS                       273-388

  Succulent Vegetables, 273; Artichoke, 274; Asparagus, 275;
  Bean, 275-276; Beets, 277; Brussels Sprouts, 278; Cabbage,
  278; Carrot, 279; Cauliflower, 279; Celery, 280; Chicory, 280;
  Cranberry, 281; Cress, 281; Cucumbers, 281; Egg-plant, Garlic,
  and Gourds, 282; Horseradish, Jerusalem Artichoke, and Kale,
  282; Leek, Lettuce, Melons, and Cantaloupe, 284-286; Okra and
  Onion, 286; Parsnip, 287; Peas, 287; Potatoes, 288-298; Potato
  Starch, 296-299; Rhubarb, 299; Squash, 299; Sweet Potato,
  299-304; Turnip, 304; Yam, 304; Canned Vegetables, 305-315;
  Ketchup, 316; Use of Refuse in Ketchup, 317; Starches as
  Foods, 317-321; Condiments, 321-326; Fruits, 326-329; Apples,
  330-335; Cherries, 336; Grapes, 337-338; Peaches, 339-341;
  Plums, 341; Quince, 342; Small Fruits, 342-343; Tropical and
  Subtropical Fruits, 343-348; Citrus Fruits, 348-369;
  Composition of Pineapple, 363-364; Ash of Tropical Fruits,
  367; Sugar and Acid in Fruit, 369; Canned Fruits, 370-372;
  Fruit Sirups, 373-374; Jams, Jellies, and Preserves, 375-381;
  Manufacture of Jellies, 381-382; Compound Jams and Jellies,
  383; Preserves, 384; Fruit Butter, 385; Brandied Fruit, 386;
  Importance of Preserving Industry, 386-388.


  PART VII.--VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS                   389-428

  Definition, 389; Chemical Characteristics, 390; Drying and
  Non-drying Oils, 391; Physical Characters, 392-393; Edible
  Vegetable Oils, 394-413; Cottonseed Oil, 397-401; Olive Oil,
  402-405; Peanut Oil, 406; Rape Oil, 407; Sesame Oil, 408;
  Sunflower Oil, 409; Cacao-butter, 410; Coconut Oil, 411; Palm
  Oil, 412; Nuts, 413-428; Acorn, 414; Beechnuts, Brazil-nut,
  415; Butternut, Chestnut, 416; Chinese Nut, 417; Coconut,
  Filbert, 418; Hazelnut, Hickory-nut, 419; Peanuts, 420-424;
  Pecan, 424-425; Pistachio, 426; Walnut, 426-428.


  PART VIII.--FUNGI AS FOODS      429-454

  Mushrooms, Production, 429-430; Varieties, 430; Food Value,
  430; Distinction between Edible and Poisonous, 433-439; Types
  of Edible Mushrooms, 440; Horse Mushroom, 441; Shaggy
  Mushroom, 443; Fairy Ring Mushroom, 443; Puff-ball, 444; Cepe,
  445; Fly Amanita, 446; Poisoning by Mushrooms, 448; Canned
  Mushrooms, 449; Truffles, 450-453; Food Value of Fungi, 454.


  PART IX.--SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY               455-494

  Sugar, Origin of Sugar, 455; Beet Sugar, 456-465; Cane Sugar,
  466; Maple Sugar, 467-468; Sugar Refining, 468-470; Sugar
  Production, 471; Adulteration of Sugar, 471; Sugar as Food,
  472; Sirup, Maple, 472-473; Cane, 475; Sorghum, 476; Molasses,
   477-478; Mixed Sirups, 479; Adulteration of Sirups, 480;
  Confectionery, 482; Materials, 482; Manufacture, 483;
  Crystallized Fruits and Flowers, 483; Food Value of Candy,
  483; Adulteration of Confections, 483-486; Honey, Definition,
  Historical, 486; Preparation of Honey, 487; Beehives, 488;
  Distribution of Honey Industry, 489; Comb Honey, 489;
  Extracted Honey, 490; Properties of Honey, 491-492;
  Adulteration of Honey, 493-494.


  MISCELLANEOUS                                                  494-496

  Mince Meat, 494; Pie Fillers, 496.


  PART X.--INFANTS’ AND INVALIDS’ FOODS                          497-500

  Modified Milk, 497; Solid Infants’ Food, 498; Invalids’ Food,
  498-499; Composition Infants’ and Invalids’ Foods, 500.


  APPENDICES.


  APPENDIX A                                                     501-521

  Food Standards, 501-517; Law Relating to Filled Cheese,
  517-521.


  APPENDIX B                                                     522-537

  Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement of the Food and
  Drugs Act, 522-533. The Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906,
  533-537.


  APPENDIX C                                                     538-561

  Regulations Governing the Meat Inspection of the United States
  Department of Agriculture, 538-556; Meat Inspection Law,
  556-561.


  APPENDIX D                                                     562-615

  Food Inspection Decisions under the Food and Drugs Act,
  562-615. Food Inspections Decisions under the Imported Foods
  Act F. I. D.’s 1-39, 562-584. Food and Drugs Inspections and
  Decisions under the Food and Drugs Act F. I. D.’s 40-64,
  584-615.


  INDEX,                                                         616-625




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.


  COLORED PLATES.                                                  PAGE.
   1. Beef Tenderloin,                                      _Facing_  15
   2. Beef Sirloin,                                             „     15
   3. Beef Ribs--Regular Cut,                                   „     15
   4. Beef Ribs--Spencer Cut,                                   „     15
   5. Sirloin Butts,                                            „     15
   6. Beef Rib,                                                 „     15
   7. Beef Loin,                                                „     15
   8. Drying Figs: Smyrna, Smyrna Section, Adriatic,
      Adriatic Section,                                         „    349
   9. Olives: Mission, Sevillano,                               „    402
  10. Jordan Almond,                                            „    414
  11. Peanut (Arachide),                                        „    420


  FIG.
   1. Cuts of Beef,                                                   16
   2. Commercial Cuts of Beef,                                        17
   3. Diagram of Cuts of Veal,                                        18
   4. Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton,                             19
   5. Diagram of Cuts of Pork,                                        19
   6. Commercial Cuts of Pork,                                        20
   7. Graphic Chart Representing the Comparative Influences of
      Foods and Preservatives,                                        39
   8. Lard Crystals,                                                  67
   9. Beef Fat Crystals,                                              67
  10. Kettle for Rendering Lard,                                      72
  11. Apparatus for Test of Adulteration of Lard,                     74
  12. Chicken House, Rhode Island Experiment Station,                 96
  13. Cow Stables, Mapletown Farm, Sumner, Washington,               170
  14. Apparatus for Cooling Milk,                                    172
  15. Improvised Wisconsin Curd Test,                                177
  16. Milk; Broken Curd in Whey; Matted Curd,                        177
  17. Curd from a Good Milk,                                         178
  18. Curd from a Tainted Milk,                                      178
  19. Curd from Foul Milk,                                           178
  20. Power Churn, Ready for Use,                                    183
  21. Power Churn, Open,                                             184
  22. Barley Starch,                                                 218
  23. Buckwheat Starch,                                              222
  24. Section of Raw Popcorn,                                        224
  25. Section of Popcorn in First Stage of Popping, Showing
      Partially Expanded Starch Grains and Ruptured Cell Walls,      225
  26. Section of Fully Popped Popcorn,                               226
  27. Indian Corn Starch,                                            229
  28. Starch Grains of Indian Corn, under Polarized Light,           230
  29. Oat Starch,                                                    235
  30. Rice Starch,                                                   237
  31. Rye Starch,                                                    238
  32. Wheat Starch,                                                  242
  33. Wheat Starch under Polarized Light,                            243
  34. Kedzie’s Farinometer Showing the Parts,                        246
  35. Kedzie’s Farinometer in Use,                                   247
  36. Comparative Appearance of Breads of Different Kinds,           259
  37. A Field of Durum Wheat,                                        261
  38. Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats (Heads and Grains),          262
  39. Potato Starch,                                                 291
  40. Potato Starch under Polarized Light,                           291
  41. Rasping Cylinder for Making Starch,                            297
  42. Shaking Table for Separating the Starch from the Pulped
      Potato,                                                        297
  43. The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for Work,                 298
  44. View of Indian Corn Canning Factory, Showing Accumulation of
      Husks and Cobs,                                                308
  45. Maranta (Arrowroot) Starch,                                    318
  46. A Cassava Field in Georgia,                                    319
  47. Cassava Starch,                                                321
  48. Scuppernong Grape Vine, Roanoke Island,                        338
  49. Vineyard Near Fresno, California,                              339
  50. Avocado Tree,                                                  346
  51. Fig Tree Thirty Feet High Near Yuba, California,               350
  52. Jamaica Mango Tree,                                            356
  53. An Edge of a California Orange Grove,                          358
  54. The Original Seedless Orange Tree,                             359
  55. A Group of the Washington Navel Orange on the Tree,            360
  56. Covered Pineapple,                                             361
  57. Removing the Oil Cakes from a Cottonseed Press,                400
  58. Pecan Tree, 30 Years Old, Morgan City, La.,                    422
  59. Five Forms of Choice, Thin-shelled Pecans. Also Wild Nut
      Showing Difference in Size,                                    423
  60. Full Grown Pecan Tree,                                         425
  61. Common Mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_,                        440
  62. Edible Mushrooms (_Agaricus arvensis_ Schaeff.),               441
  63. Shaggy Mushroom, _Coprinus comatus_,                           442
  64. Fairy Ring Formed by _Marasmius oreades_, an Edible Mushroom,  444
  65. Puff-ball, _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_, Top View,                 445
  66. Amanita (Full Grown),                                          446
  67. Fly Amanita Buttons (_Amanita muscaria_),                      447
  68. Correct Position of a Mature Beet in the Soil,                 458
  69. Map Showing Temperature Zone in Which the Sugar Beet Attains
      Its Greatest Perfection,                                       459
  70. A Field of Beets Ready for Harvesting,                         460
  71. Beets Ready for Transportation to Factory,                     461
  72. Diffusion Battery,                                             462
  73. Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus,                         463
  74. Vacuum Strike Pan,                                             464
  75. Sugar Cane Field Ready for Harvest,                            465
  76. Cane Field Partly Harvested,                                   466
  77. Tapping the Maple Trees,                                       468
  78. Transporting the Sap to the Sugar House,                       468
  70. Boiling the Maple Sap,                                         469
  80. Small Primitive Mill for Extracting Juice from Sugar Cane for
      Sirup Making,                                                  473
  81. Mill and Evaporating Apparatus for Sirup Making in Georgia,    474
  82. Relative Length of Canes Used for Sirup Making,                475
  83. Swarm of Bees on Bough of Tree,                                487
  84. Artificial Bee Hives under Shade of Grape Vine,                488
  85. A Frame Containing 24 Boxes of Honey,                          489
  86. Showing Box of Honey Partially Capped,                         490




INTRODUCTION.


The growing importance to manufacturers, dealers, and consumers of a
knowledge of food products has led to the preparation of the following
manual.

Unfortunately, many misleading statements respecting the composition
of foods, their nutritive value, and their relation to health and
digestion have been published and received with more or less credence
by the public. Claims of superior excellence, which are entirely
baseless, are constantly made for certain food products in order to
call the attention of the public more directly to their value and,
unfortunately, at times to mislead the public with respect to their
true worth.

It is not uncommon to see foods advertised as of exceptional quality,
either as a whole or for certain purposes. Many of the preparations of
this kind are of undoubted excellence, but fail to reach the superior
standard or perform the particular function which is attributed to
them. Particularly has it been noticed that foods are offered for
specific purposes or the nourishment of certain parts of the body,
especially of the brain and nerves. We are all familiar with the
advertisements of foods to feed the brain, or feed the nerves, or feed
the skin. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the absurdity of
claims of this kind. One part of the body cannot be nourished if the
other parts are neglected, and the true principle of nutrition requires
a uniform and equal development and nourishment of all the tissues.
It is true that many of the tissues have predominant constituents.
For instance in the bones are found large quantities of phosphate of
calcium and in the muscles nitrogenous tissues dominate. In the brain
and nerves there are considerable quantities of organic phosphorus.
All of these bodies, however, are contained in normal food properly
balanced.

It would be contrary to the principles of physiology to attempt to feed
the bones by consuming a large excess of phosphorus in the food or
the muscles by confining the food to a purely nitrogenous component.
Such attempts, instead of nourishing the tissues indicated, will so
unbalance the rations as to disarrange the whole metabolic process, and
thus injure and weaken the very tissues they are designed to support.

It seems, therefore, advisable to prepare a manual which may be used in
conjunction with works on dietetics and on physiology and hygiene and
yet of a character not especially designed for the expert.

The American public is now so well educated that any average citizen is
fully capable of understanding scientific problems if presented to him
in a non-technical garb.

It is, therefore, not difficult to see that the great army of
manufacturers and dealers in food products, as well as the still
greater army of consumers, are able to receive and to utilize
information concerning food products which is of common interest
to all. A dissemination of knowledge of this kind will guide the
manufacturer in his legitimate business and protect the public against
deceptions such as those mentioned above.

In the evolution of society, economy and efficiency indicate that
specializations should be made as completely as possible. For
this reason it is advisable that foods of a certain character be
manufactured and prepared for consumption on a large scale, so that due
economy and purity may be secured. On the other hand there are many
other kinds of foods which, by reason of their properties, cannot be
prepared on a large scale but must be produced near or at the place of
consumption. Milk is a type of this class of foods. It is altogether
probable, therefore, that the consumption of manufactured foods will
not decrease but increase even more rapidly than the number of our
population.

In order that the people may be able to judge of the quality and
character of products of this kind, information readily available
appears to be highly desirable.

In the other case of the utilization of raw materials, it is equally
important that the people of this country understand their nature and
their functions in the digestive process. The great nutritive value of
our food is found in the cereals, the meats, the fruits, and vegetables
which we consume. A description of foods of this class, the places of
their growth, the conditions under which they are matured and marketed,
the problems which relate to their storage and transportation,
their composition in respect of nutrition and digestibility, the
dangers which may accrue from their decay, and the adulterations or
sophistications to which they may be subjected are matters of the
greatest public importance.

A treatise of this kind in order to be of its full value for which it
is intended must be concise, expressed in simple language, in a form
easily consulted, and yet be of a character which will be reliable and
which will give full information on the subject.

It is a common habit of speech to divide foods into two great classes,
namely, foods and beverages. This is not a scientific division, but
is one which has been so well established by custom as to render it
advisable to divide this work into two portions, one devoted to food
in the sense just used and the other to beverages. The first volume of
this work devoted to foods will treat of those bodies commonly known
under the term “foods,”--namely, cereals, meats of all kinds, milk,
vegetables, nuts, and fruits. The second volume will embrace the study
of beverages, namely, natural and artificial mineral waters, soda
waters, soft drinks, coffee, tea, cocoa, wines, cider, beer and other
fermented beverages, distilled beverages of all kinds, and mixtures or
compounds thereof.

In connection with the description of the origin of foods and their
general characteristics will be given a statement of their chemical
composition, especially in relation to nutritive properties. The
principal adulterations or sophistications to which the food products
are obnoxious will be briefly described, and where simple methods of
detecting adulterations are known, of a character to be applied without
special chemical knowledge or skill, they will be given.

An attempt is thus made to lay before those interested, in as compact
a form as possible, the chief points connected with the production of
food, its manipulation, and its use for the nourishment of the body.

It is not the intention of this manual to enter at all into the subject
of cooking or the physiology of foods and nutrition. That is a distinct
and separate part of this problem and has already been treated in many
manuals. In this connection, however, attention may be called to the
great importance of proper cooking in the use of food. Raw materials
of the best character, prepared and transported in the most approved
manner, may be so injured in the kitchen in the process of cooking
as to be rendered both unpalatable and difficult of digestion. On
the contrary, food materials of an inferior quality, provided they
contain no injurious substances, may be so treated by the skilled
cook as to be both palatable and nutritious. The desirability of the
dissemination of correct principles of cooking is no less than that of
giving information respecting the materials on which the art of cookery
is exercised. It may be added that the art of cookery at the present
time should not be confined to the mere technical manipulation, the
application of heat and of condimental substances, but should also have
some reference to the actual process of nutrition.

Foods should be prepared in the kitchen, not only of a palatable
character and properly spiced but also selected in such a manner as
to safeguard one of the chief purposes of food, namely, the proper
nutrition of the body and the avoidance of any injury to digestion.

It is commonly admitted that many, perhaps most, of the diseases of
the digestive tract to which the American people are so subject arise
from the consumption of rations improperly balanced, poorly prepared,
or used in great excess. To the intelligent and scientific cook the
information contained in this manual will especially appeal.


A PROPER RATION.

The study of the science of nutrition has revealed the character of
nourishment necessary to build the tissues and restore their waste.
The term “food” in its broadest signification includes all those
substances which when taken into the body build tissues, restore
waste, furnish heat and energy, and provide appropriate condiments.
The building of tissues is especially an important function during the
early life of animals as it is through this building of tissues that
growth takes place. The restoration of waste of tissues assumes special
importance during that period of life when the weight of the body is
supposed to be reasonably constant. At this time the waste of tissue in
the natural processes is restored by the assimilation of new material
in the same proportion.

If the assimilation of new material goes on at a greater rate than the
waste of old material it manifests itself during the period of expected
equilibrium in the deposition of adipose tissue and a consequent
abnormal increase in weight.

In the after period of life the process of waste is naturally more
vigorous than that of assimilation, and the tendency is manifested,
which is wholly in harmony with the laws of Nature, to gradually
diminish the weight of the body, and this continues to the extreme
emaciation of old age.

It is evident, therefore, that the food consumed should be adapted to
these changing periods. The growing animal needs a larger quantity of
food in proportion to its actual weight than the animal which is in a
state of equilibrium, that is, of mature age, and the animal which is
entering upon the period of old age needs a less quantity of food in
proportion to its weight than in either of the other periods of life.
Thus, the rations of infants and children should be generous, the
rations of mature man sufficient, and the rations of old age limited.

The food should also contain the various elements which enter into
nutrition in the proper quantity. The nitrogenous constituents in food,
when subjected to the ordinary process of digestion, yield a certain
quantity of heat and energy but their more important function is to
nourish the nitrogenous elements of the body, of which the muscles,
hair, skin, and finger-nails are types. The mineral constituents
of food, especially phosphorus and lime, have a general utility in
promoting the metabolic functions, especially in the movement of the
fluids of the body through the cell walls, and at the same time are
actual nourishing materials, entering particularly into the composition
of the bones and teeth.

The fats and oils which are present in the foods have the capacity of
producing large quantities of heat and energy during their combustion
in the body, and thus serve as a source of animal heat and muscular
activity.

The starches and sugars which are the most abundant elements of our
food, although they have a heat-forming power of less than one-half
that of fats, are largely utilized in the production of heat and energy
and in the formation of animal fat.

To secure a proper and complete nutrition of the body it is desirable
that all these elements should be so adjusted as to provide for
complete nourishment without having any one of them in great excess.
It is evident that an excess of any one or more of these nutrient
materials must necessarily impose on the organs of the body an
additional work in securing their proper elimination. This tends to
overburden the excretory organs and to cause a premature breakdown
thereof. This giving away of the organs may not come for many years,
not, perhaps, until advanced life, but when it comes it necessarily
shortens the period of human existence.

The term =“balanced ration”= means the adjustment of nutrients in the
food in such a way as to secure complete and perfect nutrition without
loading the body with an excess of any one element. This is also an
important point on the score of economy. A large percentage of all the
earnings of man is expended for food products, and hence these products
should be used in a manner to secure the best results possible. If, by
a practice of scientific nutrition, 10 percent of the value of foods
could be saved it would create a fund which, could it be utilized,
would minister in the highest degree to the comfort and welfare of the
human family and form an abundant pension for old age.


SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD.

In the above paragraphs attention has been directed particularly to the
nutritive and economic properties of food. It must not be considered
that mere nutrition is the sole object of foods, especially for man.
It is the first object to be conserved in the feeding of domesticated
animals, but is only one of the objects to be kept in view in the
feeding of man. Man is a social animal and, from the earliest period of
his history, food has exercised a most important function in his social
life. Hence in the study of food and of its uses a failure to consider
this factor would be regrettable. For this reason it is justifiable in
the feeding of man to expend upon the mere social features of the meal
a sum which often is equal to or greater than that expended for the
mere purpose of nutrition. This part of the subject, however, belongs
especially to the kitchen and dining room, and, therefore, will not be
discussed at greater length at the present time.

It is believed that a more careful study of the food he consumes will
benefit man in many ways. It will lead to a wider public interest
in the problem of the purity of food and the magnitude of the crime
committed against mankind in the debasement, adulteration, and
sophistication of food articles.

This study will impart to the social function of food an additional
charm, in that the origin and character of the material consumed will
be known and the properties which they possess for nourishing the body
understood. This will enable man, as a social animal, to so conduct
himself at table as to secure the greatest possible pleasure and
social benefit therefrom and at the same time avoid any injury which
ignorance might permit and invite.

It may appear that the inartistic treatment of a subject of this kind,
as indicated in the following pages, is not one which is calculated to
excite any sympathetic interest or appeal to the natural desire for
literary and artistic expression. Yet the importance of the subject is
so great as to warrant the experiment of presenting the matter in this
form rather than in any more elaborate and connected way.


DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF FOODS.


=Food=, in its general sense, is that which nourishes the body without
regard to its physical state, that is, it may be solid, liquid, or
gaseous. More particularly defined, food is that material taken into
the body in the ordinary process of eating which contains the elements
necessary for the growth of tissues, for the repair of the destruction
to which the tissues are subjected during the ordinary vital processes
and for furnishing heat and energy necessary to life. Incident to the
utilization of these elements there is consumed, also, a considerable
quantity of matter inextricably mingled with food in a natural way,
which takes no direct part in nutrition and yet which is useful, as a
mass, in promoting the digestive processes. These bodies are certain
indigestible cellular tissues which are present in foods, mineral
matter, and other materials which are naturally found in food products.
Included in this broad definition, therefore, are many substances
which are usually not thought of in the sense of food; among these are
water and air. Air, however, would probably be excluded because it
is not introduced into the stomach, that is, not in quantities which
have any significance in the vital processes. Water, on the contrary,
is one of the most indispensable constituents of food and is also
used in considerable quantities as a beverage. The water, itself, is
indispensable to nutrition and is also one of those bodies mentioned
above which are necessary to secure the proper conduct of the digestive
processes.

By means of the oxygen in the air the combustion of food in the
various parts of the body is secured, and thus animal heat and energy
developed. In this respect the combustion of a food product is similar
in every way to the burning of coal in the production of heat and
motion. The same calorific laws which govern the steam-engine are
applicable, in all their rigidity, to the animal engine. The quantity
of heat produced by the combustion of a certain amount of fat or sugar
is definitely measured in a calorimeter and is found to correspond
exactly to the quantity of heat produced by the ordinary combustion of
such bodies. The term “food,” therefore, in this respect, would include
the oxygen of the air without which the development of animal heat and
energy would be impossible. It also includes those bodies of a liquid
character which are classed as beverages rather than as foods. All of
these bodies have nutritive properties, although their chief value is
condimental and social.

That large class of food products, also, which is known as condiments
is properly termed food, since they not only possess nutritive
properties but through their condimental character promote digestion
and by making the food more palatable secure to a higher degree the
excellence of its social function.

It is now possible to condense into a distinct expression the
definition of food in the following language: Food in a general sense
embraces those substances taken into the body which build tissues,
restore waste, and furnish heat and energy.


CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS.

Foods may be considered under different classifications. First, as to
general appearance and use three classes may be made,--foods, beverages
and condiments. As types of the first division of these foods may be
mentioned cereals and their preparations, meat and its preparations
(except meat extracts), fish, fowl, and game. Beverages are those
liquid food products which are more valued for their taste and flavor
than actual nutritive value. As types of beverages may be mentioned
wines, beers, distilled spirits and liquors of all characters, tea,
coffee, cocoa, chocolate, etc. Under wines, in this sense, may be
included the fermented beverages made of fruit juices, such as cider,
perry, etc. Types of condiments are salt, pepper, spices, vinegar,
etc. Milk, although a liquid substance, is hardly to be considered
a beverage, and on account of its high nutritive properties may be
classed, together with its preparations, under the first head.

Foods may also be classified as nitrogenous, starchy, oily, and
condimental. Nitrogenous foods are those in which the proportion of
their material containing nitrogen is large. Lean meat may be regarded
as a type of nitrogenous food, since it consists almost exclusively of
tissues known as protein and contains nitrogen and sulfur as essential
ingredients. The white of an egg is also a typical nitrogenous food
and, to a less extent, the yolk. Among vegetables, peas and beans are
typical foods containing large percentages of nitrogenous matter. The
gluten of wheat is also a typical nitrogenous food and the zein of
Indian corn, corresponding to gluten, is a nitrogenous material.

Practically all the vegetables used as foods contain more or less
protein in their constituents. Among the cereals oats has the largest
quantity and rice the smallest of this valuable food material.
Of oily foods the fat of animals, including butter, is a typical
representative. All meats, fish, fowl, and game contain more or less
fat. Of vegetables and fruits there are many which contain large
quantities of fat, such as nuts, oily seeds, etc. All vegetables
contain more or less fat, although the succulent vegetables usually
contain but little thereof. Of starchy foods there are no types in
animal food, the quantity of carbohydrate material therein being
extremely limited. The lobster and horse-flesh contain perhaps a little
more than 1 percent of carbohydrate food, but most meats contain much
less than that. Sugar and starch are typical carbohydrate foods.

The cereal grains are composed largely of starchy foods, and so are
certain tubers, such as the potato, cassava, etc. Of the common cereals
rice contains more starch than any other and oats the least. Sugars
are intimately related to starch and are included under the term
starchy food or carbohydrate food. The carbohydrate matter in the flesh
mentioned above, namely glycogen, is of the nature of a sugar. Among
the typical sugar foods are beets, melons, and fruits, some of which
contain large percentages of sugar. All fruits contain greater or less
quantities of sugar, and that is true, also, of all vegetables.

Of the plants which produce the sugar of commerce there may be
mentioned the sugar-cane, the sugar-beet, the maple, and palm trees.
The principal sources of the sugar of commerce are the sugar-cane and
the sugar-beet.

Of the condimental foods may be mentioned spices, including pepper,
mustard, cinnamon, allspice, and other foods of this class. Common salt
occupies a unique position in food products. It is the only mineral
substance which has any value as a condiment in human food. But it also
has a more important function than its condimental character, namely,
it furnishes the supply of hydrochloric acid without which digestion in
the stomach could not take place. For this reason common salt must be
regarded as an essential food product as well as a condiment.


EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS.

Inasmuch as this manual is not solely intended for expert chemists and
physiologists but also for the general public, a simple explanation of
the use of the terms used in analytical data and tables is advisable.

Under the term =moisture= is included all the water which is present
in a free state, that is, not combined in any way with the ingredients
of the material, and other substances volatile at the temperature of
drying. The water is determined by drying to a constant weight at the
temperature of boiling water or slightly above. In bodies which are
easily oxidized this drying takes place in a vacuum or in an inert gas
like hydrogen or carbon dioxid.


=Protein.=--Under this term is included all the nitrogenous compounds
in a food product which contain in their composition sulfur, nitrogen,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, forming that class of tissues
represented by the gluten in wheat, the white of an egg, muscular and
tendinous fibers, etc.


=Ether Extract.=--Under this term is included the fats and oils, the
term fat being applied to animal fat and the term oil to vegetable
products. These bodies are all soluble in ether and therefore are
grouped together under the term “ether extract.” There are some fats
both in animal and vegetable substances insoluble in ether, but they
exist in minute quantities and therefore are not separated from the
extracts, but the whole matter is given together and represents
practically the fats and oils in food.

There are also minute quantities of bodies not fats in foods soluble in
ether, and these are included in the ether extract.


=Ash.=--The term ash is applied to the residue left after the burning
of food products in the air at a low temperature until the carbon has
disappeared. Ash is rather an indefinite term and is applied to that
residual material of a mineral nature composed of sand or silica and
the carbonates or oxids of alkaline earth or alkalies. The ash also
contains the principal part of phosphorus present in food products and
usually a small proportion of sulfur. These bodies in the ash exist as
phosphoric and sulfuric acids or their salts.


=Fiber.=--The term fiber is applied to those carbohydrate products
in food which are insoluble in solutions of dilute acid and dilute
alkalies at the boiling temperature. Inasmuch as these separated bodies
are not wholly pure cellulose they are often designated as crude fiber.


=Starch and Sugar.=--The terms starch and sugar are applied to the
carbohydrates in a food product of a starchy or saccharine nature,
together with the other carbohydrates present which are soluble in
dilute acids and alkalies.


=Calories.=--The term calorie is used to denote the amount of
heat-forming material contained in one unit weight of a food product.
The number given represents the number of degrees of temperature
produced in a unit mass of water by the heat formed in burning the
unit weight of food. The unit weights employed are usually as follows:
Of the food product, one gram (15 grains); unit weight of water to be
heated, one kilogram (2.2 pounds); unit increment of temperature, 1°C.
(1.8°F.). The expression 4000 calories therefore means that if one gram
of food substance in a dry state be burned the heat produced will raise
one gram of water through a temperature of 4000°C., or the unit of
water (one kilogram) through a temperature of 4°C. For convenience the
calories are usually expressed as small calories, namely 4000, instead
of large calories, namely 4. In this manual the expression in terms of
small calories, that is, the temperature increase of one kilogram of
water produced by burning one gram of substance, multiplied by 1000,
will be uniformly employed.




FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION.




PART I.

MEATS.


One great division of human food is meat. Technically, perhaps, the
edible flesh of every animal used for human food might be described
as meat. In this manual, however, preference is given to the common
meaning of the term.

The flesh of animals is by common consent divided into three principal
classes, namely, the flesh of terrestrial mammals, or animals not
provided with wings; second, aerial animals, or animals provided with
wings, and, third, aquatic animals. A very common classification of
these three kinds of food is flesh, fowl, and fish. There are animals,
the flesh of which is eaten by many, which are not exactly included in
this classification; for instance, animals of an amphibious nature,
living partly on land and partly on sea. Also many of the animals
classed as aerial live chiefly upon the earth; although having wings
they do not use them, such as domesticated fowls. This classification,
however, is sufficiently exact for the practical purposes of a food
manual and, therefore, under the head of meat is included the edible
flesh of mammals living on the land.


=Animals Whose Flesh is Edible.=--Probably the only complete
classification of this kind would be to include every animal living on
the face of the earth since, perhaps, the flesh of every animal living
has been more or less eaten by man. In a civilized community, however,
except in times of disaster and dire necessity, certain classes of
animals only furnish the principal meat food. Nearly all the meat food
consumed in the United States is derived from cattle, sheep, and swine.
Goat flesh is eaten only to a limited extent and horse meat scarcely at
all, and the only other meats of importance are those of wild animals.
The principal wild animals used for food are the deer, bear, rabbit,
and squirrel. Many other wild animals, however, are eaten and in some
cases highly prized. In this manual only the principal meat foods both
of domesticated and wild animals will be mentioned.


=Classification of Meat Food as Respects Age.=--The edible flesh of
domesticated animals as well as of wild animals is eaten both in the
young and full-grown state. Common names, however, designate these
different classes. For instance, veal in the growing and beef for the
full-grown animal, lamb for the young and mutton for the full-grown
sheep, pig in the younger and pork in the full-grown swine, etc.
There is no legal limit of age for such a distinction, but as long
as the animal is not fully grown it may be classified under the name
representing the young animal. There is a common understanding,
however, that in the case of veal and lamb the animal must be under one
year of age and usually not under two nor more than eight months of
age. A classification of this kind is so indefinite, however, that no
strict definition can be given other than that founded on the general
principles above outlined.


=Preparation of Animals.=--The proper sanitary conditions attending the
fattening of animals intended for slaughter are of great importance
to the consumer. It is a common understanding that animals intended
for slaughter should be plump and healthy. Poor animals, either those
which are meager from lack of food or from disease, are to be rigidly
excluded from the slaughter pen. Animals intended for slaughter should
be fattened under sanitary conditions with plenty of fresh water and
fresh air as well as good food. The stalls in which they are fattened
should be clean and well ventilated, and the sanitary conditions
surrounding them should be such as to exclude contagious and epidemic
diseases and provide the most favorable environment for growth and
preparation for the market.

It is evident that all these conditions are to be secured by proper
inspection of the animals while preparing for the market. The time
will, doubtless, soon arrive in this country when the supervision of
the preparation of animals for the market, the sanitary conditions
under which they live, and the general environment which surrounds
them shall be subjects of local, municipal, and state inspection.
Since the power of the general government cannot extend to states
and municipalities, these corporate bodies should take uniform and
scientific action concerning all these matters. National and state
conventions of municipal and state sanitary authorities should decide
upon uniform systems of inspection and sanitation to which all state
and municipal authorities must agree, so that a uniform and effective
method of inspection and sanitation will be secured throughout the
country.

When animals are transported before slaughter from one state to another
the national government is then entitled to inspect and certify
respecting the condition of the animal thus to be transported from
state to state. By thus combining municipal, state, and national
inspection the rights of the consumer may be conserved, and this is the
only means by which they can be kept inviolate.

It is assumed, therefore, that the animal which has been brought for
slaughter has been fattened under proper sanitary conditions, has not
been exposed to epidemic or contagious diseases, and outwardly is not
afflicted with any disease of its own. Such a healthy animal may then
be certified as fattened for slaughter.


=Inspection after Slaughter.=--The inspection after slaughter is of the
utmost importance, not even second to that of the proper inspection
during fattening and before slaughter. The veterinarian, skilled in
his science, can tell by the inspection of the vital organs of the
slaughtered animal whether it is affected with any organic disease.
Among cattle the most frequent organic diseases are lumpy jaw and
tuberculosis. In the case of swine one of the most common of diseases
is trichinosis. In the latter case an inspection of the vital organs of
the animal is not sufficient. The muscles of the swine, first and most
commonly affected by trichinosis, must be examined microscopically in
order to eliminate the possibility of the flesh of such animals going
into commerce untagged or unnoticed.

If the flesh of the swine impregnated with trichinosis be thoroughly
cooked practically all of the danger to man is eliminated. The
consumer, however, should not be subjected to the chance of imperfect
cooking. A swine affected with trichinosis should either be refused
admission into consumption or should be so tagged that the consumer
should know the danger to which he is exposed in order to take the
necessary precaution to safeguard his health.


=Tuberculosis.=--There is a difference of opinion among veterinary and
hygienic experts respecting the disposition which is to be made of
carcasses affected with tuberculosis. It is claimed by some that if
the tuberculosis is local, that is, does not extend beyond the lungs,
there is no reason why the flesh of the animal should be refused to
the consumer. The basis of this contention is founded upon the opinion
of some of the most eminent veterinarians that bovine tuberculosis
and human tuberculosis are entirely distinct diseases and cannot be
transmitted either from the cow to man or vice versâ. It is not the
province of this manual to decide this controversy, although it is
only right that the consumer should be given the benefit of the doubt.
Therefore, if the carcass of an animal affected with local tuberculosis
is to be passed into consumption it should be plainly marked as the
flesh of a tuberculosed animal,--not only the carcass as a whole, but
every piece thereof that is introduced into consumption directly or
after canning or mincing. The consumer is thus left free to choose
for himself whether to eat such meat or not. There is a universal
agreement among hygienists and veterinarians that where tuberculosis
is generalized, that is, has affected practically all the organs of the
body, the carcasses should be condemned. No one will take exceptions
to this ruling, though it does not appear very plain to the ordinary
consumer why a little tuberculosis is not a bad thing if a great deal
of it is a very bad thing. There is an unfortunate tendency in many
quarters to neglect minute effects and only pay attention to mass
action. This does not seem to be a reasonable or desirable method of
procedure.


=The Right of the Consumer.=--In all these cases of post mortem
inspection it is the right of the consumer to be informed respecting
the condition of the animal admitted to slaughter. Only the undoubtedly
sound and healthy carcass should be given a free certificate. The
badly diseased carcass should be condemned and refused admission to
consumption. If the partially diseased carcass is to be consumed,
it should be done under such a system of tagging as will absolutely
protect any consumer against the use of the partially diseased carcass
without his knowledge.


_Summary._--The general conclusion reached is that the consumer has
the right to protection in the character of food which comes upon his
table. This protection begins at the time the animals are being fed for
slaughter. It continues during the time the animals are slaughtered
and afterwards in the preparation of their carcasses for consumption.
It does not end until the meat is delivered to the consumer properly
certified as being sound and wholesome and warranted to be free from
deleterious coloring matter and preservatives. The consumers of this
country can have this protection if they demand it. They outnumber the
makers of meat products to such an overwhelming extent as to be able
to secure proper legislation, because the manufacturers themselves, as
consumers, are equally interested with others in this most important
point, and should themselves receive for their families the same
protection that the consumer who has nothing to do with the preparation
of meat products is entitled to.

Since the above paragraph was written the Congress has provided for a
complete inspection of meats as outlined therein.


=Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses.=--It is not the purpose of
this manual to enter into any discussion of the technique of slaughter
and preparation of animals whose meat is intended to be eaten. It is
believed that in this country the mechanism of this process is very
near perfection, and especially so in the larger establishments where
the highest skill is employed. In small slaughtering establishments and
in farm slaughter there are found many points of technique which should
be greatly improved. The principal thing to be considered is, first,
a sudden and in so far as possible a painless death of the animal;
second, the immediate withdrawal of the blood of the slaughtered animal
if slaughtered otherwise than by opening the principal artery; third,
the removal of the intestines and hair or hide of the animal; fourth,
immediate cooling at a moderately low temperature until the animal heat
is entirely radiated; fifth, the cutting of the carcass into the usual
form for consumption and the removal and utilization of the débris for
food or other purposes; sixth, the delivery of the meat, if to be eaten
in a fresh state, in a condition secured from contamination and decay
until it is in the hands of the consumer; seventh, the curing of the
meat in a proper manner by salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke, and
the delivery thereof in an uncontaminated form to the consumer.


Natural Appearance of Cuts of Healthy Beef

Beef is the most important of any of the meat or flesh foods. To be
able to judge of its freshness and freedom from disease is of great
practical value. The following colored plates show the appearance
of some of the principal cuts of beef in the proper condition for
cooking. By comparing the appearance of the beef bought in all markets
with these plates it is possible to form a sound judgment of their
suitability for consumption.

  These seven Plates are reproduced by courtesy of Armour & Co., Chicago

[Illustration: BEEF TENDERLOIN]

[Illustration: BEEF SIRLOIN]

[Illustration: BEEF RIBS--REGULAR CUT]

[Illustration: BEEF RIBS--SPENCER CUT]

[Illustration: SIRLOIN BUTTS]

[Illustration: BEEF RIB]

[Illustration: BEEF LOIN]

It is not established that any further manipulation than that above
outlined is desirable or necessary. The use of any kind of dye or
coloring matter directly or indirectly, of any so-called preservative
substance other than those of a condimental nature already mentioned,
or any further manipulation save that to secure low temperature and
freedom from infection is not useful, necessary, nor desirable. The
sooner the manufacturer of these products understands the rights of
the consumer in this respect and recognizes the fundamental verity of
the above postulates the better it will be for all parties. When these
conditions are met all of the many and just objections which have
been made to the meats of this country will pass away and they will
assume in the markets of the world that position to which their natural
merits, when not interfered with by maltreating during curing, entitle
them.


=Names Applied to the Different Pieces of Edible Animals.=--In the
preparation of animals for the market experience has shown that they
are best cut in certain pieces of a shape determined by the race of the
animal itself and to these pieces or cuts certain definite names have
been applied. The method of making these cuts is not the same in all
parts of this country and various parts of different countries. In the
United States the most common cuts are illustrated in the accompanying
figures, with the names which are attached thereto.

The analyses here reported apply to cuts as indicated by the following
diagrams. These show the positions of the different cuts, both in
the live animal and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets.
The lines of division between the different cuts will vary slightly,
according to the usage of the local market, even where the general
method of cutting is as here indicated. The names of the same cuts
likewise vary in different parts of the country.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--CUTS OF BEEF.--(_Nutrition Bulletins, Office of
Experiment Stations._)]


_The Cuts of Beef._--The general method of cutting up a side of beef is
illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the relative position of the cuts
in the animal and in a dressed side. The neck piece is frequently cut
so as to include more of the chuck than is represented by the diagram.
The shoulder clod is usually cut without bone, while the shoulder (not
indicated in diagram) would include more or less of the shoulder blade
and of the upper end of the fore shank. Shoulder steak is cut from the
chuck. In many localities the plate is made to include all the parts of
the fore quarter designated on the diagrams as brisket, cross ribs,
plate, and navel, and different portions of the plate, as thus cut, are
spoken of as the “brisket end of plate” and “navel end of plate.” This
part of the animal is largely used for corning. The ribs are frequently
divided into first, second, and third cuts, the latter lying nearest
the chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former. The chuck
is sometimes subdivided in a similar manner, the third cut of the chuck
being nearest the neck. The names applied to different portions of the
loin vary considerably in different localities. The part nearest the
ribs is frequently called “small end of loin” or “short steak.” The
other end of the loin is called “hip sirloin” or “sirloin.” Between
the short and the sirloin is a portion quite generally called the
“tenderloin,” for the reason that the real tenderloin, the very tender
strip of meat lying inside the loin, is found most fully developed in
this cut. Porterhouse steak is a term most frequently applied to either
the short steak or the tenderloin. It is not uncommon to find the flank
cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures,
in which case the upper portion is called “flank steak.” The larger
part of the flank is, however, very frequently corned, as is also the
case with the rump. In some markets the rump is cut so as to include a
portion of the loin, which is then sold as “rump steak.” The portion
of the round on the outside of the leg is regarded as more tender than
that on the inside, and is frequently preferred to the latter. As the
leg lies upon the butcher’s table this outside of the round is usually
on the upper, or top, side, and is therefore called “top round.”
Occasionally the plate is called the “rattle.”

In Fig. 2 is shown a side of beef with the various cuts indicated as
used for commercial designation.

[Illustration:

  1. Shank   5. Rib      9. Clod
  2. Round   6. Flank   10. Neck
  3. Rump    7. Plate
  4. Loin    8. Chuck

Tenderloins, Sirloin Butts and Strips cut from No. 4.

Rib Rolls cut from No. 5.

FIG. 2.--COMMERCIAL CUTS OF BEEF.--(_Courtesy of Armour & Co._)]

In Fig. 6 (page 20) is shown the interior view of a hog carcass with
the cuts indicated as known to the trade.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF VEAL.--(_Nutrition
Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations._)]


_The Cuts of Veal._--The method of cutting up a side of veal differs
considerably from that employed with beef. This is illustrated by
Fig. 3, which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal
and in a dressed side. The chuck is much smaller in proportion, and
frequently no distinction is made between the chuck and the neck. The
chuck is often cut so as to include a considerable of the portion here
designated as shoulder, following more nearly the method adopted for
subdividing beef. The shoulder of veal as here indicated includes,
besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in beef, the larger
part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal. The under
part of the fore quarter, corresponding to the plate in the beef,
is often designated as breast in the veal. The part of the veal
corresponding to the rump of beef is here included with the loin, but
is often cut to form part of the leg. In many localities the fore and
hind shanks of veal are called the “knuckles.”

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON.--(_Nutrition
Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations._)]


_The Cuts of Lamb and Mutton._--Fig. 4 shows the relative position of
the cuts in a dressed side of mutton or lamb and in a live animal.
The cuts in a side of lamb and mutton number but six, three in each
quarter. The chuck includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder
blades, beyond which comes the loin. The flank is made to include all
the under side of the animal. Some butchers, however, make a larger
number of cuts in the fore quarter, including a portion of the cuts
marked “loin” and “chuck” in Fig. 4, to make a cut designated as “rib,”
and a portion of the “flank” and “shoulder” to make a cut designated
as “brisket.” The term “chops” is ordinarily used to designate portions
of either the loin, ribs, chuck, or shoulder, which are either cut or
“chopped” by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or broiling.
The chuck and ribs are sometimes called the “rack.”

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF PORK.--(_Nutrition
Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations._)]


_The Cuts of Pork._--The method of cutting up a side of pork differs
considerably from that employed with other meats. A large portion
of the carcass of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat. This
furnishes the cuts which are used for “salt pork” and bacon. Fig. 5
illustrates a common method of cutting up pork, showing the relative
position of the cuts in the animal and in the dressed side. The cut
designated as “back cut” is almost clear fat and is used for salting
and pickling. The “middle cut” is the portion quite generally used for
bacon and for “lean ends” salt pork. The belly is salted or pickled, or
may be made into sausages.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--COMMERCIAL CUTS OF PORK.--(_Courtesy of Armour
& Co._)

  1--Hind Foot
  2--Ham
  3--Rib Belly
  4--Fat Back
  5--Pork Loin
  6--Cala Ham Butt
  7--California Ham
  8--Fore Foot
  9--Neck]

Beneath the “back cut” are the ribs and loin, from which are obtained
“spareribs,” “chops,” and roasting pieces, not designated in the
figure. The hams and shoulders are more frequently cured, but are also
sold fresh as pork “steak.” The tenderloin proper is a comparatively
lean and very small strip of meat lying under the bones of the loin and
usually weighing a fraction of a pound. Some fat is usually trimmed off
from the hams and shoulders which is called “ham and shoulder fat” and
is often used for sausages, etc. What is called “leaf lard,” at least
in some localities, comes from the inside of the back. It is the kidney
fat.

As stated above, cuts as shown in the diagrams herewith correspond to
those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond, but do not
attempt to show the different methods of cutting followed in markets in
different parts of the United States.


=Delivery of Fresh Meat to Consumers.=--Perhaps the most important
aid to the manufacturer, as well as a protection to the consumer,
which modern science has offered to the public is the possibility
of delivering fresh meats to consumers at a low temperature. A well
equipped abattoir is provided with apparatus by means of which a
constantly low temperature may be maintained in the room where the
fresh meat is kept after the preparation described above. When the
meats are to be distributed over long distances refrigerator cars or
boats are provided where low temperature may be maintained.


=Roast Beef.=--The parts of the beef which are used for roasting are
shown in the diagram, comprising a considerable portion of the hind
quarter of the beef and part of the ribs. The roast is perhaps the most
important of the parts of the beef for edible purposes. The average
composition of the edible part of roast beef (before cooking) is given
below:

  Water,            60.14 percent
  Solids,           39.86    „
  Nitrogen,          4.47    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .54    „
  Sulfur,             .26    „
  Fat,              10.48    „
  Ash,               1.30    „
  Protein,          27.95    „


=Beefsteak.=--The most important parts of the beef next to the roast
are the parts used for steak. Beefsteaks have different names, such as
tenderloin and sirloin, and when the latter two are joined together by
the bone the whole is called porterhouse. There are also round steaks
and rump steaks which are less highly prized portions of the meat,
but in nutritive value are probably quite as valuable as the others
mentioned. The average composition of the edible part of a large number
of samples of beefsteak is given in the following table:[1]

  Water,            63.95 percent
  Solids,           36.05    „
  Nitrogen,          4.54    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .59    „
  Sulfur,             .27    „
  Fat,               5.93    „
  Ash,               1.48    „
  Protein,          28.37    „

  [1] Means of numerous analyses in Bureau of Chemistry.

It is seen that the roast beef contains less water, less protein, and
decidedly more fat than the steak.


=Roast Lamb.=--The parts of the lamb which are used for roasting are
usually the hind quarters, although all of the parts are roasted at
times. The average composition of a number of samples of lamb roast is
given in the following table:[2]

  Water,            58.56 percent
  Solids,           41.44    „
  Nitrogen,          4.91    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .61    „
  Sulfur,             .28    „
  Fat,               9.12    „
  Ash,               1.30    „
  Protein,          30.71    „

  [2] From numerous analyses made in the Bureau of Chemistry.


=Lamb chops= or mutton chops are the short ribs with attached flesh of
lamb or young sheep. They are considered to be the most desirable part
of the young sheep or lamb for edible purposes. The average composition
of the edible portion of a number of samples of lamb chops is given in
the following table:

  Water,            63.98 percent
  Solids,           36.02    „
  Nitrogen,          4.35    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .61    „
  Sulfur,             .24    „
  Fat,               7.09    „
  Ash,               1.49    „
  Protein,          27.18    „

Roast lamb, as shown by the above data, has less water, more fat, and
more protein than lamb chops.


=Preservation of Fresh Meats.=--After delivery the meats are at once
consigned to refrigerator departments in the markets, where they
are preserved until they pass into the consumer’s hands. Thus, a
properly fattened, properly slaughtered, and properly dressed piece
of fresh meat may be brought into the consumer’s hands in a manner
at once unobjectionable and at the same time one which secures it
admirably from contamination of any kind. So perfect are these means of
transportation that fresh meat may be sent not only from city to city
but across the sea, and reach the consumer as near perfection as human
ingenuity can devise.


=Length of Storage.=--The question of how long meat can be safely kept
in cold storage of this kind is one which has not been decided. It may
be said, however, that the period should not be extended any longer
than is necessary and that the consumers of meat should be provided
in ordinary times, if transportation is undisturbed, with practically
fresh meat. It is evident that if the principal meat-packing centers
are Chicago, Omaha, and Kansas City the cities and parts of the country
remote from these localities must have meat somewhat older than those
which are near by. If we pass to distant countries, as for instance,
Europe, where fresh meats are received from the United States or even
from Australia, the time elapsing between slaughter and consumption
must necessarily be long. Thus the length of time in which meat should
be left in cold storage after it is properly matured depends upon its
geographic distribution and is not a matter to be decided arbitrarily.

When meats are not only kept in cold storage for transportation but are
actually frozen, as is often the case, they can, of course, be kept for
a much longer time than when subjected merely to a low temperature at
or slightly above the freezing point. For this reason meats that are to
be carried to a long distance and not to be consumed for a long time
after preparation are usually frozen and kept so during transport.


=Effect of Low Temperature on Enzymic Action.=--Attention has been
called to the fact that low temperature does not inhibit enzymic
action, and, therefore, it must be admitted that this continued
activity must gradually deteriorate the quality of the product. The
question, therefore, which is the most important is not how long can
meat be kept in a frozen condition but how short a time must it be
kept. In all cases, therefore, of this kind the consumer is entitled to
know the length of time during which his meat has been kept frozen, and
this desirable condition of affairs is easily secured by the necessary
local, state, and national inspection already mentioned.


=Disposition of Fragments Arising From the Dressing of Beef.=--It is
evident that the fragments of sound, wholesome meat which is dressed
for delivery to commerce are themselves edible and hence there can
be no hygienic or other objection to preparations made from these
fragments, such as sausage and other minced and comminuted meats which
appear upon the market. In other words, the consumer is entitled to
know that because a piece of meat is comminuted is no reason for
supposing that it is not edible.

Sausage, mince meat, comminuted meat, potted, canned, and other meats
or preparations from these sound, clean, edible fragments, necessarily
rejected in the process of preparing fresh meats for curing and for
consumption, are entitled to the same consideration and may be looked
upon with the same certainty of purity by the consumer when properly
inspected and prepared as the larger pieces.

The possibility of detecting any effects of disease in meats by
inspection at the time of or after delivery is very remote and
therefore the inspection before killing and during the process of
manufacture should be a most rigid one in the case of these fragments.
Such inspection and certification would restore public confidence in
the purity and hygienic properties of these meats which not only are
nutritious but by the spicing and condimental treatment which they
receive are rendered highly palatable and desirable.


DETECTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEAT.

When meats are in large pieces they may be recognized by their
anatomical characteristics. In order that this may be done, however,
the piece of meat must either be of a sufficient size to be recognized
by its shape and general appearance or must have a bone of sufficient
size to indicate its anatomical character.

According to the German law pieces of meat of less than eight pounds
in weight are not supposed to be large enough to be recognized
anatomically or otherwise with certainty. This, however, is a matter
which pertains more to the meat of animals from which the bone is
taken rather than to its actual size. It requires some little expert
knowledge of the anatomy of animals in order to distinguish these
pieces, but one who is in the habit of purchasing or cutting meats
acquires this knowledge without any special study.


=Odor and Taste.=--Each kind of meat may also be detected both by its
odor and taste, as well as by its physical appearance and shape. Beef,
mutton, pork, and other meats in a proper state of preparation and
preservation have characteristic odors and flavors by which they are
easily detected. One of the common faults of cooking is the putting
together of meats of various kinds in the same oven, by means of
which the odors become so intermingled that in small pieces even the
experienced taster may not always be able to discriminate between them.


=Detection of Meat by Microscopic Appearance.=--Meats are so nearly
related histologically that the microscope is not a certain means of
detecting the different varieties. Were this the case it would be easy
to identify the different kinds of meat which may be found in a finely
comminuted mixture. The expert microscopist may have difficulty in
discriminating between different microscopic portions of meat, but the
microscope is of practically no advantage to any but an expert and not
a very great advantage to him. The fibers of some animals vary in size,
coarseness or fineness of texture, and other characteristics as much as
fibers do from different animals.


=Detection by Chemical Examination.=--The most satisfactory method of
detecting meats is by means of their chemical examination. There are
two distinct points which are kept in view in a chemical examination.
One is the presence of glycogen, which in quantities of more than one
percent is characteristic of horse meat. Unfortunately, this test can
only be applied to a meat in practically a fresh state, as the glycogen
is rapidly changed into other forms of carbohydrate substances which
make it difficult to identify. The chemical examination, therefore,
which is of the most value is that which is performed upon the fat.
The fat of different animals has different physical and chemical
characteristics. The fats crystallize in different forms and have
different melting points,--also the fatty acids derived therefrom.
They absorb different quantities of iodin and bromin, and have other
physical and chemical properties which are peculiar to each variety.

A careful examination of the fat, therefore, will lead to an
approximate degree of knowledge concerning the character of the flesh
from which it has been derived. For instance, lard and beef fat are
easily distinguished from each other. In case a minced meat is made
wholly of one kind of flesh or of one kind of animal the chemical
examination of the fat will, with a considerable degree of certainty,
lead to its identification. In the same manner, if a minced meat
be made up of equal parts of two different kinds of animals the
characteristics of the fats will lead to the identification of the
two sources of meat. If, however, one kind of meat be mixed in only
a small proportion, say 10 or 15 percent, of another, the chemical
methods of separation are not to be relied upon. None of these
chemical or physical methods, unfortunately, is of value in the hands
of any but an expert, and, therefore, cannot be regarded as a common
means of identification. For this reason the only common manner of
identification of the kinds of meats which are sent out to the consumer
at large must consist in the general knowledge of their anatomical,
physical, palatable, and gustatory properties outlined above.

In all cases the consumer must eventually rely upon the official
inspection and the label which accompanies the meat or which should
accompany it.


=Dried Meat.=--A very effective method of preserving meat is practiced
in certain of the arid regions of the country by exposing it to the dry
air and sunlight. Meats prepared in this way are often called “jerked”
meats. The small amount of aqueous vapor in the air is not sufficient
to maintain the life of the ordinary fermentative germs, and they are,
therefore, destroyed by desiccation. Meat which is exposed under such
circumstances does not become infected with any fermentative germ, and
the moisture which it contains is rapidly given off in the dry air
surrounding it. For this purpose the meat is cut into thin strips and
suspended by appropriate means in the air and exposed to the direct
sunlight. In a short time the moisture disappears, and the hard dry
pieces keep indefinitely in certain arid regions of this country. The
meat also maintains a fair degree of palatability and practically
all of its nutrient properties, so that when properly cooked it is
a palatable and nutritious dish. Probably of all the methods of
preserving meat this one is the least open to objection, since not
even spices or condimental substances are necessary in order to
preserve the meat from decay. By reason of the change in its physical
appearance, however, which makes it less attractive, this method is not
likely to come into general use in the ordinary preservation of meat.

Dried beef is also prepared by preserving the meat by condimental
substances and, instead of placing it in brine, drying it artificially.
Chipped or dried beef is a common article of commerce and is prepared
in the manner described above. This meat, however, has already been
treated with condimental substances, and hence the drying is only one
of the means of preservation. Dried or chipped meats are often smoked
also as well as desiccated, so that in their preparation more than one
method of preservation is employed.


=Pickled Meats.=--The method of preserving meats in a liquid
environment is sometimes called pickling. All kinds of meat are pickled
in this way, but pork especially. The pickling brine may be simply
made of common salt, though other substances, such as sugar, vinegar,
and spices, are used. The brine also sometimes contains a chemical
preservative which is highly objectionable on the general ground of
the harmfulness of these substances. The preservative commonly used
is either sulfite of soda or boric acid. The making of a pickled meat
of this kind should be discouraged. The vinegar which is employed or
acetic acid may be injected into the carcass before it is cut up.
When the arteries or veins are filled with vinegar in this way it
rapidly permeates to all parts of the meat and acts as an excellent
and unobjectionable preservative in all cases where an acid taste is
desired. It is claimed that carcasses which have been injected with
vinegar in this way are easily preserved, and require far less salt
and other condimental substances than when not so treated. As vinegar
is a condimental substance used everywhere, and one which promotes
digestion when used in proper quantities, the preservation of meats
or the pickling of meats by a previous injection of vinegar is not
objectionable.


COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF PIGS.

Extensive investigation of the composition of the flesh of pigs has
been made in the Bureau of Chemistry (Bulletin 53). The pigs upon
which these examinations were made were specially bred and fattened
at the Agricultural Experiment Station of Iowa, and were prepared
for the market by the most approved modern style of feeding. They
were slaughtered according to the approved method and immediately,
after proper preparation, the carcasses were placed in cold storage,
where they were kept until removal for the purpose of dissection
and preparation of the samples for analyses. Expert butchers from
Washington were secured for the dissecting and dressing of the pigs
in the manner in which it would be done for the best market. The pigs
were of different varieties, namely, Berkshire, No. 1; Tamworth, No. 2;
Chester White, No. 3; Poland China, No. 4; Duroc Jersey, No. 5, No. 6,
No. 7; Yorkshire, No. 8.

TABLE A.--WEIGHTS OF WHOLE CUTS AND DATA RELATING TO THE PREPARATION OF
AIR-DRY SAMPLES.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

  ------------------+----------------------------------------------+
                    |            WEIGHTS OF WHOLE CUTS.            |
                    +------------------------+---------------------+
                    |                        |                     |
                    |                        |                     |
                    |                        |                     |
                    |                        |                     +
    NAMES OF CUTS.  |        Chicago.        |     Washington.     |
  ------------------+------------+-----------+---------------------+
                    |_Lbs._ _Oz._| _Grams._  |_Lbs._ _Oz._|_Grams._|
  Two American clear|            |           |            |        |
  backs,            | 35¹⁄₂  0   |16,102.8   | 34      6  |15,592.5|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Two clear bellies,| 19¹⁄₂  0   | 8,845.2   | 19      4  | 8,731.8|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Two short-cut     |            |           |            |        |
  hams,             | 23¹⁄₂  0   |10,659.6   | 23      5  |10,574.6|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Two New York      |            |           |            |        |
  shoulders,        | 20¹⁄₂  0   | 9,298.8   | 20     10  | 9,395.5|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Four feet (seven  |            |           |            |        |
  hoofs),           |  3¹⁄₂  0[3]| 1,594.2[4]|            | 1,514.1|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Spareribs,        |  5     0   | 2,268.0   |            | 2,212.0|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Tenderloins,      |  1     0   |   453.6   |            |   470.8|
  Neck bones,       |  2     0   |   907.2   |            |   842.5|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Backbones,        |  3¹⁄₂  0   | 1,587.6   |            | 1,580.0|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Trimmings,        | 18     0   | 8,164.8   | 16      9  | 7,512.8|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
  Tail,             |   ¹⁄₄  0   |   113.4   |            |   363.0|
      Meat,         |     ..     |     ..    |     ..     |   ..   |
                    +------------+-----------+------------+--------+
        Total,      |132¹⁄₄  0   |59,995.2   |            |58,789.6|
  ------------------+------------+-----------+---------------------+

  ------------------+-------------------+-----------------------------
                    |                   |PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES.
                    |                   +--------+---------+---------+
                    |      DIRECT       |        |         |Weight of|
                    | DETERMINATIONS ON |        | Air-dry | air-dry |
                    | ORIGINAL MATERIAL.| Weight |sample of|  sample |
                    +---------+---------+of fresh| original|after ex-|
    NAMES OF CUTS.  | Water.  |   Fat.  | sample.|material.|traction.|
  ------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+
                    |_Per ct._|_Per ct._|_Grams._|_Per ct._| _Grams._|
  Two American clear|         |         |        |         |         |
  backs,            |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  31.33  |  58.21  |  833.0 |  13.16  |  109.6  |
  Two clear bellies,|   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  36.09  |  52.69  |  741.2 |  14.33  |  106.2  |
  Two short-cut     |         |         |        |         |         |
  hams,             |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  60.29  |  22.19  |  532.5 |  22.95  |  122.2  |
  Two New York      |         |         |        |         |         |
  shoulders,        |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  54.97  |  29.01  |  532.5 |  17.65  |   94.0  |
  Four feet (seven  |         |         |        |         |         |
  hoofs),           |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  59.78  |  17.04  |  221.1 |  25.10  |   55.5  |
  Spareribs,        |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  50.33  |  30.05  |  359.9 |  20.81  |   74.9  |
  Tenderloins,      |  67.14  |   9.14  |  427.9 |  27.11  |  116.0  |
  Neck bones,       |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  53.82  |  28.72  |  390.6 |  20.02  |   78.2  |
  Backbones,        |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  51.89  |  27.16  |  397.5 |  22.24  |   88.4  |
  Trimmings,        |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  29.68  |  62.00  |  783.7 |   9.72  |   76.3  |
  Tail,             |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
      Meat,         |  23.99  |  69.25  |  199.2 |   8.73  |   17.4  |
                    +---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+
        Total,      |   ..    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..    |   ..    |
  ------------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

  -----------------------------------------------------------------
                    |       PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES.
                    +--------+--------+--------+-------------------
                    |        |        |        |   Removed in
                    |        | Air-dry|        |   preparation
                    |        | sample | Weight |    of sample.
                    | Weight |  plus  |of water+---------+---------
    NAMES OF CUTS.  | of fat.|  fat.  |removed.|  Water. |   Fat.
  ------------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+---------
                    |_Grams._|_Grams._|_Grams._|_Per ct._|_Per ct._
  Two American clear|        |        |        |         |
  backs,            |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  458.0 |  567.6 |  265.4 |  31.86  |  54.98
  Two clear bellies,|   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  362.1 |  468.3 |  272.9 |  36.82  |  48.84
  Two short-cut     |        |        |        |         |
  hams,             |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |   88.3 |  210.5 |  322.0 |  60.47  |  16.58
  Two New York      |        |        |        |         |
  shoulders,        |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  152.9 |  246.9 |  285.6 |  53.64  |  28.71
  Four feet (seven  |        |        |        |         |
  hoofs),           |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |   33.7 |   89.2 |  131.9 |  59.66  |  15.24
  Spareribs,        |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |   98.6 |  173.5 |  186.4 |  51.78  |  27.39
  Tenderloins,      |   26.6 |  142.6 |  285.3 |  66.67  |   6.21
  Neck bones,       |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  100.5 |  178.7 |  211.9 |  54.25  |  25.73
  Backbones,        |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  102.1 |  190.5 |  207.0 |  52.08  |  25.69
  Trimmings,        |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  479.2 |  555.5 |  228.2 |  29.11  |  61.17
  Tail,             |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
      Meat,         |  134.7 |  152.1 |   47.1 |   23.64 |  67.62
                    +--------+--------+--------+---------+---------
        Total,      |   ..   |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |   ..
  ------------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+---------

  [3] Missing hoof, 6.6 grams.

  [4] Corrected for missing hoof.


=Preparation of Samples for Analyses.=--The meat obtained from all of
the cuts of the same kind in each sample was passed through a meat
chopper two or three times in order to get an even, finely divided
condition. A portion of known weight was then placed in a dish and
dried in a steam oven at a temperature of boiling water or slightly
above and heated until the fat had well separated so that it could
be poured off into a flask, with care not to remove any of the water
which may have separated with it. Small samples were removed before
drying for the determination of the exact quantity of fat and water
therein, and the results of these analyses were used for calculating
the relative portion of the large samples. Samples of skin, bones,
marrow, spinal cord, tendons, hoofs, and other parts of the animal
were also carefully secured and subjected to analyses. In this way the
whole animal was subjected to examination for analytical data, and at
the same time each particular part of it, in so far as its relation to
the market is concerned, was kept separated. In Table A are found the
weight of the whole cut and the data relative to the preparation of the
air-dried sample.

The data show that there was a slight loss of water during the
transit from Chicago to Washington. The part of the pig which has the
largest percentage of fat is the meat of the tail, while the smallest
percentage is found in the tenderloins. The largest percentage of water
in any part of the meat is in the tenderloins and the smallest in the
meat of the tail.

TABLE B.--WEIGHTS OF PARTS FROM EACH CUT AND DATA RELATING TO THE
PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

      NAMES OF PARTS AND CUTS.               WEIGHTS OF PARTS.
                                        From      Total.    Of entire
                                      each cut.               pig.
  Meat (fat and lean):                _Grams._   _Grams._  _Percent._
      Backs,                          14,767.9      ..         ..
      Bellies,                         8,230.6      ..         ..
      Hams,                            9,407.9      ..         ..
      Shoulders,                       8,448.2      ..         ..
      Feet,                              325.3      ..         ..
      Spareribs,                       1,683.8      ..         ..
      Tenderloins,                       470.8      ..         ..
      Neck bones,                        493.2      ..         ..
      Backbones,                         704.0      ..         ..
      Trimmings,                       7,021.5      ..         ..
      Tail,                              291.7      ..         ..
                                      --------   51,844.9    88.19
  Bones:
      Backs,                             191.1      ..         ..
      Bellies,                            81.4      ..         ..
      Hams,                              879.6      ..         ..
      Shoulders,                         693.8      ..         ..
      Feet,                              802.6      ..         ..
      Spareribs,                         528.2      ..         ..
      Neck bones,                        336.1      ..         ..
      Backbones,                         833.5      ..         ..
      Trimmings,                          71.0      ..         ..
      Tail,                               27.1      ..         ..
                                      --------  ---------    -----
          Total,                           ..     4,444.4      ..
          Marrow,                         69.7       69.7     0.12
          Total bones less marrow,         ..     4,374.7     7.44

TABLE C.--ANALYTICAL DATA FOR MEATS.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

  --------------+---------+
                |         |
                |         +
                |         |
                |         |
                | Air-dry |
                | sample: |
                | Percent |
                |   of    |
                | original|
  NAMES OF CUTS.|material.|
  --------------+---------+
  Two American  |         |
  backs,        |  13.16  |
  Two clear     |         |
  bellies,      |  14.33  |
  Two short-cut |         |
  hams,         |  22.95  |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |  16.58  |
                |         |
                |         |
  Two New York  |         |
  shoulders,    |  17.65  |
                |         |
  Four feet,    |  25.10  |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |  15.20  |
                |         |
                |         |
  Spareribs,    |  20.81  |
                |         |
  Tenderloins,  |  27.11  |
                |         |
  Neck bones,   |  20.02  |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |  18.69  |
                |         |
                |         |
  Backbones,    |  22.24  |
                |         |
  Trimmings,    |   9.72  |
                |         |
  Tail,         |   8.73  |
                |         |
  --------------+---------+

  --------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
                |             PERCENT AIR-DRY MATERIAL.               |
                +------+-----+-----------------------------+-----+----+
                |      |     |          Nitrogen.          |     |    |
                |      |     +------+-------+-------+------+     |    +
                |      |     |      |Of pro-|       |      |     |    |
                |      |     |      | teids |       |      |     |    |
                |      |     |      |  in-  |Precip-|      |     |    |
                |      |     |      |soluble| itated|  Of  |     |    |
                |      |     |      | in hot|  by   | flesh|Leci-|    |
  NAMES OF CUTS.|Water.| Fat.|Total.| water.|bromin.|bases.|thin.|Ash.|
  --------------+------+-----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+----+
  Two American  |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  backs,        | 3.14 |20.55| 11.32|  8.51 |  0.62 | 2.19 | 1.16|3.89|
  Two clear     |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  bellies,      | 3.14 |21.59| 11.15|  7.78 |  0.65 | 2.72 | 0.99|3.85|
  Two short-cut |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  hams,         | 4.14 |15.43| 11.85|  9.77 |  0.48 | 1.60 | 1.10|4.18|
  (Fat extracted|      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  with ether),  |  ..  |  .. |  0.22|  ..   |  ..   |  ..  | 2.43| .. |
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Two New York  |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  shoulders,    | 2.31 | 2.10| 13.76| 10.22 |  0.73 | 2.81 | 0.85|5.03|
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Four feet,    | 6.46 | 6.32| 13.73|  7.75 |  3.00 | 2.98 | 0.75|3.28|
  (Fat extracted|      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  with ether),  |  ..  |  .. |  0.13|  ..   |  ..   |  ..  | 2.68| .. |
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Spareribs,    | 3.66 | 8.23| 13.03| 10.31 |  0.89 | 1.83 | 1.68|4.80|
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Tenderloins,  | 5.14 | 9.47| 12.50| 10.95 |  0.28 | 1.27 | 1.82|4.30|
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Neck bones,   | 7.23 |10.93| 12.25|  9.97 |  0.59 | 1.69 | 1.33|4.02|
  (Fat extracted|      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  with ether),  |  ..  |  .. |  0.21|  ..   |  ..   |  ..  | 2.17| .. |
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Backbones,    | 3.36 | 6.88| 13.03| 10.36 |  0.62 | 2.05 | 1.20|5.59|
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Trimmings,    | 3.69 | 8.34| 13.09|  8.54 |  1.11 | 3.44 | 1.16|4.23|
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  Tail,         | 4.30 | 6.97| 13.45| 10.56 |  0.98 | 1.91 | 1.98|4.41|
                |      |     |      |       |       |      |     |    |
  --------------+------+-----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+----+

  --------------+--------------------------------------------------
                |            PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                +---------------------+---------------------+-----+
                |        Water.       |        Fat.         |     |
                +-------+------+------+-------+------+------+     +
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
                |       |  In  |      |       |  In  |      |     |
                |       |steam-|      |       |steam-|      |     |
                |In pre-| dry  |      |In pre-| dry  |      |     |
                |paring | mate-|      |paring | mate-|      |Leci-|
  NAMES OF CUTS.|sample.| rial.|Total.|sample.| rial.|Total.|thin.|
  --------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+
  Two American  |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  backs,        | 31.86 | 0.41 | 32.27| 54.98 | 2.71 | 57.69| 0.15|
  Two clear     |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  bellies,      | 36.82 | 0.45 | 37.27| 48.84 | 3.09 | 51.93| 0.14|
  Two short-cut |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  hams,         | 60.47 | 0.95 | 61.42| 16.58 | 3.54 | 20.12| 0.25|
  (Fat extracted|       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   |  ..  |  ..  | 0.40|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      | ----|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      | 0.65|
  Two New York  |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  shoulders,    | 53.64 | 0.41 | 54.04| 28.71 | 0.37 | 29.08| 0.15|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  Four feet,    | 59.66 | 1.62 | 61.28| 15.24 | 1.59 | 16.83| 0.20|
  (Fat extracted|       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   |  ..  |  ..  | 0.41|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      | ----|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      | 0.61|
  Spareribs,    | 51.78 | 0.76 | 52.54| 27.39 | 1.71 | 29.10| 0.35|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  Tenderloins,  | 66.67 | 1.39 | 68.06|  6.21 | 2.57 |  8.78| 0.49|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  Neck bones,   | 54.25 | 1.45 | 55.70| 25.73 | 2.19 | 27.92| 0.27|
  (Fat extracted|       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   |  ..  |  ..  | 0.41|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      | ----|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      | 0.68|
  Backbones,    | 52.08 | 0.75 | 52.83| 25.69 | 1.53 | 27.22| 0.26|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  Trimmings,    | 29.11 | 0.36 | 29.47| 61.17 | 0.81 | 61.98| 0.11|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  Tail,         | 23.64 | 0.38 | 24.02| 67.62 | 0.61 | 68.23| 0.17|
                |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |
  --------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+

  ---------------------------------------------
                  PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                +-----------------------------+
                |          Nitrogen.          |
                +------+-------+-------+------+
                |      |Of pro-|       |      |
                |      | teids |       |      |
                |      |  in-  |Precip-|      |
                |      |soluble| itated|  Of  |
                |      | in hot|  by   |flesh |
  NAMES OF CUTS.|Total.| water.|bromin.|bases.|
  --------------+------+-------+-------+------+
  Two American  |      |       |       |      |
  backs,        | 1.49 |  1.12 |  0.08 | 0.29 |
  Two clear     |      |       |       |      |
  bellies,      | 1.60 |  1.12 |  0.09 | 0.39 |
  Two short-cut |      |       |       |      |
  hams,         | 2.72 |  2.24 |  0.11 | 0.37 |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.04 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
                |      |       |       |      |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Two New York  |      |       |       |      |
  shoulders,    | 2.43 |  1.80 |  0.13 | 0.50 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Four feet,    | 3.45 |  1.95 |  0.75 | 0.75 |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.02 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..
                |      |       |       |      |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Spareribs,    | 2.71 |  2.15 |  0.18 | 0.38 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Tenderloins,  | 3.39 |  2.97 |  0.08 | 0.34 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Neck bones,   | 2.45 |  1.99 |  0.12 | 0.34 |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.04 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
                |      |       |       |      |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Backbones,    | 2.90 |  2.30 |  0.14 | 0.46 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Trimmings,    | 1.27 |  0.83 |  0.11 | 0.33 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Tail,         | 1.17 |  0.92 |  0.09 | 0.16 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  --------------+------+-------+-------+------+

  ---------------------------------------------------------
                        PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                +-----------------------------+----+-------
                |   Nitrogenous substances.   |    |
                +-------+-------+------+------+    |
                |  Pro- |       |      |      |    |
                | teids |       |      |      |    |
                |  in-  |       |      |      |    |
                |soluble|       |      |      |    |
                | in hot|Gelati-| Flesh|      |    |Total.
  NAMES OF CUTS.| water.| noids.|bases.|Total.|Ash.|  [5]
  --------------+-------+-------+------+------+----+-------
  Two American  |       |       |      |      |    |{ 98.46
  backs,        |  7.00 |  0.50 | 0.91 |  8.41|0.51|{ 98.88
  Two clear     |       |       |      |      |    | {98.11
  bellies,      |  7.00 |  0.56 | 1.22 |  8.78|0.55| {98.53
  Two short-cut |       |       |      |      |    |
  hams,         | 14.00 |  0.69 | 1.15 | 15.84|0.96|{ 99.28
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |    |{ 98.34
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  | .. |
                |       |       |      |      |    |
                |       |       |      |      |    |
  Two New York  |       |       |      |      |    |
  shoulders,    | 11.25 |  0.81 | 1.56 | 13.62|0.89| {98.49
                |       |       |      |      |    | {97.63
  Four feet,    | 12.19 |  4.69 | 2.34 | 19.22|0.82|{ 96.86
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |    |{ 98.15
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  | .. |
                |       |       |      |      |    |
                |       |       |      |      |    |
  Spareribs,    | 13.44 |  1.13 | 1.19 | 15.76|1.00| {97.14
                |       |       |      |      |    | {98.40
  Tenderloins,  | 18.56 |  0.50 | 1.06 | 20.12|1.17|{ 97.57
                |       |       |      |      |    |{ 98.13
  Neck bones,   | 12.44 |  0.75 | 1.06 | 14.25|0.81| {97.60
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |    | {98.68
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  | .. |
                |       |       |      |      |    |
                |       |       |      |      |    |
  Backbones,    | 14.38 |  0.87 | 1.44 | 16.69|1.24|{ 96.98
                |       |       |      |      |    |{ 97.98
  Trimmings,    |  5.19 |  0.69 | 1.03 |  6.91|0.41| {99.00
                |       |       |      |      |    | {98.77
  Tail,         |  5.75 |  0.56 | 0.50 |  6.81|0.39|{100.44
                |       |       |      |      |    |{ 99.45
  --------------+-------+-------+------+------+----+-------

  [5] In this column the totals obtained by both the direct and
  the indirect determination of water and fat are given. The upper
  number in each case was obtained by use of the results of direct
  determinations of these constituents; for the lower number in each
  case the results obtained during the preparation of the sample, and
  in the analysis of the dry-air sample, were used. Lecithin is not
  included in the totals given in this table.

TABLE D.--ANALYTICAL DATA FOR BONES, MARROW, SKIN, SPINAL CORD,
TENDONS, AND HOOFS.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

  --------------+---------+
                |         |
                |         +
                |         |
                |         |
                | Air-dry |
                | sample, |
                | percent |
                |   of    |
    NAMES OF    | original|
     PARTS.     |material.|
  --------------+---------+
  Bones,        |  52.67  |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |  11.40  |
  Marrow,       |   4.44  |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |  17.36  |
  Skin,         |  36.93  |
                |         |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |  15.90  |
                |         |
                |         |
  Spinal cord,  |   8.80  |
  Tendons,      |  31.93  |
  (Fat extracted|         |
  with ether),  |   4.81  |
                |         |
                |         |
  Hoofs,        |  63.44  |
  --------------+---------+

  --------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
                |              PERCENT AIR-DRY MATERIAL.              |
                |------+----+-----------------------------+-----+-----+
                |      |    |          Nitrogen.          |     |     |
                |      |    +------+-------+-------+------+     |     +
                |      |    |      |Of pro-|       |      |     |     |
                |      |    |      | teids |       |      |     |     |
                |      |    |      |  in-  |Precip-|      |     |     |
                |      |    |      |soluble| itated|   Of |     |     |
    NAMES OF    |      |    |      | in hot|   by  | flesh|Leci-|     |
     PARTS.     |Water.|Fat.|Total.| water.|bromin.|bases.|thin.| Ash.|
  --------------+------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+-----+
  Bones,        |  5.72|0.52|  6.18|  5.32 |  0.11 | 0.75 | 0.84|49.59|
  (Fat extracted|      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  with ether),  | (.61)| .. |  0.29|   ..  |   ..  |  ..  | ..  |(.28)|
  Marrow,       |  6.68|0.19|  8.31|  7.08 |  0.65 | 0.48 | ..  |  .. |
  (Fat extracted|      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  with ether),  |   .. | .. |  0.07|   ..  |   ..  |  ..  | 2.64|  .. |
  Skin,         |  8.31|3.28| 15.02| 10.95 |  2.89 | 1.18 | 0.33| 1.70|
                |      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  (Fat extracted|      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  with ether),  |   .. | .. |  0.15|   ..  |   ..  |  ..  | 1.85|  .. |
                |      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
                |      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  Spinal cord,  |  6.01|8.28|  8.85|  7.02 |  1.26 | 0.57 | ..  |  .. |
  Tendons,      | 10.23|1.53| 14.10| 11.26 |  2.22 | 0.62 | 0.39| 3.71|
  (Fat extracted|      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  with ether),  |   .. | .. |  0.23|   ..  |   ..  |  ..  | 6.65|  .. |
                |      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
                |      |    |      |       |       |      |     |     |
  Hoofs,        |  7.14|1.35| 14.63|   ..  |   ..  |  ..  | ..  | 1.46|
  --------------+------+----+------+-------+-------+------+-----+-----+

  --------------+--------------------------------------------------------
                |               PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                +------------------------+------------------------+-----+
                |         Water.         |          Fat.          |     |
                +-------+---------+------+-------+---------+------+     +
                |       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
                |       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
                |       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
                |In pre-|   In    |      |In pre-|   In    |      |     |
    NAMES OF    | paring|residual |      |paring | residual|      |Leci-|
     PARTS.     |sample.|material.|Total.|sample.|material.|Total.|thin.|
  --------------+-------+---------+------+-------+---------+------+-----+
  Bones,        | 35.93 |   3.01  | 38.94| 11.40 |   0.27  | 11.67| 0.44|
  (Fat extracted|       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |   (.07) |  ..  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  |  .. |
  Marrow,       | 14.06 |   0.30  | 14.36| 81.50 |   0.01  | 81.51|  .. |
  (Fat extracted|       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  | 0.46|
  Skin,         | 47.17 |   3.07  | 50.24| 15.90 |   1.21  | 17.11| 0.12|
                |       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
  (Fat extracted|       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  | 0.29|
                |       |         |      |       |         |      | ----|
                |       |         |      |       |         |      | 0.41|
  Spinal cord,  | 65.17 |   0.53  | 65.70| 26.03 |   0.73  | 26.76|  .. |
  Tendons,      | 55.16 |   3.27  | 58.43| 12.91 |   0.49  | 13.40| 0.13|
  (Fat extracted|       |         |      |       |         |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  |  ..   |    ..   |  ..  | 0.32|
                |       |         |      |       |         |      | ----|
                |       |         |      |       |         |      | 0.45|
  Hoofs,        | 36.56 |   4.53  | 41.09|  ..   |    ..   |  0.86|  .. |
  --------------+-------+---------+------+-------+---------+------+-----+

  ---------------------------------------------
                  PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                +-----------------------------+
                |          Nitrogen.          |
                +------+-------+-------+------+
                |      |Of pro-|       |      |
                |      | teids |       |      |
                |      |  in-  |Precip-|      |
                |      |soluble| itated|  Of  |
    NAMES OF    |      | in hot|   by  | flesh|
     PARTS.     |Total.| water.|bromin.|bases.|
  --------------+------+-------+-------+------+
  Bones,        | 3.26 |  2.80 |  0.06 | 0.40 |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.03 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
  Marrow,       | 0.37 |  0.32 |  0.03 | 0.02 |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.01 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
  Skin,         | 5.55 |  4.04 |  1.07 | 0.44 |
                |      |       |       |      |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.024|   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
                |      |       |       |      |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Spinal cord,  | 0.78 |  0.62 |  0.11 | 0.05 |
  Tendons,      | 4.50 |  3.59 |  0.71 | 0.20 |
  (Fat extracted|      |       |       |      |
  with ether),  | 0.01 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
                |      |       |       |      |
                |      |       |       |      |
  Hoofs,        | 9.28 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |
  --------------+------+-------+-------+------+

  --------------------------------------------------------
                         PERCENT ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                +-----------------------------+-----+-------
                |   Nitrogenous substances.   |     |
                +-------+-------+------+------+     |
                |  Pro- |       |      |      |     |
                | teids |       |      |      |     |
                |   in  |       |      |      |     |
                |soluble|       |      |      |     |
    NAMES OF    | in hot|Gelati-| Flesh|      |     |
     PARTS.     | water.| noids.|bases.|Total.| Ash.| Total.
  --------------+-------+-------+------+------+-----+-------
  Bones,        | 17.50 |  0.38 | 1.25 |19.13 |26.12|  95.86
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  |(.03)|   ..
  Marrow,       |  2.00 |  0.19 | 0.06 | 2.25 | ..  |  98.12
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  | ..  |   ..
  Skin,         | 25.25 |  6.69 | 1.37 |33.31 | 0.63|{108.44
                |       |       |      |      |     |{101.89
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  | ..  |   ..
                |       |       |      |      |     |
                |       |       |      |      |     |
  Spinal cord,  |  3.88 |  0.69 | 0.16 | 4.73 | ..  |  97.19
  Tendons,      | 22.44 |  4.44 | 0.62 |27.50 | 1.18| 100.51
  (Fat extracted|       |       |      |      |     |
  with ether),  |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |  ..  | ..  |   ..
                |       |       |      |      |     |
                |       |       |      |      |     |
  Hoofs,        |  ..   |   ..  |  ..  |58.00 | 0.93| 100.88
  --------------+-------+-------+------+------+-----+-------

Similar data were obtained for all of the other samples used, but the
chemical composition is so nearly the same that it is not advisable to
repeat the data for the other varieties. The Berkshire for which the
data are given may be taken as a fair representative of the composition
of the varied parts of the meat of pigs. The comparative weights of
various parts of the Berkshire pig are given in Table B.

The data show that 88.19 percent of the weight of the carcass, after
dressing, is composed of meat, fat, and lean, and 7.56 percent of bone.
The complete data for the variety of Berkshire pig may be taken as a
type for the other varieties and is given in Table C.

The composition of the bone, marrow, skin, spinal cord, tendons, and
hoofs of the Berkshire pig is shown in Table D.

The percentages of the various parts of the original material of the
Berkshire pig are found in Table E.

TABLE E.--REVISED ANALYTICAL DATA.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

[Percents original material.]

  ------------+------+-----+----------------------------+-----+-----+------
              |      |     |  NITROGENOUS SUBSTANCES.   |     |     |
              |      |     +------+-------+------+------+     |     |
              |      |     | Pro- |       |      |      |     |     |
              |      |     |teids,|       |      |      |     |     |
              |      |     |  in- |       |      |      |     |     |
              |      |     | sol- |       |      |      |     |     |
     NAMES    |      |     | uble |       |      |      |LECI-|     |
    OF CUTS   |      |     |in hot|Gelati-| Flesh|      |THIN.|     |
   AND PARTS. |WATER.| FAT.|water.|noids. |bases.|Total.| [6] | ASH.|TOTAL.
  ------------+------+-----+------+-------+------+------+-----+-----+------
  Meat:       |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    American  |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    backs,    | 32.27|57.69|  7.00|  0.50 | 0.91 |  8.41| 0.15| 0.51| 99.03
    American  |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    bellies,  | 37.27|51.93|  7.00|  0.56 | 1.22 |  8.78| 0.14| 0.55| 98.67
    Short-cut |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    hams,     | 60.29|22.19| 14.00|  0.69 | 1.15 | 15.84| 0.65| 0.96| 99.93
    New York  |  [7] |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    shoulders,| 54.97|29.01| 11.25|  0.81 | 1.56 | 13.62| 0.15| 0.89| 98.64
              |  [7] |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    Four feet,| 61.28|16.83| 12.19|  4.69 | 2.34 | 19.22| 0.61| 0.82| 98.76
    Spareribs,| 52.54|29.10| 13.44|  1.13 | 1.19 | 15.76| 0.35| 1.00| 98.75
    Tender-   |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    loins,    | 68.06| 8.78| 18.56|  0.50 | 1.06 | 20.12| 0.49| 1.17| 98.62
    Neck      |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    bones,    | 55.70|27.92| 12.44|  0.75 | 1.06 | 14.25| 0.68| 0.81| 99.36
    Back-     |      |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    bones,    | 52.83|27.22| 14.38|  0.87 | 1.44 | 16.69| 0.26| 1.24| 98.24
    Trimmings,| 29.68|62.00|  5.19|  0.69 | 1.03 |  6.91| 0.11| 0.41| 99.11
              |  [7] |     |      |       |      |      |     |     |
    Tail,     | 24.02|68.23|  5.75|  0.56 | 0.50 |  6.81| 0.17| 0.39| 99.62
  Bones,      | 38.94|11.67| 17.50|  0.38 | 1.25 | 19.13| 0.44|26.12| 96.30
  Marrow,     | 14.36|81.51|  2.00|  0.19 | 0.06 |  2.25| 0.46|  .. | 98.58
              |      |     |      |       |      |      |  [8]|     |
  Skin,       | 50.24|17.11| 25.25|  6.69 | 1.37 | 33.31| 0.41| 0.63|101.70
  Spinal cord,| 65.70|26.76|  3.88|  0.69 | 0.16 |  4.73| 1.47| 0.40| 97.19
              |      |     |      |       |      |      |  [9]| [10]|
  Tendons,    | 58.43|13.40| 22.44|  4.44 | 0.62 | 27.50| 0.45| 1.18|100.96
  Hoofs,      | 41.09| 0.86|  ..  |   ..  |  ..  | 58.00|  .. | 0.93|100.88
  ------------+------+-----+------+-------+------+------+-----+-----+------

  [6] Lecithin in extracted sample only, unless otherwise noted.

  [7] Result of direct determination on original material. Other
  numbers in this column represent the sum of the percent of water
  removed in the preparation of sample and the percent of water
  remaining in the air-dry sample.

  [8] In fat extract.

  [9] In fat extract, calculated from averages for like cuts.

  [10] Calculated from averages of like cuts.

TABLE F.--DATA FOR THE ENTIRE DRESSED ANIMAL; THE HEAD, LEAF LARD, AND
KIDNEYS HAVING BEEN REMOVED.

PIG NO. 1.--BERKSHIRE.

  --------------+-----------------+------+--------------------
                |                 |      |  WEIGHT OF EACH
                |WEIGHT OF PARTS--|      |    CONSTITUENT.
                +-----------------+      +---------+---------+
                |        |        |      |         |         |
                |        |        |      |         |         +
                |        |        |      |         |         |
                |  From  |        |  OF  |         |         |
     NAMES OF   |  each  |        |ENTIRE|         |         |
      PARTS.    |  cut.  | Total. | PIG. |  Water. |  Fat.   |
  --------------+--------+--------+------+---------+---------+
  Meat (fat and |_Grams._|_Grams._|_Per- | _Grams._| _Grams._|
  lean):        |        |        |cent._|         |         |
    Backs,      |14,767.9|   ..   |  ..  | 4,765.6 | 8,519.6 |
    Bellies,    | 8,230.6|   ..   |  ..  | 3,067.5 | 4,274.2 |
    Hams,       | 9,407.9|   ..   |  ..  | 5,672.9 | 2,087.6 |
    Shoulders,  | 8,448.2|   ..   |  ..  | 4,644.2 | 2,450.6 |
    Feet,       |   325.3|   ..   |  ..  |   199.3 |    54.7 |
    Spareribs,  | 1,683.8|   ..   |  ..  |   884.7 |   490.0 |
    Tenderloins,|   470.8|   ..   |  ..  |   320.4 |    41.3 |
    Neck bones, |   493.2|   ..   |  ..  |   274.7 |   137.7 |
    Backbones,  |   704.0|   ..   |  ..  |   371.9 |   191.7 |
    Trimmings,  | 7,021.5|   ..   |  ..  | 2,084.0 | 4,353.1 |
    Tail,       |   291.7|   ..   |  ..  |    70.1 |   199.1 |
                +--------+--------+------+---------+---------+
      Total for |        |        |      |         |         |
      meats,    |   ..   |51,844.9| 88.19|22,354.4 |22,799.6 |
  Bones (less   |        |        |      |         |         |
  marrow),      |   ..   | 4,374.7|  7.44| 1,703.6 |   510.6 |
  Marrow,       |   ..   |    69.7|  0.12|    10.0 |    56.8 |
                |        |        |      |         |         |
  Skin,         |   ..   | 2,232.5|  3.80| 1,121.6 |   381.9 |
  Spinal cord,  |   ..   |    55.7|  0.09|    36.6 |    14.9 |
                |        |        |      |         |         |
  Tendons,      |   ..   |   159.5|  0.27|    93.2 |    21.4 |
  Hoofs,        |   ..   |    52.6|  0.09|    21.6 |     0.4 |
                +--------+--------+------+---------+---------+
      Total     |        |        |      |         |         |
      weights,  |   ..   |58,789.6|  ..  |25,341.0 |23,785.6 |
      Total per-|        |        |      |         |         |
      cents of  |        |        |      |         |         |
      original  |        |        |      |         |         |
      material, |   ..   |   ..   |  ..  |    43.10|    40.46|
  --------------+--------+--------+------+---------+---------+

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   WEIGHT OF EACH
                                     CONSTITUENT.
                +-------------------------------------+---------+---------
                |        Nitrogenous substances.      |         |
                +---------+---------+--------+--------+         |
                |Proteids,|         |        |        |         |
                |insoluble|         |        |        |         |
     NAMES OF   | in hot  | Gelati- | Flesh  |        |         |
      PARTS.    | water.  |  noids. | bases. | Total. |Lecithin.|  Ash.
  --------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+--------
  Meat (fat and |_Grams._ | _Grams._|_Grams._|_Grams._| _Grams._| _Grams._
  lean):        |         |         |        |        |         |
    Backs,      | 1,033.8 |    73.8 |  134.4 |1,242.0 | 22.15   |   75.3
    Bellies,    |   576.1 |    46.1 |  100.4 |  722.6 | 11.52   |   45.3
    Hams,       | 1,317.2 |    64.9 |  108.2 |1,490.3 | 61.15   |   90.3
    Shoulders,  |   950.4 |    68.4 |  131.8 |1,150.6 | 12.67   |   75.2
    Feet,       |    39.6 |    15.3 |    7.6 |   62.5 |  1.98   |    2.7
    Spareribs,  |   226.4 |    19.0 |   20.0 |  265.4 |  5.89   |   16.8
    Tenderloins,|    87.4 |     2.3 |    5.0 |   94.7 |  2.31   |    5.5
    Neck bones, |    61.4 |     3.7 |    5.2 |   70.3 |  3.35   |    4.0
    Backbones,  |   101.3 |     6.1 |   10.1 |  117.5 |  1.83   |    8.7
    Trimmings,  |   364.4 |    48.4 |   72.3 |  485.1 |  7.72   |   28.8
    Tail,       |    16.8 |     1.6 |    1.5 |   19.9 |  0.50   |    1.1
                +---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+---------
      Total for |         |         |        |        |         |
      meats,    | 4,774.8 |   349.6 |  596.5 |5,720.9 |131.07   |  353.7
  Bones (less   |         |         |        |        |         |
  marrow),      |   765.6 |    16.6 |   54.7 |  836.9 | 19.25   |1,142.6
  Marrow,       |     1.4 |     0.2 |    0.1 |    1.7 |  0.32   |   ..
                |         |         |        |        |  [11]
  Skin,         |   563.7 |   149.4 |   30.6 |  743.7 |  9.15   |   14.1
  Spinal cord,  |     2.2 |     0.4 |    0.1 |    2.7 |  0.82   |    0.2
                |         |         |        |        |  [12]   |  [13]
  Tendons,      |    35.8 |     7.1 |    1.0 |   43.9 |  0.72   |    1.9
  Hoofs,        |    ..   |     ..  |    ..  |   30.5 |   ..    |    0.5
                +---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+---------
      Total     |         |         |        |        |         |
      weights,  | 6,143.5 |   523.3 |  683.0 |7,654.9 |161.33   |  151.3
      Total per-|         |         |        |        |         |
      cents of  |         |         |        |        |         |
      original  |         |         |        |        |         |
      material, |    10.45|     0.89|    1.16|   13.02|  0.27   |    2.57
  --------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+---------

  [11] In fat extract.

  [12] In residue and fat extract, calculated from averages of like
  cuts.

  [13] Calculated from average of like cuts.

The data for the entire dressed animal after the removal of the head,
hoofs, lard, and kidneys are shown in Table F.


=General Conclusions.=--The composition of the flesh of pigs has been
given in detail for two reasons. First, because the data relative to
this point are much more complete than those of any other flesh product
and were obtained in a more systematic way. In the second place, pork
is one of the chief meat products of the United States,--the industry
being one of great magnitude, and pork being a common article of diet
among all classes of people. Further than this, the data indicate the
general character of fresh meat, and illustrate as well as that of any
of the typical animals the nutritive value and properties of flesh. The
study of pork, therefore, may be regarded as a typical study of meat
products. It is quite as important that all people should be informed
respecting the nature of the wholesome meat which they consume and its
value as a diet as it is that they should be certain these meats be
procured from healthy animals and in a sanitary way. These two classes
of knowledge together give a complete scheme of information which the
consumers in this and other countries are entitled to have.

Pork, by many hygienists, is regarded as the least desirable of meat
products, and it is not the purpose here to combat that idea. Granting,
however, for the sake of argument, that pork is a less desirable meat
food than those derived from cattle or sheep, that is all the more
reason for knowing particularly everything connected with it. Modern
investigations have appeared to establish the fact that swine are less
subject to those forms of disease, with the exception of trichinosis,
which tend to infect the meat and make it unfit for consumption than
cattle or sheep. The diseases to which swine are usually subject act
quickly, as a rule, and are speedily fatal, as in the case of hog
cholera, whereas the diseases most to be feared in cattle and sheep
are those of slow activity and those of a nature which is often
not revealed until slaughter, namely, tubercular diseases. In so
far, therefore, as infection from disease is concerned, previous to
slaughter, it appears that the flesh of swine is less objectionable
and less open to suspicion than that of cattle or sheep. One of
the chief objections to the use of pork in any form, whether fresh
or cured, has been based upon the unsanitary habits of the animals
themselves. With the modern methods of cleanliness and care, however,
the conditions under which the pigs grow and fatten are, or should be,
quite as sanitary as those surrounding cattle and sheep. The consumer,
of course, has the right to insist upon such sanitary conditions and
these, under present laws or those which are to be enacted, will
doubtless be supplied. It is believed that in this country sanitary
environments and a sanitary method of feeding will develop types
of animals superior to those grown in other countries, where the
population is denser and where the facilities for the proper growth
and fattening of the animal are less abundant. It is hoped that the
general diffusion of knowledge respecting all food products among our
people will aid greatly in securing these very desirable results.


PRESERVED MEATS.

Meats which cannot be eaten at the time of or soon after slaughter are
necessarily preserved until the time of consumption. It is difficult to
draw a definite line between a preserved and a fresh meat. A general
distinction is the following: Fresh meat is meat which is prepared for
consumption without the use of any condiment or preservative, without
sterilization, and with none of the artificial methods of keeping,
except cleanliness and a low temperature.

The above definition, as will be seen, covers meat placed in cold
storage. A special distinction, however, must be made in this case
between meat placed in cold storage for the purpose of transportation
only and meat placed in cold storage to be kept for an indefinite
time. Where meats are prepared for consumption by slaughter and
appropriate dressing and shipped long distances to the consumer the
cold storage car, ship, and warehouse become a necessity. There is some
reasonable limit for keeping such products, beyond which they should
be differentiated from fresh meats. Whenever meats are kept in cold
storage so long as to afford the opportunity for the growth of a mould,
or undergo other changes of a chemical or physical character which
distinguish them from the fresh products, they should be placed in a
different class. Fresh meats may, therefore, be divided as follows:

Class I. Meats intended for immediate consumption and passed to the
consumer within, at the most, one week after slaughter. Class II. Cold
storage meats, which are placed in refrigerators, frozen, and kept
for a longer period than one week. There is evidently also a limit
to the length of time which meat should remain in cold storage, no
matter how low the temperature may be, since the action of organisms
which produce decay cannot be entirely overcome. The exact limit at
which frozen meats can be kept without becoming inedible has not been
determined. Without this determination, however, it is advisable that
such limit should not be approached. Inasmuch as the supply of fresh
meat is practically uniform, or can be made so by the dealer therein,
there seems no good reason for the storage of meat in refrigerator
compartments for a longer time than is necessary for transportation and
a reasonable time thereafter for passing into consumption, except in
cases of emergency. It might be safe to say that no meat should be kept
in a cold storage warehouse longer than a month after its reception.
Numerous instances might be cited in which meat may be kept for a much
longer time, but the question for the consumer is not how long a while
meats can be kept but how soon they can be placed in his hands. In
this connection it should not be forgotten that it is the opinion of
perhaps the majority of hygienists and connoisseurs that fresh meat,
especially beef, improves for a certain length of time in cold storage.
It is probable that the fresh beef which is served to the people of
the United States is on an average a month old, and is said to be
improved by keeping this length of time. This is a question, however,
which is still undetermined, and it deserves a further investigation.
Under present conditions it is well to know the truth respecting these
matters and to realize that the fresh meat we get, such as beef and
mutton, is not direct from the shambles but has been kept for at least
four weeks in cold storage.


=Effect of Long Cold Storage.=--It has been stated in semi-scientific
publications that the flesh of a mammoth incrusted in polar ice and
presumably thousands of years old has been found to be intact and
edible. This story, lacking corroboration, is hardly in harmony with
known facts. The author had the opportunity of examining a quarter of
beef which had been kept frozen in a warehouse for more than eleven
years. This meat was found to be wholly inedible. It had an unpleasant
and mummy-like odor, was light in fiber and color, having evidently
lost a large part of its weight, and was of a character wholly
unsuitable for consumption. This fact appears to show that eleven
years is too long a time in which to keep meat frozen. In fact, it
is scarcely worth while, from a practical point of view, to discuss
so long a limit. Only the necessary time for the preparation and
transportation of the meat is to be considered, and the sanitary laws
of the nation, states, and municipalities should undoubtedly regulate
the time of cold storage and see that all packages of meat exposed for
sale are plainly tagged as to the date of slaughter, in order that the
consumer may know.

In the consideration of the subject of preserved meats there are
excluded all meats delivered in the fresh state for consumption and
meats kept in cold storage in a fresh state during the necessary time
of preparation and transportation say, on the whole, from four to
eight weeks. Meats kept longer than this may generally be considered
as preserved meats, even when cold is the only factor active in their
preservation.


=Method of Preserving Meats.=--Aside from cold storage there are
four methods in vogue for preserving meats. These may be classified
as follows: (1) Curing with the aid of condimental substances; (2)
treatment with chemical and non-condimental preservatives; (3)
sterilization with heat; (4) drying. These all except the second may be
regarded as legitimate means of preserving meats.


=Curing with Condimental Substances.=--This method of preserving meat
has been practiced from the remotest antiquity. The chief condimental
substances employed are salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke. With
the proper technical skill and knowledge of the process, meats can
be preserved in this way, and at the same time aromas and flavors
developed which are considered most agreeable by the consumer and which
give an additional value to the product. It is not to be claimed in
any case that condimental preservatives add anything to the nutritive
value of the product, except in so far as condiments themselves aid the
digestion by exciting in a perfectly proper way the activity of the
glands which secrete the digestive ferments.

It is not the purpose here to describe the technical processes used.
In general it may be said that the application of salt is the first
process, and this is done as soon after the slaughter as possible to
secure the proper cooling of the carcass, usually from twenty-four
to forty-eight hours. The meat, properly cut into the forms known to
commerce, is carefully packed and heavily salted, and allowed to remain
for some time in contact with the salt or with the brine which is
produced therefrom. The salt penetrates to the interior of the flesh
and hardens, to some extent, the tissues, abstracting water therefrom,
and, without being wholly germicidal in character, prevents the
introduction of eggs of insects and the development of ordinary germ
life. The salt, however, does not entirely inhibit the enzymic action
which tends to ripen the meat and make it more palatable. It naturally
gives to the meat the salty flavor which is demanded by the taste in a
preparation of this kind.

Sugar is used, if at all, always in connection with salt as a
preservative for meats. It may be employed in the pure state, but is
usually the yellow or low-grade sugar or molasses. It gives to the
preserved meat, especially ham, a flavor and quality much appreciated
by the consumer.

The application of wood smoke is usually the last process after the
meats are properly cured in salt and sugar. The pieces are suspended in
a convenient room and underneath is built a fire of hard wood, which is
kept smouldering as much as possible in order to produce the maximum
of smoke and minimum of heat. Oak, maple, and hickory woods are most
highly prized for this purpose, since they develop on burning a rich
aroma which imparts to the flesh a delicate flavor.

The object of curing the meat is, first, to prevent decay; second, to
impart the flavor of the well known condiments mentioned above, and
third, to favor the development of the enzymic action which has the
property not only to make the meat more aromatic than it otherwise
would be, but also more pleasant to the taste.

The curing of meat in this respect may be compared to the development
of a cheese, except that the enzymic action in the case of meat is one
of minimum extent, while in the case of cheese it is one of maximum
intensity. In addition to the condimental substances above mentioned
spices of different kinds are sometimes added. Vinegar is also used
at times as a condimental substance and is, to a certain extent,
also a preservative substance, but vinegar is chiefly used in the
preservation of vegetable substances rather than meats in bulk. For
meats which are spiced as well as preserved as above, vinegar is often
used as one of the ingredients, intended as a condimental substance.
No other substances than those mentioned above are necessary to the
proper curing of meat, but convenience of application and certain other
considerations have led packers of meats, when not prevented by law,
to abandon the old methods to a certain extent and substitute what is
known as the quick-aging process described below.


=Preservation by Means of Non-condimental Chemical Preservatives.=--The
use of non-condimental chemicals in the preservation of meat is
practically an industry of the last quarter of a century. Up to that
time the use of non-condimental chemicals was practically unknown
in the meat industry. The chemicals employed are those known as
germicides. In the quantities used they neither impart a taste nor
odor to a preserved meat, but by their germicidal properties prevent
the development of organic ferments and thus make the preservation of
meat far more certain and very much less expensive. By the use of some
chemicals the salting, sugaring, and smoking of preserved meats may be
done with very much less care, in a very much shorter time, and at a
very greatly reduced expense. For this reason the practice has gained
a great vogue, not as a means of benefiting the consumers, but rather
as a means of enriching the packer and dealer. Chemical preservatives
are also highly objectionable because they keep meats apparently fresh,
while in reality changes of the most dangerous character may be going
on. They thus prevent the display of the red light danger signal.


=Preservatives Used.=--The principal chemical preservatives used in
the curing of meats are borax and boric acid and sulfite of soda.
There are many other chemical preservatives which have been employed,
but these are by far the most useful, the most certain, and the most
widely employed. Borax and boric acid, of the two classes, are by far
the more common. Sulfite of soda is used more as a preservative of
color, and is probably found more frequently on fresh than on preserved
meats. Borax has the property of paralyzing fermentative action and
thus securing immunity from decay. Its use, however, tends to diminish
the palatability of the meat because of its restraining influence upon
the condimental method of preservation described above. The meats are
more quickly preserved, require less condimental substances, and the
borax probably inhibits, to a certain degree, the enzymic action of a
favorable kind, described above.

The use of any kind of a chemical preserving agent on meat is most
reprehensible, no matter what they may be. Unfortunately, experts
differ respecting the influence of these chemical preservatives upon
health. The users of chemical preservatives have employed experts of
known fame and distinction to testify in favor of these products, while
the consumer, perhaps, is not able to go to the expense of securing
expert testimony, and, therefore, as respects numbers of witnesses, at
least, chemical preservatives have an advantage. In a case of this kind
the accused must be considered guilty until proven innocent. It is not
sufficient to prove in a given case that borax is not injurious. If it
be proven that it is injurious in a single case conviction must ensue.
There is no doubt of the fact that the injurious character of borax,
even in small quantities, has been fully established, and therefore
any amount of testimony to the effect that in individual cases it has
not produced injurious results is of no value whatever. If a citizen
be robbed and in the course of the prosecution it be shown that there
are a million citizens who have not been robbed by this criminal the
evidence would be of no value. If it has been shown that the individual
citizen has been robbed the prisoner is convicted. No expert would
testify that borax has never been injurious,--even those who appear
in its favor admit that, but plead that it is generally used in small
quantities, and, therefore, cannot be harmful.


=The Argument of Small Quantities.=--The fallacy of the argument for
small quantities is so evident that it needs only to be presented in
brief form to show the intelligent and thinking people of this country
the fallacy of the claims of experts in favor of chemical preservatives.

The arguments which have been advanced in excuse of the use of
preservatives when used in minute quantities have, perhaps, been
more vigorously urged for salicylic acid than for almost any other
substance. This argument has been urged with such vigor and such
ingenuity that a further reference may not be out of place here. The
principle which is laid down is that a substance which is injurious to
health when added to foods, if not a natural constituent thereof, or if
not added for condimental purposes, does not lose its power of injury
to health because it is diluted or given in small quantities. The only
change which is made is to mask the injurious effects produced--to make
them more difficult of ascertainment and impossible of measurement. The
fallacy of the argument that small quantities of an injurious substance
are not injurious may, perhaps, be best represented graphically. The
accompanying chart (Fig. 7) shows theoretically the normal and lethal
dose of a food and a drug or, as in this case, a chemical preservative.
The chart shows two curves, one representing a chemical preservative
and one representing a food. The normal dose of a food is that quantity
of food which maintains a healthy adult body in equilibrium. It is
represented in the chart on the right by the number 100. If the
quantity of food necessary to maintain the equilibrium in a healthy
adult body is slightly diminished, no apparent change is at first
experienced and possibly even no discomfort. If, however, the quantity
of food be still further diminished progressively, as indicated by
following the curve down to the left, the point is finally reached
when no food is given at all and death ensues, represented by 0 on the
left hand of the diagram designated “Lethal dose.” As the curve begins
to deviate from the perpendicular on the right the degree of injury
is very readily noticed and starvation or symptoms of starvation are
set up. Thus if you follow the perpendicular on the right downward
to the point 80 the divergence of the corresponding point of the
curve is already measurable. As you descend to 0 the magnitude of the
measurement increases. It requires but very little further illustration
to show how easily the effect of diminishing the normal dose of a food
can be measured immediately after the curve begins to vary appreciably
from the perpendicular on the right.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--GRAPHIC CHART REPRESENTING THE COMPARATIVE
INFLUENCES OF FOODS AND PRESERVATIVES.]

Let us now consider the perpendicular on the left, which is marked at
the top under the term “Lethal dose,” namely, a quantity of the added
preservative sufficient to destroy life. The normal dose of such an
added chemical preservative is 0 and is shown at the base line to the
right, marked “Normal dose.” If you add a very minute quantity of a
chemical preservative, the curve representing it varies so slightly
from the horizontal base as to be impossible of measurement by ordinary
means. If we follow along to the number 75 on the horizontal base we
see the deviation of the curve is sufficiently great to measure. At
50 it is still greater, at 25 still greater, while at the left of the
basic line it is a maximum extending from 0 to 100, or the lethal
dose. It is easy to show by mathematical data that no matter how small
the quantity of an injurious substance or preservative it will still
produce an injurious effect which may be infinitely small if the dose
be infinitely small. It follows, then, as a mathematical demonstration
that any quantity of an injurious substance added to a food product
must of necessity be injurious, provided it is in the nature of a drug
and the body is in a perfectly healthy, normal condition.

Hence the argument which has been so persistently urged in favor of
a chemical preservative, that if in small quantities it is harmless,
is shown to be wholly untenable. While there is no necessity for the
addition of a harmful substance, where no particular benefit is secured
thereby, and where there is no disturbance of the normal state of
health, there can be no possible excuse of a valid nature to offer for
the exhibition of even minute quantities. That these minute quantities
would not be dangerous in so far as producing any fatal effect is
concerned is conceded, but that in the end they do not produce an
injury even in these small quantities is certainly to be denied. The
course of safety, therefore, in all these cases is to guard the opening
of the door. If the admission of small quantities is permitted, then
there can never be any agreement among experts or others respecting
the magnitude of the small quantity, and continued litigation and
disagreement must follow. On the other hand, when the harmfulness
of any substance which it is proposed to add to food is established
and no reason for its use can be given other than the convenience,
carelessness, or indifference of the manufacturer, the exclusion of
such bodies entirely from food products follows as a logical sequence
and a hygienic necessity.

The third method of preparing or preserving meat is by sterilization.
Of all the various methods which have been proposed there is probably
none which is, theoretically, so free of objections as the preservation
of meat by sterilization, in other words, as canned meats. The only
important thing is that the raw material used in canning must itself be
meat free of disease, obtained under sanitary conditions, and subjected
to sterilization before any fermentation or decay takes place. Pure,
wholesome meat thus prepared and thoroughly sterilized will remain in
an edible condition for a reasonable length of time. Unfortunately, as
has been shown in the testimony respecting the packing industry of the
country, canned meats have not always been selected solely for freedom
from disease and for palatability. The question of diseased meat is
discussed in another part of this book and, therefore, may not be
taken up here. There have been used for canning purposes the fragments
and, perhaps, inedible portions of carcasses, and this practice cannot
be too severely condemned. This does not mean that these fragments
and portions of carcasses are not fit for food, but they should be
collected, prepared, and sold as such with plain notices to the
consumers of their origin. A cheaper supply of beef would thus be
furnished for those in humbler circumstances, and no imposition of any
kind would be practiced because the nature of the meat would be fully
understood.


=Preparation of Meat for Canning.=--In the following description it
is understood that the ordinary processes of canning sound, properly
prepared beef are described. The question of the canning of improper
samples is reserved for the remarks on adulterations.

There is no uniform practice followed, as has been carefully
ascertained by a study of the different packing houses and processes
for selecting and preparing meats for canning. The exigencies of trade
determine this to a greater or less extent. When there is a demand in
the fresh state for all the beef which can be supplied the canning
industry will necessarily suffer. When there is a surplus of beef
offered for sale or in case of war, where the army contracts for large
quantities of canned meat, the opposite conditions probably prevail,
and the best meats are used for canning purposes and those of a less
desirable quality offered for sale in the fresh state. The portions
of the carcass used, as described in Bulletin 13, Part 10, Bureau of
Chemistry, depend, to some extent, upon the market of fresh beef. All
of the meat on the fore quarter, except the shank and the “third rib,”
is usually canned, and in some cases those portions are not reserved.
The cheaper cuts from the hind quarter are also used for preserving
purposes. Very fat, and therefore easily marketed, carcasses are not
used for canning purposes except in case of unusual demand as above
stated. There are two reasons for this, one of which has already been
outlined, namely, that such meat brings a better price in the fresh
state, and, in the second place, lean meat has a better appearance in
the canned state than the fat meat. For these reasons, in the proper
preparation of the meat for canning, the more fatty portions, together
with the gristle, are removed and sent to other parts of the factory
for making up into other kinds of food.

The meat having been selected, it is cut into pieces of approximately
from one to four pounds in weight, according to the size of the
tins in which it is to be placed. It is important, for the purpose
of appearances, that the size of the pieces of meat in each tin be
approximately the same. Also for the process of sterilization the
pieces of meat should be practically the same size, so that they can
all be thoroughly sterilized at the same time. If the pieces be of
different sizes the small ones would become thoroughly cooked and
disintegrated before the large ones became thoroughly sterilized, and
thus the mass which would be presented to the view on opening the can
would be unpleasant to the sight.


=Parboiling.=--After the pieces have been selected and dressed they
are parboiled before being sterilized. The time of parboiling varies
in different packing establishments from eight to twenty minutes,
according to the size of the pieces of meat. In some cases a uniform
time for parboiling is prescribed, irrespective of the size of the
pieces. One of the principal reasons for parboiling the meat is to
secure the shrinkage, which always takes place on heating, before the
meat is placed in the tins.

The experiments have shown that meats when put in tins in a fresh state
and sterilized shrink to about two-thirds of their original volume.
Parboiling is, in the essence, a process of shrinking. When the meat is
put at once into boiling water there is less loss of protein matter
than when the meat is placed in cold water and heated gradually. The
substances removed in parboiling are water, fat, soluble mineral
matter, and the meat bases. The fat is removed by becoming rendered,
and rises to the surface where it can be skimmed off. A little over one
percent of the protein content of meat is lost by parboiling while the
total meat bases lost amount to almost one-third of the total quantity
contained in the meat. Of mineral matter in the meat as high as 50
percent is lost in parboiling.

By shrinking, parboiling tends to make a more concentrated article
and thus favors transportation. Practically the nutritive value of a
pound of properly canned beef is about one-third greater than that of
one pound of the fresh beef of the same kind. Hence parboiling may be
regarded as a perfectly legitimate and desirable process without which
the beef could not be properly prepared for canning.


=Tinning.=--After the meat is properly parboiled it is placed in the
tins either by machinery or by hand. To each tin is added a small
quantity of a liquid preparation made by the canners and known as soup
liquor. This liquor generally contains salt, and sometimes a little
sugar or molasses. The composition of soup liquor is as follows:

  Solids,       .92 percent
  Protein,      .09    „
  Meat bases,   .23    „
  Ash,          .28    „
  Salt,         .11    „
  Water,      98.37    „

This soup liquor may be regarded as a thin soup. The origin of the
liquid analyzed above was not disclosed, and, therefore, no expression
can be made of the way in which it was formed. It was probably made
from soup stock, namely, the waste meat and bones of the factory. There
is no objection to a soup liquor of this kind provided it is made from
sound, clean, and wholesome material. There are two reasons for adding
this liquid, namely, to fill up the space which would otherwise exist
between the pieces of meat and thus aid in the preservation of the
material, and, second, to add a condimental substance which makes the
contents of the tin more palatable.


=Sterilization.=--After the cans are filled in this way and closed by
soldering or otherwise they are placed in retorts which are composed
of strong iron or steel boilers, properly covered and secured, and
when these boilers are full they are subjected to the action of steam
heat under pressure. Usually a small hole is left in the can through
which any gas, air or other kind, is expelled from the can. As soon as
everything is complete the retorts are opened and the cans are sealed.

In all cases, however, after sealing the cans they are subjected to a
second heating at a temperature of from 225 to 250 degrees F. The time
of heating varies from one to two hours. After removal from the retorts
the cans are washed with a spray of cold water for several hours, and
they are then dried, painted, and labeled.

The above is a general description of the process employed which,
however, is varied to some extent in different packing houses.

A modification of the above method consists in exhausting the cans
in vacuo and automatically sealing them in the exhausted state, thus
removing all air and other gases therefrom. The cans are then placed
upon an endless conveyor and dipped into an oil bath at a temperature
of 240 degrees, the speed of the conveyer being so regulated that
the cans remain in the bath a sufficient length of time to complete
sterilization before being carried out at the opposite end. After
passing through this bath they are carried automatically into another
bath consisting of a solution of carbonate of soda and, finally, into a
bath of pure water. The cans are then painted and labeled as originally
described.


SPECIAL STUDIES OF METHODS OF CANNING BEEF MADE IN BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.


=Composition of Beef Used for Canning.=--Samples of fresh beef intended
for canning purposes, and examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, have the
following composition:

  Water,                             71.17 percent
  Insoluble protein,                 13.87    „
  Globulins,                          1.38    „
  Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin,   1.31    „
  Meat bases,                         1.09    „
  Fat,                                9.89    „
  Ash,                                 .96    „
  Salt,                                .04    „
  Undetermined,                        .33    „

The sample, of which the above data are representative, was secured
from a mass of meat weighing 356 pounds, after passing through a
sausage grinder and being thoroughly mixed. The above data may
therefore be regarded as the representative constituents of the usual
grade, most carefully selected canning beef.


=Effect of Parboiling.=--A similar lot of meat secured in the same
way and from the same carcass weighed 358 pounds and was parboiled
as follows: The meat was placed in water in a steam-jacketed tank,
the temperature of which stood at 196 degrees F. The reduction in the
temperature caused by the meat was restored by heating the contents of
the retort, and it was kept at 196 degrees F. for 15 minutes. It is
thus seen that this parboiling was accomplished at a temperature below
the boiling point of water. After the parboiling was completed it was
found that the meat weighed 235 pounds, showing a net shrinkage in
weight of 123 pounds. This sample of meat was then tinned in two-pound
cans with the addition to each can of two ounces of canning jelly of
the following composition:

  Water,        95.18 percent
  Protein,       1.75    „
  Common salt,   2.85    „
  Ash,            .22    „

After sterilizing, the cans were opened and the contents subjected to
analysis. The data obtained are as follows:

  Water,                                 62.47 percent
  Total protein,                         24.88    „
      Insoluble protein,                 22.25    „
      Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin,   2.63    „
  Meat bases,                             1.15    „
  Fat,                                    9.87    „
  Ash,                                     .91    „
  Salt,                                    .19    „


_Composition of Parboiling Water._--The liquor, after parboiling the
above sample, weighed 280 pounds and had the following composition:

  Water,       99.12 percent
  Protein,       .06    „
  Meat bases,    .25    „
  Ash,           .25    „
  Salt,          .05    „

The above data show that the general effect of parboiling upon the
canned meat is to diminish its content of water. Only a small quantity
of the soluble proteids is found in the liquor, and the other principal
constituents removed, aside from water, are the meat bases and mineral
content or ash. The fat in the soup liquor was not determined because
it rises to the surface and is not in any sense a constituent of
the liquor itself. Considerable quantities of fat were removed in
parboiling, the amount depending largely upon the temperature. At a low
temperature of parboiling, such as described, the amount of fat secured
is far less than when the temperature of parboiling is higher.

TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF PARBOILING AND STERILIZING UPON
THE FRESH BEEF.

  -------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------
               |     |         |        |COMPOSITION
               |     |         |        | OF CANNED
               |     |         |        |  BEEF AS
               |     |EXTRACTED|        |DETERMINED
               |FRESH|    BY   |ADDED IN|    BY
  CONSTITUENTS.|BEEF.| BOILING.|CANNING.| ANALYSIS.
  -------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------
               | Lbs.|  Lbs.   |  Lbs.  |    Lbs.
  Water,       |254.8|  122.1  |  14.1  |   146.8
  Protein,     | 59.3|     .1  |    .1  |    58.5
  Meat bases,  |  3.9|     .7  |    .0  |     2.7
  Fat,         | 35.4|   12.2  |  ....  |    23.2
  Ash,         |  3.4|     .7  |    .2  |     2.1
  Salt,        |   .1|     .1  |    .2  |      .4
  Undetermined,|  1.2|   ....  |  ....  |     1.7
               |-----|  -----  | -----  |   -----
      Total,   |358.1|   ....  |  ....  |   235.4
  -------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------


_Preparation of Canned Beef with More Intensive Parboiling._--In
another experiment, determining the effect of the changes produced upon
the fresh meat, more vigorous preparatory operations were performed.
Samples were secured from eight healthy carcasses for use in this
determination. Half of the sample was reduced to sausage and secured
for analysis as described, and the other submitted to parboiling,
sterilizing, and analysis.

COMPOSITION OF THE SAMPLE OF FRESH MEAT.

  Water,                                 69.33 percent
  Total protein,                         16.81    „
      Insoluble protein,                 12.69    „
      Globulins,                          3.06    „
      Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin,   1.06    „
  Meat bases,                             1.12    „
  Fat,                                   10.68    „
  Ash,                                    1.13    „
  Salt,                                    .24    „

The original sample represented over a thousand pounds. The opposite
sides of the carcasses were prepared for canning and produced the
following amount of articles as sold on the market:

  Total weight of half carcasses,  1,761 pounds
   3 ribs,                            53   „
   5 rolls,                           43   „
   5 loins,                          166   „
   3 tenderloins,                     13   „
   3 sirloin butts,                   28   „
   3 boneless strips,                 24   „
   8 rump butts,                      36   „
   8 flank steaks,                     8   „
   8 kidneys,                          9   „
  24 beef hams,                      261   „
  Shank meat,                         85   „
  Soft bones,                        198   „
  Shank bones,                       107   „
  Tank tallow,                       132   „
  Canning meat,                      598   „

The above data show that only about one-third of the whole carcass is
suitable for canning purposes. The best and juiciest pieces, it is
noticed, are cut away and sold for other purposes. In explanation of
the above data it should be stated that only the fore-quarters of the
carcass were used and not the whole carcass.

In the preparation of the sample for analysis, the same selection
was made as for canning, and only the canning meat was used in the
preparation of the sample.


_Parboiling._--The parboiling of this sample was accomplished in
the following manner: The meat was first placed in cold water, 50
degrees F., and heated by means of injected steam. In five minutes
the temperature had reached 122 degrees F., and at the end of eleven
minutes the boiling temperature was reached and continued for one
hour. The soup liquor resulting from the parboiling weighed 1,500
pounds and had the following composition:

  Water,       99.08 percent
  Protein,       .09    „
  Meat bases,    .23    „
  Ash,           .28    „
  Salt,          .11    „

These data show that, as in the other cases, the chief extraction from
the meat during parboiling is water and the next most important removal
is of meat bases and mineral matter or ash. After sterilization in
the usual way the cans were opened and the canned beef subjected to
analysis. The composition of the canned beef was as follows:

  Water,                                 56.18 percent
  Total protein,                         31.57    „
      Insoluble protein,                 27.94    „
      Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin,   3.63    „
  Meat bases,                             1.44    „
  Fat,                                    7.72    „
  Ash,                                     .82    „
  Common salt,                             .04    „


_Composition of the Fresh and Canned Meat._--Below is found a table
similar to that already given for the other sample, showing the
composition of fresh beef and the resulting canned beef.

  -------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------
               |     |         |        |COMPOSITION
               |     |         |        | OF CANNED
               |     |         |        |  BEEF AS
               |     |EXTRACTED|        |DETERMINED
               |FRESH|    BY   |ADDED IN|    BY
  CONSTITUENTS.|BEEF.| BOILING.|CANNING.| ANALYSIS.
  -------------+-----+---------+--------+-----------
               | Lbs.|  Lbs.   |  Lbs.  |    Lbs.
  Water,       |414.6|  243.2  |  12.9  |   184.3
  Proteins,    |100.5|    1.3  |  ....  |   101
  Meat bases,  |  6.7|    3.4  |  ....  |     4.6
  Fat,         | 63.9|   39.2  |  ....  |    24.7
  Ash,         |  6.8|    4.2  |  ....  |     2.6
  Undetermined,|  5.5|   ....  |  ....  |     2.8
               |-----|  -----  | -----  |   -----
      Total,   |598  |   ....  |  ....  |   320

From the above table it is seen that the shrinkage during parboiling
amounts to 46.49 percent of the weight of the fresh meat. Of this
shrinkage 82.85 percent is water, 14.11 percent is fat, 1.51 percent
ash, and 0.82 percent meat bases. It is noticed that more than half of
the water originally found in the meat is extracted by parboiling.

It seems rather anomalous that boiling a substance with water would
extract water from it, but in the case of meats it is seen that half
the water, or even more, which a meat contains is extracted from it by
boiling in water.

The two samples given are extreme cases in the method of preparing
meats for canning. In the first instance the meat is placed at once
into hot water just below the boiling point and kept there for only
a short time. In the second case the meat is placed in cold water
and is brought to the boiling point and maintained there for one
hour. In the last case the low temperature of the water in which the
meat was originally placed favors the extraction of a portion of the
soluble protein matter, namely, albumins, globulins, etc., while, on
the other hand, the long-continued boiling to which it was subjected
tends to decompose the connective tissues of the meat and causes
the loss of small particles of the insoluble protein thus separated
by disintegration. Although in the last case the shrinkage was much
greater than in the preceding experiment, practically no insoluble
protein matter was extracted, mechanically or otherwise.


_Canning of Beef without Parboiling._--To determine the amount of
shrinkage which takes place and the general effect which is produced by
canning meats without parboiling, samples were prepared, sterilized,
and canned in the usual way, with the exception of the omission of
parboiling. On opening the cans it was found in each case that the meat
had shrunk to about two-thirds of its former volume and that the place
was occupied by a liquid containing a number of particles of solid
matter. The appearance of the sample was much less inviting than that
of meat canned after parboiling.

An analysis of the sample was made, with the following results: Total
weight of sample, 31 ounces; weight of canned meat, 21 ounces.

  Water,         63.83 percent
  Protein,       27.25    „
  Meat bases,     1.09    „
  Fat,            4.62    „
  Ash,            1.01    „
  Salt,            .04    „
  Undetermined,   1.20    „


_Composition of Liquid._--The liquid in the can was examined with the
following result: Weight of liquor, 10 ounces.

  Solids,               6.93 percent
  Protein and gelatin,  1.94    „
  Meat bases,           1.84    „
  Ash,                  1.22    „
  Salt,                 1.15    „

The above data show that the beef lost 32.06 percent of its weight in
the canning, a little over half of which is water.

It appears that less protein matter is extracted when the meat is
parboiled by being plunged into boiling water than when it is packed in
a can without parboiling and subsequently subjected to the temperature
of sterilization. In the former case the soluble proteins in meat near
the surface are coagulated before they can diffuse into the surrounding
water. In the other case, owing to the low conductivity of meat, the
temperature at the surface of the can penetrates slowly to the interior
and the juices which are extracted from the meat carry with them
protein matter in solution which is afterwards precipitated by heat
and remains in the liquid as matter coagulated at the temperature of
sterilization.

It is seen that parboiling has many advantages. It extracts less of
the valuable matter from the meat, it shrinks the meat before packing
so that the tins contain more nutrient matter, and it improves the
appearance of the meat to the consumer when opened.


=Relation of Canned to Fresh Meat.=--In the following table is given
the number of ounces of canned meat in a number of cans compared with
the equivalent amount of fresh beef used in filling them:

  NO. OF CAN.      CANNED BEEF,     EQUIVALENT TO FRESH BEEF.
                    Ounces.                Ounces.
  1,                 29                     44.2
  2,                 29.9                   42.6
  3,                 28.5                   38.7
  4,                 12.6                   19
  5,                 30.5                   57
  6,                 30.6                   50.9
                     ----                   ----
        Means,       26.9                   42.1

It thus appears that a can of 26.9 ounces of beef contains, as an
average content, an amount of meat equivalent to 42.1 ounces of fresh
beef, and retains practically all of the nutrient value of the larger
quantity of fresh beef.


=Canned Ham and Bacon.=--It seems unnecessary, as a rule, to can
ham and bacon properly cured and transported in a suitable manner.
There are occasions justifying the use of these products in tropical
countries and in other places far remote from the sources of
manufacture, and where the preservation of them, by reason of the
character of the climate, is difficult.

The proper preparation of these articles, packing in tins and
sterilizing, makes it possible to send them to the most distant points
and to have them consumed in the most unfavorable climatic conditions.
Canned ham, as it is found upon the market, has a higher percentage of
fat and a consequently lower percentage of protein than canned beef.
The ham is packed closely and the smaller pieces added for the purpose
of filling up interstices between the larger pieces of meat and keeping
the can full. It is reasonable to infer that the added meat is pork,
although very probably it may not always be so.


=Composition of Canned Ham and Bacon.=--The character of the canned ham
and bacon upon the market may be illustrated by the composition of the
following samples (these samples were purchased in the open market and
are presumably representative of the products as commonly sold in the
shops):

COMPOSITION OF CANNED HAM AND BACON.

  ---------------------------+---------------------------
                             |COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                             +--------+--------+--------+
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        +
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |Water in|        |
                             |        |fat-free|        |
                             |        |  sub-  |        |
          DESCRIPTION.       | Water. | stance.|  Fat.  |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
                             |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  Sliced Star ham,           |  43.80 |  71.84 |  38.22 |
  Boneless ham,              |  53.30 |  64.09 |  16.84 |
  Gold Band sliced ham,      |  48.37 |  68.72 |  29.78 |
  Boneless cooked ham,       |  41.53 |  63.50 |  34.60 |
  Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,|  36.77 |  57.27 |  35.79 |
  Lunch ham,                 |  40.74 |  59.53 |  31.56 |
  Huckins sandwich ham,      |  36.56 |  72.17 |  49.34 |
  Ham, “Coin Special,”       |  50.87 |  69.12 |  26.42 |
  Sliced Star bacon,         |  15.34 |  21.24 |  27.79 |
  Beechnut bacon,            |  18.59 |  26.42 |  29.59 |
  Sliced breakfast bacon,    |  20.73 |  67.06 |  69.07 |
  Gold Band sliced bacon,    |  19.69 |  62.99 |  68.74 |
  Fresh pork, rib and loin,  |  51.80 |  78.32 |  33.86 |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

  ----------------------------------------------------------------
                               COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                             +-----------------------------------+
                             |             Nitrogen.             |
                             +--------+--------+--------+--------+
                             |        |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |        |
                             |        | Coagu- | Preci- |        |
                             |        | lated  | pitated|        |
                             |        |  pro-  |   by   |  Meat  |
          DESCRIPTION.       | Total. | teids. | bromin.| bases. |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                             |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  Sliced Star ham,           |   2.07 |   1.62 |   0.06 |   0.39 |
  Boneless ham,              |   3.75 |   3.15 |    .10 |    .50 |
  Gold Band sliced ham,      |   2.82 |   1.89 |    .09 |    .84 |
  Boneless cooked ham,       |   3.03 |   2.50 |    .12 |    .41 |
  Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,|   3.05 |   1.96 |    .19 |    .90 |
  Lunch ham,                 |   3.68 |   3.21 |    .16 |    .31 |
  Huckins sandwich ham,      |   2.04 |   1.77 |    .07 |    .20 |
  Ham, “Coin Special,”       |   2.94 |   2.55 |    .34 |    .05 |
  Sliced Star bacon,         |   6.68 |   4.75 |    .74 |   1.19 |
  Beechnut bacon,            |   5.74 |   4.10 |    .26 |   1.38 |
  Sliced breakfast bacon,    |   1.07 |    .92 |    .07 |    .08 |
  Gold Band sliced bacon,    |   1.40 |    .91 |    .10 |    .39 |
  Fresh pork, rib and loin,  |   2.15 |   1.57 |    .25 |    .33 |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  ----------------------------------------------------------------
                               COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                             +-----------------------------------+
                             |      Nitrogenous substances.      |
                             +--------+--------+--------+--------+
                             |        |        | Gelati-|        |
                             |        |        | noids  |        |
                             |        |        |and pro-|        |
                             |        |        |  teids |        |
                             |        | Coagu- | preci- |        |
                             | Protein| lated  | pitated|        |
                             |  (N ×  |  pro-  |   by   |  Meat  |
          DESCRIPTION.       | 6.25). | teids. | bromin.| bases. |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                             |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  Sliced Star ham,           |  12.94 |  10.12 |   0.38 |   1.22 |
  Boneless ham,              |  23.44 |  19.69 |    .62 |   1.56 |
  Gold Band sliced ham,      |  17.62 |  11.81 |    .56 |   2.62 |
  Boneless cooked ham,       |  18.94 |  15.62 |    .75 |   1.28 |
  Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,|  19.06 |  12.25 |   1.19 |   2.81 |
  Lunch ham,                 |  23.00 |  20.06 |   1.00 |    .97 |
  Huckins sandwich ham,      |  12.75 |  11.06 |    .44 |    .62 |
  Ham, “Coin Special,”       |  18.38 |  15.94 |   2.12 |    .16 |
  Sliced Star bacon,         |  41.75 |  29.69 |   4.62 |   3.72 |
  Beechnut bacon,            |  35.88 |  25.62 |   1.62 |   4.31 |
  Sliced breakfast bacon,    |   6.69 |   5.80 |    .44 |    .25 |
  Gold Band sliced bacon,    |   8.75 |   5.69 |    .62 |   1.22 |
  Fresh pork, rib and loin,  |  13.44 |   9.81 |   1.56 |   1.03 |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -------------------------------------------------------
                              COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
                             +--------+--------+--------+
                             |        |        |        |
                             +        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        | Sodium |        |
          DESCRIPTION.       |  Ash.  |chlorid.| Total. |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
                             |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  Sliced Star ham,           |   3.86 |   3.29 |  97.60 |
  Boneless ham,              |   5.43 |   4.34 |  97.54 |
  Gold Band sliced ham,      |   5.03 |   4.10 |  98.07 |
  Boneless cooked ham,       |   4.33 |   3.66 |  98.25 |
  Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,|   8.37 |   7.51 |  97.38 |
  Lunch ham,                 |   3.84 |   3.08 |  98.26 |
  Huckins sandwich ham,      |   1.75 |    ..  |  99.79 |
  Ham, “Coin Special,”       |   3.55 |   2.39 |  99.09 |
  Sliced Star bacon,         |  15.02 |  13.28 |  96.28 |
  Beechnut bacon,            |  19.90 |  17.84 |  99.63 |
  Sliced breakfast bacon,    |   3.06 |   2.37 |  99.41 |
  Gold Band sliced bacon,    |   2.57 |   2.27 |  98.55 |
  Fresh pork, rib and loin,  |    .78 |   Tr.  |  98.88 |
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+

  ---------------------------+-----------------------------------
                             |    COMPOSITION OF DRY MATERIAL.
                             +--------+--------+--------+--------
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             |        |        |        |
                             | Protein|        |        |
                             |  (N ×  |        |        | Sodium
          DESCRIPTION.       | 6.25). |  Fat.  |  Ash.  |chlorid.
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------
                             |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._
  Sliced Star ham,           |  23.00 |  68.01 |   6.87 |   5.85
  Boneless ham,              |  50.19 |  36.06 |  11.63 |   9.29
  Gold Band sliced ham,      |  34.06 |  57.58 |   9.72 |   7.93
  Boneless cooked ham,       |  32.38 |  59.17 |   7.40 |   6.26
  Prosciutto Scelto in Fette,|  30.12 |  56.60 |  13.24 |  11.88
  Lunch ham,                 |  38.81 |  53.26 |   6.48 |   5.19
  Huckins sandwich ham,      |  20.13 |  77.77 |   2.76 |    ..
  Ham, “Coin Special,”       |  37.37 |  53.77 |   7.23 |   4.86
  Sliced Star bacon,         |  49.31 |  32.82 |  17.74 |  15.69
  Beechnut bacon,            |  44.06 |  36.35 |  24.44 |  21.91
  Sliced breakfast bacon,    |   8.44 |  87.13 |   3.86 |   2.99
  Gold Band sliced bacon,    |  10.87 |  85.60 |   3.20 |   2.83
  Fresh pork, rib and loin,  |  27.87 |  70.25 |   1.62 |   Tr.
  ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------


=Adulteration of Canned Ham and Bacon.=--From the above data it is seen
that the products are probably true to name, and are actually ham and
bacon. The principal adulterations which are found in these articles
are preservatives and coloring matters. The coloring matter usually
found is saltpeter which, in one instance, was present in quantities
of one-tenth of one percent and the average quantity found was
one-twentieth of one percent. Saltpeter is not used as a preservative,
although it is often claimed by packers that such is the case. In the
minute quantities in which it is employed it has little or no effect as
a preservative if, indeed, it could be deemed a germicidal substance.
The principal preservative which is found is boric acid. In fourteen
cases examined, however, only two contained this preservative, which
shows that there is no necessity for its use on any occasion. Under
the new meat inspection law all meat products prepared for interstate
and foreign commerce are packed under direct supervision of the
Department of Agriculture, and contain no harmful color and no chemical
preservative.


=Canned Tongue.=--Several varieties of canned tongue are found upon
the market known as ox tongue, lamb tongue, luncheon tongue, etc. The
tongues of calves, steers, sheep, lambs, and swine are the ones which
are usually canned, and they may be previously pickled before canning.
The average composition of the canned tongue upon the market is shown
from the following data based upon the examination of seventeen samples:

  Water,                 55.17 percent
  Fat,                   20.23   „
  Protein,               19.43   „
  Meat bases,             1.23   „
  Glycogen,                .24   „
  Total ash,              3.71   „
  Of which common salt,   2.90   „

The data show that in the canning of tongue a large quantity of fat is
present, more than the true part of the tongue contains. Nearly all of
the samples examined contained saltpeter, the largest quantity found
being .15 percent.


=Adulteration of Canned Tongue.=--It is not probable that any meat,
except the tongue itself, is used for canning, but the contents may
not be true to name. The fat dressing employed is not specified, and
probably its character and amount rest alone with the ideas of the
manufacturer relative thereto. Presumably the fat should be of the same
animal as the tongue. A critical examination of the fat will, however,
reveal whether or not this is the case.

Saltpeter is the most common adulteration, and is used solely to
impart or preserve the red color of the fresh meat. Boric acid is also
occasionally employed. One of the samples contained boric acid.

Without inspection of the process of manufacture, it is not possible
to be assured of the sanitary conditions of the meats which are sold
as canned tongue and also of the sanitary conditions of the canning
itself. These are all matters of the highest importance to the
consumer, and should be attested by proper inspection certificates.
Under the new meat law only the proper articles can be certified by the
officials in charge of inspection.


=Examination of Fat as a Test for Adulterations.=--It is evident, from
what has already been said, that the character of the fats which are
used in the canning of preserved meats is not always the same as that
of the meat to which they are added. A careful study has been made in
the Bureau of Chemistry of the fats extracted from different canned
meats. The chemical and physical characteristics of these fats are
given in the following table:

  -------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------
     SOURCE    | MELTING | CHILLING|  IODIN  |MAUMENÉ  |DEGREES BUTYRO-
    OF FAT.    |  POINT. |  POINT. | NUMBER. |NUMBER.  | REFRACTOMETER.
  -------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------
               |   C.°   |   C.°   |         |   C.°   |
  Canned roast |         |         |         |         |
  beef,        |36.5-43.9|27.8-37.0|36.1-50.6|35.6-36.0|   47.0-55.5
  Canned smoked|         |         |         |         |
  beef,        |37.7-41.8|22.0-29.0|50.9-57.5|   ..    |   51.0-58.5
  Canned ham   |         |         |         |         |
  and bacon,   |23.6-30.5|17.5-24.0|48.5-68.2|39.8-43.5|   49.0-58.2
  Fowl,        |28.0-34.0|12.0-36.5|67.0-86.4|38.9-52.0|   49.0-62.5
  -------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------------

It has been noticed that the crystals deposited by the evaporation
of the ether solution of chicken fat resemble beef stearin in shape,
but are much smaller and more delicate. It is seen that the melting
point of fat in ham and bacon is rather lower than in leaf lard. It is
evident, therefore, that this fat is not lard or, at least, not wholly
composed of the best lard, but probably consists of the fat not usually
employed for lard making.


=Potted Meats.=--There is found on the market a large number of
varieties of potted meat. It is difficult to describe in any scientific
way these potted meats because the term “potted” is employed by all
manufacturers to describe a mixture of a great many different articles,
the exact composition of which is usually a trade secret. There is,
apparently, an understanding among manufacturers that the labels of
potted goods are not intended in any way to indicate the variety of
meat or principal meats contained in the package. In the absence of any
trade, sanitary, or chemical standard it is difficult to make any just
criticism of the character of the potted goods upon the market.

The principal object of mentioning them here is to inform the consumer
of the probable character of the potted goods which he may consume, and
to let him understand that it is by no means certain that the name of
the meat upon the label describes the character of the meat which he
is actually eating. The chief object in the manufacture of potted meat
is to make a supply of uniform character and consistency, and properly
spiced and flavored to attract and hold the patronage of the consumer.

A certain degree of consistency is established by each manufacturer
for each variety of potted goods made, and to obtain this consistence
more or less fat meat of some kind is added. It may thus be of some
advantage to add the fat of pork rather than the fat of beef or
mixtures of the two. It is claimed by many manufacturers that a single
kind of meat does not give the desired flavor in potted and deviled
goods. Therefore, meats of different origin are finely ground and mixed
together, and a sufficient quantity of oil or fat added to secure the
required physical consistence. For this reason cured meats, such as
beef and pork, are often preferred for making potted and deviled meats
because of the agreeable flavor and aroma which they impart thereto.
These meats are therefore used in potting, although they cost more
than corresponding quantities of fresh meat. In a character of goods
so variegated as these it is impossible to lay down any rule which may
guide the consumer in his choice. The widest latitude is left to the
manufacturer, and the only real protection is in a strict inspection
of the factory or factories where such goods are made. It is there
only that the character of the materials employed and the quality of
the condiments or other substances added can be determined. The day
is doubtless rapidly approaching when consumers will be perfectly
protected in this matter, and when no canned, potted, or deviled meats
of any description will be allowed to enter into commerce without
bearing the certificate of competent inspection officers as to the kind
of meats used, their sanitary character, etc.

Potted meats should always be carefully sterilized and the contents of
the tins should be consumed as soon as possible after they are opened.


=Potted Beef.=--Potted beef, more than any other product bearing the
label of potted, corresponds more closely to the character of the
meat named on its label. Of four samples of commercially potted beef
examined in the Bureau of Chemistry only one appeared to contain any
other meat than beef. The composition of the potted beef is shown in
the table on page 53.


=Adulteration of Potted Beef.=--From the average data given above it
is seen that the principal adulteration in potted beef, assuming that
the meat is beef, is starch. Two of the four samples contained starch,
one more than 14 percent and one more than 11 percent. The admixture
of starch is evidently solely for fraudulent purposes, to increase the
weight and bulk with a very much cheaper substance and one for which
no necessity for the addition can be claimed. It also increases the
quantity of water which the product will carry. Saltpeter was found
in one of the four samples and boric acid in two. One of the samples
contained a large quantity of tin, due probably to the action of the
potted meat upon the tin lining of the can.


=Potted Deviled Meats.=--The term “deviled meat” is applied to a
mixture of finely ground meat with spices, condiments, and other
substances, and, like the term “potted,” is used rather to indicate a
miscellaneous mixture than any single compound.

All that has been said respecting the composition of potted meat
applies with equal force to deviled meat. If there be any difference
at all it is understood by the term deviled that the spices and
condiments are more pronounced in character and greater in quantity
and the miscellaneous character of the goods more pronounced. Under
the terms of “deviled” and “potted” may be found every kind of mixed
and miscellaneous finely comminuted meat, flavored with all kinds of
condimental substances and prepared so as to appeal as strongly as
possible to the taste and desire of the consumer.

COMPOSITION OF POTTED BEEF.

  -----+---------------------------------------------
       |     COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
       +--------+--------+--------+-----------------+
       |        |        |        |    Nitrogen.    |
       |        |        |        +--------+--------+
       |        |        |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |        |        |
       |        |  Water |        |        |        |
       |        | in fat-|        |        |        |
       |        |  free  |        |        |        |
  SAM- |        |  sub-  |        |        |  Meat  |
  PLES.| Water. | stance.|  Fat.  | Total. | bases. |
  -----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
       |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
       |        |        |        |        |        |
  1,   | 28.24  |  50.33 |  43.89 |   3.76 |   0.56 |
  2,   | 51.80  |  64.40 |  19.58 |    ... |    ... |
  3,   | 54.92  |  62.20 |  12.70 |   2.87 |    .64 |
  4,   | 65.51  |  72.92 |  10.26 |   3.14 |    .42 |
  -----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                     COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
       +-----------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+
       |      Nitrogenous substances.      |        |        |        |
       +--------+--------+--------+--------+        |        |        |
       |        |        | Gelati-|        |        | Glyco- |        |
       |        |        | noids  |        |        |  gen,  |        |
       |        |  Pro-  |and pro-|        |        | calcu- |        |
       |        |  teids |  teids |        |        |  lated |        |
       |        |   in-  |  preci-|        |        | to dry |        |
       | Protein| soluble| pitated|        |        |fat-free|        |
  SAM- |  (N ×  | in hot |   by   |  Meat  |        |  mate- |  Salt- |
  PLES.| 6.25). | water. | bromin.| bases. | Starch.|  rial. | peter. |
  -----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
       |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
       |        |        |        |        |        |        |        |
  1,   |  23.50 |  19.50 |   0.50 |   1.75 |   ...  |   0.32 |   0.05 |
  2,   |   ...  |   ...  |    ... |    ... |  14.26 |    ... |    ... |
  3,   |  17.94 |  12.88 |   1.06 |   2.00 |  11.56 |    .22 |    ... |
  4,   |  19.62 |  15.06 |   1.94 |   1.31 |   ...  |    .25 |    ... |
  -----+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----------------------------------------------------+
        COMPOSITION OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL.
       +--------+--------+---------+----------+--------+
       |        |        |         |          |        |
       |        |        |         |          |        |
       |        |        |         |          |        |
       |        |        |         |          |        |
       |        |        |         |          |        |
       |        |        |  Heavy  |          |        |
       |        |        |  metals |          |        |
       |        |        |   per   |          |        |
  SAM- | Total  | Sodium |  kilo-  |  Preser- |        |
  PLES.|  ash.  |chlorid.|  gram.  | vatives. | Total. |
  -----+--------+--------+---------+----------+--------+
       |_P. ct._|_P. ct._| _Milli- |          |_P. ct._|
       |        |        | grams._ |          |        |
  1,   |   3.31 |   2.43 |Tin 145.1|   None   |  97.24 |
  2,   |    ... |    ... | ... ... |Boric acid|   ...  |
  3,   |   4.50 |    ... | ... ... |    do    |  99.69 |
  4,   |   2.30 |    ... | ... ... |   None   |  96.44 |
  -----+--------+--------+---------+----------+--------+

  -----+-----------------------------------
       |     COMPOSITION OF DRY MATERIAL.
       +--------+--------+--------+--------
       |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |
       |        |        |        |
       | Protein|        |        |
  SAM- |  (N ×  |        |        | Sodium
  PLES.| 6.25). |  Fat.  |  Ash.  |chlorid.
  -----+--------+--------+--------+--------
       |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._
       |        |        |        |
  1,   |  32.75 |  61.19 |   4.61 |   3.39
  2,   |   ...  |  40.62 |    ... |    ...
  3,   |  39.81 |  28.17 |   9.98 |    ...
  4,   |  36.88 |  29.75 |   6.67 |    ...
  -----+--------+--------+--------+--------

It may be said, in connection with these goods, that there is no
objection whatever to their manufacture and sale provided the meat
used in their preparation is sound and sanitary, the conditions of
manufacture clean and free of infection, and provided the fraudulent
additions for the purpose of increasing bulk and weight are excluded,
together with injurious preservatives and coloring matters, such as
borax, saltpeter, sulfite of soda, etc.

Potted and deviled are not the only terms, however, which are used to
express miscellaneous mixtures of meat products. The term “pâtés” is
also employed for a large class of goods, among which the principal
ones are the familiar pâté de foie gras, which should be made largely
of fatty goose livers.


=Composition of Pâtés.=--The result of the examination of large
quantities of pâtés in the Bureau of Chemistry indicates that they
are made up principally of the meat of beef and pork. It is not quite
certain in any case that the highly prized livers of fat geese have
been employed at all to any considerable extent. There are no forms of
comminuted meats of any description which are so objectionable in name
as those that are sold under the name of pâtés, especially when they
are ascribed to a particular composition, as is the case with pâté de
foie gras. As has been remarked before, there is certainly no objection
to the manufacture of these mixtures, but misleading statements
concerning them are to be condemned. The manufacturer and consumer of
pâté de foie gras should establish some standard of the percentage of
goose livers which they should contain, and each package should be
accompanied by an official certification that it has been inspected and
found to be up to the standard. It is only in this way that the public
can be protected against fraud and imposition. Where no descriptive
word at all is used with the word pâté there is no reasonable limit
to be placed upon the kind of meat used, provided it is of a sound
and sanitary character. The term pâté itself means a mixture and,
therefore, it is no deception and imposition upon the public to sell a
pâté of a miscellaneous character, provided it does not bear any false
statement regarding origin or character.

The mean composition of forty-three samples of pâtés and purées is
found in the following data:

  Water,                        45.87 percent
  Water in fat-free substance,  71.18   „
  Fat,                          35.41   „
  Protein,                      11.92   „
  Meat bases,                     .82   „
  Starch,                        7.44   „
  Total ash,                     2.88   „
  Of which sodium chlorid,        .97   „

From the above data it is seen that the pâtés are characterized by
a very high percentage of fat and a correspondingly low percentage
of protein. A very large majority of the samples examined contained
starch, the highest quantity found being 15.80 percent. Only two of the
samples were found to contain saltpeter; six contained boric acid and
three benzoic acid. Tin and zinc were found in a few cases.


=Principal Adulterations of Mixed, Miscellaneous, Potted, Deviled,
and Comminuted Meats.=--As has been observed in the analyses of the
commercial articles which have been submitted it is evident that
no detection of the adulteration of these minced meats with impure
fragmentary, diseased, or unwholesome articles is possible in so far
as chemical analysis is concerned. A microscopic analysis also often
fails to reveal the true character of the meats which have been used
in the preparation of these bodies. Hence the adulteration of these
bodies with diseased, unwholesome, unfit, and unsanitary meats cannot
be controlled nor even positively affirmed after the meats are prepared
and canned. Such adulterations are doubtless frequent and are the most
objectionable. The only protection to the consumer is in a certificate
of inspection before preparation and packing. The consumer, by refusing
to purchase such comminuted meats in the absence of such a certificate,
would soon compel the manufacturer to secure official inspection and
certification of his products.


=Adulteration with Starch.=--One of the chief adulterants in sausages
and prepared meats is starch. It has been said by some hygienists
that starch is not an objectionable adulterant on hygienic grounds.
This, however, is not strictly true. The injection of large quantities
of starch into meat tends to unbalance a ration which is fixed with
certain quantities of other food and tends to increase the proportion
of starchy matter therein. There are many conditions of disordered
digestion in which such increases of starch, unknown to the physician
or patient or even known, are highly objectionable. Hence the use
of starch as an adulterant in meat of this kind is reprehensible on
hygienic grounds. The principal purpose for using starch is deception.
Starch increases the bulk and weight of goods, and, in the process of
cooking, prevents undue shrinkage. The consumer, therefore, thinks that
he has secured a larger quantity and better quality of meat than he
really has, and is, to this extent, defrauded and deceived.


=Preservatives.=--The preservatives which are principally used in
meat are borax, boric acid, sulfite of soda, and benzoic acid. All of
these preservatives have been shown, by researches in the Bureau of
Chemistry, to be deleterious to health. They should be rigidly excluded
from all meat as well as other food products.


=Coloring Matter.=--Dyes are frequently used for coloring sausage and
other minced meats. All such dyeing materials are reprehensible, both
on account of the danger to health and deception. Preserved meats
gradually lose the natural red tint of the fresh meat, and to that
extent the color is an index of the time during which they have been
preserved. Inasmuch as consumers prefer fresh meats preserved as short
a time as possible, they are deceived and to that extent injured by the
use of dyestuffs which impart to preserved meats a fresh appearance.


=Indirect Coloring Matter.=--Certain chemicals, which of themselves
have no color, serve to fix and hold, or even accentuate, the natural
color of meat. The two principal chemicals used for this purpose
are saltpeter and sulfite of soda. Saltpeter is used generally in
preserved meats to retain and accentuate the red color thereof. Sulfite
of soda is used principally on fresh meats, where it acts both as a
preservative and as a retainer of color. Sprinkled over the freshly
cut surface of fresh meat, sulfite of soda preserves the red tint, and
the customer thinks it has just been cut. In this way he is deceived.
Both of these substances are highly objectionable not only on account
of deception but on account of being injurious to health. In the case
of saltpeter, the general opinion concerning its therapeutic action is
that it is not a proper substance to mix with foods. It would be highly
desirable on the part of the packer, if he deemed it necessary to use
bodies of this kind, to plainly state upon each package the character
and quantity of preservatives and coloring matter employed. The
consumer is then left to judge for himself whether or not he desires to
eat these bodies.

The principal objection to notifications of this kind is that the
consumer, not being an expert as a rule, cannot form any intelligent
opinion respecting the desirability of these substances in food. He is
more apt to be guided by common practice in this matter and by his own
opinion than by any general principles of chemistry and hygiene.


=Potted Tongue.=--The term “potted tongue” may apply equally to tongue
of a single character, such as beef, lamb, pork, or swine, or the
mixture thereof. The examinations which have been made of the potted
tongues of commerce do not indicate whether they are of a single
character or whether the tongues are derived from a variety of sources.
The mean composition of twenty-one samples bought in the open market,
as found in the Bureau of Chemistry, is given in the following table:

  Water,                            52.50 percent
  Water in the fat-free substance,  67.67   „
  Fat,                              22.99   „
  Protein,                          17.80   „
  Meat bases,                         .75   „
  Total ash,                         5.46   „


_Adulteration of Potted Tongue._--In the samples examined above starch
was found in four cases, the largest amount being 11.6 percent.
Saltpeter was found in eighteen cases, the largest amount being .06
percent. Tin was present in thirteen cases and zinc in eight cases.
Boric acid was found in fourteen cases.

From the above it is evident that the principal adulterations in
potted tongue, aside from the use of meats which are not tongue, and
which chemical analysis cannot disclose, are the addition of starch,
saltpeter, tin, and zinc, the two latter derived either from the solder
or from the can in which the goods are placed.


=Canned Poultry.=--Other fresh meats, in addition to beef and pork, are
canned in a fresh state. In the case of poultry the fowls are dressed
and drawn and the whole carcass boiled until the meat is sufficiently
cooked to facilitate the separation from the bones. The bones are then
removed and the meat is canned and sterilized by practically the same
method as practiced with canned beef. Game and wild fowl meats are also
subjected to the same process of canning as the domesticated chickens,
geese, ducks, turkeys, etc. In general it may be said that there are no
differences in the processes employed, but the important question to
the consumer is the character of the raw materials used, the sanitary
conditions which attended their preparation, and their freedom from
admixtures of other meats cheaper in price and of different dietetic
values.


=Adulteration of Canned Fresh Meat.=--Fortunately the process of
sterilization is of such a character, when properly carried out, as to
exclude all necessity for the addition of any preservative substances
to canned fresh meat. The use of ordinary condimental substances in
moderate quantities cannot be regarded as an adulteration. Hence, the
addition of small quantities of salt, sugar, vinegar, and the ordinary
spices, when used solely for the improvement of the taste and flavor
and not for preservative purposes, is regarded as unobjectionable.

The common preservatives used in canned meat are, first, those which
give color to the meat and preserve its natural red tint. For this
purpose saltpeter and sulfite of soda are most commonly employed. Red
dyes of any description are rarely, if ever, found. The preservative
which is used most frequently in canned meat is borax or boric acid.
That this use is not necessary is evident from the investigations which
have been made in the Bureau of Chemistry which show that in most
cases no preservatives at all are used. The addition of any chemical
preservative is, therefore, to be regarded as unnecessary and as an
adulteration.

The use of any diseased, tainted, decomposed, or filthy meat, even if
it is of the same origin as that in the can, is an adulteration of the
most serious character and which can only be effectually controlled
by the inspection mentioned above. The adulteration of the meat of
fowls of all descriptions by cheaper meats, such as pork or veal, even
if they be of wholesome and sound character, is an adulteration said
to be often practiced and one which it is difficult to detect if the
particles of meat are finely comminuted.


=Standard for Preserved Meats.=--The standard for preserved meat is the
same as that for fresh meat which is given in the Appendix (Circular
19, Office of Secretary, Department of Agriculture). The meat must be
sound, wholesome, clean, freshly taken from the slaughtered animal, and
not one that has died from disease, suffocation, or otherwise, and must
conform in name and character to the meat of the animal.


=Frequency of Adulteration.=--The examination made of numerous samples
of canned meat in the Bureau of Chemistry shows that the adulteration
of these foods is rather common but by no means general.


=Canned Horse Meat.=--Horse meat is commonly used for human food in
many European countries, although it is believed that it is not used
to any extent in the United States. When procured from healthy animals
in a proper way there is no hygienic objection to its use, though it
is considered to be somewhat tougher than the flesh of other animals
more commonly employed as food, but that is probably due to the fact
that horses are not raised for food purposes and are usually not used
for such until they are worn out in domestic service. There are many
sentimental and often religious objections to the use of horse meat,
but experience has shown that it is wholesome and nutritious. Horse
meat is characteristic in containing more natural sugar, commonly
known as glycogen, than any of the other ordinary meats used for
human consumption. It approaches in its content of sugar some of the
shell-fish flesh, such as that of the lobster. Practically all of the
horse meat which is prepared in this country is exported to Europe.
There are cases, however, on record of the sale of horse flesh to
domestic consumers. Especially could it be used in this way in the form
of sausage or other finely comminuted products without much danger of
detection.


=Composition of Horse Meat.=--A number of samples of horse meat of
undoubted origin and wholesomeness have been examined in the Bureau of
Chemistry and the data tabulated. The average composition of sixteen
samples of horse meat, representing different parts of the carcass, is
shown in the following table:

  Water,                           69.81 percent
  Water in fat-free substance,     76.91    „
  Fat,                              9.61    „
  Protein,                         19.47    „
    Protein insoluble in water,    14.83    „
    Gelatinous protein,             1.23    „
  Meat bases,                       1.70    „
  Glycogen,                         1.82    „
  Ash,                              1.01    „


_Composition of Dry Material._--

  Protein,       67.98 percent
  Fat,           27.71    „
  Ash,            3.18    „
  Undetermined,   1.13    „

The high percentage of glycogen in horse meat is one of the safest
methods of determining its character when comminuted or cut up into
pieces so small as not to be identified by the usual anatomical
characteristics. Very few other kinds of edible flesh contain as much
as one percent of glycogen. Glycogen is a transitory product which
tends naturally to be broken up into other substances, and, hence,
even in horse meat after slaughter, it may rapidly disappear and thus,
unless the meat is examined at once, very little glycogen may be found
in it. A safer test for horse meat is in the nature of the fat therein.
This fat does not tend to change as the glycogen does, and, therefore,
in a pure preparation of horse meat even in a finely comminuted state
the separation and examination of the fat will lead to a determination
of the character of meat employed. The fats of horse meat have a lower
melting point, a higher iodin number, and a higher heat value when
mixed with sulfuric acid than those of beef.

Indeed, these differences are so marked as to afford a ready means of
detection to the practical chemist. Even in the mixture of horse meat
with other meat the variation in the character of the fats will be such
as to lead to a correct judgment respecting the approximate amount of
horse meat which has been used, provided it forms any notable amount of
the mixture.


=Canned Cured Meats.=--Sterilization is such a certain method of
preventing the decay of meats that it has now come into use to a large
extent in the final preservation of shipments of cured meats. The
object of curing, as has already been stated, is not merely to prevent
the meat from decaying, nor is it intended to inhibit entirely enzymic
action. On the contrary, if the method of curing were such as to
entirely stop fermentative action, the flavors and aromas of preserved
meats, upon which their value so much depends, would be eliminated,
and we would simply have a mass of tasteless meat, preserved from
decay by the application of chemical preservatives of a character
to impart neither flavor nor aroma to the meat and at the same time
prevent the activity of the various ferments above described. Such
methods of preparation, naturally, should never be of general use,
because in cured meats the consumer demands the flavor which naturally
proceeds from the ordinary method of curing. After curing and when
subjected to transportation the meats may undergo decomposition and
reach their destination in a spoiled state. To avoid this it has been
a customary practice to pack the meat in a chemical preservative, such
as borax. This is, however, a very objectionable practice because
even in the cured state the meat is still absorptive, and the borax,
which is packed externally upon it, as a precaution during transit,
must necessarily penetrate to a certain extent to the interior of
the meat. By packing cured meat in tins and subjecting these tins to
sterilization complete immunity from decay may be secured and there is
no damage done to the aroma or flavor. We, therefore, find upon the
market at the present time in tinned, canned, or potted form almost
every variety of meat that is used either in a fresh state or after the
usual method of curing.


=Canned Sausage.=--One of the most important of cured meats which is
offered for sale is sausage. Sausage may be canned either in the fresh
or cured state and, of course, may be adulterated in both conditions.
Canned sausage should have a clean bill of health from the local
inspector the same as any other meat food.

There is, perhaps, more room for deception in the manufacture of
sausage than in almost any other form of comminuted meat. When properly
treated with condimental substances, such as salt, spices, vinegar,
etc., sausages are highly prized as a food product, and justly so.
In the canned state sausage should undergo no other manipulation
than spicing and sterilization at a temperature necessary to kill all
fermentative germs and prevent decay.


_Composition of Canned Sausage._--Twenty-five samples of canned
sausage examined in the Bureau of Chemistry had the following average
composition:

  Water,                           58.51 percent
  Water in fat-free substance,     75.59    „
  Fat,                             21.82    „
  Protein,                         13.92    „
      Protein insoluble in water,  11.37    „
      Gelatinous protein,           1.21    „
      Meat bases,                    .67    „
  Ash,                              2.86    „
  Sodium chlorid,                   1.02    „

The above data show that canned sausage differs from fresh meat largely
in its composition, especially in the much higher content of fat and
lower content of water which is found therein.


_Adulteration of Canned Sausage._--The principal adulteration, as
has already been stated, is in the admixture of meats of unknown and
miscellaneous origin and possibly inedible in character. The degree of
comminution to which sausage is subjected renders it difficult in the
inspection of sausage itself to determine the character of the animal
from which it is made. The study of the fat is the most useful guide in
such cases. Presumably sausage is made almost exclusively of beef and
pork, but, as a matter of fact, much which is not eaten under its own
name may be found in sausage.

Next to the introduction of meat of an improper character the most
important adulteration is the common use of starch. Starch is very much
cheaper than meat, and its abundant use enables a greater profit to be
made. It is highly esteemed, also, as a “filler,” on the ground that it
prevents the shrinkage of sausage when fried. Starch granules under the
influence of heat are gelatinous, holding moisture with tenacity and
preventing shrinkage in bulk.

The presence of starch in sausage must be regarded as an unjustifiable
adulteration unless the amount therein is plainly marked on the label
of the package.

The use of preservatives in the curing of sausage is a very common
practice and, hence, canned sausages are found to often contain boric
acid or borax and sulfite of soda especially. Dyes of various kinds are
also used in coloring sausage or its covering, largely of a coal tar
origin.

The proper safeguard for the consumer in regard to the character of
sausage is in the inspection of the factory. It is highly important
that each municipality and state should have a rigid system for the
inspection of sausage, and the sausage thus inspected should bear the
certification of the kind of meat used and its general character.
The presence of inspectors in factories would prevent the use of
preservatives which, it has been shown by the researches of the Bureau
of Chemistry, are prejudicial to health.


=Magnitude of the Meat Industry.=--According to the census of 1905,
showing the results of the tabulation of the statistics of slaughtering
and meat packing and slaughtering, wholesale, for the calendar year
1904, forming a part of the census of manufactures of 1905, which
was taken in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902,
the figures indicate that there has been a normal increase in the
slaughtering and meat packing industry in the United States, as
compared with the statistics of 1900, which covered the fiscal year
ending May 31st.

Comparative figures for 1905 and 1900 are shown in the following
summary:

                                                             PERCENT OF
                                      1905.         1900.     INCREASE.

  Number of establishments,                929           921      .8
  Capital,                        $237,699,440  $189,198,264    25.6
  Salaried officials, clerks,
  etc.:
    Number,                             12,075        10,227    18.0
    Salaries,                      $13,377,908   $10,123,247    32.1
  Wage-earners:
    Average number,                     74,132        68,534     8.2
    Wages,                         $40,447,574   $33,457,013    20.9
  Miscellaneous expenses,           30,623,108    24,060,412    27.3
  Materials used:
    Total cost,                   $805,856,969  $683,583,577    17.9
      Animals slaughtered:
        Beeves,                   $289,040,930  $247,365,812    16.8
        Sheep,                      44,359,804    37,137,542    19.4
        Hogs,                      329,763,430   278,736,961    18.3
        Calves,                     12,666,942     7,356,560    72.2
        All other,                      61,905       559,839
      All other materials,         129,963,958   112,426,863    15.4
  Products:
    Total value,                  $913,914,624  $785,562,433    16.3
      Beef--
        Sold fresh,               $247,135,029  $211,068,934    17.1
        Canned,                      7,697,815     9,167,531    17.1[14]
        Salted or cured,             8,107,952     9,661,834    16.1[14]
      Mutton--
        Sold fresh,                $36,880,455   $32,963,219    11.9
      Veal--
        Sold fresh,                $12,856,369    $7,812,714    64.6
      Pork--
        Sold fresh,                $91,779,323   $84,019,387     9.2
        Salted,                    116,626,710    88,674,016    31.5
      Hams, smoked bacon, etc.,    132,210,611   148,666,859    11.1[14]
      Sausage, fresh or cured,      25,056,331    21,472,413    16.7
      All other meat sold fresh,     9,579,718     7,813,078    22.6
      Refined lard,                 74,116,991    52,620,348    40.8
      Neutral lard,                  8,423,973     8,588,350     1.1[14]
      Oleomargarine oil,            10,201,911    11,482,542    11.2[14]
      Other oils,                    2,595,951     3,440,358    24.5[14]
      Fertilizers,                   4,397,626     3,300,132    33.3
      Hides,                        44,137,802    33,925,911    30.1
      Wool,                          5,229,521     3,335,824    56.8
      All other products,           76,880,536    47,548,983    61.7

  [14] Decrease.


GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

It is evident, from the foregoing description of the methods of
preparing and sterilizing meat, that it is a process which commends
itself both on account of the economy in the use of meat which it
secures and because of the nutritive value of the products obtained.

The real value of the products must necessarily depend upon the
selection of the raw materials and the sanitary conditions which attend
their manipulation. Experience has shown that it is not safe to leave
these matters to the packers themselves. While, doubtless, the greater
number of packers will exercise all possible care in the selection
of the materials and in their preparation, human nature is of such a
character that when opportunity for deception, fraud, and illegitimate
gains are presented there are always some who take advantage of them.
Hence, it may be safely said that no tinned or canned or sterilized
meat of any description should be allowed to enter into consumption
except when prepared under the inspection of qualified municipal,
state, or national officers. The health of the animal furnishing
the meat should be ascertained by inspection both before and after
slaughter. This inspection should be of the most rigid kind, and
all diseased animals should be excluded from entering into standard
products. If it be claimed that there are certain diseases which are
local only in character and which do not affect the wholesomeness
of the whole carcass, special provisions can be made for this kind
of meat. If admitted into consumption at all, it should be under a
permanent label or tag by which the intended consumer would be informed
of the character of the contents of the package.

There is a reasonable doubt respecting the suitability for human
food of carcasses of animals afflicted in a moderate degree with
tuberculosis, pleuro-pneumonia, lumpy jaw, or other contagious or
epidemic diseases. In all such cases the rights of the consumers
demand that the benefit of the doubt should be given to them and not
to the owner, manufacturer, and dealer in any of the products they
consume. Such meat would then enter the market under a separate grade
and command a lower price, and when consumed no one would be deceived
respecting its character.

It must be admitted, even if such meat be regarded as wholesome, that
it is of inferior character, and cannot in any justice demand the
right to pass under the name of higher grades of the article. The
sanitary conditions under which such meats are prepared are of the
highest importance. The slaughter house should be clean, and provided
with good ventilation and natural light. The workmen should be free
of disease, neatly dressed, and required to observe all necessary
sanitary precautions. The débris and fragments of the packing house
should be carefully removed and so disposed of as to prevent any
suspicion that any part of them enters any of the products of the
factory. Municipal, state, or national inspection should be frequent,
thorough, and entirely removed from any possible influence of the
packing business itself. Competent veterinary experts should pass
upon the state of health of each carcass, and any one found diseased
in any way should be subjected to a further careful inspection to see
whether it should be admitted, under proper label and notification,
as human food or consigned to the fertilizer heap. It is only by such
inspection as this that the consumer can secure adequate protection.
After the meat is once in the can inspection will only reveal whether
or not preservatives and coloring matter have been used, or whether the
contents of the can are spoiled or in a state unfit for consumption. No
examination of the contents of the can will reveal in a satisfactory
manner the state of health of the carcass from which the meat has been
secured or the sanitary conditions under which it has been prepared. It
is hoped the new methods of inspection established by the Secretary of
Agriculture will secure the desired purity of meat products.


LARD.

The fat of swine, properly separated from the other tissues, is known
as lard. The process of separation is termed “rendering.” Various
methods of rendering are practiced, all depending, however, upon the
use of heat, which liquefies the fat and gradually frees it from its
connective tissues.


=Parts of Fat Used for Lard Making.=--In the making of lard the highest
grades are produced from the fat lining the back of the animal and that
connected with the intestines. The sheets of fat which are found lining
the back of the animal furnishes a variety known as leaf lard. All
parts of the fat of the animal not used in the meats themselves may be
used in the manufacture of lard. In the preparation of the carcass, the
parts cut off in trimming the pieces and containing fat are sent to the
rendering tank. The leaf lard is also removed by tearing it off from
the back of the animal, and the intestinal fat is separated from the
viscera in like manner. There is probably no question of wholesomeness
between the lards made from different parts of the carcass. The lard
differs in its chemical composition and its physical consistence as
determined by its location in the body. Inasmuch as it is important
that lard should have a certain degree of consistence even in summer
time and not become too soft or liquid in character, the lard which has
a high melting point is preferred, especially during the summer. The
lards made from the feet and some other parts of the hog have lower
melting points. The different kinds of fat from all parts of the animal
might be mixed together and a lard made therefrom representing the
average consistence of the fat of the whole body. A small quantity of
stearin is often added to raise the melting point, but the addition of
this substance without notice must be regarded as an adulteration.


=Names of Different Kinds of Lard.=--The names applied to the different
kinds of lard may be referred principally to the parts of fat used,
such as leaf lard, intestinal lard, etc., or to the method of preparing
it. The old-fashioned method of preparing lard for family use consisted
in placing the fat in an open kettle and heating usually over the open
fire. The rendering takes place as the mass increases in temperature,
so that the residual tissues become browned by the high temperature
reached. Lard made in this way is of most excellent quality and, of
course, being made under family supervision, its character is well
understood and the parts of the body used are well known. In the large
packing establishments the lard is usually rendered by the application
of heat in the form of steam under pressure, of a suitable temperature
to make the character of lard uniform. Large yields can be secured in
this way with less charring of the residual tissues, and consequently
a finer and whiter color in the lard itself. Lard of this kind is
sometimes known as steam rendered lard.


=Uses of Lard.=--The fat of swine prepared as above mentioned, and
known as lard, finds a very extended use in every kitchen. It is
mixed with various forms of bread making materials, cake, etc., and
is often known in this sense as “shortening.” It is also employed
for lubricating the pans and other culinary utensils used for baking
purposes. It is sometimes employed for the purpose of cooking by
the process of frying or of introducing the substance to be cooked
directly into the hot lard, as in the frying of oysters, the making of
doughnuts, and similar operations. Lard has come to be looked upon as a
necessity in every kitchen, even of the humblest citizen.

Many objections are made to the use of lard on hygienic grounds, and
probably on account of its cheapness and general utility it is more
freely used in American cooking than it should be. In other words,
American cooking is under the reproach of being too greasy. There is no
reason to question the digestive and nutritive value of lard when used
in proper quantities and in proper conditions. It is a typical fat food
composed of materials which are almost wholly oxidized in the body and
which upon combustion produce a higher number of units of heat than
that of any other class of food substances.

COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF AMERICAN LARD.

  -----------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+--------+-------+------
             |     |       |      |     | CRYS- |        |       |
             |     |       |      |MELT-| TAL-  | RISE OF|       |
             |     |SAPONI-|      | ING |LIZING | TEMPER-|       |
             | SPE-| FICA- |      |POINT| POINT | ATURE  |       |
             |CIFIC| TION  | MELT-|  OF |  OF   |  WITH  | IODIN |
             |GRAV-| EQUIV-|  ING |FATTY| FATTY |SULFURIC|  AB-  |
             | ITY.| ALENT.|POINT.|ACID.| ACID. | ACID.  |SORBED.|WATER.
  -----------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+--------+-------+------
             |     |       |      |     |       |        |  Per- | Per-
             |     |       | C. ° | C. °| C. °  |  C. °  |  cent | cent
  Leaf lard, |.9057| 272.64| 41.6 | 43.0| 40.40 |  39.7  | 59.60 | .165
  Pure leaf  |     |       |      |     |       |        |       |
  lard,      |.9028| 281.01| 44.9 | 42.8| 40.40 |  37.1  | 53.04 | .025
  Prime steam|     |       |      |     |       |        |       |
  lard,      |.9052| 279.06| 38.4 | 41.8| 39.53 |  33.7  | 63.84 | .040
  -----------+-----+-------+------+-----+-------+--------+-------+------


=Adulteration of Lard.=--The principal adulteration to which lard
is subjected is admixture with other and cheaper fats. Among the
fats which are used for this purpose may be mentioned beef fat and
cottonseed oil. Beef fat has a higher melting point than lard and
cottonseed oil a much lower melting point, being liquid at ordinary
temperatures. A mixture of beef fat and cottonseed oil may, therefore,
be made, having approximately the same melting point as lard itself.
The addition of this mixture to lard would not alter its melting
point to any sensible extent. Instead of using the whole cottonseed
oil for the purpose mentioned it may be previously chilled and its
product of a higher melting point, or as it is sometimes called, the
stearin of cottonseed oil, may be used for admixture with lard. Large
quantities of these mixed fats were formerly made in this country under
the name of “compound lard” in which the above adulterants were the
chief constituents. The laws of the various states are happily of a
character which forbids the sale of a mixture of a compound of lard
and other fats under the name of lard, although there is no objection
to such admixture from a hygienic and dietetic point of view. There
are many hygienists who are of the opinion that the more extended use
of vegetable oils instead of lard would be of value to the health of
the public. If this be true, the admixture of a vegetable oil with
lard would improve it from a hygienic standpoint. The principal,
perhaps the sole, objection to such admixtures is their fraudulent
character. Vegetable oils, especially cottonseed oil, being very much
cheaper than lard, their use in lard without notification cheapens
the product and defrauds the customer. Lard may also be adulterated
with its own stearin. In the manufacture of lard oil a residue is left
of a much higher melting point and this residue may be mixed with a
vegetable oil, such as cottonseed, in the production of a compound
of approximately the same melting point as lard itself. In a case of
this kind both constituents are fraudulent, in as much as neither the
cottonseed oil nor the lard stearin may be regarded in any sense as
lard.


=Detection of Adulterations.=--The presence of cottonseed oil in any
form in lard is at once determined by the application of a simple color
test known as the Halphen test. This is not a reliable test in those
cases where the animal has been fed cottonseed.


_Halphen Reaction for Cottonseed Oil._--Carbon disulfid, containing
about one percent of sulfur in solution, is mixed with an equal volume
of amyl alcohol. Mix equal volumes of this reagent and the oil under
examination and heat in a bath of boiling brine for fifteen minutes. In
the presence of as little as one percent of cottonseed oil an orange or
red color is produced, which is characteristic.

Lard and lard oil from animals fed on cottonseed meal will give a faint
reaction; also the fatty acids thereof.

This test is more sensitive than the Bechi test (nitrate of silver)
and less liable to give unsatisfactory results in the hands of an
inexperienced person. It is not affected by rancidity. The depth
of color is proportional, to a certain extent, to the amount of oil
present, and by making comparative tests with cottonseed oil some idea
as to the amount present can be obtained, but it must be remembered
that different oils react with different intensities, and oils which
have been heated from 200° to 210° C. react with greatly diminished
intensity. Heating ten minutes at 250° renders cottonseed oil incapable
of giving the reaction.

Cottonseed oil also has the property of reducing silver in silver
nitrate to a metallic state. When mixed with a solution of silver
nitrate under proper conditions a blackening or precipitation of black
metallic silver is observed. This is known as the Bechi test which is
conducted as follows:


_Bechi or Silver Nitrate Test for Cottonseed Oil._--_Reagent_: Dissolve
2 grams of silver nitrate in 200 cubic centimeters of 95 percent
alcohol and 40 cubic centimeters of ether, adding one drop of nitric
acid.

Mix 10 c.c. of oil or melted fat, 5 c.c. of reagent, and 10 c.c. of
amyl alcohol in a test tube. Divide, heat one-half in a boiling water
bath for ten minutes, and then compare with portion not heated. Any
blackening due to reduced silver shows presence of cottonseed oil.

Other oils which have become rancid, and lards which have been steamed
or heated at high temperature, contain decomposition products which
have a reducing action on silver nitrate. There were found in testing
a large number of salad oils some which contained no cottonseed oil,
according to the Halphen test, but gave a brown coloration with Bechi
reagent, and in some cases reduced silver. These same oils on being
purified gave no reaction. Hence the oils or fats should be purified
before testing.

To purify the oils and fats, heat from 20 to 30 grams on water bath for
a few minutes with the addition of 25 c.c. of 95 percent alcohol, shake
thoroughly, decant as much of the alcohol as possible, and wash with
two percent nitric acid, and finally with water. The oil or lard thus
purified will give no reduction at all if it contains no cottonseed
oil. Heating the oils or fats to 100° C. or simple washing with two
percent nitric acid is not sufficient, except in a few cases.

With oils the use of the Halphen and Bechi tests will be found to
be useful as a means of approximately determining the amounts of
adulteration present. If Halphen gives a reaction and Bechi does not,
the adulteration with cottonseed oil is probably less than 10 percent.

The admixture of beef fat with lard is best detected by means of
the microscope. The fat is dissolved in ether and allowed to slowly
crystallize. If it is composed of pure lard the crystal assumes a form
which is represented in Fig. 8.

If, on the other hand, beef fat be mixed with lard, the crystals will
assume a radiated fan-shaped appearance shown in Fig. 9. Even one
who is an expert with the microscope may not be able without some
difficulty to detect these adulterations by the simple tests above
mentioned.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--LARD CRYSTALS. × 140.--(_Bureau of Chemistry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--BEEF FAT CRYSTALS. × 140.--(_Bureau of
Chemistry._)]


=Commercial Classification of Lards.=--In addition to the kinds of lard
mentioned above other varieties are known in commerce.


=Neutral Lard.=--This, which is one of the best varieties of lard, is
made from the fat derived from the leaf lard of the slaughtered animal
in a perfectly fresh state, that is, taken immediately after slaughter
and before the carcass is cold. The leaf lard, when it is removed from
the animal, is at once placed in cold storage or put into cold water,
in order to rapidly remove the animal heat. As soon as it is thoroughly
chilled it is reduced to a pulp in a grinder and sent at once to the
rendering kettle. The fat is rendered at a very low temperature, from
105 to 120 degrees F. (40-50 degrees C). It is evident that only a part
of the lard is separated at this temperature, and this part is regarded
as being of the best quality, almost tasteless, free of acids and
other impurities. The residue from the making of neutral lard is sent
to other kettles, where it is subjected to a higher temperature and
the remainder of the lard extracted, which is sold under the name of
another grade. Neutral lard, obtained as above, while still liquid, is
washed with water containing a trace of sodium carbonate, common salt,
or a dilute acid. The product thus formed is almost neutral in its
reaction to litmus paper containing not to exceed .25 percent of free
acid, but it has more water and mineral matter than is found in the
pure rendered untreated lard. The neutral lard made in this way is not
used so commonly for culinary purposes but chiefly in the manufacture
of oleomargarine.


=Leaf Lard.=--The residue of lard obtained by rendering the unseparated
part of lard from the above process at a higher temperature is also
of a high quality and is sometimes improperly designated leaf lard, a
term which should be reserved for the whole product instead of a part
obtained by rendering the residual leaf fat.


=Choice Kettle-rendered Lard.=--The amount of neutral lard which is
demanded in the manufacture of oleomargarine does not by any means
exhaust the supply of leaf lard. For making choice kettle-rendered lard
the leaf lard together with the fat cut from the back of the animal is
rendered in steam-jacketed open kettles and produces a lard of a high
quality known as kettle-rendered or choice kettle-rendered lard. The
hide is removed from the fat portion of the back used for this purpose
before the rendering. Both the leaf and pieces of the back are passed
through a fine sausage grinder before they enter the rendering kettle.
According to the requirements of the Chicago Board of Trade, choice
lard, which is another term for the above variety, is to be made from
leaf and trimmings only, either steam-rendered or kettle-rendered, and
the manner of rendering to be branded on each package.


=Prime Steam Lard.=--The prime steam lard of commerce is made as
follows: The whole head of the hog, after the removal of the jowl,
is used for rendering. The heads are placed in the bottom of the
rendering tank. The mesenteric fat adhering to the small intestines is
also used in the tank. Any fat that may be attached to the heart or
other organs of the animal may also be used. In those factories where
kettle-rendered lard is not made the scrap fat from the back of the
animals and trimmings are also used. When there is an excess of leaf it
is also put in the rendering tank and, in general, all the fat portions
of the body which are removed in the trimming process. It is thus seen
that prime steam lard is a term which may practically represent the
average fat of the whole animal.

Prime steam lard is thus defined by the Chicago Board of Trade:
“Standard prime steam lard shall be solely the product of the
trimmings and other fat parts of hogs, rendered in tanks by the direct
application of steam, and without subsequent change in grain or
character by the use of agitators or other machinery except as such
change may unavoidably come from transportation. It shall have proper
color, flavor, and soundness for keeping, and no material which has
been salted shall be included. The name and location of the renderer
and the grade of the lard shall be plainly branded on each package at
the time of packing.” All the lard which is made is subjected to the
approval of inspectors both as to the material employed and the method
of procedure, together with the character of the final product.


=Disposition of the Intestines of the Hog.=--In the term intestines
is included all of the abdominal viscera of the animal but not the
thoracic viscera, namely, the heart and lungs. The material is
handled in the following way: When the animal is opened the viscera
are separated, including the flesh surrounding the anus and a strip
containing the external genito-urinary organs. The heart is thrown
to one side and the fatty portions trimmed off for lard. The rest of
the heart is used for sausage or for fertilizer. The lungs and liver
are either used in the manufacture of sausage or for fertilizer. The
rectum and large intestines are separated from the intestinal fat
and peritoneum and, along with the adhering flesh and genito-urinary
organs, sent to the trimmer. All flesh from the above-mentioned organs
is cut away and the intestine proper is used for sausage casings. The
trimmings, including the genito-urinary organs, are washed and placed
in the rendering tank where lard is made. The small intestine is also
separated from the fatty membrane surrounding it and prepared for
sausage casings. The remaining material, consisting of the peritoneum,
diaphragm, stomach, and adhering membranes, together with the
intestinal fat, constitutes the “guts” which are subjected to washing
in three or four different tanks. In the first tank the stomach and
peritoneum are split open, and also any portion of the intestines which
still adhere to the peritoneum. The portions then go from tank to tank,
usually four in number, and are then ready for the rendering tank. The
omentum fat is cut from the kidneys, and the kidneys with any adhering
fat go into the rendering vat. The spleen, pancreas, vocal cords,
trachea, and œsophagus also go into the tank.

In general it may be said that everything connected with the viscera
go into the rendering tank with the following exceptions: First, that
portion of the intestines which is saved for sausage casings; second,
the liver and lungs; third, that part of the heart free from fat.

In the killing of small hogs, where the intestines are not of
sufficient size to be suitable for sausage casings, they also go into
the rendering tank. It should be stated here that the grease or lard
obtained by the rendering of the above described viscera, according to
the statements of the manufacturers, is used solely in the manufacture
of lard oil and soap, and does not enter into the lard of commerce.

When the processes of manufacture are properly controlled by official
inspection the public may be assured that this disposition of the fat
obtained by the rendering of the intestinal viscera is secured.


=Butchers’ Lard.=--A considerable quantity of lard is made for
commercial purposes by the small butcher for family use, etc. This lard
is made almost exclusively by rendering in the open kettle. In the
country where butchering is conducted for family use the ordinary open
kettle is placed over an open fire. All parts of the fat of the animal
which can be easily separated and the scraps derived from trimming the
animal are used for rendering. The offal and refuse of the animal are
also rendered separately and the product used for soap grease. The
lard made in this way is regarded as perfectly wholesome, but it is
frequently dark-colored from the charring due to rendering over the
open fire and by reason of using some portions of the animal, such as
tendons, from which glue is made. Such lard may contain traces or even
considerable quantities of glue which, however, cannot be regarded as
an unwholesome product. The partially browned residues in the kettle in
the country are known as “cracklings” and are used for soap grease.


=Inedible Hog Fat Products.=--In the shipping of hogs a great many
are smothered and others die of disease or are in a condition, at the
time of slaughter, which renders them unfit for human food, either
by the presence of disease or otherwise. The fats are separated from
dead animals of this class and are used for technical purposes such as
burning oils, soap grease, etc. There are several varieties of these
inedible fats of which the following are the principal:


_White Grease._--This grease is made chiefly from hogs which die in
transit by being smothered or from freezing. Formerly it was the custom
to make white grease also from the animals which died of disease, but
the manufacture of this product has been restricted by certain state
laws which forbid the use of animals which die of particular diseases,
such as hog cholera, from being used for any purpose whatever and
their carcasses are to be buried so as to remove all danger of
infection.


_Brown Grease._--Brown grease is a product of a lower grade than white
grease and is made usually by rendering the whole animal. It is one of
the by-products in the manufacture of tankage from condemned animal
carcasses, the tankage being used as fertilizer. Both white and brown
grease are used chiefly in the manufacture of low grade lard oil and in
the making of soap.


_Yellow Grease._--Yellow grease is a product intermediate in value
between white and brown grease. It is made chiefly from the carcasses
of animals that die while on the packers’ hands. It is used for the
same purpose as white and brown grease.


_Pig’s-foot Grease._--A special variety of grease is made from pigs’
feet as a by-product in the glue factory. This grease is used also in
making lard oil and soap. It is evident that these varieties of grease
are only inedible varieties of lard, and through proper inspection the
public is protected against the use of these varieties of grease in the
edible product.


=Lard Stearin.=--Mention has already been made of the fact that by
melting a fat and cooling it slowly towards its solidifying point,
certain constituents of the fat which have a higher melting point
separate first, leaving those constituents with a lower melting point
still in a liquid condition. Those portions of an oil or fat which
separate first under such conditions, are the constituents of the
product which is known as stearin, while the part that remains liquid
is the constituent known as olein. Lard stearin is made principally for
the manufacture of mixtures and is a by-product of the highest grade
of lard oil. Lard stearin is made as follows: The lard is melted and
kept in a crystallizing room at from 50 to 60 degrees F., until it
is filled with the crystals of the separated stearin. The product is
then wrapped in the form of cakes with cloth. Each package contains
from 10 to 20 pounds. The cakes are then placed in a large press with
suitable arrangements to facilitate the escape of the oil and maintain
the low temperature. The pressure is applied very gradually at first,
and as the process advances, with increasing power. The high grade oil
obtained in this way is known as prime or extra lard oil and is used
for illuminating and lubricating purposes. The resulting solid product,
which is principally stearin, is used as one of the adulterants of
lard, that is, in making a mixture which is sometimes called lard,
composed of lard stearin and cottonseed oil.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.]


=Tanks Used for Producing Lard Under Pressure.=--There are various
forms of tanks used for producing steam rendered lard. In the open
kettle there is a jacketed arrangement by means of which steam, at
the proper temperature, is made to act upon the contents of the inner
kettle. In the closed kettle the steam may be applied in the form of
a jacketed arrangement or introduced directly into the kettle. The
residues which remain after the steaming is completed and after the
lard has been drawn off are withdrawn from the conical lower portion
of the kettle which can be opened for the removal of these residues. A
typical kettle for rendering lard is shown in Fig. 10. The fragments of
meat to be received are placed in the opening M which is then properly
closed when the tank is full. Steam is admitted and the condensation
which is produced at first by the cold contents of the tank is drawn
off through a water pipe. After the tank is thoroughly heated and the
fat begins to separate the lard will rise above the water and the solid
fragments and at the end of the process will fill the upper part of the
tank. By means of the cocks at D it can be determined to what depth the
tank is filled with lard and the lard can be drawn off through these
cocks until water begins to flow. The bottom of the tank at G is then
opened and the residues withdrawn, dried and ground for tankage.


=Physical Properties of Lard.=--_Specific Gravity._--The specific
gravity of pure lard is to be determined at some definite temperature,
inasmuch as a statement of its specific gravity without some
reference to the temperature at which it is determined is likely to
be misleading. It is not convenient to ascertain the specific gravity
of a lard at a temperature below its melting point. It is customary,
therefore, either to take the specific gravity at about 40 degrees C.,
or at a temperature of boiling water.

The average specific gravity of pure lard at 40 degrees C. (104 degrees
F.), regarding water as 100, is 89, and at 100 degrees C. it is 86,
the weight of water being determined at the point of greatest density,
namely, 4 degrees C. (39 degrees F.). Unfortunately the specific
gravity of pure lard is not very greatly different from that of other
oils or other fats used in its adulteration. For this reason it is not
of the highest value for determining whether or not the pure article
has been subjected to adulteration.


_Melting Point._--The melting point of a pure lard is a physical
characteristic of great value, since it is chiefly influenced by the
part of the body of the animal from which it is made. The fat which is
rendered from the foot of the hog has the lowest melting point, namely,
about 35 degrees C. (95° F.). The fat adhering to the intestines has
the highest melting point, namely, 44 degrees C. (111 degrees F.). The
fat derived from the head of the hog has a slightly higher melting
point than that from the feet. The kidney fat has a melting point
of 42.5 degrees C. (108.2 degrees F.). In the steam rendered lards,
representing the average of lards passed upon by the Chicago Board of
Trade, the average melting point is found to be about 37 degrees C.
(98.7 degrees F.). The melting point of superior or leaf lard has an
average value of about 40 degrees C. (104 degrees F.).


_Color Reaction._--A pure high grade lard when mixed on a white
porcelain plate with the proper amount of sulfuric or nitric acid
should give only a very slight coloration. The production of any
considerable quantity of color, either brown or black, indicates the
presence of organic impurities in the lard.


_Rise of Temperature with Sulfuric Acid._--The various fats give
different degrees of heat when mixed, under certain conditions, with
strong sulfuric acid. It is possible to determine the approximate
degree of the adulteration of lard by applying this test. The operation
is a simple one and is conducted in the apparatus shown in Fig. 11.
A common test tube about 24 cubic centimeters in length and 5 cubic
centimeters in diameter is hung as indicated in the figure, provided
with a stopper carrying a thermometer in the center with a bent glass
rod stirrer passed loosely through the stopper on the side and a funnel
for the introduction of the acid on another side of the thermometer. A
coil which is on the stirring rod is so arranged as to permit the bulb
of the thermometer to pass through its center.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.]


_Manipulation._--Fifty cubic centimeters of the fat or oil to be
examined are placed in the test tube and warmed or cooled, as the case
may be, until the temperature is the one required for the beginning
of the experiment, say 35 degrees C.; 10 cubic centimeters of the
strongest sulfuric acid at the same temperature are placed in the
funnel, the stopper being firmly fixed in its place; the test tube
containing the oil is placed in a non-conducting receptacle; the wooden
cylinder lined with cork, used in sending glass bottles by mail, is
found to be convenient for this purpose. The glass rod or stirrer which
fits loosely in the stopper, so as to be moved rapidly up and down, is
held by the right hand of the operator; with his left hand he opens the
glass stop-cock of the funnel and allows the sulfuric acid to flow in
upon the oil. The glass stirring rod is now moved rapidly up and down,
for about 20 seconds, thus securing a thorough mixture of the oil and
acid. The mercury rises rapidly in the thermometer and after two or
three minutes reaches a maximum, and then, after two or three minutes
more, begins to descend. The reading is made at the maximum point
reached by the mercury. With pure cottonseed oil, linseed oil and some
other substances the rise of temperature is so great as to produce
ebullition in the mass, causing it to foam up and fill the tube. To
avoid this, smaller quantities of acid should be used or the oil in
question be diluted with a less thermogenic one, so that the maximum
temperature may not be high enough to produce the effect cited.


=Chemical Properties.=--_Volatile Acids._--The quantity of volatile
acid arising on the decomposition of a soap made by the saponification
of lard is very minute in lard of high quality. The total amount of
volatile acid should not be in excess of that necessary to saturate .2
cubic centimeter of deci-normal alkali solution.


_Fixed Acid._--The quantity of fixed acid, consisting principally of
oleic and stearic, in pure lard should not be less than 93 percent. The
total quantity of free acid in lard, that is, acid uncombined with the
glycerine, should not exceed one-half of one percent, and in neutral
lard should be much less than this.


_Quantity of Iodin Absorbed._--All common fats and oils have the
property of absorbing, under given conditions, certain quantities of
iodin. Lard of the highest quality should not absorb more than 60
percent of its weight of iodin. The lard made from the feet and certain
other parts of the animal, however, may have a larger iodin number,
rising as high as 75 or even 80.


=Properties of Lard.=--The average properties of different classes of
lard in relation to physical and optical conditions are shown in the
following table:

                          RE-     RISE OF TEMPER-
  SPECIFIC   MELTING   FRACTIVE     ATURE WITH                  IODIN
  GRAVITY.    POINT.    INDEX.    SULFURIC ACID.     WATER.    ABSORBED.
   35° C.      ° C.     25° C.         ° C.         PERCENT.    PERCENT.
   .9053       40.7     1.4620         41.5           .077       62.48

The above table is the average composition of nineteen samples of
lard furnished under affidavits of purity and which appear from their
chemical and physical properties to be composed purely of the fat of
swine taken from those parts of the animal usually devoted to lard
making. The average data may be regarded as representing the properties
of the ordinary pure commercial lard on the market.


=Average Properties of Steam Lard.=--Below is given the average
composition of eleven samples of steam lard furnished under affidavit
and, apparently, as judged by their chemical and physical properties,
composed solely of the fat of swine. Steam lards are not of as high
a quality as the lards contained in the preceding table. They have
usually a distinctively strong odor, quite different from that of lards
which are rendered in open kettles at low temperature and from selected
portions of fat.

                          RE-     RISE OF TEMPER-
  SPECIFIC   MELTING   FRACTIVE     ATURE WITH                  IODIN
  GRAVITY.    POINT.    INDEX.    SULFURIC ACID.     WATER.    ABSORBED.
   35° C.      ° C.     25° C.         ° C.         PERCENT.    PERCENT.
   .9055       37.0     1.4623         39.9           .109       62.86


=Properties of Adulterated Lards.=--It is possible to mix together the
different materials used in making adulterated lard in such a manner
as to produce a compound which in some respects resembles the natural
product. This compound, however, necessarily differs from the natural
product in its physical and microscopic properties and in its reaction
with various chemicals which give distinct color with the different
fats and oils used as adulterants. The mean properties of thirteen
samples of mixed or compound lards are shown in the following table:

                          RE-     RISE OF TEMPER-
  SPECIFIC   MELTING   FRACTIVE     ATURE WITH                  IODIN
  GRAVITY.    POINT.    INDEX.    SULFURIC ACID.     WATER.    ABSORBED.
   35° C.      ° C.     25° C.         ° C.         PERCENT.    PERCENT.
   .9060       40.6     1.4634         46.5          .098        63.58

These lards, in addition to the above properties, show distinct color
reaction with sulfuric and nitric acid and with the reagents which are
distinctive of cottonseed oil. They are mostly mixtures of lard and
tallow stearin with cotton oil or cotton oil stearin.

In addition to the adulterations already mentioned as mixing with
cottonseed oil may be added the use of coconut oil. It is not probable
that in the United States any adulteration of lard with coconut
oil has been made for commercial purposes. Such an adulteration,
however, is practiced in some foreign countries. Coconut oil contains
considerable quantities of volatile acid, and, therefore, when used as
an adulterant of lard, would increase the normal quantity of volatile
acid materially. One sample examined by Allen, of England, was found to
contain a quantity of coconut oil, amounting to 33 percent.


=Summary.=--In the preceding pages has been given a description of the
character of lard, the sources from which it is made, the method of
its preparation, its chemical and physical properties and the common
adulterations to which it is subjected. There is no question of the
wholesomeness of the usual fats and oils, or parts thereof, which are
used in the sophistication of lards. The adulteration is intended
solely for fraudulent purposes, that is, to sell under the name of a
higher priced article one of a lower price.

There are many persons who prefer to use vegetable oils and fats as
substitutes for lard in all cases. It is only fair to the consumer that
the character of a fat and oil, however, for edible purposes be plainly
made known to the purchaser. He is then to judge of the propriety or
impropriety of using the articles in question. It seems quite certain
that the use of vegetable oils and fats will be greatly increased in
this country. All hygienists grant that they are at least equally as
wholesome as the animal fat and oil. They are certainly less open to
suspicion as having been derived from diseased sources. As a rule,
they are carefully expressed and properly refined, free from rancidity
and from any mechanical or chemical constituents which render them
unpalatable or unwholesome. They are generally much cheaper, perhaps
the only exception being that of olive oil. These vegetable oils, as a
rule, are excellent for salad dressing, for frying and general cooking
purposes and for the ordinary uses to which lard and other animal fats
are devoted. A proper labeling of all such packages would increase the
quantity consumed, restoring confidence to the public in the character
of the goods purchased, and prove of mutual benefit to the grower, the
manufacturer and the consumer. It must be remembered, however, that
there are many people who prefer the animal fats, and so there will
probably always be a large field for their use. Such consumers are
entitled to secure the pure article, properly prepared from healthy
animals and free from rancidity and organic impurities. Lard and other
animal fats offered in this way will have a greater vogue, command a
greater degree of confidence and secure a larger trade than if sold
under conditions engendering suspicion and distrust.


SOUPS.


=Classification of Soups.=--The soups which are commonly consumed are
divided into two great classes--those of animal and those of vegetable
origin. Any liquid or semi-liquid preparation of a meat or vegetable
or the two combined which may or may not carry particles of solid
substances is classed with these preparations. Soups are generally used
at the beginning of a meal, usually at dinner-time, and, as a rule,
do not have any very high nutritive value. That they have a useful
function cannot be denied, since the introduction of a small quantity
of a condimental and slightly nutritive warm liquid into the stomach
at the beginning of dinner tends to stimulate the secretive glands of
the stomach walls to greater activity and thus to promote digestion.
Soup should be regarded pre-eminently as a condimental and not as a
nutritive substance.


=Preparation of Stock.=--In the making of stock the base of the
material, as a rule, is that part of the meat and bone soluble in hot
water. The best way of preparing this stock is as follows:

The meat and bones selected should be fresh, free from all impurities
and be derived solely from healthy animals as soon as they have
been slaughtered. Inasmuch as the shape of the material used is of
little consequence the parts of the carcass that are cut away in the
preparation of the usual cuts of the marketable meats are utilized
for stock making. The flesh should be cut into fragments of proper
size and the bones broken up into small pieces. This material with the
appropriate amount of water and salt is placed in a vessel capable of
being closed in such a way that no aqueous vapor will escape, and a
slight degree of pressure, equal to the half of an atmosphere, can be
sustained. Simple forms of digesters are made for this purpose which
are perfectly safe at low pressure and supplied with a safety valve
so as to allow steam to escape if the pressure runs too high. Several
hours of digestion are necessary for the preparation of stock, and if
an ordinary vessel is used care must be exercised that the liquid does
not evaporate so as to make the mass dry. Stirring from time to time
assists the solution of the soluble substances. After the extraction
is complete the liquid contents are poured off and the solid material
pressed gently to separate the liquid held in solution. The mass
is then put in a cool place and allowed to stand until thoroughly
cooled and all the fat particles are collected at the top. The fat is
then removed and the resulting liquid strained to remove any solid
particles. The clear solution thus obtained is set aside and used as
stock in the preparation of the various forms of soups. When properly
flavored and used by itself it produces the soup known as consommé.

The soup stock made in this way usually contains not less than 95
percent of water and not more than 5 percent of nutritive matter.
Many of the clear soups prepared in this way contain very much less
nutritive matter, sometimes as low as one percent. It is evident,
therefore, that the soup stock is valuable as a condiment and flavoring
and not as a food.

The number of soups which can be made from soup stock is practically
unlimited. They are formed by the admixture, chiefly of vegetables
cut into small pieces, of starchy materials, mashed peas or beans,
particles of potato, fragments of parched bread, and in fact almost any
nutritive and palatable substance which the cook may wish to employ.

A soup made from a stock of the above description with pea flour was
found to have the following composition:

  Water,                           88.26 percent
  Protein,                          3.38    „
  Fat,                               .93    „
  Ash,                              1.13    „
  Starch and other carbohydrates,   6.30    „

A soup made with potatoes from stock of the above description was found
to have the following composition:

  Water,                           90.96 percent
  Protein,                          1.37    „
  Fat,                              1.53    „
  Ash,                               .99    „
  Starch and other carbohydrates,   5.13    „

The French make soups which are very well known and highly valued
by cutting vegetables, such as carrots, beets, radishes and other
vegetable substances, into small pieces and adding them to the soup
stock.


=Oyster Soup.=--A soup made of milk, cream, flour, condiments, oysters
and the liquid of oysters is very largely eaten in the United States.
The difference between oyster soup and oyster stew is chiefly in the
amount of oysters employed.


=Green Turtle Soup.=--A soup stock prepared as above described and
flavored with pieces of green turtle is a very common dish.


=Mock Turtle Soup.=--A soup made in imitation of a turtle soup in which
veal takes the place of turtle for flavoring is known as mock turtle
soup.


=Clam Soup or Clam Chowder.=--This is a soup made of clams in the
same way that oyster soup is made. When the clams are cut into small
pieces and are in great abundance and when potatoes are used in large
quantities in the mixture it is known as clam chowder.


=Beef Extract.=--It is evident that a beef extract is only a soup or
a soup stock specially prepared from beef. Beef extract first became
known by the researches of the celebrated chemist Liebig, and has
passed from a mere local preparation to an article which is important
in commerce. Factories have been established in localities far removed
from the principal markets of the world, but where cattle are extremely
plentiful, as in South America, and the preparation of beef extract
is carried on on a large scale, the meat of the animal being thrown
away after the preparation of the extract. The method of preparing
beef extract is practically that described for making a soup stock
under pressure. Instead of using only the trimmings and refuse of the
animal, however, usually the whole of the flesh is employed. The bones
are sometimes used in the making of a beef extract. The sound, fresh
meat is cut into small pieces and extracted under pressure as already
described. After cooking and filtering the product it is brought, in
vacuo, to a proper consistence. Meat extract is, therefore, simply a
concentrated soup stock. It requires about thirty-four pounds of meat
to yield one pound of concentrated extract, and this extract may be
diluted for consumption so as to make from six to seven gallons of
beef tea. The composition of the ordinary beef extract of commerce
shows that it contains from 15 to 20 percent of moisture, from 17 to
23 percent of ash and from 50 to 60 percent of meat bases, that is,
the soluble nitrogenous contents of meat. The bones and tendons are
not used in making beef extract on account of the introduction of
considerable quantities of gelatine into the material. Liebig does
not recommend the presence of gelatine in beef extract because, being
cheaper in quality, it is an adulteration of the genuine article, which
should contain only the pure bases and not the gelatinous principle of
the meat in the tendons and bones.


_Character of Nitrogenous Bodies in Beef Extract._--When beef extract
is prepared according to the Liebig method those nitrogenous bodies
commonly known as meat bases are found in the concentrated extract.
In a beef extract which contains a total of 9.28 percent of nitrogen
the quantity of nitrogen in the form of nitrogenous compounds which
were found therein is as follows: Nitrogen in the form of soluble
albumin,--trace; in the form of albumoses,--1.17; in the form of
peptone,--trace; in the form of meat bases,--6.81; in the form of
ammonia compounds,--.47; in the form of unenumerated compounds,--.83.
The chief meat bases which form the principal part of the substance are
creatin, creatinin, xanthin, carnin and carnic acid.

There are many different forms of beef extract upon the market,
sometimes called by fanciful names and sometimes by the name of the
manufacturer. Among the fanciful names are some which indicate origin
or kind. The extracts which bear the names of the manufacturers are
very numerous, but all of these extracts are essentially of the
same character. One of these is a meat extract in which some of the
meat fiber is contained. The quantity of meat fiber which is used
varies, but is not very great. A comparison of the dry substance in a
preparation of the class mentioned above with the dry substance in meat
shows the following relation:

                                      ASH AND
            PROTEIN.  MEAT BASES.  MINERAL MATTER.
            Percent.   Percent.       Percent.
  Extract,    49.7       25.6           24.7
  Meat,       86.7        7.8            5.3

The above data show that the extract is essentially different in its
composition from dried meat and has added to it a large quantity of
meat fiber or the meat rendered soluble by some kind of treatment.


_Nutritive Properties._--It cannot be denied that meat extract, as has
been said in the case of soup stock, contains only a small part of
nutritive matter. This nutritive substance is in a state of solution
and probably is more readily absorbed than a similar amount of other
nutritives in the form of ordinary meat. Its chief value as a nutrient,
therefore, is not in the amount of nutrient material which it contains,
but in the ease and speed with which it may become absorbed into the
circulation. In case of illness this is often a very important point.
It is not a question so much of the utilization of a large amount of
nutrients as the absorption and assimilation in small quantities which
will sustain life until the disordered conditions disappear. For these
reasons the meat extracts have a value. There is, however, little
doubt of the fact that in the popular mind a great deal more credit
is given to meat extracts than should properly belong to them. They
must be regarded principally as condimental and incident to nutrition
rather than as nutritive substances. The claims which are made by the
manufacturers are sometimes misleading, as, for instance, that one
pound of extract contains the nutritive properties of many pounds
of meat. Such a statement, of course, is absurd upon its face and
should not be allowed to go unchallenged. Even when meat extracts are
reinforced by the addition of soluble or comminuted fiber, as is often
the case, the quantity of nourishment is very small as compared with a
similar weight of meat itself.

It is not intended by the above remarks to cast any discredit upon
the value of beef extract, as its value has been attested in numerous
cases. It is only designed to call attention to the fact that as food
these extracts have comparatively little value. They may be useful
as stimulants or as condimental substances or as a means of speedily
introducing a soluble nutrient in the case of disease where it is
extremely important that even small amounts of nutritious material
should enter the body.


=Beef Juice.=--A distinction is made between a beef extract and a beef
juice. The latter term applies solely to the liquid naturally remaining
in the fresh meat after its proper preparation for consumption, that
is, after the withdrawal of the blood and the proper cooling and
storing of the flesh. The fresh meat is then subjected to strong
pressure and the juices which are extracted are concentrated in vacuo
to the proper consistence. The meat of old bulls is often used. A true
beef juice must be extracted from the cold meat and not with the aid
of heat, hot water or other solvents. It is difficult to preserve an
extract of this kind without sterilization, and the heat required for
sterilization is likely to coagulate some of the albuminous material
which is expressed. It is a great temptation, therefore, in some cases
to preserve the beef juice by a chemical preservative other than common
salt. Boric acid and sulfite of soda may be used for this purpose, but
these substances are objectionable on the score of possible injury to
health. Glycerine is also used. Inasmuch as these juices are usually
given to invalids or those whose digestive functions are impaired it is
most important that injurious substances should be omitted. In case of
pressure it is advisable, in some cases, to chop the meat very fine,
and in this comminuted condition extract the juice with cold water.
This does not produce any change in the character of the juice and the
water is subsequently removed by evaporation at a low temperature in
vacuo. Beef juices are usually prepared from heated meats.


_Composition of Beef Juice._--The composition of beef juice from
different parts of meat which was previously heated externally is shown
in the following table.

COMPOSITION OF BEEF JUICE AND MEAT EXTRACT.

                                     BEEF      MEAT
                                    JUICE.   EXTRACT.
  Water,                             90.65    21.66
  Ash,                                1.36    20.46
  NaCl (salt),                         .15     5.47
  P₂O₅ (phosphoric acid),              .36     4.55
  Fat,                                 .19      .50
  Acid (as lactic),                    .15     8.42
  Nitrogen (total),                   1.15     7.66
    „  insoluble and coagulable,       .68      .48
    „  as proteoses,                   .04     2.02
    „  as peptones,                    .14     1.90
    „  meat bases,                     .30     3.05
    „  creatin,                                 .75
    „  xanthin bases,                           .04
    „  ammonia,                                 .21

The above analyses show the general character of meat juice extracted
first by externally heating the meat and then pressing. They show that
there is less nitrogenous bodies present in meat juice than there is
in meat extracts. It is evident that meat extracts cannot be heated
for sterilization without coagulation of the globulins. When it is
advisable to use a beef juice in a case of illness it is far better
to prepare it at the time when it is used than to prepare it on a
commercial scale and preserve it by any of the chemical means in vogue.
Meat juice can be very well prepared for domestic use by chopping
the meat very fine, placing it in a vessel, heating to 140° F., and
pressing it by any simple means, as, for instance, with the hand or by
using an ordinary lemon squeezer. The juice obtained in this way can
be flavored with salt and spices to suit the taste of the patient, and
used immediately. In some cases, in order to get a greater yield, pure
cold water may be mixed with the chopped meat and a somewhat dilute
juice obtained but giving a greater yield of nutritive material for the
same weight of meat.

Various names, fanciful and otherwise, are given to the so-called beef
juices. These names are either fanciful or, as in the case of beef
extracts, that of the manufacturer. Some of the fanciful names are,
like those already mentioned, suggestive of origin. Some of these have
large quantities of coagulable protein, like albumin, while others
have such small quantities as to indicate that they are not wholly
beef juice. In the case of some of these preparations there is some
indication that they are prepared chiefly from blood and thus are not
true meat juices. Naturally there must be particles of blood in a meat
juice and the mere occurrence of blood cells would not be an indication
that blood itself had been used in its preparation. By reason of these
facts the use of so-called meat juices is restricted. They contain
relatively very little nutritive material, they are sometimes preserved
with harmful chemicals and they may be made from blood, and in general
there is such a degree of secrecy attending their preparation as to
warrant the physician and patient to confine themselves to the domestic
article prepared at the time of using. Another objection which is not
of a hygienic character is found in the great expense of securing a
very little nourishment by this means. The quantity of juice which meat
will yield is very small and, therefore, the relative expense for any
given quantity of nourishment is far greater than it is even in the
case of beef extract. While in the case of rich patients an objection
like this is of little value, in the great majority of cases it should
be given due consideration.


=Soluble Meats.=--Various attempts have been made to put soluble meats
upon the market for use, especially for invalids and in cases of
disordered digestion. The principle which underlies the preparation
of these meats is to subject them to a certain degree of artificial
digestion, by means of which the protein matter becomes converted
into soluble forms, either albumose, proteose or peptone. The
process which is employed is a simple one, namely, the comminution of
the meat into as fine particles as possible and its admixture with
hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It is then subjected to artificial
digestion until a considerable portion of the meat is soluble. Another
method of preparation is to omit the pepsin and after the addition of
hydrochloric acid to place the meat in a digestor where it is subjected
to a temperature of steam under pressure for a considerable length
of time. A goodly proportion of the meat becomes soluble under this
process. After the preparation is completed the residual hydrochloric
acid is neutralized by carbonate of soda, forming common salt, which
gives the proper flavor to the compound.

The composition of soluble meat prepared in this way is given in
the following table (Foods and Principles of Dietetics, by Robert
Hutchinson):

  Water,         67.21 percent
  Fat,            5.93    „
  Albumin,       11.00    „
  Peptone,        6.51    „
  Meat extract,   7.55    „
  Ash and salt,   1.74    „

A meat solution of this kind is not really a solution, since not only
is that part which passes into solution contained in it, but also the
residual meat fibers which are not dissolved but so softened by the
process that they lose their distinct form and can be rubbed up to a
thick pasty mass. The product, therefore, consists not only of the
part of the meat rendered thoroughly soluble in water by the process,
but also of a residual part, softened and reduced to a paste. The
mass has practically the same nutritive value as an equivalent amount
of meat with the claimed advantage that a large portion of it is
already soluble. This partial predigestion may be of value in cases of
disease or disordered digestion of any kind, but there is no reason
for believing that the healthy stomach requires any sort of artificial
predigestion for the proper conduct of its functions. On the other
hand, there is every reason for supposing that any kind of predigestion
which is at all effective will in the end prove injurious to healthy
digestive organs by depriving them of a part of their normal functions
and thus tending to bring them to a condition of feebleness which may
result in the omission, in part, of the normal functions of the vital
organs.


=Preparations of Blood.=--There is no doubt of the valuable nutritive
properties of blood and its preparations are sometimes used as foods.
There is a deep-seated prejudice against the use of blood as human
food, doubtless based on older and more effective grounds than even
the laws of health promulgated by Moses. Man is an animal of some
refinement of character and the sight or use of blood is repugnant to
his finer instincts. Sometimes blood is dried and powdered and the
blood powder mixed with other food. Another method is to coagulate the
blood, then remove the coagulated portion and use the residue for food
purposes. This preparation, of course, contains no coagulable portions
of blood, that is, the protein thereof known as fibrin. There is no
reason for believing that preparations of blood will ever occupy any
prominent position in the food supply, either of persons in health or
of invalids.


=Beef Tea.=--A very common food preparation from beef is that known as
beef tea. In all essential particulars beef tea is nothing more than
a rich unfiltered soup stock. Inasmuch, however, as it is constantly
prescribed in many kinds of illness and is prepared under certain
conditions it should be mentioned specially here in addition to the
preparations already described. As in the case of meat juice, beef tea
should always be prepared in the home, and immediately before using.
It is a preparation which can not be properly made and kept without
the addition of some preservative which renders it totally unfit for
human consumption. The very choicest portion of the beef should be
selected in the preparation of beef tea and it should be reduced to a
fine state of comminution. The removal of the fat and tendons should
be as complete as possible, as particularly the latter tend to add to
the extract more of the gelatine-like principles than is desirable. The
fragments should be mixed with a sufficient quantity of cold water to
make the desired amount of beef tea, usually one pound of water to a
pound of comminuted beef is a good proportion. The mixture should be
kept cold for a considerable length of time with frequent stirrings in
order to extract as much as possible of the nitrogenous matter which
becomes coagulated by heating. Salt may be used not only to promote
the solubility but also to give the proper taste. After the lapse of
an hour or more the vessel may be covered and gradually warmed. During
this warming the mass should be frequently stirred so to as promote the
solution. When finally the extraction is complete, before the tea is
administered it should be cooked, that is, heated to the boiling-point,
by which process the soluble protein is coagulated but not hardened,
and the material is rendered more palatable. The beef tea should be
administered without separating the coagulated fragments of albuminous
material, which is in a state easily digestible, and adds much to the
nutritive value of the mixture. Finally the residue of beef may be put
into a bag and subjected to pressure to remove as much of the juice
contained therein as possible. The difference between beef tea and
soup stock, as will be seen, is largely in the filtering. The beef tea
should retain the coagulated flocks, while in the soup stock they are
removed. One pound of good lean beef and one pint of water yield about
one-half pound of good beef tea. As in the case of soup stock, beef
tea is not a very nutritive substance. It is, however, stimulating,
and the nourishment which it contains is quickly absorbed. The soft,
coagulated flocks of albumin are readily digested, and often a patient
may be nourished for days on a preparation of this kind when he is in
a condition which renders it impracticable to use either solid or other
liquid foods.

Beef tea is also made on a large commercial scale and with some degree
of approximation to the home prepared article. For various reasons,
however, which have already been advanced, a well made domestic beef
tea which can be used as soon as prepared is to be preferred in all
cases to the manufactured article. A beef tea properly made contains
approximately the following composition:

  Water,                             88.00 percent
  Meat bases,                         3.50    „
  Protein--soluble and flocculated,   8.00    „
  Ash and salt,                       1.50    „


=Dried and Powdered Meats.=--The preparation of dried meat has already
been described. There has lately been placed upon the market a
number of preparations dried and finely ground, under various names,
fanciful and those of the manufacturer. Inasmuch as ordinary meats
are largely composed of water, it is evident that if the water can
be removed without impairing the quality of the meat, great expense
in transportation would be saved and the use of preservatives would
be unnecessary. Various attempts, therefore, have been made to place
dried meats upon the market. The meat powders are not only offered
in their natural state of desiccation but also are prepared with a
more or less previous digestion. One of the most common of these meat
powders is known as somatose, which has been made in large quantities,
and sold throughout all parts of the world. It consists largely of
albumoses rather than of peptones, but this is true of a great many
of the so-called peptone preparations. The composition of somatose
is represented in the following table (Allen’s Commercial Organic
Analyses, Vol. IV, page 384):

  Water,                               14.25 percent
  Albumin rendered soluble by alkali,  21.83    „
  Albumin,                              3.40    „
  Albumoses,                           33.96    „
  Peptone,                              3.06    „
  Meat bases,                           2.62    „
  Ash and salt,                         5.30    „

The above data show that the meat still contains nearly 15 percent of
moisture and that an alkali has been used to render the protein more
soluble. This alkali has increased the quantity of mineral matter over
that which would naturally be present. Whatever may be the relative
value of the prepared protein matter as compared with that in the
original meat, it is seen that a large quantity of it, practically as
much as was in the original meat, has been preserved in the finished
product. Whether or not it is advisable to use a preparation of
this kind is a question to be left with the physician. It may be
said unhesitatingly that in all cases of health somatose could not
possibly present any advantage over fresh meat. On the contrary,
for theoretical and practical reasons, it is certain that it is less
valuable.


=Composition of the Ash of Meat Juice and Meat Broth.=--The principal
mineral component of the natural juice of meat broth or meat extract
is phosphate of potassium, though there are also small quantities
of magnesium and smaller quantities of calcium present. In addition
to this there is a certain quantity of common salt present, which
is determined, however, largely by the method of preparation. The
following analysis shows the composition of the ash of a meat juice to
which little or no common salt has been added:

  Potassium (K),           34.40 percent
  Sodium (Na),              9.70    „
  Calcium (Ca),              .36    „
  Magnesium (Mg),           2.55    „
  Phosphoric acid (P₂O₅),  27.00    „

Other constituents are not determined in this analysis. The phosphate
of potassium may therefore be regarded as the principal natural ash
constituent of meat extract and meat juice. (Zeitschrift für Biologie,
Vol. XII, 1876.)


=Adulteration of Meat Extract.=--The principal adulterations of meat
extract have already been mentioned. The substances used in preserving
it are of the greatest hygienic consequence. These are chiefly salt
and glycerol or alcohol. The use of all of these substances is
reprehensible. Fortunately they are seldom used. Another adulteration
which has been practiced is mixing the meat extract with extracts
of yeast. The extract of yeast has valuable dietetic properties and
contains the active principles of fermentation. It also resembles, in
many respects, physically and chemically, the extract of meat, and can,
therefore, be mixed with meat extract, and, being a cheaper article,
forms a mixture which can be sold at a greater profit. The presence of
yeast extract in meat extract can easily be determined by treating the
mixture with a strong solution of sulfate of zinc and filtering. In
meat extract the filtrate obtained is always quite clear, but when a
yeast extract is present the filtrate is turbid.


=Active Principles Contained in Meat Extract.=--Attention has already
been called to some of the more important active principles, namely,
meat bases which form a valuable portion of meat extract. There are
various forms of nitrogenous bodies, however, besides meat bases,
which become soluble naturally in meat or by the treatment of meat
with digestive ferments. Lean meat, as is well known, consists almost
exclusively of protein matter and water. This protein matter is
principally insoluble. Under the action of digestive ferments the
protein of meat becomes broken up into more soluble bodies, known as
albumoses, proteoses and peptones,--the latter being the final product
of solution. These bodies are still true protein bodies containing the
elements of sulfur as one of their essential constituents. The meat
bases, on the contrary, contain the other elements that are in protein
but do not have the sulfur element. They belong to that class of bodies
which is known as simple amido compounds. All of these bodies are mixed
together in meat juice or beef extract, and it is an important task of
the chemist to separate them, both from an analytical point of view and
the determination of their relative abundance. There is also another
soluble or semisoluble protein substance in these extracts derived
from the tendinous tissues and bones, namely, the gelatine or glue.
This is quite a common product, being the soluble protein procured by
the digestion of the tendons and bones. It is important, therefore,
that the chemist should distinguish between the gelatine and the amido
bodies. There is also a true and a false protein form of these soluble
bodies, the true one being formed by natural proteolytic ferments and
the false one being formed by heat or digestion under pressure of
steam. The chemist should also be able to distinguish between the true
extract formed directly from the meat and the yeast extract used as an
adulteration.

It is not the purpose of this manual to enter into the details of how
these different bodies may be distinguished from one another, as that
is purely a chemical study. It is due, however, to the general reader
that some explanation be given of the different classes of bodies which
are contained in these extracts.


=Relation between the Price of an Extract and its Nutritive
Value.=--The studies made in the Bureau of Chemistry show that there
is little relation between the price of a beef extract and its real
nutritive value. In three cases of extract which are all well known
brands and are of the thick or pasty variety, showing that a dissolved
meat had been added to them, the average weight of a package costing
45 cents was only 55 grams, or nearly a cent a gram. In another three
samples of extract, also well known brands, of the same pasty variety
and costing little more per package, it was found that the weight of
the more expensive variety was double that of the first, costing only
one-half cent per gram. In the case of the liquid extracts where no
pasty material is incorporated there is still greater variation in the
relation of the price to the nutritive constituents. An extract which
retails for one dollar per bottle contains 91.69 percent of water and
only .42 percent of nitrogen. Another so-called meat extract which
retails at 60 cents per bottle must have been wholly an artificial
product, since it contained no creatin or creatinin at all. It was
also preserved by the addition of alcohol and contained an artificial
coloring matter.

The ash existing in these extracts is, of course, usually due to the
presence of large quantities of common salt. Sodium chlorid is added
to this extract without any definite rule at all and sometimes in very
excessive quantities. In some cases thirty percent of the total extract
is composed of common salt. In other words, a person taking a solution
of this kind would be injecting into his stomach a very concentrated
brine. When common salt may be sold at the rate of one dollar per
pound, the profit on the transaction is one which ought to make the
business exceedingly attractive.

The total phosphoric acid in the ash also shows variations, and if it
were not so easy to add artificial phosphoric acid the actual amount
present might be taken as a base by which quality could be judged.
In the natural extract the total phosphoric acid should be in the
proportion to organic phosphoric acid as 10 to 1, which is the natural
condition in which it is found in meat extract. In many cases the
amount of inorganic phosphorus is so great as to render it certain that
a phosphate, probably the phosphate of soda, has been added. In another
case the quantity of organic phosphoric acid was very much greater than
could have possibly been the case in a natural product, indicating
the addition of lecithin or glycerophosphoric acid. The amount of fat
in beef extract, when properly prepared, should be very small and
should certainly not exceed one percent, since by the proper method
of preparation the fat is largely separated. In the pasty material,
however, where the meat is reduced to a pulp and retained in the
package the amount of fat will be very much greater.


=The Nitrogenous Bases.=--The average nitrogen content of the pasty or
solid extracts varies from 6 to 9 percent. The nitrogen in the meat
juice is subject to much greater fluctuation, depending largely on the
content of solids. Although a high nitrogen content is not a guarantee
of the character or mode of manufacture of an extract, it is naturally
expected and is desirable.

The addition of gelatine to extracts is now largely practiced and
has been for some years. By adding gelatine the manufacturer raises
or maintains a certain nitrogen content, but supplies the nitrogen
in a form lacking in all quickly stimulating qualities, and the
natural flavor of the meat extract nitrogen is lowered. The buyer
is consequently deprived of the characteristic essentials of a beef
extract although the nitrogen content is relatively high. In many
cases only a small proportion of the original gelatine exists in the
extract as such. The gelatine is converted by a gradual process of
hydration into gelatoses and gelatine peptones. While the separation
of gelatine from protein matter is a process in anything but a
satisfactory condition, it is a far simpler process than the detection
and separation of gelatoses and gelatine peptones from albuminoses and
peptones. The question has not been thoroughly studied up to date.

The question of adulteration of meat extracts with gelatine is not
the only form of adulteration we have to face. The mixing of varying
amounts of yeast extract with meat extracts is being practiced at
the present time in some countries. As we have not investigated this
question, we cannot state whether it is practiced in this country at
the present time or not.


=Kinds of Preparations.=--Meat preparations of the above types in
general may be divided into three classes, liquid extracts, pasty
extracts and powdered extracts. In addition to the above, within the
last few years beef extract pellets, some of them being enclosed
in gelatine capsules, have appeared upon the market. The old-time
product of Liebig’s extract belongs to the second class, in which
we also find many of our best known brands. The liquid extracts are
varied and numerous and their number is rapidly increasing. The amount
of meat extractives in some of these liquid products is remarkably
small, the quantity of solids in two or three cases being under 10
percent. Alcohol is sometimes met with in these liquid preparations.
The meat powders are far less numerous than the extracts of the first
two classes. They consist largely, if not entirely, of albuminoses and
peptones in addition to some insoluble proteid matter.

Moreover, it is necessary to distinguish between a meat extract
containing large amounts of stimulating amido-acids and relatively
small percentages of albuminoses, peptones and insoluble proteid matter
on the one hand, and, on the other hand, an extract, or, more properly,
a meat product, which consists largely of albuminoses, peptones and
insoluble matter and relatively small amounts of amido-acids. The food
value of this last group of products is undoubtedly greater than that
of the former group, but being sold as meat extracts, their value
should be based on the amount of extractives they contain and not on
their food value.

The value of the amido-bodies, such as the meat bases, as food, is of
uncertain character, but we must admit, as in the case of alcohol, they
can at least be burned and furnish energy to the body. Like alcohol,
the value of meat extractives lies principally in their stimulating
qualities. The active principles of tea and coffee are on a similar
basis. As these simpler amido-bodies are the final links in the long
chain of hydrolytic products of the proteid molecule prior to the
complete resolution of that molecule into carbon dioxid, water, etc.,
it is readily seen that an ounce of meat extractives (the various
amido-bodies) represents a far larger amount of beef than an ounce
of albuminoses does. The various protein bodies and amido-acids are
closely interwoven and it is impossible to produce amido-acids without
producing albuminoses and peptones. Consequently, every commercial
meat extract must consist partly of albuminoses, peptones, etc. The
best of our extracts on the market to-day contain about 50 percent of
their total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen. When an extract
contains less than 5 percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base
nitrogen the term “extract” seems to be no longer applicable. It is
evident that the product represents much less meat than an extract with
50 percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen, provided
the total nitrogen in both cases is approximately equal.

The proteid matter coagulated by heating to boiling, as well as the
proteid matter insoluble in cold water, are both undesirable factors
in an extract of meat. As a rule, the lower the proportion of these
constituents, the higher the character of the meat extract. The same
thing holds true in regard to the presence of albuminoses and peptones.

The quantity of total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen in
the best extracts reaches 50 percent. In one of the poorest it is 3.82
percent. The food value of the latter product might be greater than
that of the former, but its cost of manufacture and its stimulating
value are much less.

Creatin figures are very interesting and of much value in determining
the source and value of an extract. Creatin is the principal amido-body
found in meat, consequently we expect to find it or creatinin, its
hydrated form, in still larger quantities in meat extracts. In several
cases which came under our notice where the extract acted suspiciously,
the creatin values were nil, and in such cases grave doubts exist as to
the source of the extract. Our best extracts give high creatin as well
as high meat base figures.

The xanthin bases and ammonia nitrogen figures present a variety of
problems. While the xanthin bases are desirable constituents, ammonia
in any amount is not. It is questionable whether the ammonia figures
obtained by the magnesium oxid method do not give too high results (W.
D. Bigelow).


=Gelatine.=--Gelatine is a substance obtained from the nitrogenous
portions of bones, hide, horns, hoofs, connective tissue, tendons
and other nitrogenous matter of the animal. One of the principal
constituents of these bodies is a substance known as collagen. When
this is heated either under pressure or without pressure it is changed
to gelatine. Glue is unrefined gelatine or impure gelatine to which
usually some substance has been added to increase its holding power.
A type of gelatine known as isinglass is made from the bladders of
sturgeons.

The general process of manufacturing gelatine is as follows (Whipple,
Technology Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 2, June, 1902):

“The hide scraps are first macerated and subjected to the action of
a solution of lime or caustic soda in pits for two or three weeks.
This dissolves most of the blood and saponifies the fats. The excess
of lime or soda is then largely removed by washing and the solution
steamed to dissolve the gelatine, but an excess of heat is avoided.
Sulfurous acid is used to bleach the gelatine. When of sufficient
strength, the gelatine is allowed to harden in molds or on slabs, and
is ultimately dried in sheets on wire nets. Bone gelatine is made in a
somewhat similar manner. The bones are crushed, boiled, treated with
hydrochloric acid, and the gelatine is dissolved as before, washed,
bleached and dried in sheets. The process requires a number of weeks.”

Gelatine is also made from bones, fresh as well as old, and from the
residues of bones used in the manufacture of buttons. The thin slices
of the bones are treated with acid until all the phosphate of lime is
extracted. They are then treated with lime and the gelatinous residue
is then dissolved in warm water and purified for use.

The use of gelatine as a food has of late years become very common. The
ease with which it can be made into jellies, the consistence which it
gives to ice-cream and its general utility in the cuisine have made it
deservedly popular. Gelatine is the product of some of the nitrogenous
parts of the animal and should be made only from the edible parts
thereof. It is particularly abundant in the tendinous portions of the
animal and in the tissues about the head, from which a large part of
edible gelatine is made. No portion of the animal which is filthy or
unfit for food should ever enter into the composition of the gelatine.
If the parts from which the gelatine are made are cured previous to
manufacture they should be cured in a perfectly sanitary way, as
carefully as any other part of the meat. There can be no objection to
the use of gelatine made from these sanitary materials in foods of all
kinds.

There is, however, a possibility that some of the gelatines on the
market may be made from materials wholly unfit for food. The food law
forbids the use of animal substances unfit for food either directly
or indirectly. As an illustration of this condition of affairs I may
call attention to the fact that a part of the gelatines sold in the
United States are made from parts of animals slaughtered in South
America. It is not known to the consumer in what conditions these parts
are preserved and transported. They may be possibly packed with the
hide and sent to Belgium or other countries in a filthy, putrid and
abhorrent state and these parts be cut from the hides before they are
sent to the tanneries and converted into gelatine and sold as edible
gelatine. Such a possibility should not exist, and there is no danger
of its existence with high class manufacturers. A part of the horns
is also used for such purposes, which being of an inedible portion
and unfit for food is not admissible, under the law, as a constituent
of edible gelatine. All such materials should be excluded in the
manufacture of such an important product. Further than this, it may be
stated that the line of demarcation between gelatine and glue is not
always as well drawn as it should be, and this is illustrated in the
report that the gelatine and glue are manufactured in the same factory,
and the same conditions of odor and insanitation which adhere to glue
may attach themselves to the gelatine. Such a condition, of course,
would be an exceptional case, but its possibility should be excluded.
Under the food law only those forms of gelatine first described above
can be legally made and sold for use in food.


_Adulteration of Gelatine._--The adulterations of gelatine are such as
those referred to above in the form of raw materials employed which
are insanitary and unfit for food. In addition to this, bleaching
agents, namely, sulfurous acid or sulfites and mineral acids, are
often employed in the manufacture, portions of which may remain in
the finished article. All of these substances must be regarded as
adulterants and as insanitary and unsuitable to gelatine, and to that
extent unfit for human consumption.


_Presence of Tetanus in Commercial Gelatine._--The Public Health and
Marine Hospital Service has investigated gelatine to determine whether
or not it may be infected with pathogenic germs. The conclusions of
the investigation are as follows (Bulletin No. 9, Hygienic Laboratory):

“Seven samples of gelatine examined; one showed tetanus spores.

“Two samples showed an oval end-spore rod, whose identity was not
proved, but, in stained specimens, it would be hard to distinguish from
tetanus, if indeed not tetanus with diminished virulence.

“In tetanus investigations it is important to use _freshly_ made
bouillon, as the organism is apt not to germinate in bouillon over ten
days old. The thermal death point of the organism isolated was found to
be between twenty and thirty seconds at 100 degrees C.

“It is important, therefore, that gelatine to be used for injections
should be boiled at least ten minutes on account of the variability of
the thermal death point in different species of tetanus. Whether this
amount of heating impairs in any way the hemostatic power of gelatine
has not been settled, but in case it does it is believed that the
danger from tetanus more than overbalances its therapeutic value.

“It is suggested that when, as in hospitals, there is likelihood of
gelatine injections being used for hemostatic purposes the gelatine
solution be sterilized by the fractional method on three successive
days and kept ready for use in sterile containers.”

From the data given above it is seen that gelatine may become infected
and the material from which it is made for edible purposes should be
healthful, sanitary and fit for food. It is not likely that tetanus
germs would prove dangerous when taken into the stomach, but freedom
from infection should be secured if possible. These investigations
show the wisdom of the pure food law in forbidding the use of parts of
animals unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, in the production
of food products. It is evident that a sufficient quantity of fresh,
sanitary material or material properly preserved can be obtained in
this country or in other countries to supply the needs for edible
gelatine without resorting to the use of inedible parts of hides,
horns, hoofs and other waste and unfit portions of the animal.


=Summary.=--Above have been presented some of the principal meat
foods, the analytical data which show their composition, the processes
by means of which they are prepared and the principal methods,
objectionable and otherwise, by which they are preserved.

Meat is a staple article of diet among almost all nations of men. The
anatomical structure of the human animal indicates that his environment
has adapted him to eating meats of all kinds. In other words, man is
an omnivorous animal. He has been developed in an environment in which
all kinds of meats and vegetables have ministered to his sustenance,
and thus he is an omnivorous animal both by evolution and necessarily
by heredity. That man can live and flourish without meat has been fully
established by experiments, but that man cannot be nourished by meat
alone has likewise been fully established, so that if the human race
were necessarily to be deprived either of animal or vegetable foods, it
would be the animal food which must be sacrificed.

It is not the purpose of this manual to discuss the relative merits
of vegetarianism as compared with the common diet of the human race.
It may not be amiss, however, to say that probably in the United
States especially, a larger quantity of meat is eaten than is either
necessary or wholesome. The people of our country are better able to
supply themselves with expensive foods than those of other countries,
and of the common foods meats are far more expensive than cereals. The
eating of larger quantities of cereals and smaller quantities of meat
would probably be conducive both to economy and health. It appears
to be certain that the meat eating of the future may not be regarded
so much as a necessity as it has in the past, but that meats will be
used more as condimental substances than as staple foods. In all meat,
for instance, that costs 25 cents a pound, such as steaks, there is
over one-third or a half of it which is inedible, so that the edible
portion really costs double that amount. On the contrary, when a pound
of flour or maize is purchased, the price of which is perhaps only
one-eighth that of meat, the whole of it is edible. Thus, from the mere
point of economy as well as of nutrition the superiority of cereals
and other vegetable products is at once evident. On the one hand, a
cereal is almost a complete food containing all the elements necessary
to nutrition, and it costs only a few cents a pound. On the other hand,
a steak or roast is only a partial food and it costs much more than
cereals.

It is hoped that one purpose of this manual may be secured, namely, by
showing the consumer the actual composition of the different kinds of
food and their method of preparation he may be led in the selection of
his food to follow the dictates of science and economy to a certain
extent rather than merely the impulse of taste. The eating of such
large quantities of meat is merely a habit which often is developed in
children through the carelessness and ignorance of parents, much to the
detriment of the child as well as to his future health and activity.
It is believed that if the true principles of the use of meat were
properly inculcated a large saving in the energy of the wage earner as
well as those in more affluent circumstances would be secured.

Sound principles of economy establish a better condition of health and
lead to greater activity and fruitful labor.


TERRESTRIAL ANIMAL OILS.

Terrestrial animal oils are obtained directly from parts of the animals
which yield, at ordinary temperature, a substance which remains liquid.
The fats which are in the feet of the animals are usually more liquid
than in any other part of the body, and hence the natural animal
oils are derived largely from the feet. Among the most important
are sheep’s foot oil, horse foot oil, and neat’s foot oil, which is
obtained from the feet of cattle. These oils are all highly valued for
technical purposes, especially for lubricating, and for this purpose
bring a very high price. They are not used or should not be used for
edible purposes, though they perhaps may sometimes be used in cooking.
Neat’s foot oil, especially, on account of its high price, is often
subjected to adulteration, and is mixed for this purpose with cheap
vegetable oils, such as cottonseed. Fish oil is also often used in the
adulteration of neat’s foot oil, though the addition of any of these
oils to neat’s foot oil raises the iodin number to a very high degree,
and hence this addition is easily detected by the chemist.


=Lard Oil.=--Lard oil is one of the most important of terrestrial
animal oils. It is made from lard by melting it and allowing it to
slowly cool. The stearin in the product crystallizes first, and when it
reaches a condition favoring the separation of the stearin the mass is
subjected to straining or pressure, whereby the olein or liquid portion
of the oil is separated, and thus, having been freed from the most
of its stearin, remains liquid at ordinary temperature. The residue
is known as lard stearin and is largely employed in the preparation
of lard to give it a higher melting point and in the manufacture of
oleomargarine.

Lard oil is used to some extent for edible purposes and is itself
sometimes employed in the manufacture of oleomargarine when mixed with
tallow or tallow stearin.


_Properties of Lard Oil._--It is evident that the chemical and physical
properties of lard oil are determined by the completeness with which
the stearin is separated. Inasmuch, however, as the conditions of
manufacture are nearly constant, lard oil has characteristics of a
physical and chemical nature which do not vary greatly. The specific
gravity of lard oil at 15 degrees is about .916, and its iodin number
varies from 68 to 75. When made of the best material it has a neutral
taste, not an unpleasant odor, and, therefore, can be used for edible
purposes without introducing any characteristic odor or flavor into
the prepared food. In point of fact, however, it is not used to any
extent for edible purposes except in the manufactured articles above
mentioned. When carefully made and of the proper quality pure lard oil
should be practically free from free acid.


_Adulterations._--On account of the high value of lard oil for
lubricating and other purposes it has been subjected to extensive
adulterations. The addition of cheaper animal oils or vegetable oils
has been largely practiced. Fish oil, blubber oil, and other marine
animal oils have also been freely used in the adulteration of lard
oil whenever the difference in price has rendered it advisable. These
adulterations are of such a character that they can be detected only by
the skilled microscopist and chemist. The other animal oils, both of
marine and terrestrial origin, while important from a technical point
of view, are of no significance in respect of edible qualities.




PART II.

POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS.


=Application of Name.=--The term poultry for descriptive purposes may
be applied to those classes of feathered domesticated birds used for
human food. It, therefore, includes practically all of the domesticated
fowls. The term game bird, for the purpose of this manual, is applied
to feathered animals which are wild and which are used for human food.
This also may apply to almost all wild birds, since at times they
practically all have been used for food purposes. Here only those
in common use, both domesticated and wild, will be referred to. In
connection with poultry the eggs of the birds will be considered.


DOMESTICATED FOWLS.

The principal domesticated fowls which are used for human food are
chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and guinea hens. The most common of
all is the chicken,--the next perhaps are turkeys in this country and
the goose in Europe. The others are more infrequently used but are
highly prized.


=Chicken.=--The chicken scientifically is known as _Gallus domesticus_.
For food purposes the chicken is eaten at various ages. The very young
chicken is commonly called a broiler and is prepared for the table at
varying ages from six to twelve weeks. Young chickens are also very
commonly called spring chickens, since they occur in greater abundance
in the spring than at any other time. Since the introduction of the
modern method of incubation, however, the spring chicken may be had
at all seasons of the year. The “broiler” and “spring chicken” may be
regarded as synonymous terms, though the larger chicks are usually
called spring chickens instead of broilers.


_Full Grown Chickens._--The full grown chicken is better suited for
food when still young. The flesh loses flavor and gains in toughness as
the chicken grows older. There is no legal limit fixing the division
of chickens into different classes with respect to age and the only
criterion is the price and taste of the consumer. There is, perhaps,
no objection to the use of old chickens for food purposes, provided
they are not sold fraudulently as young chicks. The size and toughness
of the pieces one often secures when ordering spring chicken is an
indication that the age limit is not very definitely established. Both
hens and roosters are used for food purposes, but especially the young
roosters are devoted to food purposes while the young hens are often
kept for the production of eggs.


_Preparation of Chickens for Food Purposes._--In former times, when the
chickens of commerce were derived chiefly from the farm, no special
preparation was made before the chicken was marketed. The eggs were
hatched in the old-fashioned way by the hens and the chicks sold
to hucksters or in market, at various ages and without any special
preparation or control. All this has been changed in later times by the
introduction of scientific methods of breeding poultry. It has been
demonstrated that the breeding and care of poultry require as much
scientific and economic attention as is devoted to any other successful
business.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--CHICKEN HOUSE, RHODE ISLAND EXPERIMENT
STATION.]


_The Incubator._--The introduction of the incubator for the hatching
of eggs with the other necessary arrangements for the caring for young
chicks has perhaps done more than any other one thing to revolutionize
the method of preparing poultry for the market. By the use of the
incubator the hatching of chicks is regulated with the utmost degree
of nicety. A larger percentage of eggs produce chicks and the expense
of the incubating process is greatly diminished. The incubator is in
its widest significance a thermostat in which the eggs may be placed
and maintained constantly at the temperature of the hen’s body, namely,
about 102 degrees F. The arrangement of the chicken house and the other
environments of the young chick are shown in Fig. 12.


_Care of Young Chicks._--The principal points in the care of young
chicks are fresh air, freedom from infection by epidemic or contagious
diseases, exclusion of insect pests, even high temperature, and
abundance of food. The young chick is especially sensitive to low
temperatures and must be protected from cold, especially from cold
rains. For this reason the chicks, after hatching, must be kept, if it
is not summer time, in a room where the temperature can be regulated
until they have acquired some degree of strength and vitality. The
temperature of the chicken house for the young birds should not be
lower than 85 or 90 degrees F.

A temperature of about 102 degrees F. is found very favorable to the
development of the chicks in the eggs, although the temperature may
sometimes fall to 101 or rise to 103 degrees F. without materially
affecting the results. Experiments show that too low a temperature
arrests the development of the chick. On the contrary there seems to
be no indication that an increase of heat, up to 103 degrees F., has
any tendency to kill the chick in the last stages of development. It
is found best in all cases to set the eggs in the incubator as soon
after they are laid as possible. Where the age of the egg is not known
it should be carefully candled, that is, held up between the eye and
a light in order to determine its condition. In old eggs, the yolk,
on candling, becomes more or less diffused with the white and such
eggs are to be rejected for incubator purposes as they are not likely
to produce chickens. The fertility of the egg must also be assured
before placing in the incubator. An unfertilized egg is so much loss in
the incubator since it might have been used for food purposes, since
the egg, for marketable purposes, when fresh is just as good as a
fertilized egg. It is an observed fact that the complete fertilization
of the egg, that is, the proper union of the male and female germ
cells, is not always complete at the time the egg is laid, but the
mingling of the two elements takes place under proper conditions
afterwards. The development will also depend upon the vitality of
the germ and its component parts. Just, for instance, as the color
of the feathers, the size of the body and the general character of
the chick may be inherited from either parent, so the vital qualities
are much more strongly shown in some eggs than in others. The proper
germination of the egg may also be improved by many of the conditions
of environment. In the case of eggs, any slight change which would
interfere with the functions of the yolk or albumin, both of which
are extremely sensitive to change, would interfere with the growth of
the embryo either by depriving it of food or subjecting it to other
conditions in which its vitality would be diminished or destroyed.
The fertilized egg may be separated from the non-fertilized also by
candling. At the Rhode Island station it is found that a very good
light for candling is the ordinary calcium carbide bicycle lamp, placed
in a proper candling box. This is a strong white light quite equal in
power to the electric incandescent light and is not so trying to the
eyes.

When eggs which have been submitted to incubation permit light to
shine through and show the yolk suspended in the upper half of the
center as a clearly defined mass, which quickly reassumes its position
in turning the egg with its long axis nearly horizontal, they are
probably infertile or sterile. When, on the contrary, the yolk assumes
indefinite outlines, approaching near the upper portion of the shell
at the large end or appears with a thick spur upon its upper side, it
may be regarded as having started to incubate. In the later stages
the embryo can be plainly seen, because it becomes opaque and cuts
off more of the light. In the incubation of eggs the candling is
resorted to during the first few days of the experiment in order
that the unfertilized eggs may be separated. The best time for the
candling, if it is practiced only once, is on the sixth or seventh day
of incubation. By that time all the eggs which are fertilized will
be so changed as to be easily recognized by the candling process.
Experience has shown that eggs which are more than two weeks old are
not profitable for use in incubators since the percentage that does not
hatch is so large. The incubating part of the plant is sometimes placed
in the cellar over which the brooding house is built.

The brooding of young chicks is of the utmost significance. In Europe
the changes in temperature are much less violent than in this country.
The principal brooding houses in the United States are in the North
where the temperature often falls in winter to below zero while in the
summer it may rise to blood heat, a difference of over 100 degrees F.
For this reason the incubating houses in the United States are often
placed in cellars where the uniform conditions of temperature are
more easily secured. There is no objection to this location provided
proper care be taken to secure ventilation and the proper content of
moisture in the atmosphere. In Great Britain the incubating houses
are usually placed above ground instead of in cellars. The mean range
of temperature in an incubating room in Great Britain, from March
12, 1903, to March 30, 1904, was 10 degrees. The highest temperature
registered was 70 degrees on the 24th of June and the lowest 42 degrees
in January. The humidity of the air was also quite constant, the lowest
degree of humidity being 59 and the highest 94. These data show a very
even temperature in the room itself. Of course the temperature in the
incubator is necessarily greater, being that already referred to,
namely 102 degrees.


_Early Market._--One principal object in the raising of chicks is to
force them to an early maturity in so far as size and palatability
are concerned. The sooner the young broilers can be made ready for
the market the more economy there is in their production. To this end
they ought to receive a more abundant and specially prepared kind of
food than if they were intended for ordinary farm purposes. In other
words, the forcing process should be pushed as far as possible without
interfering with the health and normal functions of the bird. Foods
which are nutritious and stimulating and promote vigorous growth
should be employed. Birds prepared in this way for the market are
extremely tender and palatable and bring the highest prices where their
merits are recognized.


_Artificial Feeding._--Where chickens of greater age are prepared for
the market they are subjected, during the last two or three weeks
previous to sale, to a forcing process in order to produce more fat and
make their flesh more palatable. To this end the chickens are fed from
time to time mechanically by passing a tube into the craw and forcing
the food therein. Fowls prepared in this way bring high prices in the
market and the largest profits to the growers. It is a method, however,
which is not used in the raising of the ordinary poultry found on the
market.


_Preparing Chickens for the Market._--Chickens are sold in four
different conditions in the markets of this country. First, they are
offered alive. A great many purchasers prefer to get their poultry in
this way because they can then be certain that it has not been long
killed and kept in cold storage or preserved by means of chemicals. It
is a very common custom for consumers to have their own chicken coups
and buy a number of birds at a time and fatten them particularly for
their own use. Under the present system of law this method is highly
to be commended as a certain way of knowing the age of the poultry
consumed. With proper municipal and state regulations of the markets
it would not be necessary for the consumer to go to this trouble since
when rigid inspection and certification are established, the age of the
chicken offered on the market can be easily ascertained. Until such
time comes, however, on the part of the consumer, the desirability of
securing chickens alive cannot be denied.


_Freshly Killed Chickens._--Chickens which have been killed within
twenty-four or forty-eight hours and properly kept may be regarded
as freshly killed. There is a very wide-spread opinion, and probably
founded on reliable experiments, that fowls are better if they are kept
some time after slaughter, provided they are kept in a proper way. In
the winter time it is customary, especially in Europe, to hang the fowl
for a week or ten days exposed to the ordinary temperature, before
consumption. This, of course, is a practice which could not be indulged
in in warm weather. Fowls, however, can be hung in cold storage even in
the summer time and with the same advantage which accrues by hanging
them in ordinary temperature in the winter time. Just how long fowls
should be kept after slaughter in this way in order to secure a maximum
degree of palatability has not been scientifically determined. There is
evidently a limit beyond which the keeping of slaughtered fowls should
not be indulged in. If a low and even temperature could be secured it
may be certain that the hanging of the fowl for a week or ten days is
not too long. The temperature, however, should not be much above the
freezing point.

Freshly killed chickens are offered in two forms, namely, drawn and
undrawn. The proper method of keeping a slaughtered chicken has
been the subject of very lively discussions. There are many who
are advocates of the exposure of the chicken in the undrawn state
asserting that in this condition it is less exposed to infection and
keeps better during the necessary time elapsing between slaughter
and consumption. This argument is advanced chiefly by dealers. On
the other hand the consumer, as a rule, is in favor of having the
chicken drawn before it is exposed for sale, that is, as soon as it is
slaughtered. There is perhaps much to be said on both sides of this
question. If, however, chickens are to be secured by the consumer
within forty-eight hours after slaughter there can be no very great
danger of infection by having them undrawn. The subject is one of
sufficient importance to warrant an extended scientific investigation
and upon this investigation the municipal and state regulations for
the sale of poultry can be based. It is not wise in such cases to be
swayed solely by prejudice or sentiment but rather by the facts which
can be ascertained by unbiased scientific investigation. Because a
chicken weighs more undrawn is probably one of the reasons why dealers
prefer them in this state. It may be said, too, that the intestinal
organs are so impenetrable to the diffusion of their contents as not to
create any danger of contamination by remaining in the undrawn state.
On the contrary, the keeping of chickens with the intestinal contents
undisturbed does not appeal to the imagination of the consumer any more
than the freezing of the carcass of a beef or hog with the viscera
remaining would appeal to the consumer. If the carcass of a chicken can
be better kept undrawn it is evident that the carcass of a steer or hog
can also be better kept if subjected to the proper temperature. Upon
the whole it appears that the safer way would be to have the poultry
drawn at the time of slaughter and delivered to the consumer at an
early date thereafter. In this way all danger of infection on the cut
surfaces becomes avoided. At any rate the consumer should be allowed
the choice in the matter which, at the present time, is not the case in
many parts of this country where only undrawn poultry is exposed for
sale.


_Poultry in Cold Storage._--Whenever a fowl is kept for a longer
period than the week or ten days above referred to for the purpose
of improving its flavor and palatability it is necessary that it be
placed in cold storage. This method of keeping poultry or other foods
is wholly unobjectionable unless carried to excess. Poultry is a food
product which under the present scientific methods of production can
be furnished in a fresh state all the year. The necessity for cold
storage, therefore, is not so apparent in this case as in that of
fruit and other perishable foods. It appears then that cold storage
only should be extended to that limit necessary to secure its delivery
to the consumer. There can scarcely be any excuse for the placing
of poultry in cold storage at certain seasons of the year when they
are slightly less in price by reason of the abundant production than
at other seasons. The methods of producing poultry are such at the
present time that this excess in supply can easily be avoided on the
part of the producer and thus maintain an even price and an even supply
the year round. The producer as well as the consumer is benefited by
such a condition. The necessity, often, for cold storage in the limited
sense above referred to is acknowledged by all and a reasonable degree
of time in cold storage cannot be regarded as in any way measurably
harmful with reference to the character of the product. It is probable
that as long as four or six months may be regarded as a justifiable
limit for securing a proper market for poultry in cold storage though
the exact length of time in which it may be left in cold storage will
be determined only by careful scientific investigation. There seems
to be no necessity whatever for carrying fowls for a longer period
and especially, as has been known, for a year or even two years. The
deterioration, even if the temperature is far below the freezing point,
is very marked during these long periods of time and actual danger
may accrue to the consumer in the possible development of poisonous
degradation products in the flesh. Municipal, state, and national
regulations should be of a character to inform the consumer of the
exact length of time which the poultry he proposes to purchase has been
in cold storage. This is the least which the consumer has the right
to know and is a right which the producer and packer should concede
without discussion. The unwillingness which has been manifested on the
part of dealers in poultry to make public the length of time which
it has been in cold storage is of itself a suspicious condition. The
argument is constantly heard that the length of time poultry has been
in cold storage does not impair its palatability or wholesomeness. If
this be true then a statement of the length of time cannot in any way
injure the market. But to this reply is made to the effect that if the
consumer is told the fowl has been in cold storage a certain length
of time he will not purchase it. To this the evident answer is,--why
should you deceive the consumer by selling him an article which if he
knew its character he would not buy? It is evident that such deception
is nothing more nor less than obtaining money under false pretenses.
The remedy for the evil of cold storage is the label which will
indicate the length of time which has elapsed since the slaughter of
the fowl.

There is, perhaps, no greater blessing which has been conferred upon
mankind during the last quarter of a century than the development of
cold storage methods of preserving food. The continued prosperity
and benefits of this business depend upon a thorough study of the
conditions attendant thereon and the elimination of any evil which may
be incident thereto. When this is accomplished the absolute confidence
which the consumer will have in cold storage will be such that the
magnitude of the business will be immensely increased. Thus the
interests of the consumer and the dealer are one and they should work
together to promote their common good.


_Composition of the White Meat of a Chicken._--The meat of a chicken,
carefully prepared in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry,
was analyzed by separation into the white and dark portions. The
composition of the two meats is as follows:

                         WATER IN
                         FAT-FREE                         MEAT
               WATER.   SUBSTANCE.    FAT.    PROTEIN.   BASES.
              Percent.   Percent.   Percent.  Percent.  Percent.
  White meat,  61.38      75.08      18.25     17.06       .37
  Dark meat,   59.48      78.44      24.16     15.94      1.03

The above data show that there is a notable difference in the
composition of the white and the dark meat. The white meat has much
less fat and a correspondingly larger quantity of protein. The quantity
of water in the two classes of meat is not very different although
there is a slightly less quantity in the dark meat. The dark meat has
a much larger proportion of meat bases but as these bases are often
considered of little value and sometimes degenerate into poisonous
constituents it is seen from this point of view that the white meat is
to be preferred to the dark meat.


_Preserved Chicken._--Practically the only methods of preserving
chickens are the canning processes which have already been described
and cold storage. Chickens may be canned in the same way as has been
described for beef and in that way may be kept for a certain length
of time without notable deterioration. The pickling of chicken is not
very extensively practiced nor is it cured in the ordinary sense of the
word, that is, by the addition of salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, and
wood smoke. Chicken may also be put up in the form of potted chicken,
which has already been described. Practically the only methods which
are in vogue and which can be commended for preserving chicken are
sterilizing or canning and cold storage. These methods, when not unduly
prolonged, are open to no reasonable objection. The preserving of
chickens with spices and condiments may also, perhaps, be considered as
desirable provided no harmful chemical preservatives are employed. The
temptation, however, to employ such preservatives is so great as not to
be always resisted.


_Adulteration of Potted Chicken and Turkey._--Perhaps there is no other
form of potted meat, with the possible exception of pâté de foie gras,
where such an opulent field for sophistication is found as in the case
of potted chicken and turkey. The average composition of ten samples of
alleged potted chicken and turkey, found upon the market, is shown in
the following table:

  Water,                        58.52 percent
  Water in fat-free substance,  71.24    „
  Fat,                          17.98    „
  Protein,                      19.12    „
  Meat bases,                     .96    „
  Glycogen,                       .26    „
  Total ash,                     2.67    „
  Of which sodium chlorid,       1.05    „

All but one of the ten samples contained starch but not in very
considerable quantities, the largest amount being 4.13 percent.

None of the samples contained saltpeter. This is an interesting point
because of the claim of the packers that saltpeter is used solely for
preservation purposes. When a meat is expected to be of a white color
no saltpeter is found while, on the contrary, where the meat is of a
red character it is frequently found. Tin was present in four samples,
doubtless due to some contamination with the solder or by corrosion
of the tin can itself. Where tin is present due to the corrosion of
the can itself it is always in greater abundance in the old than in
the newly canned sample. It is quite certain that the contents of
these packages were not made up of chicken and turkey exclusively. The
characteristic odor and taste of smoked meats which are found in these
packages would indicate that they are used to give flavor and aroma
to the mixture. The addition of flavoring materials of this kind, or
“force” meats as they are sometimes called, is not objectionable from
any sanitary or dietetic point of view. It is, however, an offense
against an ethical principle which must be closely followed in a case
of this kind if the doors of fraud and adulteration are not to be left
wide open. This principle is that no false idea by inference, omission
or otherwise, should be conveyed to the consumer by the label. Some
form of expression for potted meat should be used in which the label
gives the principal or dominant meat in the mixture, accompanied by
the statement that it is a mixture with other meats also named, spiced
and flavored. Under the present condition of affairs a manufacturer
who really wishes to put into potted form chicken and turkey with
only spices and condiments has to undergo an unfair competition with
another manufacturer who uses the same label and reduces the quantity
of expensive meat to a minimum or may possibly leave it out altogether.
Under the new food law this unfair competition will be prevented.


_Adulteration of Chicken._--The flesh of chicken is not subjected
to any very extensive adulterations. It has been claimed that
preservatives are applied externally to fresh fowls but the evidence
on this point is not very conclusive. There is, perhaps, little doubt
that other methods have been practiced but probably without any very
great vogue. The use of chemical preservatives in potted chicken is
also reprehensible. In general it may be said that there is no very
extensive adulteration of chicken meat. The principal objection to the
commerce in preserved chicken meat is the use of old chickens, the
unlimited cold storage, the failure to draw at time of slaughter, and
exposure in the market in an unsanitary condition and for an indefinite
time. Cheaper meats are sometimes substituted for the genuine article
in potted chicken. Turkey and pork are said to be used in chicken salad.


_Capons._--The castration of the male bird produces the capon, the
flesh of which is very highly valued as being superior to that of
the male or female chicken. Capons are much more extensively used in
Europe than in the United States but are gradually coming into favor
in this country. It is difficult to describe the difference between
the taste of the flesh of the capon and the rooster and hen. A greater
degree of tenderness and a more delicate taste characterize the flesh
of the capon. In France, especially, the production of capons has
been carried to its highest perfection. Caponizing should be practiced
at an early date in the life of the young bird. In fact, as soon
as the distinction in sex is well marked in the young chicken the
removal of the testes should take place. The young fowl is laid upon
its left side and the skin is exposed by pulling back the feathers
and trimming them off at the proper place until the space between the
first and second ribs of the right side is laid bare. An incision is
then carefully made and the testes removed by instruments particularly
adapted for that purpose. The operation should be done by an expert
although theoretically it appears easy of accomplishment. In practice,
however, it requires an expert to avoid any injury to the bird and to
insure a speedy recovery. When done in the proper way, apparently no
great inconvenience attends the operation. There is little blood shed
and usually no inflammation when the proper antiseptic measures are
provided.

The capon develops a bird that apparently has little to do except
grow fat and prepare itself for the market. The caponized bird often
develops brooding instincts and when eggs are hatched by the heat of
the bird the capon makes a better brooder than the hen because of
the greater spread of the wings and the larger number of eggs that
can be covered in the operation. The larger breeds of birds make the
best capons such as the brahmas and plymouth rocks. The capons are
fattened and prepared for the market as in the case of other birds.
When skimmed milk is made a large portion of the diet the flesh is
considered to be of greater value. The best age for marketing a capon
is at about twelve months. At that time they have attained their full
size and their maximum degree of excellence as a food bird. The feeding
should be done upon the principles already described, namely, to keep
the birds growing in the usual way until about three or four weeks
before the market when the extra food is given in as large quantities
as possible for quick fattening. In Europe this extra food is usually
given mechanically under the forced system though in this country the
mechanical method of feeding capons has not generally been introduced.

Capons bring a higher price upon the market than the other varieties of
chicken, sometimes the difference being as much as four or five cents a
pound. For this reason the growth of capons becomes more profitable to
the farmer than that of the ordinary chicken.


=Duck= (_Anas boschas_).--The domesticated duck is used very largely
for food in all parts of the world. Its flavor is not so highly prized
as that of the wild duck but it is an excellent article of diet. The
production of ducks is conducted in the same manner as the production
of poultry in general. They are still chiefly grown upon the farm
without any special care but the best results are obtained by the
systematic growth of ducks under scientific conditions in poultry
houses. The duck is not so extensively used for food as the turkey and
chicken but perhaps in this country much more extensively than the
goose. The price of the wild duck, however, is still sufficiently low
to limit to a certain extent the production of the domesticated article.


_Varieties of Ducks._--There are many varieties of ducks cultivated for
the market. The Pekin is perhaps the most abundant of all. It is creamy
white in color, has a long and graceful body and has been particularly
bred for the market. When ready for the market the average weight of
the drake is about eight pounds and the duck seven. The Aylesbury is
also a favorite variety. It is said to be somewhat whiter than the
Pekin in color. It is specially valued in England as a market duck.
It is somewhat larger than the Pekin. Other varieties of ducks are
the Rover, the Cayuga, the Gray and White Call, the East Indian, the
Crested White, the colored and white Muscovy, and the Indian runner.
The latter is a very small duck, being only about one-half the size of
the Pekin. Usually the ducks on the market are not designated by any
particular variety and, in fact, most consumers are not sufficiently
acquainted with the different varieties of duck to be able to ask for
any particular one. The mallard, canvas-back, and teal are common
varieties of the wild duck.


_Composition of the Flesh of Ducks._--The flesh of two varieties of
ducks, namely the Pekin duck and the Mallard duck, was carefully
separated in the Bureau of Chemistry and subjected to analysis. The
composition of the meat of these two ducks is shown in the following
table:

                           WATER IN
                           FAT-FREE                         MEAT
                 WATER.   SUBSTANCE.    FAT.    PROTEIN.   BASES.
                Percent.   Percent.   Percent.  Percent.  Percent.
  Pekin duck,    47.46      78.20      39.31     13.37      .43
  Mallard duck,  69.06      75.98       7.11     19.25      .65


The above data show a striking difference between these two varieties
of ducks. The Pekin duck has a large excess of fat while the Mallard
duck, which is a wild duck and evidently not very fat, has a small
percentage of fat and a large percentage of protein. It is evident
that the flesh of wild fowl would not, except at a certain season of
the year, approach that of domesticated fowls in the percentage of fat
which it contains.


=Goose= (_Anser anser_).--The goose is not so commonly used as a food
product in this country as in Europe,--the turkey to some extent has
taken its place. The remarks which are applicable to the production of
chickens are also applicable to the production of geese. They, perhaps,
are grown more extensively in the old-fashioned way in this country
than chickens or turkeys at the present time since they are used
chiefly for the feathers which they produce and not for food. Goose is
also considered a winter dish both in this country and in Europe. It
is customary in Europe that the goose be hung even for a longer period
before consumption than the chicken. Its flesh is made more tender and
more palatable by this preliminary exposure. From one to two weeks is
not considered too long a time in the winter for hanging in the old
country. The remarks relative to cold storage of turkey and chicken
apply also to the goose. The goose is, perhaps, the most easily
artificially fattened of any other poultry birds. This is especially
true in those regions where fatty goose livers are so highly prized in
the manufacture of _pâté de foie gras_. By long-continued artificial
feeding the goose is made excessively fat and the liver especially
is changed in its composition by this treatment so as to make it
peculiarly suitable for the production of this delicacy.


_Varieties of Geese._--The varieties of geese upon the market comprise
the following leading breeds. The Toulouse is perhaps the most
extensively raised. It is highly prized on account of its hardihood,
its size and the general appearance of its body. It is of a gray to
white color and the wings are a deeper gray or brown. The legs are
usually of a deep orange. When ready for the market the average weight
of the gander is 20 pounds and the goose 18. Of the other common
varieties there are the Embden, the African, the brown and white
Chinese, the white or Canada, and the Egyptian. The latter is a small
goose only weighing about half as much as the Toulouse when ready for
the market. The wild goose is highly esteemed as a game bird.


_Feeding of Young Geese for the Market._--The feeding of geese for
the market begins as soon as the hatching is complete. The first meal
of the young chicks consists of oat meal, middlings, finely chopped
dandelions, lettuce or some similar green stuff, and milk. The goslings
during the first week are kept indoors and should be fed four or five
times a day on the mixture above named. After this they may go into
a yard where there is plenty of grass, not overgrown, and they will
thrive on this very well for a time without hand feeding. Not more than
two feedings a day are necessary between the ages of one and six weeks
where plenty of grass is at hand. During this time no better food than
ground oats and skimmed milk can be used. During all this period great
care is taken that the goslings are not subjected to any disease or
to cold. They should be carefully housed in sanitary coups where the
temperature does not sink too low and where they are protected from
cold rains. After the goslings are eight weeks old they are usually
able to take care of themselves in respect of food and need, perhaps
only one feeding a day. If these goslings are hatched in the early
spring they may be ready for fattening for the Christmas market. The
geese until shortly before the time for market are allowed to run free
in a field, not too large, where there are ponds or troughs of water
in abundance. In this way the frame of the goose will be sufficiently
developed by the time the fattening period comes but there will have
been no unusual expense in the production of the fowl until it is
prepared for the market. The large frame is necessary in order that
the goose may properly fatten. It usually requires about three weeks
of artificial feeding to bring a goose into proper condition for the
market. If the geese are for the Christmas market about the 25th of
November they are put up in sheds for fattening for though they have
been well fed during the summer and autumn they cannot be called fat
geese until they have gone through a special course of nutrition. While
they are confined for fattening, geese require plenty of fresh air but
very little light and these conditions are procured by housing them in
large airy sheds without windows. Before the fattening season these
sheds are thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed and the floor covered with
cinders, ashes, and charcoal. This mixture is not only a good bedding
but is also a good deodorizer, which is quite important. Food troughs
are arranged along the walls inside the shed and troughs for water
outside in such a way that the birds can reach the water but cannot get
into it. Clean charcoal is to be put into the shed every day as it is
constantly eaten by the geese and is valuable. The foods used are oat
meal, boiled potatoes, linseed meal or other oil cakes, and plenty of
milk, usually skimmed. The birds should have all of this that they can
eat, for in the process we are now describing the artificial forcing
of food into the craw is not practiced. In three weeks a good goose
will increase four or five pounds in weight and this increase brings
the goose up from an ordinary bird in good condition to one which is
properly fed for the market.

The killing of geese is practiced in practically the same manner as
that which is described for slaughtering fowls. A goose is a bird
of large vitality and dies hard as is the case with most fowls. The
feathers should be taken off the body clean, as they are valuable for
commercial purposes. Any pin feathers should be cut with a sharp knife
so as to make the bird look as clean as possible when brought to the
market. The carcass of the goose should not be packed to send to market
until it is entirely cold and in this country, especially, where the
distances are great, it is advisable to send it packed in ice or in a
cold storage car. The average weight of a goose about nine months old
thus prepared for the market is about fourteen pounds and the flesh is
certain to be more palatable at this age when fattened in the manner
above described.


=Domesticated Pigeon= (_Columba livia_).--In the last few years the
production of domesticated pigeons has been extensively practiced in
this country, and especially the production of young pigeons which are
known as squabs. They are rapidly taking the place of game birds at the
hotels and restaurants of the country. The conditions of production,
preparation, etc., are the same as those for the ordinary domesticated
fowl. There are many varieties of the bird grown; some, as the carrier,
for special purposes. The other principal varieties are barbs,
fantails, jacobins, runts, trumpeters, tumblers, and turbits.


=Turkey= (_Meleagris americana_).--In general the statement which has
been made regarding the production of fowls or chickens may be applied
also to the production of turkeys. No further comment, therefore, is to
be made under that head. The old-fashioned method of securing turkeys
grown under natural conditions has, to a great extent, given way to the
production of turkeys on a large scale and under scientific conditions.
Turkeys, as a rule, are not eaten young, but practically full-grown.
In this country the turkey is a dish which is particularly affected
for festive occasions such as Thanksgiving and Christmas, though they
are eaten largely throughout the whole year. The market, however, for
turkeys is particularly a November and December market and the large
introduction of turkeys in the market is so timed as to furnish them in
proper condition for consumption during those two months.

The methods of preparing turkeys for the market, keeping them in cold
storage, of hanging them previous to consumption and exposing them
drawn or undrawn for sale, are subject to the same remarks as has been
made in the case of chickens. Turkeys are said to be more difficult to
care for, both on the farm and in the professional poultry factory,
than chickens. They are more subject to disease and more difficult to
bring to maturity than chickens.


_Composition of Meat of Turkey._--The flesh of the turkey was separated
into two portions, the white and dark meats, and these were found to
have the following composition:

                         WATER IN
                         FAT-FREE                         MEAT
               WATER.   SUBSTANCE.    FAT.    PROTEIN.   BASES.
  White meat,  55.50      74.70      25.71     18.31      1.31
  Dark meat,   54.13      75.76      27.76     16.75      1.15

A comparison of these two analyses show that there is little difference
in the content of water in the white and dark meat. The dark meat, as
in the case of chicken, has more fat and a correspondingly less amount
of protein. The quantity of protein in the meat of turkey is about the
same as that of chicken. The white meat of turkey differs from the
white meat of chicken more in its content of meat bases than in any
other way, except that the meat of turkey contains more fat, especially
the white meat, than that of chicken.


=Composition of the Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck, and Goose.=--The
composition of the chicken, turkey, duck, goose, and pigeon as given by
König is found in the following table:

                     WATER.  PROTEIN.  FAT.  ASH.
  Chicken (lean),     76.22   19.72    1.42  1.37
  Chicken (fat),      70.06   18.49    9.34   .91
  Young cock (fat),   70.03   23.32    3.15  1.01
  Turkey,             65.60   24.70    8.50  1.20
  Duck (wild),        70.80   22.65    3.11  1.09
  Goose (fat),        38.02   15.91   49.59   .48

The above data show that with the exception of the goose the percentage
of fat given in the flesh of the animals is very much less than that
found in our own work. Even in the fat chicken only a little over 9
percent of fat was found. It is believed that the composition of these
fowls as given by the work of the Bureau of Chemistry more nearly
represents the average composition in this country than the data taken
from König.


=Importance of Animal Food in the Growth of Poultry.=--Many people
suppose that poultry can live upon vegetables alone and this is
probably true. Experience, however, shows that poultry does not thrive
and fatten well on purely vegetable food. This fact was brought out
very prominently in the experiments at the Cornell station where
poultry of the same origin and character was fed two kinds of diet,
one being partly of animal food and the other purely vegetable foods.
The ration of the animal food consisted of Indian corn meal, wheat
flour, ground oats, wheat bran, wheat middlings, pea meal, linseed
meal, meat, and fresh bone. The vegetable ration consisted of pea
meal, linseed meal, wheat bran, ground oats, Indian corn meal, wheat
middlings, gluten meal, and skimmed milk. Before the experiment had
been long under way it was noticed that the birds receiving the meat
food were developing rapidly and evenly while those that received
the purely vegetable diet were becoming thin and uneven in size. The
authors of the bulletin say that it was sometimes almost pitiful to
see the long-necked, scrawny, vegetable-fed birds, with troughs full
of abundant good, wholesome food before them, stand on the alert
and scamper in hot haste after the unlucky grasshopper or fly which
ventured into their pen, while the contented looking meat-fed ducks lay
lazily in the sun and paid no attention to the buzzing bee or crawling
beetle. The vegetable-fed birds literally starved to death, at least
many of them, so that only twenty of the thirty-three with which the
experiment was commenced were alive at the close of the fifteen weeks
of feeding.


=The Forced Fattening of Poultry.=--Allusion has already been made to
the forced fattening of poultry secured by injecting food into the craw
in larger quantities than would naturally be taken by the fowl if left
to itself. There is much to be said both for and against this method
of fattening. In favor of this method it may be stated that the birds
fattened in this way are more highly prized by the connoisseur, are
naturally fatter by reason of the enforced idleness of the birds during
the fattening process, thus diminishing muscular activity, and more
tender than the birds left at freedom and forced to secure their own
food. From the point of view of the seller, also, the birds are heavier
and the artificially fattened fowl usually brings a higher price, pound
for pound, on the market. Against the method it is urged that it is
barbarous, imposing upon the birds a diet far beyond normal capacity
and thus tending to damage and injure the organs of the body charged
with the assimilation of food and the secretion of the waste products.

The above indictment is doubtless true is almost every respect. In
explanation it may be said that the period of forcing food is always
a short one, rarely extending beyond three weeks, and, therefore,
any injury to the organs which might be induced is not of sufficient
duration to establish any real form of disease. In other words, the
birds are slaughtered before any lesions of the organs are produced.
The livers of the animals, especially geese, thus artificially
fattened, take on an extra quantity of fat during this period but it
cannot be said that they become really diseased. The fatty livers, as
is well known, are used particularly in the manufacture of a mixed
spiced meat known as _pâté de foie gras_.

Upon the whole it is believed that no injury is done the bird by this
process of feeding which could in any way be regarded as detrimental to
the flesh as a food product. In regard to the apparent barbarity of the
process little need be said. The slaughter of animals for human food
in itself is a barbarous practice from one point of view but if this
practice is justified, as it doubtless is, by the exigencies of human
nutrition, the slight degree of force which is employed in artificial
fattening cannot be condemned. Moreover the artificial fattening of
the fowl is of necessity a somewhat limited operation and confined to
those establishments that are devoted exclusively to the production
of high-grade and high-priced poultry for the market. The fattening
is done by experts and, in so far as the experience of feeding men in
the same way is concerned, is not attended with any pain or discomfort
other than that incident to a chronically full craw.


_Increase in Weight._--There is a larger increase in the weight of
artificially fattened poultry over those fed in the ordinary way and
allowed to run free than is usually supposed. It is stated by some
authors that the average increase in weight of artificially fattened
birds is as much as 35 percent. There is no secret connected with the
method of artificial fattening as is sometimes supposed. There are
perhaps proprietary methods for preparing foods for fattening purposes
but there is no secret in the mechanism of the process. In fact the
process is so simple that it might be easily taught in a general
way so that the farm hand would become an expert in its use and the
farmer’s poultry instead of being sent to market in a half-emaciated
condition might be offered to the public in the best possible shape.
Poultry running at large use up a large part of the value of their
food in the heat and energy developed in the ordinary search for food.
When confined and fed artificially this excess of heat and energy is
naturally stored as fat.

Experience has shown that the artificial feeding must be a limited
one and the bird must be sent to market as soon as it has reached its
maximum of perfection under the process. Experience has also shown
that in the artificial feeding it is best to have each bird in a small
compartment to itself with the cage so arranged that the bird can put
its head through a slat in front and thus receive the food from the
machine without disturbing any of its neighbors. That the birds are
perfectly willing to take the food in this way is evidenced by the fact
that they voluntarily put their heads through the apertures to receive
their food. Each individual coup must be kept scrupulously clean and
disinfected and the air in the room kept perfectly fresh and sweet.
Lime should be used freely in all parts of the coup house in the form
of whitewash or sprinkled about the floor or upon the floors of the
coups. Gypsum or ordinary land plaster is also highly prized as another
form of lime which is found to be very valuable. The whitewash must be
freely indulged in and at frequent intervals.

There are various forms of fattening food used in this country. Indian
corn meal forms an important part. The presence of certain animal
products must not be neglected in the food as it has been shown that
fowls thrive better when given, in their food, a certain amount of
animal matter, both of flesh and finely ground bone. The fattening food
must be in the form of a finely ground paste of the proper consistency
to be handled well in the machine. It is a universal practice which
custom has shown to be necessary to mix with the food a certain
quantity of finely pulverized charcoal, usually about three pounds of
the charcoal to 97 pounds of food. Some feeders prefer to mix the paste
about twenty-four hours before it is administered, believing that the
slight fermentation thus produced is beneficial.


_The Cramming Machine._--Various forms of machines are employed for
introducing the food into the craw. The tube carrying the food is
introduced into the esophagus of the bird in a manner to avoid any pain
and the apparatus is so adjusted that with a single movement of the
machine, usually operated by the foot, the proper amount of food is
injected. The birds should be arranged according to size so that all of
a certain size may have exactly the same quantity of food administered.
The operator would thus be saved the difficulty of guessing the
different sizes. The arrangement of the coups and the kind of the
cramming machine vary greatly. In the beginning of artificial feeding
the birds should not be pushed to their full capacity. An increasing
quantity of food should be given up to the end of the first week or
ten days before the full maximum dose is administered. In general it
is found best to take the bird out of the coup for feeding, holding
it under the arm so that the neck can be made perfectly straight and
gently inserting the flexible tube which carries the food and thus
with the single movement of a lever, filling the craw. The use of the
machine, however, is found to be advantageous from a point of economy
although it is claimed that the cramming of birds by means of a
funnel has been found very efficacious. With a good machine an expert
operator can feed about 250 birds in an hour. An important point in the
fattening is that the food should be given regularly.


=Slaughtering Fowls for the Market.=--It is important that a uniform
and proper method be used for killing fowls intended for the market.
There are two methods in common vogue, namely, by bleeding and by
dislocation of the neck. The method of killing is important in order
that the proper method of dressing for the market may be secured. A
fowl which is offered for sale ought to be attractively dressed and any
brutal or defacing method of slaughter makes it impossible afterwards
to render the fowl attractive to the customer.

In killing by the dislocation of the neck the operator takes the bird
by the thigh and top of the wing in the left hand and the head in the
right and then draws it steadily until dislocation takes place. The
skin remains unbroken and no bruised effect is produced but all the
blood in the body drains into the neck and remains there. This method
is one especially practiced in England (Journal, Board of Agriculture,
1904-5, page 306). Where the bird is very large, as is the case with
turkeys, it may require the full strength of a man in order to produce
the dislocation in the manner mentioned. In this case it is often
necessary to first hang the bird up by the leg to secure the best
results.

In killing a fowl by bleeding it is strung up by the legs with its
head hanging downward. The operator then gives it a sharp blow with a
stick on the back of the head and when he has stunned it by this means
he inserts a sharp knife into the roof of the mouth, penetrating the
brain. He also severs the large artery of the throat by rotating the
knife and the bird rapidly bleeds to death. This method of killing, it
is seen, is not a very humane one. If, for instance, the sensation of
the bird is not destroyed by the first blow the other process must be
needlessly painful. This process, simplified somewhat by omitting the
hanging, is the one commonly followed by professionals in this country.
In England turkeys which are prepared for the market are plucked but
not drawn. One of the newest methods of plucking is known as the
Devonshire style and consists in stripping the feathers clean off the
breast and thighs but leaving the neck, back and wings covered. The
fowls are then tied around the legs with a strong cord in such a manner
as to show the plumpness of the breast prominently.

The methods of preparation of the fowls depend largely on the demands
of the market to which they are going. Some require the fowls to be
clean plucked and others prefer some of the feathers left on.


=Eggs.=--Eggs are a common article of diet throughout the world. The
eggs of domesticated fowls are those which are principally used for
food, though the eggs of wild fowls, and birds and reptiles are also
edible but on account of the difficulty of getting them and their
rarity are not to be considered as a commercial article. The chief
sources of supply are the eggs of chickens, ducks, and geese. Chicken
eggs are by far the most important, duck eggs the next important, and
goose eggs the least important. The eggs of fish also constitute an
article of food of considerable value and are extensively used. For
instance the fresh eggs of shad are used in large quantities during
the whole of the shad season and are often kept in cold storage for
use at other times. The eggs of sturgeon are used extensively in the
fresh state and when pickled as caviar are highly esteemed throughout
the world. These two kinds of eggs are probably the most important of
fish eggs used for food purposes. Chicken eggs vary greatly in size
according to the age and variety of the fowl. The average weight of
chicken eggs is 680 grams per dozen. They vary also in color from pure
white to a brownish yellow. Duck eggs are larger and also variegated in
color. The average weight of duck eggs is 847.2 grams per dozen. Goose
eggs are the largest of the three varieties, varying also in color.
They weigh on an average 2284.8 grams per dozen. Eggs also vary greatly
in shape, being generally ovoid but some being much more spherical than
others according to the species of the fowl and variety. The number
of eggs which a chicken will lay varies greatly. Attempts have been
made, with great success, at experiment stations, to develop chickens
with high laying powers. A hen which will produce over 200 eggs a year
is regarded as a high-grade fowl for egg-producing purposes. Eggs are
produced more abundantly during the early spring and summer than during
the winter months. One of the purposes of scientific egg producing is
the development of fowls that will produce eggs more evenly throughout
the whole year, thus avoiding the very great depression in the price of
eggs in the spring and the excessively high price of eggs in the winter.


_Composition of Eggs._--A large number of eggs have been analyzed in
all quarters of the world and found to vary but little in composition
in different localities, and very little also in regard to the variety
of the fowl. The egg consists essentially of two portions,--an
external highly albuminous portion known as the white and an internal
colored portion, yellow or reddish in tint, known as the yolk. The
white of an egg is composed almost entirely of albumin partially
dissolved in water. The yolk of the egg is composed of albumin, fat,
and a phosphorus-bearing material of high nutritive value known as
lecithin. The yolk of an egg is a much richer food product than the
white, containing in addition to the nitrogenous element the fat and
mineral bodies necessary to nutrition. Both the white and yolk of an
egg are composed principally of water as will be seen by the following
analytical data:

COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PART OF EGGS.

           WATER.   PROTEIN.    FAT.      ASH.     CALORIES.
          Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Per pound.
  Hen,     73.7      13.4      10.5       1.0       ....
  Duck,    70.5      13.3      14.5       1.0        985
  Goose,   69.5      13.8      14.4       1.0        985
  Turkey,  73.3      13.4      11.2       0.9        850


_Preservation of Eggs._--Freshly laid eggs may be preserved for several
days without any notable deterioration by keeping in a cool place. The
temperature of preservation should be as nearly the freezing point
as can be secured. The vital processes are continually going on in
a fresh egg and hence there is a development of a certain degree of
heat due to these activities. For this reason eggs can be placed in an
atmosphere below the freezing point of water without being frozen. An
additional reason for this is found in the fact that the water which is
present in eggs holds the albumin and other bodies in solution and the
freezing point of a solution is always lower than that of the solvent
alone. For domestic purposes where refrigerating establishments are not
available the fresh eggs should be kept in a cool dark place where the
temperature is not allowed to go above 50 or 60 degrees. At a higher
temperature than this fresh eggs lose their freshness in a remarkably
short time. The porous nature of the shell is a condition which favors
the deterioration of the egg by the admission of air and microbes into
the substance of the egg itself.

The preservation of eggs is, therefore, materially assisted by coating
the egg artificially with a varnish or film of some kind which renders
the egg impervious to air and water. One of the cheapest, simplest,
and best of these coatings, as has already been noted, is soluble
glass. This is produced by dissolving the chemical substance known
as silicate of soda in water, and dipping the egg into the solution,
removing and allowing to dry. The silicate of soda which is thus left
in a thin film over the surface of the egg penetrates and stops the
pores and renders the egg shell practically impervious both to air and
water. This material has the property of becoming totally insoluble in
water when it has once been dried so that even if the egg is afterwards
subjected to rain or water in any form the film is not removed. Many
other methods of coating eggs have been employed and are dependent upon
the same principle but are perhaps not so effectual and simple as the
inexpensive method above described.


_Cold Storage._--Eggs either with or without the coating of the
surface, usually without, may be kept for a considerable length of time
without deterioration in cold storage. In this case it is advisable
to reduce the temperature to the lowest possible point to retain the
semi-fresh condition of the contents. Water freezes at 32 degrees,
but for the reasons above mentioned the temperature at which the egg
is stored may be reduced notably below 32 degrees without danger of
solidifying. The eggs kept in cold storage gradually acquire a taste
and aroma which are quite different from the fresh article and the
period of preservation should never be prolonged, probably a month or
six weeks is the extreme limit for keeping eggs which can still be
regarded as having the qualities of the fresh article. In practice,
eggs are kept often a very much longer time since the principal object
of cold storage is to lay in a supply in the spring and summer when
they are abundant and keep them over until the next winter. The average
age of cold storage eggs is probably more than six months. At this
time the eggs have acquired a distinctly unpleasant odor and flavor
which enables even one who is not an expert to distinguish between
them and the fresh article. Such eggs should not be allowed on the
market except under their proper designation so that the purchaser may
know the character of the product he is getting. There is a determined
opposition on the part of those dealing in cold storage eggs against
such marking, an opposition which can only be explained by the fact
that the amount of deterioration is fully as great as specified. If
cold storage eggs have not been kept long enough to develop any of
the objectionable conditions mentioned above and are inferior only in
respect of taste and aroma there seems to be no just reason why they
should be forbidden sale. They usually bring a lower price than fresh
eggs produced at the time of sale and thus are brought more readily
within the means of those who are less able to pay the higher prices.
Cold storage eggs are extensively used for baking purposes and in this
condition escape the detection of the consumer. This appears, however,
to be no just reason for their use without notice.


_Broken Eggs._--An extensive industry has been practiced for many years
in the product known as broken eggs. In the preparation of broken eggs
at times of great abundance, the eggs are collected and broken and
then mixed together in containers of various sizes, often as large as
barrels, and preserved by the admixture of borax. From two to four
pounds of borax are usually employed per 100 pounds of broken eggs.
In this condition the eggs are kept from the time of great abundance
until the time of higher prices, namely, from six to eight months, and
then sent into commerce. The use of broken eggs of this kind for edible
purposes is totally indefensible. While borax prevents the development
of bacteria it does not entirely inhibit enzymic action and hence that
subtle change of nitrogenous matter which produces poisonous bodies may
go on in the presence of borax while apparently the egg itself remains
undecomposed. Broken eggs were formerly sent to this country in large
quantities from China and other Asiatic countries but since the passage
of food inspection laws as applied to foreign commerce the importation
of this class of food products has been prohibited, on the ground that
they are unfit for human consumption. Other preserving agents have been
used in place of borax for these products, but all are open to similar
objections. Broken eggs are used chiefly by bakers in large cities.


_Dried Eggs._--The rapid drying of fresh eggs is perhaps an
unobjectionable method of preservation. The drying may take place by
spreading the eggs in a thin film on a dry surface, which is the usual
method, or by forcing the egg product through small orifices under
a high pressure into a drying chamber so adjusted as to temperature
and size as to secure the desiccation of the minute particles of egg
spray before they fall to the bottom. This method is perhaps the best
which has yet been developed in the desiccation of such products. The
egg powder thus formed is almost devoid of moisture and when properly
collected and stored out of contact with the air, may be kept for
a time without deterioration. Dry egg products such as have been
described made from fresh eggs, may be considered unobjectionable for a
reasonable length of time. Unfortunately dried products are sometimes
made from decayed eggs. During the past year a factory making a product
of this kind was discovered by the food inspector of one of our large
cities.


_Egg Substitutes._--Many products have been put upon the market of a
yellow color and containing protein under the guise of eggs. There is a
number of so-called egg powders offered for making cakes, etc., which
contain no egg at all. They are composed of other forms of protein
matter, generally casein from milk, and colored to resemble the egg in
tint. Starchy substances are also colored and sold as egg powder. These
substances may be regarded as adulterations when sold under the name
or in the guise of an egg product. There are no other adulterations of
eggs of any consequence practiced except the simulation of egg material
by such products as those just mentioned.


_Poisonous Principles in Eggs._--While fresh eggs for most people
form a food product entirely devoid of danger, nutritious and easily
digestible, eggs may easily become injurious and even poisonous.
According to experiments made by Bouchard (Scientific American, August
11, 1896, page 95), even fresh eggs, unless the sanitary conditions in
which the fowls live are well cared for, may become very poisonous.
The fowl producing eggs, as a rule, is not a cleanly animal, and this
is especially true of the duck. Thus injurious organic material rich
in microbes may contaminate the egg and the microbes may penetrate
the shell thus rendering the egg unsuitable for consumption. Eggs
contaminated in this way have given evidence of toxic phenomena even
in a fresh state. Experiments have shown too that the food material
of eggs if directly injected into the blood of an animal produces
toxic effects whereas if injected into the stomach no unfavorable
effects are produced. Egg albumin, that is, the albumin of the white
of the egg, when fed in considerable quantities to animals partially
escapes digestion and thus becomes a source of irritation and even
of poisoning. There are many people who are remarkably sensitive to
the influence of eggs and those who possess this idiosyncrasy are
injured even by eggs which are perfectly harmless to other people. A
large number of species of injurious microbes which infect eggs have
been identified. These even are found in fresh eggs in the unsanitary
conditions above mentioned. Eggs kept for a long while in cold storage
or decayed in any way are extremely injurious. Fortunately decayed
eggs are self protecting since they can only be eaten by accident. If,
however, decayed eggs be eaten in diluted form by mixing with other
foods they may be eaten without their characteristic odor or taste
being known and thus great injury arises. It is advised in all cases
where eggs are to be kept for some time even in cold storage to varnish
them with some substance impenetrable to air. For this purpose, as has
already been mentioned, soluble glass, which is chemically a silicate
of soda, has been found extremely effective. Any of the varnishes which
make the shell of an egg air tight tends to restrain the activities
of bacterial life since the bacteria cannot live without air. The
officials who inspect food should direct special care to the storing
of eggs in order that no damage may result from keeping them too long
in cold storage or otherwise. It must not be understood that poisoning
by eggs is of common occurrence. In fact it is very rare. The fact
that the egg itself, which is such a common article of diet, may be
unsanitary and improperly kept is a matter of great concern to the
consumer.


_Parasites in Eggs._--The egg also when produced in unsanitary
conditions may become infected with parasites. Many of these are
apparently harmless, but some are injurious and even dangerous. The
mere fact that parasites may exist in eggs is of itself a sufficient
reason for the consumer to insist that the eggs he eats, like the milk
he drinks, shall be free from all infections due solely to carelessness
in production.




PART III.

FISH FOODS.


FISH.


Fish furnish a very important and useful part of the animal food
of man. Both the fish growing in fresh water and in salt water are
generally edible. Usually the smaller-sized fish are considered more
palatable, but this is not universally the case. The large-sized fish
are apt to be coarse, and have a less desirable flavor than those of
smaller size. The size of the fish usually depends upon the magnitude
of the body of water in which the species grow, the largest being in
the lakes and oceans, the medium-size in rivers, and the smallest in
brooks. Fish are known chiefly by their common names, and these names
are different for the same species of fish in different parts of the
country. For instance, the term trout covers a multitude of species,
and, likewise, under the term sardine a large number of different
species or varieties of fish are considered. There is also a large
number of varieties known as salmon, perch, bass, etc.

In the following table are given the common and the scientific names of
the principal food fishes used in the United States (see Report of U.
S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, 1888, pages 679-868):

  _Acipenseridæ_:
    _Acipenser sturio oxyrhynchus_, Sturgeon.
  _Catostomidæ_:
    _Moxostoma velatum_, Small-mouthed red-horse.
  _Clupeidæ_:
    _Clupea harengus_, Herring.
      _pilchardus_, Sardine.
      _vernalis_, Alewife.
      _sapidissima_, Shad.
  _Salmonidæ_:
    _Osmerus mordax_, Smelt.
    _Coregonus clupeiformis_, Whitefish.
      sp., _tullibee_ or _artedi_, Ciscoe.
    _Oncorhynchus chouicha_, California salmon.
    _Salmo salar_, Salmon.
      subsp. _sebago_, Land-locked salmon.
    _Salvelinus namaycush_, Lake trout.
      _fontinalis_, Brook trout.
  _Esocidæ_:
    _Esox lucius_, Pike.
      _reticulatus_, Pickerel.
      _nobilior_, Muskellunge.
  _Anguillidæ_:
    _Anguilla rostrata_, Eel.
  _Mugilidæ_:
    _Mugil albula_, Mullet.
  _Scombridæ_:
    _Scomber scombrus_, Mackerel.
    _Scomberomorus maculatus_, Spanish mackerel.
    _Orcynus thynnus_, Tunny.
  _Carangidæ_:
    _Trachynotus carolinus_, Pompano.
  _Pomatomidæ_:
    _Pomatomus saltatrix_, Bluefish.
  _Stromateidæ_:
    _Stromateus triacanthus_, Butter-fish.
  _Centrarchidæ_:
    _Micropterus salmoides_, Large-mouthed black bass.
      _dolomieu_, Small-mouthed black bass.
  _Percidæ_:
    _Perca fluviatilis_, Yellow perch.
    _Stizostedion vitreum_, Wall-eyed pike.
      _canadense_, Gray pike.
  _Serranidæ_:
    _Roccus lineatus_, Striped bass.
      _americanus_, White perch.
    _Centropristis atrarius_, Sea bass.
    _Epinephelus morio_, Red grouper.
  _Sparidæ_:
    _Lutjanus blackfordi_, Red snapper.
    _Stenotomus chrysops_, Porgy.
    _Diplodus probatocephalus_, Sheepshead.
  _Sciænidæ_:
    _Sciæna ocellata_, Red bass.
    _Menticirrus saxatilis_, Kingfish.
    _Cynoscion regale_, Weakfish.
  _Labridæ_:
    _Hiatula onitis_, Blackfish.
  _Gadidæ_:
    _Phycis chuss_, Hake.
    _Brosmius brosme_, Cusk.
    _Melanogrammus æglefinus_, Haddock.
    _Gadus morrhua_, Cod.
    _Microgadus tomcod_, Tomcod.
    _Pollachius virens_, Pollock.
  _Pleuronectidæ_:
    _Hippoglossus hippoglossus_, Halibut.
    _Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides_, Turbot.
    _Paralichthys dentatus_, Flounder.
    _Pseudopleuronectes americanus_, Flounder.
  _Petromyzontidæ_:
    _Petromyzon marinus_, Lamprey eel.
  _Raiidæ_:
    _Raia_ sp., Skate.

Some of the scientific names in the above list have been modified
by recent research, but it is advisable to present the above
classification for purpose of reference. The variations from these
names will be given in the part of the discussion relating to the food
value of fish, in which the classification of Jordan and Evermann is
followed.


=Edible Portion of Fish.=--As in the case of other animals large parts
of fish as taken from the water are inedible. In the preparation of
fish the head is usually removed, especially if the fish be of any
size, and the entrails rejected. If the fish be scaly, the scales are
also removed. The latter vary very greatly in different specimens
according to species, size, etc. Usually the edible portion of the fish
is larger in quantity than the inedible, though this is not by any
means universally the case. Taking fish of all kinds together it may be
said that from 55 to 60 percent of the total weight is edible. This,
of course, excludes the bones as well as the other portions already
referred to.


=Principal Constituents of the Flesh of Fish.=--In the flesh of cattle,
swine, and other edible animals already mentioned it is seen that the
protein is the principal part of the edible portion. In many kinds
of meat, however, the fat is the principal portion, as in bacon. In
the flesh of fish the albuminoids occupy a more prominent part than
in the flesh of domesticated animals or game. In other words the
proportion of fat, which is one of the principal ingredients of the
flesh of other animals, is less than in the other kinds of flesh. The
protein in the water-free substance often constitutes over 90 percent
of the total matter, and rarely falls below 80 percent. The next most
important constituent of the dry flesh of fish naturally is the fat.
The average content of fat in the dry flesh of fish is under 10,--it
rarely goes above 20 and sometimes falls as low as 2 or 3 percent. The
mineral content of the dry flesh of fish is quite constant. It rarely
falls below 4 or goes above 8 percent; 5 percent may be regarded as a
fair average content of mineral matter. The mineral matter consists
chiefly of phosphate of potash and lime, together with some common
salt. In the analyses made by Atwater, adopted in the following pages,
he grouped together the fish analyzed in proportion to the quantity of
the edible portion or flesh which they contained. Groupings were also
made on account of the dry substance in the flesh and in proportion
to the water and fat which they contained. These tables are of value
showing in a general way the relative food importance of the different
specimens of fish. This classification is given in the following table:

CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES BY PERCENTAGES OF FLESH, CHIEFLY MUSCULAR
TISSUE IN ENTIRE BODY.

  ------------------------------+---------+----------
                                |  NO. OF |
                                |SPECIMENS|
          KINDS OF FISH.        |ANALYZED.|  FLESH.
  ------------------------------+---------+----------
  _Containing 60 percent or over|         |_Percent._
  of flesh._                    |         |
  Spanish mackerel              |    1    |   65.4
  Salmon                        |    4    |   64.7
  Red snapper                   |    1    |   60.0
                                |         |
  _Containing between 60 and 70 |         |
  percent of flesh._            |         |
  Smelt                         |    2    |   58.1
  Pike (pickerel)               |    1    |   57.3
  Cisco                         |    1    |   57.3
  Butter-fish                   |    1    |   57.2
  Spent salmon                  |    2    |   56.4
  Mackerel                      |    5    |   55.4
  Pompano                       |    2    |   54.5
  Lamprey eel                   |    1    |   54.2
  Herring                       |    1    |   54.0
  Pickerel                      |    2    |   52.9
  Spent land-locked salmon      |    2    |   52.7
  Turbot                        |    1    |   52.3
  Brook trout                   |    3    |   51.9
  Muskellunge                   |    1    |   50.8
  Alewife                       |    2    |   50.5
                                |         |
  _Containing between 50 and 40 |         |
  percent of flesh._            |         |
  Shad                          |    7    |   49.9
  Weakfish                      |    1    |   48.1
  Cod                           |    2    |   47.5
  Whitefish                     |    1    |   46.5
  Small-mouthed black bass      |    1    |   46.4
  Striped bass                  |    5    |   45.1
  Large-mouthed black bass      |    1    |   44.0
  Sea bass                      |    1    |   43.9
  Winter flounder               |    1    |   43.8
  Lake trout, “Mackinaw trout”  |    1    |   43.7
  Kingfish                      |    1    |   43.4
  Pike perch, “Wall-eyed pike”  |    1    |   42.8
  Mullet                        |    1    |   42.1
  Tomcod                        |    1    |   40.1
  Porgy                         |    3    |   40.0
                                |         |
  _Containing between 40 and 30 |         |
  percent of flesh._            |         |
  Blackfish                     |    2    |   39.9
  White perch                   |    2    |   37.5
  Yellow perch                  |    1    |   37.3
  Pike perch                    |    1    |   36.8
  Red bass                      |    1    |   36.5
  Sheepshead                    |    1    |   34.0
  Common flounder               |    1    |   33.2
  ------------------------------+---------+----------

CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES BY PROPORTIONS OF FAT IN THE FLESH OF
SPECIMENS ANALYZED.

  -----------------------------+---------+----------+----------
                               | NO. OF  |          |
                               |SPECIMENS|          |
         KINDS OF FISH.        |ANALYZED.|  WATER.  |   FATS.
  -----------------------------+---------+----------+----------
  _Containing over 5 percent   |         |_Percent._|_Percent._
  of fats._                    |         |          |
  California salmon            |    2    |   63.6   |   17.9
  Turbot                       |    1    |   71.4   |   14.4
  Salmon                       |    5    |   63.6   |   13.4
  Lamprey eel                  |    1    |   71.1   |   13.3
  Lake trout                   |    2    |   69.1   |   11.4
  Butter-fish                  |    1    |   70.0   |   11.0
  Herring                      |    1    |   69.0   |   11.0
  Shad                         |    7    |   70.6   |    9.5
  Spanish mackerel             |    1    |   68.1   |    9.4
  Salt-water eel               |    2    |   71.6   |    9.1
  Pompano                      |    2    |   72.8   |    7.6
  Mackerel                     |    6    |   73.4   |    7.1
  Whitefish                    |    1    |   69.8   |    6.5
  Halibut                      |    3    |   75.4   |    5.2
  Porgy                        |    3    |   75.0   |    5.1
                               |         |          |
  _Containing between 5 and    |         |          |
  2 percent of fats._          |         |          |
  Alewife                      |    2    |   74.4   |    4.9
  Mullet                       |    1    |   74.9   |    4.6
  White perch                  |    2    |   75.7   |    4.1
  Sheepshead                   |    2    |   75.6   |    3.7
  Spent salmon                 |    2    |   76.7   |    3.6
  Cisco                        |    1    |   76.2   |    3.5
  Spent land-locked salmon     |    2    |   78.5   |    3.0
  Striped bass                 |    6    |   77.7   |    2.8
  Muskellunge                  |    1    |   76.3   |    2.5
  Small-mouthed black bass     |    1    |   74.8   |    2.4
  Weakfish                     |    1    |   79.0   |    2.4
  Small-mouthed red-horse      |    1    |   78.6   |    2.4
  Brook trout                  |    3    |   77.7   |    2.1
                               |         |          |
  _Containing less than 2, the |         |          |
  _majority less than 1 percent|         |          |
  of fats._                    |         |          |
  Sturgeon                     |    1    |   78.7   |    1.9
  Smelt                        |    2    |   79.2   |    1.8
  Skate                        |    1    |   82.2   |    1.4
  Blackfish                    |    4    |   79.1   |    1.4
  Bluefish                     |    1    |   78.5   |    1.3
  Red snapper                  |    3    |   78.5   |    1.0
  Large-mouthed black bass     |    1    |   78.6   |    1.0
  Kingfish                     |    1    |   79.2   |    1.0
  Pollock                      |    1    |   76.0   |    0.8
  Yellow perch                 |    2    |   79.3   |    0.8
  Pike perch, gray pike        |    1    |   80.9   |    0.8
  Hake                         |    1    |   83.1   |    0.7
  Common flounder              |    2    |   84.2   |    0.7
  Grouper                      |    2    |   79.4   |    0.6
  Pike (pickerel?)             |    1    |   79.8   |    0.6
  Sea bass                     |    1    |   79.3   |    0.5
  Pike perch, wall-eyed pike   |    1    |   79.7   |    0.5
  Pickerel                     |    2    |   79.7   |    0.5
  Red bass                     |    1    |   81.6   |    0.5
  Tomcod                       |    1    |   81.6   |    0.4
  Cod                          |    5    |   82.6   |    0.4
  Winter flounder              |    1    |   84.4   |    0.4
  Haddock                      |    4    |   81.7   |    0.3
  Cusk                         |    1    |   82.0   |    0.2
  -----------------------------+---------+----------+----------

CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES BY PROPORTIONS OF WATER-FREE SUBSTANCE IN THE
FLESH OF SPECIMENS ANALYZED.

  ---------------------------------+---------+----------
                                   | NO. OF  |
                                   |SPECIMENS|WATER-FREE
            KINDS OF FISH.         |ANALYZED.|SUBSTANCE.
  ---------------------------------+---------+----------
  _Containing over 30 percent of   |         |_Percent._
  water-free substance._           |         |
  California salmon                |    2    |   36.4
  Salmon                           |    5    |   36.4
  Spanish mackerel                 |    1    |   31.9
  Herring                          |    1    |   31.0
  Lake trout                       |    2    |   30.9
  Whitefish                        |    1    |   30.2
                                   |         |
  _Containing from 30 to 25 percent|         |
  of water-free substance._        |         |
  Butter-fish                      |    1    |   30.0
  Shad                             |    7    |   29.4
  Lamprey eel                      |    1    |   28.9
  Turbot                           |    1    |   28.6
  Salt-water eel                   |    2    |   28.4
  Pompano                          |    2    |   27.2
  Mackerel                         |    6    |   26.6
  Alewife                          |    2    |   25.6
  Small-mouthed black bass         |    1    |   25.2
  Mullet                           |    1    |   25.1
  Porgy                            |    3    |   25.0
                                   |         |
  _Containing between 25 and 20_   |         |
  percent of water-free substance._|         |
  Halibut                          |    3    |   24.6
  Sheepshead                       |    2    |   24.5
  White perch                      |    2    |   24.3
  Pollock                          |    1    |   24.0
  Cisco                            |    1    |   23.9
  Muskellunge                      |    1    |   23.7
  Spent salmon                     |    2    |   23.3
  Striped bass                     |    6    |   22.3
  Brook trout                      |    3    |   22.3
  Bluefish                         |    1    |   21.5
  Red snapper                      |    3    |   21.5
  Spent land-locked salmon         |    2    |   21.5
  Small-mouthed red-horse          |    1    |   21.4
  Large-mouthed black bass         |    1    |   21.4
  Sturgeon                         |    1    |   21.3
  Weakfish                         |    1    |   21.0
  Blackfish                        |    4    |   20.9
  Smelt                            |    2    |   20.8
  Kingfish                         |    1    |   20.8
  Yellow perch                     |    2    |   20.8
  Sea bass                         |    1    |   20.7
  Grouper                          |    2    |   20.6
  Pickerel                         |    2    |   20.3
  Pike perch, “wall-eyed pike”     |    1    |   20.3
  Pike (pickerel?)                 |    1    |   20.2
                                   |         |
  _Containing between 20 and 15    |         |
  percent of water-free substance._|         |
  Pike perch, gray pike            |    1    |   19.2
  Tomcod                           |    1    |   18.5
  Red bass                         |    1    |   18.4
  Haddock                          |    4    |   18.3
  Cusk                             |    1    |   18.0
  Skate                            |    1    |   17.9
  Cod                              |    5    |   17.4
  Hake                             |    1    |   16.9
  Common flounder                  |    2    |   15.8
  Winter flounder                  |    1    |   15.7
  ---------------------------------+---------+----------

In the scientific names of the food fishes described in the following
pages and in the description of their habits, methods of spawning,
geographic distribution, etc., the classification of Jordan and
Evermann[15] has been followed.

  [15] “American Food and Game Fishes,” by Jordan and Evermann, 1 vol.,
  large 8vo, pp. i to l + 1 to 572. Twelve colored plates and several
  hundred full-page plates from photographs from life and text-figures.
  Doubleday, Page & Co., New York.


=Alewives.=--A fish belonging to a genus very close to that to which
the herring belongs is known as alewife. The name of the genus is
_Pomolobus_. It is commonly known as a herring. For instance, the
fresh-water skipjack or blue herring,--the tailor herring or hickory
shad,--and the real alewife or branch herring are all common species of
this genus. One specimen of this genus is the fresh-water skipjack or
blue herring (_Pomolobus chrysochloris_) found in the larger streams in
the Mississippi valley and also in Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. It is
strictly a fresh-water fish, but has also been found in salt water on
the Gulf coast. The tailor herring is found along the Atlantic coast
from Cape Cod to Florida. In the Potomac river it is known as tailor
shad or “fresh-water tailor,” and is highly esteemed as a food fish in
Washington and vicinity. Their value is found rather in their coming
earlier than the shad than in their true value, for as soon as the
shad come in great abundance there is no longer any market for the
alewife.


_Composition of Alewife._--

               FRESH.           DRY.
  Water,    74.41 percent
  Protein,  19.17    „      75.87 percent
  Fat,       4.92    „      19.08    „
  Ash,       1.47    „       5.78    „

This fish, it is seen, has very much less oil in it than the true
herring,--in fact, only a little more than one-half as much. It,
however, has a correspondingly larger percentage of protein.

The tailor herring and hickory shad are distributed along the
coast from Cape Cod to Florida. The branch herring (_Pomolobus
pseudoharengus_) is found along the Atlantic coast as far south as
Charleston, entering fresh-water streams to spawn, usually two or three
weeks ahead of the shad. It occurs also in Lake Ontario and in several
of the small lakes in northern New York in which it is land-locked. The
summer herring (_Pomolobus æstivalis_) also occurs along the Atlantic
coast.


=Anchovy.=--The anchovy is a small fish which is eaten more as a relish
in the pickled state than in the fresh state, and is highly prized by
many connoisseurs. Anchovies of various species are found on both the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts,--on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to
Brazil and on the western coast from southern California southward.
These fish reach a length of from 2 to 7 inches. The very small ones
are sometimes known as “whitebait.” Those that are pickled and used for
food are usually from 3 to 6 inches in length.


_Composition of Preserved Anchovies._--

  Water,                    57.8 percent
  Protein,                  22.3    „
  Fat,                       2.2    „
  Ash (principally salt),   23.7    „


=Black Bass.=--Two species of black bass are well known to the
American fisherman and to the American cuisine. The one is called the
small-mouth black bass (_Micropterus dolomieu_) and the other the
large-mouth black bass (_Micropterus salmoides_). These fishes are
found in the fresh waters of the United States, especially in the
northern portion, almost everywhere. Both species have been propagated
both by the National and State Fish Commissions. Especially have they
been introduced into the northeastern waters where they originally did
not occur, or only in small numbers.


=Bluefish.=--The bluefish (family Pomatomidæ) is one of the valuable
food fishes of our Atlantic coast. It is a voracious, carnivorous fish,
and apparently loves to destroy as well as to eat. It is stated that
the bluefish copies after the style which was once said to be in vogue
in Rome, viz., when its stomach is filled it disgorges it for the
purpose of eating a new ration. The size of the bluefish runs from 3 to
5 pounds, though occasionally very much larger examples are taken. As a
food fish it is said to rank in the estimation of the connoisseur with
pompano and Spanish mackerel. The bluefish is one of the popular fishes
in all the large markets of the Atlantic coast. The flesh has a fine
flavor, but, like the pompano, it does not keep well.


_Composition._--

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    78.46 percent
  Protein,  19.02    „     90.13 percent
  Fat,       1.25    „      5.79    „
  Ash,       1.27    „      5.91    „

A comparison of the flesh of this fish with the pompano shows that it
is particularly a protein food, the fat being even less abundant than
the mineral matter. It, therefore, is not so well balanced a ration
as the flesh of the pompano and other fish in which the fat forms a
considerable portion of the edible matter.


=Carp.=--The carp is a fish used very largely for food purposes, but
it has not the fine flavor and character of most fishes. The carp
cultivated in America is known as the German carp (_Cyprinus carpio_).

The carp belongs to the large family of fishes known as the minnows or
Cyprinidæ. This family is a large one, having about 200 genera and more
than 1000 species, all of which are inhabitants of fresh water in North
America and Eurasia. None of this family is highly regarded as food in
the sense of flavor and aroma, except, perhaps, some of the smaller
species. The nutritive value of the carp, however, is probably as great
as that of any, but it is coarser and less attractive to the taste.
Some of the most common species of this family are the dace, fallfish,
river chub, creek chub, squaw-fish, and roach.


=Catfish.=--Catfish, of which there are many species, belong to the
family of Siluridæ, and are among the most common fresh-water fishes
found in the United States. They occur in small as well as large
fresh-water streams and lakes, and it is one of the species which
the American boy most delights in catching with hook and line. The
catfish is most conveniently taken after night, and the smouldering
fire and small boy on the bank of a stream is a frequent picture of
American country life. There are more than 100 genera of the catfish
family and about 1000 species. Only about one-third of the species
inhabit salt water. The North American fresh-water species are confined
particularly to the Atlantic coast, the Mississippi valley, and the
Gulf states. There are no native species of the catfish in the fresh
waters of the Pacific coast. The blue catfish, known as the Mississippi
catfish, is the most prominent species (_Ictalurus furcatus_). It is
found particularly in the Mississippi river and its large tributaries.
Sometimes it grows to an immense size, individuals having been found
reaching 150 pounds in weight. If the stream in which the catfish
lives runs north and south it will be found in the southern part of
the stream in the winter and in the northern part in summer. This fish
is highly prized for edible purposes. In the small streams the catfish
is correspondingly small and weighs from less than one pound to two or
three pounds only. The small catfish, especially in the small streams
tributary to the Ohio and Mississippi, has edible properties which are
far superior to the large catfish growing in the rivers themselves.

The catfish of the small streams and lakes are commonly known as
bullheads, since the head is large and wide. The name of the most
common or best known species is _Ameirus nebulosus_. This species is
found from Maine westward and southward. In Pennsylvania it is known as
the Schuylkill cat, and everywhere generally throughout the country as
a small catfish.


=Codfish.=--One of the most famous food fish of the American waters
is the codfish. It is a widely distributed fish. There are said to be
about 25 genera and 140 species. The codfish is particularly a fish of
the northern waters. Only one genus is found in fresh-water lakes and
streams.


=The Common Cod.=--The common codfish (family Gadidæ) is the species
_Gadus callarias_. It is rarely found south of the Virginia coast,
but is especially abundant off the New England and Newfoundland
coast. The great center of the codfish industry is in the vicinity
of Newfoundland. Gloucester, Massachusetts, is the principal town
devoted to the codfish industry in the United States. The cod is an
omnivorous fish and especially fond of crustaceans, mollusks, and small
fish. It also eats vegetation, and it is stated by Jordan and Evermann
that all sorts of things have been found in cod stomachs, such as oil
cans, finger rings, rubber dolls, rocks, pieces of clothing, etc. The
livers of the cod, especially those of Norwegian origin, are extremely
valuable, being the source of cod liver oil, which is considered by
many to be the most valuable medicinal food known. Cod liver oil, while
not palatable, is highly nutritious. The cod livers contain, according
to some authorities, over 60 distinct chemical substances, many of
which are highly important for their medicinal qualities. The cod move
in schools, but not in such dense bodies as the mackerel, herring, and
menhaden. Their movements are largely controlled by the temperature of
the water and their desire for food. This species probably does not
reach a greater length than 3 feet and a weight of more than 25 pounds.
The average weight of the large-size cod in New England waters is about
15 pounds and on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland 20 pounds. The average
weight of the small-size cod in these waters is about 12 pounds. It is
one of the most prolific of fishes. The ovaries of a 21-pound cod were
found to contain 2,700,000 eggs and of a 75-pound cod 9,100,000 eggs.
The eggs are very small and require about 337,000 to make a quart.
The cod is one of the most valuable of all fishes from a commercial
point of view and also on account of international relations. On some
occasions this country has apparently been on the verge of war with
Great Britain respecting questions relating to the fisheries on the
banks of Newfoundland. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has probably done
more to propagate the cod than any other variety of fish. More than
five hundred million cod fry have been liberated at different times by
the Bureau and the number in one year has approximated 100,000,000. The
color of the common cod is green or brown, but is subject to very great
variations,--sometimes it is yellow or red and a variety of tints are
assumed.

_Composition._--

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    82.64 percent
  Protein,  15.77    „     95.13 percent
  Fat,        .36    „      2.07    „
  Ash,       1.23    „      7.08    „

These data show that the flesh of cod fish is perhaps the most
exclusively nitrogenous of any of the more abundant food fish. The
quantity of fat contained therein is less than ¹⁄₄₀ of the total
weight. The flesh of the fresh cod is more largely composed of water
than that of the ordinary fish, containing approximately 83 percent of
that substance. The flesh of the cod itself is an unbalanced ration,
and needs to be eaten with butter and potatoes in order to make a
complete ration. The hake, which is sometimes substituted for the cod
without the knowledge of the purchaser, has very much the same chemical
constituents, containing--

              FRESH.             DRY.
  Water,    83.11 percent
  Protein,  15.24    „       91.00 percent
  Fat,        .67    „        3.97    „
  Ash,        .96    „        5.77    „

It is seen that there is very little difference in the chemical
composition of these two fishes. This, however, does not justify the
substitution of the hake for the cod, inasmuch as the hake is inferior
in palatability to the cod.


=Salted and Dried Cod.=--In the United States the cod is particularly
devoted to the use of curing and salting, and in this cured state is
even more highly valued, especially for the making of codfish balls,
than it is in its fresh state. The old-fashioned method of salting and
smoking produced a flesh of very high flavor, yielding under proper
treatment in the kitchen a most delicious base for the fish ball. Under
the modern system of quick curing, the salting and smoking have largely
disappeared and the fish are cured in brine, and with the help of borax
a product is produced which is less palatable than the old-fashioned
cured fish.

_Composition of dry Salted and Dried Cod._--

  Protein,  45.65 percent
  Fat,        .53    „
  Salt,     53.82    „

These data show that more than half of the weight in the water-free
state is composed of salt. The codfish is also put up as boned fish in
which nothing but the flesh is found, as desiccated cod, as shredded
codfish and in various other forms.

_Average Composition of Codfish Balls._--

  Water,            65.43 percent
  Solids,           34.57    „
  Nitrogen,          1.05    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .25    „
  Sulfur,             .10    „
  Fat,               7.84    „
  Ash,               4.05    „
  Protein,           6.58    „

The difference between the composition of the fish balls and the
average composition of fish is clearly brought out by the data
recorded. In the average composition of fish the sum of the fat, ash,
and protein is greater than the solids obtained by difference by 0.36
percent. In the codfish balls the sum of the ingredients mentioned is
less than the solids by difference by 16.10 per cent. This is due to
the added potato, salt, etc.

_Average Composition of Shredded Codfish._--

  Water,               46.52 percent
  Ash (chiefly salt),  22.81    „
  Fat,                   .33    „
  Protein,             30.85    „


=Eels.=--The common eel is a fish which is extremely long in proportion
to its size and gives the general appearance, to the uninitiated, of
a snake. The resemblance of the eel to a snake in shape is probably
one of the reasons why it is not more highly valued as a food. The
eels, perhaps, are not to be considered as true fish. The common eel
(_Anguilla chrysypa_) is widely distributed throughout most parts of
the United States, especially the eastern part. It extends southward
as far as the West Indies, and is found in more or less abundance on
the Gulf coast. Although a salt-water fish, it differs from most other
eels in its penchant for ascending fresh-water streams. It often goes
to the very headwaters, especially in the rivers of the Atlantic coast
and Mississippi valley. Eels are often found in lakes which seem to
have had no communication with the sea, which shows that they are
able to surmount barriers which seem impossible to cross. Jordan and
Evermann claim that the eel is really a fresh-water fish and that its
real home is in the fresh-water rivers and lakes, and that it runs
down to salt water only at spawning time, thus showing a quality or
characteristic exactly opposite to that of the salmon and shad, which
are true salt-water fish and come into fresh waters for spawning. Eels,
like the carp, are more or less scavengers, feeding upon all manner of
refuse, especially dead fish. They are very destructive of other fish,
especially of young shad and herring. When nets are placed for shad and
herring and the fish are caught therein the eels often invade the net,
and when it is drawn it is filled largely with the skeletons of the
fish, the flesh of which has been removed by the eels. Eels have a high
value as food fish, both on account of their nutritive value and their
flavor. The average length of the eel is from 2 to 3 feet, though much
larger examples are sometimes found.


_Composition of the Eel._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    71.60 percent
  Protein,  18.28    „     65.25 percent
  Fat,       9.11    „     31.92    „
  Ash,       1.01    „      3.60    „

These data show that the eel is rather richer in fat than the majority
of fish, although there are some that exceed it in this constituent.


=Conger Eel.=--The conger eel belongs to the family Leptocephalidæ. It
inhabits salt water only, is scaleless, and grows to much larger sizes
than the common eel, sometimes as long as 7 or 8 feet. It is not used
for food in the United States, but is to some extent in Europe and the
West Indies. On the east coast of the United States they do not occur
very frequently. Only a few species are known, and these are of small
extent and have little food value.


=Summer Flounder.=--This fish (_Paralichthys dentatus_) is quite
abundant on the Atlantic coast, frequenting the coast from Cape Cod to
the Carolinas. It reaches a length of from 2 to 3 feet and has a weight
of about 15 pounds. It is caught very extensively off the New England
coast. The principal fishing grounds are in the region of Block Island,
Marthas Vineyard, and the eastern end of Long Island. There is another
species known as the southern flounder (_Paralichthys lethostigmus_),
which flourishes from Charleston southward, and is found along the
entire Gulf coast. There is also another species on the Gulf coast
called the Gulf flounder (_Paralichthys albiguttus_). There is also a
wide flounder or common flatfish (_Paralichthys americanus_). It is
found on the coast of Labrador and extends down to the Carolinas. It
is especially abundant along the coast of southern New England. It is
a small species, rarely being over 20 inches in length, the average
length being from 12 to 15 inches, and weighs from 2 to 3 pounds. This
species of flounder has been extensively propagated by the U. S. Bureau
of Fisheries, as many as 100,000,000 fry having been planted in one
season.


_Composition of Summer Flounder._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    84.21 percent
  Protein,  13.82    „     89.03 percent
  Fat,        .69    „      4.46    „
  Ash,       1.28    „      8.15    „

The flesh of this fish is particularly rich in water and poor in fat.


=Graylings.=--The graylings belong to a family very closely resembling
the Salmonidæ. They occur chiefly in northern or Arctic waters. One
species found in Michigan is known as the Michigan grayling. It is a
fish that is not only distinguished on account of its food value but
also on account of its graceful shape and pleasing appearance. Another
species occurs in Montana, and has been distributed very largely by the
Bureau of Fisheries. It is not a fish which is of any great economic
importance.


=The Haddock.=--This is a fish very nearly related to the cod, but it
has a smaller mouth and differs in other essentials, particularly in
its chemical constituents, from the cod. The haddock has a food value
which is probably not inferior to that of the cod. It is one of our
most abundant fishes, and by some consumers the flesh is preferred
to that of the cod. The usual weight of the haddock is about 3 or
4 pounds. It is, therefore, a much smaller fish than the cod. The
species is _Melanogrammus æglefinus_. On the Atlantic coast it does not
occur north of the Straits of Belle Isle. The haddock is particularly
abundant on the Massachusetts coast in summer. Like the cod, the
haddock is well suited for salting, smoking, and curing in various
ways. It, however, has not been used to such an extent as the cod for
those purposes, finding a more ready market in the fresh state.


_Composition._--

  Water,    81.69 percent
  Protein,  16.83    „
  Fat,        .25    „
  Ash,       1.23    „

In the dry substance.

  Protein,  93.89 percent
  Fat,       1.34    „
  Ash,       6.76    „

The flesh of the haddock, it is seen, is even more exclusively
nitrogenous than that of the cod. The two species resemble each other
very closely in composition.


=The Hake.=--There are several species of hakes, family Merluccidæ. The
common European hake is the species _Merluccius merluccius_. The hake
which is found mostly in American waters is _Merluccius productus_,
and occurs very abundantly on the Pacific coast and is largely eaten
as food. The flesh, however, is rather coarse and not very palatable.
Another species which is found on our Atlantic coast from New England
northward is _Merluccius bilinearis_.


=Halibut.=--The halibut (_Hippoglossus hippoglossus_) is a fish which
is highly esteemed and occurs in great quantities. It is a fish which
frequents northern waters, and especially the North Atlantic on the
American coast. It has not been taken south of Montauk Point, but
extends as far north as the coast of Greenland, and is also found
about Iceland and Spitzbergen in a latitude of 80 degrees. It does not
like water above 45 degrees F., and is often found in water at the
freezing point, namely, 32 degrees. The halibut is also found on the
Pacific coast, especially off Oregon and Washington and in British
Columbia and Alaska. It is one of the largest of food fish. The fish
weighing about 80 pounds are considered the best for food, although
the halibut sometimes reaches a weight of over 500 pounds. The male is
always smaller than the female and less palatable. The annual value
of the halibut fisheries on the North Atlantic coast is probably ³⁄₄
million dollars. It is probably slightly more than this on the Pacific
coast,--in fact the Pacific coast fisheries have grown so extensively
that halibut is shipped eastward across the continent. Vast freight
trains known as the “Halibut Express” have been sent across the
continent from Vancouver to Boston, making the trip in six or seven
days.


_Composition._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    75.42 percent
  Protein,  18.35    „     77.18 percent
  Fat,       5.17    „     19.32    „
  Ash,       1.06    „      4.39    „

The halibut is a fish containing considerable quantities of fat, and
is not so peculiarly nitrogenous in its character as the cod or the
haddock. It, therefore, makes a better balanced ration than either of
the other fish. The halibut in the fresh state is esteemed fully as
highly as the cod, and the halibut steak is a very common part of the
fish sold upon the market.


=Herring.=--The herrings form a very important group of fishes
belonging to the family Clupeidæ. There are about 30 genera in the
family and 150 species. The herrings are essentially salt-water
fishes and are usually found in large schools. Many species, and some
of these the most valuable for food, ascend fresh-water streams for
spawning. Certain species, for instance, are caught at the same season
as the shad in the Chesapeake and Susquehanna. There are a few species
which remain permanently in fresh water. The common herring (_Clupea
harengus_) is one of the most important of the food fishes of the
whole Atlantic coast, and really over almost all the north Atlantic,
throughout which it is generally distributed. The principal herring
fisheries are in the North Sea, in Denmark and Norway. Important
fisheries are also found off the coast of Great Britain, Belgium,
France, and the United States. It is estimated that as many as three
billion herring may be found in a shoal covering a dozen square miles.
Herring shoals of much larger extent are on record. The herring do not
frequent southern waters, but are found in the cool and more northern
waters of the Atlantic. On the coast of the United States it has been
found as far south as Cape Hatteras, though it does not occur very
abundantly further south than New England. The fish at the period of
spawning are considered the most valuable for food purposes.

The herring is either sold in a fresh state or it may be smoked,
salted, or pickled, and in this condition is very extensively used
as food. A species of herring is found on the Pacific coast known as
California herring (_Clupea pallasii_). It does not differ very greatly
in its general aspect from its relation on the Atlantic coast. This
species occurs very abundantly in the region of Puget Sound, especially
in summer time, and in southeast Alaska. They are extremely abundant
in San Francisco markets in the spring time, so much so that it is
difficult to find a sale for them.

The California herring are more highly valued and bring the highest
price in the early winter, when they are the fattest.


_Composition of Herring._--

                FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    69.03 percent
  Protein,  18.46    „     61.69 percent
  Fat,      11.01    „     35.55    „
  Ash,       1.50    „      4.83    „

The above data show that the flesh of herring is particularly rich
in fat. In fact the herring is sometimes used as a source of oil. In
southeast Alaska are extensive oil and guano works which utilize the
herring for these purposes.


=Horse Mackerel.=--Another species belonging to the mackerel family
is the horse mackerel or tuna (_Thunnus thynnus_), which is found in
considerable abundance on our North Atlantic coast and on the coast
of southern California. Its common name is “tuna,” “tunny,” “horse
mackerel,” or “great albacore.” The horse mackerel is a fish of very
great size and is the very largest of the whole mackerel family. They
occasionally attain a length of 10 feet or more and a weight of 1500
pounds. The average dimensions, of course, are very much less than
this. The horse mackerel does not grow so large in Europe or upon the
Pacific coast. In these regions a horse mackerel weighing 500 pounds
is considered of an extraordinary size. The very large ones are never
taken with hook and line, but there are records of fish of over 200
pounds that have been captured in this way.


=The Hogfish.=--The hogfish of the West Indies and our southern
coasts is another of the wrasse-fishes whose scientific name is
_Lachnolaimus maximus_. It is called in Porto Rico “el capitan.” It
often reaches a weight of 20 pounds and a length of from 2 to 3 feet.
The name “hogfish” doubtless is derived from the shape of the head,
which resembles somewhat that of the hog. It is valued as a food fish
throughout the West Indies.


=Lake Herring.=--The so-called lake herring is very closely related to
the whitefish. The name of the species is _Argyrosomus artedi_. The
lake herring has a large number of common names, of which the most
widely applied is the term “Cisco.” The terms blueback, greenback, and
grayback are also applied to these herring. The habitat of this fish
is that of the whole region of the Great Lakes and north to Hudson
Bay. It has much the same habitat as the whitefish. The average weight
of the lake herring is about one pound. The subspecies (_Argyrosomus
artedi sisco_) is found in Lake Tippecanoe and other small lakes in
Wisconsin and northern Indiana.


_Composition of Cisco._--

                FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    76.15 percent
  Protein,  19.12    „     80.75 percent
  Fat,       3.48    „     14.59    „
  Ash,       1.25    „      5.25    „


=Mackerel.=--The mackerel is a food fish which is very commonly used
in a cured state in the interior of the country and is eaten fresh on
the sea coast. Its habitat is principally the North Atlantic ocean. On
the coast of the United States it is found from Cape Hatteras north to
the Strait of Belle Isle. In Europe it is found from Norway southward
to the Mediterranean and Adriatic. The mackerel on the Atlantic coast
usually appear first in the spring near Cape Hatteras and following the
custom of the shad are found later farther north in the New England
states and also in the British possessions. They leave the coast in the
inverse order in the autumn, disappearing first in the northern regions
and later in the southern portion.

The mackerel is one of the most abundant of fishes in the Atlantic
Ocean, traveling in immense schools. There is record of a school which
was seen in 1848 which was at least half a mile wide and 20 miles long.
In some seasons the mackerel is extremely abundant and in others very
scarce. The average catch is probably about 300,000 barrels. Boston
and Gloucester are centers of the mackerel fishing industry. It is
estimated that from 150 to 300 vessels of American bottoms are engaged
in the mackerel industry. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been
particularly interested in the propagation of mackerel, but the result
has not been as satisfactory as in the case of many other fishes. The
young mackerel or small fishes are known as “spikes,” “blinkers,” and
“tinkers.” When they are about two years old they measure from 5 to
9 inches in length. The mackerel attains its full size at about the
fourth year. The scientific name of the common mackerel is _Scomber
scombrus_ Linnæus.


_Composition of Mackerel._--Edible portion:

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    73.37 percent
  Protein,  18.26    „     71.71 percent
  Fat,       7.09    „     24.88    „
  Ash,       1.28    „      4.78    „

The above data show that the flesh of the mackerel is composed of about
two-thirds protein and one-third fat and ash.

Pickled mackerel, salted mackerel, and smoked mackerel are perhaps as
highly valued for food purposes as the fresh fish itself.


=Menhaden.=--The menhaden is not used chiefly as a food fish but to
some extent therefor. It is one of the most abundant fishes taken upon
our Atlantic coast and is used almost exclusively as a source of oil,
the residue being dried and ground for fertilizing purposes. In this
sense it has great value because of the high nitrogen content of the
residue and also of the considerable quantity of phosphoric acid which
is contained therein.

The menhaden is known scientifically as _Brevoortia tyrannus_. Up to
1880 immense quantities of menhaden were taken off the Atlantic coast.
Since that time the supply has not been considered so great. In the
year 1877 it is stated by Jordan and Evermann that one oil company took
20 million fish and in one town alone, namely Booth Bay, 50 million
fish were caught.

The fecundity of the menhaden is very great, exceeding that of the
shad. More than 140,000 eggs have been taken from a single fish. The
menhaden are not eaten very extensively in a fresh state as food but
preserved in salt they have a considerable value for that purpose.
An extract has also been made from the flesh of the menhaden on the
same principle of manufacture as is utilized in preparation of meat
extracts. The menhaden is known under a great number of common names,
some thirty of which have been enumerated by Dr. Goode.


_Composition of Menhaden._--

  Water,                  77.15 percent
  Fat,                     3.91    „
  Protein by difference,  18.94    „

The water-free flesh contains (including bones) 21.7 percent of mineral
matter.


_Composition of the Mineral Matter._--

  Lime,              8.67 percent
  Phosphoric acid,   7.78    „
  Silicic acid,      1.33    „
  Potash,            1.54    „
  Soda,              1.02    „
  Magnesia,          0.67    „
  Chlorin,           0.69    „
                    -----
      Total,        21.70    „


=Mullet.=--The mullet belongs to the Mugilidæ, an important family of
fishes in which there are several genera and species. The mullet is
not particular about its food but is in the habit of swallowing large
quantities of mud, or rather partially swallowing it and separating the
refuse and most obnoxious particles by means of the gills. The common
mullet or striped mullet (_Mugil cephalus_) is a widely distributed
species. This fish is common along the Atlantic coast and in Hawaii,
usually traveling in large schools, and is most abundant in the
shallow waters of the coast. It sometimes reaches a length of two feet
and is an important food fish. The mullet is very abundant on the
Florida coasts. While the mullet may be regarded as a scavenger, living
principally on mud, it does not eat any other species of fish, but is
itself eaten by nearly all fishes that can gain access to it.


_Composition of the Mullet._--

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    74.87 percent
  Protein,  19.32    „     77.50 percent
  Fat,       4.64    „     18.45    „
  Ash,       1.17    „      4.66    „


=Muskallunge.=--A very noted member of this family is the muskallunge
(_Esox masquinongy_). It is a native of the Great Lakes and is
especially found in the upper St. Lawrence. It is not a very abundant
fish, but is highly prized from the angler’s point of view. It is of
very great size, having been found as long as 8 feet and weighing
over 100 pounds. Two other species of muskallunge are known, one
(_Esox ohiensis_ or the Chautauqua muskallunge) in the Ohio river
basin, particularly in Lake Chautauqua, where it has been artificially
propagated with great success, and the unspotted muskallunge (_Esox
immaculatus_), which occurs sparingly in certain small lakes of
northern Wisconsin and Minnesota.


_Composition of the Muskallunge._--

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    76.26 percent
  Protein,  19.63    „     84.87 percent
  Fat,       2.54    „     10.70    „
  Ash,       1.57    „      6.63    „

The flesh of the muskallunge, as is seen, contains about four times as
much fat as that of the pickerel, and forms a ration which is not so
unbalanced as that of the pickerel itself.


=Pickerel or Pike.=--One species (_Esox reticulatus_) is of common
occurrence along the Atlantic coast and also in the fresh-water streams
of the southern interior portions of the country. The pike of the Great
Lakes belongs to the species _Esox lucius_ Linnæus. It is found in the
fresh waters of North America, Europe, and Asia, but is not found on
the Pacific coast except in Alaska. It reaches in some cases a large
size, having been found as much as 4 feet in length and weighing 40 to
50 pounds. The Kankakee in northern Indiana is a well-known fishing
ground for this species of pike.


_Composition of Pickerel._--Edible portion:

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    79.68 percent
  Protein,  18.64    „     92.15 percent
  Fat,        .50    „      2.48    „
  Ash,       1.18    „      5.80    „

The flesh of the pickerel, as is seen, is almost a pure type of
protein. The fat falls to an insignificant quantity, being only about
half as much as the ash.


=Wall-eyed Pike.=--The wall-eyed pike or pike perch (_Stizostedion
vitreum_) is a fish most abundant in Lake Champlain, the Great Lakes,
and in eastern Canadian lakes; it occurs also in certain small lakes
and streams in the upper Mississippi valley. In some localities it is
known as the salmon or jack salmon, but of course these are misnomers.


_Composition._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    75.71 percent
  Protein,  19.03    „     79.31 percent
  Fat,       4.07    „     16.74    „
  Ash,       1.19    „      4.92    „


=Common Pompano.=--The pompano (family Carangidæ) is one of the food
fishes which is most highly esteemed along the Gulf coast. It has been
found as far north as Cape Cod on the Atlantic coast, but does not
occur in sufficient numbers to make it of any economic value as a food
fish north of Florida. It is taken chiefly in the Gulf waters. The
average weight of the pompano is from 2 to 3 pounds, though very much
larger examples are sometimes found. As a food fish there is none that
is regarded more highly than the pompano, especially when it is eaten
fresh from the water and prepared in the manner of the creole cooks of
New Orleans.


_Composition._--

                FRESH.           DRY.
  Water,    72.78 percent
  Protein,  18.65    „       72.37 percent
  Fat,       7.57    „       24.46    „
  Ash,       1.00    „        3.82    „

These data show that the edible portion of the pompano is valued
both for its protein and its fat. The latter exists in quantities of
approximately one-third of the former. It is not so much its nutritive
value which makes the pompano desirable as a food fish but the extreme
delicacy of flavor and the richness of its taste. It does not bear
shipping well, and therefore is found in its greatest perfection only
near the place where it is taken.

In New Orleans and in Florida the pompano is one of the principal food
fishes furnished by the high-class hotels and restaurants to their
guests.


=Red Snapper.=--The red snapper (_Lutianus aya_) is the most noted fish
of all the snapper family (Lutianidæ), although there are others which
are highly prized, such as the gray snapper. It sometimes reaches a
length of two or three feet and a weight of from 10 to 35 pounds. It is
particularly abundant in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and off
the west coast of Florida. The red snapper bears shipping better than
most of the Gulf fish, and Pensacola is one of the principal points
where the fish are packed in ice as soon as possible after capture and
dispatched to northern markets.


_Composition._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    78.46 percent
  Protein,  19.20    „     91.75 percent
  Fat,       1.03    „      4.70    „
  Ash,       1.31    „      6.05    „

This is another one of the fishes in which the edible portion is almost
exclusively protein, the fat appearing only in small quantities.


=Rock Bass=; =Redeye=; =Goggle-eye= (_Ambloplites rupestris_).--The
rock bass is a very common fish particularly abundant in the fresh
waters of the northern central portions of the United States. It is the
fish which the American boy, living near small streams, most delights
to catch. The size of the rock bass varies largely according to the
magnitude of the body of water in which it lives. The average weight of
the fish in streams of ordinary size is probably about a pound, though
often it is considerably more. The rock bass has been propagated to
some extent by the Bureau of Fisheries and has been introduced into
waters where it formerly did not occur.


=Salmon.=--The salmon is one of the most important food fishes of
the United States. It belongs to the genus _Oncorhynchus_. The five
species of this genus are, in America, confined to our Pacific coast.
Of these species the one known as blueback or sockeye is found most
abundantly in the Fraser and Columbia rivers and in Alaska, the silver
salmon in Puget Sound, the chinook salmon in the Columbia, and the dog
salmon along the coast from California to Bering Sea. The salmon begin
running early in the spring and the early run is considered of greater
value than the later. The habits of the salmon in the deep waters of
the ocean are not very well known. It is only when they come into
fresh water for spawning purposes that their life history can be well
studied. It is believed, however, that they do not go very far from
the shore. The run of salmon on the Pacific coast usually begins about
the latter part of March and lasts through the spring and greater part
of the summer. On account of the great abundance of these fish on the
Pacific coast and the distance from large markets the canning industry
has developed with great rapidity. In fact on the Pacific coast the
product of salmon fishing is devoted almost exclusively to canning
purposes. In the canning of salmon no particular care is taken, and
perhaps none at all to designate upon the can whether its contents are
of the early salmon or the later, less valuable run. It is claimed by
many authorities that the salmon of the Pacific coast of America, taken
all together in their relation to the economic problem of fish food,
are the most important and valuable fish in the world.


_Composition of a Pacific Coast Species._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    63.61 percent
  Protein,  17.46    „     52.31 percent
  Fat,      17.87    „     49.05    „
  Ash,       1.06    „      2.92    „


_Composition of Atlantic Salmon._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    63.61 percent
  Protein,  21.60    „     61.45 percent
  Fat,      13.38    „     36.88    „
  Ash,       1.41    „      3.81    „

The above data show that the Pacific salmon are richer in fat than the
Atlantic salmon. In fact in the edible portion of the fish the fat is
almost as great as the protein.

Another species of Pacific salmon is the humpback salmon (_Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha_), which appears in great abundance in the rivers of Alaska,
but not every year,--usually coming in larger quantities in alternating
years. As a fish to be eaten fresh, this is one of the very best of
the salmons. Owing to the pale color of the flesh, this species does
not hold as high a rank for canning purposes. It cans well, however,
and the product is very palatable and doubtless very nutritious. The
trade-name of the canned product is “pink salmon,” as its flesh is of
a paler color than that of the chinook salmon or red salmon. Another
species is known as dog salmon. It is found in considerable abundance
from California northward to Bering Strait, spawning usually late in
the fall. It is considered as the least valuable for food purposes,
although it is now coming to be used very extensively by freezing, in
which form it finds a ready market both in this country and abroad.
When canned it is put on the market as “chum.” Its chief interest at
the present time is on account of the fact that it is sometimes sold
under the names of better species.


=Chinook Salmon= (_Oncorhynchus tschawytscha_).--This species is also
known as quinnat, king, Columbia river, and Sacramento river salmon. It
is, next to the sockeye, the most important of all salmon in commercial
value. The individuals of this species reach a larger size than those
of any other. They have been known to weigh 90 pounds, and fish of
from 40 to 60 pounds in weight are not infrequently taken. The average
weight of the king salmon which are captured in the Columbia river is
probably not far from 22 pounds, while those that run further south,
for instance in the Sacramento river, average 16 pounds.

Another species, known as silver salmon (_Oncorhynchus kisutch_), also
has a number of other names, mostly of Eastern or Russian origin. It
is quite an important member of the genus and its average weight is
about 5 pounds. It is very valuable as a food fish, only the Chinook
and blueback salmon going ahead of it. It is also a species which
bears shipment in a fresh state very well. The silver salmon resembles
very closely the Chinook, but is easily distinguished therefrom by
experienced fishermen. The canned product of this species is usually
put on the market as “medium red” or “coho” salmon, names which have
now come to have a definite meaning and are perfectly understood by the
trade.


=The Sockeye or Blueback Salmon= (_Oncorhynchus nerka_).--This is the
species which has the greatest commercial value and forms a large part
of the catch of the Pacific coast. It is the most abundant of all the
species of salmon in Alaska. Its flesh has a rich red or “salmon”
color, and lends itself admirably to canning processes. In palatability
and attractiveness as a canned product it is not inferior to any,
unless, possibly, the Columbia river chinook.


_Canning of Salmon._--The canning of salmon is one of the most
important of the fish industries of the United States. The immense
coast line possessed by the United States on the west, which is so
vastly extended by the Alaskan coast and Aleutian Islands, affords the
most extensive fisheries of salmon in the world. As has already been
stated, there are no large markets in that region in which the fresh
salmon can find a purchaser. The fish, therefore, must be neglected
as a food product or else prepared in some way to enable them to be
shipped to great distances. Probably the most unobjectionable way is
by canning. The principles of the canning of salmon are not different
at all from those which underlie the sterilization of any kind of
food. The establishments in which the canning takes place are perhaps
the most extensive in the world. The prime necessity in these cases
is to secure complete sterilization. In the case of fish any failure
to secure the proper sterilization is the more reprehensible, because
fish decompose so readily, forming fermentative products which are
extremely poisonous. Cases of poisoning from eating canned salmon have
been reported, and in some cases they may prove fatal. Every can of
salmon which is to be eaten ought to be examined carefully in order to
see if there are any incipient signs of decomposition. A bad smelling
or otherwise imperfect can should be rejected without question. Only
the fish which is perfectly fresh to the taste and odor and which gives
no signs of any kind of deterioration should be eaten. When properly
prepared, canned salmon affords a delicacy as well as a food product
which can hardly be too highly prized.


_Composition of Canned Salmon._--Mean of three samples. Water-free
substance:

  Protein,  53.52 percent
  Fat,      40.52    „
  Ash,       6.24    „


=The Salmon of the Atlantic Coast.=--As has already been noted, the
Pacific salmon belong to a different genus from the common Atlantic
salmon,--_Salmo salar_. There is a very close resemblance between the
two genera, and the common name “salmon” is applied to the individuals
of each. The Atlantic salmon is a fish which has been known from the
earliest time. The Roman people became acquainted with it in the early
history of the Republic, and especially when they conquered Gaul and
Britain. It is found distributed over the whole North Atlantic coast,
but especially the northern portion from Massachusetts northward. The
salmon extends, as far as observations have been made, beyond even
the Arctic circle, and the same species is found upon the western and
northern shores of Europe. The salmon enters the St. Lawrence and has
been found as far up as Niagara Falls. Our principal fisheries for this
species are in Maine and in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.
They do not extend southward beyond the Delaware and have rarely been
found in that river. The shad and salmon were particularly abundant
in early colonial days. The shad were so abundant that they were not
regarded as useful for food purposes, but their value as a fertilizer
was taught to the whites by the Indians. Salmon, apparently, were
equally abundant, and it was considered an affront to offer salmon
more than twice a week even to servants. In this respect they were
on the same plane as the diamond back terrapin and canvas back duck,
which were so abundant, in those days, that they were a drug on the
market. The salmon enters the fresh-water streams for the purpose of
spawning. The eggs are largely laid late in the fall, and in that case
do not hatch until the next spring. The Atlantic salmon often reach a
very large size. Individuals have been known to weigh from 40 to even
80 pounds. The average weight of the salmon taken in Maine waters is
about 10 pounds each. Another valued specimen of salmon is known as the
Sebago salmon (_Salmo sebago_), from the lake in which it occurs. It is
a fresh-water fish, having been doubtless landlocked in some way after
originally entering from the sea. Still a third species is the famous
ouananiche (_Salmo ouananiche_), inhabiting the waters of the Lake St.
John region north of Quebec.


_Composition of Atlantic Salmon._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    76.74 percent
  Protein,  18.52    „     79.13 percent
  Fat,       3.60    „     15.32    „
  Ash,       1.14    „      4.93    „


_Composition of Sebago Salmon._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    78.54 percent
  Protein,  17.24    „     78.00 percent
  Fat,       2.98    „     13.74    „
  Ash,       1.24    „      5.76    „

The above data show a striking difference in the composition of the
edible portions of Pacific and Atlantic salmon. This difference is
shown chiefly in the relative proportion of fat. In the Pacific salmon
the fat approaches in quantity the protein, while in the Atlantic
salmon the protein is much greater than the fat. The Atlantic salmon
is used chiefly in the fresh state for two reasons, first, because
the catch is very much smaller than that of the Pacific species while
the markets are very much more numerous and very much larger; second,
because it is commercially more profitable to dealers in the fresh
state. In Europe and Scotland the salmon is constantly used in a
fresh state during the whole of the summer and a dinner is scarcely
considered complete without it. It is also very commonly used at
luncheon. It is generally eaten cold and offers a food product of high
palatability and great nutritive value in so far as the protein is
concerned. Eaten with plenty of potato, as it usually is, it forms a
reasonably well-balanced ration. The American visitor who is not used
to eating salmon every day is likely to find its constant occurrence
upon the English table in the summer to be a bit trying to his taste.


=Sardines.=--The sardine belongs to the herring family--in fact
small herring along the coast of Maine are put up as sardines. The
sardines are very closely related to the herrings, but there are
rather important differences. The European sardine, which is known
as the sardine, is the _Sardinia pilcharda_, and does not occur on
the coast of the United States. The species existing on the Pacific
coast is known as the California sardine (_Sardinia cærulea_). It is
quite abundant on the California coast and spawns in the open sea. It
resembles very strongly the European sardine, but has no teeth. The
Spanish sardine (_Sardinia pseudohispanica_) is found rather abundantly
in Cuba and is often carried northward in the Gulf Stream as far as
Woods Hole or Cape Cod. It is about 8 inches in length and of high food
value, resembling very closely the European sardine. There has been a
good deal of discussion as to whether or not small herring which are
packed as sardines in the United States should be allowed, under the
food laws of the various states and of the United States, to be sold by
that name. The answer to this is that any deception in the label should
be avoided. The herring, however, belongs to the same genus as the
true sardine, and, differing from it only in the variation of species,
may have some right to the name. The true ethical principles of trade,
however, would require that they should be named Maine sardines or
herring sardines and not bear the name simply sardines, which is
reserved exclusively for the species _Sardinia pilcharda_.


_Composition of Canned Sardines._--

  Water,                 56.37 percent
  Water-free substance,  43.63    „
  Protein,               24.87    „
  Fats,                  12.71    „
  Ash,                    5.00    „
  Sodium chlorid,         0.61    „

The above data are based upon the analysis of the sample after the oil
has been separated by drainage.


=European Sardines.=--The sardine is eaten fresh along the Spanish
and French coast, where they are taken in great abundance and form a
delicious food in this condition. The number which is given to a single
individual is quite generous, as the writer has had served him on the
Mediterranean coast in Spain as many as twenty fresh sardines at one
order. The number, however, was not found any too large when the
palatability of the product is taken into consideration. Sardines are
preserved by salt and smoke and particularly by packing in oil.


_Method of Packing in Oil._--The sardines after proper cleaning are
heated in oil for the purpose of sterilizing them. Olive oil is usually
employed for this purpose, though some packers prefer to heat the fish
in peanut oil, claiming that it gives them a better color. There seems
to be, however, no sufficient ground for this claim. The peanut oil
is probably used simply because it is cheaper. When the fish are thus
sterilized and thoroughly cooked they are placed in boxes in the well
known manner in which they are found and covered with oil, sealed,
and, if necessary, again sterilized in order to prevent decomposition.
Olive oil is the oil usually employed for packing purposes, though
cheaper grades of edible oil are very commonly found in sardines.
The substitutes for olive oils which are usually employed are peanut
oil, cottonseed oil, and sesame oil, either single or mixed. When the
sardines have been previously boiled in a cheaper oil and then packed
with olive oil the olive oil will be contaminated with the cheaper oil
used in the boiling.


_Adulteration of Sardines._--As indicated above, the chief adulteration
of sardines is in the misbranding respecting the nature of the fish
and the oil used in packing. A young herring packed in the manner
of a sardine properly demands a special label instead of the word
“sardine” alone. A difference respecting the misbranding in regard to
the oil employed is avoided by the statement on the package of the
character of the oil used. The phrase “Sardines packed in oil” should
be construed always to mean in the highest grade oil, that is, olive
oil. This phrase, however, is usually employed when inferior oils are
used. Inasmuch as oil is not the name of any individual product but of
a large class of products, including that of both animal and vegetable
origin, it is generally held that the term “oil” is not a sufficient
indication of the character of the oil used. In all cases the packages
should designate the special kind of oil used in the preparation. The
addition of chemical preservatives to sardines in so far as the author
knows, is not practiced, at least not to any appreciable extent.


_The French Fisheries._--The sardine fisheries in France are mostly
off the coast of Brittany, and are subject to many very serious
fluctuations. For instance, the present year, 1906, has been one
of disaster to the French fisheries. What is the cause of the
disappearance of the pilchard (the true sardine) is not known. The
fishermen think that large fish have driven the small ones either into
the Bay of Biscay or the Mediterranean, or even to the west shores of
Africa. The fish are thought to originate in the Mediterranean, and
their name is derived from the fact that they were originally found in
great quantities off the coast of Sardinia. When the spring comes and
the fine weather is established they migrate first along the coast of
Spain, finally reaching the French coast some time during the month
of May. By this time the young fish are nearly grown to a proper size
for catching. The fishing, however, does not really begin until July
and is usually finished by November. The little town of Concarneau is
the seat of these fisheries. About two thousand small boats go out
from this town and at or near this place are also the large canneries
and packing establishments. The fishing grounds are about five miles
from the coast and the small boats sail out from two to four o’clock
in the morning. The fishing is by means of nets and a very important
part of the work is the spreading of the bait upon the surface of the
water to attract the fish. The principal bait or _roque_ is the roe of
the cod, which sometimes reaches a price of $60 per barrel. Sometimes
a single boat will use from 30 to 40 barrels of bait. Only the most
skilled fisherman, usually the master himself, is allowed to distribute
this precious material. As many as one hundred thousand fish have
been caught in the net, though this magnitude of catch is, of course,
exceptional. When the fish are brought ashore they are counted into
baskets, about 200 to a basket, and those unfit for use are thrown out.
They are taken to the canneries as quickly as possible to be cleaned,
boiled, dipped in oil, and then hermetically sealed into a tin in which
they are sent into commerce.


_Adulteration._--The chief adulteration of sardines is found in
misbranding as to country of origin. The French catch has the highest
reputation of any in the world and for this reason the label is often
made to represent the fish as of French origin when in reality they
are caught on the shores of Spain or of other countries. Formerly the
fish were brought in great numbers from the Spanish coast into France.
They were naturally much deteriorated in transit. Nevertheless they
were tinned and marked as of pure French origin. This practice has now
been forbidden by law in France. The Norwegian fish known as Sprötten
(sprats) on the German and Holland coasts are packed as sardines and
sent into this country as sardines.


=Scup.=--The scup is a fish (family Sparidæ) which is taken in great
abundance on our Atlantic coast in the summer and autumn and is brought
in immense quantities to the market. The proper name of the fish is
_Stenotomus chrysops_.


_Composition._--

                FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    74.99 percent
  Protein,  18.52    „     75.33 percent
  Fat,       5.11    „     19.25    „
  Ash,       1.38    „      5.64    „

The flesh of this fish is a better balanced ration than that of the red
snapper, the proportion of fat being much larger.


=Shad.=--One of the most important food fishes on the Atlantic coast
is the shad. It is found along the whole Atlantic coast, coming into
fresh water for spawning, where it is caught for food purposes. The
shad begin to appear in the streams of the south Atlantic coast early
in the winter and as the spring advances they go northward. They
appear in the Potomac in April and May, and later in the Delaware and
Connecticut rivers and other fresh-water streams further north. The
fish is, therefore, to be had fresh upon the market over a long period
of time. The common shad is known scientifically as _Alosa sapidissima_
(Wilson). As a result of the work of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries
the shad has been introduced into the waters of the Pacific coast
where none was found originally. The shad fry were first introduced
into the Sacramento river and afterward into the Columbia river. The
environments on the Pacific coast were found congenial. The fish soon
found grounds on which they could spawn, and they have spread over
almost the entire length of the Pacific coast. It has, of late, become
a very common and abundant food fish on the Pacific coast and has lost
none of its palatability by transplanting. Science has not been able to
ascertain anything of very great interest respecting the life of the
shad in the sea. When they leave the rivers they practically disappear,
and are not known again until the next spawning season returns. For
spawning purposes the shad prefer a water temperature of from 55 to 65
degrees. Whenever the temperature goes above the latter figure they
begin to disappear. The males and females go in separate schools. The
males usually precede the females. It is stated by Jordan and Evermann
that of 61,000 shad received at the Washington market from March 19 to
24, 99 percent were male. As the season advanced the males became very
much less frequent and at the end extremely scarce. The U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries has taken especial pains to increase the number of shad in
all waters. During the spring of 1900 there were artificially planted
in the Atlantic coast streams over 240,000,000 young shad. One fish
often contains as many as 150,000 eggs. The average number, however, is
about 30,000. Shad roe is the most valuable part of the fish and brings
a much higher price in the market than an equal weight of fish itself.
Planked shad is one of the greatest delicacies of the Washington
markets. At Marshall Hall, opposite Mount Vernon, there are given a
great many shad bakes during the season. Oak wood is placed in long
lines and burned,--oak planks are set up on each side of the line of
burning wood, inclined at an angle of about 60 or 70 degrees. On these
oak planks the shad are cooked, held usually by driving a nail through
the head,--the cut surface being exposed to the heat of the burning
fire. In addition to being cooked in this way the fish absorbs a small
amount of the empyreumatic odors of the burning wood. During the baking
the shad are treated from time to time with melted butter. There is no
other way which a shad can be cooked which renders it so delicious as
by this primitive method. The shad, from an economic point of view, is
third in importance in the United States, only the salmon and the cod
exceeding it in value. The annual catch of shad on the Atlantic sea
coast numbers from 10 to 20 million, weighing from 40 to 60 million
pounds and worth from one and one-half to two million dollars.


_Composition of Shad._--

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    70.62 percent
  Protein,  18.56    „     64.36 percent
  Fat,       9.47    „     31.93    „
  Ash,       1.35    „      4.62    „

Of the whole weight of shad the average edible portion amounts to 52.35
percent, and the refuse, counting the bones, skin, and entrails is
47.65 percent.


_Shad Roe._--The eggs of shad, as has already been mentioned, are
regarded as the most valuable portion of the fish. Roe shad also are
more highly prized as a food fish than the male shad. As a result, roe
shad sell for a much higher price on the market than the male shad. The
eggs are quite small, and as has already been said, occur in immense
numbers, the average number to a fish being about 30,000.


_Composition of Shad Roe._--

  Water,    71.2 percent
  Protein,  23.4    „
  Fat,       3.8    „
  Ash,       1.6    „

Aside from the water of the roe, it is noticed that by far the most
abundant component is the protein. This, of course, is what would be
expected of an egg product. The protein is a little more than six times
as great as the fat. The ash contains large quantities of phosphorus,
which exists in the original egg, largely in the form of lecithin,
in which state it is regarded as most valuable for nourishing the
phosphatic tissues of the body. Shad roe is eaten almost entirely in
the fresh state. It does not produce a pickled or cooked product of
anything like the value of the sturgeon eggs. So far as the author
knows no form of shad egg preparation similar to caviar is on the
market.

There are three species of shad in America, but the only one of great
importance is the common Atlantic shad which has been described.


=The Sheepshead.=--This abundant and important food fish exists in
large numbers along the Atlantic coast. It also belongs to the Sparidæ
and its scientific name is _Archosargus probatocephalus_. This species
is found from Cape Cod to Texas. It is especially found in the vicinity
of oyster beds, where it is destructive to the oysters. It is quite
abundant in the Indian river, being, next to the mullet, the most
frequently found fish in those waters. Though strictly a salt-water
fish, it often runs up into fresh waters. The fish is distinguished by
the number of broad silvery colored bands extending around its entire
body. The average weight of the sheepshead is three or four pounds,
though occasionally a fish three or four times that size is captured.


_Composition of Sheepshead._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    75.55 percent
  Protein,  19.54    „     83.47 percent
  Fat,       3.69    „     13.59    „
  Ash,       1.22    „      5.14    „


=The Smelt.=--The smelt belongs to a family which has a number of
species, some of which are very abundant in Europe, where they are
highly prized even to a greater extent than in this country for food.
The smelt is a small fish, very long in proportion to its breadth.
The American smelt (_Osmerus mordax_) is found very abundantly on the
Atlantic coast north of New York. Although a sea fish, it often enters
rivers and becomes landlocked in lakes. It is found abundantly in Lakes
Champlain and Memphremagog and many of the New England and Nova Scotian
lakes. The smelt in early times was a very abundant fish.


_Composition of the Smelt._--Edible portion:

                FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    79.16 percent
  Protein,  17.37    „     84.31 percent
  Fat,       1.79    „      8.65    „
  Ash,       1.68    „      8.16    „

These data show that the flesh of the smelt is very rich in protein,
the fat falling to a very small proportion of the total edible
substance.


=Spanish Mackerel.=--This is a very highly prized fish and is eaten
largely in the fresh state along the Atlantic coast. Its scientific
name is _Scomberomorus maculatus_. The catch is subject to great
variations. In early years the Spanish mackerel was scarcely known on
our coast, but in the last forty years it has assumed considerable
importance. Although more abundant than formerly it still commands a
very high price. The weight of the full-grown mackerel is usually from
five to eight pounds, though occasionally very large individuals are
taken. Jordan and Evermann speak of one which was 41 inches long and
weighed 25 pounds.


_Composition._--Edible portion:

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    68.10 percent
  Protein,  20.97    „     67.25 percent
  Fat,       9.43    „     29.56    „
  Ash,       1.50    „      4.71    „

In this fish it is seen that the fat is a little less than one-third
the quantity of the protein.


=Sturgeon.=--The sturgeon belongs to the family of Acipenseridæ.
They are large fishes frequenting the sea and also the fresh waters
of northern regions. Most of the species are anadromous, entering
fresh water and ascending the streams in spring. There are two genera
belonging to this family and 20 species that are well defined, although
about 100 nominal species have been described. The white sturgeon or
Oregon sturgeon is found on the Pacific coast from Monterey north to
Alaska. It ascends the large rivers during the spring, notably the
Sacramento, Columbia, and Fraser rivers. Some of them are very large
and their value for food and commercial purposes has only been lately
recognized. They are principally valuable, however, for their eggs or
roe, since it is from the eggs of sturgeon that caviar is made. The roe
in the fresh state is worth from 25 to 30 cents a pound. The fresh fish
are frozen and shipped to Eastern markets.

The common sturgeon (_Acipenser sturio_) frequents the east and north
Atlantic coast and ascends the rivers in the spring, especially the
Delaware. The quantity of sturgeon taken, however, has constantly
decreased for several years. The principal part of the caviar made in
the United States is procured from the common sturgeon and the Lake
sturgeon, which is found in the Great Lakes, the upper Mississippi
Valley, and the Lake of the Woods.


_Preparation of Caviar._--After the eggs have been removed from the
fish, they are placed in large masses upon a stand, the top of which
is formed of a small-meshed screen. On the under side is placed a
zinc-lined trough, about 18 inches deep, 2 feet wide and 4 feet long.
The operator gently rubs the mass of eggs back and forth over the
screen, whose mesh is just large enough to let the eggs drop through
as they are separated from the enveloping membrane. They thus fall
into the trough from which they are drawn off into tubs through a
sliding door in one end of the trough. After all the roe has been
separated, the tub is removed and a certain proportion of the best
Luneberg salt is added and mixed with the eggs by careful stirring
with the hands. This is the most delicate part of the whole process,
and the best results can be obtained by that proficiency which comes
from long experience. After adding the salt, the eggs at first become
dry, but in 10 or 15 minutes the salt has drawn from the eggs their
watery constituents and a copious brine is formed, which is poured off
when the tub becomes too full. The salted eggs are then poured into
fine-meshed sieves which hold about 10 pounds each, where they are
allowed to drain for 8 to 20 hours. The eggs have now become the caviar
of commerce, which is put in casks or cans of various sizes.


_Composition of the Flesh of Sturgeon._--

                FRESH.           DRY.
  Water,    78.71 percent
  Protein,  17.96    „      85.19 percent
  Fat,       1.90    „       8.90    „
  Ash,       1.43    „       6.72    „


_Composition of Caviar._--

  Water,         66.05 percent
  Protein,       14.37    „
  Fat,            8.97    „
  Ash,            7.26    „
  Undetermined,   3.35    „

Of the ash, 6.16 parts of the 7.26 present are common salt.


=Composition of the Eggs of Fish.=--Attention has been called to the
valuable food properties of the eggs of fishes. The roe of a number
of fishes is celebrated both for flavor and food value. The two most
important roes are those of the sturgeon, used in the manufacture of
caviar, and the roe of shad, used principally in the fresh state.


=Composition of Roe.=--The composition of shad roe, fresh sturgeon
caviar, and pickled caviar is given in the following table:

  ---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------
                 |  WATER. | PROTEIN.|   FAT.  |   ASH.
  ---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------
                 |_Percent_|_Percent_|_Percent_|_Percent_
  Shad roe,      |  71.25  |  23.44  |   3.78  |   1.53
  Fresh caviar,  |  56.97  |  27.87  |   2.85  |   2.31
  Pickled caviar,|  50.92  |  27.92  |  13.59  |   7.57
  ---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------

The above data show a marked difference between the composition of shad
roe and sturgeon roe, the latter being very much richer in fat and
also containing a greater quantity of ash. The large quantity of ash
in the pickled caviar is doubtless due to the common salt used in the
curing. There is not a very great difference between the composition
of the roe and that of the flesh of fish. The roe is essentially a
nitrogenous food, also with a considerable quantity of fat and with
a certain amount of mineral matter. It contains less water than the
flesh of fish, and, therefore, pound for pound in the fresh state has
a larger quantity of nutrients. Otherwise, for food purposes, there is
but little difference. It is doubtless true, however, that the mineral
matters of the roe are somewhat different from those of the flesh of
fish in containing a larger quantity of organic phosphorus in the form
of lecithin.


=Striped Bass.=--The striped bass or rock (_Roccus lineatus_) is a fish
of the family Serranidæ and quite common in the Potomac. It occurs
commonly around the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is _Roccus
lineatus_. It is taken in all waters along the coast from the Carolinas
to New England, and especially near the mouth of the Potomac and in
Chesapeake Bay. It is a fairly common as well as one of the best food
fishes at Washington and in many of the fish markets on the Atlantic
coast.

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    77.70 percent
  Protein,  18.31    „     83.28 percent
  Fat,       2.83    „     12.50    „
  Ash,       1.16    „      5.22    „


=Sole.=--The term “sole” is applied here to certain species of
flounders and the two terms are sometimes used synonymously. The
true soles, however, of which there are several species, belong to a
distinct though closely related family. The species of flounder to
which the term “sole” is generally given is _Eopsetta jordani_. It
occurs along the Pacific coast from Monterey to Puget Sound. Large
numbers are taken in Monterey Bay. The average weight of this “sole”
is about three pounds. It is highly esteemed as a food fish. They are
dried in great numbers by the Chinese, who suspend them by strings on
a frame placed on the roofs of the houses, where, after they become
dry, they strike against each other when moved by the wind, producing
a sound which is something like that emanating from the leaves of a
forest.


=Tautog.=--The _Tautoga onitis_ is one of the wrasse-fishes (family
Labridæ) and is abundant along the Atlantic coast from New Brunswick to
the Carolinas. East of New York it is commonly called the “tautog.” On
the New York coast it is known as “blackfish,” and further south as the
“oyster fish.”


=Tilefish.=--The tilefish is interesting not because of its high food
value but because of the fact that it was discovered by accident in
1879 when a fisherman off the coast of Nantucket captured 5000 pounds
of a fish which was new to him. The species was also new to science.
This fish disappeared as suddenly as it came and no more were caught
until 1892. Since then they have been taken rather frequently. The
tilefish reaches a length sometimes of three feet and a weight of 30
pounds. It is pronounced by experts to be the equal of the pompano.


=Trout.=--Trout, of which there are many species, are greatly prized
both on account of their value as game fishes, affording sport for
anglers, and because of their high palatable qualities. They belong
to the same family as the Atlantic salmon and often it is difficult
to distinguish by any of its common characteristics a trout from a
salmon. This is especially true of trout of western America. The
species of trout which are most highly prized on the Pacific coast
are the cut-throat trout (_Salmo clarkii_), the rainbow trout (_Salmo
iridens_), and the steel-head (_Salmo gairdneri_). The familiar silver
trout of Lake Tahoe is another closely related species. They are
distinguished by a remarkable system of spots of a circular form, black
in color, and of varying size. The Lake Tahoe trout which is commonly
secured is not the same as the silver trout of Lake Tahoe but is of a
little different character, and is also known as the Truckee Trout,
“Pogy,” and “Snipe.” It reaches a weight of from three to six pounds
and is sometimes served on the dining cars of the Central Pacific
Railway, in running through Idaho and into California. Various other
species of the trout are found in Utah, in the Rio Grande and the
Colorado, and in the lakes of Colorado. Perhaps the most important of
these is the steel-head trout occurring along the Pacific coast. The
rainbow trout is also a fish that is highly prized along the Pacific
coast. The brook trout of western Oregon is also an important fish.


_The Trout of the Great Lakes._--The fish known as trout in the Great
Lakes belong to a different genus from those already mentioned, namely,
genus _Cristivomer_. It has, however, the typical spots, which are of
a grayish color instead of red or black like those of the other trout
which have been mentioned.

The principal species which abounds in the Great Lakes is the Mackinaw
trout (_Cristivomer namaycush_). It is also found in the large lakes
from Maine westward to the Pacific ocean and even to northern Alaska.
This is the largest species of trout. The average weight of the fish
probably does not exceed 15 or 20 pounds. Individual examples have been
found weighing over 100 pounds. There is only one common fish which
exceeds it in weight, namely, the sturgeon. Next to the white fish it
is the most important commercial fish of the Great Lakes. The supply of
lake trout has been diminishing and the price increasing for several
years. The spawning season of lake trout begins in September and
continues until December.


_Composition of Lake Trout._--

                FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    69.14 percent
  Protein,  18.22    „     60.10 percent
  Fat,      11.38    „     36.80    „
  Ash,       1.26    „      4.90    „


_Composition of Brook Trout._--

                FRESH.           DRY.
  Water,    77.72 percent
  Protein,  18.97    „     86.62 percent
  Fat,       2.10    „      9.16    „
  Ash,       1.21    „      5.39    „

The above data show that lake trout has a flesh which approximates in
composition that of Pacific salmon, being quite rich in fat, while the
brook trout has a composition more like the Atlantic salmon, being
very rich in protein and poor in fat. Trout of all kinds are used
practically in only a fresh state. The catch is not large enough to
warrant the establishment of canning factories and all that are caught
in the northern and central northern lakes and streams find a ready
market in a fresh state at much more remunerative prices than could be
obtained by canning. It is always a fortunate circumstance when the
condition of the catch and of the market are such as to enable the fish
to be eaten as fresh as possible from the water. Fish is a kind of food
which is never improved by keeping in any way and is at its best the
minute the fish is taken from the stream. The brook trout do not belong
to the same genus as the lake trout but to the genus _Salvelinus_.
They have a general resemblance, however, to that genus. As a fish to
be caught by the hook and as a victim of sport the brook trout perhaps
occupies the highest place among the fish of the country; especially
is it sought for in the mountain streams, and it occurs in most parts
of the northeastern United States. It extends from Maine to northern
Georgia and Alabama, especially in the Appalachian Mountains and west
through the Great Lakes to the Mississippi, while in Canada it is found
from Labrador to the Saskatchewan.

The brook trout has been especially cultivated by the U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries and introduced into waters in the United States where it is
not found naturally. The season for spawning for the brook trout is in
the autumn, when the water is growing colder, and continues from August
to December, according to the latitude. In spawning time the fish come
up into the smallest parts of the stream where shallow water can be
found. The eggs remain until the next spring, when they are hatched.
The brook trout varies greatly in size, according to the magnitude of
the stream. In the small streams it weighs often less than ¹⁄₄ pound,
while in large streams it weighs 2 or 3 pounds. The large trout has
almost disappeared from the small streams as a result of the activity
of fishermen.

There are many other species of trout which are known in different
parts of the country. For instance, the Dublin Pond trout of Dublin
Pond, N. H., the Dolly Varden trout in the northern Pacific states and
Alaska, the Sunapee trout in the northeastern states, and the Blueback
trout in Maine. These fishes all have practically the same quality,
varying only in minute details, and have the same value as a food.


=Turbot.=--A species of halibut known as Greenland halibut
(_Reinhardtius hippoglossoides_) is also known as turbot in this
country. It occurs chiefly off the coast of Greenland, and is taken
in the very coldest part of the year. The European turbot is _Psetta
maxima_.


=Weakfish.=--The weakfish belongs to the croaker family (Sciænidæ)
and has a high value as a food fish, the flesh being rich in flavor
and very tender and easily disintegrated, from which quality it is
believed the name “weakfish” is derived. The common weakfish is the
species _Cynoscion regalis_. It is also known in some localities as
the squeteague. The fish is rather long in proportion to its breadth
and sometimes grows to a large size. Examples weighing over 25 pounds
have been captured. Very rarely, however, does a weakfish weigh more
than 10 pounds, and the average is perhaps not more than one-half that.
The weakfish is, particularly when young, a victim of the bluefish,
and great numbers succumb to the ravages of its more powerful enemy.
The weakfish is found over the entire length of the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts as far north as the Bay of Fundy. The weakfish sometimes ascends
the tidal waters and congregates around the river mouths, where the
food is more abundant. While found on the markets in the North, it is
more highly prized in the southern markets.


_Composition._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    78.97 percent
  Protein,  17.45    „     84.63 percent
  Fat,       2.39    „     11.37    „
  Ash,       1.19    „      5.64    „

The flesh of the weakfish, as shown by the above data, is one in which
the protein exists in very much greater proportion than the fat. It is
not so rich in protein, however, as some of the other species which
have been mentioned.


=Whitefish.=--This fish occurs in large numbers in all our Great Lakes,
and is an abundant article of food. Its scientific name is _Coregonus
clupeiformis_. It inhabits the whole of the Great Lakes regions from
Lake Champlain to Lake Superior. It does not occur in very great
abundance, if at all, west of Lake Superior, although it has been
reported to have been found in the fresh water lakes both to the north
and west of that region.

The common whitefish prefers the deep water of the lakes, coming
only into shallow water near the shore at spawning time, which, in
the Great Lakes, is from October to December. During the months of
January, February, and March the fishing for whitefish is practically
discontinued, since the fish at that time have returned to deep water
and are not accessible.

The size of the whitefish in the Great Lakes is not so great as
the extent of water would indicate. Probably three pounds would be
an average size, although the individual fish range from 1¹⁄₂ to 6
pounds. The weight rarely, however, exceeds 4 or 5 pounds. Occasionally
whitefish have been found weighing as high as 20 pounds, but this is
very rare. The whitefish reaches its full average size about the end
of the fourth year. The number of eggs which are found in the female
fish is not so large as in the shad, but usually the number does not
fall below 10,000 and sometimes reaches as high as 75,000. The eggs are
very small comparatively, and about 36,000 of them make a quart. The U.
S. Bureau of Fisheries has done a great deal to increase the supply of
whitefish by planting millions of whitefish fry in suitable water.


_Different Species of Whitefish._--There are many species of whitefish
besides the common whitefish which appear in the Great Lakes. Coulter’s
whitefish is found in the waters of British Columbia, but it is not
distributed very widely throughout the country. The Rocky Mountain
whitefish is very widely distributed, occurring in all suitable waters
from the west slope of the Rockies to the Pacific. There is also a
subspecies of this fish occurring in the headwaters of the Missouri
river. Menominee whitefish occur in the lakes of New England, New York,
and the Great Lakes,--it is also known as round whitefish, frostfish,
shadwaiter, pilotfish, chivey, and blackback.


_Composition of Whitefish._--

                FRESH.         DRY.
  Water,    69.83 percent
  Protein,  22.06    „     76.00 percent
  Fat,       6.49    „     21.51    „
  Ash,       1.62    „      5.36    „


_Average Composition of Fish._[16]--

  Water,            76.06 percent
  Solids,           23.94    „
  Nitrogen,          3.51    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .52    „
  Sulfur,             .24    „
  Fat,               1.45    „
  Ash,               1.21    „
  Protein,          21.92    „

  [16] Average analysis of cod, halibut, bass, etc., used at the
  hygienic table of the Bureau of Chemistry.


=Fluorids in Fish.=--Nearly all kinds of fish yield a distinct test
for fluorin which is not to be mistaken for an adulteration. The
fluorin is found normally in the bones of the fish and sometimes in
traces in the flesh. The addition of fluorid as a preservative is
highly reprehensible, and its presence is indicated by the increase in
quantity.


=Marketing of Fish.=--In the food act it is provided that no animals
shall be used for food which have died otherwise than by slaughter.
Whether or not this would apply to fish is a matter of some doubt.
Unfortunately fish, as a rule, are allowed to die by being deprived of
oxygen, which they get from the water as it passes over their gills.
The common practice is to take the fish for commercial purposes in
seines or other gear and allow them to die, as it were, by suffocation.
The greater number of fish exposed upon our markets have died in this
way and are then packed in ice and kept until sold. The ideal way
to treat fish would be to transfer them from the seine to a pool of
water, fresh or salt, in which they are kept alive until they are
wanted for cooking. This method is practiced in some very high-grade
restaurants and hotels where the diner may pick for himself from the
pool the fish he desires to eat. It is evident that for commercial
purposes where a cheap food is desirable a method of this kind could
not be practiced. It is a question which the hygienist as well as the
practical man should consider, that is, whether or not it is possible
to slaughter the fish and, as soon as they are taken, dress them, pack
their carcasses in ice, and in this way deliver them to the markets.
Where fish are used for canning or salting purposes they are often
slaughtered as soon as caught. This is particularly true of herring
captured in the Potomac and Susquehanna rivers. It is an interesting
problem to study whether or not the flavor and character of the flesh
are impaired by the suffocation process subsequent to their capture.
In all cases except in cold weather, the fish after capture, no matter
whether they are allowed to die by suffocation or slaughtered, should
be packed in ice and kept until the market is reached, which should be
at as early a date as possible. Fish are never so good as when fresh
and the fresher the better.


=Cold Storage.=--Fish is a product which is often found in cold storage
in large numbers and kept there for a long time. The usual problem
attending the cold storage of food is even more important when
applied to fish. In cold storage fish are frozen solid and kept in
this state until ready for consumption. Just how long the palatability
and wholesomeness of fish can be preserved when frozen solid has not
been determined. It follows logically that the colder the temperature
the less the degree of deterioration, but it does not follow logically
that this temperature can be maintained indefinitely without injuring
the character of the product. One thing appears to be certain, namely,
that the consumer is entitled to know whether in any given case the
fish he purchases is a fresh or a cold storage article. At the present
time, in so far as I know, there are no national, state, or municipal
laws whereby this fact can be ascertained. Without raising the question
of comparative value or palatability there is no doubt but what the
consumer is entitled to know the character of the fish he purchases.


=Canning Fish.=--Allusion has already been made to the practice of
canning fish, especially salmon. Great precautions must be used in
cases of this kind, since fish is a food which tends to develop
poisonous principles incident to decomposition. Canned fish, therefore,
must be thoroughly sterilized so that no fermentative action tending to
produce ptomain poison can possibly take place. It should be the duty
of inspectors of food to frequently examine packages of canned fish to
determine, first, by the external appearance of the can, and, second,
by opening a certain number of them, whether any decomposition has
taken place. Too great care cannot be exercised in this matter, since
dangerous and often fatal results follow the consumption of spoiled
fish.


=Drying and Salting Fish.=--The preservation of fish by pickling,
salting, drying, and smoking is a great industry and produces some of
the most palatable products. Mackerel, herring, and cod are types of
fish which upon proper curing make a most delectable dish. Nothing but
encouragement should be given to industries of this kind, but in order
that they be of their true value they should be conducted properly with
due regard to hygienic principles and for the sole purpose of making a
wholesome and palatable product.


=Adulteration of Fish Products.=--Attention has already been called
to the adulteration of salmon by canning an inferior grade or even a
different kind of fish under the name of a better species. The same
remark may be made respecting all fish, hake, haddock, and cusk being
often offered as cod. In the case of sardines a similar practice is
in vogue, and the small herring which are captured off the coast of
Maine are often sold under the name of sardines. The substitution of
one variety of fish for another, however, is injurious only in the way
of fraud, the substitute fish presumably being of equal wholesomeness
to the other under whose name it is sold. On the contrary, the form
of sophistication which permits the introduction of deleterious
substances into fish food is highly objectionable from the dietetic
point of view. Following the general principles of nutrition, all
chemical, non-condimental preservatives are to be rigidly excluded
from fish products. This rule excludes boric acid, borax, benzoic acid
and benzoates, sulfites, formaldehyde, and all other forms of chemical
preservatives.

When fish are packed in oil the character of the oil used should
be made known to the consumer. Especially is this true if from the
locality where the fish is preserved and the general method of packing
the consumer is led to believe that a high-grade oil such as olive oil
has been used.


=Value of Fish as Food.=--From the statements which have been made
in connection with fish in particular and the analyses which have
been given it is seen that fish is a food of a peculiarly nitrogenous
character. The edible portions, exclusive of water, are at least
three-fourths, and probably more composed of protein. The other edible
nutritive product is fat or fish oil. The mineral nutrients compose
the remaining edible portion of fish after the protein and fat are
considered. The mineral portions of fish cannot be regarded as not
nutritious since they contain phosphoric acid and lime, which are
essential ingredients of food. The flesh of fish, however, as it has
been seen, is not a complete ration, but is lacking in carbohydrates,
and for this reason fish should be eaten with potatoes, rice, or other
highly starchy foods. The value of fish as a food is unquestionable and
its more general consumption would doubtless prove beneficial.

Those who live in the interior of large and extensive regions where
fresh water fish are not very abundant do not appreciate the value of
fish as food as do those who live upon the coasts washed by salt water
and near the interior fresh waters where an abundant supply of fish is
secured.


SHELLFISH.


=Clams.=--Clams are shellfish which, though not so extensively used as
the oyster, are valued food products. The clams of commerce are of two
kinds. The species known as long or soft clam is abundant on the New
England coast, and is of considerable commercial importance both fresh
and as a canned product. This is the clam used at clam bakes, for which
the New England coast is famous. Its technical name is _Mya arenaria_.

The other species, the round or hard clam, northward known as quahog,
is the most common clam of the markets south of New York. Its
scientific name is _Venus mercenaria_.

A very small round clam is known as the little neck. This has a flavor
which is extremely delicate and it takes the place, in the warm months,
of the blue point oyster on the menus of the hotels and restaurants.
The clam may be considered as a supplemental shellfish to the oyster,
being most delicious and most abundant during the closed oyster
season. The average weight of the round clam is about 60 grams, of
which about one-fourth is flesh, one-fourth liquid, and one-half shell
and refuse. There are many specimens very much larger than this but the
weight is given for those usually eaten.


_Composition of Clams._--Edible portion:

  Water,         78.57 percent
  Protein,       14.86    „
  Fat,            1.78    „
  Ash,            2.49    „
  Undetermined,   2.30    „

The liquid which escapes upon the opening of the shell is composed
chiefly of water and salt and its composition is as follows:

  Water,         96.02 percent
  Protein,         .65    „
  Fat,            None
  Common salt,    2.81    „
  Undetermined,    .52    „

The flesh of clams, it is seen, is not very different from that of fish
in general. It is composed chiefly of water and of the nutrients the
protein is the predominating constituent. The ash content is somewhat
higher than is the case with fish.

If the flesh and fluid substance of the clam be considered together the
composition of the whole mass is represented by the following data:

  Water,         86.11 percent
  Protein,        8.71    „
  Fat,            1.01    „
  Ash,            2.63    „
  Undetermined,   1.54    „


_Composition of Water-free Substance of the Flesh._--

  Protein,       69.37 percent
  Fat,            8.32    „
  Ash,           11.64    „
  Undetermined,  10.67    „


_Composition of the Dry Substance of the Liquid Portion._--

  Protein,       16.37 percent
  Fat,             .10    „
  Ash,           70.41    „
  Undetermined,  13.12    „


_Composition of the Dry Substance of the Flesh and Liquid Together._--

  Protein,       62.81 percent
  Fat,            7.30    „
  Ash,           18.92    „
  Undetermined,  10.97    „


=The Lobster= (_Homarus americanus_).--The lobster is a crustacean
which occurs along the northern Atlantic coast. Formerly it was so very
abundant that it was almost a drug on the market. In the last quarter
of a century the increase in the consumption of the lobster has been
more rapid than the increased growth, so that the price has become
higher and higher; and this, to a certain extent, is limiting the
consumption. The coast of Maine is especially the fishing grounds for
the American lobster, though it is found much further south and also
in great abundance further north. The lobster varies greatly in size.
The law, at the present time, prevents very young lobsters from being
sent into commerce. They are usually from 10.5 to 15 inches in length,
though occasionally examples of enormous size are taken. The edible
portion of the lobster is the liquid and the flesh of the body, claws,
and tail. Only about one-half the weight of the lobster, including the
liquid, therefore, is edible. The rest is refuse. In a lobster weighing
a thousand grams (2.2 pounds), five hundred grams (1.1 pound) will be
the average edible portion, and the other half the refuse and loss.
The average lobster of the present day, perhaps, weighs scarcely two
pounds, though in former times the weight was very much greater because
the younger and smaller lobsters were not sent to the market. The color
of the lobster as it comes from the water is dark green, almost black
at times. Heat changes the color of the shell, so that after boiling or
baking the lobster becomes red. The flesh of the lobster is decidedly
sweet, owing to the large quantity of glycogen which it contains. There
is only one kind of meat that is eaten which approaches the lobster in
its content of glycogen, and that is horse meat.


_Composition of the Lobster._--Edible portion:

                 FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,     84.30 percent
  Protein,   11.63    „     74.06 percent
  Fat,        1.82    „     11.62    „
  Ash,        1.63    „     10.38    „
  Glycogen,    .62    „      3.94    „


=Crabs.=--The crab is a shellfish very highly prized along the whole
of the Atlantic coast. Numerous species of crabs are used for food.
These are used in two forms--as hard-shelled or soft-shelled crabs. The
species most valued is _Callinectes hastatus_. It is very abundant on
the middle and south Atlantic coast. Crabs are quite abundant on the
Pacific coast also. About 44 percent of the total weight of the crab is
edible and 56 percent shell and refuse. In the edible portion about 77
percent is water and 23 percent solid matter.


_Composition of the Water-free Substance of the Crab._--

  Protein,  72.56 percent
  Fat,       8.55    „
  Ash,      13.64    „

The flesh of the crab is, therefore, essentially a nitrogenous food,
containing only a small quantity of fat. A considerable portion of the
ash is common salt.


=Crawfish.=--The crawfish may be regarded as a fresh-water lobster. It
is found practically over the whole of the United States in the fresh
waters but is not used to any extent for food purposes, except on the
Pacific coast. It contains even a less proportion of edible matter
than the lobster. The refuse, shell, etc., form about five-sixths of
its weight. In the edible portion the water constitutes 81.22 percent,
while the solid matters are only 18.78 percent.

_Composition of the Water-free Substance of the Crayfish._--

  Protein,  85.19 percent
  Fat,       2.45    „
  Ash,       6.98    „


=Canned Lobster, Clams, and Crabs.=--As in the case of oysters, there
is a large industry in the United States engaged in the canning of
the flesh of lobsters, clams, and crabs. The same precautions should
be observed in the eating of these canned products as those mentioned
in the case of salmon. Numerous instances of illness and sometimes of
death have been recorded as the result of eating these canned products
which have been imperfectly sterilized. When the flesh is canned
immediately after the capture of the animal, before any incipient
decomposition has taken place and when the sterilization is perfect,
the canned product can be eaten without fear. Where the health of the
people is so seriously involved, the factories where these products
are prepared should be carefully inspected either by the municipal,
state, or federal authorities. All material used in canning which is
not perfectly fresh from the water is to be rejected and the processes
employed in the preparation and sterilization must be those which will
effectively secure a complete immunity from subsequent fermentation and
the development of ptomain products.


_Composition of Canned Lobster (Dry Substance)._--

  Protein,  81.46 percent
  Fat,       4.64    „
  Ash,      11.23    „

As seen from the above the composition of the dry substance in canned
lobster, except content of water, is not perceptibly different from
that of the fresh sample.


_Composition of the Dry Substance of Canned Crabs._--

  Protein,  79.10 percent
  Fat,       7.55    „
  Ash,       9.68    „


=Shrimp= (_Crangon vulgaris_).--The shrimp is a highly valued article
of food, especially when it can be had fresh or properly canned. It
has been a practice to ship shrimps in bulk preserved with sulfites or
boric acid. This is a most reprehensible form of adulteration.


=Canned Shrimps.=--In the total dry edible portion, including solids in
the liquid contents of the can, are found:

  Protein,   86.89 percent
  Fat,        3.44    „
  Crude ash,  8.84    „

In edible portion (flesh plus liquids):

  Water,                  70.80 percent
  Water-free substance,   29.20    „
  Protein,                25.38    „
  Fat,                     1.00    „
  Crude ash,               2.58    „
  Extractives,             0.24    „
  Nitrogen,                4.06    „
  Total edible portion,  100.00    „

The above data show that the shrimp in the canned state has less water
in it than in the fresh state, and contains one-fourth of its weight of
protein.


=Aquatic Reptiles.=--All forms of turtle may be used for edible
purposes, both of the fresh-water and salt-water species. Both the
turtle and terrapin are amphibious animals; that is, they can live
either in the water or on the land. Among the turtles the marine
variety known as the green turtle is most highly prized for food
purposes. Its Latin name is _Chelonia mydas_. It grows sometimes to an
enormous size, weighing several hundred pounds, and specimens weighing
50 and 100 pounds are not unusual. It is utilized chiefly for making
soup, and green turtle soup is considered of high quality by experts.
The flesh is also edible, and in the making of some varieties of green
turtlesoup pieces of the flesh are included.


_Composition of the Green Turtle._--The edible portion of the green
turtle has the following composition:

  Water,    79.78 percent
  Protein,  19.83    „
  Fat,        .53    „
  Ash,       1.20    „

The edible portion of the green turtle is not very large in proportion
to its weight, as it forms only from 20 to 24 percent of the whole
weight of the turtle.

Among the reptiles there are several aquatic species which are used
as food. The most noted of these is the diamond-back terrapin, which
is found in the salt-water bays, lagoons, and marshes of our Atlantic
coast from New Jersey to Texas. Its center of greatest abundance is
in Chesapeake Bay. There is no fish or other water animal that has
a higher value for edible purposes than the terrapin. The extreme
delicacy of its flavor, the richness of its aroma, and its easy
digestibility give to it a rank which perhaps no other usual food
product possesses. In addition to this the increased scarcity of
the terrapin, especially the more famous variety of it, namely, the
diamond-back, has gradually increased the cost until at the present
time the terrapin is eaten only by the rich. In the United States it
exists along the whole Atlantic coast from New York southward and also
along the Gulf coast. Formerly it was most abundant on the Maryland
coast, but the nearness of this field to the great markets of the
country has resulted in such a depletion of the stock as to make the
terrapin very scarce. Many attempts have been made at artificial
growing of terrapin and these have been more or less successful, but
have not met with pronounced success which has been expected. The
enclosure in which the terrapin are kept, viz., the “crawl,” is a
feature in the artificial cultivation or breeding of these marine
vertebrates. It is to be hoped that greater success in the future will
attend the artificial breeding of terrapin, since the natural stock
seems well on the way to extinction.


_Composition of the Terrapin._--Edible portion:

               FRESH.          DRY.
  Water,    74.47 percent
  Protein,  21.23    „     83.13 percent
  Fat,       3.47    „     13.59   „
  Ash,       1.02    „      3.99   „


=The Mussel.=--The mussel may be described as a fresh-water oyster. It
occurs in almost all parts of the United States in the fresh waters and
in external appearance resembles to some extent the oyster, but the
shell is usually smoother. In the mussel is often developed concretions
of the carbonate of lime in a particular form known as pearls. In fact
the chief value of the mussel is in the supply of pearls which they
furnish, since their flesh, although often eaten, is not considered
very palatable nor desirable. Pearls may be found in mussels in
every locality, but in some regions they are more abundant than in
others,--for instance, the mussels of Wisconsin are especially noted
for the occurrence of the pearls. Pearls are also frequently found in
oysters, but by no means so frequently as in the mussel.


_Composition of the Mussel._--The edible portion of the mussel forms
about one-half its weight.

  Water,         78.64 percent
  Protein,       12.51    „
  Fat,            1.67    „
  Ash,            1.73    „
  Undetermined,   5.45    „


=Oysters.=--Oysters belong to a class of animals known as mollusks.
They grow in salt or brackish water and are found along almost the
whole of the coast of the United States. They exist in the greatest
abundance along the coast in the vicinity of Long Island Sound,
Norfolk, Virginia, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, off the coast
of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and along the Pacific coast from
San Francisco to the northern limits of Washington.


_Size._--The size of an oyster depends greatly upon its food and also
upon its species. There are some varieties which at a given period of
growth are naturally very much larger than others. The larger variety
grows near Norfolk and along the Gulf coast. A smaller species is
especially abundant on the Pacific coast, though a number of very large
specimens of oysters have been found on that coast.


_Age._--An oyster is eaten at any time after two years. Oysters,
however, three or four years old are, perhaps, in all respects the
best. The age is determined largely by the appearance of the shell,
experts being able to practically determine the age of an oyster by an
examination of the shell.

The oyster grows within a shell which is composed almost exclusively
of carbonate of lime. The periphery of the shell is ovoid in shape,
irregular, and the surface, especially of old oysters, is corrugated,
rough, and unattractive. The interior of the shell is smooth and
generally white, but sometimes has a blue or reddish tinge. The shells
of edible oysters vary in size from 2 to 6 inches in length and from
2 to 4 inches in width. The oysters sold in the market are known by
various names, usually derived from the location from which they come.
A small variety distinguished by a blue color on the inside of the
shell is known as blue points. The real blue points come only from Long
Island. Another variety named Rockaway is also a Long Island variety,
and should come exclusively from Rockaway or vicinity. Shrewsbury is
another highly prized variety from the neighborhood of Shrewsbury, New
Jersey. Buzzards Bay, James River, Norfolk, Lynnhaven, Rappahannock,
Stony Creek, Saddle Rock, etc., are names commonly found in the trade.
Unfortunately, the name of the location is not always an indication of
the actual source from which the oysters may have come. For instance
the term “blue point” is now very commonly given to small oysters not
exceeding 2 or 2¹⁄₂ inches in length with a correspondingly diminished
breadth. On the contrary “saddle rock” is a name given to very large
oysters no matter from what region they may come. It is a common
practice to separate the oysters taken from one location into groups of
similar size and attach to each group a special name which may or may
not be indicative of location.


_Cultivation of Oysters._--The natural beds of oysters are rapidly
exhausted by the free fishing which is in some cases allowed, and
the supply must be kept up by proper cultivation. Oyster farming
has become a great industry along all parts of the coasts where the
conditions are well suited to culture. The ideal conditions are inlets
where the oysters are protected from the action of ocean waves and
where abundant food can be derived from the low marshy grounds in the
vicinity. The laws in force in the states protect the oyster farms
from poachers and deeds are given for oyster beds which are beyond the
low water line. The conditions of culture vary in various states. The
public beds are also protected by law in many states and incipient
war is sometimes carried on between the authorities of one state and
the poachers from other states. Maryland, especially, has laws of a
very strict character respecting the taking of oysters, and the state
furnishes armed forces for the protection of public beds.


_Season for Oysters._--The best season for oysters on the Atlantic
coast of the United States extends from September first to May. These
dates may also be applied to oysters of the Gulf and Pacific coasts.
It is commonly said that all months which have an “R” in them are
suitable for eating oysters. In point of fact oysters are eaten the
year round, especially on the Atlantic coast, though to a very limited
extent during the spring and summer months. Those who own their own
oyster beds are privileged to take oysters at all seasons, and it is
not unusual that a restaurant furnishes oysters during the whole year,
those in the closed season being derived from private beds.


_Life of an Oyster._--After an oyster is taken from its bed it may be
kept alive for a long time at a temperature which does not rise too
high nor sink too low. The best temperature for keeping oysters alive
is about 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The oysters should be protected
from the sunlight by a proper covering in a cool place and kept moist
with sea water or brine which is sprinkled over them in such a way as
to come in contact with each oyster in the heap. Oysters kept under
these conditions often remain in an excellent state for consumption for
a week or ten days or even longer. If such conditions are maintained
oysters may be shipped in bulk to all parts of the country in cars kept
cool, and this is the best way in which oysters should be distributed
for consumption in a fresh state.

The treating of oysters with fresh water in order to swell them and
thus make them appear larger and plumper than they really are is a
treatment which is reprehensible in every respect. Not only does
it deceive the customer in regard to the size of the oyster but it
deprives the oyster of its proper taste and flavor. “Soaked” oysters
quickly lose their flavor, whereas the oysters kept as above described
and sprinkled with brine retain their natural flavor and odor. The
objection to the transportation of oysters in this way is that the
shell usually weighs many times more than the oyster and the same
rate of freight must be paid upon it as upon the oyster itself.
Nevertheless, the fact remains that fresh oysters should be eaten
directly after removal from the shells. As soon as the shell is removed
and the oyster killed by this removal it begins to deteriorate and in a
short time its flavor and aroma are impaired. It is a common practice
in many cities, even where oysters are delivered fresh daily from
their beds, to open large quantities of them and put them in tubs and
sell them from these tubs to customers. It thus happens that customers
often buy oysters that have been opened 24 hours or more and which are
naturally of a very changed flavor. Strict regulations in regard to the
use of fresh oysters, favoring their being opened when they are ready
for consumption or requiring that they should be kept in the condition
of palatability and properly kept cool until ready for consumption,
should be observed.


_Shipment of Opened Oysters._--Opened oysters are shipped extensively
to all parts of the country. After removal from the shell the oysters
are washed to remove the natural water, since this becomes ropy during
shipment. They are then packed in wooden tubs of various sizes, a
piece of ice added, covered, and delivered to the fast express or
freight service. In this way the oysters may be kept free of dangerous
deterioration for several days. In such cases care must be exercised
to keep the temperature low and to secure a sanitary environment.
Thus protected the oysters should arrive at their destination without
any further change than the necessary loss of flavor caused by the
conditions of preparation and transportation.


_Proportion of Shell and Oysters._--The following illustration (Report
of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1888, page 784)
shows the relative proportion of the flesh, liquid, and refuse for two
or three varieties of oysters:

  Name: Oysters (“East Rivers”).

  Locality: Cow Bay, Long Island Sound, New York.

  Received: April 8, 1881, from E. G. Blackford.

  Description: Length, 2¹⁄₂ to 5¹⁄₂ inches; breadth, 1³⁄₄ to 3¹⁄₂
  inches.

WEIGHINGS IN PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS.

                           GRMS.   LBS.  OZ.  PERCENT.
  Flesh,                    558.0   1    3.6   10.27
  Liquid,                   543.7   1    3.1   10.01
  Refuse (shells, etc.),  4,284.7   9    7.2   78.86
  Loss,                      47.3  ..    1.7     .86
                          -------  --   ----  ------
  Total, 51 oysters,      5,433.7  11   15.6  100.00

  Name: Oysters (“Sounds”).

  Locality: Princess Bay, Staten Island, New York.

  Received: November 30, 1881, from Dorlon & Shaffer, New York City.

  Description: Thirty oysters in shell.

WEIGHINGS IN PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS.

                       GRMS.   LBS.  OZ.   PERCENT.
  Flesh,                384.0   ..  13.5    8.24
  Liquid,               436.0   ..  15.4    9.35
  Refuse,             3,816.0    8   6.6   81.87
  Loss,                  25.0   ..   0.9    0.54
                      -------   --  ----  ------
  Total, 30 oysters,  4,661.0   10   4.4  100.00

The above data show that for 100 pounds of shelled oysters only about
10 pounds of meat are found. There is also about 10 pounds of liquid
or juice that escapes when the oyster is opened. There is an average
of 80 pounds of shell and other refuse. When it is remembered that, as
will be shown in the table given below, in 10 pounds of the meat there
is over 80 percent of water it is seen that the actual nourishment
contained in 100 pounds of oysters is reduced to a little over 1 pound.
There is a general opinion that oysters are a very nutritious food and
this is true in so far as the nitrogenous element of food, that is, the
protein, is concerned, and in proportion to the quantity present. As a
nourishing food the oyster cannot be considered as worthy of any very
great esteem. It must be confessed that it will continue to be used as
it has been in the past, that is, practically, as a condimental food
substance and not to satisfy hunger nor provide the heat and energy of
the human activities.


_Process of Floating._--Reference has already been made to the practice
of soaking oysters in fresh water for the purpose of making them
more plump and increasing their weight. This, in the language of the
fisherman, is called “floating,” “drinking,” or “laying out.” By this
process the body of the oyster affects a plumpness and largeness which
materially increases its selling qualities, as it increases its weight
and size and, therefore, the profits of the dealer. The principle of
this process depends upon the fact that when a soft substance like an
oyster, containing a mineral salt in its composition, is brought in
contact with water, a process of diffusion takes place which is known,
in chemical physics, as osmosis, whereby water passes through the cell
walls and enters the cells of the oyster and the mineral substance
thereof is forced out into the external water. Larger volumes of water
pass into the cells than accompany the particles of mineral matter to
the outside of the cells and the result is a swelling of the oysters
and consequent increase in the size and weight by the addition of pure
water, but at the expense of the natural salt, mostly chlorid of sodium
or common salt, which the oyster contains.

The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been experimenting to show the change
which takes place with the following results:--

STATISTICS OF WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SPECIMENS OF OYSTERS.

  ----------------+-------------------------------------+
                  |            JAMES RIVER.[17]         |
  ----------------+------------------+------------------+
                  |                  |                  |
  CONSTITUENTS.   |    From beds.    |   From floats.   |
                  +------------------+------------------+
                  | Lab. No. 82; 31  | Lab. No. 83; 34  |
                  |    oysters.      |    oysters.      |
  ----------------+-------+----------+-------+----------+
  Shell contents: |_Grms._|_Lbs. Oz._|_Grms._|_Lbs. Oz._|
  Flesh (body)    |  312.5|      11.0|  412.5|      14.5|
  Liquids (liquor)|  181.5|       6.4|  208.0|       7.3|
                  +-------+----------+-------+----------+
  Total           |  494.0|  1    1.4|  620.5|  1    5.8|
                  +=======+==========+=======+==========+
  Refuse:         |       |          |       |          |
  Shells          | 2778.0|  6    2.0| 2976.0|  6    9.1|
  Loss[18]        |   21.0|       0.8|   17.5|       0.6|
                  +-------+----------+-------+----------+
  Total           | 2799.0|  6    2.8| 2993.5|  6    9.7|
                  +=======+==========+=======+==========+
  Total weight of |       |          |       |          |
  specimen        | 3293.0|  7    4.2| 3614.0|  7   15.5|
  ----------------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

  ----------------+-------------------------------------
                  |           POTOMAC RIVER.[17]
  ----------------+------------------+------------------
                  |                  |
  CONSTITUENTS.   |    From beds.    |    From floats.
                  +------------------+------------------
                  | Lab. No. 85; 35  |  Lab. No. 84; 41
                  |    oysters.      |     oysters.
  ----------------+-------+----------+--------+---------
  Shell contents: |_Grms._|_Lbs. Oz._|_Grms._|_Lbs. Oz._
  Flesh (body)    |  302.5|      10.7|  415.5|      14.7
  Liquids (liquor)|  282.0|      10.0|  264.3|       9.3
                  +-------+----------+-------+----------
  Total           |  584.5|  1    4.7|  679.8|  1    8.0
                  +=======+==========+=======+==========
  Refuse:         |       |          |       |
  Shells          | 3017.0|  6   10.4| 3386.0|  7    7.4
  Loss[18]        |   22.5|       0.8|   15.2|       0.5
                  +-------+----------+-------+----------
  Total           | 3039.5|  6   11.2| 3401.2|  7    7.9
                  +=======+==========+=======+==========
  Total weight of |       |          |       |
  specimen        | 3624.0|  7   15.9| 4081.0|  8   15.9
  ----------------+-------+----------+-------+----------

  [17] Transplanted to beds in New Haven harbor, Connecticut, in April,
  and taken for analysis the following November.

  [18] Loss in opening and weighing, chiefly water.

COMPARATIVE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF OYSTERS BEFORE AND AFTER
“FLOATING.”

  -------------------------+---------------------+---------------------
                           |JAMES RIVER OYSTERS  |POTOMAC RIVER OYSTERS
                           |  TRANSPLANTED TO    |  TRANSPLANTED TO
                           |     NEW HAVEN.      |     NEW HAVEN.
  -------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
  CONSTITUENTS OF OYSTERS. | As taken | As taken | As taken | As taken
                           |   from   |   from   |   from   |   from
                           |   beds.  |  floats. |   beds.  |  floats.
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
                           |  No. 82. |  No. 83. |  No. 85. |  No. 84.
  -------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
  _In whole specimen:_     |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
    Shell contents:        |          |          |          |
      Flesh                |    9.49  |   11.41  |    8.35  |   10.18
      Liquids              |    5.51  |    5.76  |    7.78  |    6.48
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total shell        |          |          |          |
        contents           |   15.00  |   17.17  |   16.13  |   16.66
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
    Refuse:                |          |          |          |
      Shells               |   84.36  |   82.35  |   83.25  |   82.97
      Loss in preparation  |          |          |          |
      for analysis         |    0.64  |    0.48  |    0.62  |    0.37
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total refuse       |   85.00  |   82.83  |   83.87  |   83.34
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
        Total constituents,|          |          |          |
        shell contents, and|          |          |          |
        refuse             |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
  _In flesh (body):_       |          |          |          |
      Water                |   77.99  |   82.77  |   77.90  |   82.06
      Water-free substance |   22.01  |   17.23  |   22.10  |   17.94
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total flesh        |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
    In water-free          |          |          |          |
    substance:             |          |          |          |
      Nitrogen             |    1.70  |    1.40  |    1.65  |    1.45
      Protein (nitrogen ×  |          |          |          |
      6.25)                |   10.63  |    8.79  |   10.31  |    9.09
      Fat (ether extract)  |    2.61  |    1.91  |    2.33  |    1.93
      Ash                  |    2.21  |    1.55  |    2.17  |    1.58
      Carbohydrates, etc.  |          |          |          |
      (by difference)      |    6.56  |    4.98  |    7.29  |    5.34
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total water-free   |          |          |          |
        substance          |   22.01  |   17.23  |   22.10  |   17.94
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
  _In liquids:_            |          |          |          |
      Water                |   94.74  |   95.22  |   94.99  |   95.69
      Water-free substance |    5.26  |    4.78  |    5.01  |    4.31
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total liquids      |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
    In water-free          |          |          |          |
    substance:             |          |          |          |
      Nitrogen             |    0.31  |    0.34  |    0.29  |    0.33
      Protein (nitrogen ×  |          |          |          |
      6.25)                |    1.95  |    2.09  |    1.81  |    2.05
      Fat (ether extract)  |    0.04  |    0.13  |    0.02  |    0.01
      Ash                  |    2.54  |    1.42  |    2.47  |    1.19
      Carbohydrates, etc.  |          |          |          |
      (by difference)      |    0.73  |    1.14  |    0.71  |    1.06
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total water-free   |          |          |          |
        substance          |    5.26  |    4.78  |    5.01  |    4.31
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
  _In total shell contents,|          |          |          |
  flesh, and liquids:_     |          |          |          |
      Water                |   84.15  |   86.95  |   86.14  |   87.36
      Water-free substance |   15.85  |   13.05  |   13.86  |   12.64
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total shell        |          |          |          |
        contents           |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
    In water-free          |          |          |          |
    substance:             |          |          |          |
      Nitrogen             |    1.19  |    1.05  |    0.99  |    1.02
      Protein (nitrogen ×  |          |          |          |
      6.25)                |    7.44  |    6.54  |    6.20  |    6.37
      Fat (ether extract)  |    1.66  |    1.31  |    1.21  |    1.18
      Ash                  |    2.32  |    1.50  |    2.32  |    1.43
      Carbohydrates, etc.  |          |          |          |
      (by difference)      |    4.43  |    3.70  |    4.13  |    3.66
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total water-free   |          |          |          |
        substance          |   15.85  |   13.05  |   13.86  |   12.64
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
  _In whole specimen:_     |          |          |          |
    Shell contents:        |          |          |          |
      Water                |   12.62  |   14.93  |   13.89  |   14.55
      Water-free substance |    2.38  |    2.24  |    2.24  |    2.11
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total shell        |          |          |          |
        contents           |   15.00  |   17.17  |   16.13  |   16.66
      Refuse               |   85.00  |   82.83  |   83.87  |   83.34
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
        Total shell        |          |          |          |
        contents and refuse|  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00  |  100.00
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
  _In whole specimen:_     |          |          |          |
    Shell contents:        |          |          |          |
      Nitrogen             |    0.18  |    0.18  |    0.16  |    0.17
      Protein (nitrogen ×  |          |          |          |
      6.25)                |    1.12  |    1.12  |    1.00  |    1.06
      Fat (ether extract)  |    0.25  |    0.22  |    0.20  |    0.20
      Ash                  |    0.35  |    0.26  |    0.37  |    0.24
      Carbohydrates, etc.  |          |          |          |
      (by difference)      |    0.66  |    0.64  |    0.67  |    0.61
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
        Total water-free   |          |          |          |
        substance          |    2.38  |    2.24  |    2.24  |    2.11
      Water                |   12.62  |   14.93  |   13.89  |   14.55
                           +----------+----------+----------+----------
  Total shell-contents     |   15.00  |   17.17  |   16.13  |   16.66
                           +==========+==========+==========+==========
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------


_Result of Treatment._--As shown by the data the first result is one
which would naturally be expected, namely, that the total weight of
the oyster thus inflated with water is increased relatively to the
total weight of the shell since no change takes place in the weight
of the shell during floating. The gain of weight in the oyster is due
to the absorption of the water, although there is a loss of mineral
salt. The average gain of the oyster was, in round numbers, 10 percent.
The danger of infecting oysters thus treated with any germs, which
may be present in the water or ice used, should also be taken into
consideration.

In respect of the composition of the oyster itself when subjected to
floating the chief change is in the increase of the water content. As
has already been said the process of floating is fatal to the flavor
and palatability of the product.


_Adulteration._--The chief adulterations of oysters are the “floating”
above described and the treatment of the “shucked” oysters with
formaldehyde, boron compounds, and other preservatives to keep them
from spoiling. These processes are thoroughly reprehensible and are
rapidly disappearing. The consumer who lives near the source of
supply should never eat any but freshly shelled oysters and those at
a distance confine themselves to the properly prepared and shipped
article. The chief delight of the epicure is the freshness, and not the
quantity of nourishment of this justly prized bivalve.


_Average Composition of Oysters:_[19]--

  Water,            60.08 percent
  Solids,           39.92    „
  Nitrogen,          1.56    „
  Phosphoric acid,    .42    „
  Sulfur,             .19    „
  Fat,               9.48    „
  Ash,               1.77    „
  Protein,           9.73    „

  [19] Average of samples used at Hygienic Table, Bureau of Chemistry.


ANIMAL OILS.

The same distinction is made between oils and fats for animal products
as has been made for the vegetable preparations further on. An animal
fat remains solid or semisolid at the ordinary temperature of the
living room. An animal oil, on the other hand, is one which at ordinary
temperature is a liquid. Animal oils, as a rule, are not used for
edible purposes directly, but are used to some extent in cooking, and
to a large extent as medicinal food. Inasmuch as these oils are used
for medicinal food purposes, those which are most important in this
use may be very properly described in this manual. As these oils are
derived both from sea and land animals they are often conveniently
divided into marine animal oils and terrestrial animal oils. There is
also a marked difference as a rule between the oils of marine origin
and those of terrestrial origin. The oils of marine origin, as a rule,
have a very high iodin number while the animal oils of terrestrial
origin have an iodin number not much greater than the fats from which
they are derived. This distinction corresponds somewhat closely to
those vegetable oils which belong to the drying and non-drying variety.
The iodin number represents the percentage of iodin absorbed by a unit
weight of substance. If one gram of an oil absorb 0.67 gram of iodin,
the iodin number is 67. The marine oils correspond to the dry vegetable
oils and the terrestrial oils to the non-drying vegetable oils. While
this difference is one which is marked, it does not always exist in
each individual case.


MARINE ANIMAL OILS.

The marine animal oils may be conveniently divided into fish oils,
liver oils, and blubber oils. Of these the liver oils are the most
important from an edible point of view or a medicinal edible point of
view. The fish oil and blubber oil are used chiefly for illuminating
and other technical purposes.


=Fish Oils.=--These are obtained by rendering from all parts of a fish
where fat exists. The herring, sardine, salmon, and the menhaden are
the fish which are chiefly used for getting oil of this kind. The fish
oils have very much improved in quality since the steamer has taken the
place of the sail boat for gathering the fish. During the days of the
sail boat the fish were often kept for ten days after seining before
they were brought ashore. The decomposition which took place would
naturally affect the oil. At the present day the steamers fishing close
to the shores deliver their products much more frequently, often the
same day they are caught, and thus a better quality of oil is produced.
In this country menhaden is the chief fish used for obtaining oil.
The scientific name of menhaden is _Brevoortia tyrannus_. These fish
appear in enormous quantities around the Atlantic coast from May until
November. It is estimated that nearly one-half million tons have been
taken of these fish during a season. Menhaden oil is rarely if ever
used for edible purposes. It is used principally in the leather trade
and sometimes in the adulteration of cod liver oil made in Newfoundland.


_Sardine Oil._--Sardine oil is principally prepared in Japan from the
Japan sardine (_Clupea sardinus_). It is not used to any extent for
edible purposes. It is also prepared to some extent in the boiling of
sardines in France preparatory to packing in oil.


_Salmon Oil._--This oil is obtained in large quantities on the Pacific
coast. It is one of the fish oils which has an agreeable odor and taste
and, therefore, can be used for edible purposes. It has a specific
gravity at 15 degrees of about .926 and its iodin number is about 160.


_Cod Liver Oil._--The most important of all the animal oils for food
purposes is the oil which is obtained from the liver of the cod (_Gadus
callarias_). Cod liver oil is valuable for food purposes not on account
of its odor and taste, which are usually quite disagreeable, but by
reason of the specific effect which it is often said to exercise in
cases of emaciation and general disorder of the functional activities
of the body. It is a food or medicine, whichever it may be best called,
which is highly prized in tuberculosis and similar diseases. The oil
is chiefly prepared in the Loffoden Islands. Different classes of oil
are prepared which are differentiated chiefly by their color, the
lighter the color the higher the quality of the oil. The chemical
composition of cod liver oil is extremely complex, many different
kinds of substances having been found in it by various authorities.
The probability is that many of these supposed substances are only
mixtures of others. Yet it cannot be denied that the number of chemical
compounds occurring in cod liver oil is very much greater than that
which occurs in ordinary oils. Both the medicinal and food values of
the oil are often attributed to these bodies which occur in minute
quantities.


_Properties._--Cod liver oil at 15 degrees has a specific gravity of
.922. Its iodin number varies very greatly but is always high, ranging
from 150 to 180. Its refractive index is also very high, namely 1.47.

An important constituent of cod liver oil is cholesterol. Cod liver oil
contains naturally a small quantity of iodin and this natural compound
of iodin is one of the properties to which much of its medicinal virtue
has been attributed. The quantity present is extremely minute, and
probably never exceeds .002 of one percent.


_Adulteration of Cod Liver Oil._--Owing to its increasing price cod
liver oil has been subjected to many forms of adulteration. The chief
adulteration consists in the admixture of fish liver oil of lower
quality or the use of blubber oil. Seal and whale oils have been used
very extensively in the adulteration of cod liver oil. Japan fish
oil and, in fact, all other fish oils which are of a character not
to disguise the properties of cod liver oil have been used. It is
evident that it is with extreme difficulty that the presence of these
adulterants can be detected, especially if they are used in small
quantities. The only certain method of guarantee of the purity of a cod
liver oil is in the proper inspection and control of the manufacturing
works. The livers of many other kinds of fish are employed in the
manufacture of cod liver oil, but the other varieties have little
value as compared with the cod liver oil itself and they are probably
used almost exclusively in the adulteration of the genuine article.
The Norwegian cod fish gives a much better character of oil than those
coming from the Atlantic coast of America. In fact the latter product
is of little medicinal food value and is used chiefly in the leather
trade.


=Blubber Oil.=--Blubber oil includes the oils made from seals, whales,
turtles, etc., and is used exclusively for technical purposes, unless
surreptitiously placed in cod liver oil as an adulterant.




PART IV.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE.


MILK.


=Limitation of Name.=--By the term “milk,” unless qualified in some
way, is meant a lacteal secretion of the healthy cow, free of colostrum
and of standard quality. If the milk of other mammals is meant the
name of the class of animal is used in connection with the term, such
as ewe’s milk, goat’s milk, etc. Milk is one of the most important
articles of commerce and, by reason of its composition, high nutritive
character, and easy digestibility, it is not only the natural food of
infants but a most important food for children and adults. It is also
an indispensable food in many, if not most, cases of disease where
nutrition is impaired. In some cases life may often be sustained over a
critical period by the use of milk as a food where other forms of food
would fail of digestion and prove injurious instead of beneficial.

The United States standard for milk is found in Appendix A.


=Average Composition of Milk.=--Perhaps there is no food substance
which has been subjected to so many and such severe analytical tests as
milk. Hundreds of thousands of analyses have been made in all civilized
countries, not only of the milk of the individual cow but of herds of
greater or less size.

There is a great variation in the composition of milk in different
breeds of cattle and also in different individuals of the same breed.
For instance, the Holstein breed of cattle affords a milk with a very
low content of fat, sometimes as low as 3.25 percent, and in individual
cases lower. On the other hand the Jersey breed of cattle affords a
milk of a very high content of fat, sometimes reaching as high as 6
percent, and in individual cases very much higher. The content of the
nitrogenous element in milk is more stable than that of fat and the
common content of casein in milk ranges from 2¹⁄₂ to 3¹⁄₄ percent.
The sugar in the milk is usually the complementary substance with the
fat, diminishing in relative proportions as the fat increases and vice
versa. The average content of sugar in cow’s milk is approximately
4 percent. The content of mineral substances in milk is also quite
constant, being about 0.70. The ash contains the phosphoric acid which
is one of the essential food components of milk. A milk of fair average
quality contains 12 percent of solids and 88 percent of water. This
is an expression for milk during the various seasons of the year and
from all breeds and kinds of cows. The influence of season has much
to do with the quantity of milk produced. It is always greater in the
spring and summer months, when the cows are turned out to pasture and
the growth on which they feed is unusually succulent. The increase in
volume is not attended with a proportionate increase of solids, and
thus the percentage of solids in spring and summer milk is less than
that in the winter milk unless the cows are particularly well fed
during the winter on a generous diet, including large quantities of
roots.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--COW STABLES, MAPLETOWN FARM, SUMNER,
WASHINGTON.]

The character of the milk is greatly influenced by the environment
in which the cow lives. The stable in which the cow is kept should
be clean, well ventilated, and protected against extreme changes in
temperature, thus being cooler in the summer than the hot air on the
outside and much warmer in the winter. An excellent arrangement of the
stables to secure cleanliness and good ventilation is shown in Fig. 13.
Cows should be supplied with an abundant quantity of pure water and
should not be allowed access to stagnant pools when pasturing in the
summer. Every animal giving milk should be examined from time to time
by a competent veterinarian to determine, by the injection of serum or
otherwise, whether or not the animal is afflicted with tuberculosis.
Every animal infected with tuberculosis should be separated from the
herd and destroyed. Tuberculosis is an infectious disease and may
spread from a single cow to every one in the herd. It is still by some
authorities claimed that there is no authentic case of transmission
of bovine tuberculosis to the human system. Other authorities hold
that such transmission is possible, even if it has not been proven in
a particular case. Since experts disagree on this point the same rule
is applicable here as in other cases of the same kind, namely, where
experts disagree on a point relating to the public health the benefit
of the doubt, if any, should be given to the public, and the advice
of those experts followed which is the most radical respecting the
protection of health from infection of any kind. It would be difficult
to prove, for example, in any case of tuberculosis in man that it had
been contracted from the sputa of tuberculosed patients, yet because it
is possible, in the opinion of many experts, that such infection and
transmission of disease can take place, it is the part of wisdom to
guard against it.

It is, I think, a statement which will be accepted by all that it
is possible in this country to secure and keep a sufficient number
of healthy cows to give the milk supply of the nation. Therefore,
it is the duty of the state, either by municipal, state, or federal
inspection, to eliminate, as far as possible, and, if necessary, at the
expense of the state, every diseased animal from the dairy herd. The
farmer whose herd becomes infected through no fault of his can justly
claim a compensation for the destruction of his animals for the common
good. There is, perhaps, no more important point connected with the
keeping of sanitary conditions than the proper inspection of the dairy,
not only furnishing milk for family use, but especially for sale. It
is the plain duty of every municipality and state to prohibit the
sale of milk to its citizens from dairies which are not periodically
and frequently subjected to the most rigid expert inspection. Such
inspection would not only secure the health of the animals but tend
directly toward the cleanliness of the dairy. Only by the exercise of
unusual care is it possible to keep milk from becoming contaminated.


=Preparation of Milk.=--Every part of the animal, especially the
udders, should be kept scrupulously clean by proper currying and
washing. The milk should be collected in vessels with as small an
orifice as possible. As soon as drawn the milk should be strained and
artificially cooled to a temperature of at least 50 degrees F., if not
lower. A convenient apparatus for cooling the milk is shown in Fig.
14. In this condition, without being exposed to infection and being
protected from every point by closed vessels, stoppered when necessary
by sterilized cotton, the milk is conducted into sterilized bottles and
again stoppered with a sterilized cork of some description. The milk is
kept cold until delivered to the consumer and by the consumer should
be kept cold until used. By following these precautions it is possible
to deliver a pure, wholesome, unpasteurized milk in a condition which
keeps practically unchanged for even a longer period than twenty-four
hours.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--APPARATUS FOR COOLING MILK.]


=Certified Milk.=--Dairies which are inspected either by operation
of the law or, voluntarily, by a competent body of medical and
scientific experts duly authorized to make such inspection furnish to
the market what is known as certified milk. Each bottle of this milk
bears the stamp of certification and this stamp may be used from the
time of one inspection until a certain date specified on the stamp
when the next inspection takes place. The duty of the inspectors is
to see that diseased animals are at once removed from the dairy, that
the sanitary conditions of the stable are perfect, that the food is
abundant and wholesome, that the milking process is conducted according
to the principles above outlined, and that the proper precautions are
taken to prevent infection during the preparation of the milk for the
market. The milk should be examined chemically and bacteriologically at
each inspection, or oftener, to see that it is of a standard quality,
both in respect of the number and character of the organisms which
it contains and of its chemical constituents. Certified milk is, of
course, more expensive than non-certified, inasmuch as the dairy is
necessarily called upon to bear the expense of inspection. However, the
superior quality of such milk and its certain freedom from infection
more than offsets the increased price, and makes certified milk the
ideal food of a milk character, not only in the family, but especially
in the hospitals, orphan asylums and other public institutions. It
seems quite certain that in the near future practically all the milk
that is sold upon the market of the country will be of a certified
quality.


=Pasteurized Milk.=--When milk is heated to a temperature of about
140 to 160 degrees the greater part of the living organisms contained
therein are destroyed. At the same time the temperature is not high
enough to give to the milk that peculiar taste which it acquires when
boiled. Such pasteurized milk, placed in sterilized bottles, stoppered
with sterilized stoppers and kept in a cool place, will keep many
days and even weeks without apparent deterioration. Physicians and
hygienists are quite agreed that pasteurized milk is not so wholesome,
especially for children, as certified milk which has not been subjected
to a heat sufficiently high to kill the organisms contained therein.
The natural ferments of the milk, namely, the enzymes which produce
the lactic fermentations, promote rather than interfere with the
digestion of the product. The killing of the beneficial organisms of
the milk is only justified when there is danger of pathological germs
being present. Hence the pasteurization of milk must in this sense be
regarded as a substitute for inspection and certification.

There may arise cases where pasteurizing even of certified milk may
be desirable, namely, when from necessity it must be kept for a
considerable period before use, as on shipboard, and other places
inaccessible to a daily supply of fresh milk. Pasteurizing is also
justifiable in miscellaneous milk supplies, the origin of which is
unknown. It is safer, by far in this case, to pasteurize than take the
chance of consuming pathological germs.


=Pasteurizing of Milk.=--A convenient method of pasteurizing milk is
recommended by the Dairy Division of the Department of Agriculture,
which is as follows:


=Directions for the Pasteurization of Milk=.[20]--The pasteurization
of milk for children, now quite extensively practiced in order to
destroy the injurious germs which it may contain, can be satisfactorily
accomplished with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the
milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used or any other
suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger vessel of metal, which
contains water. If a bottle, it is plugged with absorbent cotton, if
this is at hand, or in its absence other clean cotton will answer. A
small fruit jar loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The
requirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised about
half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that the water shall
reach nearly or quite as high as the milk. The apparatus is then
heated on a range or stove until the water reaches a temperature of 155
degrees Fahrenheit, when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly
covered for half an hour. The milk is rapidly cooled without removing
it from its containers and kept in a cool place. It may be used any
time within twenty-four hours. A temperature of 150 degrees maintained
for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs likely to be
present in the milk, in cold weather, or when it is known that the milk
reaches the consumer soon after milking, and it is generally safe to
adopt this limit. It is found in practice that raising the temperature
to 155 degrees and then allowing the milk to stand in the heated water
for half an hour insures the proper temperature for the required time.
If the temperature is raised above 155 degrees the taste and quality of
the milk will be affected.

  [20] By Dr. De Schweinitz.

Inasmuch as the milk furnished to consumers in large cities in summer
contains at the time of delivery an immense number of miscellaneous
bacteria, this procedure may not fully meet the requirements during
hot weather, not only because such milk will not remain sweet for
twenty-four hours unless kept in a good refrigerator, but also because
the bacteria not destroyed by the heating may at times produce
digestive disturbances in the very young. Under such circumstances it
is best to keep the bottles in the water until it boils or to use one
of the many steamers now on the market. After the bottles have been
kept at the boiling point for three to five minutes (or longer if they
are large) they should be cooled as promptly as possible and kept in a
refrigerator until used.

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a perforated tin
pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a removable false bottom
perforated with holes and having legs half an inch high to allow
circulation of the water. The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom,
and sufficient water is put into the pail to reach the level of the
surface of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the cover
of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermometer put through
the cork, so that the bulb dips into the water. The temperature can
thus be watched without removing the cover. If preferred, an ordinary
dairy thermometer[21] may be used and the temperature read from time to
time by removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, and is just as
satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold for the same purpose. Any
other simple method of procedure will give the same result.

  [21] Before using the dairy thermometer it is best to have it tested,
  as it may be unreliable in the upper parts of the scale.


_Average Content of Fat in American Milk._--From the thousands of
analyses of American milks that have been made it appears that the
average content of fat therein is about 3.90 percent. Of the different
breeds of cows the Holsteins produce milk with the least content of fat
and the Jerseys with the greatest. It is not unusual to find in the
milk of a Jersey cow a content of 6 or 7 percent of fat.


=Comparison of Cow’s Milk with Other Varieties.=--Human milk differs
from milk chiefly in having a much lower content of casein and a higher
content of milk sugar. Goat’s milk has a higher content of casein than
milk, somewhat higher content of fat, and slightly less sugar. Ewe’s
milk is very rich both in protein and fat. Mare’s has a low casein and
fat content and is exceptionally rich in sugar. Ass’s milk has less
casein and protein than milk but more sugar.


=Cream.=--When milk is allowed to stand for some hours in a cool place
or when it is mechanically treated in a separator the fat particles,
being of a less specific gravity, are separated, and when they reach a
certain degree of consistence they form a product known as cream. The
quantity of fat in cream varies according to the method of separation.
On standing for a period of about twelve hours in a cool place the
separated cream may be removed by skimming and should contain at least
18 percent of milk fat. Under the action of the separator, cream of
a much greater content of fat is usually produced, often reaching as
much as 30 percent or more. The separation of cream mechanically in a
separator is preferable to the method of time separation by gravity
alone. The cream secured by the separator is very much fresher, as it
can be removed as soon as the milk is drawn and cooled. Its content
of butter fat can also be regulated to the desired amount and, in the
third place, a more complete separation is secured than by gravity.
By the proper manipulation of the separator almost all of the fat in
milk is readily removed. Cream should be kept under the same conditions
as has been described for sanitary milk. When placed in sterilized
containers, properly stoppered and kept cool, fresh cream will keep
sweet as long as milk under similar circumstances.

In large dairy industries the separator is practically the only method
now employed for securing cream while for farm use the gravity method
of standing in a cool place for twelve or twenty-four hours is the
commonly practiced method.

Cream is used on the table with fruit and cereal foods and especially
in beverages such as tea and coffee. It is also prescribed by
physicians for certain diseases and derangement of the digestive organs
where the nitrogen content of milk produces irritation and fails of
digestion. Cream is not a complete food in the sense that milk is
inasmuch as the other constituents of milk are less in proportion as
the percentage of fat is increased, yet cream contains at least a
part of all the food elements in milk, as, for example, nitrogenous
constituent, principally, casein, milk, sugar, and mineral matters.

It must be remembered in this case that the fat is the variable
element and as that is increased the proportion of other ingredients,
necessarily, is diminished.

The most important use of cream is in the manufacture of butter.


=Standards of Cream.=--The composition of cream varies with almost
every sample. The standards for cream vary in different states and
cities. The national standard requires 18 percent of fat.


=Skimmed Milk.=--The residue which is left from the removal of cream
is known as skimmed milk. Skimmed milk contains the principle part
of the nitrogenous constituents of milk, the greater quantity of its
sugar and a very large quantity of its mineral matter. It is still a
very valuable food product, lacking only the element of fat. When eaten
with nuts or other oily food skimmed milk would complete the ration and
make a well balanced food. The chief prejudice against skimmed milk is
that it has been so often sold for whole milk. When sold and consumed
under its own name it is not a fraudulent body and is deserving of a
higher place in the dietary than has been ascribed to it. In the large
creameries of the country the skimmed milk is usually fed to animals.
It is one of the most highly esteemed foods for pigs and poultry, and
is largely used for those purposes.


_Composition of Skimmed Milk._--Naturally the composition of skimmed
milk would be that of milk corrected for the abstraction of fat. It
contains some little fat when prepared by the gravity method and only a
very small portion when separated mechanically. The abstraction of the
fat increases the relative proportions of sugar and casein.


=Curd Test for Purity of Milk.=--The Wisconsin curd test is conducted
as follows: 1. Sterilize milk containers so as to destroy all bacteria
in vessels. This step is very important, and can be done by heating
cans in boiling water or steam for not less than one-half hour.

2. Place about one pint of milk in covered jar and heat to about 98
degrees F. (Figs. 15 and 16).

3. Add ten drops of standard rennet extract and mix thoroughly with the
milk to quickly coagulate.

4. After coagulation, cut curd fine with case knife to facilitate
separation of whey; leave curd in whey one-half hour to an hour; then
drain off whey at frequent intervals until curd is well matted.

5. Incubate curd mass at 98 to 102 degrees F. by immersing jar in warm
water. Keep jars covered to retain odors.

6. After 6 to 9 hours incubation, open jar and observe odor; examine
curds by cutting the same with sharp knife and observe texture as to
presence of pin holes or gas holes. Observe odor.

7. Very bad milks will betray presence of gas-producing bacteria by the
spongy texture of the curd and will have an off flavor.

8. If more than one sample is tested at the same time, dip knife and
thermometer in hot water before each time used.

“Normal milk contains practically no organisms but the straight lactic
acid bacteria. These germs produce no gas and no bad odors, but purely
lactic acid and the curd formed therefrom is such as is represented in
Fig. 17.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--IMPROVISED WISCONSIN CURD TEST.

C, Can used to hold sample; P, pipette for measuring rennet; K, knife
for breaking curd.]

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--A, MILK; B, BROKEN CURD IN WHEY; C, MATTED
CURD.]

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--CURD FROM A GOOD MILK. LARGE, IRREGULAR HOLES
MECHANICAL.]

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--CURD FROM A TAINTED MILK. LARGE, IRREGULAR
HOLES MECHANICAL; SMALL PINHOLES DUE TO GAS.]

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--CURD FROM FOUL MILK.]

“Milk contaminated by the introduction of dust, dirt, fecal matter,
or kept in imperfectly cleaned cans becomes fouled with gas-producing
bacteria that break down the milk sugar and so produce gases and
usually undesirable odors.... Therefore milks showing the presence of
gas or bad odors in any considerable degree are milks that have been
more or less polluted with extraneous organisms or carelessly handled,
and as a consequence such milks show a type of curd revealed in Figs.
17, 18, and 19.


=Whey.=--The residue left from milk in the process of the making of
cheese is known as whey. Whey consists of that portion of milk which
is not precipitated by the rennet and which separates when the casein
of milk is coagulated and sets in the process of cheese making. The
whey contains the principal portion of the water in milk, the most of
the milk sugar therein, and small quantities of butter and soluble
nitrogenous portions (albumin) and solid particles which remain
suspended in the solution. It may, therefore, be properly considered
as milk from which the greater part of the nitrogenous portions and
fat particles has been separated. The value of whey as a food product
consists chiefly in the milk sugar which it contains. It is not
very largely used for human food but is valued as a food for young
domesticated animals, especially pigs and poultry.


=Composition of Whey.=--The whey resulting from the manufacture of
cheese contains nearly all the foods of the whole milk with the
exception of the casein and fat. It is composed of from 6 to 8 percent
of solids consisting chiefly of milk sugar, some albumin, a little fat,
and about 0.6 percent of mineral matter.


=Koumiss.=--Koumiss originated in Asia Minor in the production of a
fermented drink from mare’s milk, which is richer in milk sugar than
the lactic secretions of most other mammals. By the fermentation of
the milk sugar mare’s milk is converted into a fermented beverage
containing a small percentage of alcohol. In this country koumiss is
made almost exclusively from cow’s milk and by special fermentation at
a low temperature. It is a beverage valued especially by convalescents
and invalids and frequently is capable of nourishing the body in
diseases which affect the digestive organs when other foods fail of
assimilation. It is also a cooling and delicious beverage for those in
health when properly prepared and stored.


_Modified Koumiss or Kephir._--Koumiss made from cow’s milk with the
previous addition of milk or cane sugar to increase the alcoholic
content cannot be regarded as a natural product but rather one to which
the term “modified” may be applied. The greater part of koumiss made in
the United States from cow’s milk is of this modified variety. Cow’s
milk contains on an average about 4 or 5 percent of sugar and does not
yield a fermented beverage of a sufficient alcoholic content without
reducing the actual sugar content of the beverage below the point of
palatability. Cane sugar is usually employed as the modifying agent.
While modified koumiss cannot be regarded as of equal value with the
natural article made from mare’s milk it is a palatable and wholesome
beverage when produced and stored under proper conditions. The quantity
of alcohol produced in any case is not very great and the change in
composition which renders koumiss so easily assimilable in many cases
cannot be due alone to the alcohol formed but to the fermentative
changes produced by enzymic action which takes place in the other
constituents of koumiss, especially casein during the process of
fermentation.

Koumiss or kephir, which is the name applied to koumiss made from cow’s
milk, is also prepared with the addition of honey, in the place of
sugar, and small quantities of wheat flour, not exceeding 20 parts to
1500 parts of other constituents. Koumiss is sometimes artificially
fortified by the addition of small quantities of alcohol, but this
practice must be regarded as extremely reprehensible. The alcohol of
koumiss is incident to its fermentation and should not be increased
beyond the normal amount. One of the important points in the making of
koumiss is the control of the temperature which, during fermentation,
ought not to rise above 50 degrees in order to get the best results.
Koumiss may be made in the bottle in which it is kept, in fact, it is
best made so, and its fermentation then resembles that of champagne.
During the process of fermentation the bottle should be shaken at least
once a day in order that the part which coagulates cannot be unevenly
distributed throughout the mass. The bottle should be strong enough
to resist the pressure produced by the carbon dioxid which is formed
and the cork should be securely tied in. As in the case of champagne
it is best to place the bottle with the cork down. Before using,
the bottle containing the koumiss should be well shaken in order to
thoroughly mix the contents which form a creamy, foamy mass extremely
palatable, highly nutritious, and valuable not only as a beverage but
in many cases of disease and disordered digestion as a food. In fact
the value of koumiss for medicinal purposes, that is for medicinal
food, is not thoroughly appreciated by the medical profession. This
may be due to the fact that the art of making koumiss is not generally
known, and while the general principles upon which its manufacture is
based have been set forth it requires an expert to make a palatable
and useful article (“British Dairy Farming” by Jas. Long). It is
worthy of suggestion now that the use of horses for draft purposes has
practically been superseded by the automobile and the trolley that the
production of real koumiss from mare’s milk might become a very useful
field of industry in the United States. It is perfectly certain that
the genuine article must possess properties which are not wholly found
in the imitations of koumiss which are so common in this country. It
is well understood by physicians that a natural product produced from
natural material is always superior in character both as a food and
medicine to the synthetic or artificial product. Whenever, therefore,
a fermented beverage produced from natural sources is contaminated
by artificial products the resulting compound is not so useful nor
digestible. For instance, wine which is made partially from sugar and
beer made partially from dextrose, although they may be healthful and
wholesome beverages, are inferior in quality and character to the real
product made from grape juice or barley malt.


=Buttermilk.=--The residue left in the churn in the manufacture of
butter is termed buttermilk. There are two distinct varieties of
buttermilk, namely, that resulting from the churning of unsoured cream
and that remaining from the churning of soured and ripened cream.
The first kind of buttermilk does not differ in its characteristic
essentials from skimmed milk and therefore is not considered here.
The second class of buttermilk is far more common and is a beverage
of pleasing acid taste. When made from properly ripened cream it is
wholesome and delicious, especially in summer time. Its composition
is that of cream subjected to enzymic action during the ripening
process by which an agreeable degree of acidity is produced due to
lactic acid, together with the incidental changes which take place in
the composition of other parts of the liquid due to enzymic action.
Buttermilk also usually contains small particles of butter itself
which escape aggregation during the final process of churning. In well
prepared buttermilk, however, these particles of butter are not very
numerous and they add nothing to the palatability, although they do add
something to the nutritive properties of the beverage. The buttermilk
represents that portion of milk which is one of the chief constituents
of cream as far as bulk is concerned, freed practically from its butter
fat. It does not differ greatly, therefore, in its chemical properties
from skimmed milk, although there is a slight difference in the
relative percentages of the milk solids in cream as compared with the
same constituents in whole milk. The composition of buttermilk is shown
in the following table:

COMPOSITION OF BUTTERMILK.

               FROM SWEET   FROM SOUR
                 CREAM.      CREAM.
                _Percent._  _Percent._
  Water,         89.74        90.93
  Fat,            1.21         0.31
  Milk sugar,     4.98         4.58
  Protein,        3.28         3.37
  Ash,            0.79         0.81
  Acidity,         ...         0.80


=Bonnyclabber.=--Bonnyclabber is a term applied to milk which
has become soured by lactic fermentation, producing a gelatinous
coagulation of casein which is sufficiently firm at times to prevent
the liquid from being poured. Clabber may be regarded as a natural
cheese curd except that the fat is chiefly on top. It is a beverage
or food of a very agreeable taste to most persons and is often eaten
with sugar. In the summer it is often formed during hot murky
weather, especially of that character which produces thunder storms.
For this reason it is a common supposition that thunder or lightning
sours milk. The thunder and lightning, however, have nothing to do
with this process. The condition of the atmosphere which produces an
environment favorable to electrical disturbances of this kind also
favors in the highest degree the growth of the organisms which produce
the lactic ferments. Hence thunder storms and the rapid souring of milk
are frequently coincident leading to the popular impression as above
mentioned. Inasmuch as the souring of milk usually takes place after
the cream has risen the composition of clabber is practically that of
skimmed milk modified by the lactic fermentation which has taken place.


BUTTER.

When cream, especially cream in which incipient lactic fermentation
has been set up, is subjected to agitation in a churn under proper
conditions of temperature the particles of butter therein contained
are collected into masses so that the butter can be separated from
the residual liquid. This process is technically called churning. The
domestic churn in its simplest form is perhaps well known to almost
everyone, especially those who have lived in the country. In the
domestic manufacture of butter the cream is collected and set aside
until sour, that is, until lactic fermentation has set up. When this is
sufficiently advanced the cream is placed in a churn, the simplest form
of which is a wooden, cylindrical vessel of appropriate size, being
much longer than its horizontal diameter. The churn is provided with
a dasher, namely a perforated wooden disk with a handle which passes
through a hole in the cover. When the churn is charged the butter is
produced by agitation with the dasher. In winter time warm water is
added to the mixture in order to raise the temperature to the proper
gathering point of butter, namely 65 to 70 degrees F. For the same
reason cold water is added in the summer time. The art of the dairy
maid is shown in the proper regulation of the temperature to secure the
best results. When the cream is properly ripened and the temperature is
suitable the gathering of butter will be accomplished in from twelve to
thirty minutes. In unfavorable conditions the duration of churning may
be for a much longer period.

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--POWER CHURN READY FOR USE.--(_Courtesy of the
Bureau of Animal Industry._)]

In dairies and large establishments churning is accomplished by
machinery with very different mechanical appliances, but the principle
which underlies the process is the same as those outlined above. The
accompanying figures illustrate the process of churning by mechanical
means in a modern dairy (Figs. 20 and 21).

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--POWER CHURN, OPEN.--(_Courtesy of the Bureau
of Animal Industry._)]


=Treatment of Butter.=--The crude butter secured by churning is
subjected to washing and seasoning processes in order to prepare it
for the market. The washing or working of butter is accomplished by
means of water. The object of this “working” is to separate from the
crude butter as much of the curd and other non-fatty constituents of
the cream as can be conveniently accomplished. The removal of these
mechanical particles not only makes a butter of a higher grade but
also one of better keeping qualities. The working of butter also has
much to do with its grain or texture, which is one of the characters
of butter to which great attention must be paid. The best grade of
butter and that which brings the highest price in the market is that
which receives no treatment other than that of the washing and working
process to which attention has been called. This kind of butter is
known as natural or unsalted or uncolored butter, that is, a fresh,
sweet product of an agreeable aroma, palatable, of fine texture and
grain, and is the best product of its kind for human consumption. It
also brings the highest price on the market and, by reason of its
method of preparation, the consumer can usually be assured that it is
fresh in character.


=Salting Butter.=--In the United States, especially, consumers of
butter generally require that it shall be salted. For this purpose
fine grades of dairy salt are used as free as possible from impurities
and consisting of fine particles or crystals which rapidly dissolve in
the residual moisture of butter. This promotes a uniform distribution
of the salt in the form of brine throughout the mass of butter.
The existence in butter of undissolved particles of salt is highly
prejudicial to its taste and character. The quantity of salt used in
butter is determined by the taste of the consumer. The more salt the
butter contains the less value it is as butter and hence the quantity
should be limited to the smallest possible amount demanded by the
consumer’s taste. Often butters are found in commerce which are so full
of salt as to be wholly unpalatable and there is a tendency on the part
of the greedy manufacturer to add excessive quantities of salt because
it is very much cheaper than the butter itself and thus he hopes to add
to the profit of the industry. On the contrary this practice usually
results in loss, since such highly salted butter naturally brings the
lowest price. The amount of salt which is used in butter should not
exceed two percent.

It is a common supposition that salt in butter is a preservative. This
is true when used in large quantities, that is, in quantities which
render the butter somewhat unpalatable. The very small quantity of salt
used purely for condimental purposes cannot be regarded as aiding in
any material way the preservation of the product.


=Coloring Butter.=--Unfortunately the practice of artificially coloring
butter is very prevalent in the United States. Practically all the
butter found upon the market, even in the spring and summer, is more or
less artificially colored, often with coal tar (anilin) dyes which, to
say the least harm of them possible, are open to suspicion in respect
of wholesomeness. The practice of coloring butter produced in winter
may be regarded as universal, though none the less reprehensible on
that account. The object of coloring butter is, undoubtedly, to make
it appear in the eyes of the consumer better than it really is, and
to this extent can only be regarded as an attempt to deceive. If cows
are properly fed during the winter months with wholesome, nutritious
food to which a small proportion of roots such as carrots or ruta bagas
are added or with yellow maize and clover hay, even in winter time the
butter produced will have an attractive light amber tint which appeals
strongly to the æsthetic sense of the consumer. The natural tint of
butter is as much more attractive than the artificial as any natural
color is superior to the artificial. There is the same difference
between the natural tint of butter and the artificial as there is
between the natural rose of the cheek and its painted substitute. It
is claimed, and perhaps justly, that the use of certain vegetable
colors, such as annotto, does not introduce any unwholesome substance
into the product. Admitting this, we must next ask whether it deceives
the consumer. If so, it is difficult to understand upon what ethical
principal any plea for the artificial coloring of butter can rest.
If it is admitted that there is no valid reason why butter should be
colored other than the artificial coloring of foods in general, which
is a practice so reprehensible that it is almost universally denounced,
its practice cannot be easily defended. The dairymen of our country
are honest and honorable and evidently do not clearly see the false
position in which the practice of coloring butter puts them. When the
dairymen of our country understand that the naturally colored products
will bring the highest price on the market and appeal more strongly to
the confidence of the consumer it is believed the artificial coloring
in butter will be relegated to the scrap pile of useless processes. It
cannot be claimed in any sense that coloring of butter artificially
ever adds anything to its value as a nutritive substance.

One of the claims for justifying the coloring of butter is that it
distinguishes it from oleomargarine. This, however, is not the case
since, under the law, oleomargarine may be colored upon the payment of
a tax of ten cents per pound. The consumer has at his disposition a
complete protection against fraud in the use of oleomargarine by the
operation of state and federal laws, irrespective of the tint of the
product. Oleomargarine and butter are distinguished from each other by
their natural colors and also by their chemical and physical properties
and, therefore, there can be no justification for the coloring of
butter on the plea that it distinguishes it from oleomargarine. Thus,
from every point of view it is evident that the artificial coloring of
butter is undesirable. It interferes with the right of the consumer,
who should know the exact character of the product he buys, and it
stands in the way of the prosperity of the manufacturer by keeping upon
the market a cheaper product which tends to decrease the price even of
that of better quality.


=Standard Butter.=--According to the standard established by Congress
butter must contain more than 16 percent water and not less than 82.5
butter fat.


=Renovated Butter.=--The law of Congress which controls the manufacture
of renovated butter is executed jointly by the Treasury and
Agricultural Departments. The quantity of renovated butter produced
during the year ending June 30, 1905, was 60,290,421 pounds.


=Adulterated Butter.=--The quantity of adulterated butter which was
produced under the authority of the Act regulating the manufacture
of oleomargarine and butter and on which is laid a tax of 10 cents
per pound during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1905, was 3,671
pounds. These data show that the tax of 10 cents per pound laid upon
adulterated butter has practically destroyed the manufacture of
that article. Normal butter has from 12 to 14 percent of water. It
is sometimes rechurned with water to raise the water content to 16
percent. Such a practice results in adulteration whether the content of
water exceeds 16 percent or not.


=Influence of Food upon Butter.=--The character of butter is very
easily affected by the nature of the food consumed by the cow. Butter
has the faculty of absorbing very readily odors of all kinds. Foods,
therefore, which have characteristic odors impart them to the butter. A
most striking instance of this is in the eating of wild garlic. In this
case both the milk and the butter are affected to such a degree as to
be in many cases unpalatable. Hence foods or substances in foods which
are aromatic or odoriferous are likely to impart their peculiar odor to
the milk, cream, and butter. Of all the constituents of milk the fat
appears to have the highest faculty of absorbing these objectionable
odors. Therefore, the feeding of distillery slops is also apt to impart
an unpleasant odor to milk and butter, whereas if these slops be dried
and their volatile aromatic principle expelled little discomfort is
experienced in their use. The physical characteristics of butter are
also changed in a marked degree by the character of the food. Butter
fat, as has already been indicated, is distinguished from other animal
fats by its content of soluble and volatile acids of which butyric is
the chief. There are certain kinds of foods which decrease or tend to
decrease the content of butyric acid in butter.


=Influence on Melting Point.=--The character of the food also has a
marked influence upon the melting point of butter. The author showed
many years ago that the use of cottonseed meal as food for cows tends
to raise the melting point of butter. This was regarded as an index
of some value for the southern portion of the country, where a high
temperature obtains over a period of six or seven months of the year.
If the melting point of butter, which when normal is about 33 degrees
C. (91° F.), could be increased to 35 or 36 degrees C. (95° F.), it
would be of immense advantage in these warm climates and, in fact,
in all parts of the country during the months of July, August, and
September. There is no apparent tendency to increase the melting point
of butter by feeding other oil cakes.


=Transmission of Other Principles in the Food to the
Butter.=--Experience has shown that when cows are fed cottonseed meal
or its products the quality of cottonseed oil which responds to the
color test known as the Halphen test, namely, the production of a red
color with carbon disulfid and amyl alcohol, is transmitted also to
the butter. In some cases this reaction is extremely faint while in
others it is displayed with an intensity which is claimed by some to be
equal to that of the admixture of 5 percent of cottonseed oil with the
butter. The use of cottonseed meal, on the contrary, does not seem to
notably affect either the content of volatile acid in the butter nor
its refractometer reading. (Experimental Station Record, Volume 25,
Page 716.)


OLEOMARGARINE.

Oleomargarine is the name applied to any fatty substance which is
prepared to be used in the same manner as butter. Oleomargarine is
defined by Act of Congress as follows:

An Act defining butter, also imposing a tax upon and regulating the
manufacture, sale, importation, and exportation of oleomargarine.
(Approved August 2, 1886.)

“That for the purposes of this act certain manufactured substances,
certain extracts, and certain mixtures and compounds, including such
mixtures and compounds with butter, shall be known and designated
as “oleomargarine,” namely: All substances heretofore known as
oleomargarine, oleo, oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine,
and neutral; all mixtures and compounds of oleomargarine, oleo,
oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine, and neutral; all lard
extracts and tallow extracts; and all mixtures and compounds of tallow,
beef fat, suet, lard, lard oil, vegetable oil, annotto, and other
coloring matter, intestinal fat, and offal fat made in imitation or
semblance of butter, or, when so made, calculated or intended to be
sold as butter or for butter.”

The manufacture of oleomargarine can only take place in the United
States under the supervision of officials of the Internal Revenue.
All oleomargarine which is artificially colored a yellow or yellowish
tint in semblance of natural butter pays an internal revenue tax of
10 cents per pound. Oleomargarine uncolored pays a revenue tax of
one-fourth cent per pound. Oleomargarine when made under proper
sanitary conditions from sanitary raw materials is a wholesome and
nutritious article of diet and usually can be sold at a smaller price
than butter. It is especially a food product which commends itself to
those who are under the necessity of practising strict economy in the
cost of food in the family. The principal objection, and in fact the
only valid objection, to its use is found in the frauds which have
been committed in its manufacture and sale. There has been a constant
disposition on the part of dishonest manufacturers and dealers, since
the time when oleomargarine became a commercial commodity, to sell
it as butter. Although the penalties of national and state laws are
very severe in this respect the practice is continued. The opportunity
for gain is so great that the cupidity of the manufacturer overcomes
his fear of punishment and disgrace. With a more rigid national and
state inspection, it is reasonable to hope that this fraudulent use of
oleomargarine can be avoided and the pure, unadulterated article under
its own name be supplied to those who prefer it either on account of
its properties or its price.


=Materials Used in the Manufacture of Oleomargarine.=--_Neutral
Lard._--One of the principal basic components of oleomargarine is
neutral lard or lard stearin, the properties of which have already
been described. Beef fat stearin is another basic ingredient of
oleomargarine and is the stearin derived from tallow or tallow itself.
Beef fat has a higher melting point than lard and beef fat stearin a
still higher melting point than the tallow. Hence it forms an ideal
ingredient with which to mix the oily components which enter so largely
into the manufacture of oleomargarine. The beef fat or beef fat stearin
is easily distinguished by means of the microscope. It forms beautiful
radiated fan-like crystals, the characteristic appearance of which is
shown in Fig. 9, page 67.


_Cottonseed Oil and Cottonseed Oil Stearin._--These are also
important ingredients of oleomargarine affording the oily or more
liquid constituents which, when mixed with the lard and stearin above
mentioned, form a compound the melting point of which is slightly above
that of butter and sufficient to maintain it in an unmelted state even
in warm weather. The quantities in which these different ingredients
are used vary greatly in different manufacturing establishments and
depend largely upon the location where the oleomargarine is to be used.
When manufactured for tropical or subtropical regions larger quantities
of stearin are employed than when used in temperate zones or for winter
consumption, in which case larger quantities of cottonseed oil and
cottonseed oil stearin are employed with the mixture. After the fats
are mixed it is usually the practice to churn them with milk in order
to give a flavor of butter to the product. In some cases the yolk of
eggs is mixed with oleomargarine, as it is claimed that they impart
thereto a firmer and more homogeneous structure which renders the mass
better, especially for cooking purposes. All the ingredients which are
used in the manufacture of oleomargarine are made known and recorded
in the books of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue and thus it is a
product which it may be said is strictly under government supervision.


=Description of Process of Manufacture.=--The fat is taken from the
cattle in the process of slaughtering, and after thorough washing is
placed in a bath of clean, cold water, and surrounded with ice, where
it is allowed to remain until all animal heat has been removed. It is
then cut into small pieces by machinery and cooked at a temperature of
about 150 degrees until the fat, in liquid form, has separated from
the fibrine or tissue, then settled until it is perfectly clear. Then
it is drawn into graining vats and allowed to stand a day, when it is
ready for the presses. The pressing extracts the stearin, leaving the
remaining product, which is commercially known as oleo oil, which, when
churned with cream or milk or both and with or without a proportion of
creamery butter, the whole being properly salted, gives the well-known
food-product, oleomargarine.


=Adulteration of Oleomargarine.=--Since the coloring of oleomargarine
is permitted upon the payment of a tax, oleomargarine which is
colored cannot be said to be adulterated when the tax has been paid,
although if coloring were not a legalized operation it would be an
adulteration. Yellow oleomargarine is an imitation of natural butter
and its manufacture should be prohibited unless the product is marked
“imitation.” The character of the coloring materials used is not
prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue but as a rule the
coal tar dyes are preferred in the coloring of oleomargarine to the
vegetable coloring matter such as annotto and saffron. The remarks
which have been made in connection with the use of poisonous materials
in other products apply to oleomargarine.


_Adulteration with Egg Yolks._--An adulteration which has been
practiced in this country is the admixture of preserved egg yolks.
Usually these yolks are secured in China, broken, and placed in
vessels and preserved with borax or boric acid or salt. These eggs are
generally collected during the early spring and summer months and are
not sent to the United States until the fall or winter. The importation
of such articles is now prohibited under the food laws of the country
so that the adulterations with the imported article is no longer to be
feared. It is possible to preserve domestic eggs in the same way, and
the use of them in this manner is regarded as an adulteration, since
such preserved egg products cannot be regarded as suitable for human
food.


_Adulteration with Preservatives._--Fortunately preservatives are not
used to any extent in the manufacture of oleomargarine when intended
for domestic use. The most suitable preservative in such a case as
this would be borax or boric acid. It is not believed that these
preservatives are used to any extent when the product is intended for
domestic consumption. Whether or not preservatives are used in the
product sent abroad I am unable to say.


=Production of Oleomargarine.=--According to the report of the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue the quantity of oleomargarine taxed
at 10 cents a pound produced in the United States for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1905, was 5,584,684 pounds, and for 1906, 4,888,968
pounds. The quantity produced in 1906 taxed at one-fourth cent a pound
was 50,545,914 pounds.

COMPOSITION OF OLEOMARGARINE.

                               SOL.     SOL.
  SPECIFIC            IN-    ACID BY  ACID BY
   GRAVITY          SOLUBLE  WASHING  DISTIL-           ALBU-
  AT 40°C.  WATER.   ACID.     OUT.   LATION.  SALT.  MINOIDS.
   .90490    9.34    93.59     0.12    0.25     3.64    0.35

From the above data it is seen that the objections to the use of
oleomargarine are more on the grounds of fraud and deception than in
regard to nutritive and dietetic value. The components used in the
manufacture of oleomargarine, when properly made, are all wholesome
and digestible materials such as are consumed in eating various food
products. It does not appear, therefore, that any valid objection
can be made against the use of oleomargarine from a physiological or
hygienic standpoint.


CHEESE.


=Historical.=--The preparation of cheese is one of the oldest of the
technical processes. It appears that it was known during the time of
King David, at least a thousand years before Christ, and the Greeks
were acquainted with it before the writings of Homer. Aristotoles and
Hypocrates describe the curdling of milk which at that time appears
to have been accomplished by the use of the juice of the fig. The
use of cheese was very common in Rome in the earlier historical days
but the most of it was imported from the North. Cæsar speaks of the
preparation of cheese among the German tribes. Cheese must, therefore,
be regarded as one of the very oldest forms of prepared food used
by man. It probably is almost, if not quite, as old as wine. These
historical facts are interesting in showing how from the earliest times
man has made use of the natural ferments to prepare food from the raw
material. Attention must be called in this connection to the fact that
many people claim that such foods as these are not natural foods but
wholly artificial. The fallacy of such a claim is not difficult to
show. An artificial food is one which is prepared out of materials
which, themselves, are not edible food products or, at least, are not
digestible or of a character which does not naturally occur by ordinary
processes. Artificial foods, therefore, are purely synthetic, that
is, made up from the elemental substances, or they are mixtures or
compounds. On the contrary a food like cheese or wine is not a mixture
or compound but a natural product from materials which themselves are
food products. Milk is the raw material of cheese as the must of the
grape is of wine. Both milk and must are rich and nutritious foods. The
changes which each undergoes are in many respects the same. The must of
wine undergoes an alcoholic fermentation and the milk sugar of cheese
is subjected to a lactic fermentation and its casein to a proteolytic
change which materially alters its character.

Cheese products are a very important part of food materials of the
dairy. The term cheese is applied to the solid product produced from
milk by coagulation of the casein with rennet or lactic acid and
subjecting the solid product thus produced to a process of fermentation
and ripening by the addition of appropriate seed material, seasoning,
and storage at convenient temperature for varying periods of time.
In the precipitation of the casein of milk the fat particles become
mechanically entangled and form a part of the precipitate. There is
a certain quantity of other milk constituents incorporated in the
form of water, milk sugar, and mineral matter in the precipitated
mass. The greater part of the other bodies which the milk contains,
consisting of the milk sugar and a considerable portion of the soluble
mineral matter, are separated in the form of whey. The composition of
fresh cheese is that of that part of the milk which is precipitated
and which is entangled mechanically in the precipitated matter. The
ripened cheese is changed in its chemical constituents mostly as the
result of fermentative action upon its nitrogenous constituents, that
is, the casein, albumin, etc., contained therein. The ferments tend to
change the casein into a more soluble form of protein, while at the
same time they develop a flavor and aroma in a way agreeable to the
nostril and palate. Various forms of moulds and other organisms grow on
and in cheeses which influence their palatability and character. The
final product of the ripened cheese varies not only with the nature
of the original material as determined by the milk itself but with
the character of the preparation and the nature of the organisms and
ferments which are active during the ripening period, and also with the
time and temperature of storage.


=Kinds of Cheese.=--It is not necessary and perhaps it would be
impossible to attempt an enumeration of all the various kinds of cheese
which are offered on the market. The first classification of cheese
depends upon the character of the milk used. The term “cheese” in this
country naturally refers to a product made from cow’s milk since that
is the principal milk used in the United States for cheese making.
The term is used in this manual in that sense and when there is no
qualifying word employed it is always understood that the product in
question is made from the cow’s milk. This implies that the milk is at
least a standard milk, that is, a whole milk, unskimmed and containing
not less than 3.25 percent of butter fat. According to the definition
fixed by the Congress of the United States the term cheese is applied
not only to this product but also to one containing a larger percentage
of fat than this. The term cheese applies both to cheese made from milk
and cheese made partially from milk and partially from cream. The term
“full cream cheese” is also often used in the trade but is likely to
be misleading and deceptive. The real significance of the term full
cream cheese is that it is made of whole milk or milk unskimmed which
contains its full complement of cream. The term “cream cheese” is also
often used to indicate a cheese made partially of milk and cream. It is
evident that the term cream cheese in this sense is misleading, since
it can be properly applied only to a cheese made from cream alone.
Such cheeses are made but, inasmuch as cream must have not less than
18 percent of fat in order to be called cream according to the United
States standard, the cheeses made from such a source are too oily and
fatty for ordinary consumption.


=Cheese Made from Goat’s Milk.=--Goat’s milk is also frequently used
in making cheese. It is extensively employed in France and Switzerland
for cheese making and also in other parts of Europe, and to a limited
extent in this country. Some of the varieties of cheese which are most
highly prized are made from goat’s milk, such as Roquefort.


=Adulteration and Misbranding of Cheese.=--The most common form of
adulteration or sophistication of cheese is the misbranding thereof in
respect of the country where made or in respect of character. This is
a form of deception which has long been established in the trade and
one which cannot be condoned or excused. There are certain varieties of
cheese whose names should be respected and in fact, in the case of all
varieties that have an established character and reputation, their name
should not be applied to other articles made in imitation thereof. In
this country there is a national law which prohibits the marking of a
food or dairy product falsely as to the state or territory where made.
For instance, a cheese made in Ohio cannot be marked New York cheese
and peaches grown in Delaware cannot be marked California peaches,
maple sirup made in Indiana cannot be labeled Vermont maple sirup, etc.
The ethical principle underlying this law is one which will meet the
approbation of every well meaning man and therefore the extending of
this principle to other forms of misbranding is an easy step. If it is
a violation of the law to mark a cheese made in Ohio as made in New
York it is certainly a violation of the ethical principle underlying
that law to name a cheese made in Connecticut Cammerbert. Unhappily,
however, there are cheeses made in the United States to which foreign
names are given, the universal excuse being that they are cheeses of
the same type. In many cases this excuse is not a valid one and in
no case is it an accepted one. To name a cheese made from cow’s milk
the same as that made from ewe’s milk is a distinct misbranding in
every sense of the term. There should be no difficulty in established
varieties of cheese made in this country having names which are not
deceptive and not intended to mislead the consumer as to the state,
territory, or country where made. In one sense all cheese may be said
to be of the same type, but because the taste and odor of a cheese
made in the United States imitates to some extent that of a cheese
made in France is no excuse for giving the French name to the American
product. A further illustration of this principle is found in the
following: The term Roquefort, for instance, is not properly applied to
any cheese product except that which is made at or in the vicinity of
Roquefort. In no other part of France can cheese be made bearing the
name of Roquefort. The use of the term Roquefort, therefore, in any
way upon American cheese is a misbranding and an attempt to deceive
which usually is successful. There is not so great an objection to the
term Swiss cheese as to Roquefort, but there is the same kind of an
objection. The cheese which bears the name of Schweitzer-Käse is very
extensively manufactured in Germany and sold under that name. A similar
cheese is also extensively made in this country and sold under the name
of Schweitzer-Käse. In this case there is no particular location or
place which originated the name and has the sole right to use the name
Swiss cheese. It is the name of a whole country and not of a location,
and yet it is evident that Swiss cheese properly can only be made in
Switzerland and not in Germany or in the United States. Any hard, tough
cheese in which a large number of holes is found and which on cutting
makes a flexible, semi-leathery slice has to a certain extent the
appearance and perhaps the taste and flavor of genuine Swiss cheese.

It should not be difficult to find a market for all good cheese made in
this country, under appropriate American names indicating their origin.
If the term Swiss cheese is at all allowable on a package it should be
placed as a minor part of the label and with the statement that it is
of that type. Even this transgression is perhaps difficult of excuse.


=Artificial Coloring.=--Next to misbranding and misnaming of cheeses,
perhaps the most common adulteration is that of artificial coloring.
The public taste has been led in the matter of cheeses, especially
of American origin, to look for a deep yellow color. This is also
associated with the idea of the use of a large quantity of rich,
naturally yellow-colored cream. The addition of an artificial color to
a cheese never adds anything to its value, and to the really æsthetic
eye detracts much from its appearance. The presence of this rich
artificial tint is calculated in many instances to excite a suspicion
in regard to the character of the cheese and thus interferes with its
proper gustation. There is another more serious objection than the one
just mentioned, namely, that it is possible from skimmed milk to make
a highly colored cheese which would appear to the consumer to be made
of whole milk or of milk and cream, and thus a deliberate deception
is perpetrated. The consumer of cheese should demand that artificial
coloring of all kinds be omitted from cheese products.

Moreover, these colors may of themselves be deleterious in character
and there is no restriction, so far as I know, at this time in the
United States to prevent a manufacturer, if he so desires or through
his ignorance of the use of coloring materials of a poisonous
character, from using any amount.[22] The coal tar dyes are cheaper and
produce faster and more natural looking tints than the vegetable colors
such as annotto and saffron, and hence, unless they are prohibited
by law, they are almost universally employed. All of these dyes in
a concentrated form are highly poisonous and injurious and several
instances are on record of death, especially in the case of young
children, from eating concentrated colors. The fact that a poison of
this kind is diluted by the cheese is no excuse for its use. The only
protection which the consumer has, which is reliable in all cases, is
the prohibition of coloring matter in cheese.

  [22] Written before the passage of the food-bill.

By Act of Congress of June 6, 1896, coloring matter is permitted to be
used in cheese in the United States and doubtless it will continue to
be used under this authority until that portion of the Act is repealed
or until the consumer demands an uncolored article. The pure, natural
color of the cheese is universally acknowledged to be best, most
palatable, and most desirable.


=Preservatives.=--Fortunately there is little to be said in regard to
preservatives in cheese because they are almost unknown. The addition
of a preservative to a cheese at the time of its production would so
seriously interfere with the ripening process as to defeat the purpose
of storage altogether. Hence in so far as preservatives are concerned
there is little danger of adulteration.


=Impure Raw Materials.=--If cheese be made of standard milk as provided
for by the commissioners it must be made of pure, wholesome material.
On the contrary, inasmuch as there is no official inspection of cheese
factories, it is entirely possible through carelessness, ignorance,
or design to use in the making of cheese milk which may itself be
infected. Cheese made from such milk of course would carry the
infection of the milk. This is a sort of adulteration which can only be
excluded by careful sanitary inspection of cheese factories.


=Filled Cheese.=--Formerly there was a very considerable adulteration
of cheese by manufacturing it from skimmed milk and supplying from an
artificial source the necessary fat. Cottonseed oil, lard, and other
edible oils are used for this purpose.


_Composition of Filled Cheese_ (Circular No. 11, Bureau of Animal
Industry).--Neutral lard is the principal fat which is substituted for
milk fat in filled cheese. It is used to the extent of two or three
pounds for every 100 pounds of skimmed milk. The principal objection
to a filled cheese is not on account of its containing lard, which in
itself is not unwholesome. But lard is an entirely different fat from
milk fat, and differs in the character of the fermentation which takes
place. The characteristic flavors and odors which are contributed
by the milk fat in the cheese are entirely wanting, and the cheese
is devoid of aroma and flavor and is nothing more than a mixture of
casein with lard. Filled cheese is such a poor imitation of the genuine
article that it can never have any very great vogue, and especially
under the present law which requires it to be labeled and the payment
of a tax. The law relating to filled cheese is found in the appendix.

A filled cheese which is on the market not properly stamped and duty
paid in harmony with this Act of Congress is adulterated, and they who
make and sell it are amenable to the law. The annual report of the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue for the year ending June 30, 1905,
shows that no receipts were obtained by the tax on filled cheese during
that year. If any was made it was made surreptitiously and in defiance
of the law.

From the above data it is seen that the manufacture and sale of filled
cheese in the United States is almost a thing of the past and this form
of adulteration, assuming that the law is thoroughly executed, is not
now likely to be often met with.


=Cottage Cheese.=--Cottage cheese is a term applied to a product
which is usually only a raw material of cheese. It is the fresh,
precipitated, and unripe milk product, above described as used
in cheese making. It is a highly nutritious and very palatable
product, usually prepared at home and not suitable for keeping or
transportation. It is often made from sour milk in which the casein is
coagulated by the natural development of lactic acid. The sour milk is
placed in a cloth bag and the whey allowed to escape by gravitation.
The final portion of the whey may be forced out by pressure. The
residue, when properly seasoned with salt or in any way to suit the
taste of the consumer, is very palatable. Cream is often added to this
residue which increases the normal amount of fat which it contains.

COMPARATIVE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN AND EDAM CHEESE.

The chemical composition of some of the principal varieties of cheese
are shown in the following table:

                     WATER.     ASH.      FAT.    PROTEIN.
                    Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.

  American cheese,   27.5       4.1      32.5      28.38
  Edam cheese,       36.34      4.24     31.17     22.28

The data show that cheese is essentially a nitrogenous and fat food,
containing only small quantities of carbohydrates, and therefore it is
not a complete ration. It is a ration, however, which is complementary
to a highly starchy diet such as rice or maize bread or potatoes.
Bread and cheese or potatoes and cheese or rice and cheese, therefore,
make a well balanced diet, highly nutritious, easily digestible, and
quite palatable.


=Manufacture of American Cheeses.=--The large cheeses which are
principally found upon the American market may be said, in general, to
resemble the Cheddar type, although the calling of these cheeses by the
name “Cheddar” is misleading, and to that extent a misbranding of the
product.

There are two common methods of making these cheeses which are in
vogue in the United States, namely, the “stirred curd” or “granular”
method and, second, the Cheddar method. (Bulletin 104, Department
of Agriculture of Pennsylvania, 1902.) The latter one is the more
extensively used. The second product does not differ essentially in
character from the first, though the latter method, it is claimed,
gives a more solid cheese and one of more uniform character and
with a slightly less content of moisture. Since the Cheddar method
has practically come into sole use, displacing the first method,
a description of the Cheddar method alone will be sufficient to
illustrate the method of making large cheeses which are now so common
on the American market and which have such a well merited reputation.
The process is divided into eight parts: First, coagulating the milk;
second, cutting the curd; third, heating the curd; fourth, removing the
whey; fifth, cheddaring the curd; sixth, milling the curd; seventh,
salting and pressing the curd; eighth, curing the cheese.


_Rennet._--As has been said in the description of cheese making, the
material which is most useful in the precipitation of the curd is
rennet. The rennet is the secretion of the stomach of various animals,
that of the calf being most highly priced for cheese making. The fourth
stomach of the animal is the one which is used in the manufacture of
rennet. The aqueous extract made from these stomachs contains a ferment
which has the property of coagulating casein in a very high degree.
One part of good rennet preparation from healthy stomachs of calves
will coagulate 1000 parts of milk. In former days rennet was freshly
made and used at the factories. At the present time it is largely
prepared on a commercial scale and sold to the cheese maker. It is
highly important that the rennet used in cheese making should be of
the best quality, as an inferior grade gives a bad taste and color
to the cheese. Just as in the manufacture of fermented beverages and
making of bread the character of the yeast is a dominant factor in the
nature of the finished product, so it is even to a greater degree in
the case of rennet. Those who purchase the rennet already made should
therefore be certain it is of a quality to give the desired character
to the cheese. The greater the amount of milk fat in milk the larger
the proportion of rennet, since the milk fat protects to some extent
the casein from the action of the ferment. Experience has shown also
that during the summer the rennet acts more readily upon the milk,
probably due to the higher temperature. Care should be taken to avoid
the use of any excess of rennet, since anything more than the amount
necessary to conduct the coagulation is apt to add an unpleasant flavor
to the cheese. The curd also in such cases is less cohesive and makes a
tougher and drier product which does not lend itself so readily to the
ripening process. For this reason the rennet which is to be used should
always be tested in small quantities of milk beforehand in order that
the proper proportion to be used may be known so that the process in a
large way may be conducted with certainty and not by guess. (“British
Dairy Farming,” by Jas. Long.)

Rennet is sometimes treated with borax to preserve it during transit.
In such cases the borax may not all be removed by the whey and is
consequently found in ripened cheese. Its introduction in this way
should be avoided.


_Coagulating the Milk by Rennet Extract._--This process is often
termed by the cheese makers “setting the milk with rennet.” The milk
which is used for the purpose of cheese making should be, in the
technical language of the cheese maker, “ripe,” that is, containing a
sufficient quantity of lactic acid. The principal method of producing
the proper amount of lactic acid in milk is by keeping it warm, namely,
at a temperature of about 84 degrees. At this temperature the most
favorable conditions exist in milk for the rapid growth of the lactic
acid ferments. If the natural ferments which produce lactic acid are
not in sufficient quantity in the original milk it is better, rather
than to wait too long a time, to start the development of the lactic
acid by adding an artificial ferment. Lactic ferments are specially
prepared for this purpose, or some previously ripened milk may be added
to the mass. This is called a “starter.” From two to five pounds of
“starter” are usually required for each one hundred pounds of milk.
The degree of ripening is ascertained by measuring the quantity of
lactic acid present. The proper condition of the milk is tested by
means of a rennet preparation and if the milk will coagulate, when
thus tested, in about one minute or a little more it is an indication
that a sufficient amount of acid has been developed to add the rennet
for the proper coagulation of the milk. It is important to have the
milk in just the right condition in order that the proper operations
in cheese making may go on uniformly. Care must be taken, however, not
to have too much lactic acid in the milk. For instance, 0.2 of one
percent is too great, and such a milk is very liable to give trouble in
subsequent operations. In the curding of milk by rennet the temperature
should be kept between 82 and 86 degrees. The amount of rennet extract,
of course, varies with its character and strength, and this is best
determined by the cheese maker’s experimenting in order that the proper
quantity to be added to the great mass of milk may be known beforehand.
A sufficient quantity of rennet extract should be used to curdle the
milk in fifteen or twenty minutes for a quick-curing cheese, and in
thirty to forty minutes for a slow-curing cheese. The rennet extracts
in common use are added at the rate of from one-half to five ounces
for 1000 pounds of milk. Before adding, the extract should be diluted
with from 20 to 40 times its volume of water at a temperature of from
85 to 90 degrees. The rennet thus diluted acts with uniformity on the
milk, preventing the production of curd of a lumpy character. Previous
to adding the rennet extract the mass of milk is thoroughly stirred in
order to mix the fat therewith and the dilute rennet added evenly and
slowly with constant stirring which is continued for several minutes.
A gentle stirring of the surface of the milk should be continued
until the curd is at least half formed, in order that the fat may not
separate. After the stirring is finished, a cloth is placed over the
top of the vat to keep the surface of the milk from cooling, and the
milk is then left undisturbed until the coagulation is complete. The
coagulation goes on gradually until the whole mass of milk is one solid
coagulum produced by the changing of casein into paracasein.


_Cutting the Curd._--In order that the whey may be separated it is
necessary that the curd be cut into pieces. The smaller the pieces of
curd, the more rapidly will the whey escape. As soon as the curd is
formed it shows a tendency to contract and this tends to force out
the whey. By cutting the extent of the surface from which the whey
can exude is amplified and the rapidity of the process is enormously
increased. The time at which the curd is to be cut is one of great
importance and is determined by the skill and experience of the cheese
maker. If the curd is cut when it is too soft there may be large loss
of fat and a decreased yield of cheese. If the curd is too hard the
whey is more difficultly removed and the quality of the cheeses is not
so fine. The following test is used to determine when the curd is in
the right condition to cut. The end of the index finger is inserted
obliquely into the curd half an inch or more and then slowly raised
toward the surface. If the curd breaks apart with a clean fracture
without leaving any particles on the finger and the whey which exudes
from the broken surface is clear and not milky it shows the proper time
has come for cutting. Specially devised knives are used for cutting the
curd, which leave it in small cubes of about one-half inch surface.
Skill in the use of the cutting knife is important and can only be
acquired by proper experience.


_Heating the Curd._--As soon as the curd is cut the whey begins to
go out of it and the curd settles to the bottom of the vat, the whey
being of a higher specific gravity than the curd. After the pieces of
curd sink to the bottom the surface easily reunites and, when broken
apart, additional fat is lost. As soon, therefore, as the curd is cut
the whole mass is kept in gentle motion by hand stirring or with a wire
basket designed for the purpose, care being taken to avoid breaking or
comminuting the cubes. When properly stirred the whey appears clear and
is free of small particles of curd.

The curd contracts and hardens during this process, and soon reaches
a condition when the surface does not adhere so readily. The vat
should be kept warm during the process of separation of the whey, the
temperature being raised to about 90 degrees and finally, toward the
last, to 98 degrees, about blood heat.


_Separating the Curd._--The precipitated curd is left in contact with
the whey for some time, and during this period some of the lactic
acid in the whey unites with the paracasein. The setting of the curd
is finished when a small mass which has been squeezed in the hand to
remove the whey is pressed against a bar of iron heated to little short
of redness, and it is found that there is left, adhering to the iron,
fine silky threads. These threads are formed by the compound of lactic
acid and paracasein, and the more of this compound there is the longer
will the strings be. When the curd shows by the hot iron test strings
one-eighth inch long it is an index that the time has arrived for the
separation of the curd from the whey.


_Gathering the Curd._--After the whey is removed the cubes of curd
are left in the bottom of the vat until they mat or pack together, a
process which is technically known as cheddaring. The curd is sometimes
removed from the vat and placed on a special apparatus for this purpose
called a curd-sink. When the curd has matted together, forming a solid
mass, it is cut into blocks 8 × 8 × 12 inches. These blocks are turned
in the vat in order to facilitate the removal of more whey. The blocks
of curd are carefully placed, one over the other until they form a
large mass.

The process of solidifying or cheddaring accomplishes two purposes:

First, the whey is expelled to a considerable extent and, second,
the lactic acid unites with more of the curd, changing not only its
chemical composition but also its physical state from a spongy, tough,
rubber-like consistence, with a high water content, to a mass having a
smooth, velvety appearance and feeling, and a soft, somewhat plastic
consistency.


_Milling the Curd._--This process consists in cutting the lumps of curd
into small pieces in order to introduce the salt and to handle it more
readily when it is to be placed into hoops for pressing. This process
is done by special mills which avoid, in so far as possible, the loss
of fat.


_Salting and Pressing._--Salt is added for several purposes, chiefly
for flavoring, but it also has other uses. It aids in removing the
whey,--it hardens the curd and it checks or retards the formation of
lactic acid. Excessive salting, however, is injurious. From 2¹⁄₂ to 3
pounds of salt should be added to the curd made from 1000 pounds of
milk. Before putting in the press the curd is cooled to a temperature
of about 80 degrees, and after putting into the mold it is subjected to
pressure to give it a proper form, rather than to remove the whey which
is practically all gone by this time. If the whey has not been properly
removed before the cheese goes into the press it is almost impossible
to get it out then. The pressure should be uniform and continued for
at least twenty-four hours. If a screw is used the pressure should be
light at first and gradually increased. After the cheese has been in
the press about an hour it is removed, turned, a cloth adjusted about
it, and the entire surface wiped carefully with a cloth wrung out of
hot water.

The sizes in which American cheeses are made depends largely upon
the market, the more common size being 15 inches in diameter, and
the cheese weighs from 60 to 65 pounds. There is also a very large
manufacture of cheese seven inches in diameter, known as “Young
Americas” and weighing only from 8 to 10 pounds.


_Curing._--The higher the temperature to which cheese is exposed in
curing the more rapid the curing process will take place, but the
poorer the quality of the cheese. Experience has shown that a low
temperature, 55 degrees F. or even less, gives much better results,
although it requires a greater length of time. If cured at a higher
temperature the fat is apt to exude, and will not be evenly distributed
in the cheese. It is, therefore, more profitable, as well as better for
the consumer, to cure at low temperatures, producing a superior quality
with less loss of moisture and a cheese which sells for a better price.


_Moisture in the Curing Cellar._--The cellar in which the curing
takes place should contain air with a proper degree of moisture. The
relative percentage of moisture in the air as compared with the total
amount which it can hold should be from 65 to 75. This is determined by
placing in the curing room a hygrometer which registers the degree of
saturation.


=Qualities of American Cheese.=--The quality of cheeses is judged
by (1) flavor, (2) body, (3) texture, (4) color, and (5) general
appearance. In regard to flavor it is impossible to describe what is
meant. Only the connoisseur can determine properly whether a cheese
has a flavor which is sound, healthy, and indicative of the highest
quality. The cheese flavor should be free from any admixture of other
flavors. Cheese resembles butter in this respect, that it absorbs and
then gives off foreign flavors with great facility. Therefore in the
whole process of cheese making care must be exercised to exclude every
odor or flavor of an undesirable character from the cheese house.


_Flavor._--Under flavor also may be described taste, which should be of
that biting, incisive character due to proper development of ripening
and its attendant bacterial and enzymic products. The various foreign
flavors in cheese may be due to the odor of cows or the stable or may
suggest “rotten eggs,” or it may be the flavor of rancid butter due to
the decomposition of butter fat in the cheese.


_Body._--This is also a term which it is difficult to define. An
American cheese is said to have a perfect body when it is solid, firm,
and smooth in substance. This quality is ascertained by pressing the
cheese between the fingers. When it does not press down evenly between
the finger and thumb it is said technically to be “corky.” It is
smooth when it feels velvety-like and is not harsh or gritty.


_Texture._--The term texture applied to American cheese refers mainly
to its compactness. It is nearly related to body. The texture may be
fine and close or porous. The texture is perfect when a cut surface
of the inside of the cheese presents to the eye a solid, compact,
continuous appearance, free from breaks, holes, or lumps. Cheese should
not show any visible or separated moisture or fat. The texture of
American cheese should be smooth, free from breaks, and fairly hard.
The bandage should be smooth and neat, extending over the edge on each
end of the cheese about two inches.


_Color._--A true and unadulterated cheese should have only the color
of the milk from which it is made, and any other color incident to
ripening which is usually green. Unfortunately cheeses of American
origin are often artificially colored. An over-deep yellowish or
reddish tint, therefore, should be regarded as a mark of inferiority.
Artificially colored cheese should not rank as high on the market as
that of a natural tint, which is much more pleasing to the eye and
much less objectionable to the æsthetic taste. Color is often added to
conceal inferiority in the milk used.

The sides of the cheese should be straight and of uniform height all
around.

The following scale of points is used in judging cheese, according to
the above qualities: Flavor, 45 to 50; texture, 30 to 35; color, 10 to
15; general appearance, 5 to 15.


=Cream Cheese.=--This is a soft cheese which is rapidly growing in
popularity. It is made from rich milk or milk and cream mixed together.
It resembles in general Neufchatel, but it is richer in butter fat and
is put up in a different form. The temperature of the room in which
the cheese is made is quite important. It should be kept as nearly as
possible at 75 degrees. The milk is first warmed to 70 degrees and run
through a separator by means of which the cream is taken out, together
with one-half the volume of milk. This makes either dilute cream or
very rich milk, as you may choose to call it. The cream is heated to
84 degrees and about four or five ounces of rennet extract added per
thousand pounds. The rennet is carefully and gradually stirred into
the mixture, using about fifteen minutes for the addition. The mass is
then allowed to remain at rest until whey is seen around the sides.
The whey is then removed by draining, the resulting curd pressed and
mixed with about 3 percent of salt. The cheese is not subjected to a
curing process. It is molded into flat, thin cakes about 3 by 4 inches,
wrapped in parchment paper, and in this condition packed for shipment.


=Manufacture of Foreign Types of Cheese in the United States.=--The
improvement of cheeses made in the United States by securing different
forms of ferments and utilizing the best method of setting, pressing
the curd, and ripening used in other countries is worthy of all
encouragement. Unfortunately a disposition has arisen in our country
of giving the names of foreign varieties to the domestic articles.
Many fancy domestic cheeses are sold under strictly foreign names
such as Cheddar, Stilton, Cheshire, Schweitzer, Limburger, Camembert,
Brie, Roquefort, etc. In fact there seems to be no limitation upon
the adoption of a name already identified with a distinct type and
locality. Such a tendency is greatly to be regretted and perhaps it is
only necessary to point out to our people the ethical offense which
they are committing by such practices to secure their discontinuance.
It is, however, a perfectly legitimate undertaking to import the
ferments which produce the famous cheeses of the world and utilize them
to the fullest extent in cheeses of American origin. This, however,
should be done in such a way as to carefully avoid applying the name of
the original article to the domestic product. Perhaps it would be no
ethical offense or no very great offense to place upon the labels of
the cheese products a statement that they are of the same type as the
foreign product they imitate. This, however, should be an explanatory
phrase and not a part of the label which attracts principal attention.
It is far better that a manufacturer should adopt some local name which
would become identified with his product, and thus become a valuable
trade-mark. The attempt to pass domestic cheese under foreign names is
an offense against good ethics and also against the law. It is nothing
more nor less than misbranding, and cannot be justified even in the
absence of a law forbidding it.


_Success with Foreign Ferments._--Considerable success has attended
the introduction of the foreign processes into the United States,
together with the ferments which produce the cheeses abroad. The
environment, however, cannot be imported and therefore the ferments
may rapidly assimilate different properties under changed conditions,
and the continued importation of fresh ferments may be necessary to
preserve the type of cheese. Some of the principal types of foreign
cheeses made in the United States are those which are mentioned above.
A particularly excellent study has been made of the process of making a
Camembert type of cheese in this country. (Bureau of Animal Industry,
Bulletin 71, 1905.) This particular cheese is a type of Camembert which
is made at the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station of Connecticut.
For these experiments a cheese maker familiar with the Camembert
manufacture in France was secured. The method of making the cheese and
also of separating the curd and ripening was as nearly as possible like
that used in France. The style of the packages was the same, so that
from external appearances it would be quite difficult to distinguish
them from the genuine Camembert cheese of France. The success attending
these experiments shows that it is possible to improve domestic
cheeses by scientific effort in the direction of using the proper
ferments. These soft cheeses made in Connecticut were of good quality
and had something of the flavor and type of the Camembert itself,
though it was not difficult for even a novice to distinguish the two
varieties from one another.

These studies above referred to have resulted in a marked degree of
progress in the knowledge of the real changes which take place in
the ripening of cheeses. The officials in charge of the work differ
somewhat with the author in respect to the character of the product,
claiming that the making of Camembert cheese is not dependent upon
uniform conditions obtained only in certain localities but rather
on securing the proper cultures and conditions which are possible
almost anywhere. The fact of the case is that the cheeses made at
the Connecticut station are probably made under much more scientific
conditions and much more rigid control than the real Camembert cheese
made in France. The success which attended these efforts is only a
proof of the statement made above that the introduction of these
processes for making fancy cheeses in this country will doubtless
result in the development of types of American origin of peculiar
flavor and quality. Such cheeses when properly named and not confused
with those of foreign origin will become quite as familiar and well
known, both at home and abroad. (Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin
82, 1906.)


=Sage Cheese.=--The consumption of the variety of cheese known as sage
cheese is not very large at the present time in the United States and
is restricted to certain localities, yet it is rapidly growing in
favor. Consumers who are accustomed to it are willing to pay a larger
price for it than for ordinary cheese. Sage cheese is made exactly in
the same manner as that described for the manufacture of Cheddar. The
flavor of sage is imparted in three different ways, first, by adding
the sage extract or tea to the milk; second, by adding the extract to
the curd before salting; third, by adding the sage leaves to the curd
before salting. The latter method is found to be the most satisfactory
requiring the least amount of sage to give any definite flavor. Three
ounces of sage leaves are found to be sufficient to flavor the curd
from 1000 pounds of milk. The stems and impurities of the sage leaves
are carefully removed and the leaves ground to a fine powder before
mixing with the curd (Michigan Board of Agriculture, 1904).


=Principal Cheeses of England.=--The principal English cheeses are
Stilton, Cheshire, Cheddar, double and single, Gloucester, Derby, and
Leicester. According to Dr. Voelcker, the finest flavored cheese is
Cheshire, which differs from any other in being made from milk which
is perfectly sweet, and some authors think its peculiar aroma is due
to this fact. On the contrary, the more general opinion is that the
best cheeses are made from milk slightly sour rather than that which is
perfectly sweet.

Cheshire cheese is manufactured by mixing the evening milk, which is
kept cool over night, with the morning milk, and then warming the
mixture until the temperature is about 90 degrees. The proper quantity
of rennet is added and when the cheese is to be extremely yellow also
some annotto. After thoroughly mixing, the mass is left for nearly an
hour, by which time the coagulation is completed. The next operation
is the breaking down or cutting up of the fresh curd, and this is an
important process. Upon the care which is exercised in doing this
depends in a large measure the richness and quality of the finished
product. When properly manipulated the whey which is separated will be
of a greenish color and clear, while the proper combination of milk
fat and casein which is secured in separating the whey will make a
cheese of first class quality. The curd is so dense as to naturally
separate from the whey by deposition, and the latter is thus drawn off
by a stopcock properly placed in the vat. The curd is then placed upon
a cloth stretched over lattice work in order that the separation of
the whey may be complete. Finally before passing to the cheese house
the curd is treated with eight ounces of salt to twenty pounds of
curd. After the cheese is molded it is placed in a warm room for one
or two days, and then taken to the press house where it is subjected
to the usual pressure. The pressing process is continued by wrapping
the cheese in dry cloths and subjecting to new pressure every day for
five or six days. The cheese is then removed to the ripening cellar
where it is turned two or three times a week. It is ripe and ready for
consumption in less than one year. There are a great many variations
from this method of making Cheshire cheese, but they all follow the
same general plan.


_Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese._--The cheese is made in various parts
of England though chiefly in Somerset, the period of manufacture
extending from April to November. Cheddar cheeses are made in
large sizes varying from 60 to 100 pounds each. The temperature
of precipitation for Cheddar cheese is somewhat less than for the
Cheshire cheese, being about 80 degrees. Rennet is used solely in the
coagulation, lactic acid not being liked for that purpose. In the
making of Cheddar often some of the fat escapes in the whey and this is
afterwards collected and made into butter. Two pounds of salt to 100
pounds of curd are used.


_Derby cheese_ is a name applied to cheese made in Derby. The Cheddar
system of making it is usually employed.


_Gloster cheeses_ are made on the same plan as that of the Derby and do
not need any further description.


_Leicester cheese_ is a variety of cheese which is very popular and
made chiefly in the county of Leicester. The coagulation of Leicester
cheese is made at a little lower temperature than that previously
described, varying from 76 to 84 degrees. The curd is allowed to stand
for about one-half hour before it is broken up and the whey separated.
The best manufacturers of cheese disapprove of the use of artificial
coloring and it may be said that eventually it is pretty certain that
all cheese makers will come to the same conclusion. The use of coloring
matter in cheese, even of annotto, adds nothing to its richness, and
tends to deceive the customer into thinking that the milk employed was
richer in cream than it really was. The Leicester cheeses are small in
size compared with Cheddar. About eleven pounds of milk are used to
make an ordinary cheese.


_Stilton cheese_ is probably the most familiar and highly prized of
all English varieties. It is not always to be obtained, and many
imitations of Stilton are made and bear its name. The name it bears is
from the name of the town where it was first, and is now, made. It is
a cheese which has been known for about a century and a quarter. It is
principally made between March and September and solely from the milk
of cows fed on natural pasture, that is, for the finest variety. The
use of artificial food for the cows is at once detected in a change for
the worse in the character of the cheese. At first the rennet employed
was made from the stomachs of lambs instead of cows and in the olden
times the cheeses were not considered to be sufficiently mellow and
ripe until they were two years old and exhibited spots of green in the
interior.

The most approved modern process of manufacture is mixing the morning
and evening milk and bringing it to a temperature of 79 degrees. Rennet
is then added and the mass allowed to stand for about an hour and a
half. The curd is removed into cloths set in frames for the purpose
of allowing the whey to separate. Usually about an hour is allowed
for the natural separation. The cloths are then tightened and brought
closer together to produce slight pressure and placed in a cheese tub,
several of them together, where they are allowed to remain for twelve
hours. Usually a longer time is allowed before the curd is cut up. The
salt is added in proportion of one pound to 60 pounds of fresh curd.
The curd is then placed in tin cylinders with perforated sides, the
cylinder being 12 inches deep and 12 inches in diameter, and put in
a room at about 65 degrees to favor the separation of the whey which
requires from six to seven days. The cheeses are then removed from the
cylinders, brought into proper shape by a knife and wrapped with strong
cotton cloth and allowed to remain for twelve days longer when they are
removed to the drying room and kept at 65 degrees. During this process
the original curd placed in the cell loses about one-half its weight
so that ten pounds of curd in the end make five pounds of cheese. A
very common method also is to make cheese twice a day from morning
milk and evening milk separately. Extra cream is often added in making
Stilton cheese, only whole milk or milk and added cream being used. The
principal point to be considered with curing is the regulation of the
temperature.

Other varieties of cheese which are known in England are mostly named
from the localities where they are produced and partake in general of
the character of cheeses already described. These are Lancastershire,
Wensleydale, skimmed milk cheese, butter milk cheese, potato cheese,
and various forms of soft cheese or those used without being allowed to
ripen for any length of time.


=Varieties of Cheese Made in France.=--There is a general idea that
France is pre-eminently a cheese making country and this is true in so
far as the making of certain brands of cheese which have international
reputations is concerned. France, however, according to statistics,
imports a larger quantity of cheese than she exports though probably
the value of her exports is greater than the imports because of the
high character and price of the exported articles.


_Manufacture of Camembert._--The first cheese of this variety was made
in 1791 by Marie Fontaine on a farm in the community of Camembert, near
Vimontiers. The period of manufacture of Camembert cheese extends from
March to September. It is made from whole cow’s milk from which none of
the cream has been extracted. The rennet is added at the temperature at
which the milk comes from the cow as nearly as possible and the milk is
artificially heated, the morning and evening milk being mixed, to this
temperature. After the addition of rennet the milk is gently stirred
for two or three minutes, a wooden cover placed over the pan, and
left for five or six hours. The curd is sufficiently set when touched
with the finger it does not adhere thereto. The curd is removed from
the pan by a spoon and put into cylindrical metal molds open at the
end and from these molds the whey is allowed to escape. It requires
about two liters of milk to make one cheese. The whey is allowed to
drain for about two days. After that time the mold is turned, a little
fine white salt placed upon the top and allowed to drain for another
day. After about 48 hours the cheeses are taken from the molds and
salted. They are then placed in the drying room upon racks covered
with straw. The drying room must be well ventilated and the air which
is blown in for ventilation must be strained to be free of dust and
insects. Care is taken also to exclude the sunlight, as this is very
injurious to the proper development and ripening of cheese. The cheese
remains in the dryer from 20 to 25 days. The ripening cellar is the
next point to which the cheese is removed, and this cellar is kept as
nearly as possible at 50 degrees F. The cheeses remain in the ripening
cellar about 30 days, during which time they are frequently turned and
carefully watched. The progress of the fermentation which takes place
in the cheese is indicated by its appearance. In modern times the
manufacture of Camembert cheese is continued practically throughout the
whole year, but the artificially ripened cheese, that is, made during
the winter by the aid of artificial heat, does not compare in quality
with the product which is naturally ripened during the summer months.
The manufacture of Camembert cheese has extended to a considerable
distance from the original village, but it is all made in that part of
France.


_Emmenthaler Cheese._--Emmenthaler cheese is a variety of Swiss cheese
of the same type as Gruyère. It is sometimes called the “cart-wheel”
cheese on account of its immense size. These cheeses are sometimes
three or four feet in diameter and of a disk-like shape, something
like a wooden wheel sawed out of a round tree. It is a cheese which
was originally made in Switzerland, although the manufacture of it has
spread over into that part of France bordering Switzerland. It has the
general character of Swiss cheese in texture, also in composition and
nutritive value.


_Brie Cheese._--This is one of the most famous of French cheeses. It
is made in the form of a round flat mass about 16 inches in diameter
for the grande Brie and 12 inches in diameter for the petite Brie. The
thickness of the cheese is about one inch. The method of preparation is
not very greatly different from that of cheeses in general. During the
curing process, as in the case of Camembert, mould develops, especially
on the outside of the cheese, and the change which goes on in the
interior breaks down the casein, forming a creamy mass of a strong,
piquant flavor. The mould which grows upon the outside of Brie cheese
gives it a strong odor which reminds one of decomposition. Brie cheese
might be said to resemble in general properties the Camembert variety
of cheese.


_Roquefort_ cheese is a very popular cheese made in France from sheep’s
milk. When properly ripened it shows a green mould. It is made in a
particular way at Roquefort, and according to König has the following
composition:

  Water,        36.85 percent
  Fat,          30.61    „
  Proteids,     25.25    „
  Lactic acid,   1.90    „
  Ash,           5.39    „


_Port Du Salut._--This variety of cheese has a most deserving
popularity, not only upon the Continent but in the United States. It
is, however, not so generally known in this country as the Roquefort
and Camembert varieties. It was long manufactured by a secret process
by the Trappist monks of Bricquebec in the Department of Manche.

The secret of the manufacture of this variety of cheese is guarded
with the same jealousy by the monks as is the secret of making the
chartreuse liqueur. Port Du Salut is always put up in very small
packages of cylindrical form, flat, and about one inch in thickness.
The cheese has a number of holes, in which it resembles the Swiss
cheese. Its flesh, however, is mellow, and does not have the toughness
nor solidity which characterizes the flesh of Swiss cheese. Although
the monks’ secret has been well guarded the general method of its
manufacture has been described (“Cheese and Cheese Making,” by Jas.
Long and John Benson). The milk is brought to a temperature of 86
degrees F., and is treated with rennet in such a way as to separate the
curd in about one-half hour. The separation of whey is secured in the
usual manner, first, by allowing broken curd to stand, and afterwards
by pressure. A peculiar form of pressure is said to be used by the
monks,--a number of screws are placed side by side on a beam and a
number of cheeses may be pressed at the same time. The pressure is
applied solely by the hands and so is not very severe. After pressure
the cheeses are placed in a ripening cellar, which is kept at about
54 degrees F. Care is taken in the ripening that the cheese does not
become too dry.


_Pont L’Evêque_ cheese is well known upon the Continent, especially in
France where it is made. It takes its name from the village where the
manufacture is carried on, which is not very far from Havre. The cheese
is usually put up in a square or oblong package about one inch in
thickness and of a size weighing about one pound. It has a tough crust
and may be kept for some time after it is ripe with safety. The milk is
set at a temperature of 88 degrees and a sufficient amount of rennet
added to produce precipitation of the curd in about fifteen minutes.

When the curd is stiff enough to be cut and removed it is placed upon
a mat made of rye straw through which the whey is allowed to filter.
As the whey runs off the curd becomes tougher and the mat is brought
together in such a way as to exert gentle pressure. This separation of
the whey is continued until the curd can be placed in metal molds which
vary in size according to the size of the intended cheeses. The cheese
is ripened at a temperature of about 58 degrees in a humid cellar so as
not to lose too much water.


_Gervais_ cheese belongs strictly to the family of fancy cheese, being
made of a mixture of milk and cream. It is produced in large quantities
in France and finds almost an exclusive domestic market. It is named
for its manufacturer, M. Gervais. The mixture is set at a very low
temperature, about 65 degrees. The rennet which is used is diluted with
water and added in small quantities so that the curd does not separate
for eight or ten hours. The whey is separated in a cloth bag and under
very gentle pressure. The cheeses are usually sold in only a partially
ripe state and the cheese combines the flavor of both cheese and cream.


_Bondon_ cheese is another cheese which is made largely in the region
of Rouen. The size of the cheese is usually very small, from seven to
nine being made from a gallon of milk. The method of manufacture is
more like that of Gervais and differs from it chiefly in being made
solely from milk instead of a mixture of milk and cream.


_Limburger Cheese._--Limburger cheese is one of the most famous of the
different varieties of foreign cheese, chiefly because of its bad odor.
This odor is due to specific forms of ferments introduced during the
ripening process. Generally Limburger cheese is made from pure milk,
but occasionally skimmed or partially skimmed milk is used. The milk
is set at rather a high temperature, from 92 to 100 degrees. After the
coagulation has taken place the curd is broken into pieces the size
of a hen’s egg and allowed to settle to the bottom of the kettle as
the whey separates. In England a copper kettle is usually employed for
the testing vessel. After the whey has separated the curd is taken out
and placed in rectangular molds with perforated bottoms, then laid on
tables so that the remaining portion of the whey may drain off. The
molds are turned from time to time to promote the separation of the
whey and to make the cheeses keep their form. The cheeses are next
placed in rows on a flat table with thin pieces of boards between them
and subjected to light pressure. During this time they are salted
by applying salt externally and rubbing the surface at frequent
intervals for three or four days. The salt dissolves and permeates
the mass. During the salting and pressing the cheeses are kept at a
uniform temperature of about 60 degrees. The curing takes place in
cellars, well ventilated but very moist, at a temperature of about 60
degrees. As the cheeses ripen they grow soft. The curd takes on its
characteristic greasy appearance at the time of the ripening, becoming,
at first, a yellow and then a reddish yellow. The softening begins on
the outside and proceeds toward the center and the cheese is considered
to be marketable when one-fourth of it has taken on its characteristic
texture. The softening of Limburger cheese is due to a ferment which
breaks down into a soft mass the casein or paracasein of which the
cheese is largely composed. By using the same kind of ferments and by
following the same process, imitations of Limburger cheese are made in
the United States and other countries. These imitations, however, never
equal the original in the character of the product nor in flavor or
taste, and should not bear the name of the real article.

COMPOSITION OF LIMBURGER CHEESE.

  Water,                        35.7 percent
  Fat,                          34.2    „
  Casein products,              24.2    „
  Milk sugar and undetermined,   3.0    „
  Ash,                           2.9    „

Limburger cheese was first made in the Province of Lüttick in Belgium.
It has, however, come to be considered chiefly as of German production.
The chief cause of the putrefactive fermentation which takes place in
Limburger cheese is the extremely moist condition in which it is kept.
For this purpose the atmosphere of the ripening cellar should be almost
saturated with aqueous vapor, containing at least 95 percent of its
maximum degree of saturation. This moist atmosphere, together with the
low temperature at which the curing takes place, keeps the cheese soft
and promotes the putrifactive ferments. Under these conditions the
surface soon begins to get shiny and soft and changes from white to a
reddish yellow. This change makes its way to the center, converting the
harsh curd to a soft condition. The time required for this softening
of the cheese is from four to six weeks. (“Cheese Making,” by John W.
Decker.)


_Edam Cheese._--Edam cheese is one of the most famous of the cheeses
of Holland. It is made at the town of Edam, situated on the Zuyder
Zee, about twelve miles northeast of Amsterdam. The milk from which
Edam cheese is made should be properly acidified as has already been
described. The coagulation takes place and the curd is separated much
in the same manner as is used in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese. The
curd is held for a time in the vat in a granular condition in order to
develop greater acidity and until it will string one-half inch or one
inch on the hot iron already described. It is then ready for the mold.
The molds are of such a character as to give the cheese a spherical
shape about six inches in diameter. Each cheese weighs about four
pounds. It has a perfectly solid texture and its flavor is something
like that of old Cheddar, except that it is a little more salty and
somewhat harder. It is cured at a temperature of about 60 degrees and
at a humidity of about 80 degrees. The curing period is somewhat longer
than for most cheeses, lasting about eight or ten months and even a
year. A slow curing is particularly necessary in the production of Edam
cheese.


_Coating with Paraffine._--In the curing of cheese sometimes it is
coated with paraffine to avoid loss of weight. Coating with paraffine
does not necessarily interfere with the character of the cheese, though
it is probable that it must interfere in some way with the normal
ferments. Paraffine is wholly indigestible and may produce injurious
effects if swallowed with the cheese. (“Farmers’ Bulletins,” Nos.
186-190.)


=Fancy Cheeses.=--There is a large number of cheeses made in which
cream enters as a prominent part. It is difficult to give these any
particular name and the term “fancy cheese” has been applied to this
form of cheese as a whole. They are usually put up in small packages
or little pots and thus form an article of diet quite distinct from
the large press cheese of commerce. In fact they are intended more for
condimental purposes and to be eaten in something of the same manner as
butter rather than cheese. These cheeses usually are sold for a much
higher price and, therefore, can be regarded more as a luxury than as a
regular article of diet.

It might be well to mention some of the more particular varieties of
these fancy cheeses.


_Gruyère._--Gruyère is a cheese made in Switzerland, where it is much
prized and from where it is sent to the various parts of the world.
It is a pressed cheese and is rather of a larger size than the fancy
cheeses already described, and it is difficult to say whether or not it
should find a place among them.


_Parmesan._--Parmesan is a variety of cheese made in Italy. It is
about the same size as Gruyère and thus has an intermediate place
between the large pressed cheeses of commerce and the fancy cheeses
above mentioned.


_Gorgonzola_ cheese is a very familiar cheese made in Italy and belongs
to the same class as the two preceding ones. It is in one sense a fancy
cheese and yet is made in such quantities as to belong rather to the
commercial variety.


=Bacterial Activity in Cheese.=--Modern science has led to the
conclusion that the ripening of cheese is due principally to bacterial
activity. The changes which take place in the chemical and physical
properties of cheese materials, the flavor and aroma which are
developed, the production of mould and other growths are marks of the
activity of organisms of different character, living and unorganized.
Due credit must be given to the enzymic (unorganized) action in these
processes and the enzymes are not regarded as living organisms but,
on the other hand, as catalytic agents inducing chemical changes
similar to those produced in starch by the action of diastase. The
peculiar flavors of cheeses which are found in different kinds have
been ascribed in late years almost exclusively to the character of
bacterial activity. This assumption is perhaps correct, but it must
not be forgotten in this connection that the same species of bacteria,
in changed environments, does not always produce the same results. The
activities of bacteria are peculiarly sensitive to the environment,
such as change of temperature, physical conditions of different kinds,
locality, and other factors of a complex nature, making up the total
conditions in which the organisms live. For this reason the attempts to
produce peculiar cheeses which belong in particular localities in other
localities have not been gustatorily even if technically successful. It
is true that cheeses may be made of the types mentioned, having some of
the general characteristics but lacking that indescribable something
which after all gives true character. Just as it is impossible to make
a Rhine wine in California or a Bordeaux wine in New York so is it
impossible to make a Cheddar cheese in Ohio or a Camembert cheese in
Connecticut.


=Number of Bacteria.=--The number of bacteria, per gram, which appear
in cheese varies according to the age of the cheese, conditions under
which it is made, temperature, etc. The usual number of bacteria in one
gram of cheese varies from five hundred thousand to nearly one hundred
million (21st Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station).

Ageing does not seem to increase the number of organisms, since it has
been found by some observers that the maximum number present in cheese
is found at the time it is taken from the press. It is difficult also
to properly sample a cheese for the number of bacteria, since they
are unequally distributed in different parts thereof, and the trier,
by means of which the sample is secured, may show largely differing
numbers in different parts of the same cheese. During the process of
curing, especially if the curing be at a high temperature, the number
of organisms decreases. At first the decrease is very rapid and then
becomes slower as the cheese becomes riper. The decrease in the number
of bacteria when the temperature of curing is raised is somewhat
contrary to expectations. It has been found that when a cheese is taken
from cold storage, say at 24 degrees F., and placed in a temperature
of 60 degrees F., the decline in the number of bacteria is always
greater than when the cheese is retained at the lower temperature. This
may be due to the fact that bacteria which have been developed at a
low may lose their vitality at a higher temperature. On the contrary,
the development of flavor does not seem to depend upon the number of
organisms since the peculiar flavor of cheese is more rapidly developed
at the higher temperature, provided it be not too high, although this
be attended with a diminution in the number of organisms. Evidently the
conditions which favor the metabolic activities of organisms also favor
their destruction, since when they have performed their functions they
undergo natural disintegration. The character of cheese is such that
when it is once formed there is no more opportunity given for a rapid
proliferation of the organisms.

It may be found, however, that the development of bacterial life is
not the sole or perhaps not the dominant factor in the development of
flavors and aromas in cheeses but that this process is due very largely
to the enzymic activities obtained from the rennet and which pre-exist
in the milk.


=Chemical Changes Which Take Place During the Ripening of the
Cheese.=--_Loss of Weight._--During the process of ripening of cheese
there is considerable loss of weight, amounting to from 15 to 20
percent of the total weight of the fresh product. This loss is due
chiefly to the evaporation of water, while in the fermentation which
takes place volatile bodies are formed which also escape with the
water. For instance, any free gas, either carbon dioxid, hydrogen, or
nitrogen, which is produced will escape, likewise any alcohol which is
formed will at least partially volatilize. There may be also a slight
loss due to mechanical attrition, but that is not of any consequence.
Owing to the loss of water some of the constituents which may diminish
in actual quantity have their percentages proportionately increased.
These changes are illustrated by the following analytical data:

                                                     MILK
                            WATER.  PROTEIN.  FAT.  SUGAR.  ASH.
  Fresh cheese,              40.42    24.80  28      1.65   5.43
  In the dry substance,       ....    41.62  46.99   ....   ....
  Same cheese one year old,  33.12    27.35  31.70   2.96   4.87
  In the dry substance,       ....    40.89  47.40   ....   ....

The quantity of water which is lost in part depends upon the
temperature of the store house and the dryness of the air. The loss of
water should not be too great, otherwise the cheese would be dry and
the ripening process would not go on in a proper manner. In some of
the processes which take place during the ripening of cheese water is
formed. If, therefore, there is no loss of weight during the process
of ripening, the ripened cheese would have more water than the fresh
cheese and this would impair the quality of the product. The loss of a
certain part of water, namely, from 15 to 20 percent must be regarded
as an advantage in the production of cheese.


_Changes in the Protein._--The most important chemical changes, from
a digestive point of view, which take place in the cheese are those
which the protein undergoes. This protein substance consists chiefly
of casein and undergoes profound alteration due to enzymic action
during the process of ripening. The casein which when dry naturally
forms a leathery, tough material changes into a more soluble and softer
product, and during this change there are produced aromas and flavors
which add much to the value of the cheese for edible purposes.

The character of the coagulation of the cheese originally has much
to do with the general changes which the product undergoes during
fermentation. The cheese makers for this reason must pay special
attention to the rennet which they employ in the production of the
precipitate. One of the most important of the changes which the casein
undergoes is that which results in the production of ammonia. This
indicates a complete decomposition of the protein substance, at least
in part, so that the total amount of protein which is lost as such
may reach as high as 25 or 30 percent of that present in the original
cheese. There are also produced notable quantities of lucin and other
nitrogenous compounds soluble in alcohol. In general it may be said
that the changes in the nitrogen constituents of cheese are extremely
helpful to digestion. Not only is the protein of ripened cheese more
soluble but even the parts which remain unchanged as far as the protein
constituent is concerned are so affected by the action of fermentation
as to render them more readily subject to the action of the digestive
ferments in the alimentary canal. There is a popular superstition that
the use of cheese at the end of a meal helps to digest the other food
which has given rise to the adage “Cheese, thou mighty elf, digesting
all things but thyself.” There is a base of scientific truth in this
expression since in ripe cheese the enzymes remain still in an active
form and when taken into the stomach must necessarily exercise an
influence of considerable magnitude upon the process of digestion. The
custom, therefore, which is so universal, of finishing a dinner with a
bit of cheese is evidently based upon sound physiological as well as
gastronomical principles.


_Changes in the Fat._--The chemical changes which the fat undergoes in
the process of ripening the cheese are also of considerable importance.
It is claimed by some authors that additional fat is produced from
the casein during the process of ripening, which is the cause of the
lardy appearance of some cheeses. Many observers have found in ripened
cheese a larger percentage of fat than that which was noticed in the
fresh cheese. This apparent increase, however, may be due to analytical
error, since in the fresh cheese the fat becomes entangled with highly
insoluble caseous matter and is difficult of extraction, whereas after
the ripening of the cheese and degradation and breaking up of the
caseous tissues the fat is much more readily extracted. While it is not
impossible that fat should be formed by the fermentation of the casein
it does not seem that it is probable.

In examinations which were made of fresh and ripened cheese of the
variety known as Roquefort there was found in the dry substance of
the fresh cheese 40.80 percent of protein and 53.91 percent of fat.
In the same cheese after it was quite old there was found in the dry
substance 37.78 percent of protein and 56.14 percent of fat. These data
serve to bear out the theory that fat is formed from the protein. On
the contrary, it must be remembered that in the fermentation of the
protein a number of volatile bodies are formed, especially ammonia, and
thus the diminution in the percentage of protein is probably due to
the loss of volatile bodies, and the increase in the quantity of fat
is therefore a relative one, probably, and not absolute. There is no
doubt, however, of the fact that the quantity or character of the fat
does change considerably during the process of ripening. There is no
reason for supposing that the fat alone of all the contents of cheese
escapes enzymic action. It is profoundly changed in its character by
the fermentations to which it is subjected, and this change, while it
unsuits the fat for butter, may probably make it more palatable and
desirable in cheese.


=Digestibility of Cheese.=--Reference has already been made to the fact
that in the ripening of cheese the protein of the milk, consisting
principally of casein, undergoes certain changes which apparently, at
least, increase its digestibility. I use the word “apparent” because
the flavor and aromas which are produced in the ripening of a cheese
act as condimental substances and thus naturally excite the glands
which secrete the digestive enzymes to greater activity. Therefore the
increased digestibility may be due in part to the increased activity of
the digestive ferments as above described rather than to the changes
in the casein itself. It must be admitted, however, that these changes
during ripening tend to make the casein more granular, softer, and
to convert it into compounds more easily acted upon, and are thus
favorable to increased digestibility. Experimental studies have shown
that in a well ripened American cheese of the Cheddar type 93 percent
of the protein present in the cheese and 95 percent of the fat are
digested. Artificial digestion experiments have also shown that the
pancreas ferments have much more effect upon cheese digestion than
the peptic, showing that the cheese is more acted upon in the small
intestines, perhaps, than in the stomach. Attention must also be paid
to idiosyncrasies in these cases, as there are many people who find
it impossible to digest cheese in any form. The eating of larger
quantities than are necessary also tends to derange the digestive
organs. A well ripened cheese, therefore, should be eaten rather as a
condimental substance than as an actual food product, though its value
as a food is fully attested. (“Farmers’ Bulletin,” No. 162.)


=Effect of Cold Storage on the Curing of Cheese.=--Attention has been
called, in the description of different methods of making varieties of
cheeses, to the ordinary temperature at which cheeses are cured. In
European countries these temperatures are maintained without the use
of artificial means. In the United States it is difficult to maintain
a very low temperature in summer time without the use of artificial
refrigerators. Experimental studies have determined that when the
temperature of ripening or storage is reduced to a considerable extent
below that usually specified for the standard varieties of cheese the
quality of the cheese is superior although the time for storage or
ripening is very much prolonged. The artificial curing of cheese has
been secured at as low a temperature as 40 degrees. There is also a
less loss of weight in cheese cured at this low temperature. A cheese
which was cured at 40 degrees when examined by experts scored a mark
of 92.4 while the same cheese ripened at 60 degrees scored 95. Another
test of a cheese cured at 40 degrees scored 95.7 while the same cheese
cured at 50 degrees was marked 94.2 and the cheese cured at 60 degrees
91.7.


=Preparations of Casein.=--Properly in connection with cheese
preparations may be mentioned those products which are of a food value,
procured from casein itself. The precipitated casein is prepared for
the market by washing, drying, and grinding to a fine powder, and is
then sometimes called protein flour. Sanose is a mixture consisting
of about 80 percent of casein and 20 percent of the protein derived
from the white of egg. The addition of the white of egg enables the
casein to remain in suspension when mixed with water and thus causes
the preparation to resemble milk. Casein preparations of this form are
practically insoluble in water and, therefore, are not perhaps of the
best forms of nitrogenous food for invalids. To avoid this insolubility
the casein has been combined with alkalies and the preparations are
known as _nutrose_ and _eucasein_. Plasma is also a preparation of
casein with alkalies which are added in sufficient quantities to give
7 percent of ash. These caseinates, as they are sometimes called,
that is, combinations of casein with alkalies, are soluble in water
and are found to be to a certain extent digestible and nutritive
preparations. Casumen and sanatogen are other preparations of casein
with alkalies or glycero-phosphate. Wonderful claims are made by
manufacturers concerning the digestibility and nutritive properties of
these preparations. It is doubtful, however, if they have much greater
value, if any, than natural casein in the form of milk or as ripened
in cheese. Preparations of this kind usually appeal strongly to those
who suffer from digestive disorders and therefore high-sounding names,
which are given to practically the same preparations, lead the seeker
after health often to try the same substance under a dozen different
appellations. These remarks are not made for the purpose of decrying
in any way the merits which these preparations may have but only
to illustrate a very marked tendency on the part of many people to
attribute extreme virtues to ordinary food substances which are sold
under attractive and sometimes deceptive names and whose properties and
virtues are advertised in an expert manner. Because a food substance
consists almost wholly of pure protein is no indication whatever of
its exceptionally high food value. Protein is only one form of food
and a concentrated ration of protein in any of these forms is just
as likely to do harm as good. For emergency rations, for economy in
transportation, and for certain diseased conditions of the digestive
organs these preparations are undoubtedly valuable, but they have
little claim upon the general public in a state of health as staple
articles of diet. They are much more nutritive than the extracts
of beef and other meats which have obtained a vogue wholly out of
proportion to their dietetic or medicinal value. (“Foods and Principles
of Dietetics,” by Robert Hutchinson.)




PART V.

CEREAL FOODS.


BARLEY (GENUS _Hordeum_).

In the United States barley is not used to any extent as human food.
It has all the nutritive properties of the common cereals and may be
considered as a food product, although its chief use is in the making
of fermented beverages which will be described in full in the second
volume.

Barley is cultivated chiefly in the northern and western portions of
the United States and is similar to the oat in this respect, that when
the grain is threshed by the ordinary process the first layer of chaff
is not separated, and, therefore, it goes into the market unhulled.
There are varieties of naked barley which are not much cultivated. The
cultivated varieties (_Hordeum sativum_ Pers.) belong practically to
one species, although there are very many different varieties grown.

The character of barley best suited to malting will be discussed in the
second volume.


_Acreage and Yield of Barley._--The area planted to barley in the
United States and other statistical data relating thereto for the year
1906 are as follows:

  Acreage,             6,323,757
  Yield per acre,             28.3 bushels
  Total production,  178,916,484     „
  Price per bushel,           41.5 cents
  Value of crop,      74,235,997   dollars


=Composition of a Typical Unhulled Barley.=--From a comparative study
of a number of samples of American barley the following numbers are
regarded as typical of the composition of the unhulled barley grown in
the United States:

  Weight of 100 kernels,    4.53 grams
  Moisture,                10.85 percent
  Protein,                 11.00    „
  Ether extract,            2.25    „
  Crude fiber,              3.85    „
  Ash,                      2.50    „
  Starch and sugar, etc.,  69.55    „

The important points brought out in the above data are that the
percentage of fiber in the unhulled barley is less than one-half that
of the unhulled oat, as stated further on, while the percentage of
ether extract is only about one-half that of the unhulled oat, and the
protein is also decidedly less than in the whole oat.

As has been stated, barley is not very generally used in this country
for human food, but is used in this and other countries as an
ingredient of soup.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--BARLEY STARCH. × 200.--(_Bureau of
Chemistry._)]


=Protein of Barley.=--The following protein compounds are found in
barley in proportionate weight to the total weight of the seed:

  Leucosin,           0.30 percent
  Hordein,            4.00    „
  Edestin,            1.95    „
  Proteose,           1.95    „
  Insoluble protein,  4.50    „

As seen from the above table the most important of the soluble proteins
is hordein, which in quantity is almost equal to the insoluble protein
of the barley grain. The starch granules of barley are recognized by
their distinctive shape and size, as revealed by the microscope. A
typical microphotographic view of barley starch is shown in Fig. 22.


BUCKWHEAT (_Polygonum fagopyrum_ L.).


=Buckwheat= is usually classed with the cereals, but botanically it
does not belong to the order of true grasses to which the cereals
belong.

Buckwheat is commonly grown in many parts of the United States, and its
seed is highly prized for bread and cake making purposes. The buckwheat
is ground and the outer black tough hull separated, and the flour is
used chiefly for making hot breakfast cakes which are much prized
throughout the country. Properly ground buckwheat flour has a more
or less dark tint, due to fine particles of the outer envelope which
escape the bolting process.


_Acreage and Yield of Buckwheat._--This crop is not grown in many
states. New York, Pennsylvania, and Michigan produce the largest
quantities. The statistical data for buckwheat grown in the United
States in 1906 are as follows:

  Acreage,              789,208
  Yield per acre,            18.6 bushels
  Production,        14,641,937     „
  Price per bushel,          59.6 cents
  Total value,        8,727,443   dollars


=Composition of Buckwheat Flour.=--The composition of finely bolted
buckwheat flour is as follows:

  Moisture,              11.89 percent
  Protein,                8.75    „
  Ether extract,          1.58    „
  Ash,                    1.85    „
  Fiber,                   .52    „
  Starch and sugar,      75.41    „
  Calories per gram,  3,854

The above is the composition of a white flour more finely ground and
bolted than is advisable for palatable purposes. In the grinding of the
above flour the germ which contains a greater part of ether extract is
eliminated and also a large quantity of the bodies rich in protein.
The composition of a less highly refined flour and one which is more
palatable and more nutritious is given in the following data:

  Moisture,              11.19 percent
  Protein,                9.81    „
  Ether extract,          2.33    „
  Ash,                    1.53    „
  Fiber,                   .73    „
  Starch and sugar,      74.41    „
  Calories per gram,  3,954


=Milling Process.=--In the preparation of the so-called highest grade
of buckwheat flour, that is, that which is most carefully ground and
thoroughly bolted, the process employed is as follows: During the
process of milling the buckwheat grains pass to a receiving separator
which removes all the coarse particles, stones, straws, etc., by means
of a series of sieves. At the same time any dust which they contain
is blown out by a current of air. The sifted grains pass next to the
scouring machines, in which they are thoroughly scoured, cleaned, and
polished. From these machines the grains pass to a separator containing
magnets, by means of which any pieces of metal, in the form of nails,
screws, pieces of wire, etc., are removed.

The grains next pass through a steam dryer for removing the greater
portion of the water employed for the scouring. As soon as they are dry
they are again treated to a blast of air, which removes any dirt, dust,
or light particles which may have been detached during the process of
drying. The grains next pass to the shelling rolls, where the greater
part of the outer hulls is removed. This process is accomplished by
means of an apparatus which is called a sieve scalper. After the
separation of the outer hulls the residue of the material passes to
a drying chamber, where the moisture is reduced to about 10 percent,
thus insuring the keeping qualities of the flour. After drying the
grains are ready for the rolls. After entering the rolls the process
is practically the same as that which is employed in milling wheat,
consisting of a series of breaks and reductions, with the attendant
bolting and grading, and this process is prolonged until the flour is
practically removed from the feed or middlings. The sifting cloths used
in the bolting of buckwheat flour are somewhat coarser than those for
wheat, and this allows some of the dark particles of the inner hulls
to pass into the flour, which gives it a dark color on baking. It is
quite possible to make a buckwheat flour as white as that from wheat,
but in this country the public taste requires a darker product, so
that the white flour does not readily sell. The requisite degree of
darkness is secured by using bolting cloths which will allow a part
of the inner hulls (middlings) to pass into the flour. Two grades of
flour are generally produced--a whiter one in which finer cloths are
used, and a darker flour made by using coarser bolting cloths, allowing
larger quantities of middlings to pass through. The outer hulls which
are first removed are used for fuel, although from their composition it
is seen that they contain a large quantity of carbohydrates and might
be very profitably used in connection with some highly nitrogenous
food, such as cottonseed meal or flaxseed meal for feeding cattle.
The middlings are used principally as cattle food, and especially by
dairymen.

The above process, while it makes a white and fine-looking flour, is
not to be compared with the meal made in the old-fashioned way of
grinding between stones and separating the principal part of the outer
hull by bolting. This old-fashioned flour is more nutritious, that is,
it contains more fat and protein, has a greater fuel value, or in other
words has a greater number of calories and makes a much more palatable
cake than the fine modern flour.


=Buckwheat Cakes.=--Buckwheat cakes are prepared from batter made by
mixing buckwheat flour into a paste of the proper consistency, seeding
it with yeast, and allowing it to remain in a moderately warm place
until fermentation takes place. The proteins of buckwheat have some
agglutinating power, and thus, when treated as above, make a cake
capable of a considerable degree of aeration. Baking powders are
often used as a substitute for yeast and permit of preparation in a
few minutes instead of waiting for the fermentation above mentioned.
The product made in this way cannot be considered so palatable or
nutritious as the old-fashioned product. The batter is baked on a
smooth hot iron or soapstone, polished and kept bright in order to
prevent the sticking of the cake. The proper polishing of the iron is
a better means of preventing sticking than greasing. The batter is
poured over the smooth iron and is of a consistency to flatten out
without help and to form a film over the baking iron, which produces a
cake about one-fourth of an inch in thickness. The cake is to be turned
as soon as the side in contact with the iron is brown. It is evident
that in this baking process there can be no very profound change in
the starch granules, but this does not appear to materially interfere
with the digestibility of the product. Buckwheat cakes are eaten hot,
usually with butter and sirup. Maple sirup, sorghum sirup, or cane
sirup in a pure state are highly prized for use with buckwheat cakes.
These sirups are both condimental and nutritious. Mixed sirups made
of glucose, melted brown sugar, or molasses, or mixtures of all these
bodies are more commonly furnished to the consumer than the pure sirup
mentioned above. Honey is also used very extensively as a condimental
flavor for cakes of this kind.


=Adulterations.=--There is probably no bread or cake making material
which is subjected to more extensive adulteration than buckwheat flour.
Much of what is sold as buckwheat flour may be regarded as imitations
of that substance. Mixtures of rye flour, Indian corn flour, wheat
flour, and other ground cereals are used as a substitute for buckwheat.
There can be no objection from the hygienic point of view to such
substitutes but the use of these mixtures under the name of buckwheat
can be regarded in no other light than as an unpardonable fraud.


=Detection of Adulterations.=--There is rarely any mineral adulteration
practiced with buckwheat flour and if so it is easily detected by
incineration. Any content of ash, unless baking powder has been
used, above 2 percent may be regarded with suspicion as indicating
an admixture of some mineral substance. The cereal flours used for
adulteration are readily detected by the microscope in the hands of
an experienced observer. The field of the microscope has only to be
compared with the microscopic appearance of genuine buckwheat starch in
order to detect the added substance.


=Buckwheat Starch.=--The microscopic appearance of buckwheat starch
is shown in the accompanying figure. The granules of buckwheat starch
are very characteristic. They consist of chains or groups of more or
less angular granules with a well defined nucleus, and without rings or
with very faint rings. The contour of buckwheat starch is more angular
than that of any other common cereal with exception of maize and rice,
and it is this and the relative size which enable the observer to
distinguish it from other starches. The size of the granules is quite
uniform, varying usually only from 10 to 15 microns[23] in diameter. In
so far as the angular appearance is concerned the granules of buckwheat
starch have a general resemblance to that of maize and rice and oats,
but a comparison under the microscope of the three starches reveals
lines of distinction which with a little practice would prevent the
observer from drawing a false conclusion.

  [23] A micron is one thousandth of a millimeter.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--BUCKWHEAT STARCH. × 200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau
of Chemistry._)]


INDIAN CORN (_Zea mays_).

Next to wheat the most important cereal used as a human food in the
United States is Indian corn. According to the magnitude of the crop,
Indian corn is the leading cereal of the country. Statistical data on
the production of Indian corn in the United States during 1906 are
given in the following table:

  Acreage,              96,737,581
  Yield per acre,               30.3 bushels
  Production,        2,927,416,091     „
  Value per bushel,             39.9 cents
  Total value,       1,166,626,479   dollars


=Indian corn= is universally employed as food throughout all parts
of the country, but more especially in the South, where the daily
dietary is rarely complete without one or more meals in which Indian
corn is served in some form or other. Although it is grown much more
extensively in the North than in the South, it is not so generally used
as human food. Indian corn grows in all kinds of soil and produces,
under favorable conditions, large yields in all parts of the country.
It is the most important agricultural crop of many states, namely,
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas. It is planted in the
late winter and spring in different parts of the country. The planting
season varies from January in Florida to June in Maine and Minnesota
and the earlier varieties will mature in 120 days.


=Maize= is a crop which requires an abundance of rainfall and a high
temperature during the growing season. Maize is planted in rows about
three and one-half feet apart and in hills of about the same distance
apart, or it may be drilled between the rows so that one stalk grows
a distance of about from nine inches to a foot from its fellows. It
requires constant cultivation during the early period of its growth and
a careful preparation of the seed bed. Good farmers give from four to
seven cultivations to the growing crop. The field must be kept free of
weeds and in good tilth to secure the best results.

Many hundreds of analyses of the maize kernel have been made, but
a combination of them all in the following data may be regarded as
typical of the Indian corn grown in this country.

  Weight of 100 kernels,   38    grams
  Moisture,                10.75 percent
  Ether extract,            4.25    „
  Protein,                 10.00    „
  Fiber,                    1.75    „
  Ash,                      1.50    „
  Starch and sugar, etc.,  71.75    „

The consideration of the above data shows that Indian corn is a ration
in which the protein is rather low. In other words, the ratio of
protein to the carbohydrates and fat is rather large. It is a food
product which is particularly well suited to furnish heat and energy
and support a high degree of muscular exertion. For this reason it is a
food product which is particularly well adapted to men engaged in hard
manual labor.


=Varieties.=--There are many distinct varieties of Indian corn.
Sturtevant has published a description of several hundred. These
varieties are classified under various subspecies. The polymorphic
species, _Zea mays_, according to Sturtevant, can be divided into a
number of groups which, on account of their well defined and persistent
characters, may be considered as presenting specific claims and may
properly receive specific nomenclature. The grouping adopted is founded
upon the internal structure of the kernel for cultivated varieties, and
the presence of a husk to the kernel in the assumed aboriginal form.
Hence Sturtevant offers the names _Zea tunicata_ for the husk-kernel
forms, _Zea everta_ for the popcorn, _Zea indurata_ for the flint
corns, _Zea indentata_ for the dent corns, _Zea amylacea_ for the soft
corns, and _Zea saccharata_ for the sweet corns.

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--SECTION OF RAW POPCORN. × 150.--(_Courtesy of
Bureau of Chemistry._) Shows cells with the small angular starch grains
closely packed together within them.]

Argument in favor of the specific claims for these groups is based
primarily on the convenience thus attained; secondarily, on the absence
or rarity of intermediate or connecting forms, so far as present data
extend, and also on the antiquity of the separation. It seems almost
certain that in the order of evolution (excluding from consideration
the puzzling sweet corn group) progress has been from the pops, through
the flints and the dents, to the softs. Certainly the soft corns in
some of their varieties present a kernel that is larger, softer, and
less fitted to the struggle with natural conditions than is the kernel
from any of the other groups. Yet soft corns are the prevailing form in
the mummy burials of Peru and of our Southwestern states. The popcorn,
on the contrary, has stronger regerminative powers than have the other
groups, is better fitted to contend against natural vicissitudes, and
is the kind that has been reported as found growing wild in Mexico
under the name of Coyote corn, _Zea canina_ Watts.

Some of these subdivisions may not be accepted by botanists, but they
are convenient for purposes of description. The principal field
varieties which are grown are the flint corn, _Zea indurata_, and the
dent corn, _Zea indentata_.


POPCORN.

This variety of maize is used very largely in the United States as
a delicacy, and with sugar and cream as a dessert. It is a hard,
small-grained variety which has the property, when heated, of exploding
with a very great enlargement of the starch grain, producing a soft and
very delicate edible material which is highly prized.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--SECTION OF POPCORN IN FIRST STAGE OF POPPING,
SHOWING PARTIALLY EXPANDED STARCH GRAINS AND RUPTURED CELL WALLS. ×
150.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry._)]

In the raw popcorn the starch grains are packed together very closely
within the cells. When popping begins there is an expanding of the
starch grains, producing a cavity nearly circular in form in each
grain. This causes a rupturing of the cell walls, though fragments
are plainly visible in the early stages. In the fully expanded or
popped kernel the starch grains have expanded until each is about
half or two-thirds as large as the original cells of the endosperm.
The cell walls in this stage are practically obliterated as far as
detecting in a section is concerned. The exploding of the starch
grains is influenced by the water content of the kernel. It must not
be too wet nor too dry; about 10 or 12 percent is the proper content
of moisture. These changes are beautifully shown in the accompanying
microphotographs, Figs. 24, 25, and 26, by Mr. Howard, of the Bureau of
Chemistry.

[Illustration: FIG. 26.--SECTION OF FULLY POPPED POPCORN. ×
150.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry._) The fully expanded starch
grains are nearly half as large as the original cells in which they
were contained.]


SWEET CORN.

This is a variety of maize which develops a high sugar content and
is eaten while the starch is yet soft, in other words, in an unripe
state. It is a food product of immense importance in the United States,
although almost unknown in Europe. The content of sugar varies from
5 to 8 percent in the fresh, soft kernel. The sugar which is present
in the kernel rapidly disappears after the husking or removal from
the stalk. In order to secure the maximum sweetness the corn should
be cooked and eaten as soon as possible after removal from the stalk.
Where it is not possible to do this it should be placed in cold storage
after removal from the stalk and remain unhusked until it is ready for
cooking. Green corn is universally eaten hot. It is usually cooked by
boiling in water, although it may also be roasted before the fire. It
has a high food value, and the composition of the grains of fresh,
soft, green corn is shown in the following table:


_Composition of Fresh Green Indian Corn_:

  Moisture,     73.00 percent
  Starch,       13.50    „
  Sugars,        6.00    „
  Protein,       5.00    „
  Crude fiber,   1.20    „
  Ash,            .70    „
  Fat,            .60    „


=Maize Proteins.=--The proteins of maize are composed principally of
two zeins. The two forms are differentiated by their behavior toward
alcohol. The first form constitutes the zein soluble in alcohol and
the second the zein insoluble in alcohol. There are two other proteins
in maize existing in small quantities which have been named myosin and
vitellin, respectively. There is also a third unnamed variety and small
quantities of albumin.


=Variation in Maize, under Different Climatic Conditions.=--It
is possible that most of the varieties and subvarieties of maize
are simply the existing standard varieties modified by changing
environments. There are certain conditions of climate, soil, and
distribution of rainfall which tend to produce a large, starchy, soft
grain, while other conditions tend to produce a small, hard grain
richer in protein. The variations of importance are those of the
carbohydrates and the protein, which are complementary, since as the
protein rises the carbohydrates fall in relative proportion. There
is also a marked variation in the carbohydrates, due to variety and
climatic conditions combined. It is, for instance, the increase of the
sugar at the expense of the starch that produces the body known as
sweet maize eaten in the green state, as already described. Even in
the sweet variety the relative proportion of sugar varies in different
localities and under different conditions of growth.


=Early Varieties.=--There are certain varieties of maize which are
of especial value on account of their early maturation. This is a
property extremely valuable in the sweet variety of maize or that
eaten in the green state, since it is important to get these varieties
into the market as early as possible and to continue them as long as
possible. This is secured by planting the early variety at as early
date as possible and planting later maturing varieties at intervals
thereafter. By the selection of varieties of different periods of
maturing it is possible in the climate of Washington to offer green
corn from neighboring fields on the market from July until the advent
of a killing frost which is usually the last of October or first of
November. This gives a period of nearly four months during which the
green corn may be delivered to the local market. Further south the
period of supply is longer.


=Canned Corn.=--Immense quantities of green corn are grown for the
purpose of canning in order to supply the market during the closed
season. The canning industry for green corn is located chiefly in the
north. In the eastern states the industry is of great importance, from
Maryland to Maine. The northern-grown corns are often preferred as
they are supposed to be sweeter and more palatable. In the central
western states, northern Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, northern
Illinois, and Iowa are the principal centers of the canning industry,
although it is practised to a greater or less extent in almost all
parts of the country.


=Adulterations of Canned Corn.=--Unfortunately in the canning process
of corn additions have been made to the product which are of an
objectionable nature. Chief among these is the use of bleaching agents
such as sulfur in the form of burnt sulfur or of sulfite or bisulfite
of soda or potash. These bleaching agents impart to the corn a white
color which some consumers prefer, but at the expense of introducing
a substance which must be regarded as deleterious to health. Still
more objectionable is the practice of using saccharin instead of sugar
as a sweetening agent. Saccharin is a coal tar product which has an
intense, sweet taste, very persistent, and when used alone becomes
disagreeable. A very small quantity of it is sufficient to impart
a very sweet taste to the canned corn at a much less expense than
could be secured by using the pure sugar. This form of adulteration
is extremely reprehensible both because it deceives the consumer and
adds a substance which by most hygienists is regarded as prejudicial
to health. The bleaching agent and the artificial sweetener are wholly
unnecessary. The manufacturers of sweet corn are expected to use the
best and freshest and sweetest materials and cannot be excused for
tampering with them in any way which either produces deception or
injury to health.

Sugar added to make an ordinary corn taste like sweet corn is to be
regarded as an adulteration unless its use is noted on the label.

Maize starch is also often added to sweet corn at the time of canning
and this practice can only be regarded as an adulteration.


=Detection of Adulterations in Sweet Corn.=--_Test for Sulfurous
Acid._--To about 25 grams of the sample (with the addition of water, if
necessary) placed in a 200-c.c. Erlenmeyer flask, add some pure zinc
and several cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid. In the presence
of sulfites, hydrogen sulfid will be generated and may be tested
for with lead paper. Traces of metallic sulfids are occasionally
present in vegetables, and by the above test will indicate sulfites.
Hence positive results obtained by this method should be verified
by the distillation method.[24] It is always advisable to make the
quantitative determination of sulfites, owing to the danger that the
test may be due to traces of sulfids. A trace is not to be considered
sufficient as indicating either a bleaching agent or a preservative.

  [24] U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Chemistry, Circular No. 28, pp. 11-12.


_Detection of Saccharin._[25]--Add from 25 to 40 c.c. of water to about
20 grams of the sample; macerate and strain through muslin; acidify
with 2 c.c. of sulfuric acid (1 to 3) and extract with ether. Separate
the ether layer, allow the ether to evaporate spontaneously, and take
up the residue with water. If saccharin be present its presence will
be indicated by the sweet taste imparted to the water. To confirm this
test add from one to two grams of sodium hydroxid, and place the dish
in an oil bath. Maintain the temperature of the oil at 250° C. for 20
minutes, when the saccharin will be converted into salicylic acid.
After cooling and acidifying with sulfuric acid, extract in the usual
way and test for salicylic acid. This test, of course, presupposes the
absence of salicylic acid in the original sample. If salicylic acid is
present in the original sample it must be removed before making the
test for saccharin.

  [25] _Ibid._, Bul. 65, p. 51.

[Illustration: FIG. 27.--INDIAN CORN STARCH. × 200.--(_Bureau of
Chemistry._)]


=Starch of Indian Corn.=--Maize starch has characteristics which enable
it to be easily detected by the microscope. The granules of this
starch are of a more uniform size than those of wheat and vary from
20 to 30 microns in diameter. Occasionally very much smaller granules
occur which probably are more of the original size and which have
been arrested in growth by the ripening of the grain. The granules of
maize starch are more or less polyhedral in form with round angles.
The only common cereal starch which they can be mistaken for is rice,
but they are generally larger than the granules of rice. Under the
microscope with ordinary light they give only the faintest sign of
rings but show in most cases a well developed hilum, which is at times
star-shaped or like an irregular cross, while at other times it has
the appearance of a circular depression. The maize starch granular is
a type of the angular, as the wheat is of the sphere or spheroid form.
The characteristic appearance of maize starch kernels is shown in the
accompanying Fig. 27. Viewed with polarized light the starch grains
of Indian corn present deep, well marked crosses, which divide each
grain into four distinct parts as shown in Fig. 28. It is interesting
to note that the angularity of maize starch is greatly influenced by
the hardness of the kernels from which the grains are taken. The hard
varieties, such as popcorn, have very angular grains while those from
soft varieties have a great many almost spherical forms.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.--STARCH GRAINS OF INDIAN CORN, UNDER POLARIZED
LIGHT. × 200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry._)]


=Maize Flour= (_Corn Meal_).--Formerly the maize kernel was ground
between stones, bolted to remove the bran, and the maize flour or
corn meal thus produced used directly as a human food. Modern milling
operations have changed the method of producing maize flour so that not
only is the outer bran removed but also, to a large extent, the germ
itself, thus diminishing the quantity of fat in the prepared meal. This
is notably true of the maize flour which is prepared for exportation.
Leaving in the flour such a large quantity of fat tends to produce
rancidity during shipment. To avoid any change of a deleterious nature
which the flour may undergo during shipment, it is also frequently
kiln-dried before being sent to foreign shores and even when intended
for domestic consumption at points remote from the mill.

While this preparation of maize flour is doubtless important for
transportation purposes, it impairs the palatability and nutritive
value of the product. It is advisable to continue to have the maize
flour prepared in the old-fashioned way and sent directly into
consumption.


=Method of Preparation.=--One method of preparing the maize flour is as
follows: The grains are broken into large pieces and dried with steam
heat at a temperature of from 105° to 110° C. (221°-239° F.). The mass
while still hot passes into a mill composed of two stones which revolve
rapidly in opposite directions. The smaller portions of the meal,
which have been reduced to a kind of gum by the high temperature, are
separated by this process from the covering or the bran of the kernel.
A small mass of the starchy matter leaves the mill in the form of small
noodles, which are freed from any particles of bran by sifting. In this
manner a mass is obtained which is quite free from fiber and fat.

The composition of maize meal prepared by the above process is as
follows:

  Moisture,                     9.70 percent
  Protein,                     12.68    „
  Ether extract,                1.19    „
  Ash,                           .60    „
  Fiber,                         .35    „
  Starch, sugar, and dextrin,  71.48    „

This method of preparing maize meal is not used to any extent in this
country, but is said to be commonly employed in Germany.


=Composition of Maize Flour.=--The color of maize flour depends upon
the color of the corn from which it is produced,--it may be white or
yellow. The starch granules when heated in water to 62.5° C. swell up
and become deformed, except a few, usually the small ones, which resist
the action of water at that temperature. The starch granules of maize
flour under polarized light present a black cross, very marked and very
distinct when the field is obscured. When viewed under polarized light
with a selenite plate the starch grains of maize are colored red with a
green cross or reciprocally, and this coloration is very brilliant.

As has already been said, the composition of Indian corn meal made by
the old-fashioned method of grinding and removing only the bran is
practically that of the whole grain itself.

The composition of degerminated maize meal (Indian corn flour) is shown
by the following average data:

  Moisture,                                  12.57 percent
  Protein,                                    7.13    „
  Ether extract,                              1.33    „
  Ash,                                         .61    „
  Fiber,                                       .87    „
  Starch and sugar,                          78.36    „
  Calories calculated on the moist meal,  3,837

The above data show that the refined Indian corn meal has lost more
than three-fourths of its fat, a large portion of its mineral matter,
and also a very considerable proportion of its protein, due to the
separation of the bran which is extremely rich in protein and the germ
which is rich both in oil and protein. A mere glance at the data shows
that this refined Indian corn meal is much less nutritious than the
natural meal in so far as its content of tissue-forming bodies and its
faculty to furnish heat and energy are concerned. In other words, the
calories are very much lower than in the natural corn meal. This is
another reason for urging our people to return to the consumption of
the old-fashioned material.


=The Adulteration of Indian Corn Meal.=--Owing to the cheapness of
Indian corn in so far as is known there is no adulteration practiced.
The refined Indian corn flour itself is sometimes used as an
adulteration for buckwheat flour, wheat flour, and other cereal flours,
but has not itself been subjected to adulteration.


=Corn Bread= (_Indian Corn Bread_).--Corn bread is a very common diet
among all classes of people in the southern states and also to a
considerable extent in the north.

Owing to the lack of agglutinating powers of the nitrogenous
constituents of Indian corn flour, corn bread cannot be aerated or
raised, as is the case with wheat bread. It is often eaten in an
unleavened state. It may be partially leavened by the usual agent,
namely, yeast or a chemical baking powder. Two varieties of bread are
very commonly used, namely, that made of white flour or meal and that
made of yellow. There is apparently no difference in the nutritive
values of these two kinds. Some consumers prefer the white loaf and
some the yellow.


=Composition of Indian Corn Bread.=--The composition of bread depends
upon whether the whole grain flour is used from which only the coarse
bran has been removed by bolting or whether the decorticated and
degerminated meal is used. In the first case bread is made richer in
fat and protein and in the second case richer in starch. In the bread
will also be found the materials used in its preparation, namely,
salt, lard or other fats, milk, yeast, or baking powder residues. The
best bread is made from the freshly ground flour of the whole grain
from which only the outer covering, namely, the coarse bran has been
removed. As offered at many of our hotels and some private houses,
corn bread has been so manipulated as to lose a large part of its
palatability, without any compensating improvement of its nutritive
properties.


OATS (GENUS _Avena_).

This cereal is an important food product, being used very largely in
Europe, especially in Scotland, and also very extensively in this
country as human food. The chief use of oats is for cattle food,
especially for horses. It is extraordinarily rich in its nutritive
constituents and, therefore, is prized highly as a food in the building
and restoration of nitrogen tissues, such as the muscles. The variety
in common cultivation is _Avena sativa_ L.

Oats are grown in almost every part of the United States, but chiefly
in the northern and western portions. In the southern states the crop
is planted in the late autumn or early winter. In the northern states
it is chiefly a spring crop, being sown early in the spring as soon as
the ground is in fair condition. The oat crop is one which requires a
rather abundant and well-distributed rainfall. A spring drought is very
detrimental to the growth of oats, much more so than wheat or rye. It
is a crop which is well suited to be grown under irrigation.

There are many varieties of oats in cultivation, but in general
characteristics they all correspond to one description. The husk
adheres firmly to the grain, and when threshed the grain of a common
variety of oat carries the first layer of husk or chaff with it. Oats,
as bought in the market, therefore, consist not only of the kernel or
grain but also of this outer, chaffy envelope. The magnitude of the
crop in the United States is very great, but only an inconsiderable
proportion of the whole is used for human food, and this chiefly in
some form of oatmeal. The statistics of the crop grown in the United
States during 1906 are given in the following table:

  Acreage,                    30,958,768
  Yield per acre, bushels,            31.2
  Total yield, bushels,      964,904,522
  Price per bushel, cents,            31.7
  Total value at farm,      $306,292,978


=Ratio of Kernel to Hull.=--Numerous examinations of unhulled oats show
that the average percentage of kernel to hull for 100 parts is as 73 to
27. In the oats grown in the western states the proportion of kernel is
relatively higher and in the southern states lower.

In the analytical process if the hull or chaff is ground with the
grain the proportion of fiber or crude cellulose is very considerably
higher than in the class of cereals ground without the chaff. The
mean composition of unhulled kernels of oats of American growth is
represented by the following table:

  Weight of 100 unhulled grains,  2.92 grams
  Moisture,                      10.06 percent
  Protein,                       12.15    „
  Ether extract,                  4.33    „
  Crude fiber,                   12.07    „
  Ash,                            3.46    „
  Starch and sugar,              57.93    „

A study of the above data shows that the flour of unhulled oats is rich
in fat, fiber, and ash. The large percentage of fiber and ash is due to
a great degree to the composition of the hulls or chaff. The fat or
oil comes chiefly from the germ.


=Composition of Hulled Oats.=--Inasmuch as the chaff is always
separated from the oat flour when the latter is to be used for human
food, the composition of the oat in the hulled state is of greater
importance to the present purpose than in the unhulled condition.
The means of 179 analyses show the hulled oats to have the following
compositions:

  Moisture,           6.93 percent
  Protein,           14.31    „
  Ether extract,      8.14    „
  Crude fiber,        1.38    „
  Ash,                2.15    „
  Starch and sugar,  67.09    „

The removal of the hulls, as is seen, and the partially dried condition
of the grain in the above analysis increases the percentage of other
ingredients. The protein and fat are especially large in quantity.
Oatmeals may be regarded as the richest of the cereal flours, both in
protein and in oil.


=The Protein of Oat Kernels.=--There are three principal products in
the oat kernels characterized by their different degrees of solubility,
namely, protein soluble in alcohol, protein soluble in dilute salt
solution, and protein soluble in alkali. The protein soluble in alcohol
constitutes about 1.25 percent of the whole grain, the protein soluble
in dilute salt solution about 1.5 percent, and the protein soluble in
alkali the remainder, viz., 11.25 percent. The protein of oats has very
little agglutinating power and, therefore, oat flour is not suitable
for making bread, or rather it is very little used for that purpose.


=Oat Products.=--As has been intimated before, the principal oat
products, as far as food is concerned, are the various forms of oatmeal
commonly classed as breakfast foods. These products are prepared in
various forms of agglutination and physical texture but if made from
genuine oats, as there is little cause for doubt, they have essentially
the same composition and nutritive power. It is doubtful if there is
any preparation of oatmeal any more nutritious or palatable than the
plain oat grain properly cooked. The forms in which the oat products
are offered to the public are perhaps more convenient for use and in
some cases by reason of heating and preparation require less trouble,
but otherwise they apparently have no advantage over the simple product.

The mean composition of a number of oat flour products is shown in the
following table:

  Moisture,           7.66 percent
  Protein,           15.48    „
  Ether extract,      7.46    „
  Crude fiber,        1.20    „
  Ash,                1.29    „
  Starch and sugar,  67.61    „

In the dry substance:

  Protein,              16.77 percent
  Ether extract,         8.08    „
  Crude fiber,           1.38    „
  Ash,                   1.94    „
  Starch and sugar,     73.20    „
  Calories,          4,875

It is evident from the above average analysis that the products
examined are made from the whole kernel without the removal of the germ
but with a very careful removal of the hull and bran. The composition
of these products compares very favorably with the typical composition
of the kernel itself. These data show the high nutritive value of these
oat products, both in respect of fat and protein.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.--OAT STARCH. × 200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of
Chemistry._)]


=Adulterations.=--There are very few adulterations of oatmeal.
Fortunately the price of this cereal is such that the admixture of
other cereals would not be profitable. Doubtless such admixtures have
often been made but evidently, from the examination of the products
upon the open market, they are not very frequent. The characteristic
appearance of oat starch is shown in Fig. 29.

Oat starch grains average about 10 microns in diameter. There are
usually present some grains of somewhat oval shape, which assist in
identifying oat products when present. The starch granules also have
a tendency to agglutinate into masses of varying size, as shown in the
photograph.


=Detection of Adulterations.=--The adulteration of oatmeal with the
flour of other cereals can easily be detected by the use of the
microscope. Oat starch when highly magnified presents a peculiar
cellular structure of pentagonal character which might be compared
to the effect produced by grinding a large number of faces upon a
precious stone. This peculiar appearance is caused by the tendency of
the starch granules in oats to become compacted in large masses. The
appearance of the separate granules and also the compact aggregate
are shown in the figure on the preceding page. The large aggregated
masses are of different sizes, ranging from .02 to 1.2 millimeters in
length. These masses are usually broken up by grinding or pressure and,
therefore, are not found in very great abundance in the commercial
oatmeal. When separated into single granules these are found to be
irregular in outline, due to the compression to which they have been
subjected, more or less pentagonal in structure, and from .015 to .02
millimeter in diameter. The starch granules do not show any very marked
characteristics under polarized light and have neither lines nor hilum.
The above statements can easily be verified by any one who can operate
an ordinary microscope, but before attempting to detect adulteration a
careful examination of starch granules, prepared by the investigator
himself, should be made.


RICE (_Oryza sativa_).

Rice is one of the most important food cereals. It furnishes a large
part of the food of the inhabitants of China and Japan. It is a food
rich in starch and poor in protein, and furnishes, therefore, heat and
energy, and is well adapted for the nourishment of those engaged in
hard labor or who undergo extreme physical exertion. The cultivation of
rice is rapidly extending in the United States, especially in Louisiana
and Texas. The statistical data relating to the rice crop for 1906 are
as follows:

  Acreage,              575,014   acres
  Production,        17,854,768   bushels
  Yield per acre,            31.1   „
  Price per bushel,          90.3 cents
  Total value,       16,121,298   dollars

The adulteration of rice is confined to coating it with talc,
paraffin, and glucose. The object of this treatment is to give a
better appearance to the grain and to protect it from the ravages of
insects. The use of indigestible substances such as talc and paraffin
is scarcely justifiable. The starch granules of rice have distinctive
properties which enable them to be readily recognized under the
microscope, as shown in Fig. 30.

The rice starch grains are polygonal in form and have sharp angles.
The grains vary in size from 2 to 10 microns, though the latter size
is seldom reached, the most of the grains being about 6 microns. The
hilum is seldom visible. The grains occur in the rice kernels mostly in
groups of a considerable number of the individual grains forming starch
masses of ovoid or angular form.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--RICE STARCH. × 200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of
Chemistry._)]


RYE.

This is the source of the principal supply of bread in many European
countries, but is not extensively used in the United States except
among our citizens of foreign birth. It is also extensively used for
making whisky. Rye belongs to the genus _Secale_. Only one species
(_Secale cereale_ L.) is commonly cultivated, but this species has
a great many different varieties or races. According to the time of
sowing there are two great classes of rye, namely, that planted in the
autumn or early winter and that planted in the early spring, generally
known respectively as winter and spring rye. This is one of the
hardiest of cereals, and grows well in all locations where wheat and
other common cereals flourish. The area planted in rye in the United
States in 1906 and the quantity harvested are given in the following
table:

  Acreage,            2,001,904
  Yield per acre,            16.7 bushels
  Production,        33,374,833     „
  Price per bushel,          58.9 cents
  Total value,       19,671,243   dollars


=Composition of Rye.=--From a study of many hundreds of analyses of rye
of American origin the following table may be given as approximating
the composition of a typical American rye:

  Weight of 100 kernels,   2.50 grams
  Moisture,               10.50 percent
  Ether extract,           1.50    „
  Protein,                12.25    „
  Fiber,                   2.10    „
  Starch and sugar,       71.75    „
  Ash,                     1.90    „

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--RYE STARCH. × 200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of
Chemistry._)]

The percentage of moisture in American grown rye is usually less than
that of European origin. The American rye, also, has smaller kernels
as a rule than that of foreign growth. In the content of protein the
American samples of rye are fully equivalent to those of foreign
origin, and in their mean composition, except as noted above, do not
differ greatly from that of standard varieties collected abroad.


=Protein of Rye.=--As is the case with other cereals more than one
nitrogenous constituent exists in the rye. Three of the principal
ones have been separated and named as follows: leucosin, gliadin,
and edestin. Other proteins belonging to the globulin, albumin, and
proteose family are also found in small proportions. The gliadin of
rye resembles in its chemical and physical properties the gliadin of
wheat. There is, however, in the rye no protein compound corresponding
to the glutenin of wheat, and, therefore, rye flour does not form a
gluten similar in quality to that of wheat, although it comes more
nearly doing so than any other cereal. The gliadin of rye is soluble in
alcohol, the leucosin of rye is soluble in water, and the edestin is
soluble in a salt solution.

In a typical sample of American rye there will be found about 5.16
percent of gliadin, 2.27 percent of edestin and proteose, 0.55 percent
of leucosin, and 3.14 percent of protein soluble in salt solution.


=Adulteration of Rye Flour.=--Rye flour is frequently adulterated
by the admixture of flours of other cereals. Real rye flour is
distinguished by the character of the starch granules, as shown in Fig.
31.

Rye starch grains are lenticular in form, and the largest grains are
of about 50 microns diameter. They average somewhat larger than wheat
starch grains and are characterized by many of the large grains having
a fissure in the form of a slit, cross, or star, which is rare in wheat
and barley. The rings and hilum are indistinctly seen in some of the
grains.


=Rye Bread.=--This bread may be made leavened or unleavened, since the
analogy in the property of its protein to that of wheat renders the
leavening of rye bread somewhat more easy of accomplishment than that
of the other cereals, with the exception of wheat.

Rye bread made of pure rye flour has a dark color, sometimes almost
black. It is often baked long in advance of the time of eating and
keeps well, is highly nutritious, and is the staple bread of many
European countries.

A partial rye flour bread is made by mixing rye flour with other
flours, such as wheat, barley, Indian corn, etc., and this is the kind
which is commonly used in this country and in many portions of Europe
where the light-colored breads are preferred to the dark.

The large consumption of bread made from rye and Indian corn indicates
that even if the supply of wheat should become limited there is no
reason to fear a famine of bread. It would be easy to substitute bread
made wholly or in part of Indian corn and rye for that made wholly of
wheat and thus to supply practically any demand for bread which the
increasing population of the earth may make.


WHEAT (GENUS _Triticum_).

In respect of human nutrition wheat is the most important of the
cereals. It is grown in the temperate regions of almost every country,
but does not flourish in tropical or subtropical countries.

In the United States the wheat is divided in respect of the period of
its growth into two great classes, namely, winter or fall planted wheat
and spring or spring planted wheat. Winter wheat is usually planted
from September to November and spring wheat from the last of March to
the last of April.

In this country wheat is not cultivated, that is, there is no
cultivation of the soil after seeding. The soil is, however, plowed and
harrowed before planting. In the winter wheat regions the harvesting
is in the month of June, though in the southern localities it comes
somewhat earlier and in the more northern localities may extend into
July. In the spring wheat regions the harvesting is from the last of
July to the middle or end of August. The statistics of wheat grown in
the United States during 1906 are as follows:

                                 WINTER.         SPRING.
  Acreage,                     29,599,961      17,705,868
  Yield per acre (bushels),            16.7            13.7
  Total yield (bushels),      492,888,004     242,372,966
  Total value at farm,       $336,435,081    $153,897,679
  Price per bushel (cents),            68.3            63.5

All the different varieties of wheat which are now known are
cultivated. The simplest form, namely, the one grain wheat is the only
one which grows wild, and the origin of the other varieties of wheat is
unknown.

Botanists recognize three species, namely--Species 1, one grain wheat
(_Triticum monococcum_ Lam.); species 2, Polish wheat (_Triticum
polonicum_ L.); species 3, common wheat (_Triticum sativum_ Lam.). All
of these species are distinct, especially the third one, of which the
most valuable variety is the common wheat, _Triticum vulgare_ Vill.

The quality and properties of wheat depend more upon the environment
in which it is grown than upon the species to which it belongs. There
is perhaps no other field crop in which the environment, namely,
condition of the soil, temperature, precipitation, etc., makes a
greater difference than in wheat. In general, the environment and the
species together produce two kinds of wheat as far as milling and bread
making are concerned, namely, the soft or starchy wheat and the hard or
glutinous wheat. In the first variety there is a larger percentage of
starch in relation to the content or protein matter than in the second.
Taking the wheat as a whole its average composition is shown in the
following table:

  Weight of 100 kernels,                  3.85 grams
  Moisture,                              10.60 percent
  Protein,                               12.25    „
  Ether extract,                          1.75    „
  Crude fiber,                            2.40    „
  Ash,                                    1.75    „
  Carbohydrates other than crude fiber,  71.25    „
  Dry gluten,                            10.25    „
  Moist gluten,                          26.50    „

In regard to protein American wheat, as a rule, is quite equal to
that of foreign origin. This is an important characteristic when it
is remembered that both the milling and food value of a wheat depend
largely upon the nitrogenous matter which is present. It must not be
forgotten, however, that merely a good percentage of protein is not of
itself a sure indication of the milling value of a wheat. The ratio
of gluten to the other protein constituents in a wheat is not always
constant, but it is the gluten content of a flour on which the bread
making qualities chiefly depend.


=Gluten.=--The principal part of the protein in wheat is known as
gluten. Gluten as such does not exist in the wheat but is formed when
the pulverized wheat, that is, the wheat flour, is mixed with water
by the union of two elements in the wheat, namely, gliadin, which is
soluble in dilute alcohol and forms nearly half of the whole protein
matter of the wheat kernel, and glutenin, a compound insoluble in
water, dilute salt solutions, and dilute alcohol and which is quite as
abundant as gliadin in the wheat kernel. In fact, the gliadin and the
glutenin together make the whole of the protein, except a little over
one per cent.

There are three other forms of protein, as pointed out by Osborne,
in the wheat kernel, making altogether nearly 1¹⁄₂ percent of total
protein content. The average quantity of these compounds in the protein
of wheat is as follows.

Constituents:

  Globulin,   0.70 percent
  Albumin,    0.40    „
  Proteose,   0.30    „
  Gliadin,    4.25    „
  Glutenin,   4.35    „
             -----
             10.00


=Starch in the Wheat Kernel.=--The most abundant constituent of the
wheat kernel is the starch. The appearance of wheat starch is shown in
the figure. Wheat starch grains ordinarily show the rings and hilum in
a few cases only under the most favorable conditions, though there are
sometimes cases where the striations are quite distinct. The granules
of starch vary greatly in size, being from 5 to 10 microns in diameter.
There are, in fact, two kinds of granules in wheat starch, one having
the appearance under the microscope of irregularly rounded particles
in sections like a circular disk, and the other of elongated particles
with a distinct hilum, as shown in Fig. 32. The appearance of the
granules under polarized light is shown in Fig. 33.

Wheat starch is not very commonly used for commercial purposes but is
highly prized for some things, especially in the sizing of textile
fabrics. The germ in wheat is particularly rich in oil and the bran or
outside covering in protein. The common idea that the bran is composed
mostly of silicious matter is wholly erroneous. On the contrary the
bran is a highly nutritious food, and the objection to it for human
food is mostly of a mechanical nature.


=Adulterations.=--Wheat grains are never adulterated but they may
sometimes contain dirt and foreign seeds, due to the growth of some
body in connection with the wheat itself.


=Standards.=--Wheat, commercially, is sold under three standards,
namely, one, two, three. The difference is an arbitrary one and not
founded upon any chemical data but wholly upon the physical appearance,
degree of moisture, and freedom from extraneous admixtures.


=Wheat Products.=--The principal product of wheat is flour. The
milling process for wheat is highly interesting both from a chemical
and technical point of view, but cannot be described in full in this
manual. The old-fashioned milling of wheat, namely, pressing between
stones and separation of the flour by bolting has been almost entirely
superseded by the modern milling with metal rollers.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--WHEAT STARCH. × 200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of
Chemistry._)]

Altogether nearly a hundred different products are made incident or
final to the milling of wheat. Only those products, however, which are
used for human food interest us at the present time.


=Chief Varieties of Flour.=--The highest grade of wheat flour is known
usually by the term “patent”; a lower grade is known as “bakers’ flour”
and a third as low grade flour. A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds
and requires about 258 pounds of wheat for its manufacture. The whole
product from the 258.35 pounds of wheat is shown in the appended table.

In general it may be said that about 75 percent of the weight of the
wheat is obtained as merchantable flour of some kind, about 60 to 70
percent being good grade or straight flour. About 24 percent of the
weight of the wheat is obtained as cattle food and about 1 percent is
lost during the process of manufacture.

  PRODUCT.         POUNDS.  PERCENTAGE.
  Patent flour,     149.37    57.82
  Bakers’ flour,     29.13    11.28
  Low grade flour,   17.50     6.77
                    ------   ------
  Total flour,      196.00    75.87
  Bran,              45.56    17.64
  Shorts,             9.80     3.79
  Screenings,         4.99     1.93
  Waste,              2.00     0.77
                    ------   ------
    Total weight,   258.35   100.00

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--WHEAT STARCH UNDER POLARIZED LIGHT. ×
200.--(_Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry_).]


=Special Names of Flour.=--In addition to the classification above
mentioned other names are used in many commercial senses for flour.
These additional names are “family,” “red dog,” “blended,” gluten, etc.
Many flours are also named after the name of the mill or locality or
bear simply fanciful names.


_Graham Flour._--This term was originally applied to the coarse,
unbolted flour which was made by grinding the whole wheat. The name,
therefore, should be applied to all flour made from well grained
wheat, ground, and unbolted. Most of the flours however, which are
sold nowadays as graham flours are produced by a more or less perfect
bolting process. From the above it is seen that true graham flour will
contain practically the same constituents as the wheat kernel itself
and in the same proportion and have the same composition as wheat.


_Entire Wheat Flour._--This name would naturally carry the idea of
a flour corresponding to the graham flour above mentioned. It is,
however, a misnamed trade-mark for a flour produced in a special manner
which consists in the removal of the outer or purely branny covering
of the grain. “Entire wheat” flour, therefore, contains all the
ingredients of wheat grains, save those which are found in the outer
branny covering.


_Gluten Flour._--This is a name applied to a flour which is produced
by removing the greater part of the starch from ordinary flour. It is
especially recommended for the use of diabetic patients. Unfortunately,
the name is very commonly applied to flours made from wheat containing
a little higher percentage of protein than the ordinary and sometimes
even to an ordinary wheat flour. Its use with such a product is purely
fraudulent.


_Mixed Flour._--The act of Congress of June 13, 1898, defines mixed
flour and imposes a tax upon the manufacture, sale, importation, and
exportation of that article. The maximum tax laid upon mixed flour is 4
cents on a barrel of 196 pounds. The total number of barrels of mixed
flour returned for taxation for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1905,
was 362; half barrels, 59,443; quarter barrels, 6,265; eighth barrels,
24,974. The total quantity of mixed flour returned for taxation during
the year is 5,495,937 pounds. The above data show that the amount of
mixed flour offered for sale is a very small part of the total flour
manufactured in the United States. It may be that there is a great
deal of flour mixed and sold in violation of the law since it is
quite impossible in the inspection of the stores to supervise all the
transactions of business deals in flour; especially is it believed that
rye flour and buckwheat flour are often adulterated by mixing with
them the flour of other cereals. This adulteration is not one which is
at all injurious to health but is simply practiced for the purpose of
making a rye or buckwheat flour look whiter or because the added flours
are cheaper than the real rye or buckwheat.


=Properties Affecting the Commercial Value of Flour.=--Aside from its
nutritive properties wheat flour has a commercial value depending
upon its color and texture and upon the gluten which it contains. The
character of gluten also varies largely in different varieties of wheat
and in wheat grown in different localities. A chemical examination
will not always tell the bread making properties of a flour, and the
character of the bread itself depends often quite as much upon the
skill of the baker as upon the flour which is used.

In cases where loaves are sold by weight, a flour with a high
percentage of tenacious gluten is often preferred, since it permits of
the forming of loaves containing a maximum percentage of water. With a
flour rich in gluten it is not difficult to make a palatable loaf which
does not bear any evidence of an excess of water, containing as much
as 40 percent of moisture. The baking of bread is an art which is most
successfully practiced by professionals, and the American method of
home bread making does not always lead to the happiest results.

The ideal flour for bread making is one which contains a sufficient
quantity of gluten to make a porous and spongy loaf, but not one which
permits an excessive quantity of moisture to be incorporated in the
loaf itself.


=Average Composition of Different Varieties of Flour.=--Analyses of a
great number of samples of different varieties of flours lead to the
following data, which may be accepted as a very close approximation
of the average variety of different grades of flour offered upon the
American market:

  -------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                           |        |   PRO- |   PRO- |        |
                           |        |  TEIDS |  TEIDS |        |
                           |  MOIS- |   N ×  |   N ×  |  MOIST |
        NAME OF FLOUR.     |  TURE. |  6.25. |  5.70. | GLUTEN.|
  -------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                           |_Perct._|_Perct._|_Perct._|_Perct._|
  Patent flour,            |  12.77 |  10.55 |   9.62 |  25.97 |
  Bakers’ and family flour,|  11.69 |  12.28 |  11.20 |  34.70 |
  Common market flour,     |  12.28 |  10.18 |   9.28 |  24.55 |
  Miscellaneous flour,     |  12.73 |  10.45 |   9.52 |  26.80 |
  Self-raising flour,      |  11.45 |   9.75 |   8.89 |  26.97 |
  Gluten flour,            |  12.99 |  13.30 |  12.13 |  39.68 |
  -------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                           |        |        |        | STARCH |
                           |        |        |        |  N ×   |
                           |   DRY  |        |        | 6.25.  |
        NAME OF FLOUR.     | GLUTEN.|  OIL.  |  ASH.  |  [26]  |
  -------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                           |_Perct._|_Perct._|_Perct._|_Perct._|
  Patent flour,            |   9.99 |   1.02 |   0.44 |  74.76 |
  Bakers’ and family flour,|  13.07 |   1.30 |   0.57 |  73.87 |
  Common market flour,     |   9.21 |   1.30 |   0.61 |  75.63 |
  Miscellaneous flour,     |  10.22 |   1.08 |   0.49 |  75.23 |
  Self-raising flour,      |   9.65 |   0.70 |   4.45 |  73.66 |
  Gluten flour,            |  14.84 |   1.05 |   0.55 |  72.11 |
  -------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -------------------------+--------+--------+-------
                           | STARCH |        |
                           |  N ×   |        |
                           | 5.70.  |  CRUDE | CALO-
        NAME OF FLOUR.     |  [26]  | FIBER. | RIES.
  -------------------------+--------+--------+-------
                           |_Perct._|_Perct._|
  Patent flour,            |  76.14 |   0.21 |3,858.0
  Bakers’ and family flour,|  74.98 |   0.22 |3,929.6
  Common market flour,     |  76.53 |   0.28 |3,882.5
  Miscellaneous flour,     |  76.15 |   0.25 |3,846.3
  Self-raising flour,      |  74.51 |   0.21 |3,719.3
  Gluten flour,            |  73.28 |   0.32 |3,891.1
  -------------------------+--------+--------+-------

  [26] In the first of these columns the starch is calculated by
  difference, assuming the protein to be the quantity of nitrogen
  present multiplied by 6.25, and in the second column the figure is
  obtained in the same way, using 5.70 as the protein factor.


=Separation of Gluten.=--The character of a wheat flour, as has already
been intimated, is measured largely by the quantity of gluten which
it may contain. The separation of gluten may be accomplished by any
one, even without a chemical training, by a little practice. It is,
therefore, one of the tests for the value of a wheat flour which can be
easily and generally applied. The principle of separation of the gluten
rests upon the fact that when wheat flour is moistened and kneaded into
a sticky mass it may be washed with pure water with constant kneading
until nearly all the starch has been removed from the mass. Meanwhile
only that portion of the protein is removed which is soluble in the
water and the gluten which is formed by the process of kneading remains
as a sticky mass. When this moist mass is kneaded and rolled until all
the moisture is taken out of it that can be removed in this way, it may
be weighed and the proportion of moist gluten in the sample determined.
It may then be placed in an oven and dried, and then the proportion
of dry gluten secured. The following method is one which is easily
applied. Place 10 grams of the sample in a porcelain dish and moisten
with from 6 to 7 cubic centimeters of water, knead, and allow to stand
for an hour. Work into a ball, being careful that none of the material
adheres to the dish. Holding the mass in the hand knead it in a slow
stream of cold water until the starch and all soluble matter are washed
out. Place the ball of gluten thus formed in cold water and allow to
stand for one hour; remove from water, press as dry as possible between
the hands, roll into a ball, and weigh in a flat-bottomed dish. After
weighing, place the ball of moist gluten in the drying oven for twenty
hours; cool and weigh.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--KEDZIE’S FARINOMETER SHOWING THE
PARTS.--(_Bulletin 13, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture._)]


=Gluten Tester.=--A simple test for determining the approximate
percentage of gluten in flour may be used, based upon the principle
that the viscosity of dough is a measure of its practical gluten
content. The name applied to a gluten tester is farinometer.

A convenient form of farinometer devised by Kedzie is shown in the
accompanying figure. It is patterned somewhat upon the plan of Jago’s
viscometer. The instrument is shown in parts in Fig. 34. The instrument
as in use is exhibited in Fig. 35. Parts shown in Fig. 34 are as
follows: No. 1 is the stand or support of the parts. No. 2 is the cap
of No. 1, and discloses the half-inch opening (half closed by the
slide) through which the dough is forced by the pressure of the rod No.
4. The slide by which this opening is closed is plainly shown; also
the socket for holding No. 3. No. 3 is a brass tube 3 inches high and
1 inch internal diameter, with a small knob to fit into the notched
opening in the side of the socket seen in No. 2, to hold No. 3 firmly
in place. No. 4 is a steel rod ¹⁵⁄₁₆ inch in diameter and 12 inches
long, with a thin brass cap 1 inch in diameter, beveled slightly so
that the front edge fills the barrel of No. 3 without friction, and is
yet dough-tight. Near the top the rod is marked into inch spaces.

In using the farinometer two points are considered:

1. The water-absorbing power of a flour, or the percentage of water it
will take up to form a dough of a certain consistency.

2. The viscosity of such dough, or its resistance to change of form
under a uniform force; _e. g._, the length of time in seconds required
to force a cylinder of dough 1 inch high through a hole one-half inch
in diameter under the pressure of a vertical steel rod 13 inches long
and weighing 2¹⁄₂ pounds avoirdupois.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--KEDZIE’S FARINOMETER IN USE.--(_Bulletin 13,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture._)]


=Bleaching of Flour.=--At the present time flour is extensively
bleached for the purpose of making an inferior article resemble a
superior one. By this means a greater percentage of the flour produced
can be rated as of first quality. Ozone and oxids of nitrogen developed
by electrical discharges are the principal bleaching agents employed.
Bleached flour should bear a label indicating to the purchaser the
character of the manipulation to which it has been subjected.


=Adulterations of Flour.=--The adulteration of wheat flour is not
practiced to any extent in this country. The most common adulteration
arises from grinding with wheat foreign seeds and other foreign
matter, rust, smut, etc., which may be present in the grain. Other
adulterations are the mixture with wheat flour of the starch or
flour of maize and other cereals. The adulteration with any form of
terra alba or white powdered earthy substance is exceedingly rare.
Although some attempts have been made to introduce such adulterations
in this country they have not reached any commercial success. The
adulterations, with the exception of those with white earthy powders,
are most readily ascertained by microscopic examination for foreign
matters and other varieties of starch than grow naturally in the wheat.


=Standard.=--The United States standard for flour is as follows:


=Flour= is the fine, sound product made by bolting wheat meal and
contains not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of
moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25) percent
of nitrogen, not more than one (1.0) percent of ash, and not more than
fifty hundredths (0.50) percent of fiber.


=Graham flour= is unbolted wheat meal.


=Whole wheat flour=, entire =wheat= flour, improperly so called, is
fine wheat meal from which a part of the bran has been removed.


=Gluten flour= is the product made from flour by the removal of starch,
and contains not less than five and six-tenths (5.6) percent of
nitrogen and not more than ten (10) percent of moisture.


=Age of Flour.=--The freshly ground flour is most highly esteemed by
many consumers on account of palatability and freedom from all danger
of mold and ferments. Older flours are likely to lose flavor, become
moldy and infested with weavil and other insect pests. The last-named
evils are avoided by the use of wheat containing no fungus, none of the
eggs of the weavil, nor of other insects, and enclosing the freshly
ground flour in packages not accessible to infection. Even then it
is advisable to consume the flour as soon as convenient after the
milling process. Many manufacturers and experts contend that flour is
improved by keeping for a certain length of time, and this contention
is based on the assumption that the flour assumes a lighter color and
improves in flavor on keeping. There is of course a certain limit to
improvements of this kind.


=Substitutes for Flour.=--Wholesome ingredients are used in part
instead of flour in bread making, and when that fact is clearly made
known the admixture of these substances with flour is not considered
an adulteration. Bread which is made of an admixture of Indian corn
meal with flour or rye flour with flour or other cereal products is
well liked by many people. Potatoes are also used very often in bread
making. Acorns, buckwheat, and other farinacious and oily substances
are also employed. The admixture of inert substances with flour merely
to increase the bulk and weight of the loaf, even if notified, cannot
be regarded as other than an adulteration.

In times of famine such admixtures are sometimes made in order to
increase the size and weight of the loaf. Such substances are known
in times of famine as “hunger bread.” Finely ground straw, bark, the
hulls of nuts, etc., are often used for this purpose. These bodies
practically have no nutritive value and serve no useful purpose except
to deceive the eater respecting the quantity of bread he consumes.


BREAD.

The term “Bread” when used alone is understood in this country to apply
to bread made from wheat flour or some form of wheat. If made from
other cereals a prefix is used to distinguish this fact, as Indian
corn bread, rye bread, etc. The term bread includes also the materials
which are used necessarily therewith in the ordinary process of baking.
Thus, the term bread would apply to a loaf which contains not only
the wheat flour as the base and chief part of its mass but also the
yeast or other leavening agent employed, together with salt, lard, or
butter used in its preparation. The presence of these bodies, used in
the sense above described, is not regarded as an adulteration. The
term “bread,” however, is not to be used to include those other forms
of nutriment made from wheat flour in which condimental substances,
especially sugar, are used to such an extent as to give the dominant
taste of the condiment or condiments employed. Thus, the ordinary cake
of all descriptions, tarts, puddings, and other edible substances made
largely from wheat flour, but to which the condiment or condiments
impart a distinct taste, are not included under the term bread.

In the generic sense the term bread may be used in the largest
signification to signify food in general.


=Varieties of Bread.=--In general all forms of bread may be divided
into two great classes, leavened and unleavened. By far, the greater
quantity of bread consumed belongs to the former class. Unleavened
bread is used chiefly for certain religious festivals, in the form
of biscuits or in certain varieties of Indian corn bread such as hoe
cake, johnnie cake, etc. Of the leavened bread there are two distinct
classes, namely, bread which is baked and eaten cold and bread which
is consumed hot from the oven. Bread intended to be consumed cold is
generally eaten within twenty-four or forty-eight hours from the time
of making though some varieties may be kept for an indefinite period.
The use of hot bread is not commended by hygienists though it is
difficult to see why, when properly made, the consumption of a good hot
roll can be regarded as injurious. The apparent injury which may result
therefrom is probably due to the larger quantity eaten on account of
greater palatability than is the case with cold bread. That variety
of bread which is baked so as to present a maximum of crust and made
of flour which gives a tough consistency to the loaf is most highly
regarded both for palatability and nutritive purposes. This form of
bread is improperly called French or Vienna rolls in this country.

Unleavened bread is particularly advisable for use in emergency rations
for marching soldiers, in logging camps, etc. This bread is compact,
comparatively free of moisture and has a high nutritive value. The
leavened bread may be divided into distinct classes in respect of the
leavening agent employed.

Class 1 is bread in which the leavening agent is yeast. Class 2 is
bread in which the natural ferments residing in the flour or wheat are
utilized for the leavening agent as in the making of that variety known
as salt rising bread. Class 3 includes that form of bread in which the
leavening is secured by chemical reagents mixed with the dough. Class
4 includes that variety in which a leavening reagent such as carbon
dioxid or air is mechanically incorporated with the dough during the
kneading process.

Unleavened bread is also divided into several technical forms. The
first class includes the biscuit of commerce, sometimes incorrectly
called crackers, and intended to be used soon after preparation. The
second class includes biscuits which are intended for long storage
and transportation. The third class includes wafers and other
delicate forms of unleavened bread for special use. Class 4 is the
unleavened loaves which are made most frequently from Indian corn
meal and intended to be eaten while still hot. Class 5 includes any
miscellaneous unleavened loaves or cakes made in various ways and for
different purposes.

In nearly all forms of unleavened bread made from wheat flour the dough
is thoroughly beaten, and mechanically mixed or kneaded, in order to
make it lighter in color and more crisp and hard after baking.


=Yeast.=--Bakers’ yeast is one form of the ordinary yeast ferments
or a mixture thereof producing alcoholic fermentation under proper
conditions. All flour contains a certain quantity of sugar which is
easily fermented. By the action of the yeast upon this sugar carbon
dioxid and alcohol are formed. The particles of carbon dioxid become
entangled in the gluten of the wheat flour when it is mixed into a
dough and thus make the mass spongy and light. When placed in the oven
to be baked these minute particles of carbon dioxid expand still more
and produce additional lightness and sponginess of the loaf. The yeast
may be propagated from one mass of dough to another, may be used in a
moist state or, as is very commonly the case, manufactured in large
quantities, and sold either moist or more commonly in a partially dried
and pressed cake.


=Spontaneous Ferments.=--All cereals contain ferments of a character to
produce alcoholic fermentation spontaneously under proper conditions.
It is possible even to ferment dough by seed from one loaf to another
or by developing a spontaneous fermentation. This method is quite a
common one in the rural districts, and all bread made in this way is
known as salt rising bread. It may be made according to the following
receipt:

A quarter of a pint of fresh whole milk is slowly heated to near the
boiling point, but not allowed to boil. This process will sterilize the
milk and prevent the development of a too rapid lactic fermentation
in the subsequent processes. The heated milk is added to a quantity
of maize meal sufficient to make with the milk a stiff batter, and
the whole is thoroughly mixed. The vessel containing the batter is
wrapped with paper and then with a heavy flannel cloth, and kept in a
warm place at a uniform temperature of about blood heat for several
hours, until fermentation is fully established and the batter assumes
a definite sour odor. At this point a teaspoonful of salt is stirred
into a pint of blood-warm water and into this a sufficient quantity of
high-grade wheat flour is stirred to make a moderately stiff batter.
This is thoroughly mixed with the sour mass obtained by the previous
fermentation and the mixture exposed for from three-fourths to one
hour to a blood heat as before. If the fermentation has been well
conducted the mass will now be in a sufficiently active state to secure
a proper porosity of the loaf. The salt rising thus prepared is mixed
with a wheat flour dough made with warm water in sufficient quantities
to make from four to six loaves, the whole mass well kneaded, molded
into loaves and put aside at a temperature of blood heat until the
fermentation has proceeded far enough to make the loaf light and
spongy. The loaf is then baked in the ordinary way.


=Chemical Aerating Agents.=--In this country a very common method of
aerating bread is practiced, based upon the use of certain chemical
reagents which when mixed in the dough set free carbon dioxid. These
reagents are known as baking or yeast powders and are especially prized
by reason of the fact that it is possible with their aid to prepare
in a few moments a light spongy loaf or roll which would require from
10 to 24 hours to make by the ordinary fermenting with yeast. The
principal objection to the use of baking powder lies in the fact that
the residues arising from the chemical reaction are necessarily left in
the loaf. While these residues may not have any specific or poisonous
properties they increase the quantity of mineral matter in the bread,
and this mineral matter is in the inorganic state and as such does not
take any part in the process of nutrition. It can only be regarded as a
waste product, burdening, to that extent, the excretory organs of the
body.


=Constituents of Baking Powder.=--The essential constituents of baking
powder are a carbonate of some kind and an acid reagent capable of
decomposing this carbonate and setting the carbon dioxid free. The
common carbonate of a baking powder is bicarbonate of soda. The
classification of baking powders rests upon the acid elements which
they contain. They may be classified as follows: (1) Cream of tartar
baking powder, in which the acid constituent is cream of tartar
which is known chemically as acid potassium tartrate. Other forms of
tartaric acid may be used in baking powders of this class but they
are not common. (2) Phosphate powders, in which the acid constituent
is phosphoric acid usually in the form of the acid phosphate of lime.
(3) Alum powders in which the acid constituent is alum or some form of
aluminium sulfate, usually the basic sulfate of alumina.

The acid and basic constituents of these powders may be kept in
separate containers and mixed together at the time of making the dough.
A more common form is to use them in such a way that until they mix
with the dough they do not exert any notable effect upon each other.
For instance, perfectly dry bicarbonate of soda and perfectly dry acid
potassium tartrate may be mixed together and kept for quite a while
without any notable decomposition of the bicarbonate taking place.

In order to render any such possible action minimum in its effect it
is customary to add to the mixture a small quantity of starch, milk
sugar, or some other diluent. These materials tend to keep apart the
particles of acid and base and render it possible to make a mixture
of them which may be kept for a long while without any notable loss
of leavening power. When a cream of tartar baking powder is mixed
with dough the moisture of the dough gradually dissolves the two
ingredients and in this state a chemical reaction occurs between them.
The carbon dioxid is set free as a gas, commonly known as carbonic
acid. The mineral substance which results is a tartrate of sodium and
potassium that is a union of tartaric acid with potash and soda. This
compound is commonly known under the term of Rochelle salts. If there
be a sufficient quantity of water in the bread to allow the Rochelle
salts to crystallize in the usual way a portion of the water becomes
incorporated with the salt. Two teaspoonsful of a tartrate baking
powder leave a residue of about 11 grams (165 grains) of crystallized
Rochelle salts in the loaf.


=Phosphate Powders.=--As has already been said, the acid constituent
of phosphate powder is chiefly acid phosphate of lime. In this case
the acid phosphate of lime decomposes the bicarbonate of soda with
the production of carbon dioxid and leaves a residue consisting of
a mixture of sodium and lime phosphate. If in two teaspoonsful of
phosphate powder there are approximately 16 grams (250 grains) there is
formed a crystallized residue, about an equal weight of phosphate of
soda and lime, which is left in the loaf.


=Alum Powders.=--Perhaps by far the largest part of baking powders used
contain alum in some form as the acid constituent. Formerly the common
substance known as alum or burnt alum was employed but in late years an
aluminium basic salt known as basic sulfate of aluminium has largely
succeeded the old form of alum. When the reaction takes place in the
dough between these two constituents of alum baking powder there
is formed an equivalent quantity of sulfate of soda and hydroxid of
alumina if the acid constituent be basic aluminium sulfate.

The quantity of residue left in the loaf if two teaspoonsful of baking
powder be used is about 11 grams (165 grains).


=Harmfulness of Baking Powder Residues.=--The question of the
harmfulness of the residues left by the various forms of baking powder
is one which has been of much interest to the hygienist and physician.
It is not claimed in any case that these residues are beneficial. The
principal question which has been discussed is which of them is the
least harmful. This is a question which it is not proper to enter into
in this manual. It might, however, not be out of place to say that the
use of chemical reagents for leavening bread is not as advisable as the
use of the ordinary fermentation. It would be better, evidently, if all
people used more yeast bread and less baking powder rolls. At the same
time the utility and convenience of baking powder cannot be denied, and
this is a factor which must be taken into consideration in the general
discussion and final resolution of the question.


=Character of Alum Residues.=--Every one is agreed that the substance
known as alum, namely, the sulfate of alumina in conjunction with
another mineral or base, such as soda, potash, or ammonia, is not
a desirable constituent of food products. In the manufacture of
baking powders containing alum an effort is made to so balance the
constituents that when the reaction is completed no undecomposed
alum remains. If this condition is secured in every instance the
materials which remain in the bread are not alum but the residues above
mentioned, consisting of aluminium hydrate, and sulfates of soda,
potash, or ammonia.

The residue of chief importance is the hydroxid or hydrate of
alumina, which is the form in which the alumina itself should appear
when a complete reaction like that defined above takes place. When
the hydroxid of alumina is dried and especially when ignited it is
converted into an oxid of alumina which is highly insoluble in water
and only slightly soluble in a very dilute acid solution. The claim is
made by the manufacturer of alum powders that the aluminium residue
which is formed is insoluble in the digestive juices and therefore
cannot produce any effect usually ascribed to the soluble salts of
aluminium. It is important that the conditions which are found in the
baking of a loaf are such as to produce this highly desirable result.
The temperature of the interior of the loaf during baking does not rise
much above that of boiling water, although the exterior temperature,
which is sufficient to produce the browning of the crust, is very much
above that temperature. It is evident that as long as any considerable
proportion of water remains in the loaf it will be difficult to raise
the interior of the loaf to the temperature just mentioned, and if this
were done the caramelization would take place throughout the whole
loaf. Unfortunately, from a scientific point of view the investigation
of this subject has not been always undertaken under conditions which
are wholly beyond criticism. Many of the investigations have been in
the interest of rival baking powder companies, and it is very desirable
that this matter should be undertaken in a wholly unbiased way and
conducted in such a manner as to lead to results which all will accept.
Chemical and physiological investigations, which have even as a remote
object the promotion of the sale of one compound and the repression
of the sale of another, lose at the outset much of that claim upon
the public confidence which such investigations made from a purely
scientific point of view should have.


_General Statement._--In respect of the use of chemical leavening
agents in general it may be said that they introduce an extraneous
product into the bread which is not likely to promote the health and
which, therefore, on general principles should be excluded. On the
other hand, large experience has shown that the consumption of bread
made by these leavening agents does not produce any general effect
upon the public health which is noticeable. This, it is understood,
is not any valid argument in favor of the process. It must also be
acknowledged that a fermentation of a bread with yeast also introduces
extraneous matter into the food, viz., alcohol and congeneric products
of fermentation, and hence this process may be open to a certain
extent to the same objection as the one above. It is too early yet to
formulate definite principles either of inclusion or exclusion of these
products, and the purpose of this manual is secured when the general
character and effects thereof are briefly outlined.


=Composition of Bread.=--Because of the many different methods of bread
making which are practised it is not possible to give in a chemical
form an analysis which would do more than represent in general the
character of the bread in common use. For instance, the quantity of
water which is found in bread varies greatly and the nature of bread
itself must be influenced by the character of the flour from which it
is made. The flour depends upon the quality of the wheat used in its
manufacture. Hence the same brand of bread prepared in the same way
and baked in the same manner must necessarily vary in composition from
season to season and even from day to day. It must be understood also
that it is a very common custom in the United States to use milk in
the mixing of dough, and thus a food product is introduced which of
itself is not of constant character. Some bakers use whole milk, others
skimmed, and others sour milk.

A very good formula for mixing dough for bread making consists in using
the following proportions of ingredients mentioned:

  Flour,       2,000 grams
  Whole milk,    500   „
  Water,         650   „
  Salt,           25   „
  Yeast cake,     10   „

When properly leavened and kneaded and baked these quantities of
materials will make a loaf of bread weighing 2750 grams.


_Average Composition of Bread._--In the following tables are given the
average composition of bread of different classes. Class 1 is composed
of loaves of the so-called Vienna or French type; Class 2 consists of
what is known as home made bread or bread baked at the home and not in
the bakery; Class 3 consists of bread made from graham flour; Class
4 consists of bread made largely of rye flour; Class 5 is a second
collection of home made bread which may be very properly compared with
Class 2; Class 6 consists of bread of miscellaneous origin bought on
the open market. The data given represent the mean composition of
numbers of samples (Bull. 13, Bureau of Chemistry):

                           MOIS-              ETHER
                           TURE.   PROTEIN.  EXTRACT.   FIBER.
                         _Perct._  _Perct._  _Perct._  _Perct._
  CLASS 1.
                          38.71       8.09     1.06       .62
  In the dry substance,    ..        13.23     1.73       .97

  CLASS 2.
                          33.02       7.24     1.95       .24
  In the dry substance,    ..        10.80     2.91       .36

  CLASS 3.
                          34.80       8.15     2.03      1.13
  In the dry substance,    ..        12.51     3.13      1.74

  CLASS 4.
                          33.42       7.88      .66       .62
  In the dry substance,    ..        11.86     1.02       .95

  CLASS 5.
                          36.16       7.10     1.14       .26
  In the dry substance,    ..        11.17     1.75       .41

  CLASS 6.
                          34.41       6.93     1.48       .30
  In the dry substance,    ..        10.59     2.21       .46

                                    STARCH
                                     AND               CALO-
                           ASH.     SUGAR.     SALT.   RIES.
                         _Perct._  _Perct._  _Perct._
  CLASS 1.
                           1.19      53.72     .57       ..
  In the dry substance,    1.95      83.10     .93      4458

  CLASS 2.
                           1.05      56.75     .56       ..
  In the dry substance,    1.55      84.75     .84      4497

  CLASS 3.
                           1.59      53.40     .69       ..
  In the dry substance,    2.29      82.06    1.07      4434

  CLASS 4.
                           1.84      56.21    1.00       ..
  In the dry substance,    2.79      84.36    1.50      4395

  CLASS 5.
                           1.06      54.53     .58       ..
  In the dry substance,    1.68      85.41     .92      4395

  CLASS 6.
                           1.00      56.18     .49       ..
  In the dry substance,    1.53      85.66     .76      4401


_A Typical American High-grade Yeast Bread._--In conjunction with
the actual analyses given above it is of interest to combine as many
analytical data as can be conveniently secured for the purpose of
determining what the average composition of a high-grade typical yeast
bread is. This comparison leads to the following composition:

  Moisture,          35.00 percent
  Protein,            8.00    „
  Ether extract,       .75    „
  Starch and sugar,  54.45    „
  Fiber,               .30    „
  Ash,                1.50    „

Of the ash mentioned in the above analysis .50 percent may be ascribed
to the natural mineral ingredient of flour and 1 percent to added salt.

The chief variations from the typical composition of bread made from
high-grade flour are found in the moisture and ether extract. The
moisture may rise above 40 percent in breads made of flour rich in
gluten or sink to 30 percent or under when flour of an inferior gluten
content is employed. The quantity of ether extract depends chiefly upon
the amount of milk which is used in the making of bread and the amount
of fat employed either in the bread itself or in greasing the pan in
which it is baked. There is great difficulty in extracting a fatty
body which has been mixed with a glutinous material like flour. The
analytical data, therefore, do not represent in the ether extract all
the fat naturally present in the flour plus that added in the making of
dough or in baking.

The quantity of moisture in bread may also be determined largely by
the time of baking and the temperature of the oven. A bread baked for
a long while at a low temperature will be much drier than a bread
baked quickly at a high temperature. The high temperature solidifies
the exterior of the loaf so as to make it difficult for the interior
moisture to escape. By quickly baking the bread the temperature of the
interior does not reach so high a temperature as in an oven with a low
temperature and a long-continued heat.


_Standard for Moisture._--The quantity of moisture in bread of standard
quality in the District of Columbia may not exceed 31 percent.

The average temperature of the baking oven is about 240° C. (464° F.).


=Quantity of Sugar in Bread.=--The quantity of sugar found in fermented
bread is always less than that present in the flour, added in milk,
or otherwise introduced in the preparation of the dough. The sugar
disappears largely under the influence of the fermentation due to the
yeast.


=Quantity of Ash.=--The quantity of ash in bread is uniformly higher
than the content of mineral matter in the flour. This is due to the
addition of common salt which is uniformly employed in all bread, and
in the case of bread made from baking powder the retention of the
mineral residues in the loaf increases to that extent the content of
ash. With the exception of the ash, the ether extract or fat, the
sugar, and the dry material of bread correspond in quantity to the same
materials in the flour from which it is made, except the loss due to
the caramelization of the crust.


_Acidity of Bread._--The development of the lactic acid ferments is
important in regard to hygienic conditions and to palatability. Flour
contains practically no acid in a free state, and the acidity of bread
is itself due to the changes which take place in its preparation
under the influence of the ferments therein. Bread baked in the usual
manner after the yeast ferments have exerted their activity shows the
presence of acetic acid, lactic acid, and other acids and salts. The
acidity of bread adds to its palatability and also, doubtless, to its
digestibility. Bread, containing, as it does, a large percentage of
protein, is digested in an acid medium. The natural acidity of bread,
therefore, must be regarded as beneficial.


=Comparative Nutritive Properties of Indian Corn Bread and Wheat
Bread.=--There is a widespread opinion that the products of Indian
corn are less digestible and less nutritious than those of wheat. This
opinion amounts to a conviction in most European countries, where the
products obtained by the milling of Indian corn are not regarded as fit
for human food in an unmixed state. The above opinion, it appears, has
no justification either from the chemical composition of the two bodies
or from recorded digestive and nutritive experiments.

A study of the analytical data of the whole grain shows that in so
far as actual nutrition is concerned the maize is fully as nutritious
as wheat. In respect of its content of fat Indian corn and its direct
products easily take precedence of all the other cereals, with the
exception of hulled oats. In round numbers Indian corn flour or bread
made therefrom contains twice as much fat or oil as wheat, three times
as much as rye, twice as much as barley, and nearly as much as hulled
oats. In regard to digestible carbohydrates, that is digestible starch,
sugar, dextrin, and fiber, Indian corn flour possesses a higher content
than hulled oats and almost the same content as wheat. In regard to
digestible protein Indian corn has nearly the same quantity as the
other leading cereals, except oats. What it lacks, however, in its
quantity of protein in so far as nutrition is concerned is more than
made up in its excess of fat.


=Comparative Digestibility and Nutrition of Wheat and Indian Corn from
Experiments Made in South Dakota Station, Bulletin 38.=--Pigs were fed
with Indian corn and wheat, or rather the ground Indian corn and ground
wheat, and it was found that pound for pound there was a greater gain
in the case of Indian corn flour than wheat. For 100 pounds of flour
fed the average gain with Indian corn was 21.83 pounds and where wheat
flour was used 20.79 pounds. These experimental data show that in
regard to nutritive properties Indian corn flour cannot be considered
inferior to wheat flour. Indian corn bread is particularly well suited
for persons engaged in hard manual labor. A ration which is composed
largely of Indian corn products and oatmeal is found to be particularly
valuable for those engaged in lumbering, harvesting sugar-cane, etc.


_Indian Corn Flour Pudding._--Various forms of pudding are prepared
from Indian corn flour. Among the most important is that known in
the New England States as hasty pudding and in the west and south
as mush. A simple method of preparing Indian corn pudding, hasty
pudding, or mush is to stir into water, very slowly, the Indian corn
flour in such a way as to avoid the formation of lumps. The flour
should be sifted into the water either cold or at boiling temperature
and the mixture vigorously stirred meanwhile. By this means a thin,
uniform paste is secured which is allowed to cook slowly until quite
thick in consistence and until all the starch granules are thoroughly
disintegrated. The product is improved by allowing to stand for several
hours at near the boiling point after the cooking is finished, provided
precautions are taken not to allow the mass to become too solid. This
product is eaten hot with butter, milk, or cream, or is much prized
when allowed to cool, cut into thin slices and fried. A very important
dish for the children of working people and farmers of the south and
west is mush and milk, namely the product above mentioned eaten with
skim milk. This mixture forms a palatable and wholesome diet. Various
other forms of pudding are made into which Indian corn enters to a
greater or less degree.


=Composition of Biscuits.=--The composition of a biscuit or dry
unleavened bread does not differ essentially from that of the ordinary
bread except in the content of moisture. The biscuits are usually baked
in thin cakes or loaves which become heated throughout and sometimes
caramelize throughout a large part of their substance. This favors
the expulsion of the greater part of the moisture which the dough
originally contained. The average composition of biscuits is shown in
the following data:

  Moisture,           7.13 percent
  Protein,            9.43    „
  Ether extract,      8.67    „
  Fiber,               .47    „
  Ash,                1.57    „
  Salt,                .99    „
  Starch and sugar,  73.77    „

In the dry substance:

  Protein,              10.18 percent
  Ether extract,         9.33    „
  Fiber,                  .53    „
  Ash,                   1.70    „
  Salt,                  1.08    „
  Starch and sugar,     78.79    „
  Calories,          4,755

The above data show that biscuits vary in composition from bread
chiefly in their content of moisture and fat or oil. The moisture, as
is noted, is very low, while the quantity of fat which the biscuit
contains is from 8 to 10 times as great as that contained in flour
from which they are made. The salt content and the mineral ingredients
of the biscuit are often higher than in bread or flour. Inasmuch as a
large quantity of fat and salt are used commonly in the manufacture of
biscuits the presence of these bodies cannot in any sense be regarded
as an adulteration. In forty-eight samples examined only four were free
of notable quantities of added fat. In one case over 16 percent of fat
was found, and as it has been shown that all the fat which is added is
not extracted by ether it is evident that in this case an amount of fat
equal to 20 percent of the weight of the flour may have been used.

It appears, from a study of the composition of biscuits, that it is
advisable to use them as a relish or delicacy for eating with cheese,
etc., in ordinary daily life, while they become almost a necessity in
some form or other in the preparation of emergency rations for marching
armies, on shipboard, in logging camps, etc. It is not advisable to
employ them in the daily diet to the exclusion of bread. Their nutrient
contents have, in comparison with bread, a lower coefficient of
digestibility, due largely to the added fat.


=Amount of Sugar Lost in Fermentation.=--The total quantity of sugar
and other carbohydrates lost in fermentation amounts to about 2 percent
of the weight of flour used. Sometimes it is much greater and sometimes
less than this. The nutritive value of the product is diminished in
proportion to the extent of the loss of sugar. The carbon dioxid
produced during fermentation has no food value, and the alcohol is
largely lost in the form of vapor during the process of baking. About
half the loss is due to carbon dioxid and half to alcohol. The alcohol,
although lost mostly during the baking, serves a useful purpose,--in
the expansion of the vapor it aids the carbon dioxid in making the
bread more porous. The hydrolysis which takes place in baking converts
some of the starch to dextrinoid or saccharoid conditions. It is
evident that from 6 to 8 percent of total starch present in the flour
is changed during the fermentation and baking into more or less soluble
forms.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--COMPARATIVE APPEARANCE OF BREADS OF DIFFERENT
KINDS.]


=Texture and Size of Loaves Made from Different Kinds Of Flour.=--The
variations in bread and size of loaves made from different kinds of
flour when the conditions of fermentation and baking are the same
depends upon the texture and quantity of the gluten material in the
flour. The difference in the appearance and size of loaves is shown by
a photograph of the cross-sections of three loaves of bread in Fig. 36.

It is seen that the loaves made from graham flour and entire wheat
flour are somewhat coarser in structure and are less in size than those
made from the same quantity of standard patent flour.


MACARONI.

The preparation of wheat flour of a high glutenous character and molded
into various forms, usually tubes, cylindroids, or fine shreds, is
known in the trade under various names such as noodles, spaghetti, and
macaroni. An examination of a number of these bodies shows them to have
the following average composition:

  Moisture,           9.66 percent
  Protein,           12.02    „
  Ether extract,       .42    „
  Crude fiber,         .56    „
  Ash,                 .78    „
  Starch and sugar,  77.12    „

In the dry substance:

  Protein,              13.33 percent
  Ether extract,          .47    „
  Crude fiber,            .62    „
  Ash,                    .86    „
  Starch and sugar,     85.34    „
  Calories,          4,428

These bodies, it is seen, do not have a composition very different from
that of a first-class bread except in their content of moisture and
protein. They are made from various kinds of wheat, especially hard
wheat which forms a tenacious gluten product well suited to molding
into the different forms which these bodies have. Their nutritive
value is practically the same as that of good wheat bread of the same
moisture content.


=Domestic Macaroni.=--The introduction of varieties of wheat with the
properties suitable for making macaroni has been thoroughly exploited
by the Department of Agriculture. The macaroni wheat grown as a
subvariety is known botanically as _Triticum durum_. The durum wheats
are not regarded as of equal value to the ordinary wheats for general
milling purposes and command a lower price. The French name is Blé dur
and the German name is Hartweizen. The wheat of this subspecies grows
rather tall, having broad, smooth leaves of a whitish green color
and a very hard cuticle. The heads are comparatively slight in most
varieties, compactly formed, and occasionally very short. All the durum
wheat is bearded and the beards are exceptionally long. The kernels
are hard and glassy, often partly translucent. They are generally
yellowish white in color, occasionally inclined to red, and the grains
are generally rather large. In other aspects this wheat resembles
barley and for this reason in Germany it is often called Gerstenweizen.
The general appearance of these wheats both in the field and in the
individual heads is shown in the accompanying figures.

[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A FIELD OF DURUM WHEAT.--(_Courtesy of Bureau
of Plant Industry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 38.--DROUGHT-RESISTANT MACARONI WHEATS (HEADS AND
GRAINS).

1, Kubanka; 2, Nicaragua; 3, Velvet Don; 4, Black Don; 5, Wild
Goose.--(_Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture._)]

Macaroni wheats are well adapted to semi-arid regions; in fact it
may be said that they are the product of such an environment rather
than adapted to it. For this reason they are wheats which are able to
resist continued dry weather and high temperature. These wheats do not
grow well in acid soils but flourish best in an alkaline soil of fine
texture and well supplied with humus and the necessary plant foods. The
largest quantity of macaroni wheat is grown in east and south Russia.
These wheats have given very good results in the semi-arid regions of
the United States. The appearance of the wheat as it grows in the field
is shown in the accompanying plate.

The domestic macaroni is now made in many factories in the United
States and there is a continually increasing demand for the domestic
article. The hardiest varieties of wheat are used in the manufacture of
this article in the United States, especially the hard Kansas winter
wheat.


_Composition of Domestic Macaroni._--In the table below is given the
mean composition of twenty samples of macaroni of domestic origin, made
from domestic wheat. In the second column is given the mean composition
of five samples of imported macaroni.

                         DOMESTIC  FOREIGN
                         PRODUCT.  PRODUCT.
  Moisture,               10.27     10.32
  Fat or ether extract,     .40       .35
  Crude fiber,              .49       .53
  Protein,                11.61     12.27
  Starch and sugar,       76.52     76.10


_Preparation of Flour for Macaroni._--The term Semolina or Semola
(Italian) or Semoule (French) is usually applied to the flour used
in the manufacture of macaroni. In the United States the flour which
is used is obtained by selecting the hardest wheat and preparing the
flour in the usual manner. In France and Italy the preparation of
semolina is accomplished in separate mills. The devices for grinding
are essentially the same as those for producing the best grade flour,
the main difference being that the wheat is moistened slightly before
grinding and the flour is less fine than ordinary baking flour.

Evidently very slight changes in the method of milling would enable the
ordinary mill to produce a fine grade of macaroni flour either from
the macaroni wheat or from any very hard glutinous wheat grown in the
United States.


=Manufacture of Macaroni.=--As practiced in the best districts of
Italy, macaroni is manufactured according to the following method:[27]

  [27] Fairchild, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin
  25.

The durum wheat is ground into semola and sieved to remove the starchy
part of the grains and leave the clear, light amber, or glutinous part.
Three or four grades of quality are made, and these depend on the size
of the sieve meshes.

The semola is put into a special iron mixer, shaped like an
old-fashioned artillery mortar, except that it is square instead of
cylindrical, and furnished in the bottom with special screw-shaped fans
with which to stir the paste or dough. Boiling water is added to the
semola and the dough is mixed for about seven minutes. The mass is then
put on a flat, circular kneading board and kneaded by two sharp-edged
parallel beams which rise and fall as the table turns and press into
the dough as they descend. A few minutes of kneading are sufficient
and the homogeneous dough is then put into the cylinder and the piston
descends upon the mass, forcing it in strings slowly through the
perforated plate at the bottom. Fifteen minutes are required to convert
the gallons of dough into thousands of feet of yellow macaroni. The
yellow color is produced by the use of saffron or of a coal tar dye of
which a very small quantity is put into each batch of dough. This is a
reprehensible practice.

As soon as the strings of fresh paste which issue continually from
the die are of the proper length they are cut and thrown over a reed
pole and carried into the sunlight, if the weather is fair, or into
sheltered terraces, protected by curtains from the rain, if the weather
is unfavorable. On bright days the strings of macaroni are exposed
to the sunlight only two hours. They must be dried out only slightly
before being cellared for the night in dungeon-like underground vaults
similar to the Bavarian beer cellars.

For twelve hours or more the poles of macaroni are kept in these damp
places, until the dough has become moist and pliable again and the
strings have lost the brittleness that the exposure to the sunlight
has given them. From the cellars the poles are carried to shaded
storehouses open on all sides to the air but not lighted from above.
Here, in great masses of millions of strings, they hang for several
days, from eight to twenty being required, depending upon the dryness
of the atmosphere. According to the statements of a manager of a
factory this process of drying is necessary to give to the brittle
paste a horn-like toughness and fit it to withstand the rough handling
to which it will be subjected without breaking into small pieces.

In all this simple process the one point at which bacteria might have a
chance to play a rôle is in the first drying, cellaring, and subsequent
slow drying in the shade. The theory that the water is responsible for
the flavor must rest, it seems to the writer, on other than bacterial
grounds, for from the appearance of the tank which supplied the hot
water the inference is easy that the water is chalybeate, for the tank
was incrusted with iron.


ROLLS.

The term rolls is given to bread usually leavened with yeast or baking
powder, and usually eaten warm, or hot. The term biscuit is generally
but improperly used in this country for hot bread made with baking
powder. The composition of rolls varies greatly with their method
of preparation. Those made with yeast have practically the same
composition as ordinary fermented bread, while those made with a
baking powder or with exceptionally large additions of milk, butter,
or lard vary in composition accordingly. In the making of hot rolls
with baking powder, lard or butter is commonly used to a very large
extent as “shortening.” These fatty bodies render the gluten less
tenacious, and the roll is thus easily broken and is without toughness
or elasticity. Owing to this irregular use of shortening and of mineral
matter, including salt, the composition of rolls of commerce is
extremely variable. In eleven samples of rolls analyzed, for instance,
the content of moisture varied from 7 to 34. Evidently the sample sold
as a roll which contained only 7 percent of moisture was in point of
fact a biscuit and not a roll. The percentage of ether extract in these
samples varied from .43 to 7.55. The average composition of the eleven
samples is as follows:

  Moisture,          27.98 percent
  Protein,            7.48    „
  Ether extract,      3.41    „
  Crude fiber,         .60    „
  Ash,                1.31    „
  Salt,                .69    „
  Starch and sugar,  59.82    „

In the dry substance:

  Protein,           10.46 percent
  Ether extract,      4.74    „
  Crude fiber,         .77    „
  Ash,                1.81    „
  Salt,                .81    „
  Starch and sugar,  82.99    „
  Calories,          4,538


CAKES.

Wheat flour is one of the principal constituents of that class of
sweetened bread known generally as cake. The kind and character of
cake vary so greatly that no general statement of any very great value
can be made respecting the average composition. In addition to the
sugar and flour which are used in the manufacture of cake various
flavoring ingredients or essences are employed, and usually excessive
quantities of butter or lard for shortening purposes. In addition to
this, other forms of cake are cooked in oil after the dough is made,
thus adding an additional quantity of fatty matter to the material.
Eggs are also a common constituent of cakes and these introduce into
their composition additional quantities of protein and fat. Baking
powder is very generally used in this country instead of yeast for the
leavening of the cake and thus an additional quantity of mineral matter
is introduced into their composition.

In the manufacture of sweetened cakes the flour is mixed with eggs and
sugar and butter or lard to the proper consistency with or without
the use of milk or cream. The cakes are baked in all kinds of sizes
and shapes and may be eaten plain or in layers separated by a jelly,
marmalade, or some other preserve. The exterior of the cake is often
frosted with a mixture consisting of the white of egg beaten up with
white sugar. The methods of mixing the ingredients of these cakes as
well as the method of frosting are so various that it would not be
possible to undertake any minute description of them.

For flavoring various materials are employed, either the real article
or the imitation thereof, such as artificial strawberry, vanilla, etc.
The cake or sweet cake is a very common dainty which is served at
dessert. The ordinary cane sugar of commerce is the common sweetening
matter usually employed in the refined state although sometimes yellow
sugar is used. Honey is not so commonly used as a sweetening agent in
this country as it is in European countries.

In the manufacture of one of the common varieties known as ginger cake
sugar-cane sirup or molasses is a common ingredient.

An examination of a large number of samples of cake shows the following
average composition:

  Moisture,       11.65 percent
  Protein,         6.29    „
  Ether extract,   9.81    „
  Crude fiber,     0.50    „
  Ash,             1.17    „
  Salt,            0.39    „
  Sugar,          24.57    „
  Starch,         46.01    „

In the dry substance:

  Protein,         7.29 percent
  Ether extract,  11.41    „
  Crude fiber,     0.57    „
  Ash,             1.30    „
  Salt,            0.44    „
  Sugar,          27.84    „
  Starch,         51.59    „
  Calories,       4,805

A study of the individual data shows extremely wide variations from the
mean. The ether extract in the moisture samples in some cases amounted
to over 19 percent and in the dry substance to over 24 percent. The
moisture in one case was over 64 percent while in the dry cake of
biscuit character it sinks below 5 percent and in one case below 4
percent. The average data, therefore, are to be considered only as
a representative of this class of bodies and not as a type of any
particular variety.


=Adulterations.=--It is difficult to speak of adulterations of a
substance of the composition of cake. Any wholesome flavoring or
sweetening ingredient or other wholesome ingredient may be used in the
manufacture of a cake of this kind without being an adulterant. From
this class of bodies, however, there is excluded artificial colors
and artificial flavoring essences bearing the name of genuine. A
yellow cake which does not owe its color to the eggs or other normal
ingredients employed must be regarded as an adulterated article,
especially if the dye used in producing the yellow is one of the coal
dyes or coal tar derivatives such as naphthol yellow. The use of
imitation fruit flavors such as the so-called strawberry, blackberry,
raspberry, vanilla, etc., is also to be regarded as an adulteration.
The adulteration of cakes may be regarded as confined particularly to
these two classes of article assuming that all the other ingredients
are wholesome and without injurious effects upon the digestion. The
eggs used in cake making should be fresh and palatable. Too often passé
storage eggs and eggs broken and preserved with borax or formaldehyde
and unfit for consumption have been used by the bakers of cakes.

Mineral coloring matters have sometimes been found in cakes and
these are more objectionable by far than the artificial colors above
mentioned. Where molasses from sugar-cane factories is used in the
manufacture of cake a considerable trace of chlorid of tin or of
zinc salts may be found therein, derived from the wash used in the
centrifugal when drying sugar crystals or from the process of bleaching
the molasses. This must be regarded as a very serious adulteration and
molasses of this kind should never be used in the manufacture of cake
nor for edible purposes upon the table. Sulfurous acid may also be
absorbed during the process of bleaching the sugar-cane juices.

It is needless to add that cake with its complex character should be
eaten as a relish rather than a diet. There is no hygienic or dietetic
objection to the mixture of sugar with the flour in the making of
ordinary sweetened bread. Such bread must be regarded as highly
nutritious and as differing from ordinary bread only in a disturbance
of the natural food content of the loaf caused by the addition of a
carbohydrate to the bread. Many of the cakes which are sold contain
so small a quantity of sugar that they ought not to be classed with
the sweet cake. Out of the whole number of samples used in the making
up of the above average only four contained so little sugar as to be
ineligible to bear the name of sweet cake or sweetened bread.


=Breakfast Foods.=--A very large variety of cereal preparations
are on the market under the general name of breakfast foods. These
preparations are made directly from the cereals more or less completely
ground by subjecting them to certain manipulations of a fermentative or
culinary character by means of which the preparations are made ready
for immediate consumption or at least with only a moderate degree of
additional cooking. The changes which take place in the preparation
of cereals for breakfast foods are of two general characters, namely,
those produced by fermentative action with malt, yeast, or other
ferments, and, second, changes produced by heating, either in the
moist or dry state. Often both sets of changes are produced in the
same product. The general difference, therefore, between a so-called
breakfast food and the raw material from which it is made is found in
the conversion of more or less starch into sugar and the change in the
composition of the material produced by moist heat or dry heat. In the
latter case the temperature may be raised to the state of considerable
caramelization.

Breakfast foods may also contain added condimental substances, such
as salt, sugar, etc., sometimes used in their preparation. Nearly all
the cereals or mixtures of cereals are represented in these prepared
foods. Oats probably occupy the first rank and the preparations of
oatmeal have to a large extent in the United States taken the place
of home-prepared oatmeal for the breakfast table. Wheat, barley, and
Indian corn are not far behind oats in their contributions to the
numerous varieties of breakfast foods.

The particular methods of preparation are usually trade secrets and at
any rate the description of the extensive technical processes would be
improper in this manual. The secrets, however, are merely methods of
manipulation, since it is certain that the changes of a chemical nature
which take place are of the general character or class described above.

Breakfast foods are usually sold under trade-mark names which may or
may not give an indication of their origin or character. Sometimes, in
fact, the trade name gives a false indication and the use of such trade
names must be considered as entirely reprehensible. Whenever a name
used is descriptive it should be used in a practical sense and not for
the purpose of misleading or deceiving. Breakfast foods may represent
practically the whole grain or the grain with a removal of a proportion
of the outer covering or they may represent the refined flour from
which all or a considerable proportion of the germ and some of the rich
nitrogenous ingredients have been removed.

The attempt to give a list of the names which have been applied to
breakfast foods would consume many pages and be of little value.


=Composition of Breakfast Foods.=--In so far as possible the breakfast
foods noted in the following tables have been arranged in accordance
with the raw material from which they have been produced and the data
given represent the average composition of breakfast foods of the
classes mentioned. Individual variations from the average are often
very great.

  Class   I.--Breakfast foods made from Indian corn products.
  Class  II.--Breakfast foods made from wheat products.
  Class III.--Breakfast foods made from oat products.
  Class  IV.--Breakfast foods made from starch and tapioca.
  Class   V.--Breakfast foods made from noodles, spaghetti, and
              macaroni.
  Class  VI.--Breakfast foods made from barley.
  Class VII.--Breakfast foods of miscellaneous origin, that is
              consisting of those compounds of raw material not
              specified.

COMPOSITION OF BREAKFAST FOODS.[28]

                                                     ETHER
                                  MOIS-     PRO-       EX-
                                  TURE.    TEIDS.    TRACT.    FIBER.
  CLASS I, _Indian Corn Products:_
                                _Perct._  _Perct._  _Perct._  _Perct._
    In the original substance,    12.33      7.92      0.58      0.67
    In the dry substance,           ..       9.02      0.66      0.76

  CLASS II, _Wheat Products:_
    In the original substance,    10.08     12.01      1.80      1.48
    In the dry substance,           ..      13.36      2.01      1.65

  CLASS III, _Oat Products:_
    In the original substance,     7.66     15.32      7.46      1.20
    In the dry substance,           ..      16.60      8.08      1.38

  CLASS IV, _Starch and Tapioca Products:_
    In the original substance,    11.29       .39       .03       .13
    In the dry substance,           ..        .43       .04       .15

  CLASS V, _Noodles, Spaghetti and Macaroni:_
    In the original substance,     9.66     12.02       .42       .56
    In the dry substance,           ..      13.33       .47       .62

  CLASS VI, _Barley Products:_
    In the original substance,    10.92      7.50       .89       .67
    In the dry substance,           ..       8.42      1.00       .75

  CLASS VII, _Miscellaneous Products:_
    In the original substance,     6.41     12.81      1.05       .99
    In the dry substance,           ..      13.68      1.12      1.04

                                             STARCH
                                              AND     CALORIES.
                                    ASH.     SUGAR.   Per Gram.
  CLASS I, _Indian Corn Products:_
                                  _Perct._  _Perct._
    In the original substance,       0.66     78.51      ..
    In the dry substance,            0.75     98.57     4385

  CLASS II, _Wheat Products:_
    In the original substance,       1.55     75.62      ..
    In the dry substance,           16.73     84.08     4462

  CLASS III, _Oat Products:_
    In the original substance,       1.79     67.61      ..
    In the dry substance,            1.94     73.20     4875

  CLASS IV, _Starch and Tapioca Products:_
    In the original substance,        .14     88.15      ..
    In the dry substance,             .16     99.37     4193

  CLASS V, _Noodles, Spaghetti and Macaroni:_
    In the original substance,        .78     77.12      ..
    In the dry substance,             .86     85.34     4428

  CLASS VI, _Barley Products:_
    In the original substance,        .86     80.35      ..
    In the dry substance,             .97     90.19     4344

  CLASS VII, _Miscellaneous Products:_
    In the original substance,       1.06     78.68      ..
    In the dry substance,            1.13     84.07     4449

  [28] U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 13, Part IX, p.
  1345.


=Remarks on Table of Analyses.=--


_Class I, Indian Corn Products._--The analytical data show that in
the breakfast foods made from Indian corn products the germ has been
quite uniformly removed. The quantity of fiber also shows that the
maize flour produced has been very carefully bolted. The ash is almost
normal, showing only a small addition, probably of salt. The mean
quantity of protein is that which would be predicted of an Indian
corn product ground by the most approved milling process in order to
make as white a flour as possible. These methods of preparing the
flour, although so common, are not to be preferred either by reason of
palatability or nutritive properties of the products. The old-fashioned
milling process makes a more palatable and more nutritious diet and
affords a higher degree of heat and energy.

The analysis of the Indian corn products show that they are very much
lower in protein than would be expected from an analysis of the whole
kernels. The low content of fat in the products is doubtless due to
the complete degermination of the grain during the milling and to the
further fact that the baking and other preparation of the material tend
to occlude the fat particles, making their extraction quite difficult.


_Class II, Wheat Products._--The study of wheat products used as
breakfast foods shows that the wheat germ is not removed to any very
great extent during the preparation of the raw material. In fact the
quantity of ether extract appears somewhat greater than would be
expected in pure wheat products, and this leads to the supposition
that oatmeal or Indian corn must be mixed with the food product
in small quantities, since the ether extract in the case of wheat
products is more than three times as great as in the case of Indian
corn products of a similar character. This is an indication either of
the use of mechanical methods as stated above or else to the admixture
of other bodies without mention. There does not appear to have been
any notable quantity of mineral substance, common salt or otherwise,
added during the process of preparation. The quantity of protein in the
product is that which would be predicted from the composition of wheat
flour from which the samples are supposed to be made.


_Class III, Oat Products._--The oat products have evidently been made
without any extensive degermination, as is shown by the high content of
fat or oil. The average composition of oat products shows that genuine
oatmeal is used in their preparation and the probability is that little
adulteration is practiced. The high content of oil and protein produces
a corresponding depression in the quantity of carbohydrates. The high
nutritive value of the product, both in respect of fat and of proteins,
is fully illustrated by the analytical data obtained. The calories, as
will be noticed, are very much higher than in the corresponding product
from Indian corn, wheat, or in fact of any other of the breakfast foods.


_Class IV, Products made of starch and tapioca_ show, in the analytical
data, that very high-grade starch materials are employed in the
preparation of these bodies. The protein, ether extract, fiber, and ash
almost disappear. As shown in the data for the dry substance, more than
99 percent of the whole material consists of carbohydrates, chiefly
starch. The calories are correspondingly diminished since starch and
sugar have the least heat value of any class of food products, except
those of a mineral character. Foods of this kind are highly unbalanced,
that is, contain a large excess of starch and sugar, and are often very
prejudicial to the health of persons whose ability to digest starch and
sugar has been lessened by disease.


_Class V, Noodles, spaghetti, and macaroni_ are often used as breakfast
foods, though not by any means so universally as many others in this
category. The analytical data show that these bodies correspond very
well to the material, that is to the flour, rich in gluten, from
which they are supposed to be made. The protein content is high,--the
ether extract, fiber, and ash low, and the calories correspond to the
chemical composition of the material.


_Class VI, Barley Products._--Barley products are not very commonly
used as breakfast foods, but the malt used in the preparation of other
breakfast foods is usually made of barley, since the barley malt has
the highest diastatic value of any of the cereals.


_Class VII, Miscellaneous breakfast foods_ are so called because the
character of the materials of which they are made is not known or no
statement is made by the manufacturer or dealer concerning them. The
analytical data, of course, do not lead to any decision regarding
the nature of the raw material employed. The percentage of protein,
however, taken in conjunction with the rather low ether extract,
indicates that they are probably made chiefly from wheat products.

Much may be said in favor of the use of prepared breakfast foods,
for, in so far as I know, they are usually palatable, wholesome, and
nutritious. There are many points which may be urged against their
general use, chief of which is in regard to their cost. There is no
cereal now in general use for edible purposes which is worth as much
as two cents per pound in the markets of this country, yet breakfast
foods, which are only prepared cereals, are often sold for 10 or 15
cents per pound. This is a high price in comparison with the cost
of the raw material, but it must not be forgotten that the cost of
manufacture is to be considered. In the second place the cereal foods
are undoubtedly best at the moment they are prepared. Unless carefully
packed, they may become infected with insects of various kinds, which
certainly add nothing to their value and detract very much from their
desirability. In moist climates they become infested with mould and
even with bacterial growths. Inasmuch as necessarily a large proportion
of the prepared cereals remain for an indefinite time unsold, the
consumer is liable at any time to come into possession of one of these
deteriorated packages. In the third place there is no reason to believe
that a prepared breakfast food is any more digestible, nutritious,
or favorable to the health of the healthy individual than the broken
cereal itself properly cooked. Further than this it may be stated that
there is no preparation of cereals better than those which are freshly
made from the freshly broken or ground grain. If, therefore, one has
the time to properly prepare the fresh grains of the cereals they will
be more palatable and more nutritious and equally as digestible as
any of the prepared articles. On the other hand, there are cases of
diseased or disordered digestion in which the prepared cereals will
be more digestible, but this is certainly not the case in a state
of health. There is reason to believe, therefore, that the demand
for prepared cereals will continue, but the old-fashioned method of
preparation of the cereal from the grain will still have its advocates.

I think it may be said with certainty that the proper home preparation
of a cereal as a breakfast food will not cost any more than the
original cereal itself, and hence the price of this food ought not to
be much more than 4 cents per pound without counting the added water in
its preparation.

I believe, therefore, that our people of limited means can be safely
advised on the score of economy, palatability, and nutrition to prepare
their own cereals for ordinary breakfast purposes.




PART VI.

VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS.


SUCCULENT VEGETABLES.

The term vegetable as applied to food in the broadest sense of the
word means that class which distinguishes it from animal food. In
a narrower sense, however, the term vegetable is used to denote a
certain class of food which is of a succulent or juicy nature. While
cereals and fruits are vegetables in the broadest sense of the word
they are not in the narrow and common meaning. The term “vegetable” in
this section therefore refers to those substances commonly known as
vegetables upon the market and which are characterized by their high
water content. On account of this abundance of liquid or juice the term
succulent is applied to them. The common vegetables which are included
in this class consist of lettuce, spinach, potatoes, cauliflower,
beets, radishes, turnips, cabbage, green Indian corn, peas, beans,
tomatoes, yams, etc. These vegetables contain in a fresh state from
70 to 95 percent of water. Many of them can be kept for a length of
time without deterioration, especially the potato and beet, and for
a short time cabbage, radishes, etc., if kept cool and moist. Other
kinds of vegetables are not easily preserved for any length of lime
except in cold storage, such as lettuce, peas, beans, tomatoes, etc.
If the potato and other starchy tubers are kept out of account these
vegetables do not have a very high nutritive value, as will be seen by
the analysis which follows. They have, however, an important part in
the ration because of their palatability and the effect which they have
upon the general activity of the alimentary canal. For instance, there
is very little nourishment obtained in eating a turnip which perhaps is
95 percent water,--yet its palatability, its condimental character, and
its general salutary effect upon digestion is such as to make it worth
while to pay even a high price in proportion to its nutriment. For this
reason, as well as for their nutritive value, the use of succulent
vegetables is to be very highly commended.

In general, as has been said, these vegetables are eaten in a fresh
state or after being kept for a considerable time in cold storage
or otherwise. The potato, for instance, can be kept by properly
covering it in the earth or in bins through the winter. Cabbages
are also kept in the same way and many other vegetables without
apparent deterioration. These vegetables are often desiccated, and
in this way can be kept for a much longer period. Unfortunately no
method of desiccation has been developed which preserves entirely the
palatability of the vegetable, although its nutrient properties, which
are perhaps the least important of its properties in many respects, are
preserved to a certain extent by desiccation.

We may, however, leave out of consideration the desiccation of fresh
vegetables. Certain of the vegetables above mentioned naturally become
desiccated on maturity as in the case of peas and beans, but then they
are removed from the category of succulent vegetables. Green Indian
corn is also often dried, but in this process its palatability is to a
certain extent impaired even when it is prepared for cooking in such
a way as to restore practically all of the water which has been lost.
Succulent vegetables are eaten either in a raw state or after cooking.
For instance radishes and vegetables of this class are rarely cooked.
On the other hand, potatoes, peas, and beans are always cooked and
practically never eaten raw. Green Indian corn is also universally
cooked before eating. There are other vegetables which are sometimes
eaten raw and sometimes cooked, as, for instance, the turnip, while on
the other hand the beet, which is very sweet and naturally would be
considered a suitable food for eating in a raw state, is always cooked
before it is consumed.


=Artichoke.=--This vegetable, while not very extensively grown in the
United States, is cultivated to a very extensive degree in Europe.
The tubers of the artichoke (_Cynara Scolymus_) are essentially
a carbohydrate food, growing underground, and thus belong, in a
measure, to the same class as the potato, the yam, and the beet. The
carbohydrates which are present in artichokes do not contain very
much starch. In this respect they differ from the potato and the yam.
When the starch of the potato and yam is converted by fermentation or
otherwise into sugar it forms chiefly dextrose or maltose. On the other
hand, when the carbohydrates of artichokes are converted into sugar
they form chiefly levulose. The principal part of the carbohydrate
is known as inulin or levulin. The artichoke can be easily kept over
a long period of time, and may remain without much detriment in the
ground, where the winters are not severe, from autumn until spring.
After harvesting it may be kept for some time without any very great
loss in its food value.

In the following table are given the data showing the composition of
the artichoke, harvested in the autumn and also in the spring:

  Spring:
    Water,              79.03 percent
    Inulin or levulin,  17.76    „
    Protein,             1.27    „
    Ether extract,        .18    „
    Ash,                  .99    „

  Fall:
    Water,              79.70 percent
    Inulin or levulin,  16.93    „
    Protein,             1.48    „
    Ether extract,        .14    „
    Ash,                 1.08    „

  (Behrend, J. für Landwirtschaft, vol. 52, p. 134, 1904.)

The above data show that the artichoke, like the potato, is a food
product poor in protein and in fat and rich in carbohydrate material.
In so far as known the carbohydrates of artichokes are equally as
digestible and nutritious as those of other tubers.


=Asparagus.=--Asparagus (_Asparagus officinalis_ L.)--French, asperge;
German, spargel; Italian, sparagio; Spanish, esparrago--is a highly
prized vegetable and is a native of Europe. The edible asparagus is
the young, fresh, undeveloped shoots taken at an early period of
growth. They are highly valued when stewed or for use as a salad. There
is a number of varieties of asparagus, among which may be mentioned
the Giant Dutch asparagus, the common green asparagus, white German
asparagus, etc. These are different in kind only, since they all belong
to the same botanical species and the variations are produced chiefly
by different methods of cultivation.


_Composition._--

  Water,                93.96 percent
  Ash,                    .67    „
  Protein,               1.83    „
  Fiber,                  .74    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   2.55    „
  Fat,                    .25    „

Asparagus is composed chiefly of water, which amounts, in round
numbers, to 94 percent of its entire weight. Its edible portion is rich
in protein as compared with the beet and many other vegetables. It
is somewhat richer also in fat than the beet or the turnip. Its food
value, as will be seen, is largely of a condimental character.


=The Bean.=--The bean belongs to the family Fabaceæ. It is a native
of America and has been cultivated from the earliest times. There are
many different varieties of the bean which are cultivated in this
country. They grow over the whole range of the United States. There
are early and late maturing varieties. Beans are used for food both in
the fresh state, while the pods are tender and can be eaten with the
immature beans, and also in the dry state, in which condition they are
a staple article of food. There are many different varieties of beans
which, while not always botanically identical, are sufficiently so to
warrant the use of the common name. Two general classes, however, may
be distinguished, namely, those that grow in small clusters or bunches
and those that grow upon vines or tendrils which have to be supported.
In regard to the kinds of culture to which beans are subjected there
may be mentioned field beans, which are cultivated over a large area,
and garden beans, which are cultivated in small gardens for the green
markets.


_Kidney Bean._--The kidney bean, or French bean, is a special botanical
variety (_Phaseolus vulgaris_ L.). It is what is known in French as
haricot; in German as Bohne; Dutch, Boon; Italian, faginolo; Spanish,
habichuela. This variety of bean is commonly called a French bean and
is a native of South America. It does not seem to have been known
before the discovery of the American continent and hence is not thought
to have grown wild in any other part of the world. The kidney bean
is not very well suited to very high northern latitudes, since it is
particularly sensitive to the cold, even if the temperature is not low
enough to produce frost. The kidney bean is cultivated over large areas
and is also a garden crop. There are early and late varieties, so that
the season for the kidney bean is a long one. The pods of this bean
are distinguished by being long and slender, and it is particularly
valuable for edible purposes while green and is also prized for
canning. This is true, especially, of that variety which has a tender
pod.

There is another variety of bean in which the pod is tough, and this,
of course, is not so well suited for eating green, although when very
young, even the tough-podded bean can be used. There are a great many
different varieties of kidney beans known, one of which is called the
“dwarf kidney bean” on account of its growing only on low bushes and
needing no support for the vines. In this variety the pods hang in
thick clusters, the lower ends often touching the ground.


_Butter Beans._--There is another large class of beans known as butter
beans. This variety is also known as Geneva, or plainpalais, or wax
bean.


_Lima Beans._--The Lima bean is also a different botanical species
known as _Phaseolus lunatus_ L. It is nearly related to the kidney
bean, being also a native of South America. The vine is a very long
one, often reaching more than 10 feet if a proper support be offered
it. The common Lima bean is one which matures rather late in the
season, but it is most highly valued for its product, which is eaten
shelled. There are smaller varieties of this bean known as the dwarf
Lima or small Lima.

The total number of varieties of beans which are known and cultivated
is, perhaps, more than 100, but they belong in general to the large
classes specified.


_Average Composition of Green, String, and Lima Beans._--

  Lima beans:
    Water,          68.46 percent
    Ash,             1.69    „
    Protein,         7.15    „
    Crude fiber,     1.71    „
    Carbohydrates,  20.30    „
    Fat,              .69    „

  String beans:
    Water,          87.23 percent
    Ash,              .76    „
    Protein,         2.20    „
    Crude fiber,     1.92    „
    Carbohydrates,   7.52    „
    Fat,              .37    „

The above data are for green _Lima_ beans with the pod removed and
for _string_ beans including the pod. The latter, it is seen, are
composed largely of water, containing less than 13 percent of dry
matter. Of the dry matter almost 20 percent is protein. The soluble
carbohydrates, including the starch and sugar, are the most important
of the ingredients of the dry substance in so far as actual weight
is concerned. In the Lima bean the protein is more than three times
as great as in the string bean, and the starch and sugar almost
three times as much. As a nutrient, therefore, the Lima beans are
far more valuable than the string beans. These data may be taken as
representative of all varieties of green beans, hulled and unhulled,
the Lima beans being types of hulled beans and the string variety being
the type of beans including the pod.


_Composition of the Dry Bean._--

  Water,                15.86 percent.
  Ash,                   3.53    „
  Protein,              20.57    „
  Fiber,                 3.86    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,  55.49    „
  Fat,                    .69    „

The analyses show that the dry bean is much richer in protein than the
cereals.


=Beets.=--All the varieties of edible beets belong to the common
species _Beta vulgaris_ L. French, betterave; German, Salat-Rübe;
Dutch, Betwortel; Italian, barbabietola; Spanish, remolacha.

The most important of these beets, economically, is the variety which
has been cultivated for the purpose of producing sugar. By long years
of selection and improvement the sugar content of the natural beet,
which is not more than from four to six percent, has been brought up to
an average of about 14 percent, often reaching much larger quantities.
The sugar beet itself, in its earlier stages, makes an excellent
vegetable for the table, being particularly sweet and palatable. Its
tannin content, however, is very high, and before cooking, especially,
it has quite a bitter taste, at times. This disappears in the young
beets when they are cooked. The sugar beet has a perfectly white flesh,
inasmuch as the attempt was made in the early period of cultivation
to develop a beet without color in order to produce a white sugar
with as little trouble as possible. On the other hand the garden beet
is usually highly colored, the red beet being especially prized. The
number of varieties of beets in cultivation is very great. Among the
most important may be mentioned the long blood-red beet, which is the
common garden beet, the rough-skinned red beet, the pear-shaped beet,
the turnip-shaped beet, all of which are of the red color. There is
also cultivated for eating purposes a beet with yellow flesh, though it
is not by any means so common as the red garden beet.


_Composition of the Beet._--The following data represents the average
composition of the red beet used as a vegetable:

  Water,                88.47 percent
  Ash,                   1.04    „
  Protein,               1.53    „
  Fiber,                  .88    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   7.94    „
  Fat,                    .14    „

The above data show that the average garden beet has a little less than
12 percent of solid matter and a little more than 88 percent of water.
It is rather poor in protein, though it is not a vegetable which can be
classed as being excessively deficient in nitrogenous constituents. Its
chief food value, however, is in the sugar which it contains, which is
more than 7 percent. It is quite deficient in fat.


=Brussels Sprouts.=--Brussels sprouts is a variety of cabbage which is
grown over large areas in different countries and has a deservedly high
reputation on the table. The French name is chou de Bruxelles; German,
Brüsseler Sprossen-Kohl; Italian, cavolo a germoglio; Spanish, bretones
de Bruselas. The composition of Brussels sprouts is practically the
same as that of cabbage.


=Cabbage.=--The botanical name of the cabbage is _Brassica oleracea_
L. and it belongs to the family Brassicaceæ. It is a plant which is
indigenous to both Europe and Asia, and still grows wild in some parts
of the European continent. It is eaten both raw, in the form of salad,
slaw, etc., and cooked in various methods. It is also subjected to a
fermentation, producing the highly prized dish known as sauer-kraut.
Its French name is chou cabus; German, Kopfkohl; Italian, cavolo
cappuccio; Spanish, col repollo.

The cabbage is a plant which, as it approaches maturity, has its leaves
folded upon each other in a solid mass, producing the head. These
leaves naturally become bleached and are extremely crisp and tender.
The external, free leaves are not prized as a food. The varieties of
the cabbage are almost legion and are produced by different methods of
cultivation.


_Composition._--

  Water,                90.52 percent
  Ash,                   1.40    „
  Protein,               2.39    „
  Fiber,                 1.47    „
  Starch, sugar, etc.,   3.85    „
  Fat,                    .37    „

The above data show that cabbage is composed chiefly of water,
amounting to as much as 91 percent of its weight. Its principal food
constituents are starch, sugar, and digestible fiber. Its most valuable
food constituent is most probably the protein, of which it contains a
large proportionate quantity. In all its forms cabbage is a wholesome,
if not very nutritious, dish.


=Carrot.=--The botanical name of the carrot is _Daucus carota_ L.
French, carotte; German, Mohre; Italian, carota; Spanish, zanahoria.

This plant is indigenous to Europe. The carrot is naturally a biennial
plant, though it is often produced in a single season, and especial
efforts are made to produce quick-growing carrots. This vegetable is
much more common in Europe than in the United States, and when grown
here at all it is used chiefly in soups and often for cattle food.
There is a large number of varieties of carrots, but practically all
belong to the same botanical species. The flesh is often of a yellow
tint, though blood-red carrots are grown and highly prized.


_Composition._--

  Water,                88.59 percent
  Ash,                   1.02    „
  Protein,               1.14    „
  Fiber,                 1.27    „
  Starch, sugar, etc.,   7.56    „
  Fat,                    .42    „

It is seen from the above data that the carrot has almost exactly the
composition of the garden beet. Its principal food value is in the
sugar and other carbohydrates which it contains. It also has a notable
proportion of protein and has almost 12 percent of solid matter.


=Cauliflower.=--Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage the edible portion
of which is the extraordinarily modified and thickened flower cluster.
It is more tender and delicate in its structure than the common
cabbage. The French name is choufleur; German, Blumenkohl; Italian,
cavolfiore; Spanish, coliflor.

It is highly prized when prepared for the table with a sauce. It is a
dish which is much more common in Europe than in this country, where
it is not appreciated as it should be. There is a large number of
varieties produced, chiefly by the different methods of cultivation and
the effect of environment in which they are grown.


_Composition._--

  Water,                90.82 percent
  Ash,                    .81    „
  Protein,               1.62    „
  Fiber,                 1.02    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   4.94    „
  Fat,                    .79    „

The cauliflower is very close to the cabbage in composition, having,
however, a slightly larger proportion of digestible carbohydrates and
a much larger proportion of fat. Its dietetic value, however, is not
notably different from that of the cabbage.


=Celery.=--One of the most important vegetables upon the table in this
country is celery. The botanical name of celery is _Apium graveolens_
L. The French name is celeri; German, Sellerie; Italian, sedano;
Spanish, apio.

Celery is indigenous to Europe. It is eaten in its young state, and
is most valued when the stalks are bleached. This is accomplished by
hilling up the earth around them or protecting them from the light by
boards or otherwise. Kept in the dark in this way the green color fades
and the stalks becomes more crisp and brittle. There is a number of
varieties of celery, and these are chiefly due to the different methods
of cultivation. Celery is not only eaten raw but also stewed and is a
common constituent of soup. Celery seeds are supposed to have not only
a condimental but a medicinal value.


=Chicory.=--The botanical name of chicory is _Cichorium intybus_ L.
In French it is called chicorée sauvage; German, wilde or bittere
Chichorie; Italian, cicoria selvatica; Spanish, achicoria amarga o
agreste.

The wild chicory is used chiefly, even in its cultivated state, for
salad purposes, the roots not being of any value on account of their
smallness. The chicory, however, develops under cultivation a large
root like the carrot or turnip, and this variety of chicory is used
chiefly on account of the roots, which, when they are roasted properly,
are highly prized as a substitute for coffee. The common wild chicory
has been used from time immemorial as a salad. The leaves have rather a
bitter taste and are more highly prized for salad purposes when mixed
with lettuce or other leaves which have a less pronounced flavor. The
variety of chicory of which the roots are used as a substitute for
coffee is known as “Brunswick chicory,” or Magdeburg large-rooted
chicory.


_Composition of the Root._--

  Water,                     79.20 percent
  Ash,                        1.11    „
  Sugars,                      .60    „
  Inulin,                    14.00    „
  Fiber,                      1.29    „
  Protein and undetermined,   3.50    „

Starch does not appear to be among the carbohydrates in chicory but
inulin takes its place. In this respect chicory resembles the artichoke
in its composition.


_Roasted Chicory._--When chicory is used as a substitute for coffee or
as a substance added to coffee it is roasted, and its composition is
thus materially changed, as is represented by the following data:

  Moisture,                  13.3 percent
  Ash,                        5.9    „
  Sugar,                     12.4    „
  Inulin,                     4.3    „
  Fiber,                      6.9    „
  Caramel and undetermined,  57.2    „

From the data of the above analysis the inulin does not appear to have
been very largely converted into levulose by roasting, but rather into
the insoluble carbohydrate matter. Whether or not, therefore, the
inulin exists in the large proportion given in the analysis of the
fresh chicory is a matter of some doubt.


=Cranberry.=--The cranberry is grown extensively in the swampy grounds
of the northern part of the United States, especially in New England,
New Jersey, and Wisconsin. It is a red, hard berry, not at all pleasant
to the taste in its fresh state, very acid, but greatly valued during
the autumn and winter months when stewed with sugar and served as a
sauce, especially with turkey. Its chief use, in fact, is to eat with
turkey or chicken. The cranberry is a fruit which contains naturally a
small quantity of benzoic acid.


_Composition._--

  Water,           86.10 percent
  Solids,          13.90    „
  Soluble solids,   8.43    „
  Acidity,          1.98    „

  (Measured as grams of sulfuric acid per 100 grams of material.)


=Cress.=--The botanical name of cress is _Lepidium sativum_ L. French,
cresson alenois; German, Garten-Kresse; Italian, agretto; Spanish,
mastuerzo.

It is a plant which is indigenous to Persia. It grows in this country
in moist gardens and particularly in the warmer parts of the country.
The real water cress belongs to a different species, its botanical
name being _Rorippa nasturtium_. It grows only in water, in which it
differs from the preceding variety. It is highly prized as an aromatic
flavoring material and for table use. There are very many varieties in
cultivation.


=Cucumbers.=--The botanical name of cucumber is _Cucumis sativus_ L.
French, concombre; German, Gurke; Italian, cetriulo; Spanish, cohombro.

The cucumber is indigenous to East India, but is now cultivated in all
countries. It is a plant which develops vines which often run to great
distances. The cucumber is used almost exclusively in its green state,
and the very young cucumbers are most highly prized for making pickles,
though all sizes are used for that purpose, from the very smallest to
the giant variety. The number of varieties cultivated is extremely
great. The variety known as the gherkin is highly prized for pickling.


_Composition of the Cucumber._--

  Water,                95.99 percent
  Ash,                    .46    „
  Protein,                .81    „
  Fiber,                  .69    „
  Starch, sugar, etc.,   1.83    „
  Fat,                    .22    „

The above data show that the cucumber is not much more than solid
water, there being just enough of other material to give it a flavor
and consistence.


=Egg Plant.=--Another vegetable which is highly prized for the table
is the egg plant, _Solanum melongena_ L. French, aubergine; German,
Eierpflanze; Italian, petronciano; Spanish, berengena.

The egg plant is indigenous to India. Its name is derived from the
shape of some of its varieties, though many of them have ceased to
resemble the egg in appearance. There is a large number of varieties,
but the one which is known as the white egg plant looks more like an
egg both in shape and color than most of the others.


_Composition._--

  Water,                92.93 percent
  Ash,                    .50    „
  Protein,               1.15    „
  Fiber,                  .77    „
  Starch, sugar, etc.,   4.34    „
  Fat,                    .31    „

The egg plant is a highly succulent vegetable containing only a little
more than 7 percent of solid matter, and this is chiefly sugar, starch,
and other digestible carbohydrates.


=Garlic.=--The botanical name of garlic is _Allium sativum_ L. French,
ail ordinaire; German, Gewöhnlicher Knoblauch; Italian, aglio; Spanish,
ajo vulgar.

This highly prized aromatic vegetable is indigenous to southern Europe.
It is a perennial plant, and the edible bulbous portion grows chiefly
underground. This part is used for spicing food. It is eaten in large
quantities by the Latin nations of southern Europe, and is employed
throughout the world as a seasoning or flavoring for many dishes. When
eaten in excess it makes the breath extremely disagreeable, as can be
witnessed by all who have traveled in the Latin countries of Europe and
even among the South Germans. Garlic is not eaten to any extent by our
native citizens, but is used by our first-class cooks extensively as a
seasoning. A little of it is known to go a great way. Its composition
is very much like that of the onion. A wild garlic grows in the United
States over wide areas. It is often eaten by cows, and it imparts to
the milk a very disagreeable flavor and smell.


=Gourds.=--Gourds themselves are not very much used for edible
purposes, but the varieties which include all the species of pumpkin
and squash belong to the important vegetable foods in the United
States. The most important member of this family is the pumpkin,
_Cucurbita pepo_ L., which grows often to an enormous size and has a
beautiful yellow color. The French name for the pumpkin is potirons;
German, Melonen oder Centner Kurbiss; Italian, zucca; Spanish, calabaza
totanera.

The pumpkin of California, especially, is noted for its gigantic
proportions. The pumpkin is used very extensively in New England, as
well as other parts of the country, for making pies, and is also used
as a sauce. The pumpkin is not eaten raw. As a cattle food it is highly
prized in all parts of the country, and when fed to milch cows it
imparts to the butter, even in the winter, a delicate amber tint.


_Composition of the Flesh of the Pumpkin._--

  Water,                93.39 percent
  Ash,                    .67    „
  Protein,                .91    „
  Fiber,                  .98    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   3.93    „
  Fat,                    .12    „

It is seen that the flesh of the pumpkin is essentially a watery food,
the chief ingredient of the solid matter being sugar. Its value,
therefore, as a food is more condimental than nutritive.


=Horse-radish.=--The botanical name of horse-radish is _Cochlearia
armoracia_ L. French, raifort sauvage; German, Meerettig; Italian,
rafano; Spanish, taramago.

The horse-radish is prized as one of the principal condimental
vegetable substances in common use in the United States. It is
particularly used with oysters and other foods of similar character
and as a sauce or spice in a salad. It is indigenous to Europe, but is
now cultivated everywhere. There are many varieties, but they are all
characterized by a sharp, pungent taste and odor.


_Adulteration of Horse-radish._--Other vegetable substances, as,
for instance, the more highly spiced aromatic turnips, are often
substituted for horse-radish.


=Jerusalem Artichoke.=--This is a plant of the aster family
(_Helianthus tuberosus_ L.) producing a heavy ovoid head the fleshy
parts of which, including the base to which they are attached, are
highly valued as food, being usually eaten with a sauce. This plant is
more largely cultivated in France and other European countries than in
the United States.


=Kale.=--Kale is a variety of cabbage which is somewhat different
botanically from the common cabbage. This form of cabbage does not make
a firm head, but grows only with free leaves. It is especially adapted
for use in much the same manner as the common substance known by the
housewife as greens. It is a hardy plant and grows well even in cold
climates. There are a great many varieties of kale, and the composition
is practically that of the cabbage.


=Leek.=--The leek is of the same variety of plant as the garlic. Its
botanical name is _Allium porrum_ L. French, poireau; German, Lauch;
Italian, porro; Spanish, puerro.

The leek is thought to be indigenous to Switzerland, though this is not
quite certain. It is closely related to the garlic and onion and is
valued for the same purposes, namely, its highly aromatic condimental
character.


=Lettuce.=--Among the most valued of the succulent vegetables is the
lettuce. Its botanical name is _Lactuca sativa_ L. French, laitue
cultivée; German, Lattich; Italian, lattuga; Spanish, lechuga.

Lettuce is thought to be indigenous to India or Central Asia. It has
been cultivated, however, for so long that its origin is a matter of
doubt. There is a legion of varieties of lettuce, but they all have
essentially the same characteristics and have little food value.
Lettuce is now found practically throughout the whole year in all
civilized countries, being grown under glass in winter so as to furnish
a continuous supply for the markets throughout the year. It is used
chiefly as salad, and among the varieties which are most highly prized
for this purpose are the cabbage lettuce and the variety known as
Romaine. The Romaine is distinguished from the common lettuce by the
shape of the leaves, which are much longer and narrower than those of
ordinary lettuce. The Romaine lettuce is more highly prized by most
connoisseurs as being more tender and brittle than the first variety.


_Composition._--

  Water,                93.68 percent
  Ash,                   1.61    „
  Protein,               1.41    „
  Fiber,                  .74    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   2.18    „
  Fat,                    .38    „

The data show that lettuce is a highly succulent vegetable. Its chief
food constituents are protein and sugar. Its real value as a food is
not shown by chemical analysis because it consists in a delicate,
aromatic flavor which is not revealed by the crucible.


=Melons.=--There are two kinds of melons eaten in the United
States,--the first the watermelon, and the second the cantaloupe or
muskmelon. In Europe the principal melon which is used is one having
deep yellow flesh resembling the color of a pumpkin and known as the
French melon. The botanical name is _Cucumis melo_ L. French, melon;
German, Melone; Italian, popone; Spanish, melon.

The French melon is indigenous to Asia, but only the cultivated
varieties are known now. The flesh is very sweet and is, as has already
been said, usually of a deep yellow color, though there are many
different varieties.


=Cantaloupe.=--This is a general name given to the melons of the
French type or varieties thereof growing in the United States. It is
supposed to have had its origin in Italy, though its history is so old
as not to be certain. The cantaloupe is of various sizes and shapes
and various degrees of sweetness. In the United States the variety
grown at Rocky Ford, Colorado, is noted for its sweetness and general
palatability. For this reason many melons not grown at Rocky Ford are
improperly sold under that name. There are a great many varieties of
cantaloupes. Generally the flesh of the cantaloupe is green instead of
yellow. The cantaloupe is often called muskmelon.

ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF MUSKMELONS.

                 FROM RIND OF MELON.
  --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------
   SERIES |     | NITRO- |        |        |REDUCING
     NO.  |BRIX.|  GEN.  |  ASH.  |SUCROSE.| SUGAR.
  --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------
          |     |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.
  495,    | 11.5|  .106  |  1.23  |  3.99  |  3.97
  554,    |  8.4|  .018  |  0.66  |  2.47  |  3.62
  587,    |  5.0|  .053  |  0.47  |  2.25  |  2.84
  613,    | 10.3|  .156  |  0.93  |  2.77  |  3.64
          | ----|  ----  |  ----  |  ----  |  ----
  Average,|  8.8|  .083  |  0.82  |  2.87  |  3.52
  --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------
          JUICE OF EDIBLE PORTION OF MELON.
  --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------
   SERIES |     | NITRO- |        |        |REDUCING
     NO.  |BRIX.|  GEN.  |  ASH.  |SUCROSE.| SUGAR.
  --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------
          |     |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.
  495,    | 12.9|  .130  |  1.20  |  6.60  |  2.88
  554,    |  8.2|  .069  |  0.87  |  4.96  |  2.47
  587,    |  5.8|  .043  |  0.50  |  2.26  |  2.57
  623,    | 11.5|  .134  |  0.95  |  5.19  |  2.25
          | ----|  ----  |  ----  |  ----  |  ----
  Average,|  9.6|  .094  |  0.88  |  4.75  |  2.54
  --------+-----+--------+--------+--------+--------


=Watermelons.=--This is an entirely different variety from the French
melon or cantaloupe. Its botanical name is _Citrullus citrullus_ L.
French, melon d’eau; German, Wasser-Melone; Italian, cocomero, Spanish,
sandia.

The watermelon is said to be indigenous to Africa. It is grown
extensively in the United States, especially in the southern part. It
is a field crop of considerable importance, especially in the state
of Georgia. The watermelon grows best on a sandy soil, though it
requires it to be well fertilized. The vines, when they reach their
full growth, cover the entire field. The melons often grow to a very
large size,--specimens weighing from 50 to 60 pounds being not unusual.
The average size, however, is much less than that. The Georgia melon
is somewhat oval in shape, reaching generally from a foot to eighteen
inches in length and from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter. The
flesh is generally red and the seeds usually black. The watermelon
is in the market from early summer until the late autumn. It bears
shipping quite well, and is sent usually in box cars without crating,
and, if kept at a low temperature, will remain palatable for many
days or even weeks. The fresh ripe melon, however, is far superior in
quality to any that are harvested partly green and kept for a long
time. About forty or fifty varieties of watermelons grow in the United
States.


_Composition of Melons._--The following data show the composition of
the flesh of the muskmelon and the watermelon:

  Muskmelon:
    Water,                89.50 percent
    Ash,                    .60    „
    Protein,                .60    „
    Fiber,                  .92    „
    Starch, sugar, etc.,   8.20    „
    Fat,                    .18    „

  Watermelon:
    Water,                91.87 percent
    Ash,                    .33    „
    Protein,                .40    „
    Fiber,                  .55    „
    Starch, sugar, etc.,   6.65    „
    Fat,                    .20    „

The above data show that the edible portion of the muskmelon contains
more nutrient matter than that of the watermelon, the difference being
chiefly in the content of water and carbohydrates.


=Okra.=--The French name for okra is gombo; Italian, ibisco; Spanish,
gombo.

Okra is a vegetable grown very largely in the United States and
especially valued for use in soup making. For this purpose the young
seed-vessels are employed. The seed pods of the okra are long,
tapering, and rigid by reason of quite sharp angles. The okra is often
known as gombo or gumbo.


_Composition._--

  Water,                87.41 percent
  Ash,                    .74    „
  Protein,               1.99    „
  Fiber,                 3.42    „
  Starch, sugar, etc.,   6.04    „
  Fat,                    .40    „


=Onion.=--The botanical name of the onion is _Allium cepa_ L. The
French name is ognon; German, Zwiebel; Italian, cipolla; Spanish,
cebolla.

The onion is a plant which is valued for edible purposes throughout
the whole world. It is supposed to have been indigenous to Asia, but
its exact origin is not known with certainty. Both the pulp and the
part of the stem immediately attached thereto are edible. In fact
in very young plants the whole plant is edible. Its highly aromatic
character and flavor rather than its nutritive qualities give it its
chief value. The onion is eaten both raw and in various cooked forms.
Cooking the onion, especially boiling, expels a large part of its most
pungent character, so that the cooked onion does not manifest itself
so unpleasantly in the breath when eaten as is the case with the raw
onion. The onion is also very commonly eaten in this country fried,
especially with beefsteak. The variety of onions cultivated is legion,
but they are due rather to different methods of cultivation, etc., than
to botanical character.


_Composition._--

  Water,                87.55 percent
  Ash,                    .57    „
  Protein,               1.40    „
  Fiber,                  .69    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   9.53    „
  Fat,                    .26    „

The onion, it is seen, is rather poor in protein but rich in sugar and
allied bodies.


=Parsnips.=--The botanical name of the parsnip is _Pastinaca sativa_
L. French, panais; German, Pastinake; Italian, pastinaca; Spanish,
chirivia.

The parsnip is nearly related to the carrot in its appearance and also
its properties. The root is usually long and straight and gradually
tapering. It, however, often has other shapes, as is the case with the
carrot and beet.


_Composition._--

  Water,                80.34 percent
  Ash,                   1.03    „
  Protein,               1.35    „
  Fiber,                  .53    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,  16.09    „
  Fat,                    .66    „

The above data show that the parsnip is not much richer in nutrients
than most of the roots grown, except in sugar and starch content. The
large quantity of carbohydrates gives it its chief food value. These
carbohydrates are not by any means all sugar and starch, but include
a very considerable proportion of cellulose which is more or less
digestible.


=Peas.=--The botanical name of the pea plant is _Pisum sativum_ L.
French pois; German, Erbse; Italian, pisello; Spanish, guisante.

The pea is quite as highly valued for table use as the bean, and,
perhaps, is almost as extensively cultivated. The pea, however, is not
usually eaten in the pod. It is probably indigenous to Central Europe,
but has been so long cultivated that an exact history of its original
distribution is not known. There are many different varieties of the
pea, but the one most highly prized is a small and very sweet pea. The
larger variety does not have the palatability and other highly prized
edible qualities that distinguish the smaller variety. The pea is found
in the markets of the United States throughout the whole year, being
grown under cover in the winter time. It becomes an abundant crop from
early in the spring until very late in the autumn. Immense quantities
of peas are preserved by canning, and in this condition they retain
their edible properties almost without impairment throughout the entire
winter. The pea is valued as a food in many forms.


_Composition._--

                                                      STARCH,
                                                       SUGAR,
               WATER.     ASH.    PROTEIN.   FIBER.     ETC.      FAT.
              Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.
  Green pea,   79.93       .78      3.87      1.63     13.30       .49
  Dry pea,     12.62      3.11     27.04      3.90     51.75      1.58

The above data show that the pea is a markedly nitrogenous food,
especially the dry pea. Even in the green pea nearly four percent of
its weight is protein.

A comparison of the composition of the pea with that of the bean shows
that the pea is even more nitrogenous in character than the bean.


=Potatoes.=--One of the most important vegetables as well as food
products in general is that class of products to which the term
potato is given. The term strictly should apply only to that class
known as white or Irish potato (_Solanum tuberosum_ L.). The potato,
as indicated by the name, belongs to a family of plants which is
considered poisonous, but in the cultivated variety the poisonous
principle has been practically eliminated. The potato belongs,
essentially, to the starchy group of foods. If we assume, which is
very nearly correct, that the average content of water in different
varieties of potatoes at the time they are most suitable for edible
purposes is 80 percent, it is found that at least three-fourths of
the remaining solid dry matter is starch. The potato contains a trace
of sugar and notable quantities of other carbohydrates than starch
and sugar, namely, fiber. It also contains a very small proportion of
nitrogen and mineral matter.

The potato is grown chiefly in temperate climates. It flourishes
particularly well in the northern part of Europe, in England, Scotland,
and Ireland, and in the northern portion of the United States. The
northern part of Maine, especially, is noted for the production of
potatoes of high edible qualities. It grows very well also in the
southern part of the United States. The potato may be produced from
seed, but that method of propagation has long since ceased to be
practiced for agricultural purposes. The potatoes of commerce are
produced from the eyes of the tubers. The best results in the growth of
potatoes are secured in the loose somewhat sandy soil into which the
roots of the plant can easily penetrate and which gives way readily to
make place for the growing tuber. Hard, clay soils are unsuited to the
growth of this vegetable. The planting is accomplished in the early
spring after a thorough preparation of the seed bed by plowing to the
usual depth, often subsoiling and reducing the surface of the soil
to the proper tilth. The cuttings of potatoes or the whole potatoes
are planted in rows to a depth of two or three inches, where they may
sprout and even reach the surface at a temperature which at times may
fall below the frost point on the surface of the soil. The leaf of the
potato, when it has once appeared above the surface of the soil, is
very susceptible to the action of frost. If killed at an early stage
it may grow again without replanting. The potato is a crop which the
farmer may plant early in the spring. There are other varieties which
are planted later, even in the middle of summer, and produce good
results. The planting season may continue over a period of two or three
months. During the growth of the crop by the cultivation of the soil
the surface is kept in good tilth, the weeds and grass prevented from
growing, and the soil gradually drawn up around the growing tubers with
the hoe or plow in the form of ridges. This heaping up of the soil
tends to promote the development of the tubers, affording them a loose
and more abundant bedding and a greater supply of plant food.

The greatest enemies to which the potato crop is obnoxious are found
in the various forms of the potato bug (_Doryphora decemlineata_),
which feed upon their leaves. To prevent the ravages of these insects
it becomes necessary to dust over the leaves of the growing plants
some powerful insecticide which will destroy the life of the insects
feeding upon them. The active ingredient of these insecticides is
usually arsenic. Fortunately the growing tuber does not absorb, so
far as known, even traces of arsenic, or at least not more than the
merest trace, which may be used for insecticidal purposes. It is quite
impossible in most localities to secure a crop of potatoes without such
treatment. The alternative is a constant inspection of the growing
plant and the removal and killing of the bugs as they appear, but this
is only practicable over very small areas as its general application
would increase the cost of the product beyond the reach of the average
consumer.


_Yield._--Potatoes are produced in every state and territory of the
United States. The statistics for the year ended December 31, 1905,
show that the total area devoted to potatoes in the United States is
2,996,757 acres. The largest area in any one State is found in New
York, namely, 428,986 acres, and the smallest area, aside from Arizona,
not reported, is found in New Mexico, namely, 1,470 acres. The yield
of potatoes for the year is given as 260,741,294 bushels. The largest
total yield was in New York, the average yield per acre for the
country being 87 bushels. The largest yield per acre is reported from
Maine, namely, 175 bushels, and the smallest from Louisiana and Texas,
namely, 64 bushels per acre. The average price per bushel for the whole
country at the farm is 61.7 cents, making the total value of the crop
$160,821,080. The highest price per bushel was obtained in Florida,
namely, $1.20, and the lowest price per bushel in Nebraska, namely, 37
cents. The weight of a bushel of potatoes is 60 pounds. As the average
amount of fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the United States
is 20 percent, the total weight of fermentable matter in a bushel of
potatoes is 12 pounds, which would yield approximately 6 pounds or 3.6
quarts of alcohol.


_Composition.--Starch content:_ The quantity of starch in American
grown potatoes varies from 15 to 20 percent. Probably 18 percent might
be stated as the general average of the best grades of potatoes. In
this connection it must be remembered that at the present time potatoes
are grown in the United States chiefly for table use. Generally, only
the imperfect or injured samples are used for stock feeding or for
starch making, and this condition will probably continue as long as
good edible potatoes bring a higher price for table use than can be
obtained by utilizing them for starch or for feeding purposes.

Under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive
appearance. They appear as egg-shaped bodies on which, especially
the larger ones, various ring-like lines are seen. With a modified
(polarized) light under certain conditions of observation a black
cross is developed upon the granule. It is not difficult for an expert
microscopist to distinguish potato from other forms of starch by
its appearance, which is well shown in Figs. 39 and 40. Many of the
granules are quite large, and most of them are ovoid in shape.

The quantity of protein in the potato is quite low compared with that
of cereal foods; in round numbers it may be said to be 2.5 percent. The
potato contains very little material which is capable of fermentation
aside from starch and sugars.


_Sugar content:_ Although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a
fresh state, it contains notable quantities of sugar. This sugar is
lost whenever the potato is used for starch-making purposes, but is
utilized when it is used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol.
The percentage of sugar of all kinds in the potato rarely goes above 1
percent. The average quantity is probably not far from 0.35 percent,
including sugar, reducing sugar, and dextrin, all of which are soluble
in water. In the treatment of potatoes for starch making therefore it
may be estimated that 0.35 percent of fermentable matter is lost in the
wash water.

One German author, Saare, claims to have found much larger quantities
of sugar in potatoes than those just mentioned. The minimum quantity
found by this author is 0.4 percent, and the maximum 3.4 percent,
giving a mean of 1.9 percent. Ten varieties of potatoes used for the
manufacture of industrial alcohol were examined in the securing of
these data. It appears that some varieties have a greater tendency to
produce sugar than others. The German variety known as “Daber” contains
the smallest quantities of sugar, while the variety known as “Juno”
contains the largest quantities. The percentages of sugar, as reported
by Saare, however, are larger than those reported by other observers,
and probably are larger than are usually found.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--POTATO STARCH (× 200).--(_Courtesy Bureau of
Chemistry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--POTATO STARCH UNDER POLARIZED LIGHT (×
200).--(_Courtesy Bureau of Chemistry._)]


_Average composition:_ Frazier, of the Cornell station, has collected
analyses of a large number of different varieties of potatoes, and
finds them to have the following average composition:

  Water,               75.00 percent
  Starch,              19.87    „
  Sugars and dextrin,    .77    „
  Fat,                   .08    „
  Cellulose,             .33    „
  Ash,                  1.00    „

The following analyses show in detail the composition of potatoes from
different localities:


_Analysis of Maine potatoes:_ The Bureau of Chemistry a few years
ago made an investigation in connection with the experiment station
in Maine of the composition of potatoes grown in that state used for
table purposes and for starch making. Some of the best varieties grown
in different parts of the state were subjected to analysis, and the
following results show them to be of quite uniform composition:

ANALYSES OF MAINE POTATOES.[29]

  ---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------
                 |        |        |        |PROTEIN  |        |
     VARIETY.    | WATER. | STARCH.| FIBER. |(NITROGEN|  ASH.  |SPECIFIC
                 |        |        |        |× 6.25). |        |GRAVITY.
  ---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------
                 |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.| Percent.|Percent.|
  Hebron,        | 79.72  | 16.94  |  0.90  |  2.12   |  0.76  | 1.0604
    Do.          | 78.13  | 18.59  |   .72  |  2.06   |   .78  | 1.0795
  White Elephant,| 76.81  | 19.96  |   .84  |  2.19   |   .99  | 1.0867
        Do.      | 76.92  | 20.38  |   .90  |  2.31   |   .87  | 1.0742
        Do.      | 78.74  | 15.96  |   .64  |  2.25   |   .92  | 1.0803
        Do.      | 75.21  | 19.31  |   .61  |  2.12   |   .83  | 1.1058
        Do.      | 75.88  | 18.81  |   .56  |  2.25   |   .96  | 1.0921
        Do.      | 77.44  | 18.12  |   .63  |  2.06   |   .88  | 1.0906
        Do.      | 75.56  | 18.14  |   .56  |  1.81   |  1.04  | 1.1129
        Do.      | 78.13  | 18.62  |   .63  |  1.75   |   .98  | 1.0881
  Delaware,      | 76.02  | 19.20  |   .61  |  2.06   |  1.01  | 1.0852
     Do.         | 76.93  | 18.63  |   .61  |  2.19   |   .94  | 1.0904
     Do.         | 75.72  | 18.63  |   .55  |  2.31   |   .95  | 1.0745
     Do.         | 77.64  | 16.26  |   .61  |  2.56   |   .91  | 1.1120
  Carmen,        | 76.87  | 18.03  |   .66  |  2.06   |   .90  | 1.0967
    Do.          | 76.57  | 17.07  |   .59  |  2.38   |   .76  | 1.0804
                 +--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------
    Average,     | 77.02  | 18.29  |   .66  |  2.16   |   .91  | 1.0881
  ---------------+--------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------

  [29] Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 57, p. 147.


_Analysis of Vermont potatoes:_ Analyses made in Vermont and published
in the report of the Vermont Experiment Station for 1901 show an
average content of starch considerably less than that above given,
namely:

  Water,                79.41 percent
  Starch,               14.51    „
  Sugars and dextrins,   1.44    „
  Cellulose,              .36    „
  Protein,               2.28    „
  Ether extract,          .06    „
  Ash,                   1.26    „
  Undetermined,           .68    „


_Composition of Potatoes used in France for Industrial Purposes._--The
following is regarded in France as an average composition of the potato
suitable for industrial purposes:[30]

  Water,        71.00 percent
  Starch,       18.00    „
  Sugar, etc.,   1.06    „
  Cellulose,     1.65    „
  Protein,       2.12    „
  Fat,            .11    „
  Ash,           1.60    „

  [30] “Encyclopédie Agricole,” E. Saillard.

The total fermentable matter, as seen above, is a little over 19
percent, not allowing anything for the cellulose which is fermented. As
a portion of the cellulose may also become a source of alcohol, it is
observed that the average percentage of fermented matter in the French
potato used for industrial purposes is not far from 20 percent.

The following varieties show a variation in starch content of 6.8
percent, the minimum being 15.9 and the maximum 22.7 percent:

  Red starchy,            22.7 percent of starch
  Shaw,                   20.5    „         „
  Institute of Beauvais,  17.7    „         „
  Kernours,               17.9    „         „
  White Elephant,         16.0    „         „
  British Red,            16.0    „         „
  Giant Blue,             15.9    „         „


_Analysis of Potatoes from German Sources._--_Average composition and
starch content:_ The content of starch in potatoes examined in the
laboratory of the Association of German Spirit Manufacturers during
the year 1905 varied from 12.1 to 25.1 percent. Eleven percent of the
total number examined contained between 12 and 14 percent of starch, 20
percent between 14 and 16 percent of starch, 13 percent between 16 and
18 percent of starch, 24 percent between 18 and 20 percent, 24 percent
also between 20 and 22 percent, and 8 percent between 22 and 25.1
percent.

These data show that 56 percent of the total number of samples
examined contained between 18 and 25 percent of starch. It is evident,
therefore, that the general average content of starch in the potatoes
used in the German distilleries is not far from 18 to 20 percent.

The mean composition of potatoes as given by three German authorities,
namely, König, Lintner, and Wolff, is as follows:

AVERAGE ANALYSIS OF POTATOES BY THREE GERMAN AUTHORITIES.

                      KÖNIG.   LINTNER.   WOLFF.
     CONSTITUENT.    Percent.  Percent.  Percent.
  Water,              75.48     76.0      75.0
  Protein,             1.95      2.1       2.1
  Fat,                  .15       .2        .2
  Starch and sugar,   20.69     19.7      20.7
  Crude cellulose,      .75       .8       1.1
  Ash,                  .98      1.2        .9

The above data show the average content of fermentable matter in German
potatoes, as determined by three of their leading authorities, to be
about 20 percent. The potatoes used for the manufacture of alcohol in
Germany are not of the variety raised for edible purposes. In a large
number of experiment stations in Germany systematic efforts have been
made for many years to grow a potato rich in starch without respect
to its edible qualities. These potatoes are coarser in structure and
less palatable than those grown for the table. The object of the
cultivation of this class of potatoes is to produce as much starch and
other fermentable matters per acre as possible. It is evident that our
own experiment stations should undertake work of a similar character
if the potato is to be used to any great extent in the manufacture of
industrial alcohol. There is no doubt of the fact that success equal to
that attained by the German experimenters will attend any systematic
efforts of this kind in our country. Not only will larger crops per
acre of potatoes be grown, but these potatoes will contain larger
quantities of starch and other fermentable substances. If the crop of
potatoes is to remain at the present average, namely, less than 100
bushels per acre, profitable returns for alcohol making can not be
expected, either by the farmer or by the manufacturer. A much larger
quantity must be grown and, if possible, at less expense, in order that
encouraging profits may be realized.

Maercker, one of the most celebrated of German authors, states that
in certain instances the potato in Germany reaches a very high starch
content. Some varieties, in exceptional instances, have shown as high
as 29.4 percent, 28.1 percent, and 27.3 percent, respectively. In
warm, dry seasons potatoes often are found containing from 25 to 27
percent of starch. According to Maercker, the sugar content, including
all forms of sugar, varies greatly. Perfectly ripe potatoes contain
generally no sugar or only a fractional percentage. When potatoes are
stored under unfavorable conditions, large quantities of sugar may be
developed, amounting to as high as 5 percent altogether. In general, it
may be stated that the content of sugar of all kinds will vary from 0.4
percent to 3.4 percent, according to conditions.

While potatoes grown thus to increase the content of starch are not
generally used as food, yet they are nutritious but not as palatable as
those grown especially for table purposes.


_Ash analyses:_ The mineral matters which the potato extracts from the
soil or from the fertilizers which are added thereto consist chiefly
of phosphate of potash. The mean average composition of the ash of the
potato is shown in the following table:[31]

  Potash (K₂O),            60.37 percent
  Soda (Na₂O),              2.62    „
  Lime (CaO),               2.57    „
  Magnesia (MgO),           4.69    „
  Iron oxid (Fe₂O₃),        1.18    „
  Phosphoric acid (P₂O₅),  17.33    „
  Sulfuric acid (SO₃),      6.49    „
  Silicic acid (SiO₂),      2.13    „
  Chlorin,                  3.11    „

  [31] Maercker, “Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation,” p. 99.

This analysis was made upon the so-called pure ash, deprived of its
unburned carbon, and freed of sand and carbon dioxid.


_Effect of fertilization on the yield and starch content:_ Experience
in Germany has shown not only that liberal fertilization with nitrogen
is favorable to the production of a large crop of potatoes, but also
that this is accomplished without decreasing the percentage of starch
therein. The following table shows the increase in yield, percentage of
starch, and amount of starch obtained by nitrogen fertilization, the
results being expressed in hectares[32] and kilograms:

EFFECT OF NITROGEN FERTILIZATION ON YIELD AND STARCH CONTENT OF
POTATOES.

  ---------------+-------------------------+-------------------------
                 |    WITHOUT NITROGEN.    |     WITH NITROGEN.
                 +-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------
                 |       |  Yield |  Yield |       |  Yield |  Yield
                 |       |   of   |   of   |       |   of   |   of
                 |       | tubers | starch |       | tubers | starch
    VARIETY OF   |       |   per  |   per  |       |   per  |   per
      POTATO.    |Starch.|hectare.|hectare.|Starch.|hectare.|hectare.
  ---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------
                 | Per-  |  Kilo- |  Kilo- | Per-  |  Kilo- |  Kilo-
                 | cent. | grams. | grams. | cent. | grams. | grams.
  ---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------
  Seed,          | 18.01 | 20,900 |  3,780 | 18.17 | 24,870 | 4,507
  Champion,      | 21.33 | 19,510 |  4,152 | 21.48 | 24,470 | 5,233
  Imperator,     | 19.00 | 22,560 |  4,235 | 18.70 | 26,830 | 5,007
  Magnum Bonum,  | 18.41 | 19,170 |  3,522 | 18.07 | 22,510 | 4,057
  Aurelie,       | 19.47 | 18,950 |  3,653 | 19.75 | 23,550 | 4,609
  Reichskanzler, | 22.78 | 14,300 |  3,236 | 22.61 | 17,250 | 3,875
  Juno,          | 19.33 | 17,590 |  3,422 | 19.92 | 20,900 | 4,199
  Amaranth,      | 22.47 | 16,180 |  3,619 | 22.84 | 18,310 | 4,188
  Charlotte,     | 19.42 | 17,041 |  3,305 | 19.67 | 20,774 | 4,081
  Gelbfleischige |       |        |        |       |        |
  Zwiebel,       | 19.97 | 19,888 |  3,946 | 19.91 | 21,772 | 4,323
  Dabersche,     | 21.82 | 17,377 |  3,778 | 21.80 | 20,313 | 4,399
  Weissfleischige|       |        |        |       |        |
  Zwiebel,       | 20.51 | 16,877 |  3,442 | 20.58 | 19,501 | 3,936
  Schneerose,    | 18.84 | 19,653 |  3,724 | 18.66 | 22,343 | 4,186
  Nassengrunder, | 19.08 | 19,701 |  3,725 | 22.12 | 21,889 | 4,813
  Gelbe Rose,    | 21.09 | 16,847 |  3,547 | 20.60 | 20,177 | 4,129
  Hortensie,     | 17.72 | 22,416 |  3,907 | 17.45 | 26,381 | 4,532
  Richter’s Lange|       |        |        |       |        |
  Weisse,        | 19.37 | 22,134 |  4,267 | 19.19 | 24,490 | 4,664
  Rosalie,       | 18.27 | 19,866 |  3,557 | 18.25 | 22,186 | 4,003
  Achilles,      | 21.02 | 18,886 |  3,962 | 20.93 | 20,913 | 4,376
  Alcohol,       | 16.47 | 16,270 |  2,673 | 16.31 | 20,339 | 3,327
                 +-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------
    Average,     | 19.77 | 18,806 |  3,673 | 19.85 | 21,998 | 4,332
  ---------------+-------+--------+--------+-------+--------+--------

  [32] 1 hectare = 2.471 acres. 1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds.

It is evident from the data given in the table that the liberal
application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield per
acre of tubers and of starch to a very marked extent, although the
average percentage of starch present is increased very little.
Converting the average data given in the foregoing table into their
equivalents in pounds per acre, we have the following results: Without
nitrogen--yield of tubers, 16,781 pounds per acre; yield of starch,
3,277 pounds per acre. With nitrogen--yield of tubers, 19,629 pounds
per acre; yield of starch, 3,856 pounds per acre.

The following varieties of potatoes are considered in Germany the best
for the manufacture of alcohol: Wohltman, Silesia, Agricultural Union,
Athenena, Prince Bismarck, Richter’s Imperator, and Maercker. The
latest consular report on the potato as a source of alcohol in Germany
shows the following yields per acre and percentages of starch:

YIELD AND STARCH CONTENT OF POTATOES GROWN IN GERMANY FOR ALCOHOL
PRODUCTION.

                         YIELD PER   STARCH.
      VARIETIES.           ACRE.
                         Kilograms.  Percent.
  Professor Wohltman,      3,420       16.3
  Iduna,                   2,845       16.4
  Topaz,                   3,260       17.3
  Sas,                     3,990       18.3
  Leo,                     4,120       17.0
  Richter’s Imperator,     4,760       15.4
  Silesia,                 3,675       16.3
  Professor Maercker,      4,280       14.5


_Use of the Potato._--In addition to its value as human food the potato
has other economical relations. It is used in many countries almost
exclusively in the production of starch for the laundry and for general
domestic uses.

The potato is not very extensively used for starch production in the
United States except in the state of Maine and perhaps in one or two
other localities. The starch of the potato has a particular value for
use in the textile industry in the sizing of cloth. Practically all of
the potato starch which is produced in the United States is devoted to
that purpose, and for this reason it brings a higher price than the
ordinary starch made of Indian corn.


_Technique of the Production of Starch from Potatoes._--There is
scarcely any manufacturing process which is more simple in its method
than the manufacture of starch from potatoes. The process consists
simply in the rasping or grinding of the potato to a fine pulp, which
is afterward placed upon sieves in a thin layer and sprinkled with
water which detaches the starch granules from the pulp matter, carries
them through the sieve, and thus separates them from the fibrous
portion.

It will be interesting to the general reader, on account of the
importance of this product, to give a brief description of the method
employed and the results obtained.


_Potato Starch._--In this country potato starch is manufactured
chiefly in Maine, Wisconsin, and Colorado. The factories are of a
very primitive type, the machinery consisting of a rasper constructed
usually by wrapping a wooden cylinder with sheet-iron punctured so
that the ragged edges of the hole are on the exterior surface as shown
in Fig. 41. Water is added at the time of rasping, and the starch
pulp goes onto gauze shaking tables where the starch grains are washed
through the sieve, as indicated in Figs. 42 and 43. The separated
starch and water go into settling tanks. Where the starch has settled
into a firm mass it is broken up and sent to the drying kiln. Potato
starch is highly prized as a sizing in the textile industry.

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--RASPING CYLINDER FOR MAKING STARCH.--(_Courtesy
Department of Agriculture._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--SHAKING TABLE FOR SEPARATING THE STARCH FROM
THE PULPED POTATO.--(_Courtesy Department of Agriculture._)]


_Use of the Potato in the Manufacture of Spirits._--A much more
important technical use of the potato is in the manufacture of
distilled spirits. Distilled spirits made from the potato are not
generally used for potable purposes but are devoted to industrial
uses. In the United States, very little if any distilled spirits are
made from the potato. In Europe, however, especially in Germany, the
industry is one of great magnitude. Practically all of the industrial
spirits used in Germany and in many parts of Europe are made from
the potato. The process is a simple one. The pulp of the potato, or
starch, separated therefrom is subjected to the action of malt or other
diastatic action for the purpose of converting the starch into sugar.
In some cases this conversion takes place by more strictly chemical
means, namely, by heating the pulpy matter or the starch separated
therefrom in a proper state of dilution, in contact with an acid at
a high temperature and pressure. Hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid
is usually employed for this purpose. The action of the acid converts
the starch into fermentable sugar, namely, dextrose, a form of sugar
differing in its quality and character from that produced by malt
known as maltose. Both sugars, however, are fermentable to the same
degree and produce, for equal quantities of sugar, the same quantity of
alcohol. When the starch is converted into sugar by one or the other
of these methods it is subjected to fermentation by an appropriate
quantity of yeast which is of the same family as that used in the
alcoholic fermentation of other saccharine products.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE POTATO RASPING CYLINDER ARRANGED FOR
WORK.--(_Courtesy Department of Agriculture._)]

Special characters of yeast, however, are reserved for special
purposes, since the variety of yeast determines to a certain extent
the character of the secondary products which are formed during
fermentation and thus determine the character, flavor, and aroma of the
finished product. After the fermentation has been completed the residue
is technically known as beer, and is subjected to distillation for the
separation of the spirit.

A description of the process of distillation will be found in the
second volume of this manual and is therefore omitted here.


=Radish.=--The botanical name of the radish is _Raphanus sativus_ L.
The French name is radis; German, Radies; Italian, ravanello; Spanish,
rabanito.

The radish is a vegetable which is found throughout the whole year in
all the principal markets of the United States, being grown under cover
during the cold weather. It is ready for market within a short time
after sowing, so that crop after crop can be grown during the year on
the same soil. It is most highly prized when it is young, as it tends
to acquire a pungent and bitter taste as it approaches maturity. The
two principal varieties grown, as respects the roots, is the one having
a long, tapering root, and the other a short, spherical bulb. The
latter are more prized for eating purposes. There are many varieties
grown.


_Composition of Edible Portion._--

  Water,                           91.8 percent
  Protein,                          1.3    „
  Fat,                              0.1    „
  Sugar, and other carbohydrates,   5.8    „
  Ash,                              0.7    „


=Rhubarb.=--The botanical name for rhubarb is _Rheum_ L. The French
name is rhubarbe; German, Rhabarber; Italian, rabarbaro; Spanish,
ruibarbo.

Rhubarb is a vegetable which is widely distributed in the United
States and grows generally very early in the spring. It is a highly
acid plant, and is used chiefly as a sauce and for making pies. It
requires a very large addition of sugar to make it palatable. It has
medicinal properties which give it additional value. There are many
varieties grown. It is a plant that is ready for use very early in the
spring, being available in the farmer’s garden almost before any other
vegetable, and this makes it of still greater value.


_Composition of the Edible Stem._--

  Water,                92.67 percent
  Ash,                    .94    „
  Protein,                .83    „
  Fiber,                 1.11    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   3.26    „
  Fat,                   1.19    „

The above data show that the rhubarb is practically valueless as food
and is chiefly condimental. In regard to its nutrients the fat is in a
larger proportion than in that of almost any other succulent vegetable.


=Squash.=--Another variety of the gourd family which is highly prized
as a food product is the squash. It is used in the same manner as the
pumpkin, and is highly valued both as a food for man and domesticated
animals.


_Composition of the Flesh of the Squash._--

  Water,                88.09 percent
  Ash,                   1.72    „
  Protein,                .92    „
  Fiber,                 1.04    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   8.05    „
  Fat,                    .18    „

The above data show that the squash is a much more nutritive substance
than the pumpkin. In other respects it is little different in its
composition, being only a dryer form of pumpkin.


=Sweet Potato.=--The vegetable known as sweet potato is known
botanically as _Convolvulus batatas_ L.

From the name it is seen that the sweet potato does not belong to the
same botanical family as the potato itself. By reason, however, of its
similar condition of growth and, to a certain extent, its chemical
composition and uses, the term potato has, in this country at least,
become to be universally applied to both, although the prefix “sweet”
is quite commonly used with the sweet potato, whereas if any prefix is
used with the potato, properly so-called, it is the word “white” or
“Irish.” The sweet potato is grown extensively in the United States and
in other respects, agriculturally, may be regarded as complemental to
the potato.

While the potato grows best in the northern parts of the country and in
mild climates, the sweet potato flourishes in the greatest abundance in
the southern and warmer portions. In respect to the character of the
soil the two vegetables are quite similar, both doing best in a sandy
or loose soil, provided it is sufficiently supplied with plant food for
the use of the growing plant. The sweet potato is a thickened root, and
is propagated almost exclusively by means of shoots called “slips.”


_Planting and Cultivation._--There is a very distinct difference
between the planting of the sweet potato and that of the potato. The
former are rarely planted in the field where the crop is to mature. It
is quite a universal custom to plant the sweet potato in beds where
the young growth can be forced both by means of artificial heat and
by a generous mulch of highly nutritious soil. The plants can then
be set very early in the spring and by the time they are ready to be
transplanted to the field have acquired a considerable size. When ready
for transplanting the seed bed is prepared with the same care as that
required for the potato. The ridging of the rows, which in the case
of potatoes takes place during cultivation, is accomplished in the
case of sweet potatoes before planting. If the soil is moist and the
temperature not too high the young plants are removed from the seed bed
and set on top of the apexes in the formed rows. The cultivation of the
field during the growth of the crop is sufficient to keep the surface
in good tilth and prevent the growth of weeds, grass, etc. Care must
be exercised in the cultivation not to draw the earth away from the
ridges which have been formed, but to increase their size by drawing
the earth more and more toward the apex of the ridge. The cultivation
is continued until the growing vines practically cover the surface of
the soil and thus form a natural mulch, which not only conserves the
moisture and tilth of the soil but also prevents the growth of weeds
and grass. The sweet potato, in respect of its flavor, is particularly
sensitive to the influence of frost, also the leaves are more sensitive
to frost than those of the potato. If a heavy frost is experienced
before the tubers are harvested it is apt to impart an unpleasant taste
to the potato and injure its edible qualities. For this reason, if it
is not possible to harvest the potato before the advent of frost, it
is advisable to cut the vines at the point where they emerge from the
soil. When this has been done the injurious effects of the frost, above
mentioned, are not experienced. In the southern portion of the country
the sweet potato is often allowed to remain in the soil during the
greater part of the winter, and, if the vines are removed, it keeps in
excellent condition.


_Yield and Composition of the Sweet Potato._--As has already been
mentioned, there is a general resemblance, in so far as chemical and
nutritive properties are concerned, between the sweet potato and the
potato. The sweet potato is usually colored a yellowish tint, due to
the distribution of more or less xanthophyll throughout its substance.
The sweet potato also contains notable quantities of cane sugar, to
which its name is due. It, however, contains large quantities of starch
and fiber and small quantities of protein, resembling in this general
manner the potato itself. The sweet potato has not been used in the
United States for the making of alcohol. In the Azores great quantities
of sweet potatoes are grown for this purpose, and make an alcohol of
fine quality, which is used to a large extent in fortifying port wines.
There are large areas in the United States, especially in the Southern
States, where the sweet potato can be grown in great abundance. The
experiments at the South Carolina station show that as high as 11,000
pounds of sweet potatoes can be grown per acre. The percentage of
starch is markedly greater than in the white or Irish potato. In all
cases over 20 percent of starch was obtained in the South Carolina
sweet potatoes, and in one instance over 24 percent. As high as 2,600
pounds of starch were produced per acre.

In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities
of sugar, sometimes as high as six percent being present, so that the
total fermentable matter in the sweet potato may be reckoned at the
minimum at 25 percent. A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds, and
one-quarter of this is fermentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds. This
would yield, approximately, 7 pounds, or a little over one gallon of 95
percent alcohol. It may be fairly stated, therefore, in a general way,
that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield one gallon of industrial
alcohol. The average yield of sweet potatoes, of course, is very
much less than that given in the South Carolina reports, where heavy
fertilization was practised. On plots to which no fertilizer was added
the yield was about 8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre, yielding
in round numbers 1,900 pounds of starch. The quantity of sugar in the
8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which, added to the starch, makes
2,250 pounds of fermentable matter per acre. This will yield 1,125
pounds of industrial alcohol of 95 percent strength, or approximately
160 gallons per acre.

The yield of sweet potatoes in the above computation must be regarded
as exceptionally high. A safer calculation will be based upon the
yield of 100 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre, a little above
the average of the yield of the potato, or a total of 5,500 pounds
per acre. One-quarter of this amount is fermentable matter--about
1,400 pounds--which would yield, approximately, 700 pounds of 95
percent alcohol, or 100 gallons of 95 percent alcohol per acre. In
addition to the sugar in the form of sucrose, or common sugar, which
the sweet potato contains, there is also an appreciable amount of
non-crystallizable sugars. The total sugars in the sweet potato have
not been overstated in the above estimate. In fact, the contrary,
rather, is true, since the two sugars together probably average about
six percent of the weight of the potato. If the average quantity
of starch in the sweet potato is 20 percent, which is rather a low
estimate, the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato is 26
percent instead of 25 percent, as estimated above.

CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF THE SWEET POTATO OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES ON
STORING.[33]

FIRST LOT (November 28).

  -----------------+-----------------------------------+
                   |              ORIGINAL.            |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
   NAME OF         |        |        | Invert |        |
  VARIETY.         | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.|
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                   |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|
  Georgia Buck     |  75.35 |  13.13 |  0.77  |  4.31  |
  Bunch Yam        |  72.37 |  15.12 |  1.09  |  4.45  |
     Do.           |  67.99 |  19.58 |   .56  |  4.49  |
  Horton Yam       |  70.29 |  15.06 |  1.05  |  6.23  |
  Georgia Buck     |  71.56 |  14.35 |   .73  |  6.61  |
  Vineless Yam     |  70.03 |  16.85 |   .54  |  5.01  |
  Hanover Yam      |  76.16 |  13.61 |  1.10  |  4.22  |
  Georgia Yam      |  70.01 |  18.87 |  1.00  |  4.08  |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
  Average          |  71.72 |  15.82 |   .86  |  4.93  |
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----------------+-----------------------------------+
                   |               AIR-DRY.            |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
   NAME OF         |        |        | Invert |        |
  VARIETY.         | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.|
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
                   |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|Percent.|
  Georgia Buck     |  6.79  |  49.65 |  2.93  |  16.31 |
  Bunch Yam        |  6.67  |  51.06 |  3.67  |  15.04 |
     Do.           |  7.24  |  56.70 |  1.61  |  13.02 |
  Horton Yam       |  6.24  |  47.52 |  3.31  |  19.67 |
  Georgia Buck     |  6.88  |  46.98 |  2.40  |  21.63 |
  Vineless Yam     |  7.90  |  51.78 |  1.67  |  15.40 |
  Hanover Yam      |  7.37  |  52.89 |  4.29  |  16.40 |
  Georgia Yam      |  7.57  |  58.17 |  3.07  |  12.59 |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
  Average          |  7.08  |  51.84 |  2.87  |  16.26 |
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----------------+--------------------------
                   |         WATER-FREE.
                   +--------+--------+--------
   NAME OF         |        | Invert |
  VARIETY.         | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------
                   |Percent.|Percent.|Percent.
  Georgia Buck     |  53.27 |  3.14  |  17.50
  Bunch Yam        |  54.71 |  3.93  |  16.11
     Do.           |  61.18 |  1.74  |  14.04
  Horton Yam       |  50.68 |  3.53  |  20.98
  Georgia Buck     |  50.45 |  2.58  |  13.23
  Vineless Yam     |  56.22 |  1.81  |  16.72
  Hanover Yam      |  57.10 |  4.63  |  17.70
  Georgia Yam      |  62.93 |  3.32  |  13.62
                   +--------+--------+--------
  Average          |  55.82 |  3.09  |  16.16
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------

SECOND LOT (January 7).

  -----------------+-----------------------------------+
                   |              ORIGINAL.            |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
   NAME OF         |        |        | Invert |        |
  VARIETY.         | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.|
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
  Georgia Buck     |  69.74 |  12.72 |  1.75  |  9.25  |
  Bunch Yam        |  67.31 |  13.66 |  2.02  |  9.90  |
     Do.           |  67.29 |  13.83 |  2.40  |  9.43  |
  Horton Yam       |  71.39 |   9.57 |  2.57  |  9.69  |
  Georgia Buck     |  67.63 |  14.43 |  2.12  |  7.85  |
  Vineless Yam     |  67.33 |  12.03 |  2.90  | 10.09  |
  Hanover Yam      |  70.13 |  14.13 |  1.66  |  6.58  |
  Georgia Yam      |  71.78 |  11.21 |  2.26  |  8.10  |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
  Average          |  69.08 |  12.70 |  2.21  |  8.86  |
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----------------+-----------------------------------+
                   |               AIR-DRY.            |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
   NAME OF         |        |        | Invert |        |
  VARIETY.         | Water. | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.|
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
  Georgia Buck     |  8.80  |  38.34 |  5.27  |  27.87 |
  Bunch Yam        |  9.49  |  37.83 |  5.60  |  27.40 |
     Do.           | 10.00  |  38.04 |  6.61  |  25.94 |
  Horton Yam       |  7.18  |  31.05 |  8.35  |  31.43 |
  Georgia Buck     |  8.46  |  40.80 |  6.00  |  22.21 |
  Vineless Yam     |  7.90  |  33.90 |  8.19  |  28.44 |
  Hanover Yam      |  9.29  |  42.90 |  5.05  |  19.99 |
  Georgia Yam      |  8.62  |  36.30 |  7.31  |  26.24 |
                   +--------+--------+--------+--------+
  Average          |  8.72  |  37.40 |  6.55  |  26.19 |
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----------------+--------------------------
                   |         WATER-FREE.
                   +--------+--------+--------
   NAME OF         |        | Invert |
  VARIETY.         | Starch.| sugar. |Sucrose.
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------
  Georgia Buck     |  42.04 |  5.78  |  30.56
  Bunch Yam        |  41.80 |  6.19  |  30.27
     Do.           |  42.27 |  7.34  |  28.82
  Horton Yam       |  33.45 |  9.00  |  33.86
  Georgia Buck     |  44.57 |  6.55  |  24.26
  Vineless Yam     |  36.81 |  8.89  |  30.88
  Hanover Yam      |  47.29 |  5.57  |  22.04
  Georgia Yam      |  39.72 |  8.00  |  28.72
                   +--------+--------+--------
  Average          |  40.99 |  7.17  |  28.68
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------

  [33] South Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 63, p. 25.


_Effect of Storage on Composition._--Experiments have shown that the
quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on
storing. Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet
potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch
and perhaps more sugar than are stated in the above examples. In one
instance of an analysis made on the 7th of January of stored potatoes,
the starch had fallen to a little less than 13 percent, while the
sugars had increased to over 11 percent in less than six weeks. The
total quantity of fermentable matter, however, as will be seen, had not
been greatly changed, although there was probably a slight loss. In the
southern agricultural work referred to, the yam and the sweet potato
are considered together. The composition and the changes on keeping are
well illustrated by the preceding data.

The above data apparently are sufficient to show the high value which
attaches to the sweet potato and the yam, not only as edibles, but
especially for the purpose of making alcohol. It is also seen that the
sweet potato would not be a valuable material for making starch alone,
because in starch making the sugar which the sweet potato contains is
lost, whereas in the manufacture of alcohol the sugar and the starch,
as well as any fermentable celluloses or gums in the potato, are
utilized. The following table shows the extent to which this crop is
grown in the United States:

ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION OF SWEET POTATOES (INCLUDING YAMS) IN THE UNITED
STATES BY STATES, IN 1899, AS REPORTED BY THE TWELFTH CENSUS.

  --------------------+-------+----------+
         STATES.      | ACRES.| BUSHELS. |
  --------------------+-------+----------+
  United States       |537,447|42,526,696|
                      +=======+==========+
  Alabama             | 50,865| 3,457,386|
  Arizona             |     51|     4,299|
  Arkansas            | 13,271|   998,767|
  California          |  1,607|   239,029|
  Colorado            |     20|     2,291|
  Connecticut         |      2|       130|
  Delaware            |  2,265|   222,165|
  District of Columbia|      5|    19,936|
  Florida             | 22,791| 2,049,784|
  Georgia             | 70,620| 5,087,674|
  Hawaii              |    135|     9,284|
  Idaho               |      6|       413|
  Illinois            |  7,534|   511,695|
  Indiana             |  3,989|   239,487|
  Indian Territory    |  1,064|    80,364|
  Iowa                |  2,688|    24,622|
  Kansas              |  4,570|    74,810|
  Kentucky            | 14,178|   925,786|
  Louisiana           | 27,372| 1,865,482|
  Maryland            |  6,469|   677,848|
  Massachusetts       |  .....|        23|
  Michigan            |     71|     3,242|
  Minnesota           |      4|       136|
  Mississippi         | 38,169| 2,817,386|
  Missouri            |  9,844|   743,377|
  Nebraska            |    551|    48,224|
  Nevada              |      5|       923|
  New Hampshire       |      1|         6|
  New Jersey          | 20,588| 2,418,641|
  New Mexico          |     47|     6,180|
  New York            |     73|     8,681|
  North Carolina      | 68,730| 5,781,587|
  North Dakota        |  .....|         1|
  Ohio                |  3,796|   249,767|
  Oklahoma            |  2,512|   195,799|
  Oregon              |     27|     2,825|
  Pennsylvania        |  3,443|   234,724|
  Rhode Island        |      1|       102|
  South Carolina      | 48,831| 3,369,957|
  South Dakota        |      3|       105|
  Tennessee           | 23,374| 1,571,575|
  Texas               | 43,561| 3,299,135|
  Utah                |     40|     4,958|
  Vermont             |      4|       306|
  Virginia            | 40,681| 4,470,602|
  Washington          |     52|     4,672|
  West Virginia       |  3,393|   202,424|
  Wisconsin           |      4|        86|
  --------------------+-------+----------+


_Average Composition of Sweet Potatoes._--The mean composition of
varieties of sweet potatoes as determined by the California and Texas
Experiment stations is shown in the following data:

                 CALIFORNIA STATION  TEXAS STATION
                 (17 varieties).     (21 varieties).
  Water,           69.00 percent      70.27 percent
  Ash,              1.15    „          1.14    „
  Protein,          2.08    „          2.41    „
  Fat,              1.00    „          0.99    „
  Total sugars,     5.55    „          6.81    „
  Starch, etc.,    24.23    „         24.00    „
  Crude fiber,      2.62    „          1.26    „

Included in the starch of the above data are the substances soluble in
boiling dilute acid and alkali.


=Turnip.=--The botanical name of the turnip is _Brassica napus_ L. The
French name is navet; German, Herbst-Rübe; Italian, navone; Spanish,
nabo.

The turnip is grown very largely in the United States both as a
vegetable and as a field crop for feeding purposes. The turnip used as
a vegetable usually has a spherical bulb. It is a crop that grows late
in the autumn. In the central part of the country it is usually sown as
a field crop after the harvesting of some of the early crops as, for
instance, early potatoes, and is ready for harvest late in the autumn,
just before freezing weather begins. Grown as a vegetable, however, it
is grown early as well as late. It has a spicy, pungent taste which
makes it extremely palatable. It is sometimes eaten raw, but generally
stewed.


_Composition._--

  Water,                90.46 percent
  Ash,                    .80    „
  Protein,               1.14    „
  Fiber,                 1.15    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   6.27    „
  Fat,                    .18    „

The above data show that the turnip is not a very nutritious vegetable
and that its chief nutrients are carbohydrates.


=Yam.=--Another variety of edible root or substance belonging to the
sweet potato class is known as the yam. It is also, like the sweet
potato, particularly suited to growing in the subtropical or warm
climates. The name yam properly belongs to a tropical root similar
in appearance to the sweet potato but produced by various species of
vines of the genus _Dioscorea_, not belonging even to the same family
as the sweet potato. In the southern United States, however, the name
yam is applied to certain varieties of the sweet potato with large
coarse stems. It is cultivated extensively in the southern part of the
United States, and is valued both as a food for man and specially for
domesticated animals. The character of the soil, method of planting,
and cultivation are the same as in the case of the sweet potato. It
is particularly valued for fattening the variety of swine so common
in the South, known as the “razor-back” hog. This animal does his own
harvesting, and thus removes from the agriculturist a portion of his
labor which is not of the most agreeable kind.


_Composition of Yams._--The composition of yams does not differ to any
notable extent from that of the sweet potato.


_Other Uses of the Yam and Sweet Potato._--In addition to the use of
the yam and sweet potato for human food, reference has already been
made to their value as food for domesticated animals. These bodies are
particularly relished by hogs and cattle. The feeding of sweet potatoes
or yams to milk cows insures a healthy condition of the body, and also
imparts to the milk, cream, and butter the distinct amber tint which
is regarded as a mark of excellence. Thus even in the winter months
the butter which is made from milk produced in this way will have the
light amber tint, which should distinguish it from the highly tinted
artificially colored product which does so much to bring good butter
into bad repute. Both sweet potatoes and yams are capable of yielding
abundant supplies of distilled spirits. It is probable that under the
new law which permits the use of denatured alcohol free of taxation in
the arts an abundant supply of this product can be secured from the
sweet potato and the yam. There are millions of acres of cheap land of
a sandy character in the South Atlantic and Gulf states where potatoes
and yams can be successfully grown under scientific principles of
agriculture. If not needed for food purposes as above mentioned, the
residue can be very profitably devoted to the manufacture of industrial
alcohol.


CANNED VEGETABLES.

It probably will excite no opposition to state that if fresh, succulent
vegetables can be placed upon the table of the consumer they are to be
preferred to the same kind of vegetables preserved in any manner. There
are many circumstances, however, which render it difficult, if not
impossible, to secure a regular supply of fresh, succulent vegetables
upon the consumer’s table. Those who possess abundant wealth may have
a proper supply of vegetables at all seasons of the year without
resorting to any preserving process other than the refrigeration
incident to transportation. But the great majority of consumers must
of necessity adapt themselves to the conditions of the market and
the proximity of supply. Succulent vegetables properly harvested
and refrigerated may be sent long distances and over a considerable
period of time, and reach the consumer in practically the same state
of freshness and palatability as when first harvested. Owing to the
exigencies of intermediary supply and the cost of transportation the
great industry of keeping succulent vegetables by sterilization has
been founded. Commonly vegetables prepared in this way are known
as “canned” vegetables in this country and “tinned” in England. By
availing himself of this process the consumer, even of moderate means,
is able to command at all seasons of the year and in all locations an
abundant supply of wholesome, fresh, succulent vegetable materials.


=Principles and Process of Canning.=--The sterilization of succulent
vegetables depends upon the same principles as that of meat, already
described. The decay of these vegetable substances is due to the
action of certain ferments, either organic or inorganic, which act as
agents in securing the oxidation and decay of the organic material. If
the action of these organisms can be prevented or inhibited the food
material will remain for a certain length of time, not yet definitely
determined, in an excellent, almost perfect state of preservation and
without losing, notably, any of its nutritive or palatable properties.

It is not the purpose of this manual to describe the technique of
canning, further than to illustrate the principles thereof in their
relations to wholesome and nutritive food.


=Selection of Materials.=--It is of the highest importance in the
canning industry, both for the reputation of the manufacturer and the
health and comfort of the consumer, that the vegetables selected for
canning be fresh, free from disease, and prepared in such a way that
all adhering dirt or other foreign substances be excluded. The process
of preparation for canning should begin as soon as possible after the
harvesting of the vegetables, since a delay, especially at the high
temperature which usually prevails at the time of canning, produces
rapid deterioration, both as respects the quality of the vegetable
and its flavor. After the proper cleaning and preparation of the
fresh vegetables they are next subjected to the process of canning.
It is then the vegetables are heated to a temperature of, or above,
that of boiling water for a sufficient length of time to thoroughly
destroy all the living germs and spores contained therein. The degree
of temperature and the length of time of heating depend upon the
nature of the vegetable substance, the size of its particles and of
the package and the relative difficulty of preservation. Where only
living organisms are present the proper temperature is that which will
destroy the life of the germ. It is well known that spores from which
fermentative germs may be developed are more resistant to the action
of heat than the germ itself. When, therefore, spores of this kind
are present, the temperature of heating must be higher and the time
more prolonged, or, in lieu of this, the food should be heated on two
or three consecutive days during which time any spores which may have
been present will have developed into organisms and been killed. Some
forms of vegetable materials are sterilized much more readily than
others. For instance, the kernels of green Indian corn are of such a
character and degree of hardness as to resist, with a considerable
degree of success, the influence of heat on the life of the germs
which they contain. In such cases it is customary to previously cook
the vegetable substance before placing it in the cans. The cans should
contain enough water to fill the interstices between the particles of
vegetable matter. It is the practice in many instances to add a little
salt and sometimes also sugar to this liquid. When the can is filled
and closed the sterilizing is best completed by placing it in a strong
boiler, which is then closed and heated by steam under a pressure of
two or three atmospheres or even higher, namely, from 30 to 45 pounds
and over per square inch. By heating under pressure in this way the
development of any pressure in the can due to the production of steam
is counterbalanced by the pressure without the can, so that a swelling
or cracking of the can cannot take place. If the cans are heated
in an open bath of water or brine it is customary to leave a small
perforation in the top of the can through which the combined gas of the
interior of the can may escape, and this vent is closed by a small drop
of solder applied before or at the time of taking the cans from the
bath. The canning of vegetables may also be done in a small way in the
household and the principle on which this process is based is exactly
the same as that set forth. The vegetables must be properly prepared,
placed in the cans, and heated a sufficient length of time to destroy
germs and spores, and the vent in the can stopped with solder. For
family purposes the use of closed boilers for heating is not practical
on account of the expense of securing such apparatus. All kinds of
vegetables which are eaten in a cooked state can be preserved by the
canning process. This cannot be applied, however, to those forms of
vegetables which are eaten raw, such as lettuce, radishes, etc.

The principal forms of canned vegetables are described below:


=Canned Beans.=--Fresh, green beans used for canning purposes are
generally preserved in the pod and not shelled, as is the case with the
pea. The raw material should be selected with the same care as that
which attends the selection of other vegetable products intended for
preserving purposes. If the pods are small they may be placed whole
in the can. Sometimes they are cut into small lengths in order to fit
better in the package. As in the case of peas, the interstices between
the particles of beans are filled by the addition of a sufficient
quantity of brine of the proper strength to fill the can to the top.
The process of sterilization is the same as that for other vegetable
substances. Cooked beans are also preserved by canning and are often
improperly called baked beans.


=Composition of Typical Samples of Canned Beans.=--The composition of
typical samples of canned beans is shown in the following table:

  -------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----
               |      |     |      |STARCH|     |      |
               |      |     |      |  AND |PRO- |      |
    SUBSTANCE. |WATER.| FAT.|FIBER.|SUGAR.|TEIN.| ASH. |SALT.
  -------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----
               |  Per-| Per-|  Per-|  Per-| Per-|  Per-| Per-
               | cent.|cent.| cent.| cent.|cent.| cent.|cent.
  String beans,|94.33 | .06 |  .51 | 3.03 | .92 | 1.16 | .80
  Unstringed   |      |     |      |      |     |      |
  beans,       |93.91 | .07 |  .58 | 2.91 |1.14 | 1.40 | .92
  Lima beans,  |79.68 | .30 | 1.16 |13.24 |4.00 | 1.62 | .77
  Canned baked |      |     |      |      |     |      |
  beans,       |67.19 |3.18 | 2.46 |17.88 |7.14 | 2.15 |1.03
  -------------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----

As in the case of peas it is noticed that the beans in the hull are
not a particularly nutritious vegetable in proportion to the quantity
consumed and that the protein is the most valuable constituent in the
dry matter.


_Adulteration of Canned Beans._--The same adulterations may be found in
canned beans as in canned peas. No additional remarks, therefore, are
needed on this point.

Both canned peas and beans form condimental, palatable, wholesome, and
desirable forms of these leguminous vegetables. The great cheapness
with which they can be grown and the improved method of canning make
it possible to produce these articles of food in quantities, and for
a price which bring them within the reach of those even in the most
humble circumstances.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--VIEW OF INDIAN CORN CANNING FACTORY, SHOWING
ACCUMULATION OF HUSKS AND COBS.]

As soon as the manufacturer restores absolute confidence in the purity
of his products by completely excluding all adulterations the trade
in these articles will be greatly increased and immensely greater
quantities thereof consumed.


=Canned Indian Corn.=--In the United States a dish which is very
extensively consumed throughout all parts of the country is one almost
unknown in Europe, namely, succulent Indian corn. In the growth of
Indian corn, at the period when the starch is formed in the grain and
before it becomes set or hard, the immature grains make a palatable
and excellent food product. In the appropriate season this delicious
vegetable substance is eaten principally on the cob. A variety of
Indian corn, which has already been described, namely, sweet corn, is
the one chiefly used for edible purposes in this immature state. The
Indian corn canning industry is a most extensive one in this country.
The estimate of the number of cans of Indian corn produced during the
year ended Dec. 31, 1905, is 13,939,683 cases of 24 cans each.

The principal centers of the industry are found in the New England
States, especially in Maine, New Jersey, Maryland, New York, Ohio,
Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana. By planting different varieties of Indian
corn which mature at different ages and extending the planting season
over a long period, the canning season, for instance, in Maryland, may
be continued from the last of July to the advent of killing frost,
usually the middle or last of October.


_Technique of the Process._--The ears of sweet Indian corn are plucked
from the stalk together with the husks, and brought in wagons in this
condition to the factory. The husks are removed by hand or machinery
and the ears passed through machinery by means of which, owing to the
operation of knives, the grains are as evenly as possible removed from
the cob. Care is taken not to cut too close to the cob so as to avoid
mingling any of its particles with the corn. The separated grains are
put into cans, treated with a sufficient quantity of water to fill
the interstices, soldered, and subjected to sterilization. Nearly all
of these operations are conducted by machinery. The sterilization is
often effected by placing the cans upon an endless conveyer dipping
into water or brine of the proper temperature and moving slowly through
this bath at a pace determined by the length and temperature thereof,
so that upon emerging the sterilization is complete. The cans may
also be heated in closed vessels as already described. A typical view
of a factory employed in the canning of Indian corn is given in the
accompanying illustration, Fig. 44.


_Composition of Canned Indian Corn._--The composition of canned Indian
corn varies so greatly that it is only possible to give analyses of a
somewhat general character, without attempting to express the extremes
of composition which may be found. The immature Indian corn differs
from the dry mature variety principally in the following respects:
There is usually more sugar, as compared with the same amount of dry
substance, and less starch and protein than in the matured variety.
In fact, the constituent which is of chief value in the green Indian
corn is the natural sugar which it contains. This natural sweetening
cannot be imitated by the addition of sugar although the mixture may
be made very sweet by this method. There is a delicacy of flavor and
a peculiar palatability in the natural sweetness of Indian corn which
must necessarily be due to the form of combination with other natural
ingredients in which the sugar is found, and not solely to the sugar
itself, which is practically ordinary sugar, sucrose, or its inverted
product. While there is less starch in the immature kernel of Indian
corn the starch is in a different physical state. In other words, it
has not become solidified into aggregates of solid particles. The
starch in this form also appears to be more palatable, and perhaps
somewhat more digestible, than in its aggregate and solidified
condition. As a nutrient the green corn is not so valuable by any means
as its equal weight when dry. The percentage of water in green corn is
many times as great as in the dry variety. For mere nutritive purposes,
therefore, it would not be worth while to go to the trouble of canning
green Indian corn. Its value is that which is attached to a succulent
fresh vegetable, that is, it is condimental and hygienic as well as
nutritive.

The mean analysis of many samples of canned sweet Indian corn is given
below:

  Water,             75.50 percent
  Dry matter,        24.50    „

  Oil and fat,        1.26    „
  Cellulose,           .79    „
  Ash,                 .93    „
  Salt,                .23    „
  Protein,            3.51    „
  Sugar and starch,  17.58    „

These data were obtained on samples bought in the open market, some of
which had been artificially sweetened and to some of which starch had
probably been added. The analysis of the fresh green corn is given on
page 227.


_Adulteration of Canned Corn._--Unfortunately many adulterations have
been practiced in connection with the canning of Indian corn which,
while not extensive or applicable to the great mass of material, have
cast an unjust suspicion on the unadulterated product. The trade in
this canned product would be vastly increased if the consumer could be
assured that all forms of adulteration had been eliminated from the
industry. The principal adulterants used are mentioned on page 228, but
the following additional statements are pertinent:


_Adulteration with Starch._--In order to make a more creamy liquid
in the can the addition of starch has been largely practiced. There
are two objections to the addition of starch to canned corn. In
the first place it unbalances the ration and makes it more or less
unwholesome. Starch itself is an unbalanced food product, but Nature
has so distributed the starches in various foods as to present them in
the most favorable form for digestion and assimilation, and when this
natural balance is disturbed by artificial means the result is more
or less injurious to the organs of digestion. There are many persons
to whom starchy foods are not nutritious nor easily digested, and
when persons of this kind consume canned Indian corn to which starch
has been added their health may be injured. The addition of starch,
therefore, is reprehensible for hygienic reasons. In the second place
it is objectionable because it is deceptive, since the canned product
has a richer and better appearance to the eye by this addition than it
otherwise would have, and because more water can be used in the can.


_Adulteration with Sugar._--It seems strange to speak of adulterating
with sugar, and yet the addition of sugar without notice to canned
Indian corn may become an adulteration. It has already been mentioned
that the nature of Indian corn for canning purposes depends very
largely upon its natural sugar content, and when corn of the proper
sweet variety is selected the addition of other sweetening material is
unnecessary. The use of sugar, therefore, in connection with canned
Indian corn serves to cover up the defects of a corn whose natural
sweetness is below the standard and thus the consumer is deceived. In
addition to this, attention is also called to the fact already stated
that no artificial sweetening, even with sugar, can produce that
delicate and desired saccharine quality which the natural sweet corn
possesses. The addition of sugar, therefore, to canned Indian corn
without the notice thereof being plainly stated on the label is not to
be encouraged.


_Addition of Saccharin._--The use of benzoic sulfinid, or, as it is
commonly known, saccharin, to canned corn unhappily is too often
practiced. This body, which has no relation chemically or hygienically
to sugar, which is not a food, which is wholly indigestible, and which
the majority of experts regard as harmful to health, should never be
placed in canned Indian corn, even if its use is notified upon the
label. It produces an intense, but not agreeable, sweet taste and
yet one which the unwary consumer would naturally attribute to the
sugar present in the corn itself. Thus the consumer is deceived, and
at the same time he is consuming a drug which has valuable uses in
medicine but which should only be administered with the consent and
by the advice of a physician. It is believed that under the scrutiny
of municipal, state, and national inspection the use of saccharin in
food products will disappear. Moreover, the name saccharin itself
is misleading. It is an application of a word which by common usage
is attributed to natural sugar substances to a substance which has
no relation of any kind to sugar. The use of a word of this kind is
evidently objectionable. The canner himself who uses this product often
buys it under another name, which gives no indication of its true
character.


_Character of the Cans._--It is important that the containers in which
canned vegetables are preserved should be of a character to yield no
poisonous or injurious substance to the contents therein. What is said
here in respect of canned Indian corn is generally applicable to canned
products of all descriptions.

The approved standards for food products in the United States require
the following properties for the containers:

  “I. Suitable containers for keeping moist food products such
  as sirups, honey, condensed milk, soups, meat extracts, meats,
  manufactured meats, and undried fruits and vegetables and wrappers in
  contact with food products contain on their surfaces, in contact with
  the food products, no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, or copper or
  any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or injurious substance.
  If the containers are made of tin plate they are outside soldered
  and the plate in no case contains less than one hundred and thirteen
  (113) milligrams of tin on a piece five (5) centimeters square or one
  and eight-tenths (1.8) grains on a piece two (2) inches square. The
  inner coating of the containers is free from pin-holes, blisters, and
  cracks.

  “If the tin plate is lacquered, the lacquer completely covers the
  tinned surface within the container and yields to the contents of the
  container no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, copper, or any compounds
  thereof.”


=Souring and Swelling of Canned Corn.=--In all cases where
sterilization is not complete, or where spores remain undestroyed
which afterward develop and produce various kinds of ferments, the
canned corn spoils. The contents usually become sour and acquire a bad
taste, and, in many cases, on puncturing the container gas escapes.
The pressure of this gas in the can is sometimes great enough to
produce a swelling, and hence the technical term “swelled” applied to
cans of this kind. Various forms of ferments are active in producing
these conditions. The usual alcoholic ferment does not usually occur
by reason of the fact that the yeasts which produce this form of
fermentation are readily destroyed in the sterilizing process. Ferments
which produce lactic, butyric, and other acids, and those which act
upon the nitrogenous matter and tend to form various decomposition
products are the most common.

In the case of canned corn and other canned vegetables the nitrogenous
decomposed products are not usually very poisonous. On the other hand
in the case of meat, and especially of fish and crustaceans, the
degradation products from the nitrogen constituents of the food become
poisonous and are known collectively under the name of ptomains.

If the sterilization has not been complete at the time of preparation,
sweet corn as well as other foodstuffs in similar circumstances
undergoes a kind of fermentation which renders it unfit for food. The
fermentation is usually due to the greater vitality of spores and
fungi, the real bacteria usually succumbing to the heat of preparation.
Various gases beside carbon dioxid are produced, causing the corn to
swell. All swelled goods should be rejected for food purposes.


=Canned Peas and Beans.=--These leguminous products lend themselves
readily to canning purposes, and are preserved in great quantities in
the United States in this way. Peas are always shelled before canning,
and are harvested at a time to secure their greatest succulence. If the
peas be too ripe they make a hard, unpalatable berry which detracts
from the value of the canned product. The smaller variety of pea is
preferred to the larger for canning, but, irrespective of size, they
should be fresh, succulent, and not too mature. In the large canning
factories the peas are harvested with machines such as are used for
the cereals. The harvested material is passed through a shelling
machine, by means of which the pods are opened and the peas separated.
The rest of the pods, stalks, leaves, etc., are very valuable for
cattle food or fertilizing purposes. Peas, before canning, should be
separated into different sizes so that all those entering one can may
be as nearly uniform in size as possible. This separation not only
makes the contents of the can appear more attractive but also renders
the sterilization more certain and easy. If a large and small pea are
put in the same can the heat of sterilization must be high enough and
continue long enough to sterilize completely the large pea, and this
might induce an over-cooking and impair the edible properties of the
small one.

The technique of the canning process is not at all different except in
the preparation of the material, as described above, from that of other
vegetable canning factories.


_Composition of Canned Peas._--The composition of typical varieties of
canned peas compiled from a large number of analyses is shown in the
following table:

  Water,             85.47 percent
  Fat,                 .21    „
  Fiber,              1.18    „
  Protein,            3.57    „
  Starch and sugar,   7.79    „
  Ash,                1.11    „
  Salt,                .67    „

From the above data it is seen that the canned pea does not have a high
nutritive value, considering its bulk. In the canned pea one of the
principal food elements in the wet material is the protein which it
contains, both the pea and the bean being very rich in this important
food material.


_Adulteration of Canned Peas._--The principal form of adulteration
which is practiced in the canning of peas is the addition of sulfate
of copper for the purpose of producing an intense green color. The
delicate shade of green of the fresh, succulent pea tends to assume a
yellowish tint on canning, and especially after keeping for some time.
To such an extent does this oxidation of the natural chlorophyl go
on that in many samples when opened, instead of a green, we discover
a decidedly yellowish tint. When a copper salt, such as sulfate, is
heated in contact with a nitrogenous substance, such as that which
exists in the pea, a chemical combination is formed between the copper
and nitrogenous bodies which has an intensely green tint.

It is often supposed that the sulfate of copper is added to canned
peas to preserve their natural color. This, however, is not the case.
The copper combination, as above mentioned, produces a dye of a very
bright green hue. Sulfate of copper is a highly poisonous substance,
and for this reason should be excluded from food products. It is only
fair to state that those who use this material claim that in the form
of the combination produced it remains insoluble during the process
of digestion, and therefore the copper is inert. This claim is not
sustained by the facts in the case. It is quite certain that the copper
product forming the dye or the excess of the copper which is used
remains in a state of very unstable composition which is easily broken
up under the action of the acids and enzymes in the digestive organs.

It is greatly to the credit of the canners of the United States that
the use of sulfate of copper has never come into use in this country.


_Tests for Copper._--Fortunately the presence of copper in canned peas
is easily ascertained even by the novice. If a portion of the peas be
rubbed in a mortar to a fine paste and mixed with water acidulated with
two or three drops of hydrochloric acid, a paste will be formed which
on boiling will deposit copper on a clean metallic substance such as
silver, steel, or iron. If a bright steel knife or a clean iron nail be
placed in this paste, the surface will soon be covered with metallic
copper. This simple test shows that the copper is not combined in any
such permanent form as is claimed.


_Saccharin._--The use of saccharin as an imitation of the natural sweet
of the pea is, unfortunately, very largely practiced and is open to the
same objections as were pointed out in the case of Indian corn. The use
of sugar, salt, and other condimental substances in canned peas cannot
be regarded as an adulteration unless deception results therefrom. It
is claimed there is no special variety of pea distinguished by its
content of sugar, and therefore the addition of sugar does not cause
one variety of pea to imitate the properties of another. If this be
true no deception is practiced, and, if the sugar is pure, no injury
is done. In all cases of this kind, perhaps, it would be better if the
manufacturer would plainly mark on the label the name of the added
materials. Then there could be no question of the nature of the product.


=Canned Tomatoes.=--Next, perhaps, in importance to the industry of
canned corn, is the preservation of tomatoes. Immense quantities of
these goods are produced annually in the United States. The technique
of the canning process is not at all different from that of canned
corn. By reason of the pulpy condition of the material and its freedom
from hard and impenetrable matter in the preparation for canning, the
sterilization is accomplished in less time and with greater certainty
than in the case of Indian corn.


_Preparation of the Raw Material._--Only fresh, ripe, mature, and sound
tomatoes should be used in the preparation of the canned goods. These
are delivered by the farmer or contractor in baskets or otherwise to
the factory. After sorting and rejecting all those that are unfit, the
portions selected for preservation are treated in the usual manner to
secure sterilization.

The skins, cores, and rejected portions of the tomatoes should be
removed to a sufficient distance from the factory to prevent any bad
odor or danger of infection.


_Composition of Canned Tomatoes._--The chemical composition of canned
tomatoes is shown in the following analysis:

  Water,             93.59 percent
  Fat,                 .23    „
  Fiber,               .60    „
  Starch and sugar,   3.47    „
  Protein,            1.29    „
  Ash,                 .66    „
  Salt,                .14    „

From the above data it is seen that the tomato is not particularly
valuable on account of its nutrient properties. It consists chiefly of
water, and its value as a food product is principally condimental. It
must not be denied, however, that it has that peculiar value which is
possessed by all edible succulent vegetables and fruits, namely, it is
a means of keeping the digestive processes in good form, preventing
constipation, and promoting the general metabolic activity. In this
sense it is seen that it is more than condimental. It also, of course,
has a distinct food value, due chiefly to the carbohydrates it contains.


_Addition of Sugar and Spices._--Sugar and other condimental substances
are often used in the preparation of tomatoes. In this case it is
doubtful whether the addition of pure sugar can be regarded in any
sense as an adulteration if properly notified on the label. It is
claimed that there is no distinction in the classification of tomatoes
based upon their sugar content. If there was a variety of distinctly
sweet tomato as distinguished from the ordinary field crop, then
the addition of sugar to the field crop to imitate the sweet of the
naturally sweet article would be an adulteration. But even in this case
unripe or imperfect tomatoes may be used and sugar added to conceal
inferiority. The use of common condimental substances, such as salt,
spices, vinegar, etc., in the preparation of various products of
tomatoes must be regarded as a perfectly legitimate operation.


_Adulteration of Canned Tomatoes._--Fortunately there are few
adulterations practiced in the case of canned tomatoes. The use of
antiseptics to insure the conservation of the contents of the can was
formerly practiced to some extent, salicylic and benzoic acids being
the chief antiseptics employed. Since it has been made possible to
easily, speedily, and economically sterilize the contents of the cans,
the use of antiseptics is practically a thing of the past. The most
common adulteration of tomatoes, perhaps, has been artificial coloring.
The use of artificial coloring is resorted to solely for deceptive
purposes. Where green or immature tomatoes are used, or other portions
and parts of such fruits as are not suitable for the production of
the highest grade products, the naturally red color of the tomato is
imitated artificially, usually by the addition of cochineal or a coal
tar dye. The use of artificial color in canned tomatoes has almost
ceased in this country.

Saccharin is also sometimes used as an adulterant to imitate the
properties of pure sugar.

It has already been intimated that green or unfit tomatoes or the
residue of better grades are sometimes prepared and sold as the real
article. This is a form of adulteration which is most reprehensible.
Unfortunately, except in so far as the artificial color is concerned,
this adulteration is not readily revealed by either chemical or
microscopic examination, although the latter is exceedingly valuable
in detecting certain forms of this kind of material. Only by a rigid
inspection of the factories can this form of adulteration be excluded
with certainty. The use of such immature fruits or scraps without
notice to the consumer is, without doubt, an adulteration of an
exceedingly bad type. If there be a desire to make a very cheap grade
of the product out of these materials the nature of them should be
plainly stated upon the label and then, perhaps, there would be a valid
excuse for their appearance on the market.


=Other Canned Vegetables.=--There is no necessity to enter into the
detail of the preparation of other canned vegetables further than to
say that practically all vegetables which are offered on the market,
except those which are necessarily eaten in a raw state, are preserved
or can be preserved by the sterilizing process.


=Tomato Ketchup.=--A sauce which is used in large quantities in the
United States and in other countries is known as tomato ketchup and is
manufactured in many parts of the country. Tomato ketchup is the pulp
of sound, ripe tomatoes mixed with various condimental substances and
flavoring matters to make it palatable and desirable as a sauce. The
character of flavor and condimental substances employed is left to the
judgment of the manufacturer and the taste of the consumer, provided
the materials are wholesome and sanitary. It has been claimed by some
manufacturers that it is impracticable to place this desirable product
upon the market without the use of chemical antiseptics. They admit,
as in the case of the manufacture of fruit sirups, that tomato ketchup
can be sterilized and kept properly until the bottle is opened for
consumption; but, inasmuch as it is used in small quantities and a
bottle of it lasts for many days, it cannot be kept in a proper state
except by the use of such preservatives. The principal antiseptics
which are used in connection with tomato ketchup are salicylic and
benzoic acids.

Experience has shown that these claims are not of sufficient value to
warrant the exception of tomato ketchup from the ordinary regulations
respecting pure food. The habit of leaving a tomato ketchup bottle upon
the table where the material adheres to the rim and becomes hardened to
a gummy paste, serving as a pabulum for flies, does not appeal with any
great force to the æsthetic sense relative to dining rooms. A ketchup
bottle carefully opened and used in such a way as to avoid infection
and then returned to the ice box can be kept for many days without
danger of fermentation.


_Artificial Colors._--Tomato ketchup is sometimes subjected to
artificial coloring. This is done to imitate the color of the best raw
material. If red, ripe, sound tomatoes are used no artificial color is
necessary.


_Use of Refuse for Making Ketchup._--It has been stated that the
ripe, imperfect tomatoes at the time of harvesting are cooked in
large quantities and treated with benzoic acid and stored in large
containers until the canning season is over, after which this material
is made into ketchup and artificially colored. Further statements have
also been made to the effect that the skins, cores, and refuse of the
cannery have been treated in the same way as indicated below. The
proper inspection of the factories would exclude from the preparation
of ketchup unfit material of the kind mentioned. It is doubtless true
that when the people are finally convinced that the ketchup which is
used is made of the best material and contains no artificial color or
no harmful antiseptic, its use will be immensely increased.

A manufacturer of ketchup recently made the following statement
respecting the utilization of the refuse matter at the cannery:

“We use in our standard catsup the peelings and small tomatoes. We
preserve the pulp with four ounces of sodium benzoate to each 50 gallon
barrel, cooked and whipped through a cyclone pulp machine. It takes two
barrels of this stock to produce 60 gallons of catsup, and we use eight
ounces more of sodium benzoate to preserve it.”

If waste material of this kind is sound and wholesome, there can be no
valid objection to its use if the product be offered for sale under its
proper designation.


STARCHES USED AS FOODS.


=Edible Starches.=--Attention has already been called to the fact
that starch is the principal constituent of many of the common foods,
such as cereals and the different varieties of the potato and other
vegetables. Starch is often separated from the part of the plant
producing it, and is then largely consumed as food in practically a
pure state. Starches used in this way are presented in the form of
pudding or desserts of some kind, and are often richly spiced, highly
sweetened, and often eaten with cream. Starch also appears in the
market under other names such as tapioca, arrowroot, etc.


_Arrowroot._--The plant which furnishes the substance known as
arrowroot belongs to the natural family Cannaceæ and is principally
native of tropical regions. The most important source of the arrowroot
of commerce is the _Canna indica_. The starch of this plant exhibits in
a strong degree certain characteristic qualities of starches derived
from this natural family. The hilum in this starch is round and in some
varieties double. The appearance of this starch under the microscope
is shown in Fig. 45. The product of commerce is obtained from the
rhizome and tubers.


_Bermuda Arrowroot._--The Bermuda arrowroot is obtained principally
from the _Maranta arundinacea_. This arrowroot is also produced very
largely in St. Vincent and other West Indian localities. The granules
of the starch are very much smaller than in the two species just
described. The hilum is prominent, and frequently takes the shape of
a well defined slit instead of the usual round spot. These arrowroots
and those of South African origin are very extensively used for invalid
foods where starchy foods are indicated, which, however, is not
very often the case. These starches form a firm and semitranslucent
jelly-like body when heated to the boiling point in a small quantity
of water. The term arrowroot is applied to starch from plants of the
origin mentioned because the natives of the country producing them use
the bruised rhizomes as a poultice for wounds caused by arrows.

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--MARANTA (ARROWROOT) STARCH (× 200).--(_Courtesy
Bureau of Chemistry._)]


_Canna edulis._--This species of Cannaceæ also furnishes a starch of
commerce nearly allied to the _Canna indica_. The common commercial
name of this variety of starch is “Tous les mois.” The starch granules
of this species are rather larger than those of the _Canna indica_, and
the concentric markings are more delicate and regular.


_Madagascar Arrowroot._--There is also produced in Madagascar an
arrowroot from a different form of plant, namely _Tacca pinnatifida_.
It is not, however, of any very great commercial importance. A similar
starch is made from the same plant in Otaheite.


_Plantain Meal._--The plants of the natural family Musaceæ are
important articles of food in many tropical regions, the plant
yielding also, in addition to the starch, fibers suitable for textile
use. The fruit of the _Musa paradisiaca_ is chiefly employed for
this purpose. It is quite similar in its character to the fruit of
the allied species, _Musa sapientum_, or common banana. The starch
granules which make up the plantain meal are remarkable for their long
and narrow shape. The lines marking their surface are only faintly
distinguishable, and the hilum is small and somewhat indistinct.
Plantain meal is not used to any very great extent outside of the
country where it is produced.

[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A CASSAVA FIELD IN GEORGIA.--(_Photograph by
H. W. Wiley._)]


_Sago._--Another form of starch which has a high value as a food
product is made from the natural family Palmaceæ. The palm starch or
sago is consumed in immense quantities in many parts of the world, and
is probably in importance only second to the starch derived from the
cereals as human food. The starch granules are rather large and coarse,
although very many small granules are found mixed with them. Some of
the larger granules appear to be partially divided or broken. The hilum
is distinct and very long. The sago of commerce is like a tapioca
made from the palm starch. It has been subjected to heat while still
moist in the process of manufacture, so that it is quite difficult,
as a rule, to find the distinct starch granules of the palm in the
commercial article. Sago is grown principally in the Moluccas and
Sumatra.


_South African Arrowroot._--There are many species of Marantaceæ
cultivated in South Africa from which arrowroot is manufactured. They
are of the same variety as that used in Bermuda and the West Indies.
The cultivation of the plant has modified to some extent the action
of the starch granules as originally found in the uncultivated plant.
The starch granules in the cultivated variety approach more nearly a
spherical form. The concentric lines are much more distinct and the
hilum more prominent than in the wild variety.


_Tapioca._--The most important of the starch products used as food is
the tapioca. It is made from the plant belonging to the natural family
Euphorbiaceæ, and is derived particularly from the variety of cassava
plant known as _Manihot_. Attention has been called to the fact that
many of the varieties of cassava plant are highly poisonous, due to
the natural development during growth of hydrocyanic acid, one of the
most violent of known poisons. This substance, however, is of quite
a volatile character, and when comminuted cassava root is heated or
boiled, all or at least the principal part of the hydrocyanic acid
(prussic acid) disappears. None of it or at least not more than a trace
is found in the food product tapioca. A comparatively sweet variety of
cassava that is containing but a small proportion of prussic acid is
grown in Florida and Georgia. The appearance of a field of cassava is
shown in Fig. 46. The tapioca of commerce is prepared by the separation
of the starch in the usual way by grinding and washing with water.
Before the starch becomes dry, in fact, while it is still containing
its maximum degree of moisture, it is submitted to heat first at a
low temperature, gradually increased until the starch granules are
disintegrated or agglutinated into a somewhat firm and gelatinous mass.
The heat is then continued at the proper temperature until the water is
nearly all driven off. The starch from this plant is sometimes known as
Brazilian arrowroot.

The starch granules of the bitter cassava are very small and often
angular in shape, although some of them appear as well rounded
spheroids. The hilum is, as a rule, clearly distinguished. The
microscopic appearance of the grains of cassava starch is shown in Fig.
47.


_Adulteration of Tapioca._--The true tapioca should only be made from
starch of the cassava. Any starch, derived from any source whatever,
if taken in the moist state may be subjected to the same process of
heating, and forms an imitation tapioca which possesses many of the
physical and probably all of the edible properties of the genuine
article. The substitution, however, of any of the other starches for
that of the cassava is at least an imitation, if not an adulteration,
of the genuine article.

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--CASSAVA STARCH (× 200).--(_Courtesy Bureau of
Chemistry._)]


_Food Starches Derived from Cereals._--The starches which are derived
from the common cereals are also extensively used as food products,
especially the maize starch in the United States. It is commonly
sold as “corn” starch, and is largely used for the purpose already
mentioned. It may be in its natural state or it may be previously
submitted to the action of heat while still moist, so that it takes
on the character of tapioca or sago. In the United States the Indian
corn is practically the only cereal which furnishes the food starch in
very large quantities, although rye starch is extensively used for this
purpose in other countries.

The starches of certain of the legumes, such as peas and beans, have
also been separated and used for food purposes. They are not, however,
used to any such extent as would warrant any especial reference to
them at this point.


_Starch from the Peanut._--The peanut also yields a starch which has
sometimes been separated and used for food purposes. The quantity so
employed, however, is of no consequence as far as magnitude of product
is concerned.


_Food Starch Derived from the Potato._--Potato starch is also used
very extensively for food purposes, either in its natural form or when
subjected to heat while still moist, as in the preparation of tapioca
and sago.


_Adulteration of Starches._--The most common adulteration of starches
is rather a misbranding than adulteration. The practice of adding inert
white powdered mineral matters to starches is practically unknown
in this country. Starch sometimes contains sulfurous acid used as a
bleach in its preparation. This is an injurious substance and should
be excluded from edible starches. The naming of a starch of one kind
by the name of another and more valuable kind is simple deception. It
is practiced to some extent in this and other countries. Starch itself
may be used as an adulterant, as when maize starch is mixed with wheat
flour or powdered starch mixed with granulated sugar. This kind of
adulteration is quite unknown in this country. The selling of cheaper
starches for tapioca and sago is more common than it should be.


CONDIMENTS.


=Condiments other than Sugar, Salt, Vinegar, and Wood Smoke.=--The
principal condimental substances which are used for food are of
vegetable origin and of a highly aromatic character. Condimental
substances themselves may have food value, that is, contain digestible
material which takes part in the metabolic processes. Their utility,
however, and their value do not depend upon the amount of food which
they contain, but upon their aromatic and condimental principles above
mentioned. Condimental substances are used in a variety of ways, but
in general it may be said that in an air-dried state they are reduced
to a fine powder and employed in this way. Extracts may also be made
from these condimental substances, either with water or usually with
alcohol, and this extractable matter used as a condiment. The essential
oils which they contain are also frequently separated by distillation,
and in this purified and concentrated state are, after dilution with
alcohol, used for condimental purposes. Peppermint oil is a type of
this character of condiments.

It will be sufficient for the purpose of this manual to mention the
principal condimental substances and refer for the character of their
composition to the standards of purity established for them under
authority of Congress in Appendix A.


_Allspice_, also known as pimento, is the dried fruit of the _Pimenta
pimenta_ L.


_Anise._--The anise is a plant which grows from 14 to 16 inches in
height. Its botanical name is _Pimpinella Anisum_ L. French, anis;
German, Anis; Italian, aniso; Spanish, anis.

The anise produces abundant seeds, which are the principal condimental
part. The seeds are used either directly in bread and other foods or
especially in the manufacture of liqueurs and confections. Anise seed
is one of the oldest of condimental substances of which historical
account has been preserved.


_Bay leaf_ is the dried leaf of the _Laurus nobilis_ L. In a powdered
form it is used as a condimental substance in food, but it is chiefly
employed in flavoring alcohol in the manufacture of the material known
as bay rum.


_Capers._--The capers are obtained by drying the flower buds of the
caper bush. The botanical name is _Capparis spinosa_ L. French,
caprier; German, Kapernstrauch; Italian, cappero; Spanish, alcaparra.

The caper is a plant which is a native of southern Europe of shrub-like
proportions, growing to a height of from three to five feet. The
flower buds are gathered when they are about as large as peas and are
preserved by pickling in vinegar.


_Caraway._--This is a plant which is native to Europe, is either annual
or biennial, and belongs to the botanical species _Carum Carvi_ L.
French, carvi; German, Feld-Kümmel; Italian, carvi; Spanish, alcaravea.

The seeds contain the aromatic principles which make the caraway
valuable as a condiment. The plant often grows wild. The roots have
some value as food and are also highly spiced, but are seldom eaten.
The seeds are used very largely for flavoring bread, especially among
the Germans. They are also used in certain varieties of cheese,
especially that made in Holland. Often they are found in certain
candies and other confections.


_Cassia_ is that variety of cinnamon obtained from other species of
cinnamon than _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, and is not so highly valued for
condimental and other purposes as the true cinnamon.

Cassia buds, which are often used for condimental purposes, are the
dried immature fruit of any species of the cinnamomum plant. The
cinnamon, as it is offered for condimental purposes, is usually finely
ground, and the same is true of cassia.


_Celery Seed._--The seeds of celery are highly prized for condimental
purposes, either directly or in the form of an extract. The seeds or
their extracts are also often recommended for medicinal purposes.


_Cinnamon._--The cinnamon is the bark of various species of plants
belonging to the genus _Cinnamomum_. The true cinnamon is derived
solely from the bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_ Breyne.


_Cloves._--Cloves are dried buds of the _Caryophyllus aromaticus_ L.
They are used either in the original dried state or as a finely ground
powder.


_Coriander._--The aromatic principles of coriander which is used for
condimental purposes are the dried seeds of the _Coriandrum sativum_
L. This is a plant which is indigenous to southern Europe, growing
from two to two and a half feet high. The seeds are used in the
manufacture of liqueurs and for seasoning a great number of culinary
preparations. It is stated by some authorities that the leaves are used
for condimental purposes, but this is not the case. The leaves as well
as the other green parts of this plant have a very unpleasant odor from
which the name of the plant is derived. This odor is of a character
which would exclude the leaves from use for condimental purposes.


_Cumin Seed._--The cumin plant (_Cuminum Cyminum_ L.) is thought to
be indigenous to Egypt. It is an annual plant, sometimes growing from
four to five inches high. The seeds are the aromatic part and are used
for condimental purposes. They have a hot, acrid taste and a strong
aromatic flavor. They are used chiefly for flavoring soups and in the
manufacture of pastry of all kinds. They are also found in many kinds
of liqueurs.


_Dill._--The dill plant (_Anethum graveolens_ L.) is indigenous to
southern Europe. It is an annual plant and grows from two to two and a
half feet high. The seeds, which are the condimental part of the plant,
are flat and have a strong and bitter flavor. They are used in this
country principally for flavoring a kind of pickle known as the dill
pickle.


_Fennel._--The fennel plant (_Fœniculum fœniculum_ L.) is indigenous
to southern Europe. It grows both wild and under cultivation. The
common garden fennel is biennial in its habits. The seeds contain the
condimental properties of the plant, and the seeds of the cultivated
fennel are usually about twice as long as those of the wild variety.
They are flat on one side and convex on the other and crossed by thick
yellow-colored ribs. The seeds are used chiefly in the manufacture of
liqueurs.


_Ginger._--The ginger is the root of the plant _Zingiber zingiber_ L.,
and is one of the most highly prized of the condimental substances. It
is a plant which naturally contains a large amount of starch, which
forms nearly half of its weight in the dried state. The roots are
often sent into commerce covered with lime, either for the purpose of
preserving them or bleaching them. This is such a common condition
that the limed ginger or bleached ginger is recognized as a legitimate
article of commerce.


_Mace._--The mace of commerce is composed of the dried arillus of
_Myristica fragrans_ Honttyn. Mace contains a large quantity of fatty
substance, usually not less than 20 nor more than 30 percent of its
total weight. There are several varieties of mace on the market, the
principal one being Macassar mace, which is obtained from the dried
arillus of _Myristica argentea_ Warb. The Bombay mace is derived from
the dried arillus of _Myristica malabarica_.


_Marjoram_ is the dried leaf of the plant known by the botanical name
of _Majorana majorana_ (L.) Karst. or _Origanum vulgare_ L. This plant
is a native of Europe and is a very common wild plant in France,
especially on the borders of the forests. It is also extensively
cultivated. It is a perennial. The leaves of the plant are the
condimental portions. A plant known as mountain mint is frequently sold
as marjoram and has some of its condimental properties.


_Mustard._--The mustard seed is derived from various species,
distinguished largely by the color of the seeds. For instance, the
white mustard is the seed of _Sinapis alba_ L., the black mustard the
seed of _Brassica nigra_ (L.) Koch, and the black or brown mustard
the seed of _Brassica juncea_ (L.) Cosson. The mustard is a widely
distributed plant probably indigenous to Europe. It grows extensively
wild and is also largely cultivated. The mustard seed forms one of the
most important condiments of commerce. The mustard is often ground
before it is sold, and frequently it is mixed with other spices and
with oils and is known as prepared mustard. This latter variety is
subjected to all kinds of adulterations, frequently containing very
little mustard but with enough turmeric to give the preparation a
yellow color resembling that attributed to the pure article. Prepared
mustard should be a thick paste composed largely of ground mustard seed
together with salt, spices of different kinds, and vinegar. It may also
be ground in oil.


_Nutmeg._--Nutmeg is the seed of _Myristica fragrans_. The seed is
sent into commerce with a thin coating of lime, which, of course, must
be removed before the nutmeg is used. It is principally used as the
unground nut and by grating it into the food which is to be flavored at
the time of use. The nut thus retains its flavor much better than when
all ground at once and kept for some time. There are many varieties of
nutmeg on the market, the principal ones being the Macassar, Papua,
male, and long nutmegs. These are all the dried seeds of the _Myristica
argentea_.


_Pepper._--Pepper is one of the most important of the principal
aromatic condimental substances. There are many standard varieties
which are known to the trade and which are derived from distinct
botanical species. The principal varieties are black pepper, white
pepper, and paprika pepper. Black pepper is the dried immature berry
of _Piper nigrum_ L. White pepper is the dried mature berry of _Piper
nigrum_ L. from which the outer and the inner coatings of the seed have
been removed. Paprika pepper is a red pepper of very mild aromatic
qualities grown chiefly in Hungary and in Spain.

Cayenne pepper is a very active aromatic red pepper which is the dried
fruit of _Capsicum frutescens_ L. or _Capsicum baccatum_ L.

The red peppers, therefore, may be divided into two distinct classes,
namely, cayenne or hot, acrid pepper and the paprika or mild-flavored
pepper. There is another variety of pepper known on the market as long
pepper which is the dried fruit of _Piper longum_ L.


_Saffron_ is the dried stigma of _Crocus sativus_ L.


_Sage_ is a common garden plant which is very extensively used for
condimental purposes, belonging to the species _Salvia officinalis_ L.
Sage is used very extensively by the housewife in the preparation of
domestic sausage, and is perhaps more commonly used in meat products of
this description than in other foods.


_Savory_ or _summer savory_ is a preparation from the leaf, the
blossom, and tender tips of the branches of _Satureja hortensis_ L.


_Sweet Basil._--This plant is indigenous to India, growing usually
about one foot high. The botanical name is _Ocymum Basilicum_ L.
French, basilic grand; German, Basilikum; Italian, basilico; Spanish,
albaca.

The leaves of the plant are the aromatic part and are extensively used
for condimental purposes of different kinds. There are many varieties
of basil in use.


_Thyme._--Thyme is a plant indigenous to southern Europe and belongs to
the botanical species _Thymus vulgaris_ L. It is a perennial plant and
grows in the form of a small dwarf shrub. The plant may be propagated
either by cuttings or may be grown from the seed. The leaves and young
shoots of the thyme may be used for condimental purposes. Some other
species of the thyme are also used for condimental purposes, especially
the varieties known as lemon thyme and mother-of-thyme.


=Vegetable Flavoring Extracts.=--In speaking of condimental substances
it was stated that they were either used directly in a state of fine
subdivision for flavoring purposes or their extracts were employed.
The use of the extract is often more convenient than the use of the
powdered material, and, also, it secures a more even distribution of
the flavoring principal throughout the food product. It is doubtful,
however, if for really condimental purposes there is any advantage in
the use of the extracted materials. Nevertheless there are many food
products in which it would be inconvenient to use the powdered aromatic
substance itself and the flavoring extract has become established as a
legitimate article of a condimental nature.

All the common extracts used in foods are described in the standards
of purity established by the Secretary of Agriculture by authority of
Congress, and will be found in Appendix A.


FRUITS.


=Definition.=--Under the term “fruit” is included the edible products
of many trees and shrubs. The term “fruit” in its general sense can be
applied to any kind of a food product, as for instance the fruit of
the farm, the fields, and the forest, but in a restricted sense, as
it will be used here, it is applied to the class of orchard products
represented by apples, peaches, pears, etc. Fruits, in a general sense,
include also that class of wild or cultivated edible bodies known
as berries. The term “berry” is restricted in its present sense to
the products of certain small shrubs or vines, such as gooseberries,
blackberries, raspberries, etc. The fruits that grow upon small
bushes, such as the currant and gooseberry, occupy an intermediate
position between the orchard fruits which have been mentioned and
berries. Orchard fruits are conveniently divided into large and small
fruits, the large fruits being represented by the apple, pear, peach,
quince, etc., and the small fruit by the cherry and plum. Fruits were
doubtless among the earliest foods of man, and this leads to another
classification of fruits, namely, wild and cultivated. Wild fruits,
at the present time, do not include any large proportion of human
foods. There are certain trees growing wild, such as the mulberry, the
wild cherry, and others, which produce delicious fruits, usually of
small size. The term “fruit” as used herein does not include that very
valuable class of foods known as nuts, which is considered under a
separate classification.


=General Characteristics of Fruits.=--The general characteristics of
fruits include their color, flavor, odor, and nutritive properties in
so far as we are concerned with them in this manual. They are composed
very largely of water, perhaps 80 percent or more. The solid matter
consists of the usual cellulose structure of vegetable bodies, sugars,
gums, organic acids, and mineral matters. Fruits are all succulent,
that is, by reason of their high content of water, composed chiefly
of matters in solution which constitute their juices. All fruits,
therefore, when subjected to pressure yield a juice which contains the
principal portion of their dietetic constituents. The study of the
composition of the fruit juices would, therefore, naturally accompany
a study of the fruits themselves. The chief characteristics of fruit
from a dietetic point of view and also a palatable standpoint are
their sugars and acids. The characteristic of taste depends on these
two constituents principally. In addition to this, the fruits contain
aromatic substances belonging to the class of essential oils and
compound ethers which give to them the agreeable odor which adds so
much to their value. Fruits are naturally colored and these colors, to
which the eye is accustomed, become marks of distinction and excellence
in many cases. The prevailing colors of fruits are red, yellow, and
green. All shades of colors, however, are represented by the mingling
of the primary tints. Certain colors are associated with certain fruits
as, for instance, red with the cherry, raspberry, etc., green, red,
and yellow with apples, and shades of red and yellow with peaches.
These colors are due to the different conditions of the chlorophyll
or vegetable coloring matter which the skin of the fruit contains.
The three principal color tints which are produced are known as
chlorophyll, green, xanthophyll, yellow, and erythrophyll, red. The
mingling of these three distinct colors in the plant coloring matter
forms the various tints which are seen in fruits and which render them
so attractive to the eye.

The sugars in fruit include both the common sugar (sucrose) and invert
sugar, which contains equal quantities of dextrose and levulose. As the
sugar is more or less abundant in proportion to the other ingredients
the fruit is more or less sweet. The different fruits contain different
quantities of sugar,--the richest perhaps is the grape which often in
a state of complete maturity may have from 25 to 30 percent of sugar.
Apples contain from five to 15 percent of sugar, and peaches and pears
somewhat less. In fact this range in sugar will cover nearly all the
fruits, large and small, as well as most of the berries. The quantity
of sugar contained in each of the fruits will be especially noted in
treating of them individually. One of the most important constituents
of fruit from a palatable point of view is found in its organic acids.
These vary in different classes of fruits. The most common organic acid
in fruit is malic, which is the chief acid in the apple and allied
forms. In citrus fruits, such as the lemon and orange, citric acid is
the principal organic acid. In grapes the principal organic acid is
tartaric. More than one of these acids is, however, usually contained
in a single fruit, and other organic acids than those named are found
in small quantities in various fruits. The three mentioned may be
regarded as the typical acids in fruits. These acids, if prepared
chemically and administered in a pure state, have practically no food
value at all, and cannot be considered as wholesome material to place
in the stomach. When, however, they are eaten in their natural state
in combination with the potash and other bases which fruits contain,
and mingled, as Nature has done, with the other constituents, they
add not only to the palatability but also to the wholesomeness of the
product. This is only another illustration of the fact that natural
products are often wholesome and desirable where artificial products
of the same kind chemically are hurtful and undesirable. Many fruits
contain considerable quantities of a carbohydrate allied to some extent
in its composition to sugar and starch but which has the property of
setting to a semi-resilient mass known as jelly. This constituent in
fruit is known as pectin or pectose and is present in greater or less
quantities in almost all fruits. It is by the utilization of this
component of fruit that the jellies which are so common an article of
food are prepared. While in its physical properties the jelly of fruits
has some resemblance to the gelatine or jelly of animals, its chemical
composition and nutritive values are entirely different. The gelatine
or jelly of animals is essentially a nitrogenous product while the
pectin or jelly of fruit is essentially a carbohydrate product. The
two, therefore, are not to be confounded.


=Nutritive Uses.=--The edible fruits are not only valuable on account
of the nourishment they contain but particularly so because of
the general effect which they have upon the digestive operations.
Their judicious use is conducive to health in many ways. The fruits
are mildly laxative, as a rule, although there are some exceptions
to this. For instance, in some berries, like the blackberry, the
quantity of tannin present is sufficient to cause a styptic or binding
action. While all the fruits contain tannin it is usually not in such
proportions as to produce a constipating effect. On the other hand the
combination of the acids, bases, pectins, and sugars favors a free
and natural progress of the food through the alimentary canal. The
entire withdrawal of fruit from the dietary, even if the nourishment
it supplies be provided in some other way, would work great damage
to health. There are certain dangers, however, to be avoided in the
general use of fruit. Immature and imperfect fruits are unwholesome.
Fruits are often subjected, moreover, to infection with eggs of various
kinds of insects, and these organisms and the larvæ or eggs thereof may
be introduced into the stomach with more or less injurious effects. In
the eating of fruit, care should be exercised in the inspection and
proper preparation of the article; it should be free from infection,
decay, and insect life. The natural condition in which fruit is eaten
is in the raw state, and in general it may be said that this is the
more wholesome and preferable way of eating it. On the other hand the
cooking of fruit sterilizes it and makes the consumer secure against
any infection from bacteria and insect life, and in some ways promotes
to a certain degree the digestive processes. This is especially true of
fruits of a hard or unyielding nature. Cooked fruits, as a rule, may be
considered less desirable than the natural article, but they deserve
mention on account of their freedom from infection, wholesomeness, and
general dietetic value. Some fruits, such as apples and pears, contain
notable quantities of starch, especially in the immature state, and
this disappears to a greater or less extent during the process of
ripening. At the period of complete maturity the starch is reduced to
a minimum and the sugar in the fruit reaches a maximum. After this
period the fruit begins to lose in dietetic value, due to the natural
process of decay, which is not even entirely checked by placing the
fruit in cold storage. The sugar gradually ferments and disappears. The
fruit becomes more spongy and less palatable and its general properties
are impaired. Other fruits, such as the orange and lemon, berries,
etc., contain little or no starch at any period of their growth. By
careful storage the period of maturity may be prolonged for weeks or
even months, and thus the fruit made available over a very much longer
period than would otherwise be the case. Under the existing conditions
of communication with all parts of the world it is not impracticable
for even those who are not blest with wealth to have a daily supply of
fresh fruits grown in different parts of the world. In temperate climes
fresh fruits are available from June until May of the following year,
either furnished directly from the orchard or properly preserved by
storage.


=Apples.=--The apple is one of the principal fruits in the market both
for its crop value and for its general properties.

It is the most abundant as well as the most valuable of fruits. The
apple is grown practically in all parts of the United States, but
there are some localities in which the apple tree flourishes in great
abundance. Among the states which are famous for apple growing may be
mentioned New York, Virginia, Michigan, and Missouri.

The varieties of apples are so numerous that it will be useless to
attempt to mention them. Some of the most important are the Ben Davis,
the Pippin, the Winesap, Jonathan, Rhode Island Greening, York,
Albemarle Pippin, Clayton, Early Harvester, Sweet June, Tompkins King,
Northern Spy, Russet, Yellow Bellflower, etc.


_Acidity of Apples._--One of the chief points in the palatability of
apples as well as in their general character is their acidity. While
apples are not relished when too sour they are as little relished
when too sweet. The sugar and acid in apples are the chief factors
in their palatability, not excluding the delicate flavor imparted by
essential oils and ethereal substances which, though present in such
small quantities as not to be measured chemically, nevertheless are
highly important in making up the total effect of palatability and
wholesomeness. The chief acid in apples is malic. It exists during all
periods of the growth of the apple, but is more apparent in the green
and immature state than in the ripe fruit. The relative quantity of
malic acid in respect of sugar and starch is given under the heading of
“Behavior of Apples During Storage.”


_Adulteration of Apples._--There is, of course, no adulteration of
apples in their natural state except the attempt which is sometimes
made to deceive the purchaser respecting the character of the whole
package by placing the best and most attractive fruit on the top. This
is such a well known practice, though regrettable, as not to demand any
particular comment. The purchaser who has his own interest at stake
will usually inspect the bottom as well as the top of the package
before buying. The chief forms of debasement are those which are not
practiced with any attempt to deceive. They consist in offering apples
which are bruised by carelessness in gathering, or which are infected
by insect life. In fact the greatest damage to which the apple is
subject is that of the ravages of insects. There are certain kinds
of insects which naturally breed in the apple. The egg is often laid
in the early development of the fruit and by the time the apples are
ready for consumption the larvæ stage has been reached and the worm has
produced ravages to a great extent which are often not indicated by
any external appearance. It is evident that the farmer cannot be held
responsible in all cases for this condition of the fruit. Nevertheless
it is only fair to state that in the modern development of the spraying
industry the ravages of insect pests can be restrained and controlled,
if not entirely prevented, by the proper spraying of the fruit. This
spraying introduces another danger which cannot be forgotten, namely,
the remaining upon the surface of the fruit of some of the spraying
material itself. If present at all this material is apt to be either at
the point of the junction of the stem with the fruit or at the opposite
extremity of the apple. For this reason the fruit when eaten raw should
be peeled in order that any remaining particles of the poisonous
material used in spraying may be removed. It is to the interest of the
merchant to present fruit of this kind in the most attractive form, by
the exclusion of bruised, rotten, or infected apples and the offering
of the sound, ripe fruit in as presentable a condition as possible.


_Composition of Apples at Various Stages of Maturity._--The following
table shows the analysis made of one variety of apple, the Baldwin, at
various stages of maturity:

  ------------+-------+------+------+-------+---------+------
              |       |      |      |       | ACIDITY |
              |       |      |      |       | AS MALIC|
              |       |INVERT| CANE |       |  ACID.  |
   CONDITION. |SOLIDS.|SUGAR.|SUGAR.|STARCH.|PER CENT.| ASH.
  ------------+-------+------+------+-------+---------+------
              | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per- |  _Per-  |_Per-
              | cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._|  cent._ |cent._
  Very green, | 18.47 | 6.40 | 1.63 |  4.14 |   1.14  | 0.27
  Green,      | 20.19 | 6.46 | 4.05 |  3.67 |   ....  | ....
  Ripe,       | 19.64 | 7.70 | 6.81 |   .17 |    .65  |  .27
  Overripe,   | 19.70 | 8.81 | 5.26 |  None |    .48  |  .28
  ------------+-------+------+------+-------+---------+------

The chief point of interest in the above analysis is the gradual
decline of the starch. When the apple is overripe the starch is
entirely gone. When the apple is ripe only a small part of the starch
is found. In the green apple very large quantities of starch are found.
The sugar increases as the starch diminishes. There is a little over
14 percent of sugar in the perfectly ripe apple but much less in the
green. The acidity calculated as malic acid diminishes as maturity is
approached. In general it may be said that in the ripening of an apple
the starch is converted into sugar and the acidity is diminished.

The composition of apples varies very greatly, as may be easily
understood, with the variety of the apple examined, the character of
the season in which it grew, and with the individual apple or sample.
The best that can be done in showing the composition of apples is to
give some of the most reliable analyses, covering the largest range of
examinations in this and other countries. In the following table are
given three sets of analyses of American apples and two sets of foreign
apples, the first three being American and the second series being
foreign.

The table gives the number of samples included in the analytical data,
and the mean, maximum, and minimum results of the analyses.

  -----------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------
             |     |       |      |ACIDITY|      |      |      |
             | NO. |       |      |  EX-  |  PRO-|      |      |
             |  OF |       |      |PRESSED|  TEIN| RE-  |      |
             | SAM-| TOTAL |      |  AS   |  N × |DUCING| CANE | CRUDE
             |PLES.|SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄.| 6.25.|SUGAR.|SUGAR.|FIBER.
  -----------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------
             |     | _Per- |_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per-|_Per-
             |     | cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._
  _Series 1_:|     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
    Average, |     | 13.77 | .240 |  .376 |  .590|  7.04| 4.59 | ....
    Maximum, |  13 | 16.47 | .320 |  .670 |  .806|  ....| 7.79 | ....
    Minimum, |     |  9.37 | .170 |  .190 |  .356|  ....| 1.80 | ....
  _Series 2_:|     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
    Average, |     | 16.43 | .27  |  .486 |  ....|  7.92| 3.99 | ....
    Maximum, |  27 | 23.36 | .34  |  .811 |  ....| 11.75| 6.81 | ....
    Minimum, |     | 13.46 | .17  |  .073 |  ....|  5.34| 1.74 | ....
  _Series 3_:|     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
    Average, |     | 13.65 | .288 |  .452 |  .694|  8.73| 1.53 | 0.96
    Maximum, |  23 | 16.55 | .404 |  .863 | 1.094| 10.80| 2.81 | 1.29
    Minimum, |     | 10.60 | .228 |  .139 |  .421|  6.89|  .15 |  .70
             |     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
  FOREIGN    |     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
  VARIETY.   |     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
  _Series 1_:|  17 | 16.42 | .310 |  .614 |  .39 |  7.73| .... | 1.98
  _Series 2_:|     |       |      |       |      |      |      |
    Average, |     | 15.07 | .290 |  .234 |  ....| 10.12|  .55 | ....
    Maximum, |   5 | 16.03 | .360 |  .329 |  ....| 10.69| 1.11 | ....
    Minimum, |     | 14.04 | .240 |  .190 |  ....|  9.77| None | ....
  -----------+-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------

The combination of the average data of the American series shows a mean
percentage of reducing or invert sugar of 7.90 and of cane sugar of
3.40. The average American apple therefore contains 11.30 percent sugar.


_Dietetic Value._--The wholesomeness of apples is well recognized by
all authors on physiology and hygiene, and the necessity of at least a
partial fruit diet is acknowledged by all. Inasmuch as the apple is one
of the most abundant of fruits, being produced in enormous quantities
and sold often at a very low rate, its value as a food product is
probably not as fully acknowledged by our own people as it should be.
Through a greater part of the year apples can be made a staple article
of diet. They are, of course, to be most highly recommended uncooked,
and especially those varieties which have high palatable qualities and
a suitable softness of texture. Very hard apples, even if palatable,
are not recommended for eating raw. In a cooked state the apples are
scarcely less wholesome and nutritious than in the raw state. It is
true that in pastry their good qualities are often counteracted by the
poor quality of the pastry envelop which, by reason of the method of
its preparation, usually with an excessive quantity of lard or some
other oil or fat, is rendered sometimes not only unpalatable but also
difficult of digestion. In a stewed condition or prepared in some
other unobjectionable manner no adverse criticism can be made upon the
quality of the apple as an edible product. It may also be preserved in
cans by sterilization by the process described under canned fruits. In
this condition the product is known as “canned apples.” When prepared
in this way the apples are often flavored with sugar and sometimes with
spices.

Many suggestions are often given as to the proper time for eating
apples, but it probably makes little difference, so far as their
dietary or hygienic character is concerned, whether they are eaten
before or after meals or during meals. Since it is advisable, as a
rule, not to introduce into the stomach continually fresh portions of
food, it may be regarded as safe advice to suggest that the consumption
of fruit be made practically a function of the meal and that it be
not used indiscriminately, loading the stomach between meals with
additional quantities of material which require digestion.


_Length of Harvest._--By selecting varieties that mature early in
the summer, in the early autumn, and in the late autumn the period
for harvesting apples may be prolonged in the northern states from
August to November. During this period, if the different varieties are
properly selected for the maturing time, the ripe apple can be offered
to the markets fresh from the tree during the entire season. As a rule
the later maturing varieties are more palatable, more aromatic, and
more nutritious than those that mature early.


_Pectose Content of Apples._--The juice of apples like the juice
of many other fruits has the property of coagulating to a solid or
semi-solid material on boiling to a proper consistence and allowing to
stand. It is due, essentially, to the existence of pectin or pectose
bodies as described in the introduction on the chapter on fruits. This
is a body allied to the carbohydrates and must be regarded as one
of the essential constituents of apples and as imparting to them a
characteristic flavor and quality.


_Picking and Care of Apples._--The greatest difficulty experienced in
marketing apples is in the danger of bruising either at the time of
picking or during transportation. The apple when removed from the tree
still remains a living organism with all of its functional activities,
except additional growth, continuing in full power. As a rule, at the
time of picking the apple is not yet mature, and unless intended for
immediate consumption the utmost care should be exercised that the skin
be not broken or the flesh bruised. Wherever the flesh of the apple is
bruised it lessens its vitality and decay soon begins. This is shown
very conclusively in the studies in the Bureau of Chemistry, where
it was found that the starch which is still present in apples at the
time of picking is gradually converted into sugar during the storage
of the apple, thus increasing the palatability of the fruit. In those
parts of the flesh that have been bruised and the vitality impaired the
starch remains unchanged during the process of ripening. By the careful
picking of the fruit and wrapping in soft papers, so as to prevent
bruising in transit, apples of the proper character can be transported
long distances, even beyond the seas, and arrive in good condition.
This is an especially important fact in the American product, because
our foreign trade in fresh apples is very large and constantly
growing. It is useless to attempt to send a bruised or decaying apple
on a long journey, since it will arrive in a condition unfit for
consumption and, further than this, the organisms which are active in
decay are conveyed to the sound fruit, and thus a whole package may be
infected from a single apple in bad condition.


_Storage of Apples._--The apple is a crop which is capable of being
stored through many months, especially in winter time, without any
material deterioration. The subject of the storage of apples has been
carefully studied in the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant
Industry, and the following are some of the conclusions which have been
reached:


_Tannin Principle._--Apples, as is the case with other fruits, have a
notable content of tannin in some form. This constituent of apples is
also active in giving flavor and palatability to the product. It is
not present in quantities which render the apple unusually bitter or
styptic in its character. Inasmuch as tannin is practically a universal
constituent of all vegetable substances it must not be neglected as
a normal constituent of fruit, while some of the fruits, especially
the grape, owe some of their chief characteristics as to flavor and
palatability to their tannin content.


_Preparation of Apples for Drying._--The apples usually are brought to
the large factories in wagons or by railway and are pared and sliced
by machinery. Where proper control is exercised all the imperfect,
rotten, and infected apples are rejected, and are used either for
cattle feeding or sometimes, unfortunately, in cider making. The sound
apples, after they are pared and sliced, are placed in trays and passed
to a sulfuring apparatus where they are exposed to the fumes of burning
sulfur to prevent their becoming dark upon evaporation. In other
words it is essentially a bleaching process. The fumes of sulfur are
also strongly antiseptic in character, and thus the finished product
is less likely to decay or become infected with mould than a similar
product not exposed to the fumes of sulfur. This process is extensively
practiced, but its extent does not render it immune from proper
criticism. Of 24 samples of evaporated fruits purchased on the open
market 13 samples had been treated with sulfur fumes. This shows that
over 50 percent of evaporated fruits are sulfured during the process
of preparation and evaporation. The greater number of physiological
and hygienic experts agree that the fumes of burning sulfur, commonly
known as sulfurous acid, are injurious to health. It has been shown by
researches in the Bureau of Chemistry that sulfurous acid or sulfites
have a specific influence upon the red corpuscles of the blood, tending
to diminish them very largely in relative numbers. This acid has also
many other influences upon metabolism of an objectionable character.
The question is one worthy of very careful consideration--whether for
the sake of preserving a light color and securing immunity from mould
or decay it is advisable to introduce into a food product any quantity
whatever of a substance injurious to health. The answer to this
question seems almost unavoidable, and it is, and should be, negative.
It is highly advisable that the manufacturer of evaporated apples, as
well as other fruits treated in a similar manner, should at once begin
a series of experimental determinations for the purpose of ascertaining
whether or not a product equally as palatable and more wholesome
cannot be made without the use of sulfurous acid. The result of this
investigation cannot be doubted. There is no doubt whatever, even at
the present time, that by the elimination of the sulfuring process
a product can be made which is far more wholesome, although perhaps
not so presentable as that which is now made. If all manufacturers of
evaporated fruits practice the same method there can be no injury in
the market as a result of a darker color which the finished product
would assume. On the contrary the consumer of this product would soon
understand that the darker color was due to a more hygienic method of
preparation, and hence the product would be commended in such a way
as doubtless to enter more largely into consumption. Instead of the
manufacturer being injured by the prohibition of the use of sulfur he
would in a very short time be greatly benefited. It is hoped that by
the means of general information which is spread abroad concerning
matters of this kind among our people and also through the operations
of national and state laws the use of injurious substances, such as
the fumes of burning sulfur in connection with food products, may be
entirely discontinued.


_Dried Apples._--A very important industry in this country is the
preservation of apples by drying or evaporation. The term “dried”
apples is usually applied to the product which is naturally dried
by cutting the apples into convenient sizes and exposing them to
the action of the sun. This is more of a domestic than a commercial
industry, and until the introduction of artificial drying was practiced
very generally by the farmers’ wives of the country. It was not an
unusual thing in the autumn to see the roofs of smoke houses or
kitchens practically covered with sliced apples exposed to the drying
influence of the autumnal sun. In such cases care must be exercised
always to have the exposed articles under such control as to enable
them to be gathered up and put away when rain is threatening. The
dried apple is a wholesome fruit, although somewhat unattractive in
appearance owing to the darkening of the surface during the long
exposure necessary to secure the proper degree of evaporation. When
properly prepared the dried apple has its moisture content reduced to
approximately 30 percent or less.


_Evaporated Apples._--The term “evaporated” is applied to apples
produced on the same principle as “dried,” but instead of being exposed
to the heat of the sun they are artificially dried by evaporation. This
industry has reached a great magnitude in this country, and Wayne Co.,
New York, especially, may be regarded as one of the centers of the
evaporating industry.


=Cherries.=--The cultivated cherry tree is believed by Bailey and
Powell to have been derived from its ancestral type, the sour cherry
(_Prunus cerasus_ L.), which is characterized by a diffuse and
mostly low, round-headed growth with fruit which is always red, with
soft flesh and very sour taste, and from the sweet cherry (_Prunus
avium_ L.), a tall growing tree with the bark tending to peel off
in birch-like rings and with variously colored fruit, spherical or
heart-shaped, with the flesh hard or soft and generally sweet. There
are a great many varieties of these trees. The cherry orchard begins to
bear profitably at about the age of five years; the trees often live to
a great age and continue to bear fruit. Records of cherry trees over a
hundred years old are known. However, it is believed that about thirty
years is the limit for profitable bearing. Cherries grow in all parts
of the United States. Formerly the crop was a very important one in the
East, especially New York, but of late years the California cherries
have been more and more occupying the market. As a rule the California
cherries are finer in appearance, larger, and freer from worms and
imperfections, and possess a flavor which is often equal to that of the
best flavored cherries grown in the East.


_Composition of Cherries._--What has been said respecting the
variations in the composition of apples is applicable with equal force
to cherries. In the following table is given first the mean composition
of six samples of cherries of American origin with the maximum and
minimum. Following this is the mean composition of nine samples of
foreign cherries.

  ------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------
                    |      |       |      |ACIDITY|      |
                    |      |       |      |  EX-  | PRO- |
                    |NO. OF|       |      |PRESSED| TEIN |
                    | SAM- | TOTAL |      |   AS  |  N × | TOTAL
                    | PLES.|SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄.| 6.25.|SUGARS.
  ------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------
                    |      |  _Per-|_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |
                    |      | cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|
  _American origin_:|      |       |      |       |      |
     Average,       |      | 20.13 | .443 |  .432 | 1.425| 11.10
     Maximum,       |   6  | 38.84 | .521 |  .605 | 1.727| 12.75
     Minimum,       |      | 11.46 | .403 |  .328 | 1.100|  8.98
  _Foreign origin_: |      |       |      |       |      |
    Average,        |   9  | 19.74 | .73  |  .665 |  .620| 10.24
  ------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------

The data show that the average quantity of insoluble matter in cherries
is about the same whether of American or foreign origin. The total
solids represent that part of the cherry which is not water, including
principally the cellulose, the ash, and the protein. The quantity of
protein, as is seen, is quite small, the average being a little less
than 1¹⁄₂ percent. The total sugar present, including cane sugar and
reducing sugar, is a little over 11 percent. The analytical table does
not give the minute portions of essential oils, ethereal substances,
and acids to which the juice owes its distinctive flavor.


_Varieties._--There are a great many trade-names given to different
varieties of cherries. In New York the common varieties are the Black
Tartarian, Black Eagle, Napoleon, Yellow Spanish, Windsor, May Duke,
Robert’s Red Heart, Governor Wood, Early Richmond, etc.

A great many cherry trees are also grown in Iowa. The varieties
most prized in Iowa are the Malaheb, the Mazzard, Wild Bird Cherry,
Sand Cherry, American Morello, Russian Seedling, Northwest, Duchess
d’Angoulême, and very many others.

In Virginia the principal varieties, in addition to those mentioned,
which are cultivated, are the Coe, Early Purple, Kirtland Mary,
Rockport, Olivet, Philippe, etc.

The cherry owes one of its chief values to the fact that it is one
of the first orchard fruits to ripen. In the vicinity of Washington
cherries ripen in May, and further north not later than June. The
cherry, therefore, offers a delicious and wholesome fruit early in the
season, and is the precursor of the crops of orchard fruits which begin
early in May and last until the frosts of autumn. It is eaten raw,
stewed, or in the form of pie or pudding. For cooking purposes it is
desirable that the pit of the cherry be removed.


=Grapes.=--There is no fruit more highly esteemed in this and other
countries than grapes. The utilization of grapes for wine making is
reserved for discussion in the companion volume to the present manual
devoted to beverages. Table grapes are grown extensively in this
country in New York, Ohio, Virginia, Missouri, and California. In
fact, such grapes are grown in almost every state, but those mentioned
embrace the principal grape-growing districts. The Catawba and Delaware
varieties are the chief products of the northern vineyards. Many other
varieties are produced in California, such as the Tokay, Muscat, and
Malaga, while in the South one of the principal varieties is the
Scuppernong. The oldest grape vine known in the United States is the
original Scuppernong stock.

I am indebted to Dr. B. W. Kilgore, of Raleigh, N. C., for the
following description of the vine and also for Fig. 48.


  “THE SCUPPERNONG VINE ON ROANOKE ISLAND, NORTH CAROLINA.

  “The old scuppernong grape vine on Roanoke Island is probably the
  oldest fruiting plant in America--certainly one of the oldest of
  which there is definite knowledge. A clear record of it begins in
  1797, when the land on which it was growing was purchased by Maurice
  Baum. Previous to his purchase nothing definite is known as to its
  age or to whom it belonged, save the fact that it was then a very old
  vine, as Maurice Baum was told by his father that he had eaten grapes
  from it when a boy. From Maurice Baum the estate, of which the
  vine was a part, descended to his daughter, Mahala, and from her to
  Benjamin F. Meekins, her son, who is the present owner.

  “The vine is situated on the northern end and on the eastern shore
  of the island, about two miles south of the supposed site of Fort
  Raleigh. It covers an area of about one-fourth of an acre, and as far
  back as can be remembered its growth has been stationary, probably
  due to a lack of proper training and inducement to spread. The vine
  has five large trunks averaging two feet in circumference which
  are indescribably gnarled and twisted. It is still vigorous and
  yields abundantly, seemingly unaffected by age in this respect. A
  conservative estimate of its yield is an average of sixty bushels of
  grapes a season.”

[Illustration: FIG. 48.--SCUPPERNONG GRAPE VINE, ROANOKE
ISLAND.--(_Courtesy B. W. Kilgore._)]

There is no part of the country, however, that grows grapes so
abundantly as California. Many thousands of acres are covered with
vines, both for table use and wine making. The climate is remarkably
well suited to produce a grape very rich in sugar. The edible grapes do
not have so high a content of sugar as those used for wine making, as
is shown by the data below.


_Composition of California Grapes_ (three samples) (edible portion):

  Water,             80.12 percent
  Protein,            1.26    „
  Sugar,             16.50    „
  Pure ash,           0.50    „
  Fat, fiber, etc.,   1.62    „

The preceding analyses are evidently of grapes for table use. The juice
of the wine-making grapes of California, according to the composition
of the wine, contains about 24 percent of sugars.

The luxurious growth of the vine in California is illustrated by Fig.
49, showing a scene in a vineyard near Fresno, California.

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--VINEYARD NEAR FRESNO, CALIFORNIA.--(_Photograph
by H. W. Wiley._)]


=Peaches.=--One of the most valued orchard fruits in the United States
is the peach. The peach is a tree which is particularly sensitive to
the environment in respect of bearing a crop. In many localities where
peaches have once been valuable they have ceased to produce with any
regularity, which renders the planting of an orchard inadvisable. The
principal danger in the peach tree is the too early blooming and the
exposure of the tender fruit to late frosts. The peach tree is also
subject to many forms of disease, one of which, namely, the yellows,
has baffled up to the present time the efforts of the experts to
diagnose and treat. In planting a peach orchard experience has shown
that it is well to plant the trees upon high ground or upon the sides
of hills. By being placed on high ground near deep ravines it has been
found that the chilling of the air, which would naturally come with
frosts, makes the air heavier, so that it rolls down into the valleys,
replacing the air on the hills with fresh portions unchilled and thus
protecting the high ground from frost while the low ground is chilled
below the freezing point. Everyone must have noticed, especially in
the autumn at the time of the first frosts, that the vegetation in
low lying land is usually killed before that on the adjacent hills.
The peculiar susceptibility of the peach tree to the environment
mentioned above has practically confined the culture of peaches to
certain definite localities, as for instance to Michigan, Connecticut,
Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, and Georgia. The danger of late frosts
of course does not attach to the peach tree grown in California and
similarly situated localities. At the present time Georgia is probably
the most important peach-growing state in the Union, both on account of
the reasonable certainty of the crop and also because of the early date
at which the peach can reach the markets of the large cities of the
east and central portions of our country.

Many attempts have been made to protect the peach tree against the
danger of premature blossoming and consequent exposure to the late
frosts. In the cultivation of the trees it has been desirable to secure
a variety which blooms as late in the spring as possible. The building
of fires around a peach orchard in the spring when a frost is imminent
has sometimes protected the orchard from disaster. This process is
known as smudging. Another method of protecting the trees from the
danger of late frosts is by whitewashing. The colors which absorb heat
most readily are black and purple. White is one of the best protections
by reason of its reflective power. A whitewashing of the branches of
the trees and in fact of all the tree has been practiced with some
success as retarding the early bloom of the buds. Elaborate studies of
this method of treatment have been carried on by the Missouri station,
and it has been developed that there is a considerable difference
between the temperature of whitewashed and unwhitewashed peach twigs.
The whitewash is therefore recommended as a means of retarding the
development of the buds. The whitewashed trees bloom from a week to
ten days later than those which are not thus treated. It is reasonably
certain that by means of this kind or by cultivation a peach tree may
be produced in any given locality which will put forth its buds from
a week to ten days later than the normal period of blooming in that
neighborhood. In regions where the winters are severe, the development
of the tree in the early spring may also be prevented by placing straw
round about it when the ground is frozen. The straw protects the frozen
ground from rapid thawing and thus delays the development of the buds.
The varieties of peach trees are legion, and it is useless to try to
name them here. Some of the varieties most prized in Georgia are the
Bishop, Champion, Crawford’s Early, Chinese Free, Crimson Beauty,
Crosby, etc.


_Composition of the Peach._--Naturally, the peach varies greatly in
its composition according to the variety, environment, and general
accidental conditions. Its chief characteristics, of course, are the
acid which it contains, its sugar content, and the taste and aroma due
to the essential oils, ethers, etc., which are developed with proper
delicacy in the fruit. The peach also has a distinct flavor associated
with small quantities of hydrocyanic acid. This poisonous compound
is developed in considerable quantities in the kernel of the fruit,
and there are sufficient traces of the flavor above mentioned in the
fruit itself to give a distinct and characteristic taste. The mean
composition of some of the different varieties of peaches is given
below:

  Water,                          88.1 percent
  Protein,                          .7    „
  Fat,                              .1    „
  Ash,                              .7    „
  Sugar and other carbohydrates,  10.8    „


_Free and Cling Peach._--Peaches may be divided into two great classes
in respect of persistence with which the flesh adheres to the pit
of the fruit. Peaches in which the flesh is separated easily from
the pit, leaving the external surface of the pit dry and clean, are
called freestones, while in the other variety, where the flesh is
firmly attached to the pit and on the removal of the flesh a portion
adheres thereto, the term “clingstone” is applied. There is probably no
difference in the value of the two varieties, but by reason of the ease
with which the freestone peach can be utilized for eating and cooking
purposes it is sometimes preferred.

Since the development of rapid means of transportation and the
effective manner of cold storage the peach is exposed in the city
markets from early spring to late autumn. The peaches in Florida are
ready for the market in May and in Georgia from June on, while in the
north the peach ripens at later periods up to October. In fact in the
north the late peaches are esteemed as better in flavor and quality,
and especially suitable for canning and preserving purposes.


_Uses of the Peach._--Peaches are perhaps the most esteemed of all the
common fruits for eating purposes. On the table the sliced peaches with
sugar and cream is a common dish through the whole summer in almost
every part of the country. Peach cobbler (a deep pie) and peach pudding
are dishes which are highly esteemed.


=Plums.=--(Native Plums.) The following data represent the mean
composition of three samples of California plums:

  Total solids,  21.60 percent
  Ash,             .52    „
  Acidity,        1.00    „
  Protein,         .40    „
  Total sugars,  13.25    „

The plums imported from Japan and the hybrids produced therefrom
are considered of higher value than the native plum. The Japan plum
(_Prunus triflora_) has been introduced into this country for many
years. They are larger and handsomer and have better shipping qualities
than those of native origin, except perhaps in a few cases. The trees
are also less subject to that great enemy of the plum, the curculio,
than the native plum. Of the plum trees grown in Georgia the varieties
of native trees which are recommended are the Clifford and the Wilder,
of Japan trees the Lutts, Red June, Abundance, and Chabot, and of the
hybrid varieties, the Wickson. Plums in Georgia mature from the first
of June until the middle of July. Further north the date of maturity
is later. The plum, as well as the cherry, flourishes especially in
California, which is more famous for these fruits than any other state.


=Quince.=--The quince is a fruit which is not very extensively used
raw, but is valued chiefly as a preserve. The quince flourishes in
localities that produce good apples, but the magnitude of the crop is
very restricted as compared with apples.


SMALL FRUITS.


=Blackberries= (_Rubus nigrobaccus_ var. _Sativus_ Bailey).--Among the
small fruits one of the most common and abundant is the blackberry.
This fruit grows wild over large areas in the United States, mostly in
the middle portion between the extreme north and south. The brier on
which it grows is an annual plant, springing each year from the roots
and dying after bearing fruit. The plant is very largely cultivated,
bearing larger and more presentable berries, but gaining nothing in
flavor and palatability. The berries are generally black when fully
ripe, though red during the ripening stage and sometimes when mature.
They are eaten raw, stewed, and in pies or “cobblers.” The berry is
extensively used for making jams, jellies, and preserves, and for
canning purposes. The juice of the berry is used for making a wine,
usually with the admixture of sugar. Blackberry cordial is blackberry
juice preserved in whisky or brandy.


=Dewberry.=--This is a variety of blackberry in which the vines lie on
the ground instead of standing upright. Some of the dewberries possess
unusual fragrance and palatability. In other respects they conform to
the statements relating to blackberries.


=Gooseberry= (_Ribes oxyacanthoides_ L.).--The gooseberry resembles
very closely the currant in its general properties. In the European
gooseberry the surface is covered with prickles, but the American
variety is smooth. The gooseberry bush is found in most gardens,
affording a fruit of high condimental value. The fruit is eaten raw,
but principally in pies and as preserves.


=Huckleberry= (_Gaylussacia resinosa_ Torr. and Gray).--The fruit
of the huckleberry bush is used very extensively for making pies,
especially in the northeastern parts of the United States. There
are many varieties of the berry on the markets. The blueberry is one
variety that is very abundant. The term whortleberry is also applied to
this fruit.


=Mulberry= (_Morus nigra_).--The mulberry grows wild over extensive
areas in the United States, especially in the Ohio valley. It is a
tree valued highly for its wood, which is lasting and excellent for
fence-posts. The berries ripen early in the summer or late in the
spring and are used as food to a limited extent.


=Raspberry= (_Rubus strigosus_ Michx.).--The raspberry is nearly
related to the blackberry in all of its characters. It is chiefly a
cultivated plant, being less hardy than the blackberry, and therefore
not growing wild to such an extent. The fruit matures just before
the blackberry, and is usually of a red color and of a pleasant
characteristic taste.


=Strawberry= (_Fragaria Chiloensis_ Ehrh.).--For edible purposes in its
fresh state the strawberry is the most important of the small fruits.
It is offered on the markets at all seasons of the year--ripening in
the winter time in Florida and California and coming into the markets
in the late summer in the northern and northeastern states. It grows
on vines lying on the ground and ripens early in the spring in the
latitude of Washington, viz., from about the middle of May. It is eaten
raw--often with sugar and cream--more extensively than any other small
fruit. The wild strawberry is not so large as the cultivated variety,
but is more highly prized for its aroma and taste.


_Composition of Small Fruits._--

                                                 SUGAR,
                                                 STARCH
                   WATER.   PROTEIN.    FAT.      ETC.      ASH.
                  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.
  Blackberries,    86.3       1.3       1.0      10.9       0.5
  Cranberries,     88.9       0.4       0.6       9.9       0.2
  Huckleberries,   81.9       0.6       0.6      16.6       0.3
  Raspberries,     84.1       1.7       1.0      12.6       0.6
  Strawberries,    85.9       0.9       0.6       7.0       0.6


TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS.

(Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry.)


=Anona.=--This is a variety of edible fruit grown in the tropics,
especially in Cuba, but on account of its restricted production is
of little importance. There are three varieties, known as follows:
Sweet-sop (anona) (_Anona squamosa_ L.), sour-sop (guanabana) (_Anona
muricata_ L.), and custard apple (chirimoya) (_Anona reticulata_ L.).
The sour-sop is a green, irregular-shaped, pod-like fruit, varying
from 3¹⁄₂ inches to 12 inches in length and about two-thirds as broad
near the top, and curving to a blunt point at the lower end. The skin
is thick and covered with numerous small, hooked briers. The pulp has
the appearance of wet cotton and surrounds the numerous seed sacs
containing the small brown seeds. A fibrous core runs through the fruit
from the stem to the lower point. The fruit weighs from 3.5 ounces to
2.2 pounds. The flavor is acid, but not too much so. This fruit is
more extensively used in the manufacture of cooling beverages than
directly as a food, but it is also used very extensively for making
preserves. The sweet-sop resembles the sour-sop in general character,
but does not attain by any means to so large a size. The fruit is
heart-shaped and deeply creased. The pulp contains more sugar and less
acid than that of the sour-sop. This variety is eaten fresh and is also
used for flavoring beverages, but is not extensively used for making
preserves. The third variety, known as the custard apple, varies in
color from light green to reddish brown, and is shaped something like
a strawberry. It has a thick skin and black seeds, and a pulp very
similar to that of sweet-sop in flavor. It is eaten chiefly raw, and is
not very extensively used in the manufacture of preserves.


_Composition of the Sour- and Sweet-sop Varieties._--

  ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+--------
        | EDIBLE |       | TOTAL |        |      |
        |PORTION.|SOLIDS.|SUGAR. |PROTEIN.| ASH. |ACIDITY.
  ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+--------
        |  _Per- |  _Per-|  _Per-|  _Per- | _Per-|  _Per-
        | cent._ | cent._| cent._| cent._ |cent._| cent._
  ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+--------
  Sour- |        |       |       |        |      |
  sop,  | 72.30  | 19.03 | 13.07 |  1.65  |  .41 |    .51
  Sweet-|        |       |       |        |      |
  sop,  | 30.00  | 28.10 | 10.07 |  2.13  |  .92 |    .20
  ------+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+--------

The above analyses show that the anona is a fruit which has about half
the nutritive value of the banana. It has a much larger percentage of
waste, especially the sweet-sop variety, where nearly three-fourths of
the fruit is not edible.


_Anona Preserves._--The anona preserves should be made exclusively
with sugar and thus have the character of the fruit modified only by
the amount of sugar added. In one sample of preserves analyzed the
following data were obtained:

  Total solids,  54.33 percent
  Total sugar,   49.66    „
  Protein,         .73    „
  Ash,             .43    „
  Acidity,         .19    „

The above data show that the natural constituents of the fruit have
been diminished in quantity in proportion to the amount of sugar added.


=The Avocado= (_Persea persea_).--The avocado is a fruit which has
only lately been introduced into the United States. Its common name is
alligator pear and it is already very highly prized.

The cultivation of the alligator pear was first undertaken as a
novelty, and its real value as a dessert fruit is only beginning to be
appreciated. It is evident that this fruit will have a great vogue in
the near future, and will be in much demand as soon as its production
is on a scale which makes it accessible to the people of ordinary
means. The edible part of the fruit is a sweet, soft substance with
an agreeable taste and of a semi-solid consistence. It has a nutty and
peculiar flavor which is highly prized.

In the regions where the alligator pear is grown it is often used in
the raw state or after having been treated with a little salt. It is
highly prized when served in this manner. It is also often cut into
small pieces and put into soup and is said to give a most agreeable
odor and flavor thereto. The ripe fruit has different colors; it may be
green, yellow, brown or dark purple or a combination of any of these
colors. The alligator pear is particularly valued as a salad fruit.


_Composition of the Avocado._--

  Water,             81.10 percent
  Protein,            1.00    „
  Fat,               10.20    „
  Starch and sugar,   6.80    „
  Ash,                 .90    „

The above data show that the alligator pear is not a fruit which is
very highly nutritious. Its principle nutrient is fat, the next most
important being starch and sugar, but it is extremely deficient in
protein, and therefore could not be regarded as a balanced ration. Its
principle value, therefore, is mostly on account of its condimental
properties rather than for its nutrients. Bulletins 61 and 77 of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, give important
information regarding the avocado. The accompanying illustration is
taken from Bulletin 77, above mentioned.

From the amount of fat in the alligator pear it might be regarded as
a nut instead of a fruit, but its paucity of nitrogenous constituents
excludes it from that category.


=Bananas= (_Musa_).--One of the most abundant and most important of
the tropical fruits, for food purposes, is the banana. The banana
is not grown to any extent for food purposes in the United States,
though it is produced on a limited scale in southern Florida. Immense
quantities of bananas come into this country from the Central American
states, particularly from Guatemala and Nicaragua. This fruit can be
landed at New Orleans at very small expense for transportation, and for
this reason can be distributed all over the country at a price which
looks to be ridiculously small when it is considered that the fruit
comes from so great a distance. It is also sent in large quantities
to other ports, notably New York, Boston, and Baltimore. For shipping
purposes the banana is gathered while still green, and often the
ripening has not reached the stage when the ordinary yellow color
which characterizes the ripe fruit is seen when it reaches the markets
in the center of the country. The banana is not only valued for its
peculiar flavor, which is pleasant and sweet, sometimes almost too much
so, but it also has a high nutritive value, being a substance rich in
carbohydrates and growing in such abundance that its price is within
the reach of the poorest classes. Great quantities of bananas are also
grown in Cuba, but they are mostly consumed by the native population,
forming one of the principal foods of the island.

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--AVOCADO TREE.--(_Courtesy Department of
Agriculture._)]

The banana has perhaps less waste than almost any other fruit, as
the whole of the inner portion is edible. In the green fruit there
is a large proportion of starch, which gradually changes into invert
sugar in the ripe fruit. In thoroughly mature bananas the quantity of
sugar is relatively high and the quantity of starch correspondingly
low. Bananas are not only eaten raw but also fried and in various
other forms. The banana is a fruit which, when properly cared for,
can be transported over long distances and kept for a long time. When
properly prepared the banana forms a nutritious diet, probably equal
in value to the same amount of solid matter contained in the common
fresh fruits. One hundred grams may be taken as the average weight
of the banana, although some of them are very much larger. About 70
percent of the banana is edible and 30 percent inedible, that is, the
skin, which while not wholly inedible is usually rejected. The banana
is essentially a carbohydrate food, the percentage of protein not
usually rising above 1.3. Nearly all the carbohydrates in the ripe
fruit consist of sugars which are present both as reducing and as cane
sugars. The average total percentage of sugar present in the banana is
a little over 20.

The composition of the banana is shown in the following table which
contains the data of analyses of two samples bought in the open market
in Washington.

  ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
           |  EDIBLE  |  SOLIDS. |   TOTAL  | PROTEIN. |   ASH.
           | PORTION. |          |  SUGARS. |          |
  ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
           |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Sample 1,|  62.10   |  26.13   |  21.71   |   1.13   |    .84
  Sample 2,|  64.50   |  26.24   |  21.76   |   1.21   |    .86
  ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The analytical data were obtained upon the edible portion and not upon
the whole fruit.

The bananas which are imported from Jamaica and Central America are
represented by the analyses given above. They are commonly known as
the Johnson banana. Smaller fruits with better flavors are grown in
Cuba,--some of them are of a red color like the oronoco and colorado.
The indiano is a large, yellow, angular fruit with a salmon-colored
pulp and a rather disagreeable acid flavor.

With reference to the banana as a food product it is seen that,
including the starch and digestible cellulose, it consists of at least
25 percent, in its edible portion, of carbohydrates suitable for food
purposes. Its low content of protein indicates that it is not a well
balanced ration, but should be eaten in connection with beans, peas,
or other vegetables rich in protein, or with lean meat in order to
secure a proper quantity of protein in the diet.

On account of the great abundance of the product and luxuriance of
growth in the Central American states, it is evident that the banana
might become a profitable source of industrial alcohol in that locality.


=Cashew= (=Maranon=) (_Anacardium occidentale_).--The cashew, of which
the principal habitat is Cuba, is a small, oddly shaped, yellow and
red fruit from two to three inches long and from ¹⁄₂ to two inches
in diameter at the bottom, decreasing gradually in diameter toward
the top. The seed is small and kidney-shaped and grows outside of the
fruit at the lower end. The seed is regarded as poisonous until it has
been roasted, due probably to the presence of hydrocyanic acid. After
roasting it is regarded as a delectable edible. The meat of the seed of
the cashew resembles the roasted chestnut, but contains more oil. The
pulp is of a dull yellow color, is tough and very juicy, with an acid
astringent flavor and a disagreeable odor. The fruit is not eaten raw
but chiefly in preserves. The composition of the cashew is shown in the
following table:


_Composition of Edible Portion--85.9 percent._--

  Solids,  12.84 percent
  Sugar,    6.76    „
  Acid,      .31    „
  Ash,       .36    „

The composition is somewhat like that of the hicaco, but the cashew
contains a larger proportion of acid and hence is better suited for
preserves. The sample of cashew preserves examined had the following
composition:

  Solids,   71.22 percent
  Sugar,    66.89    „
  Protein,    .26    „
  Acidity,    .08    „
  Ash,        .14    „


=Citrus Fruits.=--The term “citrus fruit” is applied to that class
of fruits represented by the orange, lemon, grape fruit, and lime.
In the United States extensive areas are devoted to the production
of citrus fruits, and it is claimed by connoisseurs that some of the
best varieties grown anywhere in the world are the products of this
country. Florida and southern California are two localities where
the development of the citrus fruit industry has been carried to the
greatest extent. The phenomenally cold winter which occurred in Florida
some ten years ago almost ruined the citrus fruit industry in that
state for the time being. In the reëstablishment of it the center of
production has been extended farther south than it was before. It
is believed that at the present time the industry has been extended
sufficiently far south in the Florida peninsula to avoid any repetition
of the great disaster which ruined the citrus groves in certain
portions of the state at the time mentioned. The climate of southern
California is more equable, and no injury has ever been experienced in
that location from very low temperature. In Florida the oranges are
cultivated without irrigation, while in southern California irrigation
is universally practiced. The seasonal conditions are therefore under
better control in California than in Florida.

[Illustration: DRYING FIGS

  1. SMYRNA          3. ADRIATIC
  2. SMYRNA SECTION  4. ADRIATIC SECTION

_From Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1897_]


=Figs= (_Ficus carica_ L.).--The fig is a fruit which is well known in
biblical and profane history. Together with the grape it is the fruit
which is most often mentioned in the Bible.

The importance of the fig as a fruit and food is recognized in all
the earlier writings, both sacred and profane. When dried and pressed
into convenient forms it is a food which can be easily transported,
and makes a ration well suited to supply heat and energy, although
deficient in nitrogen in so far as a complete ration is concerned.
The fig tree is extensively cultivated in all localities where the
temperature permits its growth. It grows in the open in the whole
southern part of the United States, and I have seen fig trees of large
size grow in the yard as far north as Washington.

The fig tree grows luxuriantly and to a great size in California, and
the fruit, both fresh and dried, is of superior excellence. A typical
illustration of a California fig tree is shown in Fig. 51.

The Smyrna fig has lately been introduced into the southern and western
part of the United States with great success. It grows especially well
in the southern part of California and Arizona. The Smyrna fig is one
of the varieties which requires fertilization of the flower through the
mediation of an insect. This process is called caprification. Although
this variety of fig has only been introduced into California to any
extent in the last five or six years, the growth of this most highly
esteemed variety has so increased that at the present time the output
of California alone amounts to about twelve million pounds per annum.
The Smyrna and Adriatic figs, used largely for drying and preserving
purposes, are seen in their natural colors in the appended colored
plate.


_Composition of Fresh Figs (Edible Portion)._--

  Water,             79.11 percent
  Protein,            1.52    „
  Sugar,             15.53    „
  Pure ash,            .58    „
  Fat, fiber, etc.,   3.26    „


_Composition of Dried Figs._--

  Water,            28.78 percent
  Total sugar,      51.43    „
  Acid as malic,      .71    „
  Protein,           3.58    „
  Ether extract,     1.27    „
  Cellulose, etc.,   5.29    „
  Crude fiber,       6.19    „
  Ash,               2.75    „

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--FIG TREE THIRTY FEET HIGH NEAR YUBA,
CALIFORNIA.--(_Photograph by H. W. Wiley._)]

The interesting process of caprification is thus described by Professor
Hugh N. Starnes of the Georgia Experiment Station:

“In the base or false ovary of the gall flowers, which are merely
degenerate pistillates, the egg of the _Blastophaga grossorum_ or fig
wasp--a minute insect--is deposited and develops to maturity. The
wingless males emerge first and, with their powerful mandibles, cut
into the flowers containing the female wasps, partially release them,
and impregnate them. The gravid females shortly complete the liberating
process and, being winged, at once seek to escape for the instinctive
purpose of laying their eggs. They emerge from the eye of the
caprifig, after squeezing through the mass of pollen-covered anthers
protecting the exit, and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs.
Naturally they would enter the nearest caprifig in the proper stage of
development. But, meanwhile, if the caprifig containing the colony has
been plucked from its stem and suspended in the branches of an adjacent
Smyrna tree, the female on emerging forces her way in a fruit of the
latter class, losing her wings in the process, and at once begins a
frantic scramble around the interior, searching for the anticipated
gall flowers in which to deposit her eggs. Failing, necessarily, to
find them, and incapable of again taking flight, she finally curls up
and dies heartbroken, but not until she and her companions have between
them pollinated every female flower in the cavity with the plentiful
store of pollen conveyed from the caprifig--thereby insuring the
development of the fruit.”


=Grape Fruit= (=Pomelo=) (_Citrus decumana_).--The so-called grape
fruit or pomelo is one of the biggest products of the citrus family and
also possesses properties which may be regarded as a cross between the
lemon and the orange. It is more acid than the orange and more sweet
than the lemon. This fruit is perhaps more highly esteemed than any
other citrus variety for direct edible purposes, forming a breakfast
dish which is eaten very extensively throughout all parts of the United
States by those who are able to afford the luxury, for so it still is
by reason of the high price of the product. Grape fruit grows to a
large extent in the United States, and its culture is confined to the
same region as that where the orange and lemon are grown.


_Composition of Grape Fruit (Pomelo)._--The composition of the pomelo
as given for the California product (Station Report, 1892, p. 256)
shows this fruit to have the following composition:

  Average weight,  357.00 grams
  Rind,             23.50 percent
  Seeds,             3.70    „
  Edible portion,   72.80    „

Composition of the juice from the edible portion:

  Total solids,       13.20 percent
  Total sugars,        9.50    „
  Acids (as citric),   2.70    „

Professor Colby says in discussing these analyses that the proportion
of acid is larger in these samples than the general taste demands.


_Cuban Grape Fruit._--The grape fruit which is grown in Cuba has quite
a different character. Its flavor is mild, and it is almost devoid of
the bitter taste which is found in the American product, and which
adds greatly to its palatable properties when the consumer becomes
accustomed to it.

A marmalade is made from the grape fruit similar in all respects,
except the peculiar flavor given by the raw material, to that made
from oranges. It is evident from its high palatable properties and its
wholesomeness that grape fruit will become more and more an article of
value and be consumed in large quantities throughout the country.


=Guava= (_Psidium Guajava_).--This fruit is grown very extensively in
both California and Florida, also in Cuba, where a number of varieties
grow wild. The white guava is a small, round fruit, grayish-white
or yellow in color, and having an average weight of 1.5 ounces. The
pear-shaped fruit, the guava of Peru, is about twice the size of
the white variety, but otherwise resembles it very closely. Both
varieties contain large numbers of small seeds scattered throughout
the yellowish-white pulp. As a rule the guava is not eaten raw, but it
is a fruit from which some of the most highly prized jelly pastes and
preserves are made.


_Composition of the Guava._--The guava contains, in its fresh state,
an average of a little less than 80 percent of water and a little
more than 20 percent of solid matter. The solid materials in guavas
are quite insoluble in water, more than one-half of them not passing
into solution. The chief part of the soluble constituents of guavas
are the sugars, and these exist chiefly in the invert state. The total
percentage of sugar in guavas in the fresh state averages about six,
the protein amounts to about one percent, and the ash to a little over
one-half of one percent. The value of the guava, therefore, is more
condimental than nutritive, and for this reason it is seen why it is
not a valuable food product eaten in the raw state.


_Guava Preserves._--A large number of preserves are made from the
guava, and these products are well known and relished throughout the
country. The preserves are in various forms, being chiefly pastes,
marmalades, and jellies. These preparations contain the aromas and
flavoring qualities of the fruit, and when pure contain no added
product save sugar. They contain from 60 to 75 percent of added
sugar. The preserved products of the guava are generally packed in
wooden boxes, lined with paper, though some are packed in glass. The
crystallized guava, the guava cream, and the pastes contain large
quantities of added sugar, namely, about 80 percent. These preserves
naturally have a very low acid content by reason of the quantity of
sugar which has been added in their preparation. In this country often
the whole fruits are preserved in sugar sirup.


=Hicaco= (_Chrysobalanus icaco_).--The fruit of the hicaco is small and
round, varying from one to three inches in diameter. The average weight
of each fruit is about ¹⁄₄ oz. The skin is thin and green in color,
shading to red on the side exposed to the sun. It grows on a small
shrub and is sometimes called the cocoa plum. The surface is somewhat
shrivelled and wrinkled, and the seed weighs almost half as much as the
whole fruit. The fruit is not eaten in a fresh state, but is used for
making preserves. It is sweet to the taste and has a low acid content.
The composition of the fresh fruit is shown by the following table:


_Composition of Edible Portion--68.9 percent._--

  Total solids,  14.29 percent
  Total sugar,    5.18    „
  Protein,         .46    „
  Acidity,         .10    „
  Ash,             .96    „

These data show that the hicaco is a fruit low in nutritive value, in
so far as sugar is concerned, of a low content of protein and very
slight acidity.


_Hicaco Preserves._--A sample of hicaco preserves was found to have the
following composition:

  Total solids,  65.07 percent
  Sugar,         60.08    „
  Protein,         .12    „
  Ash,             .14    „
  Acidity,         .05    „

The above data indicate only the change in composition which would
come from adding the sugar in the process of manufacture. By reason
of the low acidity of the fruit the sugar in the preserves would,
theoretically, be largely cane sugar. In the case mentioned, however,
one-third of the sugar was inverted. Whether this was accomplished by
the action of the acid on the sugar during the process of manufacture
or whether by the use of molasses instead of sugar in the preserves
does not appear. More likely it is due to the latter.


=Kumquat= (_Citrus japonica_).--The kumquat is one of the smallest of
citrus fruits. It stands as one extreme of that important family of
which the grape fruit or pomelo represents the other. The fruit is
oval in shape, about one inch in diameter, and is one and one-half
inches long. It may be regarded as a dwarf orange, and was brought
into the United States from Japan, although it is a native of China.
The name--kumquat--is of Chinese origin and is intended to mean “Gold
Orange.” The kumquat tree, under favorable circumstances, reaches a
height of 10 or 12 feet and forms a compact, symmetrical, and handsome
head. The pulp of the fruit is very tender and agreeably acid and the
rind is spicy, as is the case with most of the acid fruits. It is
not only valued as a fruit, but the tree is also highly prized as an
ornament. Its beautifully colored fruit, in contrast with its green
leaves, presents a most agreeable spectacle. It is grown in the United
States principally in Florida. The composition of the kumquat is
practically that of the orange.


=Lemons.=--The citrus fruit, next in importance to the orange, if not
more important, is the lemon (_Citrus limonum_). This fruit is grown
extensively in the United States in the same localities that produce
the orange, that is, chiefly in Florida and southern California.
Its method of cultivation, general treatment, time of ripening and
harvesting are the same as that of the orange. Its principal difference
from the orange is in its greater acidity and in certain peculiarities
of its aromatic and oily substances. From the rind is produced an
essential oil which, while resembling that of the orange in general
character, has distinct properties which easily discriminate it
from the orange product. The lemon also has a correspondingly less
proportion of sugar than the orange. In 22 analyses of California
lemons they were found to contain 5.26 percent of acid and only 2.33
percent of sugar. The distinct feature of the lemon, therefore, is its
acidity. The principal acid present in lemons is citric acid, though
other organic acids are also found. The acids are either free or in
combination with a base, the principal base being potash. On account
of its high acidity and low sugar content the lemon is used more as
a relish and in the manufacture of acid beverages than directly as a
food. There are some varieties known as sweet lemons which are eaten as
oranges or used directly for food purposes, but generally the lemon is
too sour and acid for consumption in this manner.


=Lime.=--A species of citrus fruit which is even more acid than the
lemon is known as the lime (_Citrus hysrix acida_).

Limes are not eaten directly as food on account of their high acidity,
but their expressed juice is sold throughout the world for beverages
and medicinal purposes. The lime also yields an essential oil, which
is very similar in character to that derived from lemons. In fact the
lime may be regarded as a very sour lemon, just as the orange may be
regarded as a very sweet one.


_Adulteration of Lime Juice._--Unfortunately lime juice is offered
on the market often in entirely spurious forms, that is, a mixture
made up with flavoring of an acid character resembling that of the
natural juice. The natural juice is also frequently adulterated by the
addition of preservatives. Among these, sulfurous and salicylic acids
are perhaps the most frequent. Lime juice can be perfectly preserved by
sterilization, and there is no necessity for the use of preservatives
therein.

In the tropics there is also found a lime of a saccharine character
known as the sweet lime, but this fruit does not have a very great
vogue.


=Mamey Colorado.=--This is a tropical fruit which is very extensively
grown in Cuba, and derives its local name from a very slight outward
resemblance to the mammee (_Mammea americana_). These two fruits,
however, have no botanical or other relation to each other, nor do they
have any internal resemblance. The mamey colorado is chocolate brown
in color, oval or round in shape, and its average weight is about 1.5
pounds. The skin is thick and coarse. The pulp has a yellowish color,
varying to a deep scarlet, and is slightly fibrous and firm, but
mealy and rather dry. It has a sweetish taste with very little acid
flavor. It is eaten chiefly in the fresh state and is also stewed with
sugar. The fruit usually contains but one seed, though as many as four
are sometimes found. The seeds are imbedded in a soft core and are
irregularly oval. The natural season is from December to August. These
fruits are very largely used for making preserves.

The composition of the mamey colorado is as follows:


_Composition of Edible Portion--86.10 percent._--

  Solids,       34.01 percent
  Total ash,      .80    „
  Acid,           .10    „
  Total sugar,  22.05    „

The analysis shows that the mamey colorado is a fruit which in its
edible properties and nutritive value very closely resembles the banana.


=Mamey de Santo Domingo= (_Mammea americana_).--This is a fruit
extensively used in Cuba and other tropical countries. It is of a
light brown color, from three to ten inches in diameter, and weighs
sometimes as much as 1¹⁄₂ pounds. The skin is thick and fibrous, the
outer surface being tough and covered with small brown spots. The
pulp is dark yellow in color, firm, and very juicy. It has a sweet
characteristic flavor and a pleasant aromatic odor. The seeds sometimes
measure three inches in diameter and cling tenaciously to the pulp.
It is very commonly eaten raw and is highly esteemed for preserving
purposes.

The composition of the mamey de Santo Domingo is shown in the following
table:


_Composition of Edible Portion--60.70 percent._--

  Solids,       14.12 percent
  Total ash,      .31    „
  Acids,          .42    „
  Protein,        .49    „
  Total sugar,   9.47    „

The above data show that this fruit is very much less sweet and very
much more acid than the mamey colorado and for nutritive purposes is
of much less value, but by reason of its greater acidity and higher
flavoring it is more suitable for the manufacture of preserves than
the fruit resembling it in external appearances and name. It is used
extensively in the manufacture of preserves and marmalades which are so
similar in composition as not to be distinguished from each other by
their chemical analyses.

The compositions of a preserve known as mamey en almibar and a
marmalade known as mermelade de mamey are shown in the following table:

  ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
           |          |  TOTAL   |          |          |  TOTAL
           |  SOLIDS. |   ASH.   |  ACIDS.  | PROTEIN. | SUGARS.
  ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
           |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Mamey en |          |          |          |          |
  almibar, |  60.05   |   .154   |   .194   |   .363   |  57.45
  Mermelade|          |          |          |          |
  de mamey,|  69.74   |   .149   |   .123   |   .269   |  62.68
  ---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--JAMAICA MANGO TREE.--(_By permission American
Nut and Fruit Co._)]


=Mango= (_Magnifera indica_ L.).--The mango is a fruit which is highly
prized throughout the world. It is a native of southern Asia, where it
has been known from earliest times. In the United States the mango is
chiefly grown in Florida as a horticultural crop. The mango is a tree
peculiarly sensitive to frost, and therefore does not grow as far north
as oranges. Its profitable cultivation at present is confined to the
extreme southern part of the Florida peninsula.

The mango is an evergreen tree. In Florida, under favorable conditions
of growth, it reaches as high as 40 or 50 feet. It makes a tree of
graceful appearance with a dense, dome-shaped top. The color of the
mango fruit is varied; it may be red, green, or yellow, or a mixture of
these colors. The tree and fruit both possess an agreeable odor, and
every part of the tree, almost, can be of some economic value. The ripe
fruit is a delicious dessert and is wholesome. It is often recommended
for its medicinal properties. The rind and fiber, as well as the unripe
fruit, are acid and full of tannin, which makes them astringent to the
taste. Mangos may be eaten in the raw state, and they are also valued
for making preserves, pickles, marmalades, and jelly. A very popular
sauce known as mango chutney is prepared from the mango and is largely
used in the United States and England, being mostly imported from
India. The appearance of the tree is shown in Fig. 52.


=Oranges= (_Citrus aurantium_).--This fruit is characterized by its
delightful flavor and by the distribution of certain aromatic oils,
especially in the rind, which give it a peculiar aroma and flavor. The
orange has a thick yellow rind which, while edible, is not usually
eaten, but is the source of valuable essential oils. A large part
of the orange, as far as weight is concerned, is not usually eaten;
usually from 25 to 40 percent of the weight is in the rind or some
inedible portion. The ash of the orange is usually less than one-half
of one percent. The predominant organic acid of the orange is citric,
although other organic acids are present. The quantity of protein
present in an orange is very small, usually not exceeding very much a
half of one percent. The quantity of sugar varies greatly in different
samples. It is present both as cane sugar or sucrose and as reducing
or invert sugar. In the very sweet orange the quantity reaches as
high as 10 percent or even greater, while in the sour orange it is
less. The principal food value of the orange, as far as nutriment
is concerned, is its sugar. The orange, however, has other valuable
properties, especially from a hygienic standpoint, aside from its
nutriment. The organic salts which it contains, the organic acids, and
other condimental material make the orange an exceptionally wholesome
fruit, exercising a beneficial effect upon the digestive process and
especially aiding in the passage of the undigested food through the
alimentary canal. The orange is a fruit which has lasting keeping
qualities. It is not unusual to see ripe oranges which are edible
hanging on the same tree with the blossoms which are blooming for the
next year’s crop. In California and Florida the oranges begin to ripen
in November and may be continuously harvested until the following
April, if it be advisable to leave them on the tree for that length of
time. Owing to the thick and resistant skin of the orange, it can be
kept for a long time without material deterioration after harvesting,
if care be taken to avoid bruising or injuring the fruit in any way
while handling. Oranges thus harvested and wrapped in paper and kept
at a low temperature will keep for weeks and even months, and still be
edible and nourishing. This property of the orange makes it possible
to supply the markets of the world practically throughout the entire
year with one of the most delicious and nutritious of fruits. In former
years the orange was regarded as a luxury, but at the present time it
is a staple article of diet even for people in moderate circumstances,
and is often eaten by those who are poor. In Fig. 53 is given a typical
illustration of a California orange grove.

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--AN EDGE OF A CALIFORNIA ORANGE GROVE.--(_Bureau
of Plant Industry._)]

The culture of the orange has demanded the highest agricultural and
scientific skill, and perhaps there is no crop produced to which
greater attention has been paid. In Florida, especially, the oranges
are grown on soil which is not much more than poor sand, and hence the
scientific feeding of the trees, that is, the fertilization of the
soil in which they grow, is necessary to success. As a result of this
application of science luxuriant crops of oranges are found growing
upon sandy soil which without scientific treatment would be almost
barren. The soils in southern California, on the other hand, are very
rich in natural plant food, but this does not obviate the necessity
of scientific manuring. Oranges grow throughout the year in tropical
and semi-tropical regions. It is considered by connoisseurs, however,
that the oranges grown in the semi-tropical regions, that is far enough
north for a little frost to come during the winter, but without a
sufficient degree of cold to injure the trees, are of better quality
than those grown in tropical regions where frost is unknown.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE ORIGINAL SEEDLESS ORANGE TREE.--(_Courtesy
Bureau of Plant Industry._)]


_The Seedless Orange._--The variety of orange which contains no seed
has been widely cultivated in the United States, and by reason of the
absence of seeds is more highly prized by many than the ordinary orange
for edible purposes. Since the orange tree has been cultivated by
grafting rather than by direct production of the different varieties
from the natural seed, it has been possible to secure a fruit without
seeds. Whether such an unnatural product will continue to maintain its
high rank as an edible product remains to be seen. The seedless orange
tree, from which are descended the greater part of these trees in the
United States, was secured by Mr. William Sanders from Bahia. Its
present appearance in the greenhouse of the Department of Agriculture
is shown in Fig. 54. The naval orange is exceedingly beautiful as it
grows upon the tree. A bunch of these oranges growing on the parent
tree in Washington is shown in Fig. 55.

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A GROUP OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE ON THE
TREE.--(_Courtesy Bureau of Plant Industry._)]


=Pineapple.=--The pineapple is a fruit grown very extensively in
tropical and also subtropical countries. It is a crop of great
importance in Florida. The flavor and aroma of the pineapple grown
in subtropical countries is often preferred to that of the tropical
grown fruit. Pineapples grow best when sheltered to some extent from
the direct rays of the sun. In Florida it is planted near live oaks,
where a partial shade is secured. It is often artificially covered by
means of narrow boards placed near together and yet leaving abundant
space for the sunlight. Sometimes these covered fields are two or three
acres in extent. In Fig. 56 is given a representation of the pineapple
growing under a covering of this kind in Florida at the Agricultural
Experiment Station, Lake City.

Formerly pineapples were regarded as great luxuries, and often were set
up in the center of the table as an ornament rather than as a dessert.
They have now become very common and are frequently used as a dessert,
for flavoring ice cream, for preserving, and for general use as a fruit.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--COVERED PINEAPPLE.--(_Courtesy of Florida
Experiment Station._)]


_Adulteration of Pineapples._--The only adulterations which are found
in pineapples are of course in the canned product. Investigations in
the Bureau of Chemistry show that adulteration is not extensively
practiced, unless the addition of cane sugar without notice can be so
regarded.

From the point of view of the collection of duties, the addition of
cane sugar without notice is an adulteration, since under provision
of law pineapples canned in their own juice pay one rate of duty and
when preserved with sugar pay another. Inasmuch as the label of a food
product should tell the whole truth concerning it, the addition of
cane sugar, without notice to that effect upon the label, is calculated
to deceive and should not be practiced. There is no objection of any
kind to the use of cane sugar in the canning of pineapples if the
label indicates that this has been done. On the other hand there is no
reason why the addition of sugar should be practiced. The pineapples
are bought and consumed for their natural flavor, and not on account of
the added sugar which they may contain. In the canning of pineapples it
is just as easy to secure complete sterilization in their own juice as
it is to secure it with the added sirup. In practice, however, it is
more convenient after filling the cans with the pieces of pines to add
a sugar sirup to fill up the spaces than to secure sterilization by the
application of heat alone, which would not cause a sufficient quantity
of juice to exude to fill up the interstices of the cans, and they,
therefore, would be partially empty.


_Canned Pineapples._--There is a very large trade in this country in
canned pineapples imported from Singapore and the Straits Settlements
and the Bahamas. The pines are usually canned with the addition of
sugar, and those that come to our ports are as a rule sweetened only
with cane sugar.

A large number of analyses has been made of these canned pineapples in
the Bureau of Chemistry and the general data which were secured are
presented below:

Canned pineapples from Singapore, average, maximum, and minimum
composition:

  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |  SOLIDS. |  SUGAR.  | PROTEIN. |   ASH.   | ACIDITY.
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Average,|  20.15   |  17.90   |    .46   |    .28   |   .30
  Maximum,|  25.30   |  25.10   |    .60   |    .36   |   .43
  Minimum,|  18.18   |  14.87   |    .39   |    .21   |   .16
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The above data show that it is possible to compute the average quantity
of sugar which is added in the preparation of the sample. If we assume
in round numbers that the natural pine contains 12 percent of sugar,
we find that approximately eight pounds per hundred of fruit have been
added in the preparation of the pines from Singapore.

Below is found the average, maximum, and minimum composition of ten
samples of canned pineapples from the Straits Settlements:

  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |  SOLIDS. |  SUGAR.  | PROTEIN. |   ASH.   | ACIDITY.
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Average,|  21.04   |  18.45   |    .47   |    .26   |   .26
  Maximum,|  24.28   |  21.94   |    .57   |    .32   |   .32
  Minimum,|  17.32   |  14.54   |    .39   |    .22   |   .17
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

These data show that the preparation of the pines in the Straits
Settlements for shipment in cans is the same as that in Singapore. The
average amount of sugar added appears to be about one percent greater.

Average composition of canned pineapples from the Bahamas:

  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |  SOLIDS. |  SUGAR.  | PROTEIN. |   ASH.   | ACIDITY.
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Average,|  13.78   |  10.69   |    .34   |    .38   |    .57
  Maximum,|  26.78   |  22.43   |    .46   |    .50   |   1.18
  Minimum,|   8.54   |   6.33   |    .20   |    .22   |    .22
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The above data show that nearly all the canned pineapples coming from
the Bahamas must be regarded as canned in their natural juice without
the addition of sugar. Of the whole number of samples examined, only
four gave any indication of containing added sugar.


_Composition of the Pineapple._--The average composition of twenty-two
samples of fresh pineapple grown in Florida, as determined in the
Bureau of Chemistry, is as follows:

  Total solids,  13.85 percent
  Total sugar,   11.69    „
  Protein,         .40    „
  Ash,             .42    „
  Acidity,         .52    „

Of the sugars 4.44 percent existed in the form of invert or reducing
sugar and 6.88 percent as cane sugar. These data show that the value
of a pineapple as a food product lies chiefly in the sugar which it
contains. The ethereal and aromatic properties of the pineapple give to
it its chief value as a food, since it is the flavor and aroma rather
than the nutriment in the fruit which make it valued as a food. These
flavors and aromas are due to essential oils and ethers or compound
ethers, and they exist in such minute quantities as to escape ordinary
chemical investigation. A study of the details of analyses show that
there is a wide variation in the percentage of sugar. In two instances
the total sugar fell below eight percent, but those evidently were
green and imperfect samples and were not included in the general
average.

The highest quantity of sugar found in any case of a Florida pineapple
was 15.28 percent.

The data show that in general it may be said that the Florida pineapple
contains nearly 12 percent of its weight of sugar.


_Average Composition of Cuban Pineapples._--The average composition of
10 samples of Cuban pineapples examined in the Bureau of Chemistry is
shown in the following data:

  Total solids,  14.52 percent
  Sugars,        11.87    „
  Protein,         .40    „
  Ash,             .35    „
  Acidity,         .56    „

These data show that the Cuban pineapple is only a trifle sweeter than
that grown in Florida and has in general the same composition.

The Florida pineapples when placed on the market have qualities which
are by most connoisseurs judged to be superior to those of Cuban
origin, although these qualities are not indicated by any marked
difference in the analytical results.

The average composition of Bahama pineapples, examined in the Bureau of
Chemistry, is given in the following table:

  Total solids,  14.81 percent
  Sugar,         12.22    „
  Protein,         .48    „
  Ash,             .40    „
  Acidity,         .77    „

The Bahama pineapple, as is seen by the above data, is somewhat sweeter
than the Florida or Cuban grown fruit and also has a higher acidity.


_Average Composition of Porto Rican Pineapples._--Two samples of Porto
Rican pines, examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, had the following
composition:

  Total solids,  15.91 percent
  Total sugar,   15.36    „
  Protein,         .48    „
  Ash,             .37    „
  Acidity,         .72    „

The other samples of pines coming from Porto Rico were so immature that
it was found they contained only about one-half the percentage of sugar
and one-half the total solids of the ripened fruits. They were probably
harvested in an immature state in order to withstand the vicissitudes
of transportation. The above data show that the ripe pines of Porto
Rico are even richer than those of the Bahamas in sugar and nutritive
value.

The average, maximum, and minimum of all samples of the fresh pine from
all countries examined in the Bureau of Chemistry show the following
composition:

  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |  SOLIDS. |   SUGAR. | PROTEIN. |   ASH.   | ACIDITY.
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Average,|  14.17   |  11.90   |    .42   |    .40   |   .60
  Maximum,|  18.86   |  15.28   |    .57   |    .55   |   .85
  Minimum,|  10.78   |   8.20   |    .21   |    .27   |   .30
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

In order that some idea might be obtained of the composition of the
pines grown at Singapore and Nassau, the consuls in those localities
were requested to secure the preservation of the pines by sterilization
without the addition of any substance, that is, their preservation in
their natural juice. In this condition the fruit of the pine, naturally
preserved, was sent to the Bureau of Chemistry and subjected to
analysis with the following average results:


_Average Composition_ (ten samples from Singapore).--

  Solids,   13.39 percent
  Sugars,   11.73    „
  Protein,    .48    „
  Ash,        .38    „
  Acidity,    .39    „


_Average Composition_ (two samples from Nassau).--

  Solids,   13.18 percent
  Sugars,   10.86    „
  Protein,    .40    „
  Ash,        .41    „
  Acidity,    .58    „

The above data show that the pineapples grown in Singapore and Nassau
are not notably different in composition from those grown in Florida,
Cuba, and Jamaica. All the data indicate that the pineapples grown in
different parts of the world have practically the same composition at
the same state of maturity.


=Sapota= (=Sapodilla=) (_Sapota zapotilla_ (Jacq.) Coville).--This is
a tropical fruit which is grown in large quantities in Cuba, where two
varieties are known, differing only in shape, one being round and the
other oval. In the Havana markets the latter variety is incorrectly
known as the nispero. This name, however, is properly applied to the
fruit loquat (_Eriobotrya japonica_). The fruit is small, weighing
usually under two ounces, has a brown or brownish-green color and
in general appearance resembles a smooth, dark potato. The skin is
thick and coarse in texture, the pulp is yellowish-brown in color,
granular in texture, and rich in juice. The odor is characteristic,
and the taste is quite sweet. The seeds number from one to five and
are contained in a soft open core,--they are of a brownish-black color
with a single white stripe. They measure from three-quarters to one
inch in length. The fruit comes into use about the first of April and
lasts until the end of summer. It is a very popular fruit in summer
and deserves more attention in the various markets than it has yet
received. The sap of the sapota tree and juice of the green fruit
when concentrated furnish the material known as chicle, from which
chewing-gum is made. The compositions of the round and long sapota and
the natural preserved pulp of the sapota are given in the following
table:


_Composition of Edible Portion._--

  -------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------
                           |        |  COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION.
                           |        +-------+------+------+------+------
                           | EDIBLE |       | Total|      | Pro- |Total
                           |PORTION.|Solids.| ash. |Acids.| tein.|sugar.
  -------------------------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------
                           |  _Per- | _Per- | _Per-|_Per- | _Per-| _Per-
                           | cent._ |cent._ |cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._
  Round sapota,            |  76.40 | 23.07 | 0.384| 0.132| 0.350| 10.85
  Long sapota,             |  80.90 | 21.01 |  .555|  .162|  .650| 12.76
  Natural sapota preserves,|  ....  | 22.95 |  .399|  .086|  .231| 11.30
  -------------------------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------

The sapota is also used in the manufacture of preserves by boiling it
with sugar in the usual way. The analyses show that the sapota is a
fruit which is principally valuable as a carbohydrate food. It has,
however, very little acid, and is a much sweeter fruit than the anona
and, therefore, more pleasant to the taste.


=Star-apple= (=Cainito=) (_Chrysophyllum cainito_).--The star-apple is
one of the less important fruits which abound in Cuba. It is not very
extensively used, but medicinal properties are attributed to it. Three
different varieties are sold in the Havana markets,--one of a white
color and two purple. The first attains the size of a small apple,
approaching about seven ounces in weight. There are two kinds of meat
in the pulp; the outer portion is a white, gelatinous matter which
contains the small black seed and is really the edible portion, and
constitutes about one-third the weight of the fruit. The outer fibrous
and purple portion of the flesh is inedible. The inner pulp has a sweet
characteristic flavor and is eaten raw. No preserves were found made of
this in Cuban markets. The composition of the white star-apple is shown
in the following table:


_Composition of Edible Portion--41.80 percent._--

  Solids,   14.23 percent
  Sugar,     7.91    „
  Protein,    .67    „
  Ash,        .35    „
  Acidity,    .05    „

These data show that the fruit is not of a very high nutritive order,
and on account of its low acidity it is not suitable for the making of
preserves.


=Tamarind= (_Tamarindus Indica_).--This fruit belongs to the leguminous
family and forms a dark brown pod from one to six inches in length
and from three-fourths of an inch to one inch in width. The rind is
thin and very brittle. Within the pod is found a dark-colored pasty
material, closely attached to the seed sacks and joined to the stem of
the pod by coarse fibers. This pasty material constitutes the edible
portion of the fruit and has a very sour taste which serves to mask
the large amount of sugar, sometimes as much as 30 percent, which it
contains. The tamarind is remarkable as having the highest content both
of acid and sugar of any of the edible fruits which are in common use.
It contains more acid, for instance, than the sourest lime and more
sugar than the sweetest fruit. The tamarind is not very largely used
directly for edible purposes but is a component of many refreshing
summer beverages and is used for flavoring other products. It has
mild purgative properties, and hence its intermittent use in small
quantities tends to keep in proper regulation the mechanical movements
which are so necessary to normal digestion.


_Composition of the Tamarind._--

  Water,    47.47 percent
  Acid,      6.03    „
  Sugar,    31.43    „
  Protein,   1.36    „
  Ash,       1.56    „

The above data show that the tamarind is essentially of a carbohydrate
nature, its chief food value being in the sugar which it contains. On
account of its high acidity very little of the sugar which is present
is in the form of sucrose or cane sugar, but is mostly in an invert
condition.


_Preparation of Tamarinds._--Tamarinds are not only used directly
but most extensively in the form of tamarind paste which is made up
chiefly by the addition of cane sugar to the pulp; as much as 75
percent of sugar is often added to the making of paste. Another form
of preparation is called tamarind pulp, which has practically the same
composition as the paste. These two bodies may be called tamarind
preserves. The proportion of pulp to added sugar is about as 20 to 80.


=Mineral Constituents of Tropical Fruits.=--The mineral content of
the edible portions of fruits is important, both from a dietetic and
chemical point of view.

The mineral substances in fruits not only add to their palatability
but also have important functions in digestion and assimilation. The
lime and phosphoric acid which the ash of fruits contain are foods
that nourish certain tissues of the body, such as the bones. The other
mineral ingredients of fruits take an active part in the circulation of
the fluids of the body. Since the modern development of physiological
chemistry, what is known as osmotic force, or the power that causes
solutions to pass through membranes, is believed to be due largely
to the mineral constituents of the juices of the body. These mineral
constituents are therefore necessary in the food. The following table
gives the total quantity of ash in the edible portion of the tropical
fruits named, together with the composition of the ash in respect of
its most important constituents (Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry):

ANALYSES OF THE ASH OF THE EDIBLE PORTION OF THE SEVERAL FRUITS.

  --------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+
                      |      |       |      |      |        |
  DESCRIPTION         |TOTAL | SILICA|POTASH| LIME |MAGNESIA|
  OF SAMPLE.          | ASH. |(SiO₂).|(K₂O).|(CaO).| (MgO). |
  --------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+
                      | _Per-|  _Per-| _Per-| _Per-|  _Per- |
                      |cent._| cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._ |
  Orange (china),     | 0.52 |  1.01 | 40.66|10.26 |  5.27  |
  Orange (rough skin),|  .55 |   ..  | 49.15| 2.62 |  1.41  |
  Orange (sour),      |  .57 |   ..  | 45.09| 7.95 |  2.17  |
  Grape fruit,        |  .39 |   ..  | 44.19| 7.34 |  3.92  |
  Lime,               |  .98 |   ..  | 43.01| 7.84 |  2.36  |
  Sweet lemon,        |  .98 |   ..  | 54.35| 4.29 |  1.08  |
  Tamarind,           | 1.56 | 15.57 |   .. |  .68 |  2.19  |
                      |      |  [34] |      |      |        |
  Guava,              |  .84 |  1.13 | 55.00| 2.48 |  1.64  |
  Banana (niño),      |  .70 |   ..  | 46.46|  .95 |   .42  |
  Banana (oronoco),   | 1.08 |   ..  | 52.41| 1.02 |  1.90  |
  Banana (colorado),  |  .83 |   ..  | 51.47|  .37 |   .65  |
  Mango (French),     |  .53 |   ..  | 47.37| 6.38 |  1.62  |
  Mango (Filipino),   |  .41 |  1.75 | 51.79| 1.74 |  3.25  |
  Manga,              |  .78 |  2.14 | 49.37| 2.38 |   ..   |
  Guanabana,          |  .86 |  1.48 | 48.93|  .44 |  2.17  |
  Anona,              |  .80 |   .63 | 47.27|  .81 |  2.07  |
  Chirimoya,          | 1.04 |   ..  | 49.73| 2.21 |   .66  |
  Sapota,             |  .50 |   ..  | 43.13| 7.49 |  2.83  |
  Mamey (colorado),   |  .80 |   ..  | 50.57| 1.38 |  1.36  |
    Do.,              |  .89 |   ..  | 48.20| 1.73 |  3.35  |
  Hicaco,             |  .91 |   ..  | 35.15| 5.84 |  4.51  |
  Cainito,            |  .35 |   ..  | 54.75| 1.31 |   ..   |
  Pineapple,          |  ..  |   ..  | 59.18| 9.44 |  5.52  |
   Do.,               |  ..  |   ..  | 57.13| 4.80 |  3.44  |
  --------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+

  --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------
                      | FERRIC |PHOSPHORIC|SULFURIC|
  DESCRIPTION         |  OXID  |   ACID   |  ACID  |CHLORIN
  OF SAMPLE.          |(Fe₂O₃).|  (P₂O₅). | (SO₃). | (Cl).
  --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------
                      |  _Per- |   _Per-  |  _Per- |  _Per-
                      | cent._ |  cent._  | cent._ | cent._
  Orange (china),     |  1.09  |    8.56  |  2.84  |  2.44
  Orange (rough skin),|  4.51  |    7.42  |  3.42  |  1.50
  Orange (sour),      |  2.40  |    8.70  |  2.72  |   .98
  Grape fruit,        |  1.28  |   11.09  |  3.39  |  1.38
  Lime,               |   ..   |    8.45  |  2.62  |  4.07
  Sweet lemon,        |   ..   |    9.83  |  4.09  |  1.32
  Tamarind,           |   ..   |    4.99  |  1.40  |   .48
                      |        |          |        |
  Guava,              |   ..   |    8.29  |  3.58  |  5.33
  Banana (niño),      |   ..   |   10.36  |  2.36  |  6.59
  Banana (oronoco),   |   ..   |    5.16  |  3.32  |  8.48
  Banana (colorado),  |   ..   |    3.25  |  2.77  |  7.63
  Mango (French),     |   ..   |    6.49  |  3.67  |  3.88
  Mango (Filipino),   |   ..   |    9.04  |  4.88  |  1.56
  Manga,              |   ..   |    5.57  |  3.84  |  4.20
  Guanabana,          |   ..   |    9.15  |  4.54  |  3.40
  Anona,              |   ..   |   13.63  |  3.19  |  3.51
  Chirimoya,          |   ..   |    6.57  |  4.49  |  7.40
  Sapota,             |   ..   |    2.74  |  4.55  | 17.41
  Mamey (colorado),   |   ..   |    4.90  |  3.54  | 17.34
    Do.,              |   ..   |    9.66  |  3.80  | 16.00
  Hicaco,             |   ..   |    3.09  |  4.77  | 18.62
  Cainito,            |   ..   |   11.00  |  5.50  |  9.46
  Pineapple,          |   ..   |    6.51  |  3.04  |  3.22
   Do.,               |   ..   |    4.29  |  3.65  |  4.08
  --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------

  [34] 2.88 percent sand.

The above data show that the percentage of ash in the edible portion
of tropical fruits is never very high. In only three instances in
the above table does it exceed one percent and in two of those only
slightly. The principal mineral constituent is potash, which in round
numbers may be said to constitute one-half of the total ash. Of the
acid constituents phosphoric acid is the most important. In four cases
the amount of phosphoric acid is greater than 10 percent of the total
weight of the ash. The proportion of sulfuric acid in the ash is quite
constant, while the amount of chlorin varies from less than one-half of
one percent to more than 18 percent.

In this case of high ash there is a low content of phosphoric acid,
which leads to the supposition that the chlorin is partially or wholly
combined with sodium and potassium. In addition to the elements
mentioned above the ash of edible fruits often contains notable
quantities of silica and sometimes considerable quantities of sand,
added accidentally or by the collection of dust. The ash of fruit also
quite universally contains iron. In some cases the quantity of iron
amounts to as much as four percent of the total weight of the ash. The
data in the above table are calculated on the percentage of total ash
and not on the percentage of pure ash, that is, ash deprived of its
carbon, sand, and carbonic acid.

There are some peculiarities in the composition of the ash of tropical
fruits to which attention may be called. The citrus fruits contain
somewhat larger amounts of lime and iron than ordinary fruits. The
ash of the tamarind contains large quantities of silica. The ash of
the banana has a low content of lime and magnesia and a high content
of chlorin. Attention is also called to the fact that in the ordinary
combustion of an organic substance to secure the mineral matter notable
quantities of the phosphoric acid and chlorin contained may be lost.
Therefore, the data for phosphoric acid and for chlorin are probably
lower than would be the case if all of these substances present in
the fruit had been secured in the ash. The ash of pineapples is not
peculiar in any respect, nor does it contain any marked amount of a
constituent by which it can be identified. The pineapple, as is seen,
contains slightly more potash than the other tropical fruits.


SUGAR AND ACID IN FRUIT.

The palatable quality of fruit depends largely upon the aromatic
substances which they contain in the form of essential oils, esters,
and ethers, and especially upon their sugar and acid content. The
sweet taste of sugar in fruits and also often in nuts is modified and
relieved by the acid or astringent materials, chiefly tannin, with
which it is associated. In the analyses indicating the composition of
fruits and of nuts and also of vegetables the sugar has not always been
given separately, but as one member of a group consisting of sugar,
starch, and cellulose materials soluble in weak acid and alkalies,
and for this reason deemed to be digestible. It seems advisable to
supplement this information with a special table giving the average
quantity of sugar and acid found in some of the principal fruits. It
must not be forgotten that in individual cases the quantity of sugar
and acid may vary largely from the average, but the following data may
be regarded as expressing very accurately the average content of sugar
and acid in the common fruits.

                                   SUGAR.           ACID.
                                  _Percent._      _Percent._
  Apples, Rhode Island Greening,   10.95         .70 as malic
    „     Winesap,                 11.95         .50  „   „
    „     Northern Spy,            11.80         .70  „   „
  Apricots, fresh,                 11.01        1.15  „   „
     „      dried,                 29.59        2.52  „   „
  Bananas,                         20.28         .30  „ sulfuric
  Blackberries,                     5.78         .77  „ malic
  Cranberries,                      1.52        2.34  „   „
  Currants,                         6.70        2.24  „   „
  Grapes,                           7.90-26.40   .59  „ tartaric
  Lemons,                            .37        5.39  „ citric
  Oranges,                          5.65        1.35  „   „
  Peaches,                          7.88         .56  „ sulfuric
  Pears,                            9.11         .19  „ malic
  Pineapples,                      11.50         .60  „ sulfuric
  Plums,                           14.71         .77  „ malic
  Prunes,                          16.11         .32  „   „
  Raspberries,                      5.33        1.48  „   „
  Strawberries,                     6.24        1.10  „   „

In the above data the acidity is determined as malic acid in apples,
blackberries, and strawberries, in which the predominant acid is malic.
In cranberries one of the acids is benzoic, amounting sometimes to as
much as 0.05 percent, in grapes tartaric, in lemons and oranges citric.
In the other fruits where the character of the organic acid is not
distinctly of one kind, the total organic acid is estimated as sulfuric
acid (SO₃), not meaning by that, however, that the acids are present in
the form of sulfuric acid but merely that their quantity was measured
in terms of sulfuric acid.


CANNED FRUITS.

The industry devoted to canning fruits is of less importance in the
United States than that identified with canned vegetables. Practically,
nevertheless, every fruit which has been produced in this country has
become a commercial article in the form of canned goods. With the
exception of the method of preparation, the process of canning and
other treatments are essentially the same as that of vegetables and
therefore does not warrant any further description.

In the following data are found a brief description and the composition
of the leading varieties of canned fruit:


=Canned Cherries.=--Cherries are one of the fruits which are valued for
canning purposes. The pits may or may not be removed, according to the
desire of the manufacturer and the demand of the consumer. The galvanic
action which the cherry juice sets up on the tin plate tends to bleach
the natural color of the cherry, and this action can be avoided by
coating the interior of the can with a gum or some similar substance
which entirely protects the metallic surface from contact with the
juice of the fruit. When treated in this way the natural color of the
cherry is preserved for a reasonable length of time.


_Adulteration of Canned Cherries._--The only adulteration of canned
cherries which is of any consequence is that which relates to
artificial coloring. By reason of the tendency to bleach the color,
mentioned above, it has been quite customary to add an artificial color
to the cherry so that the red color may be preserved. Coal tar dyes,
under various names, and an animal dye, cochineal, have been used for
this purpose. The practice of artificial coloring is reprehensible and
may, in the case of some colors, be harmful to health. By observing the
precautions already mentioned, the natural color of the cherry may be
preserved without artificial color, and in general this is desirable.
The consumer should at all times demand canned cherries which have not
been artificially colored.


_Maraschino Cherries._--A very common method of treating cherries is to
bleach them in a brine of common salt and sulfurous acid until all the
natural color has disappeared. The cherries are then thoroughly washed
for the removal of the salt and sulfurous acid and at the same time the
juice and soluble portions of the cherry are removed, so that at the
end of the washing there is little left but the cellular structure. The
cherries are then saturated with sugar or sugar and glucose and colored
a deep artificial red by coal tar dye or cochineal. If the natural
flavor of cherries has been destroyed by the bleaching an artificial
flavor is often added. The product is a cherry of an even deep red
tint, more or less sweet, according to the use of greater or less
quantities of sugar or glucose, and having a flavor of almond oil. When
cherries of this kind are preserved in a solution of alcohol, flavored
or unflavored, they are called maraschino cherries. The name is taken
from a kind of cherry first used in making the product. They are used
to a very large extent with certain beverages such as cocktails, soda
water, mint juleps, etc., and also in ice cream and other preparations
for the table. Little can be said in praise either of the taste or
wholesomeness of these preparations and they are valuable chiefly for
their supposed attractive appearance. The offense which is committed
against the æsthetic taste of the individual in the preparation of
such a product probably offsets any good effect which comes from
attractiveness or ornamentation. The product cannot be regarded in any
sense as resembling even in color the natural fruit, since practically
the whole of the natural fruit, except its cellular structure, has been
withdrawn and artificial substances substituted in place thereof.


=Canned Peaches.=--A great industry in this country is the canning of
peaches. Some of the finest and most perfect varieties are used for
this purpose. Peaches may be canned whole or by slicing in half or
quarters and removing the pit. The principles of sterilization are not
different from those which have already been described. Since the peach
is a fruit which decays easily and is thus difficult of transportation,
the establishment of canning factories in the vicinity of large peach
orchards renders it possible to preserve this delicate fruit in a
condition practically as good as that of the natural article, and thus
makes it accessible to the people in all parts of the country at all
seasons of the year.


_Adulteration of Canned Peaches._--Fortunately in this case there
is no record of adulterations which is of any consequence. The
perfection of the method of sterilization has rendered it unnecessary
to make further use of antiseptics for canned peaches. The use of
the artificial sweetening agent, saccharin, is almost unknown and is
about the only adulteration which at the present time can be practiced
without easy detection. It may be confidently stated that the consumer
can rely, with a fair degree of assurance, upon the purity of the
product which is taken from the can. The only real danger is in the
action of the fruit juice upon the imperfect tin plate, and this is a
danger which probably will soon pass away, since there is a tendency
manifested now to so protect the tin by a varnish of some kind as
to render it impossible for any electric action to take place which
impairs the color or flavor of the fruit and also to exclude the
poisonous salts of tin and lead from the contents of the can.


=Adulteration of Canned Fruit.=--_Artificial coloring:_ The principal
adulteration of canned fruit is that due to artificial coloring.
There is, perhaps, no other form of adulteration which has so little
excuse. It only needs a cursory observation of the fruits of Nature
to show that even in the same varieties they differ to a vast degree
in natural tint. Bright colors are especially prized in fruits. For
instance, the yellow of the peach, the red of the cherry, the purple of
the plum, etc. The object of artificial coloring is to make all kinds
and varieties of these fruits imitate those of naturally rich color.
Its sole purpose is deception, since it can add nothing whatever to
the nutritive value. The claim that it adds to the dietetic value of
the fruit, as in other cases of the same kind of argument, is plainly
fallacious. The very moment the consumer realizes he is eating an
artificially tinted fruit, if his temperament be as artistic as should
always be the case, he becomes sensitive to the effort made to deceive
him. Such artificially colored foods, thus, instead of tasting better
than they otherwise would, have a worse taste due to the feeling of
antipathy excited by their presence. Hence there can be no excuse,
under any circumstances, for the addition of artificial colors to food
products of this kind, or in fact, of any kind except those which are
purely synthetic and have no relation in composition or in quality to
a natural product. With the exception of cherries and berries, the
addition of artificial color to canned fruits is not common.

Another form of adulteration, which fortunately is seldom practiced in
fruit, is one which has already been described in sufficient detail,
that is, the addition of saccharin, a substance which has even less
place in fruits than in vegetables. The addition of a non-sugar, such
as saccharin, with an intensely sweet taste for the purpose of inducing
the consumer to believe that the article is a natural sweet product,
is an adulteration of the most reprehensible type, to say nothing of
the evil effects of the adulterant employed upon health. The addition
of spices and other condimental substances to fruit products cannot
be regarded as an adulteration, because they reveal their own presence
and are not added for the purpose of imitation or deception. As has
been mentioned above, the manufacturer would save all criticism in
such cases by a plain statement upon the label of the nature of the
substance added.

Canned fruits properly preserved retain their natural aroma and
flavor better than any other form of canned food and deserve the high
estimation in which they are held by the consumer. The time is now
rapidly approaching when all such goods will be free of any imitation
or adulteration, and this will add greatly to their value in the
markets of the country. The consumer will then only need to have the
date of preservation marked on the can to be fully protected.


FRUIT SIRUPS.

The expressed juice of fruits mixed with the proper proportion of
sugar produces an important article of commerce known as fruit sirup.
These fruit sirups are used principally in the preparation of cooling,
non-alcoholic beverages such as are drunk at the “soda fountains”
so-called in the United States. In the preparation of fruit sirups
only the choicest and best fruits are to be used. The juice, after
expression, is properly freed from suspended matter by filtration or
sedimentation and is brought to a proper consistence by mixing at
once with pure sugar. When it is used as soon as prepared no further
preparation in regard to its preservation is necessary, since juice
prepared in this way and kept in an ice-box will keep several days
without fermenting. When prepared on a large scale for commercial
purposes it becomes necessary to prepare these sirups in some more
permanent form. To this end they are subjected to the usual process of
pasteurization. On account of their liquid condition, sterilization,
that is, the use of a temperature of boiling water, is rarely
necessary. If, on pasteurization, a precipitate is formed in these
sirups, they should be heated to the temperature of pasteurization
previous to the final processing and any deposited matter be separated
by filtration or deposit. The sirup thus clarified is placed in
bottles or separate containers and subjected to the pasteurizing
process for a sufficient length of time, and is then ready for the
market. These pasteurized sirups, if stored in a cool place, will keep
almost indefinitely. In all cases where pasteurization is practiced
at a very low temperature it is necessary to keep the product at a
low temperature, since, as is well known, pasteurization does not
kill all the spores, but does act with deadly effect upon the yeasts
which produce alcoholic fermentation. Fresh sirups thus prepared and
pasteurized are wholesome and palatable and are unobjectionable.


=Composition of Fruit Sirup.=--Naturally the principal constituent
of fruit sirup is the added sugar. The other constituents correspond
to those of the juice from which the sirup is made. As one of the
principal constituents of fruit juice is sugar, it is seen that the
natural sugar plus the addition makes up practically the total solid
components in articles of this kind.


=Adulteration of Fruit Sirup.=--Fruit sirups have been extensively and
unnecessarily adulterated. The principal adulteration is the omission
of the pasteurization process and the preserving of the fruit juice
by means of an antiseptic. The two antiseptics which have been most
commonly employed for this purpose are salicylic and benzoic acids. At
the present time, by reason of prohibitive legislation in respect of
salicylic acid, benzoic acid or its compounds are quite universally
employed. These antiseptics are injurious to health and even in small
quantities cannot fail to have some deleterious effect upon the system.
As they are not necessary in the preservation of fruit sirups, they
should be rigidly excluded therefrom. In justice to those who use
antiseptics of this kind it is said that, as a rule, they frankly admit
that these sirups can be preserved by sterilization, but that when
consumed they are used only in small quantities, and when the air has
access to the remaining portion fermentation is set up. To this the
answer may be made that if unstoppered and used under proper conditions
to avoid the admission of germs, and if kept on ice or in a cool place,
fermentation will not set up for several days, during which time
opportunity will be had for disposing of the contents of the bottle.
It does not appear that there is any convincing reason to warrant the
continuance of the use of preservatives in this kind of products.


=Imitation Fruit Sirups.=--By far the most general adulteration of
fruit sirups is that of the imitations thereof, pure and simple, by
synthetic products. The flavors which give to fruits their character
and aroma are chemical compounds produced by Nature and are chiefly of
the nature of a volatile oil or compound ether. Of these flavors, the
compound ethers especially are readily produced by purely synthetic
processes. It is possible, therefore, for the chemist to make an
approximate imitation of the natural fruit flavor. No difference
how great his skill, however, or the skill of the mixer, there is
always a gustatory and hygienic difference between the synthetic
and the natural product, and the natural product always has the
advantage of the difference. While I do not go so far as to say that
synthetic flavors or sirups should be excluded in the preparation of
non-alcoholic beverages, I do say with emphasis that they should never
be used, except with notification to the consumer, and never, under any
circumstance, if they contain any ingredient which is prejudicial to
health.

One of the principal arguments which has been made against the
enactment of the pure food bill has been that it would exclude from the
market these synthetic products. At least let them be sold under their
proper designations. A law which requires plain and honest branding can
hardly be objected to on any ground whatever.


JAMS, JELLIES, AND PRESERVES.

The preparation of various fruits or fruit juices with sugar is an
important industry both for domestic purposes and for commerce in the
United States. When the fleshy portion of the fruit is treated with
sugar sirup and boiled, it produces the product known as preserves.
When a fruit is reduced to a pulp and treated with sugar sirup and
boiled, it makes a product known as jam. When the fruit juice itself
is treated with sugar and boiled, it forms a product known as jelly.
The above are general definitions of three important classes of fruit
products, though it is not intended by any means in the definitions
to describe the details of preparation. These vary greatly in respect
of the method of preparation, the fruit, the quantity of sugar used,
the length of time the boiling is continued, and the consistency of
the final product. These definitions merely outline the three distinct
classes of products which are made from fruits.


=Selection of the Fruit.=--In the selection of the fruit for making
these sweet products it is highly important that only the very best
quality should be used. The fruit should be of a proper degree of
maturity, and yet not overripe. The practice of using immature, waste,
or partially deformed or decayed fruit for the purposes named cannot be
too strongly condemned. The great advantage of preparing these products
at the home consists in the fact that the character of the material
used is under the immediate supervision of the housewife. In large
factories where no official inspection is exercised it is possible that
any kind of fruit or any portion of the fruit may be devoted to the
purpose. All deteriorated raw material should be rigidly excluded from
the factory. Various fruits are utilized in different manners in the
preparation of the above-named products. Large fruits with tough skins,
such as apples, peaches, and pears, are pared, the cores removed, and
all decayed or infected portions cut away, and the clean, fresh, fleshy
portion of the fruit used for manufacturing purposes. Small fruits,
such as berries, after the exclusion of all dirt, immature or imperfect
samples, and the removal of the stem, are used in the whole state for
the purposes named.

It would be manifestly impracticable, as a rule, to remove even the
seeds of small fruits, except where jelly is to be manufactured. The
fruits, having been properly prepared, are mixed with sugar or thick
sugar sirup and subjected to heat for two purposes. The first purpose
of heat is to sterilize completely the material so that no bacteria,
germs, or spores may be left alive in the finished product. The
second purpose of heating is to concentrate the material to a proper
consistence and to thoroughly saturate all portions with sugar sirup.
Incidentally, the heating also by the combined action of temperature
and free acids in the fruit inverts a large quantity of the cane sugar
that is used and thus prevents the finished product from granulating.
The crystallization of the sugar in these bodies renders them very
much less desirable and suitable for consumption. For this reason,
among others, the precaution above mentioned, namely, that the fruit
should not be overripe, should be observed. It has been seen that
overripe fruit diminishes in acidity, and hence it is less suitable for
converting the cane sugar than fruit just short of complete maturity.
For this reason, too, the more strongly acid fruits are better suited
for making these sweetened products than those in which the acidity is
less strongly developed.


=Jams.=--As has already been said, jams differ from jellies in that
they contain not only the juice of the fruit but the whole pulp of the
fruit or the whole fruit. The methods of preparation in effect produce
the same changes upon the sugars that are produced by the fruit juice.
The fruit after proper comminution is boiled with large quantities of
sugar a sufficient length of time to reduce the fruit flesh to a pulp
and to invert more or less of the sugar which is used. The insoluble
matter which jam contains consists chiefly of the cellulose and pectose
matter in the fruit, together with the seeds of the small fruit. The
various solids are made up of the solid bodies in the fruits, including
the sugars which are added. The character of the ash of the jams is
a good indication whether or not they are pure, that is, made out of
sugar and fruit only. While it is true that the ash of fruit varies, it
is also true that the real ash of fruit has certain characteristics in
regard to alkalinity which are not possessed by the ash of adulterated
fruit products. For the sake of convenience and reference it is seen
advisable to append a table showing the composition of the ash of some
of the fresh fruits (Bulletin 66, Bureau of Chemistry).

  ---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------
           |      |       |      |      | P₂O₅.| SO₃. |
           |      |       |      |      | PHOS-| SUL- |
           | PURE |  K₂O. | Na₂O.| CaO. |PHORIC| FURIC|  Cl.
  FRUIT.   | ASH. |POTASH.| SODA.| LIME.| ACID.| ACID.|CHLORIN.
  ---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------
           | _Per-|  _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-
           |cent._| cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._
  Apple,   | 0.264| 55.21 | 11.69|  4.79| 12.83| 4.62 |  0.83
  Apricots,|  .508| 59.36 | 10.26|  3.17| 13.09| 2.63 |   .45
  Banana,  | 1.078| 63.06 |  2.34|   .86|  1.62| 2.32 | 26.93
  Cherries,| 0.440| 57.67 |  6.80|  4.20| 15.11| 5.83 |  1.83
  Figs,    |  .682| 57.16 |  2.38| 10.90| 12.76| 3.90 |  2.05
  Grapes,  |  .500| 50.95 |  6.32|  4.96| 21.27| 4.28 |  1.54
  Lemons,  |  .526| 48.26 |  1.76| 24.87| 11.09| 2.84 |   .39
  Oranges, |  .432| 48.94 |  2.50| 22.71| 12.37| 5.25 |   .92
  Prunes,  |  .486| 63.83 |  2.65|  4.66| 14.08| 2.68 |   .34
  ---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------

From the above table it is seen that there is not a very large
percentage of sulfuric acid in the natural ash in fruits, and very
little chlorin, with the exception of the banana, in which the ash
is principally potassium chlorid. Since the ash of glucose, as it is
made at the present time, consists almost entirely of sulfates and
chlorids, any considerable increase of these ingredients of an ash over
the normal may be regarded as an indication that the fruit product
from which the ash is obtained contains added glucose. Inasmuch as
there are chemical and physical methods of detecting glucose which
are entirely reliable, the utility of the composition of ash for this
purpose is rather confirmatory than otherwise. Since the added sugar
is the chief constituent of jams there is little difference in other
respects in the composition of jams made from different fruits, as will
be seen by the table of analysis given below:

  ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
              |   TOTAL  |          | REDUCING |   CANE   |  TOTAL
  DESCRIPTION.|  SOLIDS. | ACIDITY. | SUGAR.   |  SUGAR.  |  SUGAR.
  ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
    _Jams._   |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Apple,      |  63.22   |   0.282  |   25.52  |   29.11  |  54.63
  Blackberry, |  55.42   |    .851  |   18.77  |   29.00  |  47.77
  Grape,      |  56.64   |    .744  |   33.44  |   11.33  |  44.77
  Orange,     |  80.52   |    .433  |   13.61  |   54.23  |  67.84
  Pear,       |  61.52   |    .163  |   13.20  |   33.74  |  46.94
  Peach,      |  65.65   |    .500  |   36.48  |   23.16  |  59.64
  Pineapple,  |  73.92   |    .314  |   14.05  |   46.40  |  60.45
  Plum,       |  50.43   |   1.012  |   28.29  |    9.70  |  37.99
  ------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The characteristics of fruit which give the special flavors to the jams
are imparted by constituents such as ethers, essential oils, and other
aromatic substances, together with the free acids which are present
in such quantities as not to be susceptible of easy quantitative
determination by chemical means. The relation which exists between the
cane sugar and the invert sugar is not a safe index of the method of
preparation, but is rather an indication of the excess or deficiency
of the acid in the fruit employed. The greater the quantity of active
acids, other things being equal, the larger the quantity of inverted
sugar and the smaller the quantity of cane sugar in the finished
product.

In the following table is given the composition of a number of jams
made in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. These analyses are
selected from a great many which are available because the character
and amount of sugar in the composition of the jam were carefully
controlled, and thus the chemical data afford a base of direct
composition.

  ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
        |                      |        |        |  TOTAL |        |
        |                      |        |        |  ACIDS |        +
        |                      |        |        |   EX-  |        |
  SERIAL|                      |        |        | PRESSED|PROTEIDS|
   NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF        |  TOTAL |        |   AS   |  (N ×  |
   BER. |SAMPLE.               | SOLIDS.|  ASH.  | H₂SO₄. | 6.25). |
  ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
        |                      |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  20446 |Apple (fall pippin)   |  63.22 |  0.20  |  0.282 |  0.175 |
  20414 |Blackberry            |  55.42 |   .48  |   .851 |   .737 |
  20445 |Grape (fox)           |  61.80 |   .19  |   .698 |   .200 |
  20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) |  56.64 |   .48  |   .744 |   .525 |
  20443 |Orange (Florida navel)|  80.52 |   .44  |   .433 |   .944 |
  20448 |Pear (Bartlett)       |  61.52 |   .28  |   .163 |   .312 |
  20442 |Pineapple             |  73.92 |   .30  |   .315 |   .312 |
  20421 |Plum (damson)         |  50.43 |   .54  |  1.102 |   .525 |
  20423 |Plum (wild fox)       |  62.10 |   .46  |  1.355 |   .212 |
  ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  ------+----------------------+--------------------------+
        |                      |          SUGARS.         |
        |                      +--------+--------+--------+
        |                      |        |        |        |
  SERIAL|                      |        |  Cane  |  Cane  |
   NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF        |Reducing|  sugar |  sugar |
   BER. |SAMPLE.               | sugar. | added. | found. |
  ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+
        |                      |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  20446 |Apple (fall pippin)   |  25.52 |  51.31 |  29.11 |
  20414 |Blackberry            |  18.77 |  43.99 |  29.00 |
  20445 |Grape (fox)           |  50.06 |  54.21 |   3.70 |
  20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) |  33.44 |  42.45 |  11.33 |
  20443 |Orange (Florida navel)|  13.61 |  69.13 |  54.23 |
  20448 |Pear (Bartlett)       |  13.20 |  46.52 |  33.74 |
  20442 |Pineapple             |  14.05 |  60.20 |  46.40 |
  20421 |Plum (damson)         |  28.29 |  37.75 |   9.70 |
  20423 |Plum (wild fox)       |  28.78 |  47.86 |  23.26 |
  ------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+

  ------+----------------------+-----------------------------
        |                      |       POLARIZATIONS.
        |                      +--------+------+------+------
        |                      |  Cane  |      |      |
  SERIAL|                      |  sugar |Direct|Invert|Invert
   NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF        |   in-  |  at  |  at  |  at
   BER. |SAMPLE.               | verted.|18° C.|18° C.|86° C.
  ------+----------------------+--------+------+------+------
        |                      |_P. ct._| _°V._| _°V._| _°V._
  20446 |Apple (fall pippin)   |  43.22 | +26.3| -13.0|  +4.8
  20414 |Blackberry            |  34.08 | +24.6| -14.6|  +1.6
  20445 |Grape (fox)           |  92.96 |  -9.0| -14.0|  +2.2
  20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) |  73.38 |  +3.5| -11.8|   0
  20443 |Orange (Florida navel)|  21.55 | +55.9| -17.5|  +2.0
  20448 |Pear (Bartlett)       |  18.87 | +32.3| -13.2|  +1.0
  20442 |Pineapple             |  22.90 | +52.3| -10.3|  +6.2
  20421 |Plum (damson)         |  74.42 |  +3.1| -10.0|  +1.2
  20423 |Plum (wild fox)       |  53.43 | +13.9| -17.5|   0
  ------+----------------------+--------+------+------+------

The following table represents the data relating to the composition of
jams from samples purchased in the open market, free from glucose and
apparently pure:

  -------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
               |   TOTAL  |          | REDUCING |   CANE   |   TOTAL
  DESCRIPTION. |  SOLIDS. | ACIDITY. |  SUGAR.  |  SUGAR.  |  SUGAR.
  -------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
               |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Apricots,    |   70.15  |    .407  |   38.96  |   26.00  |   64.96
  Currants,    |   66.32  |   1.117  |   52.45  |    1.64  |   54.09
  Figs,        |   69.89  |    .744  |    ....  |   45.92  |    ....
  Grape fruit, |   69.20  |    .387  |   27.00  |   35.51  |   62.51
  Guava,       |   82.46  |    .299  |   25.14  |   52.73  |   77.87
  Peach,       |   65.65  |    .500  |   36.48  |   23.16  |   59.64
  Strawberries,|   75.83  |    .480  |   37.15  |   31.43  |   68.58
  -------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The average composition of a large number of pure jams, some of which
were made in the laboratory and some purchased in the open market, is
as follows:

  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |   TOTAL  |          | REDUCING |   CANE   |   TOTAL
          |  SOLIDS. | ACIDITY. |  SUGAR.  |  SUGAR.  |  SUGAR.
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------
          |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
  Average,|  65.98   |    .536  |  36.41   |  22.15   |  58.56
  Maximum,|  82.46   |   1.355  |  61.02   |  54.23   |   ....
  Minimum,|  50.43   |    .163  |  13.20   |    .30   |   ....
  --------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The analytical data show that the jams, in so far as active food
constituents are concerned, are composed chiefly of sugar. These sugars
include both that natural to the fruit and that which has been added.
The average content of sugar in round numbers is 58.5 percent, while in
round numbers the average content of solids, not sugar, is 7.5 percent.
It is thus seen that the amount of sugar present in round numbers is
eight times as great as that of the other solids. It is also noticed
that the percentage of reducing sugar is about one-third greater than
the cane sugar, indicating that the inversion of the sugar, when the
real fruits have been used in the manufacture, has been carried to such
an extent as to avoid any danger of crystallization. These data are all
in complete refutation of the claims made by many manufacturers that
it is necessary to add glucose in the manufacture of complex products
of this kind in order to prevent crystallization. If the real fruit is
used in the proper quantity and the manufacture conducted according to
the approved method, there is no danger of crystallization except in
those rare cases where the fruits used have little or no acid.


_Adulteration of Jams._--The adulterations of jams are practically
the same as those which are practiced with jellies. Artificial colors
have been very extensively used together with the artificial flavors
resembling the fruits, the names of which appear erroneously upon the
packages. Glucose is used to a large extent in these adulterated goods.
In the adulterated articles a preservative is nearly always present.
Starch is used but very rarely for adulterating articles of this kind.

Fifty-eight samples of jams which proved to be adulterated were bought
on the open market by the Bureau of Chemistry, none of which bore any
label or description indicating that it was an adulterated article.
The character of the principal adulterant (glucose) in each case
is revealed at once by the polarization, which is always strongly
right-handed, and also by other chemical tests for glucose. The
quantity of sulfate and chlorid in the ash of these samples is always
very considerably increased over that of the natural product. The
quantity of glucose in some of the samples is so great as to indicate
that practically the whole of the solid matter is composed of this
substance. In two samples the alleged jam contained no fruit product
whatever. In many cases more than 70 percent of glucose is found and
in one instance as high as 76 percent. In a great majority of the
cases the glucose is approximately one-half of the whole weight of
the jam. In a great many cases the glucose was present in quantities
which indicated the utilization of some fruit product. There were a few
cases where the amount of glucose fell below 10 percent. Artificial
coloring matter was present in almost every case, and in the great
majority of cases either benzoic acid or salicylic acid is present as a
preservative. The colors used are coal tar dyes and cochineal.

It is evident that articles of food adulterated in this manner should
not be permitted to bear the name of the natural product, and in many
of the states the local laws forbid the use of a misleading name.
The national law, which was approved on the 30th of June, 1906, also
forbids misbranding of this description.

In addition to the jams which on their labels bore no indication of
the adulterations, a number of samples of jam were purchased labeled
“Compound,” or in some way indicating that they were not the pure
article. Thirteen samples of this kind were examined in the Bureau of
Chemistry and all of them had very large quantities of glucose, the
largest amount present in any one case being 37 percent. They were all
artificially colored, and ten of them contained preservatives, either
benzoic or salicylic acid.


=Jellies.=--In addition to the jellies which were made in the
laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry for the purpose of controlling
the manufacture, 44 samples of jelly were bought upon the open market.
Of these commercial samples 19 contained no glucose, 13 of them
contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 12 were labeled as
compound or adulterated articles. Nearly all of the commercial jellies
were made with apple jelly as the base. The apple jelly and glucose
made up practically the total solids, no matter what name was applied.
The flavors were artificial, and a very large number of the samples
contained preservatives. The samples of jelly which contained no
glucose were evidently made of the natural fruit,--they contained no
artificial coloring matter and in only a few instances did they contain
preservatives. On the other hand the jellies which were made of glucose
were uniformly colored and contained preservatives.

It is of interest here to say a few words about the very cheapest of
adulterated jellies which are found upon the market. These jellies were
made with some apple juice, but chiefly of glucose. They contained
large quantities of preservatives, and the ash was rich in sulfates and
chlorids except in two instances. In these cases it is possible that
the glucose which was used was manufactured by some special process not
involving the use of either sulfuric or hydrochloric acid.


=Adulteration of Jelly.=--Jellies are of the class of fruit products
which have been extensively adulterated. The markets of the country
have been flooded for years with so-called “compound jellies” or
imitations of jelly. The chief forms of adulteration are the following:
The use of apple stock for making all kinds of jelly. Attention has
already been called to the fact that apples contain a large number
of pectose bodies which favor jellification. A common method of
manufacturing jelly has been to use a stock of apple juice or cider
or a preparation made from the cores, skins, and rejected portions
of the apple at evaporating factories or from whole rejected apples.
This stock is used as a common base for the manufacture of jellies
of different kinds. Whenever apple juice enters into the composition
of a jelly made from any other fruit than the apple it becomes an
adulteration. Apple juice is not an adulteration in the sense of being
an injury to health, but in the sense of being substituted for other
fruit juices.


=Artificial Coloring.=--In as much as each kind of fruit tends to give
to a jelly a particular color, it is evident that if apple stock is
used the natural colors of the other fruits must be imitated.

To this end coal tar dyes have been generally employed, and sometimes
vegetable or animal coloring matter to imitate the color of the fruit
whose name is given to the product.


=Artificial Flavors.=--Since when apple stock is used as a base of
manufacture it imparts to the finished product only the flavor of
apples, artificial chemical flavors resembling other fruits are
employed. Thus the jellies which, presumably, are made from other
fruits, have the particular flavor of those fruits imitated in a wholly
artificial way.


=Composition of Jelly.=--The properties of a jelly, in respect of its
distinct character, are due solely to the fruit from which it is made.
Each one of the fruits contains essential oils, ethereal substances,
acids, etc., which give to it a distinct character. These bodies are
carried with the fruit juice into the finished product and give to
it its distinct characteristics. The sugar, of course, in all these
products is the same. In the following table are found the data showing
the composition of jellies made from different fruits in the Bureau of
Chemistry.

COMPOSITION OF JELLY.

  -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
       |                |        |        |  TOTAL |        |
       |                |        |        |  ACIDS |        +
   SE- |                |        |        |   EX-  |        |
   RIAL|                |        |        | PRESSED|PROTEIDS|
   NUM-|  DESCRIPTION   |  TOTAL |        |   AS   |  (N ×  |
   BER.|   OF SAMPLE.   | SOLIDS.|  ASH.  | H₂SO₄. | 6.25). |
  -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
       |                |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  20408|Apple (fall     |        |        |        |        |
       |pippin)         |  59.18 |  0.22  |  0.279 |  0.175 |
  20405|Blackberry      |  59.63 |   .33  |   .475 |   .243 |
  20410|Crab apple      |  63.28 |   .11  |   .171 |   .137 |
  20405|Grape (Ives     |        |        |        |        |
       |seedling)       |  63.66 |   .45  |   .524 |   .175 |
  20412|Huckleberry     |  63.02 |   .28  |   .245 |   .069 |
  20435|Orange (Florida |        |        |        |        |
       |navel)          |  68.56 |   .30  |   .171 |   .418 |
  20437|Peach           |  69.98 |   .21  |   .245 |   .175 |
  20434|Pear (Bartlett) |  69.12 |   .34  |   .181 |   .156 |
  20436|Pineapple       |  80.28 |   .43  |   .328 |   .387 |
  20433|Pineapple husk  |  76.34 |   .73  |   .352 |   .350 |
  20404|Plum (damson)   |  45.56 |   .68  |  1.127 |   .350 |
  20409|Plum (wild fox) |  54.49 |   .40  |  1.029 |   .138 |
  20411|Plum (wild fox),|        |        |        |        |
       |boiled down     |  73.01 |   .65  |  1.529 |   .175 |
  20407|Mixed fruit     |  66.58 |   .21  |   .367 |   .069 |
  -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----+----------------+-----------------------------------+
       |                |              SUGARS.              |
       |                +--------+--------+--------+--------+
   SE- |                |        |        |        |  Cane  |
   RIAL|                |        |  Cane  |  Cane  |  sugar |
   NUM-|  DESCRIPTION   |Reducing| sugar  | sugar  |   in-  |
   BER.|   OF SAMPLE.   | Sugars.| added. | found. | verted.|
  -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
       |                |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|
  20408|Apple (fall     |        |        |        |        |
       |pippin)         |  20.78 |  51.76 |  33.04 |  36.17 |
  20405|Blackberry      |  12.51 |  54.89 |  44.90 |  18.20 |
  20410|Crab apple      |  34.93 |  57.61 |  23.68 |  58.88 |
  20405|Grape (Ives     |        |        |        |        |
       |seedling)       |  32.29 |  60.29 |  30.52 |  49.33 |
  20412|Huckleberry     |  24.27 |  53.39 |  32.74 |  37.54 |
  20435|Orange (Florida |        |        |        |        |
       |navel)          |   3.95 |  65.59 |  62.52 |   4.91 |
  20437|Peach           |   8.75 |  63.70 |  56.59 |  11.16 |
  20434|Pear (Bartlett) |   6.58 |  63.09 |  58.46 |   7.33 |
  20436|Pineapple       |  22.13 |  72.98 |  56.70 |  28.45 |
  20433|Pineapple husk  |   7.40 |  70.22 |  65.22 |   7.12 |
  20404|Plum (damson)   |  19.18 |  38.00 |  22.67 |  40.38 |
  20409|Plum (wild fox) |  24.00 |  48.05 |  25.48 |  46.97 |
  20411|Plum (wild fox),|        |        |        |        |
       |boiled down     |  44.22 |  64.66 |  22.37 |  66.18 |
  20407|Mixed fruit     |  39.70 |  59.72 |  24.22 |  40.38 |
  -----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  -----+----------------+--------------------
       |                |   POLARIZATIONS.
       |                +------+------+------
   SE- |                |      |      |
   RIAL|                |Direct|Invert|Invert
   NUM-|  DESCRIPTION   |  at  |  at  |  at
   BER.|   OF SAMPLE.   |18° C.|18° C.|86° C.
  -----+----------------+------+------+------
       |                | _°V._| _°V._| _°V._
  20408|Apple (fall     |      |      |
       |pippin)         | +24.0| -20.6| -1.2
  20405|Blackberry      | +47.0| -20.1|  0
  20410|Crab apple      | +13.0| -19.0|  0
  20405|Grape (Ives     |      |      |
       |seedling)       | +22.3| -18.9| + .2
  20412|Huckleberry     | +24.1| -20.1| - .4
  20435|Orange (Florida |      |      |
       |navel)          | +61.3| -23.1| - .2
  20437|Peach           | +53.4| -23.0| - .6
  20434|Pear (Bartlett) | +52.7| -26.2| -1.8
  20436|Pineapple       | +50.4| -26.1|  0
  20433|Pineapple husk  | +63.7| -24.3| - .6
  20404|Plum (damson)   | +17.8| -12.8|  0
  20409|Plum (wild fox) | +16.7| -17.8|  0
  20411|Plum (wild fox),|      |      |
       |boiled down     |  +7.6| -22.6| - .6
  20407|Mixed fruit     | +14.8| -17.9| +2.2
  -----+----------------+------+------+------

As is to be expected the chief constituent of these jellies is the
sugar which is derived both from the sugar present in the natural juice
and from that added in the manufacture. The data show that the quantity
of cane sugar inverted varies greatly with the different fruits. Some
of the fruit juices appear to have little or no effect whatever in the
inversion of sugar. This is particularly true of the orange, the pear,
and the jelly made from the husks of pineapples.


=Manufacture of Jellies.=--In the manufacture of jellies the fruit
juices are separated from the pulpy mass of the fruit, and these alone
are used in the process. The most common method of procedure is to boil
the fruit with more or less water until the juices are more or less
separated and then to remove them by straining or pressure. The fruits
are heated for this purpose with sufficient water to prevent scorching
until they are thoroughly softened and then reduced to a pulp. The best
jellies are made from juices which are obtained by simply allowing the
pulpy mass to drain through cloth. The juices thus obtained are clear
and free of any suspended matter. When pressure is used the juices are
less clear and contain more or less suspended solid matter. In the
preparation of jellies approximately equal portions of pure cane sugar
and the strained juices are used, and the mixture is heated to the
boiling point. It is evident that in the manufacture of jelly where
boiling is not continued for any length of time the amount of sugar
inverted is less than in the manufacture of jams and preserves where
the boiling is continued for a greater length of time.

The quantity of non-crystallizing material in the juices from which the
jellies are made, namely, the pectose bodies in fruits, is sufficient
in most cases to prevent the crystallization of the cane sugar in the
jelly. The jelly is formed by these pectose bodies being present in the
juice in sufficient quantities to become semi-solid on cooling after
manufacture. The solidifying may take place in a short time or only
after several hours. The juice at the time of completion of the boiling
is thoroughly sterilized, and in this hot condition should be placed
in sterilized vessels and covered before setting away with sterilized
parchment paper or a thin film of sterilized paraffine. The covering
of the surface will prevent the deposition of the seed of moulds and
bacteria which often infect the top layer of jellies or other fruit
products prepared in a similar manner whose surface is not properly
protected.


=Preservatives.=--Since the care which is necessary to prepare a jelly
in a thoroughly sterilized condition and to protect the exposed surface
so that infection thereof cannot take place is a matter of expense and
requires great attention to details, it has been sought to avoid these
by the use of chemical preservatives. Salicylic acid and benzoic acid
or benzoate of soda have been the principal preservatives employed,
and until state and municipal laws introduced a proper inspection or
analysis of these products the use of these chemical preservatives was
very common. In later years their use has been gradually diminished,
owing to the objections on the part of the laws and the public to the
presence of these bodies in the finished products. There are, however,
still on the market many products which are preserved by salicylic
acid, benzoic acid, or benzoate of soda or some similar active agent.

From the above résumé it is seen that the consumer who buys in the
open market is not quite certain that he is getting the product for
which he pays. This condition of affairs will doubtless pass away
with the advent of the proper inspection of fruits which are used
in manufacturing on a large scale and a proper supervision of the
manufacturing establishments, together with a rigid execution of the
national and state food laws. Under such conditions the adulterations
will either disappear from the market or be so labeled as to
practically inform the purchaser of their character.


=Marmalade.=--The term “marmalade” is applied to a special character
of fruit product prepared in the same manner as jam in which the fruit
is not so thoroughly pulped. The orange is a fruit which is used very
extensively for making marmalade,--an orange marmalade, in other words,
is only a fruit product of the character of jam and made after the same
manner. This class of fruit products is so nearly the same as jam as
not to need any special description.


_Adulteration._--The adulterations to which the marmalades are
subjected are practically the same as for jams. In the study of
marmalade in the Bureau of Chemistry 96 samples were examined. Of
this number 86 were commercial products and 10 were prepared in the
laboratory of the Bureau. Of the commercial articles 18 samples,
somewhat less than 20 percent, contained no glucose. Fifty-three
contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 15 were labeled as
compound or artificial. The percentage of solids in these products
varied within a wide limit. The maximum percentage of solids found
was 82.46 and the minimum 53.43. The average percentage of ash in the
marmalade not containing glucose was 0.32, and the average alkalinity
of the ash as measured by a standard acid was 0.26. In the adulterated
marmalade containing glucose the average percentage of ash was 0.59,
almost as great as in the pure article, and the average alkalinity was
0.29, somewhat greater than in the pure article.


=Compound Jams and Jellies.=--A word should be said respecting
the meaning of the word “compound” as attached to fruit products,
especially jams and jellies, since it is a word which has been
selected as somewhat more euphonious than the term “adulterated” or
“misbranded.” So true is this that the word “compound” when placed
upon a food product indicates at once to the purchaser that the
article is a mixture or substitute. The term, therefore, indicates the
character of sophistication. To such an extent may this be practiced
that the actual material named in connection with the word “compound”
may be absent from the mixture altogether. The term arose first on
account of the desire of the manufacturer to leave off of the labels
a statement of the exact composition of the contents of the package
and to substitute a word of less significance, and at the same time to
comply with certain state laws which require that all fruit products
containing glucose be labeled with the word “compound” or some similar
term. A much simpler and more direct method would be to make the label
a truthful one, indicating, as nearly as possible, the character of the
product. A compound generally means a jelly or jam made without the
fruit named, that is, largely of glucose. It also indicates, as a rule,
that the product is artificially colored and artificially flavored. In
these cases the word “imitation” is to be preferred, inasmuch as the
mixtures bearing the word “compound” can only be regarded in reality as
a mixture of unlike substances.


=General Conclusions.=--In regard to fruit products made by boiling
with sugar, the general statement that they should be true to name and
free from artificial colors, preservatives, or other adulterations
apparently covers the whole ground. If it is desired to make a cheaper
article for the benefit of consumers of small means, the principles
which should guide the manufacturers are plain. The materials which
are added should be wholesome and free of deleterious or injurious
matter. The poor man, while entitled to get a cheaper article, is
likewise entitled, as well as the rich man, to protection against
deleterious substances. In the present state of our knowledge, glucose
is not regarded by the majority of hygienists as a substance injurious
to health. If it be injurious it is due more to a lack of care in
manufacture than to any inherent properties. Pure glucose, being simply
a hydrolyzed production of starch, cannot be regarded as a substance
injurious to health. The objections to glucose which have been
legitimately made are due to the fact that the acids which have been
used in converting the starch and also the sulfurous acid which has
been used in bleaching the product have not been entirely removed. It
appears that the glucose used for food purposes can be freed from all
objection by inverting the starch with which it is made with diastase
and avoiding the use of all bleaching reagents. The glucose thus made
would not be water-white, nor is it desirable for edible purposes that
it be so, since it is always, except, perhaps, in the manufacture
of certain candies, used in connection with naturally colored food
products. There is no reason to believe that a glucose made as above
and possessing, as it naturally would, an amber or reddish color would
be made less desirable than a product which is absolutely colorless.
This suggestion, therefore, is made to the manufacturer of glucose
for edible purposes in the interest of public health and to avoid
any possible condemnation of the glucose by reason of the method
of manufacture, namely, that the use of acid in the manufacture of
glucose be discontinued, that malt or some other form of diastase
be substituted and that bleaching, except by passing through animal
charcoal, be entirely omitted. The product made in this way would be
free from the objections which have been, and may in the future still
be, urged with reason against the use of the article at the present
time.


=Preserves.=--The term “preserves” is a general one which is applied
in common language to a preparation of fruit preserved by boiling
with sugar until complete sterilization is accomplished. The term in
its general application includes the different varieties of preserves
which have already been mentioned, namely, jams, marmalades, etc. It
must also be extended to include the class of fruit products known as
jellies, though, as a rule, it is not made so comprehensive in meaning,
inasmuch as the jelly does not contain any of the solid particles
of fruit. Perhaps there is no other part of the food-manufacturing
industry which is so universally practiced in the household as the
manufacture of preserves. Not only is this true of farm life in the
country but also of those living in the city. The sterilization of
fresh fruit without the use of sugar is not nearly so common as the
making of the domestic supply of preserved fruits in the sense above
mentioned. There is only one sufficient reason for the preparation of
such foods, namely, the suspicion which attaches to the manufactured
article appearing upon the market. So universal has been the custom
of artificially coloring the product, and of the use of glucose and
preservatives, as to create a general impression among consumers that
the articles thus purchased in the open market are adulterated and
misbranded. When these preparations are made in the household we are at
least assured of the genuineness of the product. It must be admitted
that the art and technique of manufacture cannot possibly be so perfect
in the home as in the large factories. It follows as a necessary
consequence that such goods as those indicated ought to be better and
cheaper and more readily preserved if made in large manufacturing
centers than when made at home. Even those who make the genuine product
suffer in common with those who make adulterated articles, since the
suspicion of adulteration attaches to the whole output. The practice
of domestic manufacture will undoubtedly continue until the public is
fully convinced that better and cheaper articles can be purchased in
the open market.


=Peach Preserves.=--A common practice among the housewives throughout
the United States is to boil peaches with sugar or sugar sirup, forming
the well known product, peach preserves. Preserves of this kind are
considered a delicacy, and, as they are easily made and kept, they are
a very common article of diet throughout all parts of the country where
peaches are grown.


=Fruit Butter.=--There are several preparations of fruit which differ
in some respect from those just mentioned, to which the term “butter”
has been applied, such as apple butter, peach butter, etc., and these
are common articles of domestic manufacture. This type of article is
illustrated by a description of apple butter.

Apple butter is made by boiling comminuted, sound, carefully selected
apples of a proper degree of maturity with cider until the whole mass
forms a bulk of the proper consistence. The preparation thus made is
treated with certain spices according to the desire of the manufacturer
and the taste of the consumer. There is quite a quantity of material
insoluble in water in genuine fruit butter. The rest consists of water,
the added sugar, if any, and the fruit juice with which the butter is
made.


_Adulteration of Fruit Butter._--Very extensive adulterations are
practiced with fruit butter offered in the open market. In the Bureau
of Chemistry as high as 30 percent of glucose has been found as an
added product. The addition of cane sugar cannot be regarded as an
adulteration but the best fruit butters are made without it. Artificial
colors are sometimes used, and preservatives, especially benzoic acid,
are quite common in the commercial article.


=Brandied Fruit.=--The use of brandy in common with sugar in the
preservation of fruit is widely practiced. Sometimes alcohol alone
is relied upon as a preserving agent. At other times greater or less
quantities of cane sugar are used. Usually heat is employed in addition
to the other preserving agents to complete sterilization. Nearly all
forms of fruit may be preserved in this way. Brandied cherries and
peaches are perhaps the most abundant. The quantity of alcohol employed
varies between 15 and 20 percent of the total weight of the goods. The
quantity of cane sugar used has been found to range from six to 20
percent of the weight of the fruit. Fruit preserved in this way cannot
be regarded in the light of food solely, but only as a condimental
substance. The eating of any large quantity of food containing that
percentage of alcohol could not be accomplished without danger of
intoxication. The utilization of such foods upon the table should be of
a restricted character, and, especially, they should not be used with
children or very young people where the danger from the direct effects
of the alcohol is magnified and the possibility of forming the alcohol
habit is also present.


_Adulteration of Brandied Fruits._--The principal adulteration of
brandied fruit is in the use of alcohol which is not genuine brandy.
It is well known that much of the brandy offered in commerce is
fictitious, that is, is not the pure distilled alcoholic product
from sound wine properly aged in wood before using. When brandy is
purchased for preserved fruit, unless special care is taken to secure
the genuine article the imitation article may be supplied. Instead of
the real brandy the manufacturers may use an article which is entirely
devoid of any product of the distillation of wine or containing only
a small amount thereof. The term “brandy” used with the fruit in such
a case is a misnomer and the article would be deemed misbranded under
the provisions of the law. The manufacturer can assure himself of the
purity of the brandy by obtaining it from a bonded warehouse, since it
is made under the supervision of the officials of the internal revenue
and kept under such supervision until delivered to the consumer.
Inasmuch as preparations of this kind are regarded as delicacies and
the cost of the product does not enter materially into consideration it
is highly advisable that only genuine brandy, distilled from sound wine
and aged in wood for a period of not less than four years, be employed
in the manufacture.


=Importance of the Canning and Preserving Industries.=--The statistics
for the canning and preserving industries for the calendar year ending
December 31, 1904, form a part of the census of manufactures, which is
made in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902, and are
compared with similar statistics for the census of 1900, which covered
the fiscal year ending May 31st.

There has been a large increase in those industries. The slight
decrease in the average number of wage-earners is more apparent than
real, and is due largely to the fact that a considerable number were
employed in fish canneries under a contract system. The contractor
furnishes the laborers and is paid for an agreed quantity of product.
The establishment reporting has no record of the number employed by
the contractors, and they were not included in the number reported,
the amount paid for such contract work being included in the item of
miscellaneous expenses. Fishermen were not included in the census, and
it is possible that a larger proportion of the salted fish was prepared
in connection with the actual catch than at the census of 1900, thus
accounting in part, at least, for the decrease in the quantity.

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, AND FISH AND OYSTERS.

COMPARATIVE SUMMARY--CENSUSES OF 1904 AND 1900.

  ---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+
                             |             |             |PERCENT|
                             |             |             | OF IN-|
                             |    1904.    |     1900.   |CREASE.|
  ---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+
  Number of establishments,  |        2,687|        2,182|  23.1 |
  Capital,                   |  $69,589,316|  $47,970,787|  45.1 |
  Salaried officials, clerks,|             |             |       |
  etc.:                      |             |             |       |
    Number,                  |        3,604|        2,418|  49.0 |
    Salaries,                |   $3,216,773|   $1,926,639|  67.0 |
  Wage-earners:              |             |             |       |
    Average number,          |       50,258|       51,955|   3.3 |
                             |             |             |  [35] |
    Wages,                   |  $14,154,730|  $12,759,459|  10.9 |
  Miscellaneous expenses,    |    8,544,497|    3,290,459| 159.7 |
  Materials used,            |   69,814,330|   52,243,948|  33.6 |
  Products:[36]              |             |             |       |
    Aggregate value,         | $107,534,464|  $81,020,384|  32.7 |
      Fruits and Vegetables--|             |             |       |
        Total value,         |  $72,570,974|  $44,460,665|  63.2 |
          Canned Vegetables--|             |             |       |
            Pounds,          |1,672,759,438|1,142,327,265|  46.4 |
            Value,           |  $45,262,148|  $28,734,598|  57.5 |
          Canned Fruits--    |             |             |       |
            Pounds,          |  295,760,355|  293,637,273|    .7 |
            Value,           |  $11,644,042|  $11,311,062|   2.9 |
          Dried Fruits--     |             |             |       |
            Pounds,          |  343,579,623|   81,189,406| 323.2 |
            Value,           |  $15,664,784|   $4,415,005| 254.8 |
        Fish--               |             |             |       |
          Total value,       |  $24,452,533|  $20,542,691|  19.0 |
            Canned--         |             |             |       |
              Pounds,        |  259,469,861|  167,836,808|  54.6 |
              Value,         |  $15,966,513|  $14,308,723|  11.6 |
            Smoked--         |             |             |       |
              Pounds,        |   35,439,619|   21,252,066|  66.8 |
              Value,         |   $2,362,740|     $973,041| 142.8 |
            Salted--         |             |             |       |
              Pounds,        |  112,156,655|  125,669,131|  10.8 |
                             |             |             |  [35] |
              Value,         |   $6,123,280|   $5,260,927|  16.4 |
        Oysters--            |             |             |       |
          Value,             |   $3,799,412|    2,054,800|  84.9 |
       All other products,   |    6,711,545|  $13,962,228|  51.9 |
                             |             |             |  [35] |
  ---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+

  [35] Decrease.

  [36] Exclusive of fruits and vegetables valued at $715,920, fish at
  $274,403, and oysters at $12,900, manufactured by establishments
  classified as food preparations, pickles, preserves and sauces,
  slaughtering and meat packing, wholesale, etc.


=Importance of the Industry.=--The importance of the canning industry
is not to be measured solely by its commercial extent. The principle of
the conservation of food products by sterilization or pasteurization is
of immense significance in the nutrition of man. It enables nourishing
foods of a perishable character to be kept and transported to great
distances and to be used in localities where fresh foods of similar
kinds are otherwise unobtainable. Such preserved foods mean everything
to pioneers, explorers, armies, and navies. The “winning of the west”
in the United States has been marked by the débris of the rusty cans.
The roads along which the pioneers who settled the great American
desert marched since 1865 have been bordered with the discarded
packages in which they carried their foods.

It is doubtless true that foods when they can be had fresh are to
be preferred to those which have been sterilized. It is also true
that many unsterilized foods from unsanitary environments are more
dangerous in the fresh state than when they have been exposed to a
high temperature. Taking into consideration all the circumstances
in the case, it must be conceded that the process of sterilization,
first practiced by Appert and afterward placed on a scientific basis
by Pasteur, has proved of almost immeasurable advantage to mankind.
Thus for this greater reason the character and quality of foods thus
preserved should be wholly above suspicion, and no adulteration
or sophistication of any kind should be practiced therewith. The
manufacturer is quite as much interested as the consumer in placing the
whole output of sterilized foods on a plane above suspicion.




PART VII.

VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS.


VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS.

The production of a substance known as fat or oil, composed of oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon in the form of a fatty acid and combined with
glycerine, is a function of almost every plant. The fat acids are
usually in combination with glycerine, which plays the part of a
base and in so far as its proportion by weight is concerned is much
less important than the fatty acid itself. In round numbers it may
be said that nine-tenths of all glycerids or fats are composed of a
fatty acid and one-tenth of glycerine. When at ordinary temperature
this combination is in a liquid form it is called an oil, and when
at ordinary temperature it is in a solid or semi-solid condition it
is known as a fat. The term “ordinary temperature” means in this
connection that of an ordinary living room and not the extremes
of outside temperature. In general terms it may be said that the
temperatures referred to are included between the minimum of 50 degrees
and the maximum of 85 degrees F. In so far as chemical composition and
dietetic properties are concerned, there is no distinction between
the oils and the fats. The names are simply a means of ordinary
discrimination which has assumed importance by reason of common usage.

There are three of the fatty acids which are particularly important
from a dietetic point of view which go to make up the greater part
of these fatty and edible vegetable oils and fats. These three acids
are oleic, stearic, and palmitic. Of the three, oleic acid is by far
the most important, as it constitutes the greater part of nearly all
these bodies, especially of oils. In fact the term “olein” and oil
are of common origin. Palmitic acid exists chiefly in certain forms
of vegetable oil and fats, while stearic acid is a very important
constituent of animal oils and fats.

These three acids uniting with glycerine form the glycerids which
make up the great body of edible and animal oils and fats, and these
principal glycerids are known as olein, palmitin, and stearin,
respectively.


=Chemical Characteristics.=--The chemical composition of these bodies
has been pointed out above. There is, however, in almost all cases,
some free acid present in the compound, that is, an acid which is
present uncombined with the glycerine. This free acid is usually
present in small quantities and is more abundant in the overripe and
older plants than in the freshly matured parts. The natural oil also
contains certain other ingredients which may be regarded as impurities,
and which it is necessary to remove from the oils by a process of
purification or refining before they are ready for the table. These
impurities may be of a mechanical nature, that is, consisting of
parts of the material itself from which the oil is expressed or
of certain juices not oils which are found in the animal tissue,
portions of protein and other forms of nitrogenous matter, and traces
of carbohydrates and gums. The oils have certain definite chemical
reactions which are common to them as a class. Among these may be
cited, principally, the faculty of absorbing, under certain conditions,
the halogens, namely iodin, bromin, and chlorin.

Without entering into any technical description of this process it is
sufficient to say here that the degree of absorption of iodin is in
a measure the test for the varieties of oil. The different vegetable
oils have, as a rule, certain definite relations to the absorption of
iodin by means of which they may be to a certain extent identified or
separated from similar bodies. The degree of absorption is expressed
in the percentage by weight of the oil itself and is known as the
iodin number. If, for instance, a gram of any particular oil absorbs
one gram of iodin, it is said to have an iodin number of 100. Many
oils absorb more than their own weight of iodin, while many others
absorb very much less. Another characteristic of oil is found in the
fact that with certain reagents, such as an acid either in a dilute
state or in a concentrated state, definite colors are produced which
are characteristic of the variety of oil in question. As an example
of this may be cited the faculty which cottonseed oil has of reducing
nitrate of silver to the metallic state, leaving the silver in that
finely divided form which has a black color. This is the only oil in
common use which has this faculty, and hence it may be regarded as a
characteristic test.

Another characteristic chemical property of cottonseed oil is the color
which is produced in the Halphen reaction, which has already been
described.

One of the most valuable chemical properties of oil is the amount
of heat which is produced when it is burned. Inasmuch as oils in
relation to their food value are useful chiefly for the production
of animal heat, this chemical property becomes of great hygienic and
dietetic significance. Of all classes of food products the oils and
fats have the highest calorific power. If, for instance, it is said
in general that one gram of carbohydrates, such as sugar or starch,
on complete combustion will yield 4,000 calories, one gram of protein
5,500 calories, then one gram of oil or fat will yield 9,300 calories.
The fats and oils vary among themselves in respect of the number of
calories yielded, but all of them give, approximately, the number
last mentioned. It therefore follows that oils and fats are the most
valuable constituents of food in respect of the production of heat and
energy.


=Crystalline Characteristics.=--The forms of crystals which the fats
assume on solidifying are valuable indicators of the nature of the oil.
While these crystal forms are not in all cases distinct, yet they are
influenced to a greater or less extent by the nature of the oil itself.
Thus the presence of any particular oil may very often be ascertained
by the examination of the crystals produced by lowering the temperature
very slowly or by dissolving the oil in a volatile solvent and
gradually evaporating the solvent. Tests of even greater delicacy may
be obtained by first saponifying the fat or oil, separating the fatty
acid, and subjecting it to crystallization.


=Distribution of Oils in Plants.=--In nearly all cases the part of the
plant which contains the most oil is the seeds. In fact all of the
vegetable oils which are used for edible purposes are extracted from
the seed of the plant. In the case of olives the meaty portion around
the seed yields the edible oil of highest value, but in all other
cases of edible oils they are derived from the seeds themselves. It is
a mistake to suppose that the seeds are the only parts of the plant
that contain oil. It is found in all parts of vegetable substances,
but is usually concentrated in the seed. It is rather an interesting
fact to know that in the seeds of plants both the protein and fats or
oils are found, as a rule, in a highly concentrated state, while the
carbohydrates are not found chiefly in the seed itself, that is the
germ, but distributed in the fleshy envelope surrounding it or in roots
or tubers.

The oils and fats are almost all soluble in ether and petroleum ether,
though there are some exceptions to this, as in the case of castor
oil, which is also insoluble in petroleum ether or gasoline. On the
contrary, oils and fats, as a rule, are not soluble in alcohol, but the
fatty acids derived from them are. Castor oil is also an exception to
this rule, since it is quite soluble in pure alcohol.


=Drying and Non-drying Vegetable Oils.=--It might be supposed that if
one vegetable oil be edible they all would be. This would probably be
the case if vegetable oils were all composed almost exclusively of the
three classes of glycerids, which have been mentioned above, but such
is not the case. There are other fatty acids in combination with the
glycerids which exist in vegetable oils, and chief among these may be
mentioned linoleic acid, which exists in considerable quantities in the
oil of flax seed, and gives to it its valuable property of a drying
oil which makes it so useful in the manufacture of paints. Whenever
vegetable oils and fats contain any especial quantity of linoleic acid,
or any other fatty acid which has drying properties, they are rendered
more or less unfit for human consumption. The number of drying oils is
very great, but the most important are linseed oil, hempseed oil, and
poppyseed oil. Other vegetable oils have, to a certain degree, drying
properties, and among those which are most marked in this particular
may be mentioned cottonseed oil, sesamé oil, maize or corn oil, and
rapeseed oil. Types of the oils which have the least drying properties
and which are regarded as types of non-drying oils are olive oil and
peanut oil. The castor oil group is distinguished partially from the
other vegetable oils because it contains, or is likely to contain, more
or less of a somewhat poisonous substance, namely, ricinolein, which is
peculiar to castor oil and to which its purgative value as a medicine
is due. The castor bean also contains a very poisonous nitrogenous
base, ricin, very small quantities of which may be incorporated in the
oil itself.


_Melting Point and Solidifying Point._--The oils and fats differ
greatly among themselves in the temperature at which they become solid
or liquid. If a solid fat or oil is subjected to a gradual rise of
temperature it does not pass at once or suddenly from a solid to a
liquid state, but there is a gradual liquefying,--thus olein first
becomes liquid and the stearin and palmitin become liquid at a higher
degree of temperature. The same phenomenon in its inverse order occurs
when a liquid fat is cooled until it solidifies. The moment at which
the fats become semi-liquid, liquid, or semi-solid, therefore, is not
to be determined with absolute precision, but only approximately, and
that temperature is designated as the melting or solidifying point
respectively. When the process is carefully conducted under standard
conditions the different fats and oils have very definite melting
or solidifying points, as determined in the manner described above,
and these temperatures should be sufficient to make the melting and
solidifying points valuable indications of the character or kind of oil.


=Physical Characteristics.=--The difference in the physical
characteristics of vegetable fats and oils is even greater than
in their chemical composition. Unfortunately for the chemist, the
vegetable fats and oils naturally have about the same color or at least
very slight variations therefrom, namely, an amber tint, so that, as a
rule, it is impossible to discriminate between these oils by their mere
color alone. The edible oils also have very much the same taste, so
that this physical property is not of any very great diagnostic value.
Some of the more important physical properties by which the oils are
distinguished are the following:


=Refractive Index.=--The well-known phenomenon which is shown by water
of bending sharply a ray of light falling upon it in a direction
oblique to its surface is known as refraction, and the degree of
deflection of the ray is a measure of the refractive index. This is
easily illustrated by putting a straight stick or rod into still water
at an angle to its surface. The stick or rod will appear to be broken
or bent at the surface. Oils have a higher faculty of deflecting
the ray of light than water. For instance, if in round numbers the
refractive index of water is represented by 1.33, the refractive
index of oil may be represented by 1.44. The oils differ greatly
among themselves in the magnitude of the refractive index, but these
indexes are all approximately of the magnitude last mentioned. Hence a
determination of the refractive index is a valuable means of helping to
discriminate between oils of different kinds.


=Reichert-Meissl Number.=--Attention was called above to the fact that
in addition to three special forms of fatty acids there were many
others present in oils in small quantities. Among these are found acids
which are volatile in a current of steam, which is not the case with
the oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Among the most important of the
volatile acids is the one which exists in large quantities in butter,
namely butyric acid. The quantity of volatile acid is determined
arbitrarily by the amount of a standard alkali solution which will be
neutralized by the volatile acid from five grams of fat. In the case of
butter, for instance, it may be said that in round numbers it requires
28 cubic centimeters of standard alkali to neutralize the volatile acid
produced according to the above method of procedure. In cottonseed oil
the amount of standard solution required to neutralize the volatile
acid obtained in the same way is extremely minute, amounting to less
than one-half cubic centimeter.

I have given above a brief description of some of the physical and
chemical characteristics of oils and fats in order that the reader not
specially trained in chemistry may understand thoroughly the references
made to these properties in the general description given of vegetable
fats and oils. It is not necessary to be a skilled chemist in order
to have a general knowledge of some of the points which are of most
interest in this respect.


=Saponification Value.=--As is well known, one of the most common uses
of oils and fats is in soap making. Soap consists of the products
of chemical reactions by means of which the glycerine contained in
an oil or fat are set free and a mineral or other base substituted
therefor. For instance, lye consists of the hydrate or carbonate of
potash and soda. When an oil is heated with a lye the fatty acid
leaves the glycerine in the oil and combines with the potash or soda
of the lye. The number of milligrams of potash or soda required to
saponify one gram of fat or oil is called its saponification value. For
instance, in the case of cottonseed oil it requires, in round numbers,
190 milligrams of potash or hydrate of potash (KOH) to replace the
glycerine in one gram of oil. The quantity of potash required for an
edible oil to make a complete saponification varies, and hence this
number becomes one of the means of distinguishing between them.


=Specific Gravity.=--The relative weight of a given volume of oil
compared with the weight of the same volume of water at the same
temperature or at some standard temperature is known as its specific
gravity. The oils and fats are universally lighter than water, and in
the comparison the unit weight of water is assumed to be unity or 100
or 1000--usually unity or 1000. If the relative weight of water is
unity, then the relative weight or specific gravity of oil is expressed
as a decimal fraction. For instance, if water is taken as unity the
specific gravity of oil equals .912; if the relative weight of water is
assumed to be one thousand then the specific gravity expressed above
is 912. Unless it is stated otherwise, in all references to specific
gravity of these oils it is assumed that the comparison is between the
unit weight of water and oil at the same temperature. This is the most
convenient form for comparison for general use, though for strictly
scientific purposes it is customary to refer all specific gravity
numbers to water at the temperature of its maximum density, namely 4
degrees C. (39 degrees F.). At this temperature a given weight of water
has its smallest volume, in other words its greatest density. When
water is raised to a temperature above that mentioned, it expands and
its volume becomes larger. When it is cooled to a temperature below
four degrees C., its volume also expands.

The variations in the specific gravity of the common oils is not very
great, and therefore the specific gravity is not the most valuable
indication in discriminating between these oils.


EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS.

While there is very little chemical difference between the fats
of animals and the oils of plants, the difference is sufficiently
distinguished to secure a proper degree of identification and
classification. Both classes of bodies are composed of the fatty acids
combined with glycerine. The three fatty acids which are most important
from the edible point of view and also from the chemical are oleic,
stearic, and palmitic. When these acids are united with glycerine as
the basic element, they form three classes of oils or fats to which
the names olein, stearin, and palmitin are respectively given. A
distinction may also be made between a fat and an oil by observing its
physical consistence at ordinary room temperature of approximately
from 70 to 80 degrees F. It is usual to speak of the bodies which are
liquid at such temperature as oils, while those that are solid under
like conditions are known as fats. A compound of this description does
not pass suddenly from one state to another. In the case of a fat, for
instance, which is solid at ordinary temperature, it passes by gradual
stages from that condition to a slowly softening mass and then to a
complete liquid as the temperature is raised. On the other hand, an oil
passes gradually through the same stages to the condition of a solid
body as the temperature is lowered. Of the different constituents the
olein has the lowest melting point, pure olein being still liquid at
quite a low temperature, approaching even the freezing point of water.
Stearin and palmitin on the contrary, if in a pure state, are solid
at a temperature even above that of the room and above that of blood
heat. In the mixture of these bodies it is evident that a complicated
structure must be present which is composed of different bodies of
varying melting points and passing through all different degrees of
temperature from a solid to a liquid state or vice versâ. It is evident
that an oil has a larger proportion of olein in its composition and a
fat a larger proportion of stearin and palmitin.

Animal fats are composed chiefly of olein and stearin, while strictly
vegetable oils are principally olein, and palm oil is composed chiefly
of stearin and palmitin.

In butter fat there is introduced an important additional compound of a
fatty acid with glycerine, namely butyrin, which is made up of a union
of glycerine with butyric acid. Butter also contains other components
or glycerids, but in small quantities. Oleic, stearic, and palmitic
acids are insoluble in water and not volatile at the boiling point of
water. Butyric acid is soluble in water and is volatile at the boiling
point of water. The first kinds of acid are therefore called “fixed”
and the second “volatile.”

The edible vegetable oils like the animal fats are highly nutritious
in the sense that they afford to a greater degree than any other kind
of food product the elements necessary to the production of heat and
energy. The average number of calories to one gram of edible oil is
in round numbers 9,300. When this number is compared with the average
number of calories in one gram of sugar or starch, namely 4,000, it is
seen that fats and oils are two and one-fourth times as valuable as
sugar in the production of heat and energy. Since the greater part of
the food consumed by an animal is utilized in the production of heat
and energy, it is seen that the fats and oils must be classed as the
most concentrated and in that sense the most valuable human foods.

The use of edible vegetable oils is also advisable for hygienic
purposes. They are readily assimilated and digested, and they produce
a physical effect upon the process of digestion which is a matter of
importance. The free use of edible vegetable oils is to be recommended
in cases of constipation or where there are mechanical difficulties
in the digestive process. In these cases it is consumed in larger
quantities than would ordinarily be the case.


=Use of Edible Oils.=--The edible oils are used most extensively on
the table as the base of salad-dressing. Many succulent vegetables,
as has already been stated, are eaten very commonly with condimental
substances such as vinegar, salt, spices, etc., and as a vehicle for
these condimental substances there is nothing superior or even equal to
the edible vegetable oils. Vinegar, itself, owes its active principle,
namely, its acid, to a member of the fatty acid series, so that the
mixture of vinegar with oil is not a bringing together of two wholly
different substances but of two substances belonging to the same
general family. Vinegar itself has no value as a food, but is useful
solely for condimental purposes. On the other hand the edible oil is
not only condimental, increasing the pleasant taste of the compound,
but also has a high food value. Edible oils may also be used in the
place of lard and other animal fats in the preparation of bread and
pastry, serving the purpose of shortening. Edible oils are also highly
useful as a vehicle for frying foods, such as oysters, croquettes,
doughnuts, etc.

The heating of an oil or fat to a high temperature produces a certain
degree of decomposition with a development of an aromatic and sometimes
unpleasant product known as acrolein. It is not believed that this
change is as detrimental to digestion as is commonly supposed. Products
which are fried in oil, or boiled in oil, which is probably a better
term, as described above, are not to be considered wholly indigestible,
though it cannot be denied that they are not the best things for
delicate stomachs or those which are in any way weakened by disease.
In the case of a healthy individual, however, a moderate quantity of
such products may be eaten without any great danger of producing a
derangement of digestion. If these bodies are found to be indigestible,
it is probably not due to the fact that they contain large quantities
of oil but rather to the decomposition effected by the high temperature
and the hardening of the periphery of the bodies to such an extent as
to make them difficultly amenable to the activities of the digestive
ferments.


=Acorn Oil.=--The oil of the acorn is sometimes used for edible
purposes. It is extracted by pressure, and the nature of the product
depends upon the variety of the acorn. Acorn oil has at 15 degrees a
specific gravity of .916 and an iodin number of 100. It is not of any
commercial importance as an edible oil.


=Almond Oil.=--Almond oil is not so commonly used for edible purposes
as it is for pharmaceutical preparations. By reason of its flavoring
properties, however, it may sometimes be used for food purposes, and a
brief description, therefore, is advisable.

Almond oil is obtained from the seed of the bitter almond, a variety of
_Amygdalus communis_ L. It may also be extracted from the seeds of the
sweet almond, but these contain less oil than the bitter almond seed
and the oil is not so useful for flavoring purposes. The bitter almond
whose seeds are used for the extraction of oil are grown chiefly in
Morocco, the Canary Islands, Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Sicily,
Syria, and Persia. The almond kernel contains about 40 percent of oil.
Almond oil is said by most observers to be free from stearin, and it
is therefore an oil which is composed almost exclusively of olein.
The specific gravity of almond oil at 15 degrees C. is almost exactly
that of rapeseed oil, being only a trifle higher. The average number
expressing the specific gravity at that temperature is .918. Its iodin
value is slightly lower than that of rapeseed oil, being about 97.


_Adulterations._--Almond oil is often adulterated with other cheaper
oils. Among these those which are principally used are cottonseed
oil, walnut oil, poppyseed oil, sesamé, peanut, apricot-kernel and
peach-kernel oil, and lard oil. Those most frequently used are
the apricot and peach, since these oils contain the characteristic
principle which gives the bitter taste to the kernels of this class in
fruits. Often almond oils are offered to the trade which are composed
exclusively of peach-kernel or apricot-kernel oil. Whenever the iodin
number of an almond oil runs very high it is an indication that it
is composed largely of peach or apricot oil. The detection of small
quantities of these oils when added to almond oil is a very difficult
matter and can only be accomplished by the expert chemist.


=Cottonseed Oil.=--One of the most important edible oils in the world,
and especially from the point of view of production in the United
States, is that derived from the seed of the cotton plant (_Gossypium
herbaceum_).

The cotton plant grows over a wide area in the United States, including
all of the southern states and extending into southern Virginia,
southern Kentucky, southern Missouri, and Oklahoma. In former years
the cotton plant was cultivated solely for its fiber. It is only in
the last quarter of a century that the high value of its seed for
many purposes has been realized. The seed of the cotton plant is
preëminently rich in oil and protein. It contains traces of certain
poisonous alkaloids, betain and cholin, the presence of which renders
its indiscriminate use for cattle food in some cases dangerous. In the
preparation of oil, however, no trace of these poisonous substances is
found, since they exist solely in the non-fatty tissues of the seed.
The production and refining of the oil has now grown to be a great
industry and has already added much to the wealth of the cotton growers
and the comfort and nutrition of the people in general.


_Magnitude of the Cottonseed Oil Industry._--The average cotton crop of
the United States is about 12,000,000 bales of about 500 pounds each.
For every bale of cotton there is produced 1,000 pounds of seed. This
would make the average cottonseed crop of the country about 6,000,000
tons. It is estimated that not over two-thirds of this is used in the
mills; this would make about 4,000,000 tons. The average yield of 40
gallons to a ton shows the production of crude oil to be 3,200,000
barrels of 50 gallons each. This oil in refining loses on the average
about 8 percent, which would leave 2,944,000 barrels of refined oil for
edible and other purposes. Not less than two-thirds of this oil is used
for edible purposes. A conservative estimate would place the quantity
used for food between two millions and two millions and a half barrels
per annum. The quantity varies with the prices of other fats.

Cotton seed is brought to the mills from the gins either by rail in
box cars or in wagons. On arrival at the mills, it is stored in large
sheds, known as seed houses. A single seed house will often contain
as much as 5,000 to 10,000 tons. The seed is carried into the mill by
means of conveyers. It first goes through coarse screens which remove
the greater part of the trash and sand, after which it is passed over
magnetized iron plates which remove nails and pieces of iron which may
have accidentally gotten into the seed. After the seed is thoroughly
cleaned it passes through gins known as linters, which remove from 40
to 50 pounds of short staple cotton known in the trade as “linters.”
This cotton is used for preparing cotton batts, mattresses, etc.
Conveyers carry the seed from the linters to the hullers, which are
rapidly revolving drums covered with cutting knives which chop up the
seed. From the hullers the cut-up seed pass over a series of screens
where the meats are shaken out while the conveyors carry the hulls to
a suitable store house. The hulls are used for cattle food. The meats
are carried to the crusher rolls, through which they pass. These rolls
break up oil cells to a large extent and leave the meats in a finely
divided condition. From the crusher rolls the meats are carried to
steam-jacketed kettles provided with agitators. There they are cooked
to the proper point, which is determined by feel and smell. From the
heaters the meats are dropped into cake formers, where they are formed
into shape of cakes between camel’s hair press cloths in which they are
placed in the heavy hydraulic presses which press out the oil. Good
press-room work will give out 45 gallons of oil to the ton and leave in
the cake between 6 and 7 percent of oil.

The crude oil as it leaves the presses varies in color from light
sherry to deep claret. The variation is due to local conditions
affecting the seed, also the manner of treatment in cooking. The flavor
of the crude oil varies greatly in the different parts of the country.
That made in Georgia and Carolina has a strong flavor of peanut, while
that made in the Mississippi Valley and Texas has more the flavor of
sweet Indian corn.

To prepare crude oil for edible purposes, it must go through a process
of refining; this is accomplished by agitating in large tanks with
caustic soda solution. When the soda is added in the proper amount,
the coloring matter, free fatty acids, and vegetable matter contained
in the oil are converted into a mucilaginous soap which separates in
dark-colored flakes through the oil when heat is applied. When the
granulation has reached the proper point, agitation is stopped, and the
flaky soap stock settles at the bottom of the tank, leaving a clear,
light, greenish-golden oil on top. The best practice allows tanks to
settle about 12 hours, after which the soap stock has drawn off and
the well settled yellow oil is removed to a settling tank where it
is gently heated to remove moisture and remaining soap stock. This
produces what is known as prime summer yellow oil. This oil has a sweet
flavor and light yellow color. Unfortunately when used for cooking
it gives off a very disagreeable odor and leaves a bad flavor in the
article of food cooked with it. This renders further purification
necessary. The oil is heated to temperatures varying from 150 to 200
degrees F. and agitated in kettles with fuller’s earth, after which
it passes through filter presses, which remove the fuller’s earth
and leave the oil very nearly white. In this condition the oil is
still unfit for cooking purposes, on account of the peculiar flavor
given by the fuller’s earth treatment, which is commonly removed by
treatment with steam. Details of this deodorizing process vary and are
regarded as trade secrets. The oil so prepared is largely used in the
preparation of substitutes for lard and similar cooking fats. Such oil
is a great improvement over the ordinary summer yellow and bleached
oils, but falls short of being an ideal oil.

Within the last few years a cottonseed oil has been put on the market
in which the objections to the use of cottonseed oil as food have been
as nearly overcome as the chemical nature of the oil will permit. The
oil produced by this process is practically odorless and tasteless and
can be used satisfactorily for all culinary purposes. Large quantities
are used by the bakers in place of lard. (David Wesson.)


_Further Details._--The cotton seed from various sources is put through
a screen to take out the bolls and coarse material. The seed is then
put through a gin to remove as far as possible any remaining lint, of
which about 20 pounds per ton of seed are obtained. The clean seed is
next sent to a huller composed of revolving cylinders covered with
knives, which cut up both seed and hull. The chips are then conveyed
to a screen placed on a vibrating frame, through which the kernels
fall. The hulls are carried by an endless belt to the furnaces, where
they are burned. The kernels of the seed are conveyed to crusher
rolls, where they are ground to a fine meal. The meal is then sent to
a heater, where it remains from twenty to forty minutes. These heaters
have a temperature of 210 to 215 degrees F.

The hot meal is formed into cakes by machinery; these are wrapped in
cloth and placed in the press. About sixteen pounds of meal are put in
each cake. The cakes are placed in a hydraulic press, where a pressure
of from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds per square inch is applied. The press is
also kept warm. The expressed cakes contain only about 10 percent of
oil. The cake is sold as cattle food or for fertilizing purposes. The
crude oil as thus expressed contains about 1.5 percent of free acid,
also a notable quantity of water and solid matters in suspension. The
manufacture of cottonseed oil usually takes place in the winter months
immediately after the ginning of the cotton is completed. The oil is
likely to become rancid if kept unpurified until the hot months. The
crude oil is collected in oil tanks at the press and shipped to the
refining houses. In winter time when tanks are sent to the north where
the temperature is very low the contents of the tank become solid
unless protected from the action of the cold.

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--REMOVING THE OIL CAKES FROM A COTTONSEED
PRESS.--(_Courtesy of David Wesson._)]


_Refining Process._--The first step in the refining of a crude
cottonseed oil is to have it stored in large and deep tanks where it
remains at rest for a proper length of time. During this period of
rest the heavy mechanical impurities and water settle to the bottom
of the tank and are typically known as “foots.” The oily portions of
these fats are used in the manufacture of soap and for other technical
purposes. The tanks may be connected with steam jackets in order to
keep the oil at a proper temperature. During the process of deposition
the oil is also treated with an alkali to neutralize the free acid
which it contains. The precipitate formed by this process together
with the principal part of the soaps produced are recovered with the
“foots.” A solution of caustic or carbonated soda is one generally
employed in this process of refining. If the admixture of caustic
soda occurs at the time of filling the tank, the contents are kept
well agitated for a sufficient length of time to secure an intimate
mixture of the oil with the lye. Usually the deposition of the solid
matter is accomplished in from two to three days. The supernatant oil
is of a light yellow color, but not sufficiently pure to admit of
being used for edible purposes. This yellow oil is treated again in
a similar manner and allowed to settle a second time, or it is mixed
with some substance which will facilitate the operation, and subjected
to filtration by means of which a perfectly bright oil is secured. If,
during this process, the oil has never been chilled so as to separate
a part of its stearin, it is called summer oil, as an indication that
it only remains clear during the hot weather. Oils intended for winter
use are chilled before finally being put into packages, and the stearin
which is separated at this low temperature is removed by filtration.
The residual oil which is capable of remaining liquid at a low
temperature by reason of the removal of a portion of its stearin, as
above described, is known in the trade as winter oil. In this process
of filtration fuller’s earth is frequently employed, which not only
promotes the filtration but also absorbs and retains a large part of
the color of the oil, which thus treated is almost colorless. Where
cottonseed oil is used for mixing with lard it is highly important that
it be practically free of color. When, however, it is used for mixing
with oleomargarine the more yellow it is the more highly prized.


_Extraction of Oil by Means of Petroleum._--The light oils which are
produced in the refining of petroleum and commonly called gasoline are
typical solvents for fat and oil. Instead of extracting the oil by the
pressure process, as described above, a practically complete extraction
may be secured by successive treatments with the light petroleum oils.
The principle of the process is exactly that of the extraction of sugar
from sugar beets by hot water in the process of the manufacture of beet
sugar. The cottonseed cake or pressed meal is broken into fragments of
approximate size, placed in tanks, and treated with successive portions
of light petroleum. The extraction is arranged in such a way as to be
a continuous one, that is, the vessels for handling the oil cakes are
arranged _en batterie_ as in the case of beet sugar extraction. By this
method all except a mere trace of the oil is extracted from the cake.
The light petroleum oils are subsequently separated from the cottonseed
oil by distillation and are used again in the process. There is little
loss of petroleum oil. Where cottonseed oil is used for technical
purposes there is no objection to this method of extraction, and much
is to be said in its favor since greater yields of oil are secured.
When used for edible purposes, however, petroleum extracted cottonseed
oil is not of as high a quality as that extracted by pressure. It is
difficult to remove all traces of petroleum, especially the odor, and
there are constituents extracted by petroleum which are not mixed with
the oil when it is separated by pressure. It is advisable, therefore,
that cottonseed oil used for edible purposes be cold-press extracted
and not petroleum extracted oil.


_Standard for Cottonseed Oil._--The official standards for cottonseed
oil are as follows:

“Cottonseed oil is the oil obtained from the seeds of cotton plants
(_Gossypium hirsutum_ L., _G. Barbadense_ L., or _G. herbaceum_
L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes; it is free from
rancidity; has a refractive index (25 degrees C.) not less than one
and forty-seven hundred ten-thousandths (1.4700) and not exceeding one
and forty-seven and twenty-five ten-thousandths (1.4725); and an iodin
number not less than one hundred and four (104) and not exceeding one
hundred and ten (110).

“‘Winter-yellow’ cottonseed oil is expressed cottonseed oil from which
a portion of the stearin has been separated by chilling and pressure.”


=Hazelnut Oil.=--The oil of the hazelnut is to a limited extent used
for edible purposes. It is extracted from the seed of the hazelnut
tree (_Corylus avellana_ L). The seeds are very rich in oil and are
said to contain from 50 to 60 percent thereof. The oil is almost free
of stearin and is said to contain only about one percent. The rest of
it consists chiefly of olein, there being but 12 percent of palmitin.
While it is an edible oil, it is used chiefly in the manufacture of
perfumes and as a lubricating oil. Its high price, however, excludes it
from any general use, except for special purposes. Its specific gravity
at 15 degrees is .916, and it absorbs about 86 percent of its weight of
iodin.


=Olive Oil.=--By far the most important of edible oils, both on account
of its abundance and of its palatability, is olive oil. Olive oil has
been used from the earliest historical times and probably was the first
vegetable oil that was manufactured to any considerable extent in
the early history of civilization. Its qualities have maintained for
it a market among the nations of the world in spite of the fact that
many other palatable and wholesome vegetable oils have been produced
which, while not inferior in nutritive value to olive oil, are so very
much cheaper that unless the olive oil possessed peculiar properties
it would be forced out of the market. Its delicate flavor, extreme
palatability, high nutritive power, and other general characteristics
have maintained for it a market against the strongest competition.

Olive oil is procured from the fruit of the olive tree (_Olea Europæa_
L.), and when it is to be used for edible purposes the method of
extraction is by pressure. When olive oil is used for technical
purposes, such as lubricating and the manufacture of soap, it is
very commonly secured by extraction with a volatile solvent, such as
petroleum. The olive is very rich in oil, the quantity varying from
40 to 60 percent. The quality of olive oil upon the market varies in
a very great degree according to the country from which it comes,
the degree of maturity of the olive from which the oil is extracted,
the method of expression employed, and the character of the refining
process to which the expressed oil has been subjected. Botanically,
there are very many varieties of olive trees and thus nature would
impart to the olive peculiarities due to the origin of the oil itself.
The environment also has a great deal to do with the character of the
olive and necessarily with the character of the oil produced. The olive
tree flourishes best in semi-arid regions where the rainfall is not
very abundant and the sunlight is not greatly obscured by clouds and
the heat is reasonably high. The principal regions, at the present
time, from which the commercial olive oils are obtained are Spain,
Italy, Greece, southern France, and southern California.

[Illustration: OLIVES

  1. MISSION  2. SEVILLANO

_From Yearbook, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1897_]


_Adulteration of Olive Oil._--By reason of its great value as an edible
oil and its high price there is no one of the edible oils which has
been subjected to such a systematic and extensive adulteration. By
reason of the resemblance in general character of many of the edible
vegetable oils to olive oil, adulterations of the most extensive
character may be practiced without indicating to the eye any change
in composition. Nearly all the edible vegetable oils have the light
amber tint which is characteristic of many grades of olive oil, and the
difference between the color of the olive oil and other edible oils is
not greater than the difference between the tints of the various olive
oils themselves. The connoisseur of extremely delicate taste is usually
able to distinguish by the taste any given edible oil from olive
oil. If, however, any given edible oil be mixed with olive oil in small
proportions not exceeding 25 to 30 percent, even the skilled taster
will be deceived. In such cases only the chemist who has much skill and
practice is able to detect the adulteration.


_Adulteration with Cottonseed Oil._--In the United States the principal
adulteration of olive oil is with cottonseed oil. This is an oil which
has already been described as of high nutritive value and to which no
objection can be made from any hygienic or dietetic point of view. It
is made in great quantities in the United States, and when subjected to
the most careful refining processes can be offered to the consumer at
a price probably not greater than one-fifth that of high-grade olive
oil. It becomes the ideal material with which to adulterate olive oil.
This adulteration extends often to complete substitution, the oil in
question, though represented as olive oil both by the dealer and the
label, containing no trace whatever of that substance. Such bare-faced
substitution has apparently almost passed away under the quickening
ethical sense of the manufacturer and merchant and the character
of the national and state laws. Many of the oils which are used to
adulterate olive oil have a greater specific gravity, hence whenever
the specific gravity of an olive oil at 15 degrees goes above .917 it
is ground for suspicion of adulteration though by no means a positive
proof. The presence of cottonseed oil in olive oil is easily detected
by the Halphen test, which has already been described. In Europe a
very common method of adulteration is with sesamé oil, the properties
of which are described below. Peanut oil is also extensively used for
the same purpose. These two oils are easily detected when mixed with
olive oil. The sesamé oil is distinguished by the color reaction to be
described. Peanut oil is distinguished by the saponification of the
oil, separation of the fatty acids, and consequent crystallization
of the arachidic acid, which produces a crystalline form which is
readily recognized by an expert. Rapeseed oil and poppy-seed oil
are also extensively used as adulterants in Europe, but not very
extensively in this country. Nearly all the oils which are employed in
the adulteration of olive oil have high iodin numbers, and therefore
whenever an iodin number is above 89 or 90 it may be regarded as
a suspicious circumstance. There are, however, many genuine olive
oils which would be condemned as adulterated if this test alone were
employed. In addition to the oils mentioned, small quantities of castor
oil, lard oil, fish oil, and even of petroleum oil, have been found as
adulterants in olive oil. These, however, occur very infrequently, and
it is not likely that they have been employed in this country.

If the examination shows that a given sample is free of cottonseed,
sesamé, and peanut oil, and other characteristics in the sample are
those of olive oil, it may be safely accepted as a pure sample.


_Color of Olive Oil._--The color of the freshly expressed olive oil is
usually green or dark from the chlorophyl and other coloring matter
derived from the olive. When refined and ready for commerce the oil
is of a yellowish-green tint usually. Sometimes the oil obtained from
the first pressing is almost colorless, but as a rule an amber-green
tint is observed in most of the commercial varieties. Lower grade oils
are often decidedly green, but still edible, due to the admixture of
chlorophyl from the green olive employed. The flavor of olive oil
is a pleasant and agreeable one, but differs greatly in oils from
different sources. The further north the oils are produced the less
pronounced the flavor and the sweeter the taste. The more southern
oils, such as are obtained in the south of Italy and Spain, have a
stronger and more pronounced flavor which, however, is very much prized
by those accustomed to it. Large quantities of olive oil are produced
also in the French and other possessions in the north of Africa.
These, however, have a stronger flavor than those produced upon the
continent of Europe and are not so highly prized when used alone.
Olive oil is almost free of stearin, being composed chiefly of olein
with some palmitin. The amount of free acid in olive oil varies with
the character of the olives employed and the age of the oil. On long
standing, without becoming rancid, olive oil develops a large quantity
of free acid. It is a common supposition that rancidity in an oil
depends upon the development of free fatty acid, but this is not the
case. If an oil be free of rancidity it may contain a large percentage
of free acid without becoming inedible. It is not uncommon to find in
olive oil as high as 3 percent or more of free acid. This is due to
the fact that in the refining of olive oil alkalies are not usually
employed, and therefore any free acid which the natural olive possesses
is not neutralized by the alkalies, as is the case in the refining of
cottonseed oil and some other vegetable oils.


_Constituents of Olive Oil._--Olive oil consists almost exclusively
of olein and palmitin. There is very little, if any, stearin in the
highest grade oil. If all the solid fatty acid at ordinary temperature
be regarded as derived from palmitin, the quantity of palmitin may be
regarded as varying from three to 20 percent, according to the origin
and character of the sample. While the olein and palmitin, therefore,
may be regarded as the principal constituents of olive oil, there are
others, also, existing in smaller quantities. The quantity of free
fatty acid varies very greatly in olive oil. It is highly important
that the oil be separated from the pomace as speedily as possible,
since any fermentation of the pomace increases the quantity of free
fatty acid. The largest number of high-grade oils contain less than
three percent of free fatty acid, but a larger quantity, as has been
stated, does not render the oil inedible unless actual fermentation has
taken place producing rancidity. Rancidity appears to be the result of
the generation of other acids than oleic, and also aldehyds, formic,
butyric, acetic, and œnanthylic acids have been found. Olive oil is a
typical non-drying oil and therefore shows a less rise in temperature
when mixed with sulfuric acid than other vegetable oils. The specific
gravity of olive oil at 15 degrees may be placed at the average
figure of .917. It sometimes falls as low as .912 and rises as high
as .919. It absorbs from 80 to 90 percent of its weight of iodin. In
some samples the weight of iodin absorbed is less, falling as low as 77
percent, but this is only in very extraordinary cases. Occasionally it
goes above 90 percent. Probably the number 87 would represent about the
mean percentage of iodin absorbed by most edible oils.


_Method of Preparation._--The very finest quality of olive oil is
that derived from the hand-picked olive. Just as in the preparation
of fruits for the market the very best qualities are carefully picked
one by one from the tree, so in the preparation of the highest grade
of oil the olives are picked one by one, only those of uniform
maturity and character being selected. This specially selected fruit
is pressed cold, and the first running from this pressure collected
separately is designated in English by the term “virgin oil.” Virgin
olive oil, therefore, ranks the highest in quality. Unfortunately the
use of the term for commercial purposes has not been restricted to
the quality of oil to which it actually belongs, and at the present
time the expression “pure virgin olive oil” which is placed upon the
bottles or containers is no guarantee that this quality of oil is found
therein. In fact, this expression upon the label has been found in many
instances of olive oil highly adulterated and belonging to the cheapest
grade. It would be impossible here to enumerate all the different names
by which olive oil is found upon the market. The consumer has to depend
for protection upon his knowledge of the character of the dealer and
hereafter, to a greater extent than ever before, he may be protected by
the application of the pure food laws of the various countries.

After the first pressing from which the best oil is secured the
resulting pomace is removed from the press, heated or mixed with hot
water, and again subjected to a much higher pressure from which a
second quantity of oil is secured, still suitable for edible purposes
but of a lower quality than that first produced. While the oils which
are obtained in this way are used largely for technical purposes such
as lubricating, soap making, etc., they are not infrequently employed
as edible oils.

In the largest establishments for the preparation of olive oil the
kernels are separated from the pulp, but in the smaller works the
pulp and kernel are pressed together. Finally the residue from the
second pressure may be dried and extracted with bisulfid of carbon or
petroleum ether, by which means practically all the residual oil which
the cake contains may be secured. Oils extracted in this manner are
wholly unfit for edible purposes and are used or should be used solely
for technical purposes, among which soap making is perhaps the most
important.


_Olive-kernel Oil._--An oil is extracted from the kernel of the olive
which in some respects of physical and chemical properties resembles
olive oil itself. It is usually not considered suitable for edible
purposes. Its taste resembles more that of almond oil than that of
olive oil. Some of this oil is doubtless mixed with olive oil when the
pulp and kernel of the olive are pressed together, but the quantity
thus secured is not very great and does not introduce into the
substance anything which gives a specific reaction. It is by no means
as high a grade of oil as that expressed from the flesh of the olive
alone.


=Peanut Oil.=--Peanut oil is the refined expressed oil of the peanut,
prepared in the manner above described, and is highly valued as a table
or salad oil and, unfortunately, is used very often as an adulterant of
olive oil, the mixture being sold under the name of the more valuable
of its constituents.

Peanut oil contains arachidic acid, which in combination with
glycerine forms one of the constituents which serves to distinguish it
particularly from other edible oils. There is no other edible oil which
contains arachidic acid in sufficient quantities to lead to any mistake
concerning its relationship to peanut oil.


_Renard’s Test for Peanut Oil as Modified by Tolman._--Place 20
grams of oil in an Erlenmeyer flask. Saponify with alcoholic potash,
neutralize exactly with dilute acetic acid, using phenolphthalein
as indicator, and wash into a 500 c.c. flask containing a boiling
mixture of 100 c.c. of water and 120 c.c. of a 20 percent lead acetate
solution. Boil for a minute, and then cool the precipitated soap by
immersing the flask in water, occasionally giving it a whirling motion
to cause the soap to stick to the sides of the flask. After the flask
has cooled, the water and excess of lead can be poured off and the soap
washed with cold water and with 90 percent (by volume) alcohol. Now add
200 c.c. of ether, cork the flask, and allow to stand for some time
until the soap is disintegrated, then heat on the water bath, using a
reflux condenser, and boil for about five minutes. In the oils most
of the soap will be dissolved, while in lards, which contain so much
stearin, part will be left undissolved. Cool the ether solution of soap
down to from 15° to 17° C., and let stand until all the insoluble soaps
have crystallized out--about twelve hours are required.

Filter and thoroughly wash the precipitate with ether. Save the
filtrate for the determination of the iodin number of the liquid fatty
acids by the Muter method. The soaps on the filter are washed back into
the flask by means of a stream of hot water acidified with hydrochloric
acid. Add an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid, partially fill the
flask with hot water, and heat until fatty acids form a clear, oily
layer. Fill the flask with hot water, allow the fatty acids to harden
and separate from the precipitated lead chlorid; wash, drain, repeat
washing with hot water, and dissolve the fatty acids in 100 c.c. of
boiling 90 percent (by volume) alcohol. Cool down to 15° C., shaking
thoroughly to aid crystallization. From 5 to 10 percent of peanut oil
can be detected by this method, as it effects a complete separation
of the soluble acid from the insoluble, which interferes with the
crystallization of the arachidic acid. Filter, wash the precipitate
twice with 10 c.c. of 90 percent (by volume) alcohol, and then with
alcohol of 70 percent (by volume). Dissolve off the filter with boiling
absolute alcohol, evaporate to dryness in a weighed dish, dry and
weigh. Add to this weight 0.0025 gram for each 10 c.c. of 90 percent
alcohol used in the crystallization and washing if done at 15° C.;
if done at 20°, 0.0045 gram for each 10 c.c. The melting point of
arachidic acid obtained in this way is between 71° and 72° C. Twenty
times the weight of arachidic acid will give the approximate amount
of peanut oil present. No examination for adulterants in olive oil is
complete without making the test for peanut oil.

The above process to be of any particular value can only be carried
out by an experienced chemist, but the presence of peanut oil may be
readily determined by any one who is experienced by following out the
above process.

Where only small quantities of peanut oil are concerned, namely, not to
exceed five percent, even in the hands of an experienced chemist, the
above process may not lead to certain results.

Peanut oil is obtained from the peanut by the ordinary method of
hydraulic pressure. The first cold pressing furnishes the oil of finest
character for edible purposes. Subsequent pressures or pressure with
heat furnish an additional supply or a great quantity of oil but not
of the same palatability. Peanut oil is highly prized as a salad oil
either alone or mixed with other oil, notably olive oil and sesamé.
The oil is purified by a large settle and by filtration and by the
processes usually practiced with other oils of vegetable origin. The
oil is easily and completely digested and furnishes an abundant source
of heat and energy to the system. The number of calories produced by
the combustion of one gram of oil, either by ordinary burning or by
oxidation in the body is about 9,300.

The cake which is left after the pressing out of the oil is very highly
nutritious, containing still considerable quantities of oil, the whole
of the protein matter, and other digestible solids of the nut.

As before stated, it is extensively used as cattle food and as
fertilizer. It may also be ground to a meal and used as human food, but
furnishes an unbalanced ration in which the protein is far in excess.


=Rape Oil= (=Colza Oil=) (_Brassica campestris_ L.).--There are
different kinds of oil which belong to the general class which is
known as rape oil or rapeseed oil. The different kinds are derived
from different varieties of _Brassica campestris_. The English names
of the three most important varieties are--(1) colza oil, derived from
the seeds of _Brassica campestris_; (2) rape oil, derived from the
seeds of _Brassica napus_ L.; (3) rübsen oil, derived from the seeds
of _Brassica rapa_ L. The character of the oil also varies according
to the manner of its extraction. The first pressings from the cold
powdered seeds is of a finer quality for salad purposes than the
heavier later pressings from the hot seeds. The oil is also sometimes
chilled and the crystallized stearin separated in order to keep it in
a liquid state during the winter time, so that the winter and summer
varieties are sometimes recognized in trade. There is, however, no
difference in the other characteristics of the oil.

The specific gravity of rape oil at 15.5 degrees C., compared with
water at the same temperature, is about .916. The variations from this
mean number are not very great. Rapeseed oil absorbs almost its exact
weight of iodin,--the average iodin number being not far from 99.


_The Chief Adulterations of Rape Oil._--The chief adulteration of rape
oil consists in the admixture of cheaper or flavoring oils. Among
those which are often used in the adulteration of rape oil are linseed
oil, hempseed oil, poppy-seed oil, chamomile oil, cottonseed oil, the
various mustard oils, refined fish and blubber oils, rosin oil, and
paraffin. Some of these adulterations, it is seen, cannot be added to
rapeseed oil when used for edible purposes. The chief adulteration of
rapeseed oil, when intended for edible purposes, is the addition of
cottonseed oil. The detection of these various adulterations, with the
exception of that of cottonseed oil, can be accomplished only by an
expert chemist. The presence of cottonseed oil can be detected by the
application of the Halphen test already described.


_Technique of Extraction._--The extraction of oil from the rape
seed is not different from that of other oily seeds. It is either
extracted by pressure, which is the proper way always when it is to
be used for edible purposes, or when used for technical purposes it
may be extracted by means of carbon bisulfid or petroleum ether. When
extracted by pressure for edible purposes the oil should be refined
by a similar treatment to that applied to cottonseed oil and finally
filtered, preferably after mixing with fuller’s earth or other similar
material, in order that it may be perfectly pure and bright and free
from suspended matter which interferes with its utility as an edible
oil.

A very common treatment of the expressed oil, in order to coagulate and
separate the mucilaginous matter which it contains, is with sulfuric
acid. This acid has the very valuable property of coagulating this
class of bodies. When treated with sulfuric acid it is necessary that
the oil be thoroughly washed many times in pure water in order to
remove the last trace of the acid.

The residue or oil cake is prized as a cattle food or as a fertilizer.
The average content of oil in rape seed is about 37 percent.


=Sesamé Oil.=--Sesamé oil is very commonly used for salad oil and for
the other purposes to which the edible oils are devoted. It is also
known as gingili oil and teel oil. Sesamé oil is obtained by pressure
from the seed of the sesame plant,--_Sesamum orientale_ L.

Sesamé oil possesses a light amber color when properly made, is free
from any unpleasant odor, has an agreeable taste, and when expressed
cold produces what is known as the cold-drawn oil which is regarded
by many as of equal palatable value with olive oil. Sesamé oil, in
addition to containing stearin, palmitin, and olein, also contains
a small quantity of a glycerid which exists in large quantities in
flaxseed oil, namely, linolein. When prepared for edible purposes it
contains only a small quantity of free acid, is free from rancidity,
clear, and brilliant in appearance and has a sweet agreeable taste. The
specific gravity of sesamé oil at 15 degrees C. varies from .9225 to
.9237. It absorbs from 103 to 108 percent of its weight of iodin and
has a refractive index at 15 degrees of about 1.4748.


_Adulteration of Sesamé Oil._--Some of the other vegetable oils are
cheaper than sesamé and are added to it for the purpose of adulteration
and cheapening the product. Among the most common oils used for the
adulteration of sesamé are poppyseed oil, cottonseed oil, and rape oil.
The presence of cottonseed oil in sesamé oil is easily distinguished
by the Halphen test already given. The presence of poppyseed oil is
revealed by the high iodin number and the high degree of heat produced
when mixed with sulfuric acid.

Only the best variety of cold-drawn sesamé oil is used for edible
purposes and for making oleomargarine. The inferior qualities are used
in soap making, the making of perfumes, etc., and the lowest quality of
oil is used for burning purposes.


_Characteristic Reaction._--A test which is known as Baudouin’s is
extremely delicate and reliable and is easily applied. It consists in
the development of a red color when a small quantity of sesamé oil is
treated with hydrochloric acid in the presence of furfural. The test
is easily carried out as follows: Place a few drops of a two percent
solution of furfural in a test-tube with 10 cubic centimeters of sesamé
oil or the oil to be tested for sesamé and 10 cubic centimeters of
hydrochloric acid of 1.19 specific gravity, and shake the mixture well
for half a minute. When the tube is left at rest, if sesamé oil be
present the aqueous acid layer which forms will have a distinct crimson
color. Any coloration which is produced by other oils is entirely
distinct from this one and therefore can be easily distinguished.


_Geographical Distribution._--The sesamé plant is grown chiefly for
commercial purposes in India, China, Japan, and West Africa. The
technical preparation of the oil, in so far as is known, is not
practiced in the United States. It is pressed and prepared for commerce
chiefly in France. The seeds are rich in oil, yielding a larger
percentage by pressure or extraction than most of the oil-bearing seeds.


=Sunflower Oil.=--The oil extracted from the seed of the sunflower is
of high quality for edible purposes. Although not in general use in
this country, it is very extensively used in Russia and some other
parts of Europe. There is every reason to believe that a profitable
industry could be established in the preparation of edible oils from
sunflower seeds. The plant grows in the greatest luxuriance in nearly
all parts of the country, and the yield is sufficiently great to make
it an object of more interest to our agricultural population than it is
at the present time.

The oil is obtained from the seed of the sunflower (_Helianthus annuus_
L.). It is of a pure amber tint with an agreeable odor and pleasant
taste. As has already been said it is grown largely in Russia and
also in Indo-China. The seeds are very rich in oil. Before expression
the hulls should be removed, since these form a porous substance, and
if the seeds are crushed with the hulls large quantities of oil are
absorbed and cannot be recovered.

The method of preparation is the same as that for other edible
oils, the kernel, after the removal of the hull, being ground and
cold-pressed for the highest grade. By heating and renewing pressure
lower grades of oil are secured suitable for soap making. Where all
the oil is required the extraction with bisulfid of carbon or gasoline
is advised. Such oils, however, are not suitable for edible purposes
because of the difficulty of removing the last traces of the solvent.
The specific gravity of sunflower oil at 15 degrees is approximately
.925. It absorbs a very high percentage of iodin, and in this respect
it may be classified with the drying oils. Its iodin number ranges from
120 to 130. No specific color reactions have been established by means
of which sunflower oil may be readily distinguished from the other
edible oils.

In fact sunflower oil has not been subjected, by any means, to as
critical a study as many other vegetable oils.


VEGETABLE FATS.

The fatty principles in vegetables which are solid at ordinary
temperatures are commonly termed fats instead of oils. They present,
as a rule, a soft mass, usually of an amber tint and somewhat of the
consistence of butter. Only a few of these solid fats or semi-solid
fats are used for food. Among them the most important are palm-nut oil
or coconut oil or fat, though the fat of the cacao also may be regarded
as belonging to this group. These solid or semi-solid fats are used to
a considerable extent for edible purposes in many parts of the world.
Coconut fat and cacao fat are used very extensively in this country
either in a pure state or in chocolate or cocoa.


=Cacao Butter.=--Cacao butter is the semi-solid fat obtained by
pressure from cacao beans, the seeds of the cacao tree (_Theobroma
cacao_ L.). These beans are extremely rich in fat, the content of which
varies from 35 to 50 percent. On a large scale the cacao beans are
roasted, ground, and the fat expressed while still hot by hydraulic
pressure. In order to remove the free acid which it contains the
carbonates of the alkalies are mixed with the material after grinding
and before extraction. In these cases the expressed fat naturally does
not contain any free acid, though the soaps which are formed by this
process are apt to contaminate the expressed fat.


_Adulterations._--By reason of its high price cacao butter is often
adulterated by the addition of various fats usually of a vegetable
character. Those most generally employed are the stearin derived from
the coconut fat and the palm-nut fat. The addition of ordinary edible
vegetable oils is easily detected by the usual chemical tests and
is especially recognized by the increase in the percentage of iodin
absorbed. They also reduce the melting point of cacao butter, and for
this reason these oils, with the exception of coconut, are not used
very extensively as adulterants. Beeswax and paraffine wax are also
used to some extent as adulterants, and when used in connection with
vegetable oils they serve to keep the melting point from going too
low. Tallow has also been used quite extensively as an adulterant. The
detection of these adulterants is so difficult as to be accomplished
only by a skilled chemist.


_Composition._--Cacao butter is composed chiefly of stearin and
palmitin, though other fats and oils are present in small quantities.
Although it is generally supposed that cacao butter does not tend to
become rancid, this is a mistake, since, when exposed to the conditions
which favor rancidity, the fermentation which produces this condition
takes place in the butter, though somewhat more slowly and more
incompletely than in many other fats. The specific gravity of cacao
butter at 50 degrees C. is .892. It absorbs about 35 percent of its
weight of iodin. It has a much lower melting point than palm fats and
even lower than butter. Its melting point varies from 30 to 33 degrees
C. Cacao butter has some of the properties of ordinary butter and has
been recommended as a substitute therefor, but it is not likely that it
will ever come into common use both because it is less desirable than
butter and also because of its high price.


_Properties._--Cacao butter has a light amber tint and tends to become
bleached on long standing. It has a very pleasant flavor, reminding
one of the flavor of the preparations of chocolate. At ordinary
temperature, 70 degrees F., it is quite solid and sometimes even
brittle.


=Coconut Oil or Butter.=--This is a very abundant natural fat and is
obtained from the kernel of the coconut, especially the two species
_Cocos nucifera_ L. and _Cocos butyracea_ L. At ordinary temperature
coconut oil is of the consistency of fat. Its taste is pleasant, and it
possesses an odor which is not disagreeable or undesirable. It differs
from cacao butter in the ease with which it becomes rancid, at which
time it takes on a very disagreeable flavor and taste. The coconut
oil of commerce is distinguished by different names, according to the
country in which it is made.

Cochin oil is a variety which is regarded as of the finest quality,
being almost colorless, and is prepared in Malabar.

Ceylon oil is another very important variety made in the neighborhood
of and imported from Ceylon. It is regarded as of somewhat inferior
variety to Cochin oil, due probably to less care taken in the
cultivation of the plant and the preparation of the oil.

Another variety of coconut oil is known as copra oil. The term “copra”
is applied to the sun-dried or kiln-dried kernel of the coconut. In
this dried state the fruit can be shipped in bulk and large quantities
of it can be sent to Europe or other countries, where the oil is either
obtained by extraction or by compression in a hydraulic press. This is
regarded as of the least desirable quality.

Coconut oil resembles palm-nut oil in its chemical composition,
with the exception of the relative proportion of palmitic acid. The
specific gravity of coconut oil or fat at 40 degrees C. is about .912
and reduced to 15 degrees C. about .925. Coconut oil absorbs very
little iodin, which is one of its principal characteristic chemical
properties. The quantity of iodin absorbed may be taken as about eight
percent of the weight of the oil. Coconut oil is one of the vegetable
fats which resembles butter to some extent in the high content of
volatile acid which it contains. If, under given conditions, butter
may be regarded as having a volatile acid number of 27, coconut oil
will have upon the same scale a volatile acid number of about 7,
whereas ordinary vegetable oils and fats will have less than 0.5 on
a similar scale. Coconut oil may be regarded as the one edible oil
which approximates in constitution ordinary butter. Coconut oil has
been used very extensively as an adulterant for oleomargarine, since
by reason of its high volatile acid it brings that substance much
nearer to the composition of butter or indicates a larger percentage of
butter therein than is actually present. While it is used extensively
as human food its principal value is for soap making. It appears as an
edible fat under various names, such as “vegetable butter,” “lactine,”
“nucoline,” “palmin,” etc. Coconut oil is also very extensively used in
the manufacture of candies and confections.


_Adulterations._--Coconut oil is rarely adulterated. About the
only adulteration of any consequence is that of the admixture with
palm-kernel oil, which has properties very much like that of coconut
oil. These two oils are ordinarily about the same price and therefore
there is no inducement to practice adulteration.


=Palm Oil or Fat.=--This oil is obtained from the fleshy part of the
fruit of the palm tree _Elæis Guineensis_ Jacq. and _Elæis melanococca_
Gaertn. Extensive groves of these trees are found in Africa and also
in the Philippines. In Africa they grow particularly upon the western
coast. There is a large number of varieties of palm trees that afford
this fat, but the two mentioned are the principal ones. This fat
becomes solid at about the temperature of the body. It has a somewhat
higher melting point than butter, which becomes liquid at a temperature
of from 34 to 36 degrees C. When once solid the fat may be heated to
41 or 42 degrees before it again becomes liquid. Palm oil has rather a
pleasant taste and is regarded as an edible fat of high quality, and
is largely used as such by Europeans and in Africa and other countries
where the fat is produced. The fat also has a very pleasant odor which
is said to resemble somewhat that of violets. This pleasant odor is
quite persistent and remains even in the fatty acids after they have
been converted into soap. Palm oil is manufactured in the crudest
possible way by the natives, and immense quantities are lost for this
reason. By reason of this crude method, which leaves the oil in contact
with the putrescible matter, palm oil often comes into the market in
a rancid state or at least with a high content of free fatty acid.
Appreciable quantities of water are also found in the crude article.

Inasmuch as the natural color of palm oil is somewhat too deep for
the taste of the ordinary consumer, ranging from yellow to a dirty
red color, it is often bleached in the refining process before being
sent into commerce. Ordinary exposure to the air tends to bleach this
oil, due probably to the bleaching properties which the air sometimes
possesses. Ozone is also employed as a bleaching agent. The bichromate
process of bleaching palm oil is very commonly practiced. By this
method the oil is freed from its principal impurities and treated with
from one to three percent of potassium bichromate and with hydrochloric
acid which decomposes the “chrome” liquor, and in the chemical process
which attends this reaction decided bleaching effects are produced. The
bleaching agents are withdrawn and the oil thoroughly washed with water
until all traces of chromate and mineral acid are removed.


_Adulterations._--On account of its great cheapness and the fact that
the admixture of other oils of lower melting point would detract
from its value, palm oil has not been subjected to any extensive
adulteration. The most common adulterations are the impurities which
are left in the oil in the slovenly method of manufacture employed by
the natives of Africa.


_Constituents._--As would be expected from the name, one of the chief
constituents of palm oil is palmitin. If palm oil is saponified and
the solid separated from the liquid fatty acid, the former is found to
consist almost exclusively of palmitic acid. The specific gravity of
palm oil is taken at a high temperature, as much as 50 degrees C. or
above. The specific gravity at this temperature is about .893. Palm oil
absorbs a little over one half its weight of iodin. The average iodin
number may be regarded as varying from 53 to 55. Aside from the limited
use of palm oil for human food it is used chiefly in the manufacture
of soap and of candles. It is also used extensively in the tin plate
industry to spread over the hot iron surface to preserve it from
oxidation until it is dipped into the bath of melted tin.


NUTS.


=The Acorn.=--Many varieties of acorns are used for human food. All
of the nuts of the oak family are edible, but some of the larger and
more common varieties contain such a quantity of tannin as to be rather
bitter to the taste. The wild acorns were formerly utilized very
extensively for the fattening of swine, producing an article of pork of
high palatable value but with the production of a fat of a low melting
point, unsuitable for the manufacture of lard for summer use. The term
applied to the natural nuts eaten by swine for this purpose is “mast,”
and formerly “mast-fed” pork was an extensive article of commerce. The
disappearance of the oak and beech forests, however, have practically
eliminated this variety of pork from the markets, at least to any
extent which can be called commercial.


_Composition of the Acorn._--Edible portion, 64.4; refuse, 35.6.

                       EDIBLE PORTION.
  Water,                 4.1 percent
  Protein,               8.1    „
  Fat,                  37.4    „
  Starch and sugar,     48.0    „
  Ash,                   2.4    „
  Calories per pound,  2,718

The acorn resembles the chestnut in its composition, containing more
carbohydrates than fat. It is therefore not an oily seed, but one of a
farinaceous character.


=Almonds.=--There are two species of almond trees, the _Amygdalus
communis_, which is the common or sweet almond, and the _Amygdalus
amara_, or the bitter almond which flourishes very extensively in
the south of Europe. California has a climate which, with artificial
irrigation, is favorable to the growth of the almond, and practically
all that are produced in the United States for commercial purposes grow
in that state. It is also cultivated extensively in France, Italy, and
Spain, large supplies of the almonds of commerce coming from those
localities. The almond is delicious when eaten in the green state, that
is when the seed is fully formed but before the hull is hardened. It is
rarely eaten in this condition in the United States, but forms a common
article of diet upon the table of the Europeans in the early summer.


_Composition of the Almond._--

  -------------------+-------+--------+------+---------+------
                     |       |        |      |  TOTAL  |
                     |       |        |      | CARBO-  |
                     |WATER. |PROTEIN.|FAT.  |HYDRATES.| ASH.
  -------------------+-------+--------+------+---------+------
                     | _Per- |  _Per- |_Per- |  _Per-  |_Per-
  Edible portion:    | cent._|  cent._|cent._|  cent._ |cent._
  California almonds,| 4.8   |  21.0  |54.9  |  17.3   |2.0
  European almonds,  | 6.0   |  23.5  |53.0  |  14.4   |3.1
  -------------------+-------+--------+------+---------+------

In the United States the almond is eaten very extensively, often
roasted and salted. In this condition it is found as a relish in many
menus. The roasting improves to a certain extent the flavor of the
nut, but the quantity of salt which is used is not always beneficial,
inasmuch as an abundance of salt is eaten with other portions of
the food. One of the most valued varieties is the Jordan almond,
illustrated in the accompanying colored plate.

[Illustration: JORDAN ALMOND


_From Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902_]


=Beechnuts.=--The beech tree is a very common forest tree throughout
the northern part of the United States. Formerly immense areas in
southern Ohio and Indiana were covered almost exclusively by the beech
tree (_Fagus americana_ Sweet). The beechnut is triangular in shape,
resembling buckwheat, and formerly was produced in immense quantities
over the region mentioned above. In the early days it was the principal
food for swine. The hogs which are fattened by eating the beechnut and
acorn produce a species of pork of a peculiar and very highly prized
flavor. The celebrated hams and bacons of the southern Appalachian
ranges were produced from the variety of hogs known as razor-backs
fattened on mast, namely, the chestnut, beechnut, and acorn. The
beechnut is also one of the principal winter foods of the squirrel and
other animals which store their food for winter use. In the cutting of
the forests in the winter often large stores of beechnuts are found
stored away by squirrels and birds. The beechnut is not very abundant
upon the markets of the country, but is eaten very largely by those who
live in the vicinity of beech woods.


_Composition of the Beechnut._--

  -------------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                     |       |      |      |      | TOTAL |      |
                     |       |      |      |      | CARBO-|      |
                     |       |      | PRO- |      |  HY-  |      | CALO-
                     |REFUSE.|WATER.| TEIN.| FAT. |DRATES.| ASH. | RIES.
  -------------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                     | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |_Per
  _Fagus Americana:_ | cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|pound_
    Edible portion,  |  .... |  4.0 | 21.9 | 57.4 |  12.2 |  3.5 | 3,263
    As purchased,    |  40.8 |  2.3 | 13.0 | 34.0 |   7.8 |  2.1 | 1,932
  _Fagus sylvestris:_|       |      |      |      |       |      |
    Edible portion,  |  .... |  9.1 | 21.7 | 42.4 |  22.9 |  3.9 | ....
    As purchased,    |  33.0 |  6.1 | 14.5 | 28.4 |  15.4 |  2.6 | ....
  -------------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------


=Brazil-nut= (_Bertholletia excelsa_ Humb. and Bonpl.).--Large
quantities of this nut are imported into the United States from Brazil
and form an important article of food in many localities. This nut is
not grown in the United States. It is also known as cream nut. The nut
is triangular in shape and has a dark brown rough exterior. The kernel
is highly flavored and quite oily. The tree is so sensitive to the cold
that it will not grow successfully even in southern Florida, although
many attempts have been made to introduce it into that locality.


_Composition of the Brazil-nut._--Edible portion, 50.4; refuse, 49.6.

  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                 |       |      |      |      | TOTAL |      |
                 |       |      |      |      | CARBO-|      |
                 |       |      | PRO- |      |  HY-  |      | CALO-
                 |REFUSE.|WATER.| TEIN.| FAT. |DRATES.| ASH. | RIES.
  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                 | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |_Per
                 | cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|pound_
  Edible portion,|  .... |  5.3 | 17.0 | 66.8 |   7.0 |  3.9 | 3,329
  As purchased,  |  49.6 |  2.7 |  8.6 | 33.6 |   3.5 |  2.0 | 1,678
  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------


=Butternut= (_Juglans cinerea_ L.).--The butternut is another variety
of walnut which grows very extensively in the United States and has
the same geographical distribution as the walnut, except that the
butternut is not so common west of the Mississippi. The tree does not
grow so large as the walnut tree, nor is its wood so highly valued for
commercial purposes. While the walnut is a round nut the butternut is
very much elongated, forming an oval-shaped nut which is very highly
valued as a food. The coloring matter of the butternut is practically
the same as that of the walnut. The butternut also has a fleshy outer
covering not so thick as that of the walnut and which is removed in the
same way in the harvesting.


_Composition of the Dry Butternut._--

                EDIBLE PORTION.  AS PURCHASED.
  Refuse,             ....        86.4 percent
  Water,            4.4 percent     .6    „
  Protein,         27.9    „       3.8    „
  Fat,             61.2    „       8.3    „
  Sugar, etc.,      3.5    „        .5    „


=The Chestnut= (_Castanea dentata_ (Marsh.) Bork).--The chestnut tree
grows in great abundance wild in the United States, especially in the
eastern portion on the foothills of the Alleghanies. In some localities
it originally formed vast forests. The value of the timber and the fact
that the chestnut grows only on good soil were prominent factors in the
destruction of many of the original forests, especially those covering
the arable lands. The trees still grow in great abundance, especially
in the hilly regions.

In France the chestnut is very widely grown, and the nut is used very
extensively as food by the poor classes. The nuts are often dried and
ground to a flour which is mixed with water and baked in thin sheets,
forming a very heavy but a sweet and nutritious cake. The chestnut is
used in the preparation of many dishes, prized even by those in easy
circumstances. In Italy the chestnut is also widely cultivated, and
the nut is ground to form a kind of porridge known as polenta which is
very extensively used as food. In the Apennines a cake made of chestnut
flour and baked on hot stones is used under the name of necci. In Corea
the chestnut is said to be a very extensive article of food, taking
the place of the potato. It is eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or cooked
with meats. The chestnut differs from the oily nuts in the smaller
proportion of fat and the very much larger proportion of sugar and
starch,--in fact, starch is almost missing in some of the oily nuts,
the carbohydrates present in the very oily being chiefly sugars. In
the chestnut the starch is more abundant than the sugar, and for this
reason the chestnut meal is more like the meal of the ordinary cereal
than that of the oily seeds. The chestnut, also, as it is gathered
fresh contains a great deal more water than the ordinary fresh seeds,
the quantity ranging from 40 to 50 percent.

The average composition of the fresh chestnut, edible portion, is
represented by the following data:

  Water,             42.7 percent
  Protein,            6.5    „
  Fat,                6.3    „
  Starch and sugar,  43.1    „
  Ash,                1.4    „

The dried chestnuts, that is, those which have been kept for several
months or which have been artificially dried, have a composition
represented by the following data:

  Water,              4.8 percent
  Protein,           11.6    „
  Fat,               15.3    „
  Sugar and starch,  65.7    „
  Ash,                2.6    „

The average weight of the hull of the chestnut is 15.9 percent of the
total weight of the fresh nut, and 23.4 percent of the average weight
of the dried nut. The above data are confirmatory of the statement that
the meal of the chestnut in its composition is very much like that
of the oily cereals, for instance, of Indian corn meal or oats. It,
however, contains more oil and less protein than the cereals referred
to. It is readily seen from the above data that chestnut meal may not
properly take the place of Indian corn as human food. The nut of the
chestnut tree ripens at the time of frost.

The wild chestnut shrub, which springs up in great numbers where the
original trees are cut away, is now extensively grafted with cultivated
varieties. In Pennsylvania there are large orchards of the Paragon
chestnut which have been grown in this manner.


=Chinese Nut= (_Nephelium litchi_ Cambess.).--This is not a true nut
in the ordinary sense of the word, but is usually classed with nuts.
It is a product of China and is imported into the United States for
consumption by our Chinese population. In the fresh state in China it
has the reputation of being one of the best fruit products of that
country, having flesh of a white color and a flavor resembling that of
high-grade grapes. 41.6 percent of the fresh nut is refuse matter. The
edible portion has the following composition:

  Water,                17.9 percent
  Protein,               2.9    „
  Fat,                    .2    „
  Starch and sugar,     77.5    „
  Ash,                   1.5    „
  Calories per pound,  1,453

The above data show that in chemical composition the Chinese nut does
not belong to the class of nuts at all. It is a fruit, its nutritive
material being almost exclusively carbohydrates, while in the true nut
the principal nutritive substances are the protein and the oil.


=Coconut.=--The coconuts which are consumed in the United States are
mostly imported. It is estimated that three hundred thousand coconut
trees (_Cocos nucifera_ L.) have been planted in Florida, and from 15
to 20 percent of them are already bearing. The common name of the tree
is the coconut palm. The fruit of the coconut palm is used for many
purposes. The immature nuts are often used medicinally, forming the
base of a valuable ointment for external use. The jelly which lines the
shell of the more mature nut furnishes a food product of great delicacy
and high nutritive value. The milk of the coconut is itself highly
esteemed as a delicious article of food. Grated coconut is one of the
basic constituents of that familiar condimental substance, East Indian
curry. Coconut oil is a very highly edible fat from which butter is
made. The fat itself is valuable for cooking purposes. The composition
of the coconut is shown in the following table:

  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                 |       |      |      |      | TOTAL |      |
                 |       |      |      |      |CARBO- |      |
                 |       |      | PRO- |      |  HY-  |      | CALO-
                 |REFUSE.|WATER.| TEIN.| FAT. |DRATES.| ASH. | RIES.
  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                 | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |_Per
                 | cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|pound_
  Edible portion,|  .... | 14.1 |  5.7 | 50.6 |  27.9 |  1.7 | 2,986
  As purchased,  |  48.8 |  7.2 |  2.9 | 25.9 |  14.3 |   .9 | 1,529
  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------

The solid edible portion of the nut is highly oleaginous and contains
also a considerable quantity of starch and sugar. Coconut milk is much
poorer in nutrients than cow’s milk, containing over 92 percent of
water, only .4 percent of protein, and only 1.5 percent of fat. The
carbohydrates contained therein are chiefly sugars.


=Filberts.=--The term filbert, according to some etymologists, is a
corruption of the term “full beard,” and is so named on account of
its having many long beards or husks. The filbert is the fruit of the
cultivated hazel tree (_Corylus avellana_ L.). The nut contains a
kernel having a pleasant taste and is quite oily and nutritious. It is
not cultivated to any extent in this country where we rely principally
upon the wild hazel for the hazelnut. The composition of the filbert is
shown in the following table (edible portion, 47.9; refuse, 52.1):

                       EDIBLE PORTION.
  Water,                  3.7 percent
  Protein,               15.6    „
  Fat,                   65.3    „
  Sugar and starch,      13.0    „
  Ash,                    2.4    „
  Calories per pound,   3,432

The filbert is produced in large quantities on the Asiatic shore of the
Black Sea. The region of Trebizond is the most prolific source of the
filbert.


=Hazelnut.=--The hazelnut grows on a small tree or large shrub
(_Corylus avellana_ L.). The species which grows wild in the United
States is known chiefly as _Corylus america_ Walt. It is from this
shrub that the common wild hazelnut is obtained. There is also another
variety grown in this country, _Corylus rostrata_ Ait. The hazelnut
is a small, nutritious, and palatable nut of a brown color and grows
over a very large area of the United States, especially in the northern
part of the country. It is quite an article of commerce, but is not
cultivated to any great extent. The cultivated variety, as has already
been stated, is known as the filbert.


_Composition of the Hazelnut._--

  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                 |       |      |      |      | TOTAL |      |
                 |       |      |      |      |CARBO- |      |
                 |       |      | PRO- |      |  HY-  |      | CALO-
                 |REFUSE.|WATER.| TEIN.| FAT. |DRATES.| ASH. | RIES.
  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------
                 | _Per- |_Per- |_Per- |_Per- | _Per- |_Per- |_Per
                 | cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._|cent._|pound_
  Edible portion,|  .... |  3.7 | 15.6 | 65.3 |  13.0 |  2.4 | 3,432
  As purchased,  |  52.1 |  1.8 |  7.5 | 31.3 |   6.2 |  1.1 | 1,644
  ---------------+-------+------+------+------+-------+------+------


=Hickory-nut.=--The hickory-nut is another one of the nuts which
sometimes is classed with walnuts and grows very extensively wild
throughout the United States, having the same geological distribution
as the walnut and butternut. The hickory tree (_Hicoria ovata_ (Mill.)
Britton) produces a nut of highest quality. On account of the character
of the bark, which becomes detached and often widely separated from the
trunk, it is known as the shagbark or shellbark hickory.

Another variety of the hickory tree is known as the pignut (_Carya
glabra_). The nut produced by this tree is much less prized than the
other hickories, often containing a sufficient amount of tannin to make
it distinctly bitter. The wood of the hickory is very tough and elastic
and is used extensively in the manufacture of spokes for wagon-wheels,
axe-handles, etc. The young hickory trees grow thickly together and
have a slender reed-like growth. They are used extensively in the
manufacture of hoop-poles. The hickory has suffered from the advance
of the farmer much in the same manner as the walnut and other valuable
timber trees. The original trees have almost entirely disappeared. The
young trees grow vigorously and in a few years will bear nuts, and in
some localities the care and cultivation of the wild tree has been
established for the purpose of securing new forests of nut-bearing
trees. The hickory-nut is even more highly prized for eating purposes
than the butternut and walnut, but should be eaten under the same
conditions, namely, before the passing of the first winter after their
production. They, also, on account of their high content of oil, tend
to become rancid when they are kept through the warm summer.


_Composition of the Dry Hickory-nut._--Edible portion, 37.8; refuse,
62.2.

                       EDIBLE PORTION.
  Water,                 3.7 percent
  Protein,              15.4    „
  Fat,                  67.4    „
  Sugar and starch,     11.4    „
  Ash,                   2.1    „
  Calories per pound,  3,495


=Peanuts.=--The peanut is a widely cultivated plant. It grows
extensively in the United States, and is especially regarded as a crop
of high value in North Carolina and Virginia. Very large quantities of
peanuts are grown in Senegal, in Algiers, in Egypt, and in many other
localities.

The pod containing the seed grows underground, but is not a part of
the roots, properly so-called. The pods are attached by slender stems
to the stalk of the peanut. The pod of the peanut matures underground,
and it may, therefore, be regarded as the seed of the plant, entering
and maturing underground. The seeds are immediately covered by a soft
envelope and then by several similar coverings. For edible purposes
they are much improved by roasting, which gives them an aromatic, nutty
flavor which is much admired. A striking illustration of the peanut is
shown in the accompanying colored plate.

Peanuts are used as food both directly, as after roasting, and
indirectly, by the expression of oil, which after proper refining is
considered of high value for edible purposes. The oil of the peanut
forms an edible oil of rich flavor, pleasant taste, and high nutritive
value. It is used, either alone or mixed with other edible oils,
notably with olive oil for table purposes and for the making of salad
dressing. The residue of the pressings for peanut oil are highly valued
as a cattle food, containing large quantities of nitrogenous nutriment,
and also as a manure.

The composition of the peanut varies greatly in different localities.
Its chief value as a food material lies in the high percentage of
protein it contains and the high percentage of fat. The composition of
the typical hulled peanut is shown in the following table:

  Water,                 9.2 percent
  Protein,              25.8    „
  Fat or oil,           38.6    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,  24.4    „
  Insoluble cellulose,   2.5    „
  Ash,                   0.9    „

Only the blossoms which form on the lower part of the stalk produce
the fruit, since it is necessary that the long stem should strike
the earth and the young fruit penetrate to the depth of from five to
six centimeters in order that the fruit may mature. This method of
penetrating the earth is shown very well in the colored figure already
mentioned.

[Illustration: PEANUT (ARACHIDE)

_From Huilleries Calvé-Delft_ (_Holland_)]

The original home of the peanut is not definitely known, but is
supposed to be Africa. It was first described as occurring on the
American continent by Ferdinand de Oviedo in San Domingo in the
beginning of the 16th century. It is now very generally distributed in
all the tropical countries in South America, Asia, and Africa, and, as
before described, grows very well as far north as the northern boundary
of North Carolina and in southern Virginia. Peanuts are used for food
in all the countries mentioned with previous preparation and roasting.

The above data show that the peanut is a food product extremely rich in
oil and protein and comparatively poor in carbohydrates. For dietetic
purposes it should be eaten with some highly amylaceous substance, such
as potato, rice, or tapioca.

The value of the peanut for food purposes is not fully realized in this
country, where it is eaten rather as a relish and as an incident to the
circus or the picnic. In such cases they are usually consumed in too
large quantities and by unbalancing the ration may produce unpleasant
effects from which an unreasonable prejudice against this valuable food
product might arise.


=Peanut Butter.=--An oily preparation of the peanut or the oil
therefrom deprived of a part of its stearin is known as peanut butter
and is used as a substitute for ordinary butter. What has been said
of the nutritive value of the oil of the peanut applies also to this
product. The butter has the peculiar flavor of the peanut which is
not agreeable to all persons, though, perhaps, this fact does not
materially interfere with the nutritive value of the product. The
nuts are also powdered more or less finely and mixed with other food
products. Peanuts which grow in northern Senegambia are regarded very
highly for the manufacture of fine salad oil, and peanut oil is used
extensively for this purpose.


=Peanut Butter and Peanolia.=--Peanut butter and peanolia are used to
a considerable extent in the United States as food products. They are
prepared from peanuts, properly roasted, ground to a fine powder, and
mixed with an appropriate quantity of salt. The analyses of the samples
of these products, made in the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station, show the following composition:

                   PEANUT BUTTER.  PEANOLIA.
  Water,                2.10          1.98
  Protein,             28.66         29.94
  Fat,                 46.41         46.68
  Sugar and dextrin,    6.13          5.63
  Starch,               6.15          5.58
  Insoluble cellulose,  2.30          2.10
  Common salt,          3.23          4.95
  Ash,                   .80          1.08

The above analyses show that the preparations are produced from the
roasted peanuts, which process reduces the water to about 2 percent.
The ground, roasted product is mixed with about 4 percent of common
salt. The other constituents are the same as those of the peanuts from
which the preparations were made. Of the carbohydrate content of the
peanut about 4 percent has been found to be pentosans.

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--PECAN TREE, 30 YEARS OLD, MORGAN CITY,
LA.--(_Courtesy of H. E. Van Deman._)]


=Where Peanuts are Grown.=--Virginia is one of the most important of
the peanut-growing states, especially in its southeastern portion. The
Commissioner of Agriculture of Virginia reports that about one hundred
thousand acres are planted annually in the state of Virginia, producing
over four million bushels. Fifty bushels per acre is considered a good
average yield. An important point in the production of good peanuts is
the selection of the seeds. The most vigorous and well formed kernels
are to be selected for planting, and especially those that are produced
by plants of identical size and shape. By a selection of this kind the
quality of the crop can be greatly improved.

[Illustration:

           WILD NUT
  RUSSELL            STUART
          =VAN DEMAN=
  FROTSCHER          PABST

FIG. 59.--FIVE FORMS OF CHOICE, THIN-SHELLED PECANS. ALSO WILD NUT
SHOWING DIFFERENCE IN SIZE.--(_By permission American Nut and Fruit
Co._)]

One of the peculiarities of the peanut is that it is an underground
legume. All other leguminous fruits mature above the soil. Its
underground habitat is the reason for its botanical name, hypogæa. If
the stem carrying the small, yellow, butterfly-shaped flowers and which
springs from the axis of the branch above the ground fails to reach
the soil no fruit is formed. If the soil is properly cultivated the
germ may penetrate of its own accord. However, art assists nature in
this matter and covers up the pods so as to give them a better start.
The peanut, like some other leguminous crops, develops nodules upon
its roots in which the bacteria that assimilate free nitrogen live in
symbiotic union with the plant itself.


=Pecan-nut= (_Hicoria pecan_ (Marsh.) Britton; _Carya olivæformis_
Nuttall).--The pecan is a nut which is very much valued and grows,
with a most excellent flavor, in the southern part of the United
States. Texas, Louisiana, southern Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and
Florida are the principal regions where the pecan grows, although it is
cultivated in some instances much further north.

The pecan belongs to the same family as the hickory-nut and is
indigenous to the United States. It grows wild over a large area,
extending from southern Illinois and Indiana to the Gulf. It often
forms very large trees in the forests. There are several species of
_Hicoria_. The fruit of the pecan is especially valued on account of
the thinness of the shell and its extremely pleasant and aromatic
flavor. As is the case with most nuts, it is composed chiefly of oil
and proteids, the sugar and starch being in minute proportions. The
composition of the fruit of the pecan, when divested of its hard shell,
is given in the following table:

                        EDIBLE PORTION.
  Water,                  2.9 percent
  Protein,               10.3    „
  Fat,                   70.8    „
  Sugar, starch, etc.,   14.3    „
  Ash,                    1.7    „
  Calories per pound,   3,445

For marketing purposes the pecans are now largely grown in orchards,
as the supply of the wild nut is uncertain, and its texture and flavor
are not so fine as the cultivated variety. The cultivated variety may
also be grafted upon the wild tree with good effects. The tree begins
to bear at four or five years of age. A comparative appearance of the
wild and cultivated nut is shown in the accompanying Fig. 59. The tree,
when full grown, is handsome in appearance, and is valued as a shade
tree as well as a fruit producer. The full grown tree is shown in the
accompanying Figs. 58 and 60.


=Pine-nuts.=--In many portions of the western part of our country
pine-nuts are consumed largely as food. There are several species of
pines yielding edible nuts on the Pacific coast of the United States
and as far east as Colorado and New Mexico. These nuts are articles
of considerable importance in the commerce of many of the cities of
California. The principal specimens of pine which yield edible nuts
are _Pinus monophylla_ Torr. and Frem., _Pinus edulis_ Engelm., _Pinus
sabiniana_ Dougl. The refuse is usually less than 50 percent of the
total weight of the nut.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--FULL GROWN PECAN TREE.--(_By permission Field
Columbian Museum._)]


_Composition of the Edible Portion._--

  -----------------+------+--------+----+------+----+--------
                   |      |        |    |STARCH|    |CALORIES
                   |      |        |    |  AND |    |  PER
                   |WATER.|PROTEIN.|FAT.|SUGAR.|ASH.| POUND.
  -----------------+------+--------+----+------+----+--------
  Pinus monophylla,|  3.8 |   6.5  |60.7| 26.2 | 2.8| 3,327
    „   edulis,    |  3.4 |  14.6  |61.9| 17.3 | 2.8| 3,364
    „   sabiniana, |  5.1 |  28.1  |53.7|  8.4 | 4.7| 3,161
  -----------------+------+--------+----+------+----+--------


=Pistachio.=--The nut of the pistachio (_Pistachia vera_) is used very
largely for flavoring purposes and also for food. The tree is a native
of Syria but has been cultivated in southern Europe for many years. The
nut produced in America, though somewhat larger than the native Syrian
fruit, has not half so high a palatable value. The pistachio is grown
to some extent in the southern part of the United States and also in
California. The kernel of the fruit is green in color and has a flavor
which in some respects is reminiscent of almonds. It is used chiefly in
this country in the manufacture of confectionery and ice creams.


_Composition of the Pistachio._--

                       EDIBLE PORTION.
  Water,                 4.2 percent
  Protein,              22.3    „
  Fat,                  54.     „
  Starch and sugar,     16.3    „
  Ash,                   3.2    „
  Calories per pound,  3,235


=Walnuts= (_Juglans nigra_ L.).--The American walnut grows wild over a
very large portion of the country, especially the middle section west
of Maryland to the Mississippi river. The walnut tree is especially
abundant along the Ohio river, where it forms in the early summer a
dense foliage. The trees often attain a very great size, reaching a
diameter as great as five feet.

The walnut trees grow only on rich soil, hence, unless the country was
very hilly and unsuitable for cultivation, the walnut forests were
the first to fall before the axe of the pioneer. Later the demand for
walnut lumber completed the devastation of the walnut forests, until
now very often in the regions where fifty years ago the trees were
extremely abundant a large walnut tree is rarely seen. The walnut
lumber has peculiar lasting powers, and on account of its natural color
and grain is of the highest value for building and ornamental purposes.
The early farmers in the Ohio valley made their rail fences out of
walnut trees. The wild nut grows in a dense kernel and is covered with
a thick pericarp which is green even at the time when the fruit is
ripe. After a frost when the fruit naturally falls from the trees the
outer covering disintegrates. When the nuts are gathered by boys the
outer covering is usually beaten off with clubs. It contains a coloring
matter of a brown or brownish-black tint which the early housewives
used for dyeing homespun cloth. The bark of the tree also contains
to a greater or less extent the same coloring matter. The kernel of
the walnut, that is, the edible portion, is extremely rich in oil and
protein and has a very pleasant taste. Like other nuts the walnut is
best during its first winter, since on longer keeping the oil tends to
become rancid and the fruit unpalatable.


=White Walnut= (_Juglans regia_ L.).--The white walnut, commonly known
as the English walnut, is grown very extensively in France. All the
departments of south central and southeastern France grow these walnuts
as a valued crop. The best walnut orchards are at an altitude of from
600 to 900 feet. Only the outer or exposed limbs produce perfect
nuts. In planting the most important precaution is to give the trees
plenty of room, 15 yards is about the usual distance at which they
are planted. The trees are cultivated and fertilized with manure and
commercial fertilizers every two or three years. A bearing orchard
of these white walnuts in France is worth from four to five hundred
dollars per acre and may yield a revenue of from seventy-five to one
hundred dollars a year per acre. The nuts ripen from the middle of
September to the end of October. These nuts are used largely in America
as a food, for which purpose the kernels are carefully extracted in
halves, commonly known as “walnut halves.” In France an excellent table
oil is expressed from the dry nut which for many culinary purposes is
valued as highly as olive oil. After extraction the oil cake is used
for stock food. The white walnut is supposed to have been originally
introduced from Persia, though it is commonly known as the English
walnut. In the United States the butternut tree is commonly known as
the white walnut.

The composition of the kernel of the dry walnut is shown by the
following data:

Edible portion:

  Water,                 2.5 percent
  Protein,              16.6    „
  Fat,                  63.4    „
  Total carbohydrates,  16.1    „
  Ash,                   1.4    „

As purchased:

  Refuse,               58.1 percent
  Water,                 1.0    „
  Protein,               7.0    „
  Fat,                  26.6    „
  Total carbohydrates,   6.7    „
  Ash,                    .6    „


=General Discussion.=--A brief description has been given above of
the principal edible nuts used in the United States, accompanied by
a statement of their chemical composition. The character of the food
products is well shown by the analytical data. Nuts as a whole are
extremely oily substances and contain next in importance as a food
material, protein. Alone they constitute an unbalanced ration in which
the fat and protein are abundantly present at the expense of the
starch and sugar. For this reason an exclusively nut diet cannot be
recommended, as it surely tends to unbalance the ratio and to disturb
the digestion in the great majority of cases. There are doubtless
individuals of a peculiar temperament who can thrive on a diet of nuts
alone, but such a case is exceptional. On the other hand the value of
the nut as a food is undeniable, both as a nutrient and as a pleasant
condimental addition to the food. The large percentage of oil in nuts
also in many cases is beneficial from the well-known effect of oil in
promoting the digestive activities, mechanical and otherwise. Nuts
should be eaten in as fresh a state as possible, especially those
of a highly oily character. Rancidity not only spoils the taste but
interferes largely with their dietetic value. On account of the high
amount of oil, nuts are preëminently a heat-forming food and thus can
be eaten very freely by those engaged in vigorous bodily exercise and
during cold weather. They also form a food especially useful during
periods of extreme exertion, since by their combustion they furnish
abundant stores of heat and energy.

Many fads relating to foods flourish in various localities. Among them
the school of dietetics, which advises a diet solely of nuts, is worthy
of mention. It is true that life can be sustained for an indefinite
time on a diet of nuts alone. If the nuts are sought in the forests
and fields the good effects of the exercise and outdoor life are to be
taken into consideration. There is no reason to believe, however, that
the general condition of mankind, from a dietetic point of view, would
be improved by an exclusive nut diet. The impossibility of supplying
man with such a food product is also a factor in the discussion of the
problem that should not be forgotten.




PART VIII.

FUNGI AS FOODS.


=Mushrooms.=--Certain fungi growing wild or in cultivated soils and
having an expanded top on a hooded stem are known as mushrooms. The
common form of mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_ L.) grows wild over
a large portion of the United States. It is especially abundant in
the autumn, growing sometimes during the night after a warm rain,
over large areas. When properly cooked it forms a delicious food and
condimental substance, highly prized by connoisseurs and others.
Belonging to the family of mushrooms, however, are many poisonous
varieties which, when eaten inadvertently, often cause serious illness
and sometimes death. For this reason mushrooms sold in the open market
should be carefully inspected by experts authorized to see that the
poisonous varieties are excluded. It not only requires a good botanist,
but also one skilled in the practical differentiation of the different
varieties by physical appearance rather than by botanical analysis, to
properly separate the poisonous from the edible varieties.


_Historical._--Mushrooms have been, since historical times, extensively
used as human food. In a book written five centuries before the
Christian era, Athenée, in his “Banquet of Learned Men,” speaks of the
poisoning of a mother and her three children by mushrooms. Hippocrates
speaks of a girl who had been poisoned by mushrooms and who was cured
by the administration of hot honey and by a hot bath. Theophrastes
and Nicandre also speak of mushrooms and the poisoning that occurs
therefrom. Both Cicero and Horace make reference to mushrooms. Horace
advises that Epicureans should confine themselves to the mushrooms that
grow upon meadows and refuse to eat all others on account of the danger
from poisoning. Ovid also makes frequent allusions to mushrooms and
speaks of the influence of warm rains upon their growth. Tacitus refers
to the use of mushrooms for food, and Suétonius, in his “History of
the Twelve Cæsars,” relates that the Emperor Claudius was poisoned by
a dish of mushrooms. It is, therefore, evident that from the earliest
times mushrooms were extensively used and the poisonous properties of
some of the varieties understood.


_Production of Mushrooms._--As has already been mentioned, mushrooms
grow wild over a large area of the United States. They are also
cultivated very extensively, though not so extensively here as in
European countries. The best place for growing cultivated mushrooms is
one where the light is excluded or diffused and where the temperature
remains reasonably constant. Cellars, caves, and the artificial
caverns made by quarrying are peculiarly well suited for the growth of
different varieties of fungi, such as mushrooms.

The art of growing mushrooms is not easily acquired. The directions
given by the best authorities may be rigidly followed and failure
ensue. The skill of the grower appears to be born, not made, and those
who have acquired the art succeed where theoretical knowledge fails.
For cultural purposes, the _Agaricus campestris_ is most universally
employed.


_Soil._--The soil best suited for the growth of mushrooms is one
rich in decayed or decaying vegetable matter. Mushrooms are often
found growing in localities where a log or stump has decayed or where
the inorganic matter from the manure of cattle or horses has been
distributed on the soil. Artificial beds for the growth of mushrooms
are made up largely of organic manurial substances.


_Spores._--Mushrooms are grown from spores. The mushroom produces a
brown powdery material which consists of almost innumerable simple
cells of ovate shape to which the term “spore” has been applied.
A spore is not in the strict sense of the word a seed, but simply
a cell which by proliferation produces the new fungus. Generally
growers do not use these spores directly in seeding mushroom beds.
Each complete spore, however, is, under favorable conditions, capable
of proliferation or germination, producing a thread-like growth of a
spider-web character which penetrates through the soil, prepared and
manured, upon which a spore is germinated. This spider-web-like growth,
in the common language of mushroom growers, is called the spawn, more
properly called the mycelium of the mushroom. When the conditions are
favorable, there are formed on the threads of this mycelium small
nodules, which are the earlier stages of the complete fungus itself.
From the beginning of this growth until the final production of the
mushroom two or three days or even a week may elapse. The earlier
periods of this growth take place under ordinary circumstances, but the
advent of a warm rain or other extremely favorable conditions causes
the budding mushroom to grow at an enormously rapid rate. The mushroom
may not be said to have a root, stem, and leaf, as is the case with an
ordinary green plant, but is practically a single organism, assuming
different shapes which are represented by the different varieties and
species of growth.


_Differing Varieties of Edible Mushrooms._--There is a very large
variety of edible mushrooms differing in form, size, and shape from
the _Agaricus campestris_. In the Washington markets there are four
principal kinds of mushrooms which are found growing wild in the
vicinity of the city. These comprise the common mushroom--_Agaricus
campestris_, the horse mushroom--_Agaricus arvensis_, shaggy
mushroom--_Coprinus comatus_, and the puff-ball--_Lycoperdon
cyathiforme_.


_Conditions of Growth._--The proper shed or cellars having been
selected, the first thing to do is to see that the temperature is
favorable to the growth of the fungi. Temperatures above 60 degrees
F., or below 50 degrees F., are not favorable to the growth. The
best temperatures are from 55 to 58 degrees. The locality where the
mushrooms are grown should be kept very damp and the air highly
saturated with aqueous vapor. The reason that mushrooms grow best in
covered places, such as has been mentioned, is due to the particularly
favorable influence which the even temperature mentioned and a
practically saturated atmosphere have upon the growth. In localities
where the changes of temperature are not very severe, mushrooms grow
very well in the open. In the county of Kent, England, I have seen
mushrooms growing in the open garden, where, by covering with straw,
they flourish during the greater part of the year. In the winter time
the temperature may be kept quite even by the covering to make abundant
crops, while in the months of August, September, and October they grow
in the open in great abundance.


_Preparation of Seed Bed._--The seed bed for the growth of mushrooms,
as has already been indicated, is made principally of well decayed
stable or stall manure. The manure must be well fermented, thoroughly
disintegrated, and exposed for a sufficient length of time to be in the
proper condition. Mushrooms cannot be obtained until the heat attending
the fermentation of manure has entirely disappeared.

Directions for growing mushrooms cannot be given here, but those who
are intending to enter the business should consult the best authorities
and begin in a small way until they acquire the necessary skill before
commercial success can be obtained.


_Growth of Mushrooms in France._--Perhaps in no country has the
cultivation of mushrooms been carried to such a large extent as in
France. The principal industries in France are confined to those
regions where artificial caves have been made by the quarrying of
building stone. The most extensive caverns of this kind exist in
the neighborhood of Paris, near Bordeaux, and particularly in the
neighborhood of Sceaux. These artificial caverns are often miles in
extent and furnish exceptionally favorable opportunities for the growth
of mushrooms. The soils or manures on which they are grown must be
carried into these caverns, and experience has shown that mushrooms do
not continue to grow well in the same locality, and, therefore, the
place of growth must be moved from time to time to different parts of
the caves. The galleries of these abandoned quarries are sometimes of
enormous extent and are from 30 to 150 feet below the surface. They are
generally from seven to ten feet high, but occasionally so low that a
man cannot stand upright in them. In general they are wide enough for
two rows of beds with a foot way 18 inches wide in the center. Where a
mushroom bed has been well prepared and properly seeded, it produces
about six pounds of mushrooms per square yard. These mushrooms bring,
in the market, an average of about 15 cents per pound. It is stated by
some authorities that the reason the bed ceases to bear after a time
and has to be abandoned or moved is not because of the exhaustion of
the food but is due to the ravages of an insect or fly which produces
a worm which is fatal to the growth of the fungus. At any rate, it is
customary to abandon the beds after they have been bearing for six or
eight months and to return to them after a year, when they are found to
again be productive.

It is not expected that the general consumer will become an expert in
the selection of mushrooms. Where mushrooms are exposed in a public
market, it is the duty of the municipal officers in charge of food
products to see to it that poisonous varieties are not exposed for
sale. It will be of value, however, to the reader to have some idea
of the general shape of some of the more common edible and poisonous
varieties. It is generally supposed that mushrooms, toadstools, and
puff-balls are entirely distinct species and that only the mushroom,
so-called, is edible. On the contrary, there are many edible toadstools
and many edible puff-balls, and all three classes of fungi belong to
the same general family.


_Food Value of Mushrooms._--The nutritive value of mushrooms is
not exceptionally high, although there is a popular opinion to the
contrary. Frequently it has been stated that the mushroom in the
vegetable world holds a similar position to beefsteak among meats,
being particularly rich in digestible protein. The analytical data
which have been collected from numerous sources on the composition
of mushrooms do not bear out this popular impression, but, on the
contrary, show that the mushroom is a food product consisting very
largely of water and of only very small quantities of protein, fat, and
carbohydrates.

The composition of some of the common mushrooms is shown in the
following table (Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 79, Mushrooms as Food):

  ---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----
           |      |      |      | NON- |     |    |       |      |
           |      |      | ALBU-| ALBU-|     |    |       |      |
           |      | TOTAL|MINOID|MINOID|     |    | CARBO-|      |
           |      |NITRO-|NITRO-|NITRO-| PRO-|    |  HY-  |      |
           |WATER.| GEN. | GEN. | GEN. |TEIN.|FAT.|DRATES.|FIBER.|ASH.
  ---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----
  Common   |      |      |      |      |     |    |       |      |
  mushroom,|91.30 | 0.60 | 0.36 | 0.24 | 3.75|0.20|  3.50 | 0.80 |0.50
  Shaggy   |      |      |      |      |     |    |       |      |
  Coprinus,|92.19 |  .45 |  .15 |  .30 | 2.81| .26|  1.40 |  .57 | .98
  Inky     |      |      |      |      |     |    |       |      |
  Coprinus,|92.31 |  .36 |  ..  |  ..  | 2.25| .24|  .... |  .72 |1.29
  Common   |      |      |      |      |     |    |       |      |
  Morel,   |89.54 |  .49 |  .37 |  .12 | 3.06| .50|  1.60 |  .91 |1.08
  ---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----

These data may be compared with the composition of the beefsteak:

  Water,    62.5 percent
  Protein,  19.5    „
  Fat,      17.0    „
  Ash,       1.0    „

From the above data it is seen that the mushroom does not contain
anything like the amount of protein found in beefsteak. It has
one-third more water, one-sixth as much protein, and only one-fortieth
as much fat. Beefsteak contains no carbohydrates except less than one
percent of glycogen, while the amount of carbohydrates in the mushroom
varies from 1.5 to 3.5 percent. It is evident that the mushroom is
principally valuable as a condimental substance and not as a food
product.


_Distinction between Poisonous and Edible Varieties._--It has already
been stated that only the expert is able to distinguish between the
poisonous varieties of mushrooms and those that are edible. Even the
skilled botanist, as well as the expert, may sometimes make mistakes
in this matter. Hence the only perfectly sure method of protection
against the poisonous varieties is the eating of only those which are
cultivated and which are known to be free of poisonous properties.
On the other hand, the wild variety, by many connoisseurs, is much
more highly valued as being more delicate and palatable. It should
also be remembered that the cultivation of mushrooms is not very
widely extended, and if the supply of the wild variety should be
excluded there would be a great diminution of the quantity which is
accessible to the consumer. This would be an especial hardship in
the United States, where mushrooms grow wild over such wide areas
and so abundantly and where the cultivation of them as compared with
some other countries is somewhat restricted. There are some general
characteristics by means of which a distinction can be made between the
edible and the poisonous varieties.

The following rules are given for the rejection of the probably
poisonous mushroom by George Francis Atkinson (“Studies of American
Fungi--1900”): “In the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution
should be employed by those who are not reasonably familiar with
the means of determination of the species, or those who have not an
intimate acquaintance with certain forms. Rarely should the beginner
be encouraged to eat them upon his own determination. It is best at
first to consult someone who knows or to send first specimens away for
determination, though in many cases a careful comparison of the plant
with the figures and descriptions given in this book will enable a
novice to recognize it. In taking up a species for the first time it
would be well to experiment cautiously.”


_No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the Edible._--“There
is no test like the ‘silver-spoon test’ which will enable one to tell
the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones. Nor is the presence of the
so-called ‘death-cup’ a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous, for
_Amanita cæsarea_ has this cup. For the beginner, however, there are
certain general rules, which, if carefully followed, will enable him to
avoid the poisonous ones, while at the same time necessarily excluding
many edible ones.

“1st.--Reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are
infested with larvæ.

“2d.--Reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters
are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and
species. Buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the
ground, and not deep-seated in the soil, would very likely not belong
to any of the very poisonous kinds.

“3d.--Reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the
base of the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at
the base of the stem and rather loose warts on the pileus, especially
if the gills are white. _Amanita cæsarea_, however, has a sac-like
envelope at the base of the stem and yellow gills as well as a yellow
cap, and is edible. _Amanita rubescens_ has remnants of a scaly
envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the cap, and the
flesh, where wounded, becomes reddish. It is edible.

“4th.--Reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish.
Several species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the taste,
are edible.

“5th.--Reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length
where the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright caps.

“6th.--Reject all Boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised
or cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also those the
taste of which is bitter. _Strobilomyces strobilaceus_ (Scop.) Berk.
changes color when cut, and is edible.

“7th.--Reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young, and
those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores.

“In addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point to
become very familiar with a few species first, and gradually extend the
range of species rather than attempt the first season to eat a large
number of different kinds. All puff-balls are edible so long as they
are white inside, though some are better than others. All coral-like or
club fungi are edible.”


_Popular Distinction between Toadstools and Mushrooms._--There is a
general opinion that the toadstool is poisonous and the mushroom is
not. There is, however, no scientific distinction between the two kinds
of fungi, popularly known as toadstools and mushrooms. The distinction
is purely an arbitrary one. The small toadstools are often as delicious
and as harmless as the small mushroom. The small mushroom, on the
other hand, may be as deadly and as undesirable as the worst specimen
of toadstool. There is danger especially to two classes of people
in the discrimination between the poisonous and edible varieties of
mushrooms and toadstools. The first class is composed of those who
are practically unaware of the existence of poisonous varieties and
the second class of persons are those who claim to be able to tell an
edible mushroom from a certain number of tests or claims which they
regard as infallible. Both of these classes of persons are apt to be
deceived or injured by dangerous varieties.

The following popular signs of distinguishing between the poisonous and
non-poisonous varieties are pronounced worthless by Gibson (“Our Edible
Toadstools and Mushrooms and How to Distinguish Them”):

  “FAVORABLE SIGNS.

  1. Pleasant taste and odor.

  2. Peeling of the skin of the cap from rim to center.

  3. Pink gills, turning brown in older specimens.

  4. The stem easily pulled out of the cap and inserted in it like a
  parasol handle.

  5. Solid stems.

  6. Must be gathered in the morning.

  7. ‘Any fungus having a pleasant taste and odor, being found
  similarly agreeable after being plainly broiled without the least
  seasoning is perfectly safe.’

  “UNFAVORABLE SIGNS.

  8. Boiling with a ‘silver spoon,’ the staining of the silver
  indicating danger.

  9. Change of color in the fraction of the fresh mushroom.

  10. Slimy or sticky on the top.

  11. Having the stems at their sides.

  12. Growing in clusters.

  13. Found in dark, damp places.

  14. Growing on wood, decayed logs, or stumps.

  15. Growing on or near manure.

  16. Having bright colors.

  17. Containing milky juice.

  18. Having the gill plates of even length.

  19. Melting into black fluid.

  20. Biting the tongue or having a bitter or nauseating taste.

  21. Changing color by immersion in salt-water, or upon being dusted
  with salt.

  “These present but a selection of the more prevalent notions. Taken
  _in toto_, they would prove entirely safe, as they would practically
  exclude every species of toadstool or mushroom that grows. But as a
  rule the village oracle bases his infallibility upon two or three
  of the above ‘rules,’ and inasmuch as the entire list absolutely
  _omits_ the _only_ one test by which danger is to be avoided, it is
  a seven days’ wonder that the grewsome toadstool epitaph is not more
  frequent.”

The following tests are regarded as favorable by Gibson:

1. Avoid every mushroom having a cup or suggestion of such, at base;
the distinctly fatal poisons are thus excluded.

2. Exclude those having an unpleasant odor, a peppery, bitter, or other
unpalatable flavor, or tough consistency.

3. Exclude those infested with worms or in advanced age or decay.

4. In testing others which will pass the above probation let the
specimen be kept by itself, not in contact with or enclosed in the same
basket with other species.

Begin by a mere nibble, the size of a pea, and gentle mastication,
being careful to swallow no saliva, and finally expelling all from
the mouth. If no noticeable results follow, the next trial, with the
interval of a day, with the same quantity may permit of a swallow of a
little of the juice, the fragments of the fungus expelled as before.
No unpleasantness following for twenty-four hours, the third trial
may permit of a similar entire fragment being swallowed, all of these
experiments to be made on an empty stomach. If this introduction of
the actual substance of the fungus into the stomach is succeeded by
no disturbance in twenty-four hours, a larger piece, the size of a
hazelnut, may be attempted, and thus the amount gradually increased day
by day until the demonstration of edibility, or at least harmlessness,
is complete and the species thus admitted into the “safe” list. By
following this method with the utmost caution the experimenter can at
best suffer but a slight temporary indisposition as the result of his
hardihood, in the event of a noxious species having been encountered,
and will at least thus have the satisfaction of discovery of an enemy
if not a friend.

It may be said that any mushroom, _omitting the Amanita_, which is
pleasant to the taste and otherwise agreeable as to odor and texture
when raw, is probably harmless and may safely be thus ventured on
with a view of establishing its edibility. A prominent author on our
edible mushrooms (McIlvaine) applies this rule to all the Agarics
with confidence. “This rule may be established,” he says: “All
Agarics--excepting the Amanitæ--mild to the taste when raw, if they
commend themselves in other ways, are edible.” This claim is borne out
in his experience, with the result that he now numbers over one hundred
species among his habitual edible list out of the three hundred which
he has actually found by personal test to be edible or harmless. “So
numerous are toadstools,” he continues, “and so well does a study of
them define their habits and habitats, that the writer _never fails
upon any day from April to December to find ample supply of healthy,
nutritious, delicate toadstools for himself and family_.”

“In gathering mushrooms one should be supplied with a sharp knife. The
mushrooms should be carefully cut off an inch or so below the cap,
or at least sufficiently far above the ground to escape all signs of
dirt on the stems. They should then be laid gills upward in their
receptacle, and it is well to have a special basket, arranged with
one or two removable bottoms or horizontal partitions, which are kept
in place by upright props within, thus relieving the lower layers of
mushrooms from the weight of those above them. Such a basket is almost
indispensable.

“Before preparing mushrooms for the table, the specimens should be
carefully scrutinized for a class of fungus specialists which we have
not taken into account, and which have probably anticipated us. The
mushroom is proverbial for its rapid development, but nature has not
allowed it thus to escape the usual penalties of lush vegetation, as
witness this swarming, squirming host, minute grubs, which occasionally
honey-comb or hollow its entire substance ere it has reached its prime;
indeed, in many cases, even before it has fully expanded or even
protruded above ground.

“Like the carrion flies, the bees, and wasps, which in early times
were believed to be of spontaneous origin--flies being generated from
putrefaction, bees from dead bulls, and the martial wasps from defunct
“war-horses”--these fungus swarms, which so speedily reduce a fair
specimen of a mushroom to a melting loathsome mass, were also supposed
to be the natural progeny of the ‘poisonous toadstool.’ But science has
solved the riddle of their mysterious omnipresence among the fungi,
each particular swarm of grubs being the witness of a former visit
of a maternal parent insect, which has sought the budding fungus in
its haunts often before it has fully revealed itself to human gaze,
and implanted within its substance her hundred or more eggs. To the
uneducated eye these larvæ all appear similar, but the specialist in
entomology readily distinguishes between them as the young of this or
that species of fly, gnat, or beetle.

“As an illustration of the assiduity with which the history of these
tiny scavenger insects has been followed by science, I may mention that
in the gnat group alone over seven hundred species have been discovered
and scientifically described, many of them requiring a powerful
magnifier to reveal their identities.

“Specimens of infected or decaying mushrooms preserved within a
tightly closed box--and, we would suggest, duly quarantined--will at
length reveal the imago forms of the voracious larvæ; generally a
swarm of tiny gnats or flies, with an occasional sprinkling of small
glossy black beetles, or perhaps a beautiful indigo-blue insect half
an inch in length of most nervous habit, and possessed of a long and
very active tail. This insect is an example of the curious group of
rove-beetles--staphylinus--a family of insect scavengers, many of whose
species depend upon the fungi for subsistence.

“Even the large woody growth known as ‘punk’ or ‘touchwood,’ so
frequently seen upon decaying trunks, is not spared. A huge specimen in
my keeping was literally reduced to dust by a single species of beetle.

“Considering the prevalence of these fungus hosts, it is well in
all mushrooms to take the precaution of making a vertical section
through stem and cap, excluding such specimens as are conspicuously
monopolized, and not being too critical of the rest, for the
over-fastidious gourmet will often thus have little to show for his
morning walk. I have gathered a hundred specimens of fungi in one
stroll, perhaps not a quarter of which, upon careful scrutiny, though
fair of exterior would be fit for the table. The fungus hunter _par
excellence_ has usually been there before us and left his mark--a mere
fine brown streak or tunnel, perhaps winding through the pulp or stem,
where his minute fungoid identity is even yet secreted. But we bigger
fungus eaters gradually learn to accept him--if not too outrageously
promiscuous--as a natural part and parcel of our Hachis aux
Champignons, or our simple mushrooms on toast, even as we wink at the
similar lively accessories which sophisticate our delectable raisins,
prunes, and figs, to say nothing of prime old Rochefort” (pages 33-34).

E. Faupin, the author of the work “Les Champignons Comestibles et
Vénéneux,” gives some valuable hints respecting the confusion of edible
and poisonous varieties of mushrooms. He also says that the so-called
rules which are often formulated to distinguish the good mushrooms from
the bad are nearly all misleading. If they are applicable in a few
particular cases they surely are not in all, and consequently ought to
be judged as of no value. For instance, it has been commonly said that
the mushrooms whose flesh changes color when exposed are poisonous.
This is true for certain kinds but it is not true for others. There
are, indeed, some mushrooms whose flesh undergoes an alteration when
it is exposed and which are, nevertheless, of most excellent quality.
As an example of this, the variety known as “delicious lactaire” may
be cited. On the contrary there are other kinds whose flesh remains
white on exposure and which are decidedly poisonous, as for example
_Amanita citrina_ Pers. It is also said that a mushroom whose stem
is surrounded by a ring is to be considered edible. This indication
is altogether deceptive. Some of the most poisonous varieties have
well formed rings. It is also misleading to credit the action of the
juice of the mushroom in coloring a piece of silver. It is said that
those mushrooms whose juice blackens silver are poisonous, while those
which do not are harmless. This perhaps is the most dangerous of all
the rules to go by, as some of the most poisonous varieties would be
admitted on this test. It is also misleading to suppose, as is commonly
the case, that mushrooms which are attacked by insects, larvæ, etc.,
can be eaten without danger. Likewise misleading is the general opinion
that mushrooms whose odor is agreeable or which have no appreciable
odor are not poisonous. It is high time to eradicate these misleading
notions and to let the people know with certainty that aside from
the botanical character there does not exist any particular sign nor
any particular means of affirming that a given mushroom is edible or
poisonous. Science alone, therefore, has the sole power of teaching to
distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous varieties. For many
years attempts have been made to popularize the science which will give
to the people the desired information, but in spite of these efforts
the number of cases of poisoning does not seem to diminish, and why?
The response is evident. It is because the efforts which have been made
by mycologists have not yet been appreciated by the mass of people,
and because it has not yet been possible to point out to the public
at large the poisonous species. The number of species of poisonous
mushrooms which are capable of causing death is happily not very great.
The _Amanitas_ and the _Volvarias_ are almost exclusively the poisonous
species. Let it be understood, therefore, by the people that there do
exist mushrooms which are capable of killing. If the people desire
to place themselves out of danger let them begin by learning these
varieties. Their number is very limited, as there are only five or
six species at most. When they are well known it will be very easy to
distinguish them and to recognize all others as edible. Following is a
list of the most poisonous mushrooms known, and all that are likely at
any time to produce death:

  Amanita phalloides Fr.
  Amanita citrina Pers.
  Amanita verna Bull.
  Amanita virosa Fr.
  Volvaria gloiocephala, var. speciosa (Fr.).
  Amanita muscaria (L.) Pers.
  Amanita pantherina DC.
  Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Fr.
  Lactarius rufus Fr.
  Lactarius zonarius (Bull.) Fr.
  Lactarius pyrogalus (Bull.) Fr.
  Russula emetica Fr.
  Russula queletii Fr.
  Russula fœtens (Pers.) Fr.
  Boletus felleus Bull.
  Boletus satanus Lenz.
  Boletus erythropus Cke.
  Boletus luridus Schaeff.
  Entoloma lividum Bull.


_The Most Poisonous of Mushrooms._--The most poisonous of the common
mushrooms is known as _Amanita verna_ Bull. So active is its poison
that this variety has become known as the “deadly Amanita.”


=Types of Edible Mushrooms.=--While it is quite impossible for
a manual of this kind to give any directions by which a person,
not an expert, may make certain distinctions between the edible
and poisonous varieties of mushrooms, it is thought advisable to
give a fair technical illustration of the two classes. The common
mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_, is shown in the accompanying Fig.
61,--three-fourths its natural size. The second specimen from the left
is young and is in a state of development known as a button. The figure
at the extreme left is a larger specimen, showing the slightly checked
surface that sometimes occurs in this species. In fresh specimens the
surface is white, but various shades of light brown, either checked or
plain, are often found. The specimen at the right shows the gills on
the lower surface of the cap. These gills in a newly expanded mushroom,
fresh from the field, are of a beautiful delicate pale pink color,
often with a touch of salmon. In the older samples the gills turn to a
light brown and finally almost to a black color. This discoloration is
chiefly due to the development of almost innumerable spores from which
new plants are propagated. If the stem of a common mushroom be broken
off and the cap be laid gills downward on a piece of white paper, the
spores will drop off and after a few hours will appear as a brown dust.
The usual diameter of full-grown specimens of this variety of mushroom
is from 1¹⁄₂ to 3 inches, though many smaller and many larger samples
are found.

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--COMMON MUSHROOM, _Agaricus campestris_.
EDIBLE. (THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE.)--(_F. V. Coville, Circular No.
13, Division of Botany, Department of Agriculture._)]

This variety of mushroom is the principal one which is exposed upon the
markets of Washington. They are especially abundant in the autumn after
copious rains often succeeding the usual period of drought in that
region. October is the banner month for this variety of mushroom. The
mycelium from which the autumn mushroom grows is formed in the spring,
and after the dry period of summer the little spheroid granules formed
upon the mycelium are capable of absorbing the moisture of the warm
autumnal rains and rapidly expand to the full-grown mushroom. After
all the conditions of growth are fulfilled it usually requires only a
single night for a button to push through the surface of the soil and
expand its cap. Mushrooms are particularly obnoxious to the ravages
of insects, and it is always advisable that they should be gathered
and eaten immediately after they are formed. The insect larvæ attack
the mature mushroom, travelling up through the stem into the cap, and
decomposition rapidly follows.

[Illustration: FIG. 62.--EDIBLE MUSHROOMS (_Agaricus arvensis_
Schaeff.).--(_F. V. Coville._)]

It is easy to determine whether a mushroom is wormy or not by breaking
off the stem close to the cap and observing if there are little
holes through which the larvæ have passed upward into the cap. The
common mushroom occurs most frequently on lawns and in pastures, and
especially in neglected fields where weeds have been succeeded by a
scant covering of grass. Sometimes during the spring and summer, as
well as in the autumn, the common mushroom is found upon the market.
These mushrooms usually are produced upon the garbage dumping grounds
near the city. The garbage and refuse from the city furnish the
manurial conditions required for a speedy development of the mushroom
from the mycelium.

[Illustration: FIG. 63.--SHAGGY MUSHROOM, _Coprinus comatus_. EDIBLE.
(THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE.)--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division of
Botany._)]


_The Horse Mushroom_ (_Agaricus arvensis_ Schaeff.).--This variety of
mushroom is also one which grows in great abundance in the neighborhood
of Washington and in other latitudes affording a similar environment.
This specimen is in many respects like _Agaricus campestris_ but
the surface of the cap is somewhat darker colored. The ring on the
stem is also wider and thicker than in _campestris_. This variety
also grows larger than _campestris_, and the diameter of the cap is
commonly from three to six inches. The figure is only about one-half
the natural size. The horse mushroom is frequently confounded with
the common mushroom, and there is practically no difference in their
edible qualities. It grows preferably in gardens rather than fields,
and especially in gardens which have been heavily fertilized. It also
frequently appears in old beds composed of decayed stable manure which
has been used for forcing beds for early vegetables.


_Shaggy Mushroom_ (_Coprinus comatus_ Fr.).--The accompanying Fig.
63 represents a group of three specimens of this variety of mushroom
growing from a single base. The largest one is already showing signs
of liquefaction and decomposition and a part of the cap has already
disappeared. One of the peculiarities of this species is that beginning
with the edge of the cap the whole mushroom dissolves sometimes within
a day, when it is full grown, into an inky-black fluid. A portion of
this inky fluid has run partly down the white stem of the largest
mushroom. The cap of this mushroom, except when it begins to liquefy,
resembles somewhat the form of a partially closed umbrella. In the
early stages of growth the cap, gills, and stem are white, except the
apex of the cap, which is generally dark-colored. The surface of the
cap is covered with delicate lacerated scales, the characteristic from
which the name _comatus_ or shaggy is derived. The juice from the
fresh sample is colorless as water. When it first begins to turn it is
wine-colored, and until the juice is very deeply discolored the sample
is still edible. After the juice has turned completely black it is
considered too old to be eaten. This species of mushroom grows best in
shady places, in a soil well supplied with humus. The season in which
this variety of mushroom is most abundant is late in the autumn or
early in the winter, when the nights are cold but the ground is not yet
frozen. The liquefaction and decay of this mushroom come on so quickly
that it is not usually infested with larvæ which do not have time to
develop before the mushroom is reduced to a shapeless mass. The most
common organism found is the myriapod, a thousand-legged worm, which
often finds its way between the gills and stem. This cavity should
always be examined for worms of this kind when the mushroom is being
prepared for the table.


_Fairy Ring Mushroom_ (_Marasmius oreades_ Fr.).--This variety is one
which is interesting both on account of its edible properties and by
reason of the circular areas in which it often grows. This illustration
is about three-fourths of the natural size. The tendency of this
variety to grow in the annual form designated is beautifully shown
in the accompanying figure, from a photograph taken on the grounds
of the Department of Agriculture. The ring in question is seven feet
in diameter and the photograph was taken early in November. The stem
in this variety has no ring,--the gills are few and widely separated
and the cap as it becomes fully expanded has a peculiar knob-like
projection in the center. This gives a characteristic appearance to
this variety of mushroom. The cap and stem are colored a pinkish-buff,
and the gills have a lighter shade of the same color varying in early
growth toward a cream tint. The spores are white and can be observed
by placing the cap, as already indicated, on a dark-colored paper,
preferably black glazed paper. The fairy ring mushroom is one of
the commonest species which grows on the lawns in Washington and
vicinity. As many as twenty of these fairy rings have been found on
the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in one season. In the
earlier days, when superstition was more rife than at present, these
rings were supposed to mark the places of the dances of the fairies.
Another fanciful cause assigned for the production of the rings was
that it was due to the effect of lightning striking the ground and
burning the grass in a circle, and thus favoring the growth of fungi.
Investigations, however, show that the fairy ring is due to a peculiar
way in which the mycelium is produced, which begins at a central point,
growing uniformly in all directions a few inches each year. After
a while the central portion, being older, begins to die, and thus
a small circular band is formed which each year increases in size,
growing regularly on the outside and dying as regularly on the inside.
The fairy rings are not always complete circles,--they are sometimes
broken and often are crescent-shaped. This variety of mushroom is quite
permanent, does not tend to decay as rapidly as some, and resists
better than most varieties the attacks of insects. They, however, are
very small as compared with the other common varieties.

[Illustration: FIG. 64.--FAIRY RING FORMED BY _Marasmius oreades_, AN
EDIBLE MUSHROOM.--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division of Botany._)]


_Puff-balls._--A typical mushroom known as the puff-ball is the
variety known as _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_ Bosc. The puff-ball is so
plain in its form that a description of its appearance is difficult.
Usually the outside is colored brown and the covering is more or less
irregularly checked, the white color of the interior showing between
the darker, elevated areas. When still quite young the flesh is solid,
of a milk-white color, and apparently quite dry. After two or three
days it becomes soft, has a yellowish tint, develops a watery and
later an amber-colored juice as it continues its development through
to the later stages. If the mushroom remains ungathered, the interior
dries up into a fine brown powder which is projected into the air when
pressed by the finger. It is often blown away by the wind. When the
fungus reaches this stage of decay it is very commonly known as “the
devil’s snuff-box.” Finally the spores and other dust-like bodies
are blown away, and there is left only a dry and leathery framework.
In the latter stages the puff-ball is not regarded as edible, not
because of its being poisonous, but on account of its dry and leathery
consistency. In the neighborhood of Washington puff-balls are found
commonly in the autumn on lawns and in gardens, and especially on
vacant lots where the soil has remained uncultivated and been closely
grazed by cattle. The puff-ball also tends to grow in a fairy ring
form, and in the circular area in which it grows the grass is likely
to be darker in color, showing the existence of a richer soil. It is
only while the interior of the puff-ball is still solid and white, with
something like the texture of cheese, that it has its highest edible
properties.

[Illustration: FIG. 65.--PUFF-BALL, _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_, TOP VIEW.
EDIBLE. (THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE.)--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division
of Botany._)]


_Cepe_ (_Boletus edulis_ Bull.).--This variety of mushroom is one of
the most highly esteemed, especially in the south of France. It is
large and has a very large, half-pear shaped stem. The flesh of this
variety of mushroom is white and quite firm in the young mushroom,
but becomes softer with age and assumes on the outside a wine tint.
It grows, especially in the late summer and through the autumn, wild
in the forest. In the extreme south of France it sometimes appears
as early as April. (“Nouvel Atlas de Champignons,” Paul Dumée, page
45.) (“The Mushroom Book,” by Nina L. Marshall, page 109.) The cap is
usually from four to six inches in diameter and is a gray, brownish-red
or tawny-brown in color.

[Illustration: FIG. 66.--AMANITA (FULL-GROWN). (ONE-HALF NATURAL
SIZE.)--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division of Botany._)]


_The Fly Amanita_ (_Amanita muscaria_ (L.) Fr.).--This is one of the
very poisonous varieties of mushrooms. In the illustration the fully
matured mushroom is shown at one-half its natural size. This is the
most common poisonous mushroom which grows in the District of Columbia
and other nearby localities. The points especially to be noticed are
the bulbous enlargement at the base of the stem, breaking into thick
scales above, the very broad drooping ring near the top of the stem,
and the corky particles loosely attached to the smooth, glossy upper
surface of the cap. The stem, gills, and the spores are white, the
corky particles commonly of a buff color, but sometimes varying almost
to white. The glossy upper surface of the cap, beneath the corky
particles, varies from a brilliant red to orange-yellow, buff, and even
white. Commonly in the vicinity of Washington the coloration is orange
in the center, shading to yellow toward the margin. Brilliant red ones
are rarely seen in this locality, but white ones are not infrequent,
especially late in the season. This was the variety of mushroom that
lately caused the death of a well known man in Washington. This
poisonous variety is one of the largest, handsomest, and most dangerous
of mushrooms, and is one whose poisonous character has been most fully
studied. It is abundant in the vicinity of Washington in the fall,
growing chiefly in the pine woods and, especially, in the localities
which have been frequented by hogs. The chief active poisonous
principle of the _fly amanita_ is an alkaloid called muscarine,
but other poisonous substances whose exact nature has not yet been
discovered also occur in the plant.

[Illustration: FIG. 67.--FLY AMANITA BUTTONS (_Amanita muscaria_).
(NATURAL SIZE.)]

When this variety of mushroom is reduced to a paste and exposed where
it can be eaten by flies the latter are readily poisoned, and hence the
common name of “_fly amanita_.”


=Symptoms of Mushroom Poisoning.=--The symptoms of poisoning from the
_fly amanita_, as deduced from a number of cases, are varied. In some
instances they begin only after several hours, but usually in from
one-half to one or two hours. Vomiting and diarrhea almost always
occur, with a pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of the urine,
and various cerebral phenomena, beginning with giddiness, loss of
confidence in one’s ability to make ordinary movements, and derangement
of vision. This is succeeded by stupor, cold sweats, and a very marked
weakening of the heart’s action. In case of rapid recovery the stupor
is short and usually marked with mild delirium. In fatal cases the
stupor continues from one to two or three days, and death at last
ensues from the gradual weakening and final stoppage of the heart’s
action.


=Treatment for Poisoning.=--The treatment for poisoning by _Amanita
muscaria_ consists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the
_Amanita_ from the alimentary canal and in counteracting the effect
of the muscarine on the heart. The action of this organ should be
fortified at once by the subcutaneous injection, by a physician, of
atropin, in doses of from one one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain.
The strongest emetics, such as tartarized antimony or apomorphin,
should be used, though in case of profound stupor even these may not
produce the desired action. Freshly ignited charcoal or two grains of
a one percent alkaline solution of permanganate of potash may then be
administered in order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb
the poison, or in case of the latter, to decompose it. This should be
followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives, and the intestines should
be cleaned and washed out with an enema of warm water and turpentine.

Experiments on animals poisoned by the _fly amanita_ and with pure
muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to
beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the
use of atropin. Its use as thus demonstrated has been the means of
saving numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost perfect
physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore in such cases of
poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically as the symptoms of the
case will warrant.

The presence of phallin in _Amanita muscaria_ is possible and its
effects should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum
discharged from the intestines. (Circular 13, Div. of Botany.)


=Removal of the Poisonous Principle.=--In some parts of Europe the _fly
amanita_ is soaked in vinegar and then is eaten with impunity. Some of
the colored people in Washington and vicinity are acquainted with this
method of treatment, and the practice of soaking these fungi in vinegar
and then eating them is not unknown, though the majority of colored
women in the markets who deal in mushrooms look upon this species with
unrestrained horror.

The poisonous variety is denatured as follows: The stem is well
scraped, and the gills are removed from the cap and the upper surface
peeled off. The mushrooms prepared in this way are boiled in salt and
water and afterward steeped in vinegar. They are finally washed in
clear water and then cooked in the ordinary manner and eaten without
any injurious results. It is not recommended, however, that a mushroom
which contains so much deadly poison should be eaten at all, even after
a preparation of this kind. Any carelessness in the preparation or any
failure to carry out the process completely would result fatally.


=Canned Mushrooms.=--The canning of mushrooms is an industry of large
magnitude, especially in France. The young, unexpanded mushrooms in the
form of buttons are those which are usually subjected to the canning
process. Mushrooms are brought to the factory where they are cleaned
and scraped, the stem cut to a proper length, thoroughly washed in
several washings of clean water, and taken to a sulfuring furnace
where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur for some time.
The purpose of this treatment is to bleach the mushroom and make it
as white as possible. Decayed or deformed buttons are not included in
the cans of highest quality. The prepared mushrooms are then placed in
cans, usually of tin, and preserved by subjecting them to a temperature
at or above boiling water until thoroughly sterilized.


=Canned Pieces and Stems of Mushrooms.=--The imperfect portions,
the pieces which are cut away, and other fragments of the mushroom,
resulting from the preparation of the product described above, are
treated practically in the same manner for sterilizing purposes and
are sold to the trade under various names, the most common of which
is Champignons d’Hotel. They also frequently appear under the name of
Champignon Choix and other deceptive labels.


=Adulteration of Mushrooms.=--There is no adulteration practiced of
fresh mushrooms unless the occasional occurrence of poisonous varieties
may be so considered. It is evident, however, that the introduction
of poisonous varieties is the result of carelessness or mistake and
not for any purpose. Nevertheless a most exacting supervision over the
preparation of fresh mushrooms for the market should be required, and
any failure to exercise this care may be considered as resulting in
adulteration or depreciation of the character of the product.

In canned mushrooms the presence of sulfurous acid may be regarded
as an adulterant, and such a substance, believed to be inimical to
health, is not necessary in the preparation of the goods. It is quite
certain that the public taste would soon adapt itself to an amber-
or brown-colored product in canned mushrooms and value it as highly
as the buttons which are white. Since the sole purpose of the use
of sulfur is for bleaching, the end secured scarcely justifies the
means. It is claimed, naturally, that the use of sulfur is also a
safeguard in securing a better keeping of the product, but such an
adjunct for keeping purposes is only necessary when the sterilization
is not complete. It is to be hoped that the day will soon come when
mushrooms bleached with sulfurous acid shall no longer be found upon
our market. The use of other preservatives than sulfurous acid has
at times been practiced, but it is not believed that there are many
cans of mushrooms offered upon the market which contain any chemical
preservatives whatever save the sulfurous acid above noted. Since the
canned mushrooms are valued principally as a condiment, the inclusion
of imperfect or partially decayed or malformed buttons is extremely
unusual. The buttons are separated into sizes of approximately the same
magnitude, so that a can of the product is uniform in size as well as
in quality. The customer may be reasonably certain that he is getting
a good, young, carefully selected product, free from disease and from
accidental impurities which might render the product unwholesome or
unpalatable.


=Truffles.=--The truffle has been known almost, if not quite as long
as the mushroom as an edible delicacy. The use of truffles in France
became very common during the 14th century, but on account of their
high price they remained for a long time a luxury and not a general
article of commerce. It is only within the 19th century, after 1840,
that their consumption became general. The truffle belongs to the
botanical family Tuberaceæ.

The propagation of truffles is similar to that of mushrooms, by spores,
which first give rise to a mycelium which by further condensation
forms the body of the truffle. This mycelium furnishes the nutritients
for the tubercle during a certain time of its early growth. In the
cultivation of the truffle, artificially, it is necessary to make use
of a forest or other similar artificial covering. If trees are planted
especially for the development of truffles it requires six or eight
years growth before the cultivation of truffles is successful. The
truffle grows very readily in the shade of nut-bearing trees and in
the shade of the oak. The mycelium does not produce truffles until
after several years of vegetation. When it once begins to fructify and
produce the truffle it continues to bear for many years. The truffle,
like the mushroom, grows rapidly. At first, as has already been
stated, it is nourished by the mycelium, but when this is exhausted
it is nourished by absorbing the nutritious elements from the soil
and air. When it reaches maturity and its spores are well formed the
truffle acquires its maximum of aroma and palatability. After it has
reached maturity it can remain a certain time in the soil without being
changed. However, after a time it is rapidly decomposed and its tissues
become the seat of various chemical reactions or it is devoured by
insects.


_Cultivation of Truffles._--The truffle may only be grown in the midst
of very favorable conditions of climate, altitude, mellowness of the
soil, moisture, and proper shade. The planting of truffle trees serves
as a _vehicle_ for the spores which are later to give birth to the
mycelium which itself produces the truffle. The spores of the truffles
usually reach the forests in which they are grown by natural means
without being particularly planted. Sometimes, however, the spores are
carried directly to the soil where the new crop is to be grown.


_Geographic Distribution._--The truffle, like the mushroom, is spread
over all parts of the earth. In Europe it is especially abundant in
France and Italy. The provinces in France where it grows in greatest
abundance are Provence, Dauphiné, Languedoc, and Périgord.


_Principal Varieties._--The varieties of truffles are not so numerous
as mushrooms, of which perhaps a thousand different varieties are
known, but still they are sufficiently numerous. One of those
frequently cultivated in France is known as truffles of Périgord
(_Tuber melanosporum_ Vittad.). It grows best under the shade of a
growing walnut or a young oak. The tubers of these plants, which are
the part valuable for food, may weigh from 60 to 500 grams. Other
botanical varieties which are much cultivated are _Tuber brumale_
Vittad., _Tuber æstivum_ Mich., _Tuber magnatum_ Vittad., and many
others.


_Harvesting of Truffles._--The truffle comes into production from the
sixth to the tenth year after planting the appropriate forest trees.
It is easy to determine the year when the harvest should begin, since
during the preceding year there is found in the soil some hypogæan
mushrooms which may be considered as precursors of the truffles.
Moreover, the soil under the tree becomes practically free of all
vegetation. The truffle ripens from November to April, according to
its variety. It is important that it should not be harvested except
at the period of complete maturity. For harvesting purposes certain
animals are made use of, such as the dog and hog. These animals have
a delicate smell in these matters and only bring out of the soil the
ripe truffles while they leave the others. Man is not able to make
this nice distinction, and harvests all indiscriminately, from which
there results great financial loss. In the harvesting of truffles the
ground should be gone over about once in eight days in order that the
tubercles may be secured during the whole winter at the proper time of
maturity. When the truffles are developed the soil above them is hilled
or cracked, especially after rains. These are the places which are
selected for the harvesting when it is done by the hand of man.


_Harvesting by Means of Flies._--When the weather is warm and clear
there is seen above the place where the tubers are lying, a multitude
of flies,--these mark the place where the harvest should be made. The
best time for this kind of a harvest is about nine o’clock in the
morning. Good results are not obtainable from this sign except when
the sun rises clear and becomes afterward warm. In order to find the
flies the husbandman stoops down near the surface of the soil and
looks horizontally over it. The colonies of flies are thus easily
distinguished, and below each one of these colonies the truffles are
found. This is also an ineffective method because only the overripened
tubercles attract the flies while those in their very prime are not
thus marked.


_Harvesting with Hogs._--The utilization of hogs for harvesting
purposes is by far the best and most economical method. It is employed
especially in Périgord and Midi. The harvesting can be either in the
morning or afternoon. The hogs which are used for harvesting should be
previously well fed in order to prevent them from eating the truffles
which they dig out of the ground. Each animal is led with a rope. As
soon as the hog gets the scent of truffles it pounces upon them and
rapidly uncovers them with its snout. When the weather is favorable a
hog can easily smell a truffle at a distance of 150 feet. As soon as
the animal has brought the truffle to the surface instead of allowing
him to eat it he should be recompensed by giving him some suitable food
such as maize. If this little attention is neglected the animal soon
becomes discouraged and refuses to work any longer. Before leaving the
spot the hog assures himself that no other truffles are contained in
that neighborhood. When the hog becomes very tired he walks very slowly
and with his mouth open. It is then necessary to give him a period of
rest before continuing the harvest. If the search for truffles does not
bring good results the animal becomes morose, indolent, and refuses to
obey. Sometimes when the hog is hungry and wants to eat the truffles
it is necessary to give him a smart blow on the snout with a stick. A
special race of hogs is used in this harvesting whose parents have also
possessed the skill, and thus it becomes hereditary. A good hog is able
to engage in the harvesting from the age of two to 25 years but they do
their best work at three or four years. A single animal may be able to
harvest from six to 40 pounds of truffles per day, according to their
abundance in the soil. This class of hogs have a very high value, and
are often sold in the south of France for this sole purpose at from
$30.00 to $70.00 per head.


_Harvesting with the Dog._--The dog is also employed in regions where
truffles are produced, and especially in those regions where the yield
is not so great and where the area to be gone over is very large. The
dog is used especially in the Dauphiné, Champagne, Bourgogne, Provence,
and Languedoc, and also in the neighborhood of Paris. These dogs are
trained, as in the case of hogs, especially for this purpose and should
be rewarded when a find is made, in the same manner as the hog. This
recognition of their services should never be forgotten if animals of
the greatest skill are to be secured. The dog, as is the case with the
hog, locates the truffles by the scent and digs with his four paws
until the truffles are laid bare,--the husbandman then draws them out
of the soil with long forceps. The hog is preferable to the dog because
it does the whole harvesting itself, whereas in the case of the dog the
husbandman must finish the operation.

The yield of the truffle farm is naturally extremely valuable, varying
with the relative abundance of growth and character of the soil itself.
Sometimes the yield drops as low as five pounds per acre and sometimes
rises as high as 70 pounds per acre. The average price of truffles is
$2.00 per pound. The largest yield is found in the truffle farms from
the tenth to the twentieth year.


_Properties of Truffles._--It is difficult to describe the properties
of truffles. They are, when prepared for the table, black, rather
firm in flesh, and have a distinct and most agreeable odor and taste.
A good truffle is extremely firm and resists the ordinary pressure
of the finger. If it is soft it shows that it is lacking in its best
characteristic.

The size of the truffle has a marked influence upon its value because
the small truffle loses a large part of its weight in the preparation
for eating. Truffles of good size are those which weigh from 40 to
50 grams, those of first choice weighing from 60 to 100 grams. After
the truffle passes 100 grams in weight the increased weight does not
proportionately increase the value. The truffles which come from light
soil are considered superior to those which come from rich soil. If
the soil contains a large quantity of iron the truffles are usually of
finer quality. All truffles are not black, though the best ones, like
those of Périgord, are black. Others are gray or brown.


_Adulteration of Truffles._--Commerce in truffles is the subject of
considerable fraud on account of the very high price of the genuine
article. The principal adulterations are the mixture of the inferior
or imperfect varieties with the choicest or best varieties. This
adulteration is easily discovered by making a careful examination of
the tubercles individually. Another fraud which is very much practiced
is the introduction of soil into the cracks or crevices in order
to increase their weight. This adulteration, of course, is easily
discovered by anyone who prepares the truffles for the table. Another
form of adulteration is the mingling with the ripe truffle of those
which have not reached maturity. The unripe tubercles have very little
flavor or taste and are thus easily distinguished from those which are
mature. Also practiced is the pressing together with some kind of a
glue of a number of smaller truffles in order to form a large mass, as
if it were an entire truffle, and thus securing a larger price. This is
also a fraud easily discovered. Still another form of sophistication is
the production of artificial truffles made from potatoes and especially
those which are partially spoiled which are colored in imitation of
the truffle itself. Only those who are ignorant of the texture of
the truffle can be deceived by this gross imitation. Another form
of adulteration is the sale of the truffle coming from regions less
esteemed for their products for those of other more esteemed regions
as for instance, the sale of truffles from Sarladais or from Domme for
those of Périgord.


_Preservation of the Truffle During Transit._--For the purpose of
keeping truffles in good condition during transit they may be placed in
moss, fine sand, or powdered chalk. They can be kept in this way for
a few days during transit, but should not be long preserved in this
manner. Truffles may also be preserved indefinitely by sterilization.
It is necessary to do this whenever they are to be sent over long
distances or kept for a long time. The methods of sterilizing are not
different from those described for ordinary vegetables. Truffles are
also preserved by desiccation, but in this case they lose something
of their odor and taste and are not so highly esteemed. Finally the
truffles are sometimes preserved by cooking them and preserving them in
wine or olive oil. (Raymond Brunet, “Manuel Pratique de la Culture des
Champignons et de la Truffe.”)


=Food Value of Fungi.=--While the mushroom and the truffle are the
principal fungi used as food they are by no means the only kinds.
Their value, as has already been indicated, is rather condimental than
nutritive. Those, however, who have eaten fresh or well preserved
mushrooms or truffles, cooked in the best style of the culinary art,
are fully acquainted with their value. The fear of poisoning does much
to restrict the use of the wild mushrooms. The fields and forests are
full of many varieties of these fungi, especially in the autumn. Very
few of the varieties are poisonous, but the conservative gourmand
hesitates to consume the fruits of his own activity as a collector.
In the hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains near Harper’s Ferry I have
seen large areas of the forest almost covered with these growths in
August and September, but the courage leading to their consumption was
wanting.




PART IX.

SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY.


SUGAR.

The term “sugar” is applied by common consent to the pure sugar
commercially prepared from the sugar cane and the sugar beet. These
two kinds of sugar are sometimes designated by their own name, as, for
instance, the purchaser will ask for cane sugar or beet sugar. When no
other name appears the term sugar is applied as above.

In Europe the principal sugar used is that derived from the sugar beet.
In the United States the principal sugar is that derived from the sugar
cane. Notable quantities of sugar are also found in commerce derived
from the maple tree, a small quantity from sorghum, and in Asia a
considerable quantity is made from the palm.

Chemically, sugar belongs to the class of bodies known as sucrose or
saccharose and is a compound in a pure state consisting solely of
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, typical of that class of foods of which
starch is the most important member, known as carbohydrates. The
elements mentioned are combined in sugar in the proportion of 12 parts
of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen.

The quantity of sugar consumed by the people of the United States
is very large. Excluding molasses, honey, and sirups the quantity
consumed in the United States in the year ending December 31, 1905, was
2,632,216 tons. There should be added to this the total quantity of
sugar found in the articles of diet which are so common in this country
in the form of honey, sirups, and molasses.


=Origin of Sugar.=--In the earliest times practically the only sugar
which was used by man was that stored by the bees, namely, honey. The
sugar cane is indigenous to Asia and was not known as a source of
sugar in Europe until the 13th or 14th century, when it was brought
by Eastern merchants to Europe. The discovery of America and the
introduction of sugar cane into the islands adjacent thereto opened
up a new field for the culture of that plant and laid the foundation
of the great industry which followed. It was not, however, until
100 years ago that the sugar cane industry assumed anything like
the proportions which indicated its subsequent growth. About 1747
sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana and soon thereafter, about
1790, became one of the most important crops of that state. Until
the beginning of the Civil War Louisiana produced a large proportion
of the cane sugar consumed in the United States. During the Civil
War the industry was almost totally destroyed, but since then it has
grown until it has assumed greater proportions than ever before but
constantly diminishing proportions in relation to the total supply.
Louisiana is somewhat too far north for the most economic production
of sugar cane, since it is subject to injury by frosts. Sugar cane is
a plant which is very sensitive to cold weather and is usually killed
by a hard frost. For this reason its greatest development has occurred
in tropical countries, especially in Cuba, the Hawaiian Islands, and in
other similar localities. At the present time by far the largest part
of the sugar made from sugar cane in the world is produced in Cuba and
the Hawaiian Islands,--the Cuban crop amounting, in round numbers, to
1,200,000 tons and the Hawaiian to about 400,000 tons.


=Beet Sugar.=--The fact that beet sugar is contained in the common
garden beet was first discovered by a German chemist, Margraff, in
1747. This important discovery remained dormant for nearly half a
century when one of Margraff’s pupils, the son of a French refugee from
Prussia, named Achard, resumed the researches which had been started
by Margraff and obtained results which were then regarded as of an
astonishing character. Achard’s statements were the subject of doubt
and of ridicule and even his French co-laborers, members of the academy
doubted the accuracy of his work, while thinking it of sufficient
interest to look into further. A commission consisting of some of the
most important members of the Academy of Science, among them Chaptal
and Vauquelin, investigated the matter and announced that the attempt
to make sugar was unsuccessful but thought perhaps the maple tree might
be grown in France. Nevertheless the commission modified the methods of
Achard and obtained better results. This was the beginning of that long
series of investigations which has resulted in the establishment of a
beet sugar industry, making in round numbers six million tons of sugar
per year, a quantity considerable greater than that produced from the
sugar cane. The name of Chaptal has been mentioned as belonging to the
commission which was appointed to study Achard’s process because it was
through the influence of Chaptal, who had then become a Count, that the
Emperor Napoleon on January 15, 1811, issued his decree establishing
the beet sugar industry as a national industry of France and granting
a subvention thereto. This decree ordered that one hundred thousand
hectares should be planted in beets in France. Both the taxes and the
octroi were withdrawn upon all sugar produced from beets for a period
of four years. There were also to be established, according to the
decree, four central beet sugar factories, and it was ordered that the
crop of sugar beets in 1812 and 1813 should reach two million kilograms
of raw sugar. The disastrous Russian campaign and the subsequent fall
of the Napoleonic dynasty interrupted but did not destroy the industry.

The establishment of an industry by imperial decree is perhaps a novel
method of procedure and gave rise at that time to a caricature in which
the Emperor Napoleon and the young King of Rome figured as the most
important characters. The Emperor was represented as seated in the
nursery with a cup of coffee before him into which he was squeezing the
juice of a beet. Near him was seated the young King of Rome voraciously
sucking a beet root while the nurse standing near and steadfastly
observing the process is saying to the youthful monarch--“Suck, dear,
suck, your father says it’s sugar.”

By reason of the embargo laid on commerce by England the cane sugar
coming from tropical islands had been kept out of the continent, so in
order to supply the deficiency the Emperor Napoleon issued the decree
mentioned. Due to this impetus the industry grew rapidly in France
even after the fall of the empire and in the course of 20 years had
assumed proportions of commercial importance. About this period German
scientists became interested in the matter and by studies directed to
the improvement of the sugar in the beet and methods of manufacture
laid the foundation of a great industry in Germany which has outclassed
the similar industries of all other countries.

The production of beet sugar in the United States was only a few
thousand pounds in 1879 and during that and succeeding years a number
of factories were built. All of these, however, were unsuccessful
except one which was located in Alvarado, California, and which has
been continuously operated ever since. In 1884 the U. S. Department of
Agriculture undertook anew the investigation of the conditions which
were favorable to the sugar beet industry and as a result of these
investigations a new start was made on a more substantial basis. The
industry has since then extensively grown in importance until at the
present time as much sugar is made from the sugar beet in this country
as from the sugar cane. In order that an adequate idea of the magnitude
of the sugar industry in the world may be had a statistical table is
submitted on page 471, showing the production of sugar in the world
during the year 1906.

The first important report on the beet sugar industry in the United
States was made by McMurtrie as a special report No. 28 on the culture
of the sugar beet, issued in 1880 by the Department of Agriculture. It
is there recounted that two Philadelphians, as early as 1880, became
interested in the beet sugar industry which was then in its infancy
in Europe. Eight years later David L. Child undertook in a small way
the production of beet sugar in Northampton, Mass., and issued a
small work on the subject, entitled “The Culture of the Beet and the
Manufacture of Beet Sugar.” He reports that he had grown beets that
would yield 6 percent of sugar which cost not more than 11 cents a
pound. He made in all about one thousand, three hundred pounds of sugar.

[Illustration: FIG. 68.--CORRECT POSITION OF A MATURE BEET IN THE
SOIL.--(_Farmers’ Bulletin 52._)]

The first factory of any considerable size in the United States was
erected in 1863 at Chatsworth, Ill., but this proved to be a financial
failure. A beet sugar factory was erected in the Sacramento Valley,
California, in 1869, and after various vicissitudes a permanent factory
was established at Alvarado, as has already been mentioned. In 1874 as
much as 1,500,000 pounds of beet sugar were made in California. In 1870
and 1871 New Jersey and Massachusetts enacted legislation exempting
from taxation for a period of 10 years all property devoted to the
production of beet sugar. Factories were established in Massachusetts
and in Delaware later on, but these all suffered financial reverses. It
was not until the latter part of the 80’s that the beet sugar industry
in the United States was placed upon a paying basis, and even since
that date many ventures in the manufacture of beet sugar have resulted
in financial loss and in the abandonment of the factories.

[Illustration: FIG. 69.--MAP SHOWING TEMPERATURE ZONE IN WHICH THE
SUGAR BEET ATTAINS ITS GREATEST PERFECTION.--(_Farmers’ Bulletin No.
52, Department of Agriculture._)]


_Conditions of Cultivation._--The sugar beet in the United States
does not produce its maximum content of sugar in areas where the mean
temperature for the three months of June, July, and August rises above
70 degrees F. The southern limit of this area is an irregular, waving
line, as indicated in the accompanying map (Fig. 69). There are, of
course, localities where high-grade beets can be produced south of
this line, but in point of fact nearly every successful beet sugar
enterprise has been located within the field indicated. There is
really no limit to the northern edge of this belt except that of short
seasons, incident to late frosts of spring and early frosts of autumn.
To successfully compete in the sugar markets of the world the sugar
beet should enter the factory with an average percentage of sugar of
not less than 12. Very much richer beets are often produced and in some
of the irrigated areas of the west, where the climate is remarkably
dry, an average percentage of 16 and 18 even has been obtained. In the
whole beet sugar crop of the United States the average percentage of
sugar in the beet is probably not far from 13 or 14. In this respect it
is seen that the beet is richer in sugar than the average sugar cane of
Louisiana, which does not contain over 11 or 12 percent of sugar.

[Illustration: FIG. 70.--A FIELD OF BEETS READY FOR
HARVESTING.--(_Bureau of Plant Industry._)]


_Yield per Acre._--The average yield per acre of sugar beets in the
United States is unfortunately very low, due chiefly to ignorance of
the proper method of culture. The sugar beet is more of a garden than
a field crop and requires special cultivation and fertilization. The
average yield in the United States has probably not exceeded eight
tons per acre, while the average yield in Europe is twelve or thirteen
tons per acre. In this respect the Louisiana sugar cane has a marked
advantage, the average crop being over twenty tons, while thirty and
even forty tons are often obtained. As soon as our farmers learn the
principles of culture it is certain that the average yield in the
United States will be as great as that in Europe. A typical field of
beets ready for the harvest is shown in Fig. 70.


_Manufacture._--The manufacture of beet sugar is both a simple and a
complicated operation. The simplicity of it consists in the fact that
it is only necessary to extract the saccharine juices of the beet,
properly clarify them, and reduce them by evaporation to a point where
the sugar will crystallize. In reality the operation of successful
manufacture requires elaborate and costly machinery and a high degree
of technical skill. A brief outline of the method will be sufficient
for the purpose of this manual.

[Illustration: FIG. 71.--BEETS READY FOR TRANSPORTATION TO
FACTORY.--(_Bureau of Plant Industry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 72.--DIFFUSION BATTERY.--(_Farmers’ Bulletin 52._)]

The beets, after harvesting, have the tops cut off with a small
quantity of the adhering material of the neck of the beet, which
contains large quantities of salts and is not suitable to enter the
factory. In Fig. 71 is shown a view of a beet field after the harvest.
The beets are then thoroughly washed and passed through a slicing
machine in which they are cut up into thin slices or ribbons. They then
enter a series of tanks, known as a diffusion battery, in which they
are thoroughly treated with hot water, by means of which practically
all of the sugar which they contain is extracted. The saccharine
product obtained, known as the diffusion juice, is treated with a
large excess of lime, heated, and carbonic acid derived from a lime
kiln blown through it until the lime is all converted into a carbonate
carrying down with it the impurities of the juices. The diffusion
juice as it comes from the diffusion battery is usually almost as black
as ink. After carbonatation, as the process above is called, it is of a
clear, light amber tint. To separate the liquid from the solid matter
the whole is passed through a filter press from which the juice emerges
bright and clear and the carbonate of lime with its adhering impurities
remains in the filter press as hard cakes. This process is repeated in
order to secure as great a purity as possible in the juice.

[Illustration: FIG. 73.--MULTIPLE-EFFECT EVAPORATING
APPARATUS.--(_Farmers’ Bulletin 52._)]


_Evaporation._--The purified juice is conducted into multiple-effect
vacuum pans, Fig. 73, from which the air is partially exhausted by
a pump, the vacuum rising in the series. There are usually three or
four of these pans connected together,--the first one having the least
air exhausted from it and the last one the most, that is, having the
highest vacuum. The vapor which arises from the first pan is conducted
through the copper coils to the second and serves as the heating agent
while the vapor from the second pan passes through the copper coils to
the third and so on to the fourth. Thus the steam used for evaporating
is turned only on the first pan and by this means a great economy in
the use of fuel is secured. In this way the juice is evaporated to a
sirup. This is usually somewhat colored and if white sugar is made it
is bleached by passing through bone-black or by the application of
sulfur fumes. When sulfur is used it is often applied first to the
unevaporated juice as well as to the sirup.


_Final Crystallization._--The sirup is now ready for the final process,
which takes place in what is known as the vacuum strike pan, Fig. 74. A
considerable quantity of sirup is introduced so as to cover the lower
coils of this pan and, after the vacuum is established by a pump,
evaporated to the crystallizing point. An additional quantity of cold
sirup is then drawn into the pan, chilling the mass and thus producing
incipient crystallization in the form of extremely minute crystals. The
evaporation is now continued with the addition of sirup from time to
time, by which process the sugar crystals begin to grow. In the course
of a few hours the pan is full of crystals of the size desired.

[Illustration: FIG. 74.--VACUUM STRIKE PAN.--(_Farmers’ Bulletin 52._)]


_Purification of the Sugar._--The vacuum is broken and the crystallized
mass of sugar drawn into a mixing apparatus whereby all lumps are
broken up and a uniform magma secured. This is done while the mass is
still warm. Were it allowed to cool it would be extremely difficult
to break it up. The warm mixture is then passed into the centrifugal
machine, by means of which the molasses is separated from the crystals
and these remain as white pure crystals in the pan. The whole process
of separating the juice from the massecuite, as the mass is called,
occupies only a few minutes. Thus the sugar is often centrifugalled and
in the barrels before it is cold from the vacuum pan.

The above is merely the outline of a method which requires complicated
apparatus, often of extensive proportions, and which could not be
described in detail except in a technical work. It gives the reader,
however, an idea of how the white sugar which he eats is made. Often
white sugar is not made at the sugar factory, in which case the
bleaching with bone-black, etc., is omitted and a brown sugar is
produced which afterward goes to the refinery.

[Illustration: FIG. 75.--SUGAR CANE FIELD READY FOR
HARVEST.--(_Photographed by H. W. Wiley._)]


_Growth of Sugar Cane._--The growth of sugar cane is confined to
tropical and subtropical regions. In the United States this crop is
grown chiefly in Louisiana and Texas. Its cultivation does not extend
northward beyond the center of Georgia. Typical scenes in sugar cane
fields are shown in Figs. 75 and 76.


=Manufacture of Cane Sugar.=--In the manufacture of sugar from the
sugar cane the first process, naturally, after the harvest, is the
expression of the juice from the cane. At the time of harvesting the
canes are topped in such a way as to cut off the green portion of the
upper part of the stalk and the leaves also are removed.

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--CANE FIELD PARTLY HARVESTED.--(_Photographed
by H. W. Wiley._)]

There are two methods of extracting the juice from the cane, one
similar to that described for the sugar beet but used very little.
Only one or two factories in the United States use this method of
extraction. The most common method of extraction is by passing the
canes through heavy mills. These mills are made of great strength so
as to bear an immense pressure without breaking. The largest mills
have a capacity of grinding from 500 to 1000 tons of cane a day. Many
of them grind only from 200 to 500 tons per day. The mills are nearly
always placed in series, that is, the cane is subjected to a double
pressure. The first mill is uniformly composed of three rollers of
the same size and set so that the first and second are not quite so
close together as the second and third. The second mill also often
consists of three rollers the same as the first mill but sometimes
only two. Occasionally a third is used. It is quite customary to
sprinkle the crushed cane as it comes from the first mill with water
before it enters the second mill, thus securing a greater degree of
extraction. The residue from the mill is called bagasse and is commonly
carried directly to the furnace and used as fuel, furnishing steam,
to evaporate the juice and drive the mill. The mills extract from 75
to 80 percent of the weight of cane in juice. The sugar cane contains
about 88 percent of its weight of sugar juice. It is seen, therefore,
that a considerable portion of the sugar remains in the bagasse. By the
process of diffusion a larger proportion of the sugar is extracted than
by milling, but the resulting juices are very much diluted and require
a greater combustion of fuel for evaporation.


_Clarifying the Juice._--The juice as expressed from the cane is
a dirty-looking mass and requires to be clarified before it is
concentrated. It is a very common practice to subject the fresh juice
to the fumes of burning sulfur. In all cases the first step in the
clarifying is the addition of lime to neutralize the natural acidity
of the juice and facilitate the coagulation of the dissolved matter.
The limed juice is next subjected to heating and as the boiling point
approaches a separation of the suspended and coagulated matter takes
place, the light coming to the top and the heavy falling to the bottom.
The common method of separating these bodies is by skimming the top
coagulum and settling the bottom portion and drawing off the clear
juice therefrom. In addition to this to get a more complete separation
the heated juice may be run through a filter press.

The clarification of sugar cane juice, as is seen, is much more simple
than that of beet juice. The method employed for the clarification of
beet juice is sometimes used for cane juice but not very frequently.


_Evaporation of Clarified Juice._--After the clarification is completed
the further treatment of the juice is exactly the same as that for the
sugar beet.

[Illustration: FIG. 77.--TAPPING THE MAPLE TREES.--(_Courtesy Forest
Service, Department of Agriculture._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--TRANSPORTING THE SAP TO THE SUGAR
HOUSE.--(_Courtesy Forest Service, Department of Agriculture._)]


=Manufacture of Maple Sugar.=--The maple trees in the United States
grow chiefly in the New England states, especially in Vermont, New
York, Ohio, and Indiana. Very little sugar is made in other states.
The season of manufacture is at the beginning of spring, when the
sap first begins to run and before the buds of the new leaves have
developed very extensively. The season lasts from four to six weeks. In
New England it begins the latter part of March and in Ohio and Indiana
in February. The trees are bored and a tubular spile driven into the
wood through which the sap escapes into the bucket or other receptacle.
Figs. 77, 78, and 79 are typical scenes in a small maple orchard during
the season, showing tapping of the trees and collection and boiling
of the sap. The sap of the maple tree is extremely bright and clear
and requires no clarifying. It is usually evaporated in open kettles
or pans, the vacuum process not being employed. The crystallization
takes place at the final moment of evaporation and usually the whole
mass is sold as sugar, forming what is known in the cane sugar industry
as concrete. Maple sugar is never refined, since in the process of
refining the peculiar flavor and odor which give it its chief value
would disappear. The quantity of maple sugar made in the United States
is almost negligible from a commercial point of view, amounting
annually to only about 10,000 tons. Perhaps a greater quantity of maple
sap is used in the form of sirup than of sugar.

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--BOILING THE MAPLE SAP.--(_Courtesy Forest
Service, Department of Agriculture._)]


=Refining of Sugar.=--All kinds of raw sugar but maple are refined
before entering commerce. The public taste has demanded a pure white
sugar and in so far as beet sugar is concerned the refining process is
a necessity, inasmuch as raw beet sugar has a very disagreeable soapy
taste and odor which render it unfit for consumption. On the other hand
raw cane sugar is aromatic, fragrant, and delicious to a far greater
degree in the raw state than when it is refined, since after the
refining process it is difficult to distinguish the product of the beet
juice from that of the sugar cane.


_Process of Refining._--The manipulation attending the refining of
sugar is a somewhat simple one, but experience has shown that it can
only be done economically in very large establishments, many of which
cost millions of dollars. The attempt to refine sugar on a small scale
makes the product too expensive to compete commercially with the
product of the large refinery. The raw sugar is first mixed with water
and melted and reduced to the condition of a sirup. In this state it
is treated with lime and clarified as has been described for sugar
cane juice. Sometimes at this stage it is also treated with sulfur
fumes, but not usually. After clarifying the juice is filtered through
bags or filter presses so as to free it from all suspended matter. In
order to decolorize it it is then passed through large cylinders filled
with bone-black from which it emerges quite or almost water-white.
When the bone-black loses its decolorizing properties it is removed
from the cylinder and reburned in closed retorts, by which process it
regains its power to decolorize the sugar solution. The decolorized
juices are next taken into vacuum strike pans, as has already been
described in the manufacture of sugar, only of a much larger size. In
these pans they are evaporated and crystallized and the sugar separated
in centrifugals as described above. After the sugar comes from the
centrifugal it is placed in a granulating apparatus, a large revolving
drum supplied with a steam jacket from which it emerges dry. Granulated
sugar is almost chemically pure, often containing 99.9 percent of
pure sugar. The molasses from the centrifugal is diluted, passed
through bone-black, and reboiled and a new lot of sugar obtained.
Finally when the product becomes so low in sugar as not to yield a
white product lower grades of brown sugar are made, which are usually
sold without drying and contain considerable quantities of moisture
and some molasses. The final molasses which no longer crystallizes is
sold usually for mixing with glucose to make table sirup. It contains
so much mineral matter in solution as to be hardly suitable for food
purposes.

Loaf sugar, cut loaf, etc., are forms of pure sugar which are pressed
or cut in the forms in which they appear on the market and then dried
instead of being dried in a granulated state as described. Powdered
sugar is dry refined sugar reduced to a fine powder.

In the refining of sugar it is quite customary to wash the crystals
in the centrifugal with ultramarine blue suspended in water. This is
done in order to form with the blue water and the yellow tint, which
sometimes accompanies the crystals, a perfectly white appearance, on
the optical principle which shows that when a blue and a yellow tint
are mixed a white color results. This process is not required for the
first-class product coming from the first crystallization and very
often dealers require sugar for special purposes which has not been so
treated. It would be advisable if all consumers should demand a sugar
of the same character.

While the refining of sugar can probably never be abolished it should
not be forgotten that the very finest sugar, from a palatable point
of view, is that made from the maple or sugar cane without refining
in which the crystals retain their natural yellow color. If consumers
understood thoroughly the value of a sugar of this kind they would
demand it instead of the dead white product which is now in vogue.

As has been stated a raw sugar of this kind could not be used if made
from beets.


=Sugar Crops of the World.=--These figures include local consumption of
home production wherever known.

Willett and Gray’s estimates of cane sugar crops, Oct. 18, 1906:

                               CROP
                              BEGINS:    1906-07.     1905-06.   1904-05.
  United States--
    Louisiana                September    265,000     330,000    335,000
    Texas                    September     14,000      12,000     15,000
    Porto Rico               January      230,000     213,000    145,000
    Hawaiian Islands         November     395,000     385,000    382,576
  Cuba, _crop_               December   1,250,000   1,175,000  1,163,258
  British West Indies--
    Trinidad, _exports_      January       50,000      55,000     31,000
    Barbados, _exports_      January       43,000      49,680     41,600
    Jamaica, _crop_          January       18,000      18,000     16,000
    Antigua and St. Kitts    January       24,000      24,000     24,000
  French West Indies--
    Martinique, _exports_    January       35,000      33,000     29,986
    Guadeloupe               January       36,000      36,000     36,000
  Danish West Indies--
    St. Croix                January       13,000      13,000     11,000
  Haiti and San Domingo      January       50,000      50,000     47,000
  Lesser Antilles, not
  named above                January       13,000      13,000     13,000
  Mexico, _crop_             December     110,000     105,000    107,038
  Central America--
    Guatemala, _crop_        January        8,000       8,000      7,640
    San Salvador, _crop_     January        6,000       6,000      5,588
    Nicaragua, _crop_        January        5,000       5,000      4,235
    Costa Rica, _crop_       January        3,000       3,000      2,305
  South America--
    Demerara, _exports_      Oct. & May   120,000     121,693    101,278
    Surinam, _crop_          October       13,000      13,000     13,000
    Venezuela                October        3,000       3,000      3,000
    Peru, _crop_             October      140,000     150,000    150,000
    Argentine Republic,
    _crop_                   June         140,000     137,308    128,104
    Brazil, _crop_           October      260,000     275,000    195,000
                                        ---------   ---------  ---------
      Total in America                  3,244,000   3,233,681  3,005,608
                                        ---------   ---------  ---------

  Asia--
    British India--
    _Exports_                December      30,000      15,000     30,000
    Siam (cons’n 30,000
    tons, mostly imported)   .....          .....       .....      .....
    Java, _crop_             May          950,000     993,900  1,008,900
    Japan (cons’n 260,000
    tons, mostly imported)   .....          .....       .....      .....
    Philippine Islands,
    _crop_                   December     160,000     135,625    106,875
    China (cons’n large,
    mostly imported)         .....          .....       .....      .....
                                        ---------   ---------  ---------
      Total in Asia                     1,140,000   1,144,525  1,145,775
                                        ---------   ---------  ---------

  Australia and Polynesia--
    Queensland               June         170,000     170,000    147,688
    New South Wales          June          20,000      20,000     21,525
    Fiji Islands,
    _exports_                June          40,000      40,000     47,000
                                          -------     -------    -------
      Total in Australia and
      Polynesia                           230,000     230,000    216,213
                                          -------     -------    -------

  Africa--Egypt, _crop_      January       60,000      65,000     60,000
          Mauritius          August       200,000     188,364    142,101
          Reunion            September     30,000      30,000     30,000
                                          -------     -------    -------
          Total in Africa                 290,000     283,364    232,101
                                          -------     -------    -------
  Europe--Spain              December      15,000      14,512     18,592
                                          -------     -------    -------

    Total Cane sugar crops
    (W. & G.)                           4,919,000   4,906,082  4,618,289
    Europe Beet sugar crops
    (F. O. Licht)            September  6,570,000   6,954,000  4,708,758
    United States Beet sugar
    crops (W. & G.)          July & Oct.  345,000     283,717    209,722
                                       ----------  ----------  ---------
    Grand total Cane and Beet Sugar--
    Tons                               11,834,000  12,143,799  9,536,769
    Estimated decrease in the world’s
    production                            309,799       .....      .....


=Adulteration of Sugar.=--In the United States there are few
adulterations of sugar practiced. The product has grown so cheap not
only in the United States but all over the world that adulterations
are no longer a paying process and whenever adulteration ceases to pay
it requires no law to prevent it. White sugars have been adulterated
from time to time by the admixture of white earth or terra alba (either
ground silicate, ground gypsum, or ground chalk). I have never found
any adulteration of this kind in an American white sugar. White
flour has also been added to sugar as an adulterant, but that form of
adulteration is not known in this country. The only adulteration which
is found in American sugar, in so far as I know, is that incident to
the process of manufacture which I have described. When sulfur is used
in sulfuring the juice before clarifying a trace of sulfurous acid may
still adhere to the finished product. When bluing is used the particles
of ultramarine blue attach themselves to the sugar crystals and become
an adulteration. I have seen sugar so blued that on solution the water
would turn blue. Sugar granules are also sometimes washed with salts of
tin, a very poisonous compound, and a trace of these salts may still
adhere to the crystals. Sugar has also been mixed with dextrose made
from starch, in other words, from starch sugar, or as it is ordinarily
called, anhydrous grape sugar. This is a form of adulteration which
has been little practiced on account of the difficulty of getting a
dry starch sugar in commercial quantities. Recent improvements in the
manufacture of dextrose have made it more probable that this form of
adulteration may be more frequent in the future. As a food product
pure dextrose is probably as valuable as sugar, but if it can be
made cheaper it would become a fraudulent adulteration or if added
in any way without notice its addition is fraudulent and constitutes
an adulteration. There is little, however, to fear from this form of
adulteration as long as the price of sugar does not go much above 5
cents per pound.


=Sugar as a Food.=--The food value of sugar is well defined. It
furnishes next to oil and fat the most complete food for heat and
energy that can be consumed, ranking, of course, as starch in this
particular. Sugar is a quick-acting food and therefore is especially
valuable to relieve exhaustion. It is particularly useful for
soldiers on a forced march or for people engaged in any extraordinary
effort. A lump of sugar eaten occasionally keeps up the strength and
prevents exhaustion. The value of sugar as a food is not appreciated
as it should be, since it is valued mostly for its condimental and
preservative properties.


SIRUP.

A very common form in which sugar is used in this country is in the
form of sirup. The United States more than any other nation consumes
viscous liquid solutions of sugar as a condimental food product,
especially at breakfast on hot cakes and other articles of diet. Table
sirup is an almost uniform article of diet upon the American breakfast
table whether in the household, the hotel, or restaurant.


=Maple Sirup.=--Among the sirups, first of all must be mentioned the
most valuable and highly appreciated, namely, maple sirup. Maple sirup
is the product of the evaporation of the juice of the sap of the maple
tree to a consistency in which only about 25 or 30 percent of its
weight is water. This is sufficient to prevent the crystallization of
the sugar for at least a reasonable length of time. Maple sirup is
best when freshly made, and if kept through the summer should be put in
tins and tightly sealed while hot. In this condition it will keep its
original flavor almost entirely, whereas if left in barrels or other
ordinary receptacles its flavor is impaired. Maple sirup is also made
by dissolving maple sugar as occasion may require, but this kind is not
so highly prized as that made directly from the maple sap.

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--SMALL PRIMITIVE MILL FOR EXTRACTING JUICE FROM
SUGAR CANE FOR SIRUP MAKING.--(_Photograph by H. W. Wiley._)]


_Analysis of Maple Sirup._--The average composition of ten samples of
maple sirup of known purity is as follows:

  Total solids,    70.50 percent
  Water,           31.40    „
  Ash,               .53    „
  Sucrose,         64.10    „
  Reducing sugar,   1.30    „

The study of the ash of maple sirup is an important point in connection
with its purity. It is distinctly different from the ash of the sugar
cane and sorghum, and its study should not be neglected in all cases
where there is any doubt respecting the genuineness of the samples.

[Illustration: FIG. 81.--MILL AND EVAPORATING APPARATUS FOR SIRUP
MAKING IN GEORGIA.--(_Bulletin 70, Bureau of Chemistry._)]

[Illustration: FIG. 82.--RELATIVE LENGTH OF CANES USED FOR SIRUP
MAKING.--(_Photograph by H. W. Wiley._)]


=Cane Sirup.=--Sugar cane sirup is made by expressing the juice of
the sugar cane as described, clarifying, and evaporating the juice
to a consistency where only about 25 or 30 percent of the water
remains, which is sufficient to prevent the sugar from crystallizing
for a reasonable length of time. Sugar cane sirup is made in hundreds
of small factories in the states of Texas, Louisiana, Alabama,
Mississippi, Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida. It is usually
made in a small way with mills driven by a horse or mule and with
primitive methods of evaporation in an ordinary kettle. Hard pine wood
is burned for the evaporation and the empyreumatic flavor of the pine
is often absorbed by the sirup. In Figs. 80 and 81 are shown typical
apparatus used for the manufacture of sirup from sugar cane in Georgia
and in Fig. 82 the relative length of canes ready for manufacture.
In factories where modern apparatus is used, in so far as I know,
the vacuum process is not employed. In fact, except for economy of
fuel, the vacuum process would be objectionable, since by boiling in
an ordinary open kettle a larger quantity of sugar is inverted and
thus the tendency to crystallization is diminished. It is a common
but reprehensible practice in making sugar cane sirup to subject the
freshly expressed juice to the fumes of burning sulfur. This makes a
light-colored sirup but introduces a substance highly objectionable
and one which destroys to a certain degree the flavor of the product.
Experiments made by the Department of Agriculture show that delicious,
wholesome, and palatable sugar cane sirup is best made by clarifying
the expressed juice solely by means of heat and mechanical separation
of the coagulum. The addition of lime or any other clarifying
reagent is unnecessary and only makes a sirup of less desirable and
less palatable quality. Since cane sirup is made uniformly in open
kettles or pans there is a slight caramellization of the sirup during
evaporation which gives a reddish tint to the product, which should
be a mark of superiority instead of being so often regarded as a mark
of inferiority. The consumer should always be suspicious of a sugar
cane sirup which is light in color. It is probably a case of “Greeks
bearing gifts” in the form of sulfurous acid or other injurious
bleaching materials. Sugar cane sirup is not appreciated by the people
of the North. In fact it is rarely seen or consumed by them. In its
own country, however, it is a staple article of diet, highly esteemed,
wholesome, palatable, and nutritious.


_Analysis of Sugar Cane Sirup._--The average composition of thirteen
samples of cane sirup of known purity is as follows:

  Total solids,    75.0 percent
  Water,           25.8    „
  Ash,              1.2    „
  Sucrose,         52.0    „
  Reducing sugar,  17.6    „


=Sorghum Sirup.=--The sorghum plant (_Sorghum saccharatum_) is grown
practically in every state in the Union, but principally in Kansas.
Some of the very best sorghum sirup made in the United States, however,
is made in Minnesota, and this plant can be used for sirup making
purposes over the whole area of the United States.

The method of manufacture is exactly that of sugar cane sirup. It is
made in small mills mostly driven by horse power, though some large
factories have steam apparatus for its manufacture. It should also
be made without the use of any other clarifying reagent than heat.
Sorghum sirup has a peculiar flavor which is not disagreeable to those
accustomed to its use. It is extremely wholesome, highly nutritious,
and palatable. It is a staple article of diet with thousands of
families in the United States, principally in the northern and central
portion. It rarely is made in the New England states and not very often
in those southern states where sugar cane can be used in its place,
since the sugar cane makes a sirup which is preferred by most people.


_Analysis of Sorghum Sirup._--The average composition of ten samples of
sorghum sirup of known purity is as follows:

  Total solids,    76.0 percent
  Water,           28.6    „
  Ash,              4.0    „
  Sucrose,         36.7    „
  Reducing sugar,  26.6    „


=Molasses.=--The term “molasses” is properly applied to the saccharine
product which is separated from sugar in the process of manufacture. It
is well to clearly discriminate in the use of the term in order that no
confusion or misunderstanding may arise. To this end the terms “sirup”
and “molasses” may be contrasted. A sirup is the direct product of the
evaporation of the juice of a sugar-yielding plant or tree without the
removal of any of the sugar. The term molasses applies to the same
process with the exception of the fact that sugar has been removed
at least partially by crystallization and some kind of mechanical
separation of the crystals from the remaining liquid. Molasses,
therefore, to use a term employed in chemistry, may be considered the
“mother liquid” which has produced the crystallization of the sugar.
The production of molasses has already been sufficiently described
in the article on sugar making. The molasses is either separated by
gravitation as in the old style of drying sugar or, as at the present
time, almost exclusively by centrifugal action. The molasses naturally
contains all the substances in solution or suspension which are not
retained upon the gauze of the centrifugal. It differs from the total
mass of evaporated sugar liquid only in the fact that a large portion
of the sucrose or crystallizible sugar has been separated. The sugar
juices of the cane and sorghum contain considerable quantities of sugar
of a kind different from sucrose or common sugar, namely, an invert
sugar, a “reducing sugar,” as it is called, which consists usually
of about equal parts of dextrose and levulose. During the process of
manufacture small portions of the sucrose are converted into sugar of
this kind thus increasing its quantity. In the final crystallization
there is always a portion of sugar uncrystallized remaining as a
viscous liquid in contact with the crystallized particles. This natural
invert sugar which is in the juice, the small portion formed from the
sucrose during the process of manufacture, and the part of sucrose
remaining uncrystallized in the mother liquid constitutes the molasses.
In the washing of sugar the water which is used also passes into the
molasses thus diluting it somewhat from its natural consistence. In the
sugar refinery the molasses is made up of practically such materials
as just mentioned, but inasmuch as the separation of the sugar is
more complete the other portions of the molasses, namely, the mineral
salts, particularly appear in a very much larger proportion than in the
ordinary molasses as will be seen by the analysis of these bodies.


=Varieties of Molasses.=--_New Orleans Molasses._--The real New
Orleans molasses is the product of the manufacture of sugar in the
old-fashioned way in the open kettle and without the aid of vacuum
pans. In this process the crystallization of the sugar does not take
place during the boiling but the concentrated liquid is placed in tanks
where the crystallization takes place. When this is complete it is
broken up into small fragments and placed in a hogshead standing in an
upright position, the bottom of which is perforated and covered with
straw or fragments of sugar cane. When the hogshead is filled with
the crystallized mixture, through the action of gravity the liquid
portion gradually sinks and passes out at the bottom of the hogshead.
This natural separation of the molasses makes a product of exquisite
palatability and one of a character which it is difficult to equal even
by the production of high-grade sirup. Before the Civil War this kind
of molasses was used throughout the United States. At the present time
only extremely small quantities of it are made inasmuch as the open
kettle process is practically a lost industry in the South. The term
“New Orleans molasses” as used at the present day, therefore, applies
to a product of quite a different character.


_Sugar Cane Molasses._--Since the introduction of modern processes
of making sugar, namely the vacuum pan and centrifugal process, the
character of molasses from the sugar cane factory has constantly
deteriorated. This is a natural deterioration due to the improvement
in the method of sugar making. Much larger quantities of sugar are now
obtained in a crystallized state than formerly. The molasses is to this
extent impoverished and the impurities contained therein increased
proportionately. It is quite common now in the process of manufacture
of sugar from sugar cane to secure at least three crystallizations.


_First Molasses._--When the sugar is crystallized in the vacuum pans
and separated from the molasses in the centrifugal the product which is
obtained is called “first molasses.” Usually this molasses is diluted
to a sirup and reboiled in connection with the clarified juices direct
from the sugar cane and thus a second portion of sugar is obtained or
the molasses may be boiled separately and a second crystallization of
the sugar separated by the centrifugal. The molasses from this product
is called “_second molasses_” and is inferior in quality to the first
molasses.


_Third Molasses._--The second molasses is reboiled to a thick
consistency and placed in wagons, transferred to a warm room where it
is allowed to remain, sometimes for two or three months, when a third
crystallization takes place. The sugar from this crystallization is
separated as usual by the centrifugal, and a third molasses produced of
still greater inferiority. Thus, in the best sugar factories high-grade
molasses is not made in the United States but only that of inferior
quality. This molasses is largely used for fermentation, or is fed to
the mules on the plantations. It is also employed to a certain extent
for mixing purposes as indicated above.


_Analysis of First, Second, and Third Molasses._--

  -------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+------
         |       |      |      |      |      |        |      | ACIDS
         | TOTAL |  SU- | DEX- | LEVU-|      | ALBU-  |      | AND
         |SOLIDS.|CROSE.|TROSE.| LOSE.| ASH. |MINOIDS.|AMIDS.| GUMS.
  -------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+------
         | _Per- |_Per- | _Per-| _Per-| _Per-|  _Per- | _Per-|_Per-
         | cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._| cent._ |cent._|cent._
  First, | 80.00 | 53.60| 8.76 |  8.00| 4.00 |  0.20  | 0.94 | 4.50
  Second,| 80.00 | 41.70|12.20 | 12.50| 5.35 |  0.25  | 1.50 | 6.50
  Third  | 80.00 | 31.70|15.00 | 16.50| 6.30 |  0.30  | 2.00 | 8.20
  -------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+------

The increasing content of dextrose and levulose, of ash, acids,
and gums, and the decreasing content of sucrose or pure sugar are
characteristic of the second and third molasses.

The above analyses show the progressive change in molasses due to
the separation of the successive portions of sugar and indicate the
lowering of the quality of the molasses, at least for food purposes,
as the separation of the sugar becomes more complete. It is evident
that in the manufacture of sugar in this way, in which very probably an
effort is made to get the highest possible yield, the resulting final
molasses is a substance quite unfit for human consumption.


_Sugar-house Molasses._--Attention has already been called to the
production of sugar-house molasses or sugar refinery molasses. This
is a product which in its physical appearance is far superior to the
third molasses of the sugar factory and this superiority is due to
the fact that all suspended matter in the refined molasses has been
separated by filtration. In so far as soluble materials which are not
food is concerned, however, the refinery molasses contains even larger
proportions than the sugar factory molasses. The refinery molasses is
not usually considered suitable for food except when diluted as has
been before indicated in the way of mixing sirup.


=Mixed Sirups.=--By far the greater part of the sirups used in the
United States are mixtures of two or more saccharine substances. The
glucose of commerce is the base and perhaps chief constituent of the
most of these mixtures. The glucose, being colorless and of a thick
body, forms an ideal base as far as physical properties are concerned,
for a table sirup. The quantity used varies very largely, but in
general the glucose constitutes by far the larger percentage of the
mixed product. Since glucose has only a very slightly sweet taste
and is devoid of the general palatable properties which make a sirup
attractive, it is colored and flavored with the product of the sugar
cane or the maple tree. Sorghum sirup is also used very extensively in
mixing. The process of mixing is an extremely simple one. The glucose
is warmed until it is easily workable and the added sirups or molasses
which are used for coloring and flavoring mixed intimately with it. In
large factories this is done by mechanical mixers while in a small way
it may be done by hand. Instead of glucose, one sirup itself may be
used as the base and mixed with another for flavor, as, for instance,
in the case of mixed maple sirup. Very commonly the brown sugar is
melted with water and this is used as a base for the formation of
sirups. Whichever may be the case the principle of the process remains
the same, namely, using as the base a cheaper and less palatable
material and flavoring and coloring with the more expensive and more
palatable material. From a dietetic and commercial point of view there
can be no valid objection raised to this method of mixing sirups. The
product is, as a rule, attractive, palatable, and wholesome.

Attention has already been called to the fact that the final molasses
in the sugar refinery, after all the sugar has been extracted that can
possibly be gotten out by the most approved modern process, is used
very extensively for mixing purposes. This molasses has a very high
content of soluble salts, reaching often 8 percent or more, which gives
a distinct flavor and character. It also has acquired a certain flavor
from repeated filtering over bone-black and in general has a strong and
pronounced flavor which gives it a peculiar value as a flavoring agent.
It is also a clear product, free from suspended matter by reason of
its repeated filtration. It can thus be mixed with glucose and forms
a bright mixture, devoid of suspended matter and turbidity, and is
attractive to the eye. Ten percent of molasses of this kind added to
a glucose will make a mixture which is attractive and salable, and,
it may also be added, palatable. The other products which are used
for mixing with the glucose in the manufacture of table sirup consist
of the molasses obtained from cane sugar factories or the sirups
made directly from the sugar cane and sorghum. All these bodies have
valuable mixing properties and small quantities of them give sufficient
color and flavor to the mixed product.


_Adulteration of Mixed Sirups._--The adulteration of mixed sirups
consists chiefly of adulterations that are in the materials from
which they are made. Glucose itself often contains sulfurous acid
used for bleaching in the process of manufacture. It also contains
considerable quantities of sulfate or chlorid of lime incident to its
manufacture and coming from the sulfuric or hydrochloric acid used
in the hydrolysis of the starch from which it is made. The molasses
which is used for coloring and flavoring may also contain injurious
substances. For instance, sulfurous acid is very extensively used in
the manufacture of cane sugar and this acid becomes concentrated in
the molasses. Lime is used very extensively in the clarification of
the juices and this lime is not wholly separated but some of it is
concentrated in the molasses. A moderate amount of lime, however, is
not objectionable. Salts of tin are frequently employed in washing
the sugar in a centrifugal and these salts are found concentrated in
the molasses. The excess of bluing which is used in the centrifugal
is also found in the molasses. Various forms of acid phosphates are
frequently employed in the clarifying of the cane juices and a part of
these is also found concentrated in the molasses. In fact the molasses
from sugar cane factories very frequently contains such quantities of
these added substances as to render it unfit for human consumption.
It is true that these substances are diluted when mixed with glucose,
but this is not a sufficient excuse to warrant their employment. It
is possible to obtain unobjectionable sirups and molasses for mixing
purposes and manufacturers should be held strictly to account if
this is not done. In so far as has come to my knowledge there are no
adulterants directly added to the mixed sirups except for bleaching
purposes.

Attention should be called, however, to still another form of
adulteration due to the fact that the molasses from the sugar cane
factories is often so dark-colored as to be even unfit for mixing.

In such cases it is not uncommon to bleach the molasses by adding zinc
and acid producing nascent hydrogen and leaving the salts of zinc,
either the sulfite or chlorid as the case may be, in the product.
Molasses containing salts of any of these heavy metals, namely, zinc,
tin, or lead, should be rigidly excluded from consumption.


=General Observations.=--If a sirup is to be considered in the light
of the definitions already given, as the result of evaporation, after
proper clarification of the saccharine juices of sugar-producing
plants it is doubtful if the term should be used in connection with
the mixed products which have been described. I have used it because
these are the commercial designations. Since molasses is also used
very extensively in the manufacture of these mixed sirups it might be
asked if they could not also be as properly called molasses as sirup.
In England the material which is called molasses in this country is
usually known as treacle and the very dark molasses coming from the
refinery or the sugar factory is known in both countries as “black
strap.” If molasses be concentrated to a high degree and pulled while
cooling the product is known as taffy in this country or toffy in
England,--it is also known as molasses candy.

The general conclusion in regard to this matter is that since the
processes of sugar making have been so improved as to extract the
greater part of the crystallizible sugar, thus concentrating the
residue of an inedible character in the molasses and since, further,
the use of various chemicals in the clarifying of sugar juices has
become general, all of which are practically concentrated in the
molasses, this latter product has practically ceased to be edible.

The laws relating to the distillation of alcohol have been so amended
as to permit the production of industrial alcohol, under conditions
prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, free of tax.
Molasses is an excellent material for this purpose and, in addition
to this, is the cheapest material which can be used. The obvious
inference is that this material should be used exclusively for the
production of industrial alcohol or for some other technical uses and
no longer be prepared for human food. The production of straight, pure
sirups from maple sap and the sap of the sugar cane and of sorghum and,
in certain conditions, from sugar, can be easily secured in quantities
sufficient to supply the demand not only for the consumption of pure
sirups but also for supplying the materials which when mixed with pure
glucose produce the mixed sirups of commerce. Thus inedible molasses
would be eliminated from human food and mixed sirups be rendered
unobjectionable articles of diet.


CONFECTIONERY.

The term confectionery is applied to a wide range of products which may
in general be described as preparations of saccharine substances with
various colors and flavors. A common appellation used in connection
with confectionery and one which describes perhaps the major part of
the product is the term “candy.”


=Material Used in the Preparation of Confectionery.=--The saccharine
materials which are employed in the preparation of confectionery are
sugars of various kinds, namely, maple, cane, and beet sugar together
with glucose, dextrose, and invert sugar. Starch, which is not a
saccharine substance, is sometimes used as a filler in some forms
of confectionery. The colors used are either those of a vegetable
character, such as saffron and annatto, or derived from the animal
substances, such as cochineal, or more generally, that large class of
bodies derived from coal tar and generally known under the name of
anilin dyes. The flavors employed are either natural flavors, such as
those derived from nuts and fruits, or their preparations, extracts,
such as the extract of vanilla, and synthetic preparations, including
a very large number of artificial flavoring materials resembling
to a greater or less degree the natural flavor of fruits, nuts, or
flowers. Chocolate is one of the most common and one of the most highly
appreciated flavoring reagents employed, being largely mixed with sugar
before using. Not to be included in the permissible materials in the
manufacture of confectionery are any powdered mineral substances or
mineral substances of any kind (except such as are incident to the
manufacture of the product as the natural constituents of the raw
material), poisonous or harmful colors or flavors, and fermented,
vinous, and distilled liquors and drugs of all kinds.

Under adulterations the question of what is harmful or hurtful in such
material will be more fully discussed.


=Method of Manufacture.=--Each manufacturer has his own method of
mixing, flavoring, and coloring his products and these are mostly
trade secrets. A general statement, however, may be made regarding the
method of procedure. The saccharine substances are usually dissolved
in water and brought to the proper consistency by heating. The colors
and flavors are added during such part of the process as is most
favorable to their incorporation and retention. The mass, when of the
proper consistence, is molded into the various forms in which candies
are found in commerce and in many cases polished in revolving drums of
copper or other polishing device. It would be useless to undertake,
even if they were known, to describe the manifold methods employed to
secure the fancy and high-class confections which are found upon the
market.


=Crystallized Fruits and Flowers.=--When fruits and flowers are treated
with sugar sirup which is subsequently allowed to crystallize there are
produced what is known as candied or crystallized flowers or fruit.
These substances in this case become confections and should be judged
by the same standards as the straight candy.


=Food Value of Candy.=--The food value of confectionery or candy is not
as a rule considered, since it is eaten more for its flavor and general
palatability and attractiveness than for its nutritive properties.
Nevertheless, the food value of candy is often very high and is
measured chiefly by the sugars it contains.


=Adulteration of Confections.=--The question of adulteration of
confectionery is one which is somewhat difficult to discuss, since
in the definition of confectionery and candies the incorporation of
added harmless colors and flavors is regarded as a legitimate process.
It is evident that because a confection is colored or flavored there
is no reason for the statement that it is adulterated. Confections
not being a natural product their coloring and flavoring cannot be
regarded as deceptive since neither process can be used in any sense
to deceive the purchaser. It follows, therefore, that any kind of a
harmless coloring or flavoring material will be a legitimate addition
to confectionery. The question, however, of what is harmful or harmless
is one difficult to decide. The manufacturer of coloring and flavoring
materials and the manufacturer of confectionery are always quite ready
to certify that the colors and flavors used are harmless to health.
On the other hand the physiological chemist, who stands apart from
the commercial point of view, may be led with difficulty to adopt the
same conclusions. It is evident there are some colors, especially
those of a vegetable character, which must be regarded as harmless.
Nearly all vegetables contain natural coloring materials, either
chlorophyll or derivatives therefrom, which are, without doubt, quite
harmless. The addition of coloring matter of a vegetable character to
confectionery is not regarded as in any way a harmful or deleterious
ingredient to the product. The same may be said of animal coloring
matter, since there are also natural constituents of animal substances
used such as cochineal, which, as is well known, is derived from an
insect, and hence the addition of such a substance to a food product
may be regarded in the present light of our knowledge as harmless.
There are also synthetical preparations which from a chemical point
of view and in so far as known from the physical point of view are
closely identified with vegetable substances. These preparations
may, _a priori_, be regarded as substances not injurious to health.
On the other hand almost the whole range of mineral colors which
formerly were so much used in tinctorial art, namely, the oxids and
salts of metals such as copper, chromium, lead, arsenic, etc., are
regarded by practically all authorities as injurious substances and
not suitable for introduction into food products. There is left then
for consideration in this respect that vast body of coloring matters
derived from coal tar and known in general as anilin dyes, whether
directly made from anilin or not. On the question of wholesomeness of
these bodies there is much division of opinion. Of the many which are
known, however, only a few are regarded as harmless. Perhaps thirty
different dyes would cover the whole number which have been pronounced
harmless by expert observers. The experts, however, who have rendered
decisions in this matter do not agree as to the harmlessness of the
list just mentioned. Some of them include some portions of the list and
exclude others from their commendation. It so happens, therefore, that
only a few so-called anilin dyes have really escaped condemnation at
the hands of some of the experts. The general character of anilin dyes
and the well known poisonous property of the radical from which they
are derived leads to the supposition that it would be very unsafe in
any case to make an absolute statement in favor of any of them. These
bodies, as a rule, undergo no change in the metabolic processes. They
pass in and through the cellular tissues of the body and are excreted
mostly in the urine and hence place a burden upon the excretory cells
which, although light, is unnecessary. The possibility, too, might be
taken into consideration of a direct toxic effect which they may exert
although in a minute degree upon the cell structures through which
they pass. It is certain that these bodies can exert no beneficial
effect upon the structure of the cells and it is hardly likely, in
the doctrine of probabilities, that they should be neutral. It is
advisable, therefore, to suggest to the manufacturer of confectionery
as well as of the other food products, but of confections in
particular, the wisdom of seeking some method of producing attractive
colors in their products among sources which are open to no suspicion.
It might be that this would be attended with some expense and that
the dyes which are unobjectionable may be more costly. This, however,
should be a matter of very small consideration to the manufacturer who
has the welfare of the public at heart. The price of confectionery, as
is well known, is out of proportion to the prices of the raw materials
of which it is made. The quantity of coloring matter which confections
contain is acknowledged to be minute so that whether the colors cost a
dollar or five dollars a pound makes little difference in the actual
cost of the product and the highest priced colors would not diminish
the percentage of profit to any noticeable degree.

Aside from the use of harmful colors and flavors, which are always
to be regarded as adulterants, there are many other practices in
connection with the manufacture of confections that may be classed as
objectionable. Most of these have, however, been forbidden by law in
the states and in other countries and are now forbidden by our national
law. The addition of ground mineral matter was long known as one of
the principal adulterations of confectionery. This, in my opinion, is
no longer practiced in the United States. The substances used were
commonly known as terra alba, that is, ground talc, powdered silicates,
powdered chalk, or ground marble--in fact any white powdered mineral
substance. The object of this adulteration is manifestly to increase
the weight.


_Poisonous Mineral Colors._--In the early days of the manufacturing
of confectionery salts of lead and compounds of chromium, as well as
compounds of other metals such as copper, etc., were employed for
coloring purposes. The use of these bodies is now extremely rare,
however, if it is ever practiced, and hence may be regarded as a
practice of the past.


_Glucose Containing Harmful Substances._--The bleaching of glucose by
sulfurous acid naturally leads to the introduction into candies of this
substance. It is present in minute quantities, however, and if the
glucose is carefully made, I may add, in negligible quantities. The
danger of over-sulfuring must not be forgotten and it is difficult to
draw a line of demarkation between what may be regarded as negligible
and injurious quantities. The abandonment, therefore, of the use of
sulfur must be regarded as the only safe way of protecting the consumer
against an adulteration of this kind. The use of poisonous flavoring
is perhaps more extensive than is generally recognized, especially of
that flavor which is supposed to be characteristic of the kernel of
the peach, namely, benzaldehyde or its derivatives. There is also a
small amount of hydrocyanic acid in the kernels of the peach, almond,
etc. This is a very deadly substance and no artificial preparation
of it should ever be used. If there be any flavor of this kind in a
confection it should be derived solely from the almond or similar nuts
which contain only minute traces. While nature, as is well known,
places poisonous substances in many food products, they have been so
skilfully combined as to render their effect the least harmful. When
man produces a similar poisonous article artificially and adds it to
a food, the poisonous effect thereof is undoubtedly increased. Hence
the use of artificial harmful flavors of any kind in a food product,
especially confectionery, is utterly reprehensible and unpardonable.


_Alcohol._--Alcohol has been placed in different forms in
confectionery, sometimes enclosed as drops within the saccharine
substance. This must be regarded as an adulteration of a very
reprehensible character, since these products are eaten so much by
children and the danger of injury from the alcohol and the danger of
forming a habit from eating it in this way is extremely great. This
form of adulteration is specifically forbidden by the national law.
In view of the fact that children and young persons of both sexes,
and especially girls, eat confectionery so largely it is incumbent
upon every manufacturer to see that no raw material is employed in his
processes and no flavoring or coloring or other added ingredient used
which is in any way under suspicion as being a harmful or deleterious
substance. Manufacturers should remember that a mere certificate of
purity from the person making these substances is of little value
whatever. Even if the statements made in such certificates are true
they will always be under suspicion, because it would be supposed that
they were made for the purpose of furthering trade rather than for the
protection of the consumer. In the case of two experts of like honesty
and like industry, one employed for the purpose of giving a certificate
to the article of food and one whose researches are entirely
independent of any commercial relations, the public will generally give
the decision of the latter a greater weight. Inspection officers under
state and national food and drug acts should give especial attention to
the subject of confectionery as an article of diet almost universally
employed and consumed by a class of the community most susceptible to
injury.


HONEY.

Honey is defined as the nectar of flowers, gathered and stored by the
honey bee (_Apis melifica_). While the above is a good definition there
is often found in honey saccharine exudations of the plant other than
the nectar of flowers. Many plants contain sugar in their saps and when
an exudation of sap takes place and the water in the sap is evaporated
a saccharine residue remains which is also gathered by the bee. Many
trees, especially of the pine family, exude a sweet sap when stung by a
kind of louse (aphis) and this is also gathered by the bees. Thus while
there may be other exudations of the plant found in honey the fact
remains that the true honey is gathered exclusively from the nectar of
the flowering plant. A honey which is made by feeding bees sugar sirup
or other artificial sugar food cannot be regarded as a genuine article.
The feeding of bees, while a strictly legitimate practice, should be
confined to keeping them over periods of famine or the keeping of them
alive during the winter or at other times when they do not have access
to the flowering plant.


=Historical.=--Honey has been used by man for food from the remotest
antiquity. In fact, in earlier times honey was the only sugar substance
at the disposition of man. He had not yet learned the sources of great
supply which now are at his command or if he had he was not familiar
with the technical processes of preparing the commercial article.
Honey is approximately a pure saccharine substance and this, in
addition to its peculiar and, to most people, pleasant flavor, not only
gave it a vogue in the earlier times of necessity but has maintained it
in public favor when other and cheaper sources of saccharine substances
have been developed. In fact, at the present time it might be said
that honey owes its value upon the market not to the fact that it is
a saccharine body but that it contains flavors and aromas imparted to
it by the flower and by the bee which render it a luxury rather than a
necessity of life.

[Illustration: FIG. 83.--SWARM OF BEES ON BOUGH OF TREE.--(_Courtesy A.
I. Root Co._)]


=Preparation of Honey.=--While bees stored their honey in hollow
trees or other suitable places in earlier times this was a doubtful
source of supply. The bee tree is still an object of interest in every
neighborhood. Many wild animals, especially bears, are very fond of
honey and these animals were the robbers of the honey bee in the days
when such animals roamed the forests. Since the removal of the forests
to such a large extent in the interest of agriculture the bee tree is
becoming a curiosity rather than a matter of common occurrence. Wild
swarms of bees, therefore, at the present time, find other places
for building their hives than the hollows of trees. They are likely
to light upon almost any point that affords them a temporary support
and attempt, at least, to form a colony. Unless, however, they have
some natural protection such as that of a hollow tree, these attempts
are usually unsuccessful. In Fig. 83 is shown a swarm of bees, which,
gathering on the bough of a tree, have bent it to the ground.

[Illustration: FIG. 84.--ARTIFICIAL BEE HIVES UNDER SHADE OF GRAPE
VINE.--(_Courtesy of A. I. Root Co._)]


=Artificial Hives.=--The artificial hive has now become an inseparable
incident in bee culture. The various forms of hives and their relative
merits cannot be discussed in this manual. There are many special works
on bee culture in which all these mechanical appliances, which are so
favorable to the storing of large quantities of honey, are described.
The most approved form is that which permits the depositing of the
combs in small boxes which when filled usually weigh about one pound
and which can be easily removed from the comb and are in a condition to
send to market. The proper method of locating bee hives is indicated in
Fig. 84.

The art of bee keeping is not easily acquired and it requires a
natural aptitude as well as long study and research to become an
expert bee keeper. Experts differ in their opinion respecting the
relative value of hives, and rival manufacturers also do much in the
way of advertising one or another of these contrivances. All of them
that have merits are such as protect the bee, during the months when
it is idle, from starvation and disease and afford it every possible
facility for storing its treasures during the season of activity.


=Distribution of the Honey-producing Industry.=--Every part of the
United States is suitable in some respects for the production of honey.
Naturally the extreme northern portion, where the winters are very
severe, are less favorable than the southern portion for two reasons,
first, the difficulty of keeping the bees over the winter is greater in
the North, and, second, the season of activity is much shorter. On the
other hand the honey which is gathered from the northern flowers is, as
a rule, more highly prized than that gathered from the more southern
regions. California, perhaps, is the greatest honey-producing state in
the Union, though portions of New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
many other states have developed great industries. It is very common
also for the farmer to have a number of bee hives, particularly for
storing honey for domestic consumption, so that the making of honey is
almost as common on the farm as the making of butter.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.--A FRAME CONTAINING 24 BOXES OF
HONEY.--(_Courtesy A. I. Root Co._)]


=Comb Honey.=--The honey which is produced in the hives and removed
without extracting it from the comb is known as “comb honey.” As
indicated above, at the present time large amounts of this product are
made by the filling of small boxes of a size intended for the market.
This is, by far, the most convenient method of handling the product.
A frame showing 24 boxes of comb honey as withdrawn from the hive is
illustrated in Fig. 85. It has also the additional merit of a practical
guarantee of the product. In Fig. 86 is seen a box of honey in which
the capping is incomplete. Many mechanical attempts have been made
to imitate the genuine comb and in many respects a certain degree of
success has been attained. In fact nearly all of the commercial comb
honey of the present day is made in combs built upon an artificial
base in which the cells of the comb are started and sometimes built
to a considerable depth. The bee is then only required to fill out
the remaining portion of the cell and, after filling it with honey,
to cover it over. Thus the labor of the bee is greatly diminished in
respect of comb building and its energies preserved for a greater
production of honey. It must be admitted that honey preserved in the
comb has a delicacy and daintiness which does not attach to that
which has been separated and sold in a liquid form. The comb honey,
therefore, commands a fancy price.

[Illustration: FIG. 86.--SHOWING BOX OF HONEY PARTIALLY
CAPPED.--(_Courtesy A. I. Root Co._)]


=Extracted Honey.=--Where honey is to be shipped to any great distance
it is found difficult, if not impossible, to transport it in the
comb, since the jarring and exposure incident to transit break the
delicate cells and allow the honey to escape. For commercial purposes,
therefore, especially when honey is to be shipped to distant points,
it is separated from the comb at the place of manufacture. The usual
method of separation is by centrifugal force. The caps of the cells
being removed, the boxes which contain them are placed in a centrifugal
machine and the honey forced out by centrifugal action. The boxes are
then returned to the hives where they are refilled by the bees. By this
process extracted honey can be made in great quantities and for a much
lower price than the same quantity of honey still held in the combs.
The principal objection to extracted honey is due to the fact that it
has been subjected to such extensive adulterations as will be mentioned
further on. There can be no valid objection made to the character of
extracted honey when it has been prepared under competent direction and
with the skill and care which are required by the professional honey
makers.


=Strained Honey.=--Strained honey is a variety of extracted honey which
from the broken or fragmentary combs is allowed to flow by gravity or
by gentle pressure. In such cases, naturally, the cell or honey comb is
destroyed. The residual comb is sent to market as beeswax.


=Properties of Honey.=--Honey at ordinary temperature is a viscous
liquid of a tint varying from almost colorless to almost black,
according to the character of the flowers and the season in which it
is gathered and the length of time of storage. It contains from 15
to 25 percent of water and usually has a small quantity of foreign
substances, incident to its manufacture, such as particles of dust,
pollen, fragments of bees, fragments of comb, etc. Honey, therefore,
is a somewhat concentrated solution of sugars and these sugars are the
natural products of the flowers of plants, modified to some extent, by
passing through the organism of the bee. In passage through the bee the
honey is impregnated with a small quantity of an acid, named from the
ant, formic acid. It also suffers other changes which are very strongly
marked in flavor and aroma but which cannot be very readily traced
chemically.


=Polarization.=--Pure honey, that is, honey gathered solely from
the saccharine exudations of flowers at the ordinary temperature of
the laboratory, namely, from 65 to 85 degrees F., has the faculty
of turning a plane of polarized light to the left, which is just
the opposite of the optical properties of cane sugar. Whenever a
honey shows a right-handed polarization it is a cause for suspicion
respecting its purity. A honey of this kind has either been made by
feeding the bees a sugar sirup or by the gathering, on the part of
the bees, of the saccharine exudation, before alluded to, known as
honey dew. It is perfectly true that bees may have gathered honey in
exceptional cases, that is, the saccharine exudations of the plants in
general, which will show a right-handed polarization, but this occurs
so infrequently as to render it advisable to regard such a honey as
abnormal in quality. The polariscope, therefore, becomes an almost
indispensable implement in a study of the purity of honey.


=Water.=--As has already been stated, the usual content of water in
honey is from 15 to 25 percent. It very rarely falls below 15 percent
and also very rarely goes above 20 percent. In extremely dry periods
it is evident that the content of water becomes less, while in times
of rain or at the first advent of the flowers the content of water
will be greater. The bee naturally modifies to some extent the content
of water in order that the organism may dispose of the product. If
the content of water is too small the bee handles the product with
difficulty and if the content of water is too large difficulty in
gathering and storing the honey on account of the excessive fluidity
is experienced. As before intimated, the color of the honey depends
largely upon the flower from which it is made. White clover gives a
honey almost water-white and among all the honey-producing flowers
is perhaps regarded the most highly. On the other hand a plant like
the golden rod, which flowers later in the summer, produces honey of
a deep yellow and sometimes almost a black tint. The color of honey,
therefore, indicates not only the season of the year at which it is
stored, becoming darker as the autumn advances, but also the nature of
the flower from which it is produced.


=Ash.=--The content of mineral matter in honey is extremely small and
perhaps is largely due to the mechanical entanglement of dust in the
nectar rather than the exudation of actual mineral matter itself from
the flower. In some cases the amount of mineral matter is so small as
to become a mere trace while in other cases it has been found as high
as .3 of one percent. A high content of ash denotes the exposure of the
nectar previous to gathering to an infection of dust or to some other
abnormal condition. A high ash content, therefore, always indicates
that further study should be made respecting the purity of the product.


=Sucrose.=--The amount of sugar (cane sugar) which is found in honey
is in normal conditions not very large, but in exceptional cases the
sugar content, that is, the sucrose content, may reach as high as 8 or
10 percent. At such times the honey has only a slightly left-handed
polarization or may become right-handed. Whenever the content of
sucrose in honey reaches as high as 8 percent there is ground for
suspicion that the bees have been fed on sugar sirup, or that some
other form of adulteration has been practiced.


=Dextrose and Levulose.=--The two principal saccharine components of
honey are the sugars known as dextrose and levulose, in other words,
taken together, inverted sugar, that is, sugar made by the inversion
of cane sugar or sucrose. In the nectar of flowers these two sugars
exist almost in the proportion which would be expected if they had been
formed from sucrose or ordinary sugar by a simple chemical process.
Sometimes one of these sugars and sometimes the other may be in slight
excess. The names of these two sugars indicate their active properties.
Dextrose is a right-handed sugar, that is, it turns the plane of
polarization to the right. In this respect it resembles sucrose or
ordinary cane sugar, although it is not so strongly right-handed.
Levulose, as the name implies, is a sugar which turns the plane of
polarization to the left. The temperature of the solution has a very
marked influence upon this active property,--the lower the temperature
the greater the left-handed rotation. A honey which has a strong
left-handed polarization, therefore, at ordinary temperature is one
in which the levulose is present in full proportion or very slight
excess. The other constituents of honey, namely, the pollen which is
mechanically entangled therein, the dust or dirt which is mechanically
attached thereto, the formic acid imparted thereto by the bee, and the
other ingredients, are extremely minute in quantity and are not, as a
rule, expressed as percentage constituents. In fact the most of them
are merely accidental constituents.


=Adulteration of Honey.=--Perhaps there is no common food product,
with the possible exception of condimental substances such as pepper
and spices, that has been subjected to such extensive and general
adulterations as honey.

The high price of honey, its position as a luxury as well as a food
product, and its attractive flavor and aroma have all combined to
make it a favorite product for adulteration. In addition to this the
invention in the last third of a century of an artificial product
resembling honey very closely in its physical properties and being
itself a saccharine body, namely glucose, has put into the hands of
the adulterator an ideal substitute for the natural product. There is
only one reason why the adulteration of honey with glucose has not been
more extensive than it is, namely, the ease with which the chemist can
detect it. The chemical properties of glucose are very distinct from
those of honey itself. In spite of this fact, however, the adulteration
of honey has been most extensively exploited and until the methods
of detecting it were developed it was almost universally practiced.
Glucose is a water-white saccharine semi-viscous mass made by the
hydrolysis of starch with an acid and therefore forms the body upon
which the adulterated article can be built. It has a low saccharine
value and cannot be used alone but must necessarily be mingled with the
honey. The amount of real honey used is, as a rule, a minimum to give
the flavor and taste of the genuine article to the admixture. It is
believed at the present time that this method of adulterating honey is
very much less practiced than in former years and this is due, as has
been said, to the ease with which it can be detected and also, it may
be added, to the increased rigidity of national, state, and municipal
inspection, rendering it difficult to place an adulterated article such
as this upon the market without detection. Incalculable harm has been
done to the honey trade of the country by the practice of this style of
adulteration. Only liquid honey, that is separated or strained, can be
easily adulterated with glucose. Often, however, an attempt has been
made to still further deceive the customer by placing a portion of the
genuine comb honey in a jar and then filling it with the adulterated
mixture, giving the appearance of the genuine article to a certain
extent to the whole.


_Adulteration with Inverted Sugar._--A much more subtle form of
adulteration, and therefore one much more difficult to detect, is the
adulteration of honey with a sirup made from inverted sugar, that
is, the product obtained from cane sugar by the action of a dilute
acid. This chemical process, as has already been indicated, converts
the cane sugar into a mixture of dextrose and levulose. These sugars
are identical, for chemical purposes, with the natural dextrose and
levulose of honey. The chemist, therefore, has a much more difficult
task to perform when he attempts to diagnose the presence of artificial
dextrose and levulose in a mixture of the natural product. There
are, however, certain qualities of ash, as well as other chemical
constituents, which guide him in his work. While his conclusions do not
have that definiteness which attaches to the examination of a honey
adulterated with glucose they are sufficiently distinctive in most
cases to determine whether or not a sophistication has been practiced.


_Adulteration with Cane Sugar._--A very simple form of adulteration
and one which cannot be practiced to any extent without being easily
detected is the admixture of a sirup of pure cane sugar to honey. As
long as the quantity added is not sufficient to change the optical
properties, so that the mixture becomes right-handed in its rotation,
the admixture of a small quantity of cane sugar sirup might escape the
detection of the chemist. Inasmuch, however, as cane sugar exists only
in small quantities in honey the regular and persistent occurrence
of much cane sugar in a honey would be a just cause for suspicion,
although its occasional occurrence might be due to purely natural
causes.


MISCELLANEOUS.


=Mince Meat.=--Under the term “mince meat” is included a large variety
of mixtures used chiefly for pie making and composed of meats,
fruits, evaporated fruits, spices, and sometimes alcohol in some of
its forms. It is not possible to describe any particular combination
which would be entitled to bear the name alone, since each housewife
and each manufacturer follows a method of her and his own. A general
description, however, may be given of the manufactured article which,
unfortunately, has largely displaced the mince meat of domestic
manufacture.

Judged by the name alone, meat of some kind would be an important
constituent of this substance. This, however, is not the case. Very
few of the mince meats contain more than 10 percent of meat, a large
number contain less and quite a large number contain none at all. Suet
and tallow are sometimes employed as a substitute for meat, which
apparently satisfies the conscience of the manufacturer even if it
does not suit the palate of the consumer. Evaporated fruits, such as
raisins, etc., form important constituents of the mixture and also
fresh fruits, in domestic manufacture, are very often used. Spices of
various kinds are also employed and the mixture is sometimes flavored
with brandy or some alcoholic beverage.


_Pressed Mince Meat._--The mixture which is above described may be
dried and pressed, or pressed without drying, into a hard firm cake
which renders it more suitable for transportation and improves its
keeping qualities. There is perhaps little difference between the
unpressed and the pressed mince meat except in the matter of a binder.
The binder consists usually of starch or flour, which serves not only
to give additional weight to the mixture but also to hold the particles
together. Starch or flour is sometimes used in unpressed mince meat
also. There is another advantage in using starch or flour, namely, that
these bodies absorb large quantities of moisture and thus increase the
weight of the mixture. Mince meat cannot be recommended on sanitary
grounds, since the method of manufacture is not always known and the
materials from which it is made are not always selected with the sole
view to the excellence of the raw materials and the health of the
consumer. The meat when used often represents waste material from the
table or factory and the fruits are not necessarily those which look
best but probably are those usually of the worst appearance and the
combinations are made with a view of meeting the ordinary demands of
the market rather than of catering to the tenets of sanitation.

It is not the intention of this manual to discourage any kind of
legitimate manufacturing industry, but, in view of the general
character of substances of this kind, if they are to be used at all,
it seems advisable that they should be made in the home, of material
selected by the housewife and in a manner which requires no special
treatment for its preservation, rather than to be purchased at random
in the open market, made of materials of unknown origin put together by
an unknown process.


_Adulteration of Mince Meat._--Assuming that the materials which
have been selected are wholesome, sanitary, and of fine quality, the
principal adulterations to which mince meat is subjected are the
addition of chemical preservatives and artificial colors. Inasmuch as
mince meat is not expected to be of any very definite color the use of
artificial colors is not common. On the other hand when mince meat is
made in large quantities, transported long distances, and sometimes
kept for a long while on the shelves of the grocery, the subject of
preservation becomes a matter of serious importance. It is naturally
inconvenient to preserve a mixture of this kind by sterilization,
though this has been accomplished. The method of drying and pressing
has already been described. This, of course, detracts somewhat from the
physical appearance of the product. The common method is the addition
of a chemical preservative. At the present time I believe that benzoate
of soda is the one very commonly used, and it will probably continue
to be so used, by most manufacturers until national and state laws or
an enlightened public opinion eliminate it from food products.


=Pie Fillers.=--Nearly allied to mince meat in its character is a large
class of substances known as pie fillers. Mince meat itself, as may
be seen from the description which has been given of it, is nothing
but a pie filler of a particular kind. Unfortunately the demand of the
domestic cuisine is for substances prepared, or partially prepared,
for immediate consumption. In this way the demand for predigested and
precooked food has become a very general one and the pie filler is a
legitimate effort on the part of the manufacturers to meet this growing
demand. It is far easier for domestic purposes to make a pie of an
already prepared material than to go to the trouble of constructing
the material in the kitchen. A housewife loses sight of the fact that
the fresh domestic pie is probably the only one which, for sanitary
and other reasons, should be admitted to the table. As the pie fillers
are as varied in character as the different kinds of pies from which
they are made, no definite standard can be prescribed for them. Fruits
are, naturally, the predominating constituent in these fillers and
the condiments and spices used are certainly unobjectionable. If it
be possible to prepare spiced fruits and keep them until used for
pies there would seem to be no objection to the manufacture, long
before using, of these substances in large quantities. The difficulty,
however, of preserving the freshness and aroma of a fruit or other
substance used for pie making is so evident as to need no particular
emphasis.


_Adulteration of Pie Fillers._--The common adulterations in pie fillers
are artificial colors, when they are designed to represent fruit of a
special character, and preservatives. The same remarks which were made
respecting these bodies in mince meat apply with equal force to all
kinds of pie fillers. Bodies of this kind are evidently only properly
made on the premises where they are consumed and immediately used after
manufacture. The addition of artificial colors and preservatives in
such substances, while apparently necessary in the present condition of
trade, is wholly objectionable from every other point of view, and in
such case trade conditions should properly give way to the demands of
public and private sanitation and hygiene.




PART X.

INVALIDS’ AND INFANTS’ FOODS.


One of the most important subjects in connection with the food supply
is the study of the foods which are offered for the use of infants and
invalids. The demands of modern society, unfortunately, have deprived
the American infant in many cases of the food which Nature intended
it to have. It is, therefore, a condition, rather than a theory,
confronting the feeding of the American infant. It often is a choice
between starvation and an artificial food. A most self-evident fact
in connection with infant food is that until an infant reaches the
age when it is naturally weaned it should have as a food only milk.
The common substitute for mother’s milk is cow’s milk. The important
point in this connection is that the milk should be from a healthy
cow, kept in a sanitary condition, and the milk should be secured in
thoroughly sanitary ways. These methods of preparing milk are, in fact,
the practical result of modern sanitary theories. The composition of
cow’s milk is not that of mother’s milk. It contains more protein and
less milk sugar than the normal milk of the mother. For this reason
the cow’s milk is often modified to bring it into nearer relationship
to the natural mother’s milk. When this is done under scientific
directions and according to a prescription furnished by a competent
physician or physiologist there is no objection to its use provided
it is accomplished without exposure of the milk to bacteria or other
contamination. The addition of drugs to milk in its preparation for
infants’ use cannot be generally commended. The citrate of lime or
limewater is one of the substances which is often added to milk, and
that, too, by the direction of a physician. There are conditions of
disease in infants where such a modification is advisable, but it is
doubtful if it is ever so in the case of a healthy child. The same
remark may be made respecting the limewater.


=Composition of Modified Milk.=--Proteids and ash in cow’s milk are
much higher than in human milk and are brought to the proper degree of
reduction by blending with other milk and diluting the milk with water.

  ---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-------
           |     |       |       |DILUTED|DILUTED
           |COW’S|DILUTED|DILUTED| THREE |  FOUR
           |MILK.| ONCE. | TWICE.| TIMES.| TIMES.
  ---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-------
  Proteids,| 4.00|  2.00 |  1.35 |  1.00 |  0.80
  Ash,     | 0.70|  0.35 |  0.23 |  0.18 |  0.14
  ---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-------

The ingredients commonly employed for modified milk are (1) cream
containing 16 percent of fat; (2) centrifugally skimmed milk by which
the fat has been removed; (3) milk sugar or a standard solution of milk
sugar of say 20 percent strength; and (4) lime water.


_Formulæ._--It is obviously impossible to establish formulæ universally
applicable even to healthy infants, but the following may be regarded
as typical, representing the composition of a modified milk, to suit
the needs of an average growing infant during its first year:

  ---------------------+----------+----------+----------
   PERIOD.             |   FAT.   | PROTEIDS.|  SUGAR.
  ---------------------+----------+----------+----------
                       |_Percent._|_Percent._|_Percent._
   3 to 14 days,       |    2     |   0.6    |   6
   2 to  6 weeks,      |    2.5   |   0.6    |   6
   6 to 11 weeks,      |    3     |   1.0    |   6
  11 weeks to 5 months,|    3.5   |   1.5    |   7
   5 to  9 months,     |    4     |   2      |   7
   9 to 12 months,     |    4.5   |   2.5    |   3.5
  ---------------------+----------+----------+----------

(Albert E. Leach, “Food Inspection and Analysis.”)


=Solid Infant’s Food.=--A large number of infant foods in the solid
state are upon the market. These have been studied very carefully by
many observers with a view not only of determining their chemical
properties but also their relative digestibility. These prepared infant
foods are not always made in harmony with the natural demands of young
children. As has just been indicated, they are not, as a rule, suitable
for infants before the time of weaning, being better adapted to the use
of young children. In the following tables are the data representing
the chemical composition of some of the common infants’ foods.


=Invalid Foods.=--The term “invalid foods” is applied to almost every
kind of a concoction containing a food substance which is administered
to an invalid or convalescent, often for medical purposes rather than
for real nutrition. Chief among these invalid foods may be mentioned
the meat extracts containing that portion of the meat soluble in hot
water. These bodies consist chiefly of meat bases together with certain
soluble salts and it has long been recognized that they have very
little nutritive value. They are also found in concentrated or even a
dry state. The unconcentrated invalid foods of this class sometimes
contain glycerol (glycerine) or alcohol as a preservative. There are
also many forms of meat juice supposed to be the direct extract by
pressure or otherwise of the natural juice of the meat. Since these
bodies could not be preserved otherwise than by sterilization, which
would coagulate the albuminous portion, they are often preserved
by the addition of glycerine or some other antiseptic substance.
It is doubtful if any of these preserved bodies are proper food
for a deranged stomach either in the case of a real invalid or of a
convalescent.

In addition to these there are a great many so-called predigested
or precooked foods which are largely advertised for certain forms
of deranged digestion or malnutrition. The market is flooded with
brain foods, nerve foods, etc., which, if they were as poor as their
advertising claims are exaggerated, would be sorry substitutes for
the natural food which grown people eat. Fortunately these foods are
often far better than one would suppose and many of them are wholly
unobjectionable in character in so far as composition is concerned,
though the price which one must pay for these nutrients seems out of
all proportion to the actual cost of the raw material. Following are
data showing the composition of some of the more important foods which
are advertised as having curative or medicinal qualities or as suitable
for infants and invalids, and thus are brought prominently to the
attention of the invalid or convalescent.

  ------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----
        |      |      |      |      |      | COLD |
        |      |      |      |      |  RE- | WATER|
        |      |      |      | PRO- |DUCING|  EX- | DEX-
        |WATER.| ASH. | FAT. |TEIDS.|SUGAR.|TRACT.|TRIN.
  ------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----
        | _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-
        |cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._
  No. 1,| 3.76 | 3.02 | 6.30 |  9.21| 52.50| 78.76| Much
  No. 2,| 2.12 | 4.34 | 8.70 | 14.02| 49.02| 75.80|  „
  No. 3,| 1.96 | 3.85 | 0.60 | 11.06| 57.96| 81.10|  „
  No. 4,| 3.25 | 2.20 | 5.65 |  8.66|  ... | 82.00| 11.50
  No. 5,| 1.37 | 1.63 | 4.75 |  9.13|  ... | 46.57| 11.02
  No. 6,| 7.09 | 0.42 | 0.23 | 14.48|  ... |  3.58|  1.74
  No. 7,| 5.73 | 0.86 | 1.00 | 10.41| 26.32| 34.57|  7.30
  No. 8,| 1.55 | 1.20 | 1.10 |  5.69| 57.57| 50.05| Much
  ------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------------

The above data give a general view of the relations of nutrient in
foods of this class. The percentage of mineral matter varies chiefly in
proportion to the varying content of common salt. The fat varies from
one to about nine percent. Protein exists in quantities from nearly six
to 15 percent. Sugar constitutes the predominant nutritive component of
almost all these bodies, only one showing a small percentage thereof.
It is evident that if any one of these types of food be regarded as a
standard nearly all the others would prove objectionable. The foods in
the following table are largely farinaceous in composition.

COMPOSITION OF INFANTS’ AND INVALIDS’ FOODS.

(_As determined by A. McGill, Bulletin 59, Laboratory of Inland
Revenue, Ottawa, Canada_).

         MEAN RESULTS OF ANALYSIS.--GROUP I.--FARINACEOUS FOODS.
  ----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+
      | NUM- |      |      |      |      |SUM OF| TOTAL |      |
      | BER  |      |      |      |      |LOSSES|ALBUMI-|      |
      |  OF  |      |      |      |      |  TO  | NOIDS |      |
      | SAM- |      |FAT BY| LOSS |      | ALCO-|  FROM |      |
      | PLES |      |PETRO-|  TO  | LOSS |  HOL | NITRO-|      |
  NUM-| ANA- | MOIS-| LEUM | ALCO-|  TO  |  AND |  GEN  |      |
  BER.|LYZED.| TURE.|ETHER.| HOL. |WATER.|WATER.|× 6.25.| ASH. |
  ----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+
      |      | _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per- | _Per-|
      |      |cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._|cent._ |cent._|
    1 |   2  | 13.96|  0.29|   .. | 3.21 |  3.21|  1.24 | 0.06 |
    2 |   5  |  9.61|  0.64|  4.91| 2.91 |  7.82| 10.38 | 1.48 |
    3 |   5  |  9.44|  0.27|  0.73| 3.91 |  4.64|  9.49 | 0.96 |
    4 |   4  |  9.71|  0.14|  9.95| 3.60 | 13.55|  8.54 | 0.80 |
    5 |   5  |  6.04|  0.72|   .. | 3.94 |  3.94| 13.77 | 0.49 |
    6 |   2  |  9.99|  0.13|   .. |  ..  |  8.83|  8.60 | 2.08 |
      |      |      |      |      |      |      |       |      |
    7 |   9  |  8.12|  0.48|  0.34| 4.67 |  5.02| 13.83 | 0.53 |
    8 |   7  |  9.41|  0.41|  0.65| 2.26 |  2.91|  7.46 | 0.94 |
    9 |   2  |  8.65|  0.85|  5.90| 3.77 |  9.67| 12.18 | 0.88 |
      +------+      |      |      |      |      |       |      |
      |  41  |      |      |      |      |      |       |      |
  ----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+
                                         GROUP II.--MIXED FOODS.
  ----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+
   10 |   2  |  6.84|  1.17|   .. |  ..  | 25.96|  8.75 | 0.76 |
   11 |   5  |  4.22|  3.49| 27.89| 6.00 | 33.89|  7.19 | 1.05 |
   12 |   2  |  5.38|  0.57|   .. |  ..  | 29.59| 10.43 | 1.06 |
   13 |   2  |  4.26|  1.60| 35.28| 4.73 | 40.01| 11.38 | 2.82 |
   14 |   9  |  2.55|  1.41|   .. |  ..  | 63.87| 14.00 | 3.57 |
   15 |  12  |  5.77|  0.48| 28.24| 4.27 | 32.90| 10.01 | 2.57 |
   16 |   8  |  4.72|  0.30|   .. |  ..  | 82.06| 10.10 | 3.50 |
   17 |   4  |  2.89| 22.26|   .. |  ..  | 60.10| 12.19 | 3.85 |
   18 |   2  |  4.92|  8.10|   .. |  ..  | 46.30|  9.00 | 2.08 |
   19 |   9  |  2.18|  4.45| 39.54| 4.30 | 43.84| 10.72 | 1.60 |
   20 |   2  |  5.89|  3.17| 42.54| 1.82 | 44.36|  3.62 | 0.42 |
   21 |   3  |  0.80|  0.04|   .. |  ..  | 96.60|  1.13 | 0.90 |
   22 |   2  |  5.69|  2.18|   .. |  ..  | 38.21| 16.60 | 2.78 |
      +------+      |      |      |      |      |       |      |
      |  62  |      |      |      |      |      |       |      |
  ----+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+

  MEAN RESULTS OF ANALYSIS.--GROUP I.--FARINACEOUS FOODS.
  ----+-------+-------+-------------------------+-----------------------
      |       |STARCH,|          SUGAR.         |
      |STARCH,| FIBER,+-----------------+-------+
      | FIBER,|  ASH, |    Reducing.    |       |
      |  ETC. |  ETC. +--------+--------+       |
      |  (BY  |  (BY  |   Ex-  |        |       |
  NUM-|DIFFER-|DIFFER-| pressed|  _Per- |  Cane |
  BER.| ENCE).| ENCE).|   as   | cent._ | Sugar.|REMARKS.
  ----+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-----------------------
      |  _Per-|  _Per-|        |        |  _Per-|
      | cent._| cent._|        |        | cent._|
    1 | 81.28 |   ..  |  ..    |   ..   |  ..   |Arrowroot starch.
    2 | 67.35 | 72.00 |Invert. |    5   |  ..   |Wheat starch.
    3 | 75.14 | 76.29 |    A trace.     |  ..   |Cereal starches.
    4 | 67.46 | 67.88 |Maltose.|    3   |  10   |  „    starch.
    5 | 76.60 |   ..  |  ..    |   ..   |  ..   |Wheat starch.
    6 | 69.24 |   ..  |  ..    |   ..   |   3   |Maize and wheat
      |       |       |        |        |       |starches.
    7 |   ..  | 72.01 |  ..    |   ..   |  ..   |Wheat starch.
    8 | 78.66 | 79.41 |  ..    |   ..   |  ..   |Barley starch.
    9 | 68.62 |   ..  |  ..    |   ..   |   5   |Wheat starch.
      |       |       |        |        |       |
      |       |       |        |        |       |
  ----+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-----------------------
  GROUP II.--MIXED FOODS.
  ----+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-----------------------
   10 | 56.83 |   ..  |Invert. |    3   |  20   |Wheat starch.
   11 |   ..  | 49.31 |Lactose.|    1   |  30   |     „
   12 | 53.62 | 54.28 |Maltose.|   20   |  ..   |     „
   13 | 40.51 | 42.10 |  ..    |   ..   |  35   |
   14 |   ..  | 15.68 |Maltose.|   49   |   8   |
   15 | 47.72 | 50.50 |Lactose.|   30   | Trace.|     „
   16 |   ..  |   ..  |Maltose.|50 to 60|  ..   |
   17 |  1.45 |  4.44 |Lactose.|   50   |  ..   |
   18 | 31.02 |   ..  |   „    |   30   |  15   |Cereal starches.
   19 | 35.34 | 38.80 |   „    |    8.96|  36.34|Wheat starch.
   20 | 42.70 |   ..  |   ..   |   ..   |  40   |Maize starch and cocoa.
   21 |   ..  |   ..  |Lactose.|80 to 90|  ..   |
   22 | 34.54 |   ..  |   „    |   30   |8 to 9 |
      |       |       |        |        |       |
      |       |       |        |        |       |
  ----+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-----------------------




APPENDIX A.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE
SECRETARY--Circular No. 19.

STANDARDS OF PURITY FOR FOOD PRODUCTS.

SUPERSEDING CIRCULARS NOS. 13 AND 17.

SUPPLEMENTAL PROCLAMATION.

Referring to Circular No. 13 of this Office, dated December 20, 1904,
and to Circular No. 17 of this Office, dated March 8, 1906, the
following food standards are hereby established as superseding and
supplemental to those proclaimed on the dates above named.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _June 26, 1906_.


LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

  THE HONORABLE THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE:

_Sir_: The undersigned, representing the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists of the United States and the Interstate Food
Commission, and commissioned by you, under authority given by the
act of Congress approved March 3, 1903, to collaborate with you “to
establish standards of purity for food products and to determine what
are regarded as adulterations therein,” respectfully report that they
have carefully reviewed, in the light of recent investigations and
correspondence, the standards earlier recommended by them and have
prepared a set of amended schedules, in which certain changes have been
introduced for the purpose of securing increased accuracy of expression
and a more perfect correspondence of the chemical limits to the normal
materials designated, and from which standards previously proclaimed
for several manufactured articles have been omitted because of the
unsatisfactory condition of trade nomenclature as applied thereto; and
also additional schedules of standards for ice creams, vegetables and
vegetable products, tea, and coffee. They respectfully recommend that
the standards herewith submitted be approved and proclaimed as the
established standards, superseding and supplementing those established
on December 20, 1904, and March 8, 1906.

The principles that have guided us in the formulation of these
standards are appended hereto.

The several schedules of additional standards recommended have been
submitted, in a tentative form, to the manufacturing firms and the
trade immediately interested, and also to the State food-control
officials for criticism.

  Respectfully, WILLIAM FREAR,
  EDWARD H. JENKINS,
  M. A. SCOVELL,
  H. A. WEBER,
  H. W. WILEY,
  _Committee on Food Standards, Association of Official Agricultural
  Chemists._
  RICHARD FISCHER,
  _Representing the Interstate Food Commission._

WASHINGTON, D.C., _June 26, 1906._


PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE STANDARDS ARE BASED.

The general considerations which have guided the committee in preparing
the standards for food products are the following:

1. The standards are expressed in the form of definitions, with or
without accompanying specifications of limit in composition.

2. The main classes of food articles are defined before the subordinate
classes are considered.

3. The definitions are so framed as to exclude from the articles
defined substances not included in the definitions.

4. The definitions include, where possible, those qualities which make
the articles described wholesome for human food.

5. A term defined in any of the several schedules has the same meaning
wherever else it is used in this report.

6. The names of food products herein defined usually agree with
existing American trade or manufacturing usage; but where such usage
is not clearly established or where trade names confuse two or more
articles for which specific designations are desirable, preference is
given to one of the several trade names applied.

7. Standards are based upon data representing materials produced
under American conditions and manufactured by American processes or
representing such varieties of foreign articles as are chiefly imported
for American use.

8. The standards fixed are such that a departure of the articles
to which they apply, above the maximum or below the minimum limit
prescribed, is evidence that such articles are of inferior or abnormal
quality.

9. The limits fixed as standard are not necessarily the extremes
authentically recorded for the article in question, because such
extremes are commonly due to abnormal conditions of production and are
usually accompanied by marks of inferiority or abnormality readily
perceived by the producer or manufacturer.


FOOD STANDARDS.


I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS.


A. MEATS AND THE PRINCIPAL MEAT PRODUCTS.


a. MEATS.

1. _Meat_, _flesh_, is any clean, sound, dressed, and properly prepared
edible part of animals in good health at the time of slaughter, and
if it bears a name descriptive of its kind, composition, or origin,
it corresponds thereto. The term “animals,” as herein used, includes
not only mammals, but fish, fowl, crustaceans, mollusks, and all other
animals used as food.

2. _Fresh meat_ is meat from animals recently slaughtered and properly
cooled until delivered to the consumer.

3. _Cold storage meat_ is meat from animals recently slaughtered and
preserved by refrigeration until delivered to the consumer.[37]

  [37] The establishment of proper periods of time for cold storage is
  reserved for future consideration when the investigations on this
  subject, authorized by Congress, are completed.

4. _Salted_, _pickled_, and _smoked meats_ are unmixed meats preserved
by salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, or smoke, singly or in combination,
whether in bulk or in suitable containers.[38]


b. MANUFACTURED MEATS.

1. _Manufactured meats_ are meats not included in paragraphs 2, 3, and
4, whether simple or mixed, whole or comminuted, in bulk or in suitable
containers,[38] with or without the addition of salt, sugar, vinegar,
spices, smoke, oils, or rendered fat. If they bear names descriptive of
kind, composition, or origin, they correspond thereto, and when bearing
such descriptive names, if force or flavoring meats are used, the kind
and quantity thereof are made known.

  [38] Suitable containers for keeping moist food products such
  as sirups, honey, condensed milk, soups, meat extracts, meats,
  manufactured meats, and undried fruits and vegetables, and wrappers
  in contact with food products, contain on their surfaces, in
  contact with the food product, no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc,
  or copper, or any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or
  injurious substance. If the containers are made of tin plate they
  are outside-soldered and the plate in no place contains less than
  one hundred and thirteen (113) milligrams of tin on a piece five (5)
  centimeters square or one and eight-tenths (1.8) grains on a piece
  two (2) inches square.

  The inner coating of the containers is free from pin-holes, blisters,
  and cracks.

  If the tin plate is lacquered, the lacquer completely covers the
  tinned surface within the container and yields to the contents of
  the container no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, or copper or any
  compounds thereof, or any other poisonous or injurious substance.


c. MEAT EXTRACTS, MEAT PEPTONES, ETC.

(Schedule in preparation.)


d. LARD.

1. _Lard_ is the rendered fresh fat from hogs in good health at the
time of slaughter, is clean, free from rancidity, and contains,
necessarily incorporated in the process of rendering, not more than one
(1) percent of substances, other than fatty acids and fat.

2. _Leaf lard_ is lard rendered at moderately high temperatures from
the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that adherent to
the intestines, and has an iodin number not greater than sixty (60).

3. _Neutral lard_ is lard rendered at low temperatures.


B. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.


a. MILKS.

1. Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the complete
milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding
that obtained within fifteen days before and ten days after calving,
and contains not less than eight and one-half (8.5) percent of solids
not fat, and not less than three and one-quarter (3.25) percent of milk
fat.

2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have a
definite and stated percentage of one or more of its constituents.

3. _Skim milk_ is milk from which a part or all of the cream has been
removed and contains not less than nine and one-quarter (9.25) percent
of milk solids.

4. _Pasteurized milk_ is milk that has been heated below boiling
but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present and
immediately cooled to 50° Fahr. or lower.

5. _Sterilized milk_ is milk that has been heated at the temperature
of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient to kill all
organisms present.

6. _Condensed milk_, _evaporated milk_, is milk from which a
considerable portion of water has been evaporated, and contains not
less than twenty-eight (28) percent of milk solids of which not less
than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5) percent is milk fat.

7. _Sweetened condensed milk_ is milk from which a considerable portion
of water has been evaporated and to which sugar (sucrose) has been
added, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) percent of milk
solids, of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5)
percent is milk fat.

8. _Condensed skim milk_ is skim milk from which a considerable portion
of water has been evaporated.

9. _Buttermilk_ is the product that remains when butter is removed from
milk or cream in the process of churning.

10. _Goat’s milk_, _ewe’s milk_, _et cetera_, are the fresh, clean,
lacteal secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the complete
milking of healthy animals other than cows, properly fed and kept, and
conform in name to the species of animal from which they are obtained.


b. CREAM.

1. _Cream_ is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which rises to
the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it by centrifugal
force, is fresh and clean and contains not less than eighteen (18)
percent of milk fat.

2. _Evaporated cream_, _clotted cream_, is cream from which a
considerable portion of water has been evaporated.


c. MILK FAT OR BUTTER FAT.

1. _Milk fat_, _butter fat_, is the fat of milk, and has a
Reichert-Meissl number not less than twenty-four (24) and a specific
gravity not less than 0.905

  (40° C.)
  (------).
  (40° C.)


d. BUTTER.

1. _Butter_ is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering in any
manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a mass, which
also contains a small portion of the other milk constituents, with or
without salt, and contains not less than eighty-two and five-tenths
(82.5) percent of milk fat. By acts of Congress approved August 2,
1886, and May 9, 1902, butter may also contain added coloring matter.

2. _Renovated butter_, _process butter_, is the product made by melting
butter and reworking, without the addition or use of chemicals or any
substances except milk, cream, or salt, and contains not more than
sixteen (16) percent of water and at least eighty-two and five-tenths
(82.5) percent of milk fat.


e. CHEESE.

1. _Cheese_ is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from milk or
cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid,
with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning, and
contains, in the water-free substance, not less than fifty (50) percent
of milk fat. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also
contain added coloring matter.

2. _Skim milk cheese_ is the sound, solid, and ripened product, made
from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic
acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning.

3. _Goat’s milk cheese_, _ewe’s milk cheese_, _et cetera_, are the
sound, ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified,
by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or
without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning.


f. ICE CREAMS.

1. _Ice cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, with or
without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than fourteen (14)
percent of milk fat.

2. _Fruit ice cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and
sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than twelve (12)
percent of milk fat.

3. _Nut ice cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and
sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than twelve (12) percent
of milk fat.


g. MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS.

1. _Whey_ is the product remaining after the removal of fat and casein
from milk in the process of cheese-making.

2. _Kumiss_ is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of mare’s
or cow’s milk.


II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.


A. GRAIN PRODUCTS.


a. GRAINS AND MEALS.

1. _Grain_ is the fully matured, clean, sound, air-dry seed of wheat,
maize, rice, oats, rye, buckwheat, barley, sorghum, millet, or spelt.

2. _Meal_ is the clean, sound product made by grinding grain.

3. _Flour_ is the fine, clean, sound product made by bolting wheat meal
and contains not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of
moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25) percent
of nitrogen, not more than one (1) percent of ash, and not more than
fifty hundredths (0.50) percent of fiber.

4. _Graham flour_ is unbolted wheat meal.

5. _Gluten flour_ is the clean, sound product made from flour by the
removal of starch and contains not less than five and six-tenths (5.6)
percent of nitrogen and not more than ten (10) percent of moisture.

6. _Maize meal_, _corn meal_, _Indian corn meal_, is meal made from
sound maize grain and contains not more than fourteen (14) percent of
moisture, not less than one and twelve-hundredths (1.12) percent of
nitrogen, and not more than one and six-tenths (1.6) percent of ash.

7. _Rice_ is the hulled, or hulled and polished grain of _Oryza sativa_.

8. _Oatmeal_ is meal made from hulled oats and contains not more than
twelve (12) percent of moisture, not more than one and five-tenths
(1.5) percent of crude fiber, not less than two and twenty-four
hundredths (2.24) percent of nitrogen, and not more than two and
two-tenths (2.2) percent of ash.

9. _Rye flour_ is the fine, clean, sound product made by bolting rye
meal and contains not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of
moisture, not less than one and thirty-six hundredths (1.36) percent
of nitrogen, and not more than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25)
percent of ash.

10. _Buckwheat flour_ is bolted buckwheat meal and contains not
more than twelve (12) percent of moisture, not less than one and
twenty-eight hundredths (1.28) percent of nitrogen, and not more than
one and seventy-five hundredths (1.75) percent of ash.


B. FRUIT AND VEGETABLES.


a. FRUIT AND FRUIT PRODUCTS.

(Except fruit juices, fresh, sweet, and fermented, and vinegars.)

1. _Fruits_ are the clean, sound, edible, fleshy fructifications of
plants, distinguished by their sweet, acid, and ethereal flavors.

2. _Dried fruit_[39] is the clean, sound product made by drying mature,
properly prepared, fresh fruit in such a way as to take up no harmful
substance, and conforms in name to the fruit used in its preparation;
_sun-dried fruit_ is dried fruit made by drying without the use of
artificial means; _evaporated fruit_ is dried fruit made by drying with
the use of artificial means.

  [39] The subject of sulfurous acid in dried fruits is reserved for
  consideration in connection with the schedule “Preservatives and
  Coloring Matters.”

3. _Evaporated apples_ are evaporated fruit made from peeled and cored
apples, and contain not more than twenty-seven (27) percent of moisture
determined by the usual commercial method of drying for four (4) hours
at the temperature of boiling water.

(Standards for other dried fruits are in preparation.)

4. _Canned fruit_ is the sound product made by sterilizing clean,
sound, properly matured and prepared fresh fruit, by heating, with or
without sugar (sucrose) and spices, and keeping in suitable, clean,
hermetically sealed containers and conforms in name to the fruit used
in its preparation.

5. _Preserve_[40] is the sound product made from clean, sound, properly
matured and prepared fresh fruit and sugar (sucrose) sirup, with or
without spices or vinegar, and conforms in name to that of the fruit
used, and in its preparation not less than forty-five (45) pounds of
fruit are used to each fifty-five (55) pounds of sugar.

6. _Honey preserve_[40] is preserve in which honey is used in place of
sugar (sucrose) sirup.

7. _Glucose preserve_[40] is preserve in which a glucose product is
used in place of sugar (sucrose) sirup.

8. _Jam_, _marmalade_,[40] is the sound product made from clean,
sound, properly matured and prepared fresh fruit and sugar (sucrose),
with or without spices or vinegar, by boiling to a pulpy or semisolid
consistence, and conforms in name to the fruit used, and in its
preparation not less than forty-five (45) pounds of fruit are used to
each fifty-five (55) pounds of sugar.

9. _Glucose jam_, _glucose marmalade_,[40] is jam in which a glucose
product is used in place of sugar (sucrose).

10. _Fruit butter_[40] is the sound product made from fruit juice and
clean, sound, properly matured and prepared fruit, evaporated to a
semisolid mass of homogeneous consistence, with or without the addition
of sugar and spices or vinegar, and conforms in name to the fruit used
in its preparation.

11. _Glucose fruit butter_[40] is fruit butter in which a glucose
product is used in place of sugar (sucrose).

12. _Jelly_[40] is the sound, semisolid, gelatinous product made by
boiling clean, sound, properly matured and prepared fresh fruit with
water, concentrating the expressed and strained juice, to which sugar
(sucrose) is added, and conforms in name to the fruit used in its
preparation.

13. _Glucose jelly_[40] is jelly in which a glucose product is used in
place of sugar (sucrose).

  [40] Products made with mixtures of sugar, glucose, and honey, or any
  two thereof, are reserved for future consideration.


b. VEGETABLES AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

1. _Vegetables_ are the succulent, clean, sound, edible parts of
herbaceous plants used for culinary purposes.

2. _Dried vegetables_ are the clean, sound products made by drying
properly matured and prepared vegetables in such a way as to take up no
harmful substance, and conform in name to the vegetables used in their
preparation; _sun-dried vegetables_ are dried vegetables made by drying
without the use of artificial means; _evaporated vegetables_ are dried
vegetables made by drying with the use of artificial means.

3. _Canned vegetables_ are sound, properly matured and prepared fresh
vegetables, with or without salt, sterilized by heat, with or without
previous cooking in vessels from which they take up no metallic
substance, kept in suitable, clean, hermetically sealed containers, are
sound and conform in name to the vegetables used in their preparation.

4. _Pickles_ are clean, sound, immature cucumbers, properly prepared,
without taking up any metallic compound other than salt, and preserved
in any kind of vinegar, with or without spices; _pickled onions_,
_pickled beets_, _pickled beans_, and other pickled vegetables are
vegetables prepared as described above, and conform in name to the
vegetables used.

5. _Salt pickles_ are clean, sound, immature cucumbers, preserved in a
solution of common salt, with or without spices.

6. _Sweet pickles_ are pickled cucumbers or other vegetables in the
preparation of which sugar (sucrose) is used.

7. _Sauerkraut_ is clean, sound, properly prepared cabbage, mixed with
salt, and subjected to fermentation.

8. _Catchup_ (_ketchup_, _catsup_) is the clean, sound product made
from the properly prepared pulp of clean, sound, fresh, ripe tomatoes,
with spices and with or without sugar and vinegar; _mushroom catchup_,
_walnut catchup_, _et cetera_, are catchups made as above described and
conform in name to the substances used in their preparation.


C. SUGARS AND RELATED SUBSTANCES.


a. SUGAR AND SUGAR PRODUCTS.


SUGARS.

1. _Sugar_ is the product chemically known as sucrose (saccharose)
chiefly obtained from sugar cane, sugar beets, sorghum, maple, and palm.

2. _Granulated_, _loaf_, _cut_, _milled_, and _powdered sugars_
are different forms of sugar and contain at least ninety-nine and
five-tenths (99.5) percent of sucrose.

3. _Maple sugar_ is the solid product resulting from the evaporation
of maple sap, and contains, in the water-free substance, not less than
sixty-five one-hundredths (0.65) percent of maple sugar ash.

4. _Massecuite_, _melada_, _mush sugar_, and _concrete_ are products
made by evaporating the purified juice of a sugar-producing plant, or
a solution of sugar, to a solid or semisolid consistence, and in which
the sugar chiefly exists in a crystalline state.


MOLASSES AND REFINER’S SIRUP.

1. _Molasses_ is the product left after separating the sugar from
massecuite, melada, mush sugar, or concrete, and contains not more than
twenty-five (25) percent of water and not more than five (5) percent of
ash.

2. _Refiners’ sirup_, _treacle_, is the residual liquid product
obtained in the process of refining raw sugars and contains not more
than twenty-five (25) percent of water and not more than eight (8)
percent of ash.


SIRUPS.

1. _Sirup_ is the sound product made by purifying and evaporating the
juice of a sugar-producing plant without removing any of the sugar.

2. _Sugar-cane sirup_ is sirup made by the evaporation of the juice of
the sugar cane or by the solution of sugar-cane concrete, and contains
not more than thirty (30) percent of water and not more than two and
five-tenths (2.5) percent of ash.

3. _Sorghum sirup_ is sirup made by the evaporation of sorghum juice or
by the solution of sorghum concrete, and contains not more than thirty
(30) percent of water and not more than two and five-tenths (2.5)
percent of ash.

4. _Maple sirup_ is sirup made by the evaporation of maple sap or by
the solution of maple concrete, and contains not more than thirty-two
(32) percent of water and not less than forty-five hundredths (0.45)
percent of maple sirup ash.

5. _Sugar sirup_ is the product made by dissolving sugar to the
consistence of a sirup and contains not more than thirty-five (35)
percent of water.


b. GLUCOSE PRODUCTS.

1. _Starch sugar_ is the solid product made by hydrolyzing starch or
a starch-containing substance until the greater part of the starch
is converted into dextrose. Starch sugar appears in commerce in two
forms, anhydrous starch sugar and hydrous starch sugar. The former,
crystallized without water of crystallization, contains not less than
ninety-five (95) percent of dextrose and not more than eight-tenths
(0.8) percent of ash. The latter, crystallized with water of
crystallization, is of two varieties--70 sugar, also known as brewers’
sugar, contains not less than seventy (70) percent of dextrose and not
more than eight-tenths (0.8) percent of ash; 80 sugar, climax or acme
sugar, contains not less than eighty (80) percent of dextrose and not
more than one and one-half (1.5) percent of ash.

The ash of all these products consists almost entirely of chlorids and
sulfates.

2. _Glucose_, _mixing glucose_, _confectioner’s glucose_, is a thick,
sirupy, colorless product made by incompletely hydrolyzing starch, or
a starch-containing substance, and decolorizing and evaporating the
product. It varies in density from forty-one (41) to forty-five (45)
degrees Baumé at a temperature of 100° Fahr. (37.7° C.), and conforms
in density, within these limits, to the degree Baumé it is claimed to
show, and for a density of forty-one (41) degrees Baumé contains not
more than twenty-one (21) percent and for a density of forty-five (45)
degrees not more than fourteen (14) percent of water. It contains on a
basis of forty-one (41) degrees Baumé not more than one (1) percent of
ash, consisting chiefly of chlorids and sulfates.


c. CANDY.

1. _Candy_ is a product made from a saccharine substance or substances
with or without the addition of harmless coloring, flavoring, or
filling materials and contains no terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome
yellow, or other mineral substances, or poisonous colors or flavors, or
other ingredients deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous,
malt, or spiritous liquor or compound, or narcotic drug.


d. HONEY.

1. _Honey_ is the nectar and saccharine exudations of plants gathered,
modified, and stored in the comb by honey bees (_Apis mellifica_ and
_A. dorsata_); is lævo-rotatory, contains not more than twenty-five
(25) percent of water, not more than twenty-five hundredths (0.25)
percent of ash, and not more than eight (8) percent of sucrose.

2. _Comb honey_ is honey contained in the cells of the comb.

3. _Extracted honey_ is honey which has been separated from the
uncrushed comb by centrifugal force or gravity.

4. _Strained honey_ is honey removed from the crushed comb by straining
or other means.


D. CONDIMENTS (EXCEPT VINEGAR AND SALT).


a. SPICES.

1. _Spices_ are aromatic vegetable substances used for the seasoning of
food and from which no portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring
principle has been removed and which are clean, sound, and true to name.

2. _Allspice_, _pimento_, is the dried fruit of the _Pimenta pimenta_
(L.) Karst., and contains not less than eight (8) percent of
quercitannic acid[42]; not more than six (6) percent of total ash, not
more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric
acid, and not more than twenty-five (25) percent of crude fiber.

  [42] Calculated from the total oxygen absorbed by the aqueous extract.

3. _Anise_ is the fruit of the _Pimpinella anisum_ L.

4. _Bay leaf_ is the dried leaf of _Laurus nobilis_ L.

5. _Capers_ are the flower buds of _Capparis spinosa_ L.

6. _Caraway_ is the fruit of _Carum carvi_ L.


CAYENNE AND RED PEPPERS.

7. _Red pepper_ is the red, dried, ripe fruit of any species of
_Capsicum_.

8. _Cayenne pepper_, _cayenne_, is the dried ripe fruit of _Capsicum
frutescens_ L., _Capsicum baccatum_ L., or some other small-fruited
species of _Capsicum_, and contains not less than fifteen (15) percent
of non-volatile ether extract; not more than six and five-tenths (6.5)
percent of total ash; not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash
insoluble in hydrochloric acid; not more than one and five-tenths (1.5)
percent of starch, and not more than twenty-eight (28) percent of crude
fiber.

9. _Paprika_ is the dried ripe fruit of _Capsicum annum_ L., or some
other large-fruited species of _Capsicum_, excluding seeds and stems.

10. _Celery seed_ is the dried fruit of _Apium graveolens_ L.

11. _Cinnamon_ is the dried bark of any species of the genus
_Cinnamomum_ from which the outer layers may or may not have been
removed.

12. _True cinnamon_ is the dried inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_
Breyne.

13. _Cassia_ is the dried bark of various species of _Cinnamomum_,
other than _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, from which the outer layers may or
may not have been removed.

14. _Cassia buds_ are the dried immature fruit of species of
_Cinnamomum_.

15. _Ground cinnamon_, _ground cassia_, is a powder consisting of
cinnamon, cassia, or cassia buds, or a mixture of these spices and
contains not more than six (6) percent of total ash and not more than
two (2) percent of sand.

16. _Cloves_ are the dried flower buds of _Caryophyllus aromaticus_ L.,
which contain not more than five (5) percent of clove stems; not less
than ten (10) percent of volatile ether extract; not less than twelve
(12) percent of quercitannic acid;[43] not more than eight (8) percent
of total ash; not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble
in hydrochloric acid, and not more than ten (10) percent of crude fiber.

  [43] Calculated from the total oxygen absorbed by the aqueous extract.

17. _Coriander_ is the dried fruit of _Coriandrum sativum_ L.

18. _Cumin seed_ is the fruit of _Cuminum cyminum_ L.

19. _Dill seed_ is the fruit of _Anethum graveolens_ L.

20. _Fennel_ is the fruit of _Fœniculum fœniculum_ (L.) Karst.

21. _Ginger_ is the washed and dried or decorticated and dried rhizome
of _Zingiber zingiber_ (L.) Karst., and contains not less than
forty-two (42) percent of starch; not more than eight (8) percent of
crude fiber, not more than six (6) percent of total ash, not more than
one (1) percent of lime, and not more than three (3) percent of ash
insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

22. _Limed ginger_, _bleached ginger_, is whole ginger coated with
carbonate of lime and contains not more than ten (10) percent of ash,
not more than four (4) percent of carbonate of lime, and conforms in
other respects to the standard for ginger.

23. _Horse-radish_ is the root of _Rorippa armoracia_ (L.) Hitchcock,
either by itself or ground and mixed with vinegar.

24. _Mace_ is the dried arillus of _Myristica fragrans_ Houttuyn, and
contains not less than twenty (20) nor more than thirty (30) percent of
non-volatile ether extract, not more than three (3) percent of total
ash, and not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in
hydrochloric acid, and not more than ten (10) percent of crude fiber.

25. _Macassar mace_, _Papua mace_, is the dried arillus of _Myristica
argentea_ Warb.

26. _Bombay mace_ is the dried arillus of _Myristica malabarica_
Lamarck.

27. _Marjoram_ is the leaf, flower and branch of _Majorana majorana_
(L.) Karst.

28. _Mustard seed_ is the seed of _Sinapis alba_ L. (white mustard),
_Brassica nigra_ (L.) Koch (black mustard), or _Brassica juncea_ (L.)
Cosson (black or brown mustard).

29. _Ground mustard_ is a powder made from mustard seed, with or
without the removal of the hulls and a portion of the fixed oils, and
contains not more than two and five-tenths (2.5) percent of starch and
not more than eight (8) percent of total ash.

30. _Prepared mustard_, _German mustard_, _French mustard_, _mustard
paste_, is a paste composed of a mixture of ground mustard seed or
mustard flour with salt, spices, and vinegar, and, calculated free from
water, fat, and salt, contains not more than twenty-four (24) percent
of carbohydrates, calculated as starch, determined according to the
official methods, not more than twelve (12) percent of crude fiber nor
less than thirty-five (35) percent of protein, derived solely from the
materials named.

31. _Nutmeg_ is the dried seed of the _Myristica fragrans_ Houttuyn,
deprived of its testa, with or without a thin coating of lime, and
contains not less than twenty-five (25) percent of non-volatile ether
extract, not more than five (5) percent of total ash, not more than
five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and
not more than ten (10) percent of crude fiber.

32. _Macassar nutmeg_, _Papua nutmeg_, _male nutmeg_, _long nutmeg_, is
the dried seed of _Myristica argentea_ Warb. deprived of its testa.


PEPPER.

33. _Black pepper_ is the dried immature berry of _Piper nigrum_ L. and
contains not less than six (6) percent of non-volatile ether extract,
not less than twenty-five (25) percent of starch, not more than
seven (7) percent of total ash, not more than two (2) percent of ash
insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than fifteen (15) percent
of crude fiber. One hundred parts of the non-volatile ether extract
contain not less than three and one quarter (3.25) parts of nitrogen.
_Ground black pepper_ is the product made by grinding the entire berry
and contains the several parts of the berry in their normal proportions.

34. _Long pepper_ is the dried fruit of _Piper longum_ L.

35. _White pepper_ is the dried mature berry of _Piper nigrum_ L. from
which the outer coating or the outer and inner coatings have been
removed and contains not less than six (6) percent of non-volatile
ether extract, not less than fifty (50) percent of starch, not more
than four (4) percent of total ash, not more than five-tenths (0.5)
percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than five
(5) percent of crude fiber. One hundred parts of the non-volatile ether
extract contain not less than four (4) parts of nitrogen.

36. _Saffron_ is the dried stigma of _Crocus sativus_ L.

37. _Sage_ is the leaf of _Salvia officinalis_ L.

38. _Savory_, _summer savory_, is the leaf, blossom, and branch of
_Satureja hortensis_ L.

39. _Thyme_ is the leaf and tip of blooming branches of _Thymus
vulgaris_ L.


b. FLAVORING EXTRACTS.

1. _A flavoring extract_[44] is a solution in ethyl alcohol of proper
strength of the sapid and odorous principles derived from an aromatic
plant, or parts of the plant, with or without its coloring matter, and
conforms in name to the plant used in its preparation.

2. _Almond extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
bitter almonds, free from hydrocyanic acid, and contains not less than
one (1) percent by volume of oil of bitter almonds.

2.[44] _Oil of bitter almonds_, commercial, is the volatile oil
obtained from the seed of the bitter almond (_Amygdalus communis_ L.),
the apricot (_Prunus armeniaca_ L.), or the peach (_Amygdalus persica_
L.).

3. _Anise extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of anise,
and contains not less than three (3) percent by volume of oil of anise.

3.[44] _Oil of anise_ is the volatile oil obtained from the anise seed.

4. _Celery seed extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from celery
seed or the oil of celery seed, or both, and contains not less than
three-tenths (0.3) percent by volume of oil of celery seed.

4.[44] _Oil of celery seed_ is the volatile oil obtained from celery
seed.

5. _Cassia extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
cassia and contains not less than two (2) percent by volume of oil of
cassia.

5.[44] _Oil of cassia_ is the lead-free volatile oil obtained from the
leaves or bark of _Cinnamomum cassia_ Bl., and contains not less than
seventy-five (75) percent by weight of cinnamic aldehyde.

6. _Cinnamon extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
cinnamon, and contains not less than two (2) percent by volume of oil
of cinnamon.

6.[44] _Oil of cinnamon_ is the lead-free volatile oil obtained from
the bark of the Ceylon cinnamon (_Cinnamomum zeylanicum_ Breyne), and
contains not less than sixty-five (65) percent by weight of cinnamic
aldehyde and not more than ten (10) percent by weight of eugenol.

7. _Clove extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
cloves, and contains not less than two (2) percent by volume of oil of
cloves.

7.[44] _Oil of cloves_ is the lead-free, volatile oil obtained from
cloves.

  [44] The flavoring extracts herein described are intended solely for
  food purposes and are not to be confounded with similar preparations
  described in the Pharmacopœia for medicinal purposes.

8. _Ginger extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from ginger
and contains in each one hundred (100) cubic centimeters, the
alcohol-soluble matters from not less than twenty (20) grams of ginger.

9. _Lemon extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of lemon,
or from lemon peel, or both, and contains not less than five (5)
percent by volume of oil of lemon.

9_a_. _Oil of lemon_ is the volatile oil obtained, by expression or
alcoholic solution, from the fresh peel of the lemon (_Citrus limonum_
L.), has an optical rotation (25° C.) of not less than +60° in a
100-millimeter tube, and contains not less than four (4) percent by
weight of citral.

10. _Terpeneless extract of lemon_ is the flavoring extract prepared by
shaking oil of lemon with dilute alcohol, or by dissolving terpeneless
oil of lemon in dilute alcohol, and contains not less than two-tenths
(0.2) percent by weight of citral derived from oil of lemon.

10_a_. _Terpeneless oil of lemon_ is oil of lemon from which all or
nearly all of the terpenes have been removed.

11. _Nutmeg extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
nutmeg, and contains not less than two (2) percent by volume of oil of
nutmeg.

11_a_. _Oil of nutmeg_ is the volatile oil obtained from nutmegs.

12. _Orange extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
orange, or from orange peel, or both, and contains not less than five
(5) percent by volume of oil of orange.

12_a_. _Oil of orange_ is the volatile oil obtained, by expression
or alcoholic solution, from the fresh peel of the orange (_Citrus
aurantium_ L.) and has an optical rotation (25° C.) of not less than
+95° in a 100-millimeter tube.

13. _Terpeneless extract of orange_ is the flavoring extract prepared
by shaking oil of orange with dilute alcohol, or by dissolving
terpeneless oil of orange in dilute alcohol, and corresponds in
flavoring strength to orange extract.

13_a_. _Terpeneless oil of orange_ is oil of orange from which all or
nearly all of the terpenes have been removed.

14. _Peppermint extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
peppermint, or from peppermint, or both, and contains not less than
three (3) percent by volume of oil of peppermint.

14_a_. _Peppermint_ is the leaves and flowering tops of _Mentha
piperita_ L.

14_b_. _Oil of peppermint_ is the volatile oil obtained from peppermint
and contains not less than fifty (50) percent by weight of menthol.

15. _Rose extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from otto of
roses, with or without red rose petals, and contains not less than
four-tenths (0.4) percent by volume of otto of roses.

15_a_. _Otto of roses_ is the volatile oil obtained from the petals of
_Rosa damascena_ Mill., _R. centifolia_ L., or _R. moschata_ Herrm.

16. _Savory extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
savory, or from savory, or both, and contains not less than thirty-five
hundredths (0.35) percent by volume of oil of savory.

16_a_. _Oil of savory_ is the volatile oil obtained from savory.

17. _Spearmint extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
spearmint, or from spearmint, or both, and contains not less than three
(3) percent by volume of oil of spearmint.

17_a_. _Spearmint_ is the leaves and flowering tops of _Mentha spicata_
L.

17_b_. _Oil of spearmint_ is the volatile oil obtained from spearmint.

18. _Star anise extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
star anise, and contains not less than three (3) percent by volume of
oil of star anise.

18_a_. _Oil of star anise_ is the volatile oil distilled from the fruit
of the star anise (_Illicium verum_ Hook).

19. _Sweet basil extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
sweet basil, or from sweet basil, or both, and contains not less than
one-tenth (0.1) percent by volume of oil of sweet basil.

19_a_. _Sweet basil_, _basil_, is the leaves and tops of _Ocymum
basilicum_ L.

19_b_. _Oil of sweet basil_ is the volatile oil obtained from basil.

20. _Sweet marjoram extract_, _marjoram extract_, is the flavoring
extract prepared from the oil of marjoram, or from marjoram, or both,
and contains not less than one (1) percent by volume of oil of marjoram.

20_a_. _Oil of marjoram_ is the volatile oil obtained from marjoram.

21. _Thyme extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
thyme, or from thyme, or both, and contains not less than two-tenths
(0.2) percent by volume of oil of thyme.

21_a._ _Oil of thyme_ is the volatile oil obtained from thyme.

22. _Tonka extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from tonka
bean, with or without sugar or glycerine, and contains not less than
one-tenth (0.1) percent by weight of coumarin extracted from the tonka
bean, together with a corresponding proportion of the other soluble
matters thereof.

22_a._ _Tonka bean_ is the seed of _Coumarouna odorata_ Aublet
(_Dipteryx odorata_ (Aubl.) Willd.).

23. _Vanilla extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from vanilla
bean, with or without sugar or glycerine, and contains in one hundred
(100) cubic centimeters the soluble matters from not less than ten (10)
grams of the vanilla bean.

23_a._ _Vanilla bean_ is the dried, cured fruit of _Vanilla planifolia_
Andrews.

24. _Wintergreen extract_ is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of
wintergreen, and contains not less than three (3) percent by volume of
oil of wintergreen.

24_a._ _Oil of wintergreen_ is the volatile oil distilled from the
leaves of the _Gaultheria procumbens_ L.


c. EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS.

1. _Olive oil_ is the oil obtained from the sound, mature fruit of
the cultivated olive tree (_Olea europæa_ L.) and subjected to the
usual refining processes; is free from rancidity; has a refractive
index (25° C.) not less than one and forty-six hundred and sixty
ten-thousandths (1.4660) and not exceeding one and forty-six hundred
and eighty ten-thousandths (1.4680); and an iodin number not less than
seventy-nine (79) and not exceeding ninety (90).

2. _Virgin olive oil_ is olive oil obtained from the first pressing of
carefully selected, hand-picked olives.

3. _Cottonseed oil_ is the oil obtained from the seeds of cotton plants
(_Gossypium hirsutum_ L., _G. barbadense_ L., or _G. herbaceum_ L.) and
subjected to the usual refining processes; is free from rancidity: has
a refractive index (25° C.) not less than one and forty-seven hundred
ten-thousandths (1.4700) and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred
and twenty-five ten-thousandths (1.4725); and an iodin number not less
than one hundred and four (104) and not exceeding one hundred and ten
(110).

4. _“Winter-yellow” cottonseed oil_ is expressed cottonseed oil from
which a portion of the stearin has been separated by chilling and
pressure, and has an iodin number not less than one hundred and ten
(110) and not exceeding one hundred and sixteen (116).

5. _Peanut oil_, _arachis oil_, _earthnut oil_, is the oil obtained
from the peanut (_Arachis hypogæa_ L.) and subjected to the usual
refining processes; is free from rancidity; has a refractive
index (25° C.) not less than one and forty-six hundred and ninety
ten-thousandths (1.4690) and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred
and seven ten-thousandths (1.4707); and an iodin number not less than
eighty-seven (87) and not exceeding one hundred (100).

6. _“Cold-drawn” peanut oil_[45] is peanut oil obtained by pressure
without heating.

  [45] The fixing of limits for chemical and physical properties is
  reserved for future consideration.

7. _Sesame oil_, _gingili oil_, _teel oil_, is the oil obtained
from the seeds of the sesame plants (_Sesamum orientale_ L. and _S.
radiatum_ Schum. and Thonn.) and subjected to the usual refining
processes; is free from rancidity; has a refractive index (25° C.)
not less than one and forty-seven hundred and four ten-thousandths
(1.4707) and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred and seventeen
ten-thousandths (1.4717); and an iodin number not less than one hundred
and three (103) and not exceeding one hundred and twelve (112).

8. _“Cold-drawn” sesame oil_[45] is sesame oil obtained by pressure
without heating.

9. _Poppy-seed oil_ is the oil obtained from the seed of the poppy
(_Papaver somniferum_ L.) subjected to the usual refining processes and
free from rancidity.

10. _White poppy-seed oil_, _“cold-drawn” poppy-seed oil_,[45] is
poppy-seed oil of the first pressing without heating.

11. _Coconut oil_[45] is the oil obtained from the kernels of the
coconut (_Cocos nucifera_ L.) and subjected to the usual refining
processes and free from rancidity.

12. _Cochin oil_ is coconut oil prepared in Cochin (Malabar).

13. _Ceylon oil_ is coconut oil prepared in Ceylon.

14. _Copra oil_ is coconut oil prepared from copra, the dried kernels
of the coconut.

15. _Rape-seed oil_, _colza oil_,[45] is the oil obtained from the
seeds of the rape plant (_Brassica napus_ L.) and subjected to the
usual refining processes and free from rancidity.

16. _“Cold-drawn” rape-seed oil_[45] is rape-seed oil obtained by the
first pressing without heating.

17. _Sunflower oil_[45] is the oil obtained from the seeds of the
sunflower (_Helianthus annuus_ L.) and subjected to the usual refining
processes and free from rancidity.

18. _“Cold-drawn” sunflower oil_[45] is sunflower oil obtained by the
first pressing without heating.

19. _Maize oil_, _corn oil_,[45] is the oil obtained from the germ of
the maize (_Zea mays_ L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes
and free from rancidity.

  [45] The fixing of limits for chemical and physical properties is
  reserved for future consideration.

20. _Cocoa butter_, _cacao butter_, is the fat obtained from roasted,
sound cocoa beans, and subjected to the usual refining processes; is
free from rancidity; has a refractive index (40° C.) not less than one
and forty-five hundred and sixty-six ten-thousandths (1.4566) and not
exceeding one and forty-five hundred and ninety-eight ten-thousandths
(1.4598); an iodin number not less than thirty-three (33) and not
exceeding thirty-eight (38); and a melting-point not lower than 30° C.
nor higher than 35° C.

21. _Cottonseed oil stearin_ is the solid product made by chilling
cottonseed oil and separating the solid portion by filtration, with or
without pressure, and having an iodin number not less than eighty-five
(85) and not more than one hundred (100).


E. TEA, COFFEE, AND COCOA PRODUCTS.


a. TEA.

1. _Tea_ is the leaves and leaf buds of different species of _Thea_,
prepared by the usual trade processes of fermenting, drying, and
firing; meets the provisions of the act of Congress approved March
2, 1897, and the regulations made in conformity therewith (Treasury
Department Circular 16, February 6, 1905); conforms in variety and
place of production to the name it bears; and contains not less than
four (4) nor more than seven (7) percent of ash.


b. COFFEE.

1. _Coffee_ is the seed of _Coffea arabica_ L. or _Coffea liberica_
Bull., freed from all but a small portion of its spermoderm, and
conforms in variety and place of production to the name it bears.

2. _Roasted coffee_ is coffee which by the action of heat has become
brown and developed its characteristic aroma, and contains not less
than ten (10) percent of fat and not less than three (3) percent of ash.


c. COCOA AND COCOA PRODUCTS.

1. _Cocoa beans_ are the seeds of the cacao tree, _Theobroma cacao_ L.

2. _Cocoa nibs_, _cracked cocoa_, is the roasted, broken cocoa bean
freed from its shell or husk.

3. _Chocolate_, _plain chocolate_, _bitter chocolate_, _chocolate
liquor_, _bitter chocolate coatings_, is the solid or plastic mass
obtained by grinding cocoa nibs without the removal of fat or other
constituents except the germ, and contains not more than three (3)
percent of ash insoluble in water, three and fifty hundredths (3.50)
percent of crude fiber, and nine (9) percent of starch, and not less
than forty-five (45) percent of cocoa fat.

4. _Sweet chocolate_, _sweet chocolate coatings_, is chocolate mixed
with sugar (sucrose), with or without the addition of cocoa butter,
spices, or other flavoring materials, and contains in the sugar- and
fat-free residue no higher percentage of either ash, fiber, or starch
than is found in the sugar- and fat-free residue of chocolate.

5. _Cocoa_, _powdered cocoa_, is cocoa nibs, with or without the germ,
deprived of a portion of its fat and finely pulverized, and contains
percentages of ash, crude fiber, and starch corresponding to those in
chocolate after correction for fat removed.

6. _Sweet cocoa_, _sweetened cocoa_, is cocoa mixed with sugar
(sucrose), and contains not more than sixty (60) percent of sugar
(sucrose), and in the sugar- and fat-free residue no higher percentage
of either ash, crude fiber, or starch than is found in the sugar- and
fat-free residue of chocolate.


F. BEVERAGES.


a. FRUIT JUICES--FRESH, SWEET, AND FERMENTED.


1. FRESH AND 2. SWEET.

(Schedules in preparation.)


3. FERMENTED FRUIT JUICES.

1. _Wine_ is the product made by the normal alcoholic fermentation of
the juice of sound, ripe grapes, and the usual cellar treatment,[46]
and contains not less than seven (7) nor more than sixteen (16) percent
of alcohol, by volume, and, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters
(20° C.), not more than one-tenth (0.1) gram of sodium chlorid nor
more than two-tenths (0.2) gram of potassium sulfate; and for red wine
not more than fourteen hundredths (0.14) gram, and for white wine not
more than twelve hundredths (0.12) gram of volatile acids produced
by fermentation and calculated as acetic acid. _Red wine_ is wine
containing the red coloring matter of the skins of grapes. _White wine_
is wine made from white grapes or the expressed fresh juice of other
grapes.

  [46] The subject of sulfurous acid in wine is reserved for
  consideration in connection with the schedule, “Preservatives and
  Coloring Matters.”

2. _Dry wine_ is wine in which the fermentation of the sugars is
practically complete and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic
centimeters (20° C.), less than one (1) gram of sugars and for dry red
wine not less than sixteen hundredths (0.16) gram of grape ash and not
less than one and six-tenths (1.6) grams of sugar-free grape solids,
and for dry white wine not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram
of grape ash and not less than one and four-tenths (1.4) grams of
sugar-free grape solids.

3. _Fortified dry wine_ is dry wine to which brandy has been added, but
which conforms in all other particulars to the standard of dry wine.

4. _Sweet wine_ is wine in which the alcoholic fermentation has been
arrested, and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters
(20° C.), not less than one (1) gram of sugars, and for sweet red wine
not less than sixteen hundredths (0.16) gram of grape ash, and for
sweet white wine not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram of grape
ash.

5. _Fortified sweet wine_ is sweet wine to which wine spirits have been
added. By act of Congress, “sweet wine” used for making fortified sweet
wine and “wine spirits” used for such fortification are defined as
follows (sec. 43, Act of October 1, 1890, 26 Stat., 567, as amended by
section 68, Act of August 27, 1894, 28 Stat., 509, and further amended
by Act of Congress approved June 7, 1906): “That the wine spirits
mentioned in section 42 of this act is the product resulting from the
distillation of fermented grape juice to which water may have been
added prior to, during, or after fermentation, for the sole purpose of
facilitating the fermentation and economical distillation thereof, and
shall be held to include the products from grapes or their residues,
commonly known as grape brandy; and the pure sweet wine, which may be
fortified free of tax, as provided in said section, is fermented grape
juice only, and shall contain no other substance whatever introduced
before, at the time of, or after fermentation, except as herein
expressly provided; and such sweet wine shall contain not less than
four per centum of saccharine matter, which saccharine strength may be
determined by testing with Balling’s saccharometer or must scale, such
sweet wine, after the evaporation of the spirits contained therein, and
restoring the sample tested to original volume by addition of water:
_Provided_, That the addition of pure boiled or condensed grape must
or pure crystallized cane or beet sugar or pure anhydrous sugar to the
pure grape juice aforesaid, or the fermented product of such grape
juice prior to the fortification provided by this Act for the sole
purpose of perfecting sweet wine according to commercial standard,
or the addition of water in such quantities only as may be necessary
in the mechanical operation of grape conveyers, crushers, and pipes
leading to fermenting tanks, shall not be excluded by the definition
of pure sweet wine aforesaid: _Provided, however_, That the cane or
beet sugar, or pure anhydrous sugar, or water, so used shall not in
either case be in excess of ten (10) per centum of the weight of the
wine to be fortified under this Act: _And provided further_, That the
addition of water herein authorized shall be under such regulations and
limitations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval
of the Secretary of the Treasury, may from time to time prescribe; but
in no case shall such wines to which water has been added be eligible
for fortification under the provisions of this Act where the same,
after fermentation and before fortification, have an alcoholic strength
of less than five per centum of their volume.”

6. _Sparkling wine_ is wine in which the after part of the fermentation
is completed in the bottle, the sediment being disgorged and its place
supplied by wine or sugar liquor, and which contains, in one hundred
(100) cubic centimeters (20° C.), not less than twelve hundredths
(0.12) gram of grape ash.

7. _Modified wine_, _ameliorated wine_, _corrected wine_, is the
product made by the alcoholic fermentation, with the usual cellar
treatment, of a mixture of the juice of sound, ripe grapes with sugar
(sucrose), or a sirup containing not less than sixty-five (65) percent
of sugar (sucrose), and in quantity not more than enough to raise the
alcoholic strength after fermentation, to eleven (11) percent by volume.

8. _Raisin wine_ is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of
an infusion of dried or evaporated grapes, or of a mixture of such
infusion or of raisins with grape juice.


b. MEAD, ROOT BEER, ETC.

(Schedule in preparation.)


c. MALT LIQUORS.

(Schedule in preparation.)


d. SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS.

(Schedule in preparation.)


e. CARBONATED WATERS, ETC.

(Schedule in preparation.)


G. VINEGAR.

1. _Vinegar_, _cider vinegar_, _apple vinegar_, is the product made
by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of
apples, is lævo-rotatory, and contains not less than four (4) grams
of acetic acid, not less than one and six-tenths (1.6) grams of apple
solids, of which not more than fifty (50) percent are reducing sugars,
and not less than twenty-five hundredths (0.25) gram of apple ash in
one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C.); and the water-soluble
ash from one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C.) of the vinegar
contains not less than ten (10) milligrams of phosphoric acid (P₂O₅),
and requires not less than thirty (30) cubic centimeters of decinormal
acid to neutralize its alkalinity.

2. _Wine vinegar_, _grape vinegar_, is the product made by the
alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of grapes
and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C.), not
less than four (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than one (1.0) gram
of grape solids, and not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram of
grape ash.

3. _Malt vinegar_ is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent
acetous fermentations, without distillation, of an infusion of
barley malt or cereals whose starch has been converted by malt, is
dextro-rotatory, and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters
(20° C.), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than
two (2) grams of solids, and not less than two-tenths (0.2) gram of
ash; and the water-soluble ash from one hundred (100) cubic centimeters
(20° C.) of the vinegar contains not less than nine (9) milligrams
of phosphoric acid (P₂O₅), and requires not less than four (4) cubic
centimeters of decinormal acid to neutralize its alkalinity.

4. _Sugar vinegar_ is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent
acetous fermentations of solutions of sugar, sirup, molasses, or
refiners’ sirup, and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters
(20° C.), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid.

5. _Glucose vinegar_ is the product made by the alcoholic and
subsequent acetous fermentations of solutions of starch sugar or
glucose, is dextro-rotatory, and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic
centimeters (20° C.), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid.

6. _Spirit vinegar_, _distilled vinegar_, _grain vinegar_, is the
product made by the acetous fermentation of dilute distilled alcohol,
and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C.), not less
than four (4) grams of acetic acid.


III. SALT.

1. _Table salt_, _dairy salt_, is fine-grained crystalline salt
containing on a water-free basis, not more than one and four-tenths
(1.4) percent of calcium sulfate (CaSO₄), nor more than five-tenths
(0.5) percent of calcium and magnesium chlorids (CaCl₂ and MgCl₂), nor
more than one-tenth (0.1) percent of matters insoluble in water.


IV. PRESERVATIVES AND COLORING MATTERS.

(Schedules in preparation.)


LAW RELATING TO FILLED CHEESE.

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled_, That for the purposes of this
Act, the word “cheese” shall be understood to mean the food product
known as cheese, and which is made from milk or cream and without the
addition of butter, or any animal, vegetable, or other oils or fats
foreign to such milk or cream, with or without additional coloring
matter.

SEC. 2. That for the purpose of this Act certain substances and
compounds shall be known and designed as “filled cheese,” namely: All
substances made of milk or skimmed milk, with the admixture of butter,
animal oils or fats, vegetable or any other oils, or compounds foreign
to such milk, and made in imitation or semblance of cheese.

SEC. 3. That special taxes are imposed as follows:

Manufacturers of filled cheese shall pay four hundred dollars for each
and every factory per annum. Every person, firm, or corporation who
manufactures filled cheese for sale shall be deemed a manufacturer of
filled cheese. Wholesale dealers in filled cheese shall pay two hundred
and fifty dollars per annum. Every person, firm, or corporation who
sells or offers for sale filled cheese in the original manufacturer’s
package for resale, or to retail dealers as hereinafter defined, shall
be deemed a wholesale dealer in filled cheese. But any manufacturer of
filled cheese who has given the required bond and paid the required
special tax, and who sells only filled cheese of his own production,
at the place of manufacture, in the original packages, to which the
tax-paid stamps are affixed, shall not be required to pay the special
tax of a wholesale dealer in filled cheese on account of such sales.

Retail dealers in filled cheese shall pay twelve dollars per annum.
Every person who sells filled cheese at retail, not for resale, and
for actual consumption, shall be regarded as a retail dealer in filled
cheese, and sections thirty-two hundred and thirty-two, thirty-two
hundred and thirty-three, thirty-two hundred and thirty-four,
thirty-two hundred and thirty-five, thirty-two hundred and thirty-six,
thirty-two hundred and thirty-seven, thirty-two hundred and
thirty-eight, thirty-two hundred and thirty-nine, thirty-two hundred
and forty, thirty-two hundred and forty-one, thirty-two hundred and
forty-three of the Revised Statutes of the United States[47] are, so
far as applicable, made to extend to and include and apply to the
special taxes imposed by this section and to the persons, firms, or
corporations upon whom they are imposed: _Provided_, That all special
taxes under this Act shall become due on the first day of July in every
year, or on commencing any manufacture, trade, or business on which
said tax is imposed. In the latter case the tax shall be reckoned
proportionately from the first day of the month in which the liability
to the special tax commences to the first day of July following.

  [47] These sections regulate the administration and collection of
  special taxes in general. (See Revised Statutes of the United States,
  2d ed., 1878, p. 620.)

SEC. 4. That every person, firm or corporation who carries on the
business of a manufacturer of filled cheese without having paid the
special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable
to the payment of the tax, be fined not less than four hundred dollars
and not more than three thousand dollars; and every person, firm, or
corporation who carries on the business of a wholesale dealer in filled
cheese without having paid the special tax therefor, as required by
law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined
not less than two hundred and fifty dollars nor more than one thousand
dollars; and every person, firm, or corporation who carries on the
business of a retail dealer in filled cheese without having paid the
special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable
for the payment of the tax, be fined not less than forty nor more than
five hundred dollars for each and every offense.

SEC. 5. That every manufacturer of filled cheese shall file with the
collector of internal revenue of the district in which his manufactory
is located such notices, inventories, and bonds, shall keep such books
and render such returns of materials and products, shall put up such
signs and affix such number to his factory and conduct his business
under such surveillance of officers and agents as the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury,
may by regulation require. But the bond required of such manufacturer
shall be with sureties satisfactory to the collector of internal
revenue, and in a penal sum of not less than five thousand dollars;
and the amount of said bond may be increased from time to time, and
additional sureties required, at the discretion of the collector
or under instructions of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Any
manufacturer of filled cheese who fails to comply with the provisions
of this section or with the regulations herein authorized, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be
fined not less than five hundred nor more than one thousand dollars.

SEC. 6. That filled cheese shall be packed by the manufacturers in
wooden packages only, not before used for that purpose, and marked,
stamped, and branded with the words, “filled cheese” in black-faced
letters not less than two inches in length, in a circle in the center
of the top and bottom of the cheese; and in black-faced letters of not
less than two inches in length in line from the top to the bottom of
the cheese, on the side in four places equidistant from each other; and
the package containing such cheese shall be marked in the same manner,
and in the same number of places, and in the same description of
letters as above provided for the marking of the cheese; and all sales
or consignments made by manufacturers of filled cheese to wholesale
dealers in filled cheese or to exporters of filled cheese shall be
in original stamped packages. Retail dealers in filled cheese shall
sell only from original stamped packages, and shall pack the filled
cheese when sold in suitable wooden or paper packages, which shall
be marked and branded in accordance with rules and regulations to be
prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the approval
of the Secretary of the Treasury. Every person who knowingly sells or
offers to sell, or delivers or offers to deliver, filled cheese in any
other form than in new wooden or paper packages, marked and branded
as hereinbefore provided and as above described, or who packs in any
package or packages filled cheese in any manner contrary to law, or who
falsely brands any package or affixes a stamp on any package denoting
a less amount of tax than that required by law, shall upon conviction
thereof be fined for each and every offense not less than fifty dollars
and not more than five hundred dollars or be imprisoned not less than
thirty days nor more than one year.

SEC. 7. That all retail and wholesale dealers in filled cheese shall
display in a conspicuous place in his or their sales room a sign
bearing the words “Filled cheese sold here” in black-faced letters not
less than six inches in length, upon a white ground, with the name
and number of the revenue district in which his or their business is
conducted; and any wholesale or retail dealer in filled cheese who
fails or neglects to comply with the provisions of this section shall
be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall on conviction thereof be
fined for each and every offense not less than fifty dollars and not
more than two hundred dollars.

SEC. 8. That every manufacturer of filled cheese shall securely affix,
by pasting on each package containing filled cheese manufactured by
him, a label on which shall be printed, besides the number of the
manufactory and the district and state in which it is situated, these
words: “Notice.--The manufacturer of the filled cheese herein contained
has complied with all the requirements of the law. Every person is
cautioned not to use either this package again or the stamp thereon
again, nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying
said stamp, under the penalty provided by law in such cases.” Every
manufacturer of filled cheese who neglects to affix such label to any
package containing filled cheese made by him or sold or offered for
sale by or for him, and every person who removes any such label so
affixed from any such package, shall be fined fifty dollars for each
package in respect to which such offense is committed.

SEC. 9. That upon all filled cheese which shall be manufactured there
shall be assessed and collected a tax of one cent per pound, to be paid
by the manufacturer thereof; and any fractional part of a pound in a
package shall be taxed as a pound. The tax levied by this section
shall be represented by coupon stamps; and the provisions of existing
laws governing the engraving, issue, sale, accountability, effacement,
and destruction of stamps relating to tobacco and snuff, as far as
applicable, are hereby made to apply to stamps provided for by this
section.

SEC. 10. That whenever any manufacturer of filled cheese sells or
removes for sale or consumption any filled cheese upon which the tax
is required to be paid by stamps, without paying such tax, it shall be
the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, within a period of
not more than two years after such sale or removal, upon satisfactory
proof, to estimate the amount of tax which has been omitted to be
paid and to make an assessment thereof and certify the same to the
collector. The tax so assessed shall be in addition to the penalties
imposed by law for such sale or removal.

SEC. 11. That all filled cheese as herein defined imported from foreign
countries shall, in addition to any import duty imposed on the same,
pay an internal-revenue tax of eight cents per pound, such tax to be
represented by coupon stamps; and such imported filled cheese and the
package containing the same shall be stamped, marked, and branded, as
in the case of filled cheese manufactured in the United States.

SEC. 12. That any person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale
any filled cheese which has not been branded or stamped according to
law, or which is contained in packages not branded or marked according
to law, shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars for each such
offense.

SEC. 13. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale
any filled cheese from any manufacturer or importer who has not paid
the special tax herein provided for shall be liable, for each offense,
to a penalty of one hundred dollars and to a forfeiture of all articles
so purchased or received, or of the full value thereof.

SEC. 14. That whenever any stamped package containing filled cheese is
emptied it shall be the duty of the person in whose hands the same is
to destroy the stamps thereon; and any person who willfully neglects or
refuses so to do shall, for each such offense, be fined not exceeding
fifty dollars or imprisoned not less than ten days nor more than six
months.

SEC. 15. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue is authorized to
have applied scientific tests, and to decide whether any substances
used in the manufacture of filled cheese contain ingredients
deleterious to health. But in case of doubt or contest his decision in
this class of cases may be appealed from to a board hereby constituted
for the purpose, and composed of the Surgeon-General of the Army, the
Surgeon-General of the Navy, and the Secretary of Agriculture, and the
decision of this board shall be final in the premises.

SEC. 16. That all packages of filled cheese subject to tax under this
Act that shall be found without stamps or marks as herein provided,
and all filled cheese intended for human consumption which contains
ingredients adjudged as hereinbefore provided to be deleterious to the
public health, shall be forfeited to the United States.

SEC. 17. That all fines, penalties, and forfeitures imposed by this Act
may be recovered in any court of competent jurisdiction.

SEC. 18. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval
of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall make all needful regulations
for the carrying into effect the provisions of this Act.

SEC. 19. That this Act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day after
its passage, and all wooden packages containing ten or more pounds of
filled cheese found on the premises of any dealer on and after the
ninetieth day succeeding the date of the passage of this Act, shall
be deemed to be taxable under section nine of this Act, and shall be
taxed, and shall have affixed thereto the stamps, marks, and brands
required by this Act or by regulations made pursuant to this Act;
and for the purpose of securing the affixing of the stamps, marks,
and brands required by this Act, the filled cheese shall be regarded
as having been manufactured and sold or removed from the manufactory
for consumption or use on or after the day this Act takes effect;
and such stock on hand at the time of the taking effect of this Act
may be stamped, marked, and branded under special regulations of the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, approved by the Secretary of the
Treasury; and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may authorize the
holder of such packages to mark and brand the same and to affix thereto
the proper tax-paid stamps.--_Approved June 6, 1896._




APPENDIX B.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY--Circular No. 21.


LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

  WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 16, 1906_.

  THE SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY, OF AGRICULTURE, AND OF COMMERCE AND
  LABOR.

_Sirs_: The Commission appointed to represent your several Departments
in the formulation of uniform rules and regulations for the enforcement
of the food and drugs act, approved June 30, 1906, has reached a
unanimous agreement and respectfully submits the results of its
deliberations and recommends their adoption.

  Very respectfully,

  H. W. WILEY,
  JAMES L. GERRY,
  S. N. D. NORTH.


RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT.


GENERAL.


REGULATION 1. SHORT TITLE OF THE ACT.

The act, “For preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of
adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs,
medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for
other purposes,” approved June 30, 1906, shall be known and referred to
as “The Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906.”


REGULATION 2. ORIGINAL UNBROKEN PACKAGE.


(Section 2.)

The term “original unbroken package” as used in this act is the
original package, carton, case, can, box, barrel, bottle, phial, or
other receptacle put up by the manufacturer, to which the label is
attached, or which may be suitable for the attachment of a label,
making one complete package of the food or drug article. The original
package contemplated includes both the wholesale and the retail
package.


REGULATION 3. COLLECTION OF SAMPLES.


(Section 4.)

Samples of unbroken packages shall be collected only by authorized
agents of the Department of Agriculture; or by the health, food, or
drug officer of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, when
commissioned by the Secretary of Agriculture for this purpose.

Samples may be purchased in the open market, and if in bulk the marks,
brands, or tags upon the package, carton, container, wrapper, or
accompanying printed or written matter shall be noted. The collector
shall also note the names of the vendor and agent through whom the sale
was actually made, together with the date of purchase. The collector
shall purchase representative samples.

A sample shall be divided into three parts, and each part shall be
labeled with the identifying marks. All samples shall be sealed by
the collector with a seal provided for the purpose. If the package be
less than 4 pounds, or in volume less than 2 quarts, three packages of
approximately the same size shall be purchased and the marks and tags
upon each noted as above. One sample shall be delivered to the party
from whom purchased or to the party guaranteeing such merchandise. One
sample shall be sent to the Bureau of Chemistry, or to such chemist or
examiner as may be designated by the Secretary of Agriculture, and the
third sample shall be held under seal by the Secretary of Agriculture.


REGULATION 4. METHODS OF ANALYSIS.


(Section 4.)

Unless otherwise directed by the Secretary of Agriculture, the methods
of analysis employed shall be those prescribed by the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists and the United States Pharmacopœia.


REGULATION 5. HEARINGS.


(Section 4.)

(_a_) When the examination or analysis shows that the provisions of the
food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, have been violated, notice of that
fact, together with a copy of the findings, shall be furnished to the
party or parties from whom the sample was obtained or who executed the
guaranty as provided in the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, and a
date shall be fixed at which such party or parties may be heard before
the Secretary of Agriculture, or such other official connected with the
food and drug inspection service as may be commissioned by him for that
purpose. The hearings shall be had at a place, to be designated by the
Secretary of Agriculture, most convenient for all parties concerned.
These hearings shall be private and confined to questions of fact. The
parties interested therein may appear in person or by attorney and may
propound proper interrogatories and submit oral or written evidence to
show any fault or error in the findings of the analyst or examiner. The
Secretary of Agriculture may order a re-examination of the sample or
have new samples drawn for further examination.

(_b_) If the examination or analysis be found correct the Secretary of
Agriculture shall give notice to the United States District Attorney as
prescribed.

(_c_) Any health, food, or drug officer or agent of any State,
Territory, or the District of Columbia who shall obtain satisfactory
evidence of any violation of the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906,
as provided in section 5 thereof, shall first submit the same to the
Secretary of Agriculture, in order that the latter may cause notice
to be given to the guarantor or to the party from whom the sample was
obtained.


REGULATION 6. PUBLICATION.


(Section 4.)

(_a_) When a judgment of the court shall have been rendered there may
be a publication of the findings of the examiner or analyst, together
with the findings of the court.

(_b_) This publication may be made in the form of circulars, notices,
or bulletins, as the Secretary of Agriculture may direct, not less than
thirty days after judgment.

(_c_) If an appeal be taken from the judgment of the court before such
publication, notice of the appeal shall accompany the publication.


REGULATION 7. STANDARDS FOR DRUGS.


(Section 7.)

(_a_) A drug bearing a name recognized in the United States
Pharmacopœia or National Formulary, without any further statement
respecting its character, shall be required to conform in strength,
quality, and purity to the standards prescribed or indicated for a
drug of the same name recognized in the United States Pharmacopœia or
National Formulary, official at the time.

(_b_) A drug bearing a name recognized in the United States
Pharmacopœia or National Formulary, and branded to show a different
standard of strength, quality, or purity, shall not be regarded as
adulterated if it conforms to its declared standard.


REGULATION 8. FORMULAS--PROPRIETARY FOODS.


(Section 8, last paragraph.)

(_a_) Manufacturers of proprietary foods are only required to state
upon the label the names and percentages of the materials used, in so
far as the Secretary of Agriculture may find this to be necessary to
secure freedom from adulteration and misbranding.

(_b_) The factories in which proprietary foods are made shall be open
at all reasonable times to the inspection provided for in Regulation 16.


REGULATION 9. FORM OF GUARANTY.


(Section 9.)

(_a_) No dealer in food or drug products will be liable to prosecution
if he can establish that the goods were sold under a guaranty by the
wholesaler, manufacturer, jobber, dealer, or other party residing in
the United States from whom purchased.

(_b_) A general guaranty be filed with the Secretary of Agriculture
by the manufacturer or dealer and be given a serial number, which
number shall appear on each and every package of goods sold under such
guaranty with the words, “Guaranteed under the food and drugs act, June
30, 1906.”

(_c_) The following form of guaranty is suggested:

  I (we) the undersigned do hereby guarantee that the articles of
  foods or drugs manufactured, packed, distributed, or sold by me (us)
  [specifying the same as fully as possible] are not adulterated or
  misbranded within the meaning of the food and drugs act, June 30,
  1906.

  (Signed in ink.)

  ---- ----.

  [Name and place of business of wholesaler, dealer, manufacturer,
  jobber, or other parties.]

(_d_) If the guaranty be not filed with the Secretary of Agriculture as
above, it should identify and be attached to the bill of sale, invoice,
bill of lading, or other schedule giving the names and quantities of
the articles sold.


ADULTERATION.


REGULATION 10. CONFECTIONERY.


(Section 7.)

(_a_) Mineral substances of all kinds (except as provided in Regulation
15) are specifically forbidden in confectionery whether they be
poisonous or not.

(_b_) Only harmless colors or flavors shall be added to confectionery.

(_c_) The term “narcotic drugs” includes all the drugs mentioned in
section 8, food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, relating to foods, their
derivatives and preparations, and all other drugs of a narcotic nature.


REGULATION 11. SUBSTANCES MIXED AND PACKED WITH FOODS.


(Section 7, under “Foods.”)

No substance may be mixed or packed with a food product which will
reduce or lower its quality or strength. Not excluded under this
provision are substances properly used in the preparation of food
products for clarification or refining, and eliminated in the further
process of manufacture.


REGULATION 12. COLORING, POWDERING, COATING, AND STAINING.


(Section 7, under “Foods.”)

(_a_) Only harmless colors may be used in food products.

(_b_) The reduction of a substance to a powder to conceal inferiority
in character is prohibited.

(_c_) The term “powdered” means the application of any powdered
substance to the exterior portion of articles of food, or the reduction
of a substance to a powder.

(_d_) The term “coated” means the application of any substance to the
exterior portion of a food product.

(_e_) The term “stain” includes any change produced by the addition of
any substance to the exterior portion of foods which in any way alters
their natural tint.


REGULATION 13. NATURAL POISONOUS OR DELETERIOUS INGREDIENTS.


(Section 7, paragraph 5, under “Foods.”)

Any food product which contains naturally a poisonous or deleterious
ingredient does not come within the provisions of the food and drugs
act, June 30, 1906, except when the presence of such ingredient is due
to filth, putrescence, or decomposition.


REGULATION 14. EXTERNAL APPLICATION OF PRESERVATIVES.


(Section 7, paragraph 5, under “Foods,” proviso.)

(_a_) Poisonous or deleterious preservatives shall only be applied
externally, and they and the food products shall be of a character
which shall not permit the permeation of any of the preservative to the
interior, or any portion of the interior, of the product.

(_b_) When these products are ready for consumption, if any portion of
the added preservative shall have penetrated the food product, then the
proviso of section 7, paragraph 5, under “Foods,” shall not obtain, and
such food products shall then be subject to the regulations for food
products in general.

(_c_) The preservative applied must be of such a character that, until
removed, the food products are inedible.


REGULATION 15. WHOLESOMENESS OF COLORS AND PRESERVATIVES.


(Section 7, paragraph 5, under “Foods.”)

(_a_) Respecting the wholesomeness of colors, preservatives, and other
substances which are added to foods, the Secretary of Agriculture shall
determine from chemical or other examination, under the authority of
the agricultural appropriation act, Public 382, approved June 30, 1906,
the names of those substances which are permitted or inhibited in food
products; and such findings, when approved by the Secretary of the
Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, shall become a part
of these regulations.

(_b_) The Secretary of Agriculture shall determine from time to
time, in accordance with the authority conferred by the agricultural
appropriation act, Public 382, approved June 30, 1906, the principles
which shall guide the use of colors, preservatives, and other
substances added to foods; and when concurred in by the Secretary of
the Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, the principles so
established shall become a part of these regulations.


REGULATION 16. CHARACTER OF THE RAW MATERIALS.


(Section 7, paragraph 1, under “Drugs”; paragraph 6, under “Foods.”)

(_a_) The Secretary of Agriculture, when he deems it necessary, shall
examine the raw materials used in the manufacture of food and drug
products, and determine whether any filthy, decomposed, or putrid
substance is used in their preparation.

(_b_) The Secretary of Agriculture shall make such inspection as often
as he may deem necessary.


MISBRANDING.


REGULATION 17. LABEL.


(Section 8.)

(_a_) The term “label” applies to any printed, pictorial, or other
matter upon or attached to any package of a food or drug product, or
any container thereof.

(_b_) The principal label shall consist, first, of all words which the
food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, specifically requires, to wit, the
name of the substance or product; the name of place of manufacture
in the case of food compounds or mixtures; words which show that the
articles are compounds, mixtures, or blends; the words “compound,”
“mixture,” or “blend”; or words designating the substances or their
derivatives and proportions required to be named in the case of drugs
and foods. All these required words shall appear upon the principal
label with no intervening descriptive or explanatory reading matter.
Second, if the name of the manufacturer and place of manufacture
are given, they shall also appear upon the principal label. Third,
elsewhere upon the principal label other matter may appear in the
discretion of the manufacturer.

(_c_) The principal label on foods or drugs for domestic commerce shall
be printed in English (except as provided in Regulation 19), with or
without the foreign label in the language of the country where the food
or drug product is produced or manufactured. The size of type shall not
be smaller than 8-point (brevier) caps: _Provided_, That in case the
size of the package will not permit the use of 8-point cap type the
size of the type may be reduced proportionately.

(_d_) The form, character, and appearance of the labels, except as
provided above, are left to the judgment of the manufacturer.

(_e_) Descriptive matter upon the label shall be free from any
statement, design, or device regarding the article or the ingredients
or substances contained therein, or quality thereof, or place of
origin, which is false or misleading in any particular.

(_f_) An article containing more than one food product or active
medicinal agent is misbranded if named after a single constituent.

In the case of drugs the nomenclature employed by the United States
Pharmacopœia and the National Formulary shall obtain.

(_g_) The term “design” or “devise” applies to pictorial matter of
every description, and to abbreviations, characters, or signs for
weights, measures, or names of substances.

(_h_) The use of any false or misleading statement, design, or devise
shall not be justified by any statement given as the opinion of an
expert or other person, appearing on any part of the label, nor by
any descriptive matter explaining the use of the false or misleading
statement, design, or devise.

(_i_) The regulation regarding the principal label will not be enforced
until October 1, 1907, in the case of labels printed and now on hand,
whenever any statement therein contained which is contrary to the food
and drugs act, June 30, 1906, as to character of contents, shall be
corrected by a supplemental label, stamp, or paster. All other labels
now printed and on hand may be used without change until October 1,
1907.


REGULATION 18. NAME AND ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER.


(Section 8.)

(_a_) The name of the manufacturer or producer, or the place where
manufactured, except in case of mixtures and compounds having a
distinctive name, need not be given upon the label, but if given, must
be the true name and the true place. The words “packed for ----,”
“distributed by ----” or some equivalent phrase, shall be added to the
label in case the name which appears upon the label is not that of
the actual manufacturer or producer, or the name of the place not the
actual place of manufacture or production.

(_b_) When a person, firm, or corporation actually manufactures or
produces an article of food or drug in two or more places, the actual
place of manufacture or production of each particular package need not
be stated upon the label except when in the opinion of the Secretary
of Agriculture the mention of any such place, to the exclusion of the
others, misleads the public.


REGULATION 19. CHARACTER OF NAME.


(Section 8.)

(_a_) A simple or unmixed food or drug product not bearing a
distinctive name shall be designated by its common name in the English
language, or, if a drug, by any name recognized in the United States
Pharmacopœia or National Formulary. No further description of its
components or qualities is required, except as to content of alcohol,
morphin, etc.

(_b_) The use of a geographical name shall not be permitted in
connection with a food or drug product not manufactured or produced in
that place, when such name indicates that the article was manufactured
or produced in that place.

(_c_) The use of a geographical name in connection with a food or
drug product will not be deemed a misbranding when by reason of long
usage it has come to represent a generic term and is used to indicate
a style, type, or brand; but in all such cases the State or Territory
where any such article is manufactured or produced shall be stated upon
the principal label.

(_d_) A foreign name which is recognized as distinctive of a product of
a foreign country shall not be used upon an article of domestic origin
except as an indication of the type or style of quality or manufacture,
and then only when so qualified that it can not be offered for sale
under the name of a foreign article.


REGULATION 20. DISTINCTIVE NAME.


(Section 8.)

(_a_) A “distinctive name” is a trade, arbitrary, or fancy name which
clearly distinguishes a food product, mixture or compound from any
other food product, mixture or compound.

(_b_) A distinctive name shall not be one representing any single
constituent of a mixture or compound.

(_c_) A distinctive name shall not misrepresent any property or quality
of a mixture or compound.

(_d_) A distinctive name shall give no false indication of origin,
character or place of manufacture, nor lead the purchaser to suppose
that it is any other food or drug product.


REGULATION 21. COMPOUNDS, IMITATIONS, OR BLENDS WITHOUT DISTINCTIVE
NAME.


(Section 8.)

(_a_) The term “blend” applies to a mixture of like substances, not
excluding harmless coloring or flavoring ingredients used for the
purpose of coloring and flavoring only.

(_b_) If any age is stated, it shall not be that of a single one of its
constituents, but shall be the average of all constituents in their
respective proportions.

(_c_) Coloring and flavoring can not be used for increasing the weight
or bulk of a blend.

(_d_) In order that colors or flavors may not increase the volume or
weight of a blend, they are not to be used in quantities exceeding 1
pound to 800 pounds of the blend.

(_e_) A color or flavor can not be employed to imitate any natural
product or any other product of recognized name and quality.

(_f_) The term “imitation” applies to any mixture or compound which is
a counterfeit or fraudulent simulation of any article of food or drug.


REGULATION 22. ARTICLES WITHOUT A LABEL.


(Section 8, paragraph 1, under “Drugs”; paragraph 1, under “Foods.”)

It is prohibited to sell or offer for sale a food or drug product
bearing no label upon the package or no descriptive matter whatever
connected with it, either by design, device, or otherwise, if said
product be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of
another article.


REGULATION 23. PROPER BRANDING NOT A COMPLETE GUARANTY.

Packages which are correctly branded as to character of contents, place
of manufacture, name of manufacturer, or otherwise, may be adulterated
and hence not entitled to enter into interstate commerce.


REGULATION 24. INCOMPLETENESS OF BRANDING.

A compound shall be deemed misbranded if the label be incomplete
as to the names of the required ingredients. A simple product does
not require any further statement than the name or distinctive name
thereof, except as provided in Regulations 19 (_a_) and 28.


REGULATION 25. SUBSTITUTION.


(Sections 7 and 8.)

(_a_) When a substance of a recognized quality commonly used in the
preparation of a food or drug product is replaced by another substance
not injurious or deleterious to health, the name of the substituted
substance shall appear upon the label.

(_b_) When any substance which does not reduce, lower, or injuriously
affect its quality or strength, is added to a food or drug product,
other than that necessary to its manufacture or refining, the label
shall bear a statement to that effect.


REGULATION 26. WASTE MATERIALS.


(Section 8.)

When an article is made up of refuse materials, fragments, or
trimmings, the use of the name of the substance from which they are
derived, unless accompanied by a statement to that effect, shall
be deemed a misbranding. Packages of such materials may be labeled
“pieces,” “stems,” “trimmings,” or with some similar appellation.


REGULATION 27. MIXTURES OR COMPOUNDS WITH DISTINCTIVE NAMES.


(Section 8. First proviso under “Foods,” paragraph 1.)

(_a_) The terms “mixtures” and “compounds” are interchangeable and
indicate the results of putting together two or more food products.

(_b_) These mixtures or compounds shall not be imitations of other
articles, whether simple, mixed, or compound, or offered for sale under
the name of other articles. They shall bear a distinctive name and the
name of the place where the mixture or compound has been manufactured
or produced.

(_c_) If the name of the place be one which is found in different
States, Territories, or countries, the name of the State, Territory, or
country, as well as the name of the place, must be stated.


REGULATION 28. SUBSTANCES NAMED IN DRUGS OR FOODS.


(Section 8. Second under “Drugs”; second under “Foods.”)

(_a_) The term “alcohol” is defined to mean common or ethyl alcohol. No
other kind of alcohol is permissible in the manufacture of drugs except
as specified in the United States Pharmacopœia or National Formulary.

(_b_) The words alcohol, morphin, opium, etc., and the quantities and
proportions thereof, shall be printed in letters corresponding in size
with those prescribed in Regulation 17, paragraph (_c_).

(_c_) A drug, or food product except in respect of alcohol, is
misbranded in case it fails to bear a statement on the label of the
quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphin, opium, heroin, cocain,
alpha or beta eucain, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or
acetanilid, or any derivative or preparation of any such substances
contained therein.

(_d_) A statement of the maximum quantity or proportion of any such
substances present will meet the requirements, provided the maximum
stated does not vary materially from the average quantity or proportion.

(_e_) In case the actual quantity or proportion is stated it shall
be the average quantity or proportion with the variations noted in
Regulation 29.

(_f_) The following are the principal derivatives and preparations made
from the articles which are required to be named upon the label:

  ALCOHOL, ETHYL (_Cologne spirits_, _Grain alcohol_, _Rectified
  spirits_, _Spirits_, _and Spirits of wine_):

  _Derivatives_--

  Aldehyd, Ether, Ethyl acetate, Ethyl nitrite, and Paraldehyd.

  _Preparations containing alcohol_--

  Bitters, Brandies, Cordials, Elixirs, Essences, Fluidextracts,
  Spirits, Sirups, Tinctures, Tonics, Whiskies, and Wines.

  MORPHIN, ALKALOID:

  _Derivatives_--

  Apomorphin, Dionin, Peronin, Morphin acetate, Hydrochlorid, Sulfite,
  and other salts of morphin.

  _Preparations containing morphin or derivatives of morphin_--

  Bougies, Catarrh Snuff, Chlorodyn, Compound powder of morphin,
  Crayons, Elixirs, Granules, Pills, Solutions, Sirups, Suppositories,
  Tablets, Triturates, and Troches.

  OPIUM GUM:

  _Preparations of Opium_--

  Extracts, Denarcotized opium, Granulated opium, and Powdered opium,
  Bougies, Brown mixture, Carminative mixtures, Crayons, Dover’s
  powder, Elixirs, Liniments, Ointments, Paregoric, Pills, Plasters,
  Sirups, Suppositories, Tablets, Tinctures, Troches, Vinegars, and
  Wines.

  _Derivatives_--

  Codein, Alkaloid, Hydrochlorid, Phosphate, Sulphate, and other salts
  of codein.

  _Preparations containing codein or its salts_--

  Elixirs, Pills, Sirups, and Tablets.

  COCAIN, ALKALOID:

  _Derivatives_--

  Cocain hydrochlorid, Oleate, and other salts.

  _Preparations containing cocain or salts of cocain_--

  Coca leaves, Catarrh powders, Elixirs, Extracts, Infusion of coca,
  Ointments, Paste pencils, Pills, Solutions, Sirups, Tablets,
  Tinctures, Troches, and Wines.

  HEROIN:

  _Preparations containing heroin_--

  Sirups, Elixirs, Pills, and Tablets.

  ALPHA AND BETA EUCAIN:

  _Preparations_--

  Mixtures, Ointments, Powders, and Solutions.

  CHLOROFORM:

  _Preparations containing chloroform_--

  Chloranodyn, Elixirs, Emulsions, Liniments, Mixtures, Spirits, and
  Sirups.

  CANNABIS INDICA:

  _Preparations of cannabis indica_--

  Corn remedies, Extracts, Mixtures, Pills, Powders, Tablets, and
  Tinctures.

  CHLORAL HYDRATE (_Chloral_, U. S. Pharmacopœia, 1890):

  _Derivatives_--

  Chloral acetophenonoxim, Chloral alcoholate, Chloralamid,
  Chloralimid, Chloral orthoform, Chloralose, Dormiol, Hypnal, and
  Uraline.

  _Preparations containing chloral hydrate or its derivatives_--

  Chloral camphorate, Elixirs, Liniments, Mixtures, Ointments,
  Suppositories, Sirups, and Tablets.

  ACETANILID (_Antifebrin_, _Phenylacetamid_):

  _Derivatives_--

  Acetphenetidin, Citrophen, Diacetanilid, Lactophenin,
  Methoxy-acetanilid, Methylacetanilid, Para-Iodoacetanilid, and
  Phenacetin.

  _Preparations containing acetanilid or derivatives_--

  Analgesics, Antineuralgics, Antirheumatics, Cachets, Capsules, Cold
  remedies, Elixirs, Granular effervescing salts, Headache powders,
  Mixtures, Pain remedies, Pills, and Tablets.


REGULATION 29. STATEMENT OF WEIGHT OR MEASURE.


(Section 8. Third under “Foods.”)

(_a_) A statement of the weight or measure of the food contained in a
package is not required. If any such statement is printed, it shall
be a plain and correct statement of the average net weight or volume,
either on or immediately above or below the principal label, and of the
size of letters specified in Regulation 17.

(_b_) A reasonable variation from the stated weight for individual
packages is permissible, provided this variation is as often above as
below the weight or volume stated. This variation shall be determined
by the inspector from the changes in the humidity of the atmosphere,
from the exposure of the package to evaporation or to absorption of
water, and the reasonable variations which attend the filling and
weighing or measuring of a package.


REGULATION 30. METHOD OF STATING QUANTITY OR PROPORTION.


(Section 8.)

In the case of alcohol the expression “quantity” or “proportion” shall
mean the average percentage by volume in the finished product. In the
case of the other ingredients required to be named upon the label, the
expression “quantity” or “proportion” shall mean grains or minims per
ounce or fluid ounce, and also, if desired, the metric equivalents
therefor, or milligrams per gram or per cubic centimeter, or grams
or cubic centimeters per kilogram or per liter; provided that these
articles shall not be deemed misbranded if the maximum of quantity or
proportion be stated, as required in Regulation 28 (_d_).


EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF FOODS AND DRUGS.


REGULATION 31. PREPARATION OF FOOD PRODUCTS FOR EXPORT.


(Section 2.)

(_a_) Food products intended for export may contain added substances
not permitted in foods intended for interstate commerce, when the
addition of such substances does not conflict with the laws of the
countries to which the food products are to be exported and when such
substances are added in accordance with the directions of the foreign
purchaser or his agent.

(_b_) The exporter is not required to furnish evidence that goods have
been prepared or packed in compliance with the laws of the foreign
country to which said goods are intended to be shipped, but such
shipment is made at his own risk.

(_c_) Food products for export under this regulation shall be kept
separate and labeled to indicate that they are for export.

(_d_) If the products are not exported they shall not be allowed to
enter interstate commerce.


REGULATION 32. IMPORTED FOOD AND DRUG PRODUCTS.


(Section 11.)

(_a_) Meat and meat food products imported into the United States shall
be accompanied by a certificate of official inspection of a character
to satisfy the Secretary of Agriculture that they are not dangerous
to health, and each package of such articles shall bear a label which
shall identify it as covered by the certificate, which certificate
shall accompany or be attached to the invoice on which entry is made.

(_b_) The certificate shall set forth the official position of the
inspector and the character of the inspection.

(_c_) Meat and meat food products as well as all other food and drug
products of a kind forbidden entry into or forbidden to be sold, or
restricted in sale in the country in which made or from which exported,
will be refused admission.

(_d_) Meat and meat food products which have been inspected and passed
through the customs may, if identity is retained, be transported in
interstate commerce.


REGULATION 33. DECLARATION.


(Section 11.)

(_a_) All invoices of food or drug products shipped to the United
States shall have attached to them a declaration of the shipper, made
before a United States consular officer, as follows:

  I, the undersigned, do solemnly and truly declare that I am the ......
                                                          (Manufacturer,
  ............. of the merchandise herein mentioned and described, and
  agent, or shipper.)
  that it consists of food or drug products which contain no added
  substances injurious to health.

  These products were grown in ........ and manufactured in ........ by
                               (Country.)                  (Country.)
  .............. during the year ......, and are exported from ..... and
  (Name of manufacturer.)                                     (City.)
  consigned to ..... The products bear no false labels or marks, contain
              (City.)
  no/some added coloring matter or preservative ........., and are not
                                  (Name of added color or preservative.)
  of a character to cause prohibition or restriction in the country
  where made or from which exported.

  Dated at .... this .... day of ...., 19.. .

  (Signed): .... .... ....

(_b_) In the case of importations to be entered at New York, Boston,
Philadelphia, Chicago, San Francisco, and New Orleans, and other ports
where food and drug inspection laboratories shall be established, this
declaration shall be attached to the invoice on which entry is made.
In other cases the declaration shall be attached to the copy of the
invoice sent to the Bureau of Chemistry.


REGULATION 34. DENATURING.


(Section 11.)

Unless otherwise declared on the invoice or entry, all substances
ordinarily used as food products will be treated as such. Shipments
of substances ordinarily used as food products intended for technical
purposes must be accompanied by a declaration stating that fact, and
must be so denatured as to prevent their use as foods.


REGULATION 35. BOND, IMPORTED FOODS, AND DRUGS.


(Section 11.)

Unexamined packages of food and drug products may be delivered to the
consignee prior to the completion of the examination to determine
whether the same are adulterated or misbranded upon the execution of
a penal bond by the consignee in the sum of the invoice value of such
goods with the duty added, for the return of the goods to customs
custody.


REGULATION 36. NOTIFICATION OF VIOLATION OF THE LAW.


(Section 11.)

If the sample on analysis or examination be found not to comply with
the law, the importer shall be notified of the nature of the violation,
the time and place at which final action will be taken upon the
question of the exclusion of the shipment, and that he may be present,
and submit evidence, which evidence (Form 15), with a sample of the
article, shall be forwarded to the Bureau of Chemistry at Washington,
accompanied by report card (Forms 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20).


REGULATION 37. APPEAL TO THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE AND REMUNERATION.


(Section 11.)

All applications for relief from decisions arising under the execution
of the law should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, and all
vouchers or accounts for remuneration for samples shall be filed with
the chief of the inspection laboratory, who shall forward the same,
with his recommendation, to the Department of Agriculture for action.


REGULATION 38. SHIPMENT BEYOND THE JURISDICTION OF THE UNITED STATES.


(Section 11.)

The time allowed the importer for representations regarding the
shipment may be extended at his request to permit him to secure such
evidence as he desires, provided that this extension of time does
not entail any expense to the Department of Agriculture. If at the
expiration of this time, in view of the data secured in inspecting
the sample and such evidence as may have been submitted by the
manufacturers or importers, it appears that the shipment can not be
legally imported into the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture
shall request the Secretary of the Treasury to refuse to deliver the
shipment in question to the consignee, and to require its reshipment
beyond the jurisdiction of the United States.


REGULATION 39. APPLICATION OF REGULATIONS.

These regulations shall not apply to domestic meat and meat food
products which are prepared, transported, or sold in interstate or
foreign commerce under the meat-inspection law and the regulations of
the Secretary of Agriculture made thereunder.


REGULATION 40. ALTERATION AND AMENDMENT OF REGULATIONS.

These regulations may be altered or amended at any time, without
previous notice, with the concurrence of the Secretary of the Treasury,
the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor.

The above rules and regulations are hereby adopted.

  LESLIE M. SHAW,
  _Secretary of the Treasury_.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

  VICTOR H. METCALF,
  _Secretary of Commerce and Labor_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 17, 1906_.


THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, JUNE 30, 1906.

  AN ACT For preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of
  adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs,
  medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for
  other purposes.

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled_, That it shall be
unlawful for any person to manufacture within any Territory or the
District of Columbia any article of food or drug which is adulterated
or misbranded, within the meaning of this Act; and any person who
shall violate any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of
a misdemeanor, and for each offense shall, upon conviction thereof,
be fined not to exceed five hundred dollars or shall be sentenced to
one year’s imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the
discretion of the court, and for each subsequent offense and conviction
thereof shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars or sentenced
to one year’s imprisonment, or both such fine and imprisonment, in the
discretion of the court.

SEC. 2. That the introduction into any State or Territory or the
District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the District
of Columbia, or from any foreign country, or shipment to any foreign
country of any article of food or drugs which is adulterated or
misbranded, within the meaning of this Act, is hereby prohibited; and
any person who shall ship or deliver for shipment from any State or
Territory or the District of Columbia, or to a foreign country, or who
shall receive in any State or Territory or the District of Columbia
from any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia, or
foreign country, and having so received, shall deliver, in original
unbroken packages, for pay or otherwise, or offer to any other person,
any such article so adulterated or misbranded within the meaning
of this Act, or any person who shall sell or offer for sale in the
District of Columbia or the Territories of the United States any such
adulterated or misbranded foods or drugs, or export or offer to export
the same to any foreign country, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor,
and for such offense be fined not exceeding two hundred dollars for
the first offense, and upon conviction for each subsequent offense
not exceeding three hundred dollars or be imprisoned not exceeding
one year, or both, in the discretion of the court: _Provided_, That
no article shall be deemed misbranded or adulterated within the
provisions of this Act when intended for export to any foreign country
and prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions
of the foreign purchaser when no substance is used in the preparation
or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to
which said article is intended to be shipped; but if said article shall
be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption,
then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the operation of
any of the other provisions of this Act.

SEC. 3. That the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of
Agriculture, and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor shall make uniform
rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions of this Act,
including the collection and examination of specimens of foods and
drugs manufactured or offered for sale in the District of Columbia, or
in any Territory of the United States, or which shall be offered for
sale in unbroken packages in any State other than that in which they
shall have been respectively manufactured or produced, or which shall
be received from any foreign country, or intended for shipment to any
foreign country, or which may be submitted for examination by the chief
health, food, or drug officer of any State, Territory, or the District
of Columbia, or at any domestic or foreign port through which such
product is offered for interstate commerce, or for export or import
between the United States and any foreign port or country.

SEC. 4. That the examinations of specimens of foods and drugs shall be
made in the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture, or
under the direction and supervision of such Bureau, for the purpose
of determining from such examinations whether such articles are
adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act; and if it
shall appear from any such examination that any of such specimens is
adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, the Secretary
of Agriculture shall cause notice thereof to be given to the party from
whom such sample was obtained. Any party so notified shall be given an
opportunity to be heard, under such rules and regulations as may be
prescribed as aforesaid, and if it appears that any of the provisions
of this Act have been violated by such party, then the Secretary of
Agriculture shall at once certify the facts to the proper United States
District Attorney, with a copy of the results of the analysis or the
examination of such article duly authenticated by the analyst or
officer making such examination, under the oath of such officer. After
judgment of the court, notice shall be given by publication in such
manner as may be prescribed by the rules and regulations aforesaid.

SEC. 5. That it shall be the duty of each district attorney to whom
the Secretary of Agriculture shall report any violation of this Act,
or to whom any health or food or drug officer or agent of any State,
Territory, or the District of Columbia shall present satisfactory
evidence of any such violation, to cause appropriate proceedings to be
commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the United States,
without delay, for the enforcement of the penalties as in such case
herein provided.

SEC. 6. That the term “drug,” as used in this Art, shall include all
medicines and preparations recognized in the United States Pharmacopœia
or National Formulary for internal or external use, and any substance
or mixture of substances intended to be used for the cure, mitigation,
or prevention of disease of either man or other animals. The term
“food,” as used herein, shall include all articles used for food,
drink, confectionery, or condiment by man or other animals, whether
simple, mixed, or compound.

SEC. 7. That for the purposes of this Act an article shall be deemed to
be adulterated:

In case of drugs:

First. If, when a drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the
United States Pharmacopœia or National Formulary, it differs from the
standard of strength, quality, or purity, as determined by the test
laid down in the United States Pharmacopœia or National Formulary
official at the time of investigation: _Provided_, That no drug defined
in the United States Pharmacopœia or National Formulary shall be deemed
to be adulterated under this provision if the standard of strength,
quality, or purity be plainly stated upon the bottle, box, or other
container thereof although the standard may differ from that determined
by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopœia and National
Formulary.

Second. If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or
quality under which it is sold.

In the case of confectionery:

If it contain terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or other
mineral substance or poisonous color or flavor, or other ingredient
deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt, or
spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug.

In the case of food:

First. If any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to
reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength.

Second. If any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the
article.

Third. If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in
part abstracted.

Fourth. If it be mixed, colored, powdered, coated, or stained in a
manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed.

Fifth. If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious
ingredient which may render such article injurious to health:
_Provided_, That when in the preparation of food products for shipment
they are preserved by any external application applied in such manner
that the preservative is necessarily removed mechanically, or by
maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for the removal of
said preservative shall be printed on the covering or the package, the
provisions of this Act shall be construed as applying only when said
products are ready for consumption.

Sixth. If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or
putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit
for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the product of a
diseased animal, or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter.

SEC. 8. That the term “misbranded,” as used herein, shall apply
to all drugs, or articles of food, or articles which enter into
the composition of food, the package or label of which shall bear
any statement, design, or device regarding such article, or the
ingredients or substances contained therein which shall be false or
misleading in any particular, and to any food or drug product which is
falsely branded as to the State, Territory, or country in which it is
manufactured or produced.

That for the purposes of this Act an article shall also be deemed to be
misbranded:

In case of drugs:

First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the name of
another article.

Second. If the contents of the package as originally put up shall have
been removed, in whole or in part, and other contents shall have been
placed in such package, or if the package fail to bear a statement on
the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphin, opium,
cocain, heroin, alpha or beta eucain, chloroform, cannabis indica,
chloral hydrate, or acetanilid, or any derivative or preparation of any
such substances contained therein.

In the case of food:

First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the
distinctive name of another article.

Second. If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the
purchaser, or purport to be a foreign product when not so, or if the
contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed
in whole or in part and other contents shall have been placed in such
package, or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity
or proportion of any morphin, opium, cocain, heroin, alpha or beta
eucain, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilid, or
any derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein.

Third. If in package form, and the contents are stated in terms of
weight or measure, they are not plainly and correctly stated on the
outside of the package.

Fourth. If the package containing it or its label shall bear any
statement, design, or device regarding the ingredients or the
substances contained therein, which statement, design, or device shall
be false or misleading in any particular: _Provided_, That an article
of food which does not contain any added poisonous or deleterious
ingredients shall not be deemed to be adulterated or misbranded in the
following cases:

First. In the case of mixtures or compounds which may be now or from
time to time hereafter known as articles of food, under their own
distinctive names, and not an imitation of or offered for sale under
the distinctive name of another article, if the name be accompanied
on the same label or brand with a statement of the place where said
article has been manufactured or produced.

Second. In the case of articles labeled, branded, or tagged so as to
plainly indicate that they are compounds, imitations, or blends, and
the word “compound,” “imitation,” or “blend,” as the case may be,
is plainly stated on the package in which it is offered for sale:
_Provided_, That the term blend as used herein shall be construed to
mean a mixture of like substances, not including harmless coloring or
flavoring ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring
only: _And provided further_, That nothing in this Act shall be
construed as requiring or compelling proprietors or manufacturers of
proprietary foods which contain no unwholesome added ingredient to
disclose their trade formulas, except in so far as the provisions of
this Act may require to secure freedom from adulteration or misbranding.

SEC. 9. That no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this
Act when he can establish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler, jobber,
manufacturer, or other party residing in the United States, from
whom he purchases such articles, to the effect that the same is not
adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act, designating
it. Said guaranty, to afford protection, shall contain the name and
address of the party or parties making the sale of such articles to
such dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable
to the prosecutions, fines, and other penalties which would attach, in
due course, to the dealer under the provisions of this Act.

SEC. 10. That any article of food, drug, or liquor that is adulterated
or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, and is being transported
from one State, Territory, District, or insular possession to another
for sale, or, having been transported, remains unloaded, unsold, or in
original unbroken packages, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the
District of Columbia or the Territories, or insular possessions of the
United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale, or
if it is intended for export to a foreign country, shall be liable to
be proceeded against in any district court of the United States within
the district where the same is found, and seized for confiscation by
a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is condemned
as being adulterated or misbranded, or of a poisonous or deleterious
character, within the meaning of this Act, the same shall be disposed
of by destruction or sale, as the said court may direct, and the
proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall
be paid into the Treasury of the United States, but such goods shall
not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this
Act or the laws of that jurisdiction: _Provided, however_, That upon
the payment of the costs of such libel proceedings and the execution
and delivery of a good and sufficient bond to the effect that such
articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the
provisions of this Act, or the laws of any State, Territory, District,
or insular possession, the court may by order direct that such articles
be delivered to the owner thereof. The proceedings of such libel cases
shall conform, as near as may be, to the proceedings in admiralty,
except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact
joined in any such case, and all such proceedings shall be at the suit
of and in the name of the United States.

SEC. 11. The Secretary of the Treasury shall deliver to the Secretary
of Agriculture, upon his request from time to time, samples of foods
and drugs which are being imported into the United States or offered
for import, giving notice thereof to the owner or consignee, who may
appear before the Secretary of Agriculture, and have the right to
introduce testimony, and if it appear from the examination of such
samples that any article of food or drug offered to be imported into
the United States is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of
this Act, or is otherwise dangerous to the health of the people of the
United States, or is of a kind forbidden entry into, or forbidden to be
sold or restricted in sale in the country in which it is made or from
which it is exported, or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect,
the said article shall be refused admission, and the Secretary of the
Treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the
destruction of any goods refused delivery which shall not be exported
by the consignee within three months from the date of notice of such
refusal under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may
prescribe: _Provided_, That the Secretary of the Treasury may deliver
to the consignee such goods pending examination and decision in the
matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of the full invoice
value of such goods, together with such duty thereon, and on refusal
to return such goods for any cause to the custody of the Secretary of
the Treasury, when demanded, for the purpose of excluding them from
the country, or for any other purpose, said consignee shall forfeit
the full amount of the bond: _And provided further_, That all charges
for storage, cartage, and labor on goods which are refused admission
or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee, and in default of
such payment shall constitute a lien against any future importation
made by such owner or consignee.

SEC. 12. That the term “Territory” as used in this Act shall include
the insular possessions of the United States. The word “person” as
used in this Act shall be construed to import both the plural and
the singular, as the case demands, and shall include corporations,
companies, societies, and associations. When construing and enforcing
the provisions of this Act, the act, omission, or failure of any
officer, agent, or other person acting for or employed by any
corporation, company, society, or association, within the scope of his
employment or office, shall in every case be also deemed to be the
act, omission, or failure of such corporation, company, society, or
association as well as that of the person.

SEC. 13. That this Act shall be in force and effect from and after the
first day of January, nineteen hundred and seven.

Approved, June 30, 1906.




APPENDIX C.

[B. A. I. ORDER NO. 137.]

REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE MEAT INSPECTION OF THE UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.


SCOPE OF INSPECTION.


REGULATION 1.

All slaughtering, packing, meat-canning, salting, rendering, or
similar establishments whose meats or meat food products, in whole
or in part, enter into interstate or foreign commerce shall have
inspection under these regulations unless exempted from inspection by
the Secretary of Agriculture. Only farmers, and retail butchers or
retail dealers supplying their customers, may be exempted under the
law, but they are, nevertheless, subject to the provision of the law
which places a penalty upon any person who shall sell or offer for sale
or transportation, for interstate or foreign commerce, any meat or meat
food products which are diseased, unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or
otherwise unfit for human food, knowing that such meat food products
are intended for human consumption.

All carcasses and parts of carcasses of cattle, sheep, swine, and
goats, and all meats and meat food products thereof entering into
interstate or foreign commerce shall show either that they have been
inspected and passed or that they have been exempted from inspection
under these regulations. All meats and meat food products on hand
October 1, 1906, at establishments where inspection has not been
previously maintained, or which have been inspected under previously
existing law and regulations, shall be examined and labeled under these
regulations before being allowed to enter into interstate or foreign
commerce.


APPLICATION FOR INSPECTION OR EXEMPTION.


REGULATION 2.

The proprietor or operator of each slaughtering, packing, meat-canning,
rendering, or similar establishment engaged in the slaughtering of
cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, or in the packing, canning, or other
preparation of any food product into which the meats or meat food
products of said animals enter in whole or in part, for interstate
or foreign commerce, shall make application to the Secretary of
Agriculture for inspection or for exemption from inspection. The said
application shall be made in writing, addressed to the Secretary of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C., and shall state the location of the
establishment, the address of the owner or of a duly authorized officer
or agent of the same, the kinds of animals slaughtered, the estimated
number of animals of any species slaughtered per day and per week, or
the estimated amount of meats or meat food products received from other
establishments, and the character, quantity, and proposed disposition
of the products of said establishment. Blank application forms will be
furnished by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry upon request.
If an establishment is not in a sanitary condition, inspection shall
not be established.


EXEMPTION FROM INSPECTION.

(_a_) If, in the judgment of the Secretary of Agriculture, the retail
butcher or retail dealer who is engaged in supplying his customers
through the medium of interstate or foreign commerce should be exempted
from Federal inspection, a certificate of exemption will be furnished
to the applicant for use with transportation companies and other
companies and persons in securing the movement of his products.


OFFICIAL NUMBER.


REGULATION 3.

If inspection is established under said application the Secretary
of Agriculture will give said establishment a number by which all
its meats and meat food products shall thereafter be known, and
this number shall be used by the inspectors of the Department of
Agriculture, and also by the proprietors of said establishment, to mark
the meats and meat food products of the establishment as hereinafter
prescribed. Establishments having one or more branches may use the
same number for all by affixing a serial letter in connection with the
number to differentiate the products of the different branches. Each
establishment at which inspection is maintained must be separate and
apart from any other establishment engaged in similar business at which
inspection is not maintained.

(_a_) Retail butchers and dealers who have been exempted from
inspection under these regulations will be given numbers by which their
products will be known.


DESIGNATION OF INSPECTORS.


REGULATION 4.

The Secretary of Agriculture will designate an inspector to take charge
of the inspection at each establishment where inspection is maintained,
and will detail to said inspector such assistants as may be necessary
to carry on properly the work of inspection and supervision at said
establishment. For the purpose of enforcing the law and regulations the
inspector and all employees under his direction shall have access at
all times, by day or night, whether the establishment be operated or
not, to every part of said establishment.


OFFICE ROOM.


REGULATION 5.

Office room, including light and heat, shall be provided by proprietors
of establishments, rent free, for the exclusive use of the inspector
and other employees of the Department on duty at each establishment.
The room or rooms set apart for this purpose must be properly
ventilated, conveniently located, and provided with lockers suitable
for the protection and storage of such supplies as may be required; all
to meet the approval of the inspector in charge.


ALL CARCASSES AND PRODUCTS INSPECTED.


REGULATION 6.

All cattle, sheep, swine, or goats slaughtered at an establishment at
which inspection is maintained, and all meats and meat food products
prepared therein shall be inspected, handled, and prepared as required
by these regulations.


NOTICE OF DAILY OPERATIONS.


REGULATION 7.

The manager of each establishment at which inspection is maintained
shall inform the inspector in charge, or his assistant, when work has
been concluded for the day, and of the day and hour when work will be
resumed. Under no circumstances shall an establishment be operated
except under the supervision of an employee of the Department. All
slaughtering must be done within reasonable hours and with reasonable
speed, the character of the establishment being considered. Where
one inspector is detailed to conduct the work at two or more small
establishments where few animals are slaughtered, the inspector
in charge may designate the hours for slaughter. No work shall be
performed at establishments where inspection is maintained during
any day on which such work is prohibited by the law of the State or
Territory in which the establishment is located.


BADGES.


REGULATION 8.

Each employee of the Department engaged in inspection under these
regulations will be furnished with a numbered badge, which he
shall wear over the left breast on the outer clothing while in the
performance of his official duties, and which shall not be allowed to
leave his possession.


BRIBERY.


REGULATION 9.

It is a felony, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for any person,
firm, or corporation, or any agent or employee of any person, firm,
or corporation, to give, pay, or offer, directly or indirectly, to
any Department employee authorized to perform any duty under these
regulations, any money or other thing of value with intent to influence
said employee in the discharge of his duty under these regulations.
It is also a felony, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for any
Department employee engaged in the performance of duty under these
regulations to receive or accept from any person, firm, or corporation
engaged in interstate or foreign commerce any gift, money, or other
thing of value given with any purpose or intent whatsoever.


SANITATION.


REGULATION 10.

Upon receipt of an application for inspection the Secretary of
Agriculture will cause to be made an examination of the premises,
and will indicate the requirements for sanitation and the necessary
facilities for inspection.


REGULATION 11.

In order that the carcasses of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats,
and the meats and meat food products thereof, may be admitted to
interstate or foreign commerce, it is necessary under the law that the
establishments in which the animals are slaughtered, or the meats and
meat food products are prepared, cured, packed, stored, or handled,
shall be suitably lighted and ventilated and maintained in a sanitary
condition. All work in such establishments shall be performed in a
cleanly and sanitary manner.

(_a_) Ceilings, side walls, pillars, partitions, etc., shall be
frequently whitewashed or painted, or, where this is impracticable,
they shall, when necessary, be washed, scraped, or otherwise rendered
sanitary. Where floors or other parts of a building, or tables or other
parts of the equipment, are so old or in such condition that they
cannot be readily made sanitary, they shall be removed and replaced by
suitable materials or otherwise put in a condition acceptable to the
inspector in charge. All floors upon which meats are piled during the
process of curing shall be so constructed that they can be kept in a
clean and sanitary condition, and such meats shall also be kept clean.

(_b_) All trucks, trays, and other receptacles, all chutes, platforms,
racks, tables, etc., and all knives, saws, cleavers, and other tools,
and all utensils and machinery used in moving, handling, cutting,
chopping, mixing, canning, or other process, shall be thoroughly
cleansed daily, if used.

(_c_) The aprons, smocks, or other outer clothing of employees who
handle meat in contact with such clothing shall be of a material that
is readily cleansed and made sanitary and shall be cleansed daily,
if used. Employees who handle meats or meat food products shall be
required to keep their hands clean.

(_d_) All toilet rooms, urinals, and dressing rooms shall be entirely
separated from compartments in which carcasses are dressed or
meats or meat food products are cured, stored, packed, handled, or
prepared. They shall be sufficient in number, ample in size, and
fitted with modern lavatory accommodations, including toilet paper,
soap, running water, towels, etc. They shall be properly lighted,
suitably ventilated, and kept in a sanitary condition. Managers of
establishments must see that employees keep themselves clean.

(_e_) The rooms or compartments in which meats or meat food products
are prepared, cured, stored, packed, or otherwise handled shall
be lighted and ventilated in a manner acceptable to the inspector
in charge and shall be so located that odors from toilet rooms,
catch-basins, casing departments, tank rooms, hide cellars, etc., do
not permeate them. All rooms or compartments shall be provided with
cuspidors, which employees who expectorate shall be required to use.

(_f_) Persons affected with tuberculosis or any other communicable
disease shall not be knowingly employed in any of the departments of
establishments where carcasses are dressed, meats handled, or meat food
products prepared, and any employee suspected of being so affected
shall be so reported by the inspector in charge to the manager of the
establishment and to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

(_g_) The fattening of hogs or other animals on the refuse of
slaughterhouses will not be permitted on the premises of an
establishment where inspection is maintained, and no use incompatible
with proper sanitation shall be made of any part of the premises on
which such establishment is located. All yards, fences, pens, chutes,
alleys, etc., belonging to the premises of such establishment shall,
whether they are used or not, be maintained in a sanitary condition.

(_h_) Butchers who dress diseased carcasses shall cleanse their hands
of all grease and then immerse them in a prescribed disinfectant and
rinse them in clear water before engaging again in dressing or handling
healthy carcasses. All butchers’ implements used in dressing diseased
carcasses shall be cleansed of all grease and then sterilized, either
in boiling water or by immersion in a prescribed disinfectant, and
rinsed in clear water before being again used in dressing healthy
carcasses.

Facilities for such cleansing and disinfection, approved by the
inspector in charge, shall be provided by the establishment. Separate
trucks, etc., shall be furnished for handling diseased carcasses and
parts. Following the slaughter of an animal affected with an infectious
disease a stop shall be made until the implements have been cleansed
and disinfected unless duplicate implements are provided.

(_i_) Inspectors are required to furnish their own knives for use in
dissecting or incising diseased carcasses or parts, and are required
to use the same means for disinfecting knives, hands, etc., that are
prescribed for employees of the establishment.

(_j_) Meats and meat food products intended for rendering into edible
products must be prevented from falling on the floor, while being
emptied into the tanks, by the use of some device, such as a metal
funnel.

(_k_) Plans of new plants and of plants to be remodeled should be
submitted to the Secretary of Agriculture.

(_l_) Carcasses or parts of carcasses inflated with air blown from the
mouth shall not be marked “U. S. Inspected and Passed.”

(_m_) Carcasses dressed with skewers that have been held in the mouth
shall not be marked “U. S. Inspected and Passed.”


INTERPRETATION AND DEFINITIONS OF WORDS AND TERMS.


REGULATION 12.

Wherever in these regulations the following words, names, or terms are
used they shall be construed as follows:

_Inspectors and Department Employees._--These terms shall mean,
respectively, inspectors and employees of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

“_U. S. Inspected and Passed._”--This phrase shall mean that the
carcasses, parts of carcasses, meats, and meat food products so marked
are sound, healthful, wholesome, and contain no dyes, chemicals,
preservatives, or ingredients which render meats or meat food products
unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, unclean, or unfit for human food.

_Rendered into Lard or Tallow._--This phrase shall mean that the
carcasses, parts of carcasses, meats, and meat food products so
designated have been passed for the preparation of lard or tallow only.

“_U. S. Inspected and Condemned._”--This phrase shall mean that the
carcasses, parts of carcasses, and meat food products so marked are
unfit for food and shall be destroyed for food purposes.

_Carcass._--This word shall mean an animal that has been killed under
these regulations, including all parts which are to be used for food.

_Primal Parts of Carcass._--This phrase shall mean the usual sections
or cuts of the dressed carcass commonly known in the trade, such as
sides, quarters, shoulders, hams, backs, bellies, etc., and entire
edible organs, such as tongues, livers, etc., before they have been
cut, shredded, or otherwise subdivided preliminary to use in the
manufacture of meat food products.

_Meat Food Products._--This term shall mean any product used for food
into the composition of which any portion of the carcass enters, or in
the preparation of which any portion of the carcass is used, including
lard, mince-meat, extracts, gelatin, oleomargarine, butterine, soups,
etc.

_Vinegar._--The word vinegar, as used herein, shall mean cider vinegar,
wine vinegar, malt vinegar, sugar vinegar, glucose vinegar, or spirit
vinegar, as defined by the Committee on Food Standards in Circular No.
10, Secretary’s Office, United States Department of Agriculture.


ANTE-MORTEM EXAMINATION AND INSPECTION.


REGULATION 13.

An ante-mortem examination and inspection shall be made of all cattle,
sheep, swine, and goats about to be slaughtered before they shall be
allowed to enter an establishment at which inspection is maintained.
Said examination and inspection shall be made in the pens, alleys,
or chutes of the establishment at which the animals are about to
be slaughtered. The proprietors of the establishments at which the
said ante-mortem inspection is conducted shall provide satisfactory
facilities for conducting said inspection and for separating and
holding apart from healthy animals those showing symptoms of disease.

All animals showing symptoms or suspected of being affected with any
disease or condition which, under these regulations, would probably
cause their condemnation when slaughtered, shall be marked by affixing
to the ear or tail a metal tag as provided in Regulation 20.

All such animals, except as hereinafter provided, shall be slaughtered
separately, either before regular slaughter has commenced or at the
close of the regular slaughter, and shall be duly identified by a
representative of the establishment to the inspector on duty on the
killing floor before the skins are removed or the carcasses opened for
evisceration.

Animals which have been tagged for pregnancy and which have not been
exposed to any infectious or contagious disease are not required
to be slaughtered, but before any such animal is removed from the
establishment the tag shall be detached by a Department employee and
returned with his report to the inspector in charge.

(_a_) If any pathological condition is suspected in which the question
of temperature is important, such as Texas fever, anthrax, pneumonia,
blackleg, or septicemia, the exact temperature should be taken. Due
consideration, however, must be given to the fact that extremely high
temperatures may be found in otherwise normal hogs when subjected
to exercise or excitement, and a similar condition may obtain to a
less degree among other classes of animals. Animals commonly termed
“downers,” or crippled animals, shall be tagged, as provided for in
Regulation 20, in the abattoir pens for the purpose of identification
at the time of slaughter, and shall be passed upon in accordance with
these regulations.


POST-MORTEM INSPECTION AT TIME OF SLAUGHTER.


REGULATION 14.

The inspector or his assistants shall, at the time of slaughter, make a
careful inspection of all animals slaughtered. The head, tail, thymus
gland, bladder, caul, and the entire viscera, and all parts and blood
used in the preparation of meat food products shall be retained in
such manner as to preserve their identity until after the post-mortem
examination has been completed, in order that they may be identified
in case of condemnation of the carcass. Suitable racks or metal
receptacles shall be provided for retaining such parts.

Carcasses and parts thereof found to be sound, healthful, wholesome,
and fit for human food shall be passed and marked as provided in these
regulations.

Should any lesion of disease or other condition that would probably
render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes be found
on post-mortem examination, such meat or organ shall be marked
immediately with a tag, as provided in Regulation 27. Carcasses which
have been so marked shall not be washed or trimmed unless such washing
or trimming is authorized by the inspector.


DISPOSAL OF DISEASED CARCASSES AND ORGANS.


REGULATION 15.

The carcasses or parts of carcasses of all animals which are
slaughtered at an establishment where inspection is maintained, and
which are found at time of slaughter or at any subsequent inspection to
be affected with any of the diseases or conditions named below shall
be disposed of according to the section of this regulation pertaining
to the disease or condition. It is to be understood, however, that
owing to the fact that it is impracticable to formulate rules covering
every case, and to designate at just what stage a process becomes
loathsome or a disease noxious, the decision as to the disposition
of all carcasses, parts, or organs not specifically covered by these
regulations shall be left to the veterinary inspector in charge.
Carcasses found, before evisceration has taken place, to be affected
with an infectious or contagious disease, including tuberculosis, shall
not be eviscerated at the regular killing bed or bench, but shall
be taken to the retaining room, or other specially prepared place,
separate from other carcasses, and there opened and examined.

(_a_) _Anthrax, or Charbon._--All carcasses showing lesions of this
disease, regardless of the extent of the disease, shall be condemned
and immediately tanked, including the hide, hoofs, horns, viscera,
fat, blood, and all other portions of the animal. The killing bed
upon which the animal was slaughtered shall be disinfected with a 10
percent solution of formalin, and all knives, saws, cleavers, and
other instruments which have come in contact with the carcass shall be
treated as provided in Regulation 11, paragraph (_h_), before being
used upon another carcass.

(_b_) _Blackleg._--Carcasses of animals showing lesions of blackleg
shall be condemned.

(_c_) _Hemorrhagic Septicemia._--Carcasses of animals affected with
this disease shall be condemned.

(_d_) _Pyemia and Septicemia._--Carcasses showing lesions of either of
these diseases shall be condemned.

(_e_) _Rabies._--Carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of rabies
before slaughter shall be condemned.

(_f_) _Tetanus._--Carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of tetanus
before slaughter shall be condemned.

(_g_) _Malignant Epizoötic Catarrh._--Carcasses of animals affected
with this disease and showing generalized inflammation of the mucous
membranes shall be condemned.

(_h_) _Hog Cholera and Swine Plague._--(1) Carcasses showing
well-marked and progressive lesions of hog cholera or swine plague in
more than two of the organs (skin, kidneys, bones, or lymphatic glands)
shall be condemned.

(2) Carcasses showing slight lesions which are confined to the kidneys
and lymphatic glands may be passed.

(3) Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous than those described
for carcasses to be passed, but not so severe as the lesions described
for carcasses to be condemned, may be rendered into lard, provided they
are cooked by steam for four hours at a temperature not lower than 220°
F.

(4) In inspecting carcasses showing lesions of the skin, bones,
kidneys, or lymphatic glands, due consideration shall be given to the
extent and severity of the lesions found in the viscera.

(_i_) _Actinomycosis, or Lumpy Jaw._--(1) If the carcass is in a
well-nourished condition and there is no evidence upon post-mortem
examination that the disease has extended from a primary area of
infection in the head, the carcass may be passed, but the head,
including the tongue, shall be condemned.

(2) If the carcass is in a well-nourished condition and the disease has
extended beyond the primary area of infection, the disposition shall be
made in accordance with the regulations relating to tuberculosis.

(_j_) _Caseous Lymphadenitis._--When the lesions are limited to the
superficial lymphatic glands or to a few nodules in an organ, involving
also the adjacent lymphatic glands, and the carcass is well nourished,
the meat may be passed after the affected parts are removed and
condemned. If extensive lesions, with or without pleuritic adhesions,
are found in the lungs, or if several of the visceral organs contain
caseous nodules and the carcass is emaciated, it shall be condemned.

(_k_) _Tuberculosis._--All carcasses affected with tuberculosis and
showing emaciation shall be condemned. All other carcasses affected
with tuberculosis shall be condemned, except those in which the lesions
are slight, calcified, or encapsulated, and are confined to the tissues
indicated in any one of the following five paragraphs, or to a less
number of such tissues, and excepting also those which may, under
paragraphs (6) and (7) below, be rendered into lard or tallow.

(1) The cervical lymphatic glands and two groups of visceral lymphatic
glands in a single body cavity, such as the cervical, bronchial, and
mediastinal glands, or the cervical, hepatic, and mesenteric glands.

(2) The cervical lymphatic glands and one group of visceral lymphatic
glands and one organ in a single body cavity, such as the cervical and
bronchial glands and the lungs, or the cervical and hepatic glands and
the liver.

(3) Two groups of visceral lymphatic glands and one organ in a single
body cavity, such as the bronchial and mediastinal glands and the
lungs, or the hepatic and mesenteric glands and the liver.

(4) The cervical lymphatic glands and one group of visceral lymphatic
glands in each body cavity, such as the cervical, bronchial, and
hepatic glands.

(5) Two groups of visceral lymphatic glands in the thoracic cavity and
one group in the abdominal cavity, or one group of visceral lymphatic
glands in the thoracic cavity and two groups in the abdominal cavity,
such as the bronchial, mediastinal, and hepatic glands, or the
bronchial, hepatic, and mesenteric glands.

(6) Carcasses affected with tuberculosis, in which the lesions of the
disease are located as described in any one of the preceding five
paragraphs, but are slight and in a state of caseation, or liquefaction
necrosis, or surrounded by hyperemic zones, and also those in which
slight, calcified, or encapsulated lesions are found in more visceral
organs or more groups of visceral lymphatic glands than are specified
in any one of the preceding five paragraphs, may be rendered into lard
or tallow after the diseased parts are removed. The carcasses shall be
cooked by steam at a temperature not lower than 220° F. for not less
than four hours.

(7) Carcasses in which the cervical lymphatic glands, one organ, and
the serous membrane in a single body cavity, such as the cervical
lymphatic glands, the lungs, and the pleura, or the cervical lymphatic
glands, the liver, and the peritoneum, are affected with tuberculosis,
may be rendered into lard or tallow after the diseased parts are
removed. The carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not
lower than 220° F. for not less than four hours.

(8) All condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, or organs showing
lesions of tuberculosis shall be deposited in receptacles provided for
that purpose, and shall either be tanked at once or be locked in the
“condemned” room until such time as an employee of the Department can
see that they are placed in the tank.

(9) All heads and other parts showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be
condemned.

(_l_) _Texas Fever._--Carcasses showing sufficient lesions to warrant
the diagnosis of Texas fever shall be condemned.

(_m_) _Parasitic Ictero-hematuria._--Carcasses of sheep affected with
this disease shall be condemned.

(_n_) _Mange, or Scab._--Carcasses of animals affected with mange,
or scab, in advanced stages, shall be condemned. When the disease is
slight, the carcass may be passed.

(_o_) _Tapeworm Cysts._--Carcasses of animals slightly affected with
tapeworm cysts may be rendered into lard or tallow, but extensively
affected carcasses shall be condemned.

(_p_) _Pneumonia, Pleurisy, Enteritis, Peritonitis, and
Metritis._--Carcasses showing generalized inflammation of one of the
following tissues--the lungs, pleuræ, intestines, peritoneum, or the
uterus--whether in acute or chronic form, shall be condemned.

(_q_) _Icterus._--Carcasses showing an intense yellow or
greenish-yellow discoloration after proper cooling shall be condemned.
Carcasses which exhibit a yellowish tint directly after slaughter, but
lose this discoloration on chilling, may be passed for food.

(_r_) _Uremia and Sexual Odor._--Carcasses which give off the odor of
urine or a strong sexual odor shall be condemned.

(_s_) _Urticaria, Etc._--Hogs affected with urticaria (diamond skin
disease), _Tinea tonsurans_, _Demodex folliculorum_, or erythema may
be passed after detaching and condemning the skin, if the carcass is
otherwise fit for food.

(_t_) _Melanosis, Etc._--Carcasses of animals showing any disease
or injury, such as traumatic pericarditis, generalized melanosis,
pseudo-leukemia, etc., which causes considerable elevation of
temperature or affects the system of the animal, shall be condemned.

(_u_) _Bruises, Abscesses, Liver Flukes, Etc._--Any organ or part of
a carcass which is badly bruised or which is affected by malignant
tumors, abscesses, suppurating sores, or liver flukes shall be
condemned, but when the lesions are so extensive as to affect the whole
carcass, the whole carcass shall be condemned.

(_v_) _Emaciation and Anemia._--Carcasses of animals too emaciated or
anemic to produce wholesome meat and those carcasses which show a slimy
degeneration of the fat or a serous infiltration of the muscles shall
be condemned.

(_w_) _Pregnancy and Parturition._--Carcasses of animals in advanced
stages of pregnancy (showing signs of preparation for parturition),
also carcasses of animals which have within ten days given birth to
young and in which there is no evidence of septic infection, may
be rendered into lard or tallow if desired by the manager of the
establishment, otherwise they shall be condemned.

(_x_) _Immaturity._--Carcasses of animals too immature to produce
wholesome meat, all unborn and stillborn animals, also carcasses
of calves, pigs, kids, and lambs under three weeks of age shall be
condemned.

(_y_) _Diseased Parts._--In all cases where carcasses showing localized
lesions of disease are passed or rendered into lard or tallow, the
diseased parts must be removed before the “U. S. Retained” tag is taken
from the carcass, and such parts shall be condemned.

(_z_) _Careless Scalding._--Hogs which have been allowed to pass into
the scalding vat alive shall be condemned.

(_aa_) _Dead Animals._--All animals that die in abattoir pens, and
those in a dying condition before slaughter, shall be tagged as
provided in Regulation 21, and in all cases shall be condemned. In
conveying animals which have died in the pens of an establishment to
the tank they shall not be allowed lo pass through compartments in
which food products are prepared. No dead animals shall be brought
into an establishment for rendering from outside the premises of said
establishment.


“RETAINING” AND “CONDEMNED” ROOMS.


REGULATION 16.

Separate compartments, to be known as “retaining rooms,” or other
special places for final inspection, shall be set apart at all
establishments at which inspection is maintained, and all carcasses and
parts marked with a “U. S. Retained” tag shall be held in these rooms
pending final inspection. These rooms shall be rat proof and furnished
with abundant light; the floors shall be of cement, metal, or brick
laid in cement. They shall be provided with facilities for locking,
and locks for this purpose will be furnished by the Department. The
keys to such locks shall remain in the custody of the inspector or his
assistant.

Immediately after the final inspection of carcasses and parts are
marked with “U. S. Retained” tags is completed, those found to be
wholesome and fit for human food shall be released by the veterinary
inspector conducting the inspection, who shall remove the “U. S.
Retained” tags, and the carcasses shall be removed from the retaining
rooms and marked “U. S. Inspected and Passed,” as provided in
Regulation 28.

The floors and walls of all retaining rooms shall be washed with hot
water and disinfected after diseased animals are removed, and before
any “retained” animals are again placed therein.

Carcasses or parts of carcasses found on final inspection to be
unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food
shall be marked “U. S. Inspected and Condemned,” as provided in
Regulation 28, and shall be removed from the retaining room to the
“condemned” room, if not tanked within twenty-four hours.

(_a_) In each establishment at which condemned carcasses or meat food
products are held for more than twenty-four hours after condemnation,
there shall be provided a room entirely separate from all other rooms
in the establishment. This room shall be secure and shall be provided
with a lock, the key of which shall remain in the custody of a
Department employee. This room shall be known as the “condemned” room,
and shall be kept locked at all times except when condemned meat or
meat food product is being taken into or from the said room under the
supervision of a Department employee.

All condemned carcasses shall be removed from retaining rooms within
twenty-four hours after they are condemned, except in questionable
cases, when they are held pending the decision of the inspector in
charge. Condemned carcasses shall not be allowed to accumulate,
but shall be removed from the “condemned” rooms, treated with
coloring substances, or otherwise treated, as provided in Regulation
18, paragraph (_b_), and tanked within a reasonable time after
condemnation. Carcasses of diseased animals which are eviscerated
in the retaining room or in the specially prepared place under
the provisions of Regulation 15, shall, unless passed, be removed
immediately either to the “condemned” room or to the tank.


REGULATION 17.

_Bruised Parts._--When a portion of a carcass is to be condemned on
account of slight bruises, which cannot be properly removed until the
carcass is chilled, the carcass shall be marked with a “U. S. Retained”
tag and placed in the retaining room. After chilling, the affected
portion shall be cut out, marked “U. S. Inspected and Condemned,”
and removed to the tank or locked in the “condemned” room, and the
remainder of the carcass shall be marked “U. S. Inspected and Passed.”


TANKS AND TANKING.


REGULATION 18.

All condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, and meat food products
shall be tanked as follows:

(_a_) After the lower opening of the tank has been securely sealed by
an employee of the Department, and the condemned carcasses, parts,
and meat food products are placed therein in his presence, the upper
opening shall be likewise securely sealed by such employee, whose duty
it shall be then to see that a sufficient force of steam is turned
into the tank and maintained a sufficient length of time effectually
to render the contents unfit for any edible product. Tanks for this
purpose shall be so located or operated that the fumes and odors
therefrom shall not pervade compartments in which carcasses are dressed
or edible products prepared. Wire and lead seals are provided by the
Department for sealing tanks.

(_b_) A sufficient quantity of coloring matter or other substance to
be designated by the Department shall be used in connection with the
tanking of all condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, meats, and meat
food products, to destroy them effectually for food purposes.

(_c_) The seals of tanks containing condemned meats or the tankage
thereof shall be broken only by an employee of the Department.

(_d_) If an establishment where inspection is maintained fails to
permit the treatment and tanking of condemned carcasses, parts
of carcasses, meats, or meat food products, as required by these
regulations, the inspector in charge shall report that fact to the
Department, in order that inspection may be withdrawn from such
establishment.


REGULATION 19.

Any meats or meat food products condemned at establishments which have
no facilities for tanking shall be treated as provided in Regulation
18, paragraph (b), and removed to an establishment indicated by the
inspector in charge and there tanked and rendered under the supervision
of an employee of the Department.


LABELS, TAGS, AND BRANDS.

“U. S. SUSPECT” TAG.


REGULATION 20.

To the ear or tail of each animal inspected under Regulation 13 which
shows symptoms or is suspected of being affected with any disease or
condition which, under these regulations, may cause its condemnation on
post-mortem inspection, there shall be affixed by a Department employee
at the time of inspection a numbered metal tag bearing the words “U.
S. Suspect.” The employee who affixes the tag shall report the number
to the inspector in charge. This “U. S. Suspect” tag shall remain upon
the animal until the preliminary post-mortem inspection at the time of
slaughter. If no lesions of disease are then discovered, the “U. S.
Suspect” tag shall be removed and forwarded to the inspector in charge,
with a report that the carcass has been inspected and passed, and the
carcass shall be labeled or stamped “U. S. Inspected and Passed,” as
hereinafter provided.


ANTE-MORTEM CONDEMNED TAG.


REGULATION 21.

To the ear of each animal which is found in a dying condition or dead
on the premises of an establishment at which inspection is maintained
there shall be affixed by a Department employee a numbered metal tag
bearing the words “U. S. Condemned.” The ear bearing the tag shall not
be removed from the carcass. The number of this tag shall be reported
to the inspector in charge by the employee who affixes it. This tag
shall remain on the condemned carcass until it reaches the tank, and
immediately before tanking it shall be removed by the Department
employee who is supervising the tanking and returned with a report to
the inspector in charge.


LABELING BEEF FOR EXPORT.


REGULATION 22.

Upon each quarter of each dressed beef carcass inspected and passed for
export there shall be placed by a Department employee a meat-inspection
label or mark, which shall bear the number of the establishment and the
words “U. S. Inspected and Passed.”


LABELING BEEF FOR INTERSTATE COMMERCE.


REGULATION 23.

Upon each dressed beef carcass inspected and passed for interstate
commerce there shall be placed by a Department employee at the time
of inspection at least ten labels or marks bearing the number of the
establishment and the words “U. S. Inspected and Passed.”


LABELING CANNERS.


REGULATION 24.

Upon each quarter of each dressed beef carcass inspected and passed,
and which is to be cut up and prepared in the establishment in which
the animal was slaughtered or in another establishment where inspection
is maintained, there shall be placed by a Department employee at the
time of inspection one label or mark bearing the establishment number
and the words “U. S. Inspected and Passed.” If, however, a primal part
of any such carcass is to leave the establishment for interstate or
foreign commerce, such primal part, or the container thereof, must
be labeled, stamped, or branded, under the personal supervision of a
Department employee, with the establishment number and the words “U. S.
Inspected and Passed.”


LABELING CARCASSES OF SHEEP, CALVES, SWINE, AND GOATS.


REGULATION 25.

Upon the dressed carcasses of sheep, calves, swine, and goats inspected
and passed for interstate or export commerce there shall be placed by
a Department employee at the time of inspection at least two labels
or marks bearing the number of the establishment and the words “U. S.
Inspected and Passed.”


STAMP ON CLOTH WRAPPING.


REGULATION 26.

When the dressed carcasses or parts thereof of cattle, sheep, calves,
swine, or goats are wrapped or inclosed for shipment for interstate
or export commerce in burlap, muslin, cheese cloth, or other similar
substance, the covering shall bear a meat-inspection stamp or other
mark on which shall appear the establishment number and the words “U.
S. Inspected and Passed.”


“U. S. RETAINED” TAG


REGULATION 27.

Upon each carcass, or part or detached organ thereof, inspected under
Regulation 14, in which any lesion of disease or other condition is
found that would probably render the meat or any organ unfit for food
purposes, there shall be placed by a Department employee at the time of
inspection a paper tag, numbered in duplicate, bearing the words “U. S.
Retained,” attached by a wire and seal. The inspector who attaches this
“U. S. Retained” tag shall detach the numbered stub thereof and return
it with his report to the inspector in charge. The other portion shall
accompany the carcass to the retaining Room.


“U. S. CONDEMNED STAMP.”


REGULATION 28.

Upon each carcass, or part or detached organ thereof, which is found
on final inspection in the retaining room, or other special place
for final inspection, to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or
otherwise unfit for human food, there shall be stamped conspicuously
by a Department employee at the time of inspection the words “U. S.
Inspected and Condemned.” In addition the “U. S. Retained” tag shall
remain upon the carcass and shall be stamped with the words “U. S.
Inspected and Condemned.” This stamped “U. S. Retained” tag shall
accompany the carcass to the tank and shall be removed immediately
before tanking by the Department employee who is supervising that
operation, and he shall write or stamp upon the tag the word “Tanked,”
the date, sign his name, and return the tag with his report to the
inspector in charge. If, however, upon final inspection the carcass
is passed for food, the inspector shall stamp the retained tag “U.
S. Inspected and Passed,” and return the tag with his report to the
inspector in charge.


MARKING OF PRIMAL PARTS.


REGULATION 29.

On each primal part, or organ, or the container thereof, which has
been inspected and passed, and which is to leave the establishment
for interstate or export commerce, and which has not been theretofore
marked with the words “U. S. Inspected and Passed,” and the
establishment number, there shall be placed, under the personal
supervision of a Department employee, a mark, stamp, or brand bearing
the words “U. S. Inspected and Passed” and the establishment number.
When primal parts or organs are shipped between establishments at which
inspection is maintained the number of the establishment need not
appear.


BRANDING IRONS.


REGULATION 30.

When hot branding irons or other instruments are used to label hams,
bacon, or other primal part with the name of the packer, or with a
trade-mark, and it is desired, in addition, to indicate that the meat
has been inspected by the Department of Agriculture, the wording for
this purpose, which shall be in letters and figures of sufficient size
to be legible, shall include the number of the establishment in which
the product was produced, and also the statement “U. S. Inspected and
Passed,” or the abbreviated statement “U. S. Ins. Psd.” This marking
shall be accepted as the United States inspection mark. It shall be
affixed, however, only under the personal supervision of a Department
employee.


“SPECIAL” STAMP.


REGULATION 31.

Upon all meats and meat food products prepared for export with
preservatives under Regulation 39, paragraph (_b_), there shall also
be stamped or branded, under the personal supervision of a Department
employee, the word “Special.” This word “Special” shall not be used
upon any inspected meats or meat food products not prepared under said
Regulation 39, unless it is used in combination with other words.


TRADE LABELS.


REGULATION 32.

Upon each can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle or covering
containing any meat or meat food product for interstate or foreign
commerce, except packages on which meat-inspection stamps appear, there
shall be placed, under the supervision of a Department employee, a
trade label. This trade label shall contain the words “U. S. Inspected
and Passed, under the Act of Congress of June 30, 1906,” in plain
letters and figures of uniform size, the number of the establishment
at which the meat or meat food product is last prepared or packed, and
labeled, and the true name of the meat or meat food product contained
in such package. Only trade names which are not false or deceptive may
be used upon the trade label. A copy of each trade label shall be filed
with the inspector in charge for his approval. The inspector in charge
shall approve or disapprove each trade label, and report his action for
approval to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, forwarding the
label with his report. Only trade labels which have been approved by
the Secretary of Agriculture shall be used.


REGULATION 33.

_False or Deceptive Names._--No meat or meat food products shall
be sold or offered for sale by any person, firm, or corporation in
interstate or foreign commerce under any false or deceptive name; but
established trade name or names which are usual to such products and
which are not false and deceptive, and which shall be approved by the
Secretary of Agriculture, are permitted. Trade labels which are false
or deceptive in any particular shall not be permitted. A meat food
product, whether composed of one or more ingredients, shall not be
named on a trade label with a name stating or purporting to show that
the said meat food product is a substance which is not the principal
ingredient contained therein, even though such name be an established
trade name.


TAGGING REINSPECTED MEATS AND MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS.


REGULATION 34.

Upon all meats or meat food products, which are suspected on
reinspection of being unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise
unfit for human food, or upon the containers thereof, there shall be
placed by a Department employee at the time of reinspection the “U. S.
Retained” tags hereinbefore described. The employee who affixes the
tag shall send the numbered stub with his report to the inspector in
charge. These tags shall accompany the said meats or meat food products
to the retaining room or other special place for final inspection.
When the final inspection is made, if the meat or meat food product be
condemned the “U. S. Retained” tag shall be stamped “U. S. Inspected
and Condemned,” and shall accompany the condemned meat or meat food
product to the tank.

Immediately before the meat or meat food product is tanked the employee
supervising that operation shall write or stamp the word “Tanked” and
the date upon the said tag, and sign his name thereto, and forward
the tag to the inspector in charge with his report. If, however, upon
final inspection the meat or meat food product is passed for food, the
inspector shall stamp the retained tag “U. S. Inspected and Passed,”
and return the tag with his report to the inspector in charge.


REFERENCE TO UNITED STATES INSPECTION.


REGULATION 35.

Except as provided in these regulations, no reference to United States
inspection shall appear upon any meat or meat food product or the
container thereof.


REINSPECTION.


REINSPECTION OF PASSED CARCASSES AND PARTS.

REGULATION 36.


Before being admitted into any cooking, canning, sausage, or other
department of an establishment, also before being packed for shipment,
and at such other times as may be deemed necessary, all dressed
carcasses or parts thereof that have been previously inspected and
passed shall be reinspected by an inspector or his assistants, and if
upon any such reinspection any carcass or part thereof is found to
have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any way unfit for
human food, the original mark, stamp, tag, or label shall be removed or
cancelled and the carcass or part shall be condemned.


REINSPECTION OF INSPECTED MEATS RECEIVED AT OFFICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS.


REGULATION 37.

Except as provided in Regulation 41, only carcasses and parts thereof,
meats, and meat food products which can by marks, seals, brands, or
labels be identified as having been previously inspected and passed
by a Department employee shall be taken into or allowed to enter an
establishment at which inspection is maintained. All such carcasses,
parts, meats, and meat food products which are brought into one
establishment from another, or which are returned to the establishment
from which they issued, shall be identified and reinspected at the
time of receipt, and shall be subject to further reinspection in such
manner and at such times as may be deemed necessary. If upon any such
reinspection any carcass or part thereof, or meat or meat food product,
is found to have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any
way unfit for human food, the original mark, stamp, tag, or label
shall be removed or canceled and the carcass, part, meat, or meat food
product shall be condemned.

(_a_) Special docks and receiving rooms shall be designated by the
establishment for the receipt and inspection of meats or meat food
products, and no meats or meat food products shall be allowed to enter
the establishment by any other docks or receiving rooms, and only in
the presence of a Department employee.


MARKING PASSED CARCASSES OR PARTS.


REGULATION 38.

All carcasses and parts of carcasses found upon inspection to be
sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food which leave the
establishment where they are prepared for interstate or foreign
commerce shall be designated by a mark, stamp, tag, or label bearing
the words “U. S. Inspected and Passed,” and no carcass, part of
a carcass, or meat food product which has not been so designated
shall be admitted to the canning, sausage, or any other department
of any establishment where inspection is maintained other than
the establishment in which it was prepared, except as provided in
Regulation 41.


DYES, CHEMICALS, AND PRESERVATIVES.


REGULATION 39.

(_a_) No meat or meat food product for interstate commerce, or for
foreign commerce except as hereinafter provided, shall contain any
substance which lessens its wholesomeness, nor any drug, chemical,
or dye (unless specifically provided for by a Federal statute), or
preservative, other than common salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar,
pure spices, and, pending further inquiry, saltpeter. Inspection
and sampling of prepared meats and meat food products by Department
employees shall be conducted in such manner and at such times as may be
necessary to secure a rigid enforcement of this regulation.

(_b_) In accordance with the direction of the foreign purchaser or his
agent, meats and meat food products prepared for export may contain
preservatives in proportions which do not conflict with the laws of the
foreign country to which they are to be exported.

When such meats or meat food products are prepared for export
under this regulation they shall be prepared in compartments of
the establishment separate and apart from those in which meats and
meat food products are prepared according to paragraph (_a_) of
this regulation, and such products shall be kept separate and shall
be labeled with special trade labels, approved by the Secretary of
Agriculture, and indicating that such products are for export only.
Special export certificates will be issued for meats and meat food
products of this character, and, if the products are not exported,
under no circumstances shall they be allowed to enter domestic trade.


PREPARATION OF MEATS AND MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS.


REGULATION 40.

All processes used in curing, pickling, preparing, or canning meats and
meat food products in establishments where inspection is maintained
shall be supervised by Department employees, and no fixtures or
appliances, such as tables, trucks, trays, vats, machines, implements,
cans, or containers of any kind, shall be used unless they are clean
and sanitary, and all steps in the process of manufacture shall be
conducted carefully and with strict cleanliness.

(_a_) _Cured Meats._--Only meats which bear the mark “U. S. Inspected
and Passed,” or meats in containers which are so marked, and which
upon reinspection are found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, and
fit for human food, shall be taken into any meat-curing establishment
where inspection is maintained. Any meats which upon reinspection are
found to have undergone changes which render them unsound, unclean,
unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, shall be
condemned and be disposed of as provided in Regulation 18.

No drug, chemical, or coloring matter shall be used in any process of
curing any meats, except as provided in Regulation 39. All pickling
fluids and other solutions or substances used in curing meats must
be clean. At the time that cured meats are packed for shipment in
interstate or foreign commerce they shall be inspected by a Department
employee, and any pieces or portions of such meats which are found to
have undergone changes which render them unclean, unsound, unhealthful,
unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, shall be condemned and
disposed of as provided in Regulation 18.

(_b_) _Sausages and Chopped Meats._--All meat entering a sausage
establishment where inspection is maintained shall be inspected
by a Department employee when received. No meats which have not
been inspected and passed under these regulations at the time of
slaughter, or which, having been so inspected and passed, are found
upon reinspection by a Department employee to have undergone changes
which render them unsound, unclean, unhealthful, unwholesome, or
otherwise unfit for human food, shall be employed in the preparation of
sausages, chopped meats, or similar meat food products. Meats or meat
food products which are found to have undergone these changes shall
be condemned and disposed of as provided in Regulation 18. All meat
trimmings for sausage shall be carefully inspected and assorted under
the supervision of employees of the Department. No drug, chemical,
preservative, or coloring matter shall be placed in or upon sausages or
chopped meats for interstate or foreign commerce, except as provided in
Regulation 39. The curing of sausages or chopped meats or similar meat
food products shall be carried out in the manner prescribed for other
meats in section (_a_) of this regulation.

(_c_) _Canned Products._--All meats or meat food products entering a
canning establishment shall be inspected by a Department employee when
received. No meat which has not been inspected and passed at the time
of slaughter under these regulations, or which, having been inspected
and passed, is reinspected by a Department employee and found to have
undergone changes which render it unclean, unsound, unhealthful,
unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, shall be allowed
to enter into the preparation of canned meats or canned meat food
products. No drug, chemical, or coloring matter shall be used in canned
meats or meat food products for interstate or foreign commerce, except
as provided in Regulation 39.

If at any time during the handling of any meat or meat food product,
or at any time after the packing or canning of any such product, any
portion or package shall be found to be unwholesome, unhealthful, or
otherwise unfit for human food, such portions or packages shall be
condemned and disposed of in the manner prescribed in Regulation 18.

No meat food product which has passed through the various processes of
canning shall be removed from the container and recooked, resterilized,
or repacked, except under the supervision and with the approval of a
Department employee.


REGULATION 41.

_Rendering of Lard and Tallow._--The rendering of all fats into lard,
tallow, oils, and stearin at establishments where inspection is
maintained shall be closely supervised by employees of the Department.
All portions of carcasses rendered into lard and tallow must be clean
and wholesome. Tanks and vats used for rendering condemned carcasses
and refuse products must not be connected in any manner with tanks,
vats, or other receptacles used for lard or other edible products.
Unmelted fat which is not marked or stamped “U. S. Inspected and
Passed” and which upon inspection is found to be sweet, clean, and of
healthful appearance may be received, inspected, and rendered at a
temperature not lower than 170° F. for one hour.


STAMPS, STAMPING, AND CERTIFICATES.


STAMPS.


REGULATION 42.

Numbered meat-inspection stamps shall be affixed to packages containing
meats or meat food products to be shipped or otherwise transported in
interstate or foreign trade. No reference to United States inspection
other than that contained on the meat-inspection stamp shall appear on
any such package.


REGULATION 43.

_Protection for Stamps._--Stamps shall be affixed in the following
manner, and when they have been affixed they shall be covered
immediately with a coating of transparent varnish or other similar
substance.

(_a_) The stamp may be affixed in a grooved space, made by removing a
portion of the wood, of sufficient size to admit the stamp.

(_b_) The stamp may be placed on either end of the package, provided
that the sides are made to project at least one-eighth of an inch to
afford the necessary protection from abrasion.


REGULATION 44.

_Destruction of Used Stamps._--Whenever any package of meats or meat
food products bearing the meat-inspection stamp shall have been opened
and its contents removed for sale the stamp on said package shall be
immediately defaced and destroyed.


CERTIFICATES FOR EXPORTS.


REGULATION 45.

The inspector in charge of an establishment shall issue certificates of
inspection for all carcasses of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and
the meats or meat food products thereof, which are to be exported to
foreign countries. Each certificate shall cite the name of the shipper,
the name of the consignee, the destination, the establishment number
or numbers on the labels, the numbers of the stamps attached to the
article to be exported, and the shipping marks. These certificates
shall be issued in serial numbers and in triplicate form. Only one
certificate shall be issued for each consignment unless otherwise
directed by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Both the original and duplicate certificates shall be delivered
to the exporter. The original is to be attached to the bill of
lading accompanying the shipment for the information of the customs
authorities, and shall be delivered to the chief officer of the vessel
upon which said consignment is to be transported, and continue with
the shipment to destination. The duplicate shall be forwarded by the
consigner to the consignee, to be used by the latter in identifying the
shipment at the point of destination by comparison with the original.


COUNTERFEITING, ETC.


REGULATION 46.

It is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for
any person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee
thereof, to forge, counterfeit, simulate, or falsely represent,
or without proper authority to use, fail to use, or detach, or
knowingly or wrongfully to alter, deface, or destroy, or to fail to
deface or destroy, any of the marks, stamps, tags, labels, or other
identification devices provided for by law or by these regulations,
on any carcasses, parts of carcasses, or the food product, or the
containers thereof, or wrongfully to use, deface, or destroy any
certificate provided for by law or these regulations.


REPORTS.


REGULATION 47.

Reports of the work of inspection carried on in every establishment
shall be daily forwarded to the Department by the inspector in charge,
on such blank forms and in such manner as may be specified by the Chief
of the Bureau of Animal Industry. The proprietors of establishments at
which inspection is maintained shall furnish daily to the Department
employees detailed to the various departments accurate information
regarding receipts, shipments, and amounts of products on which to base
their daily reports.

Weekly reports on sanitation shall be made by the Department employees
in charge of the various departments to the inspector in charge of the
station, and by the inspector in charge to the Chief of the Bureau
of Animal Industry. If any insanitary conditions are detected by any
Department employee such conditions shall be reported immediately to
the inspector in charge, who, after investigation, shall report them to
the Chief of the Bureau.


APPEALS.


REGULATION 48.

When the action of any inspector in condemning any carcass or part
thereof, meat, or meat food product is questioned, appeal may be made
to the inspector in charge, and from his decision appeal may be made
to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry or to the Secretary of
Agriculture, whose decision shall be final.


COÖPERATION WITH MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES.


REGULATION 49.

All inspectors in charge are directed to notify the municipal
authorities of the character of inspection, and to coöperate with such
authorities in preventing the entry of condemned animals, or their
products, into the local markets.

The details of any such proposed coöperative arrangement must be first
submitted to and approved by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry.


LAW UNDER WHICH THE FOREGOING REGULATIONS ARE MADE.

Extract from an act of Congress entitled “An Act making appropriations
for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and seven,” Public, No. 382, approved June
30, 1906.


THE MEAT-INSPECTION AMENDMENT.

That for the purpose of preventing the use in interstate or foreign
commerce, as hereinafter provided, of meat and meat food products,
which are unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit
for human food, the Secretary of Agriculture, at his discretion,
may cause to be made, by inspectors appointed for that purpose, an
examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats
before they shall be allowed to enter into any slaughtering, packing,
meat-canning, rendering, or similar establishment, in which they are to
be slaughtered and the meat and meat food products thereof are to be
used in interstate or foreign commerce; and all cattle, swine, sheep,
and goats found on such inspection to show symptoms of disease shall
be set apart and slaughtered separately from all other cattle, sheep,
swine, or goats, and when so slaughtered the carcasses of said cattle,
sheep, swine, or goats shall be subject to a careful examination
and inspection, all as provided by the rules and regulations to be
prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture as herein provided for.

That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of
Agriculture shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for
that purpose, as hereinafter provided, a post-mortem examination
and inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle,
sheep, swine, and goats to be prepared for human consumption at any
slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar
establishment in any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia
for transportation or sale as articles of interstate or foreign
commerce; and the carcasses and parts thereof of all such animals
found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food shall
be marked, stamped, tagged, or labeled as “Inspected and Passed”;
and said inspectors shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as “Inspected
and Condemned,” all carcasses and parts thereof of animals found to
be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human
food; and all carcasses and parts thereof thus inspected and condemned
shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the
presence of an inspector, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove
inspectors from any such establishment which fails to so destroy any
such condemned carcass or part thereof, and said inspectors, after
said first inspection shall, when they deem it necessary, reinspect
said carcasses or parts thereof to determine whether since the first
inspection the same have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome,
or in any way unfit for human food, and if any carcass or any part
thereof shall, upon examination and inspection subsequent to the first
examination and inspection, be found to be unsound, unhealthful,
unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall be destroyed
for food purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an
inspector, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspectors from
any establishment which fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass
or part thereof.

The foregoing provisions shall apply to all carcasses or parts
of carcasses of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the meat or
meat products thereof which may be brought into any slaughtering,
meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment,
and such examination and inspection shall be had before the said
carcasses or parts thereof shall be allowed to enter into any
department wherein the same are to be treated and prepared for meat
food products; and the foregoing provisions shall also apply to all
such products which, after having been issued from any slaughtering,
meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment,
shall be returned to the same or to any similar establishment where
such inspection is maintained.

That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of
Agriculture shall cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that
purpose an examination and inspection of all meat food products
prepared for interstate or foreign commerce in any slaughtering,
meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment,
and for the purposes of any examination and inspection said inspectors
shall have access at all times, by day or night, whether the
establishment be operated or not, to every part of said establishment;
and said inspectors shall mark, stamp, tag, or label as “Inspected and
Passed” all such products found to be sound, healthful, and wholesome,
and which contain no dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients
which render such meat or meat food products unsound, unhealthful,
unwholesome, or unfit for human food; and said inspectors shall label,
mark, stamp, or tag as “Inspected and Condemned” all such products
found unsound, unhealthful, and unwholesome, or which contain dyes,
chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which render such meat or meat
food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit for human
food, and all such condemned meat food products shall be destroyed
for food purposes, as hereinbefore provided, and the Secretary of
Agriculture may remove inspectors from any establishment which fails to
so destroy such condemned meat food products: _Provided_, That, subject
to the rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture, the
provisions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat
food products for export to any foreign country and which are prepared
or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign
purchaser, when no substance is used in the preparation or packing
thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said
article is to be exported; but if said article shall be in fact sold
or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, then this proviso
shall not exempt said article from the operation of all the other
provisions of this act.

That when any meat or meat food product prepared for interstate or
foreign commerce which has been inspected as hereinbefore provided and
marked “Inspected and Passed” shall be placed or packed in any can,
pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle or covering in any establishment
where inspection under the provisions of this act is maintained, the
person, firm, or corporation preparing said product shall cause a label
to be attached to said can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle or
covering, under the supervision of an inspector, which label shall
state that the contents thereof have been “Inspected and Passed” under
the provisions of this act; and no inspection and examination of meat
or meat food products deposited or inclosed in cans, tins, pots,
canvas, or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where
inspection under the provisions of this act is maintained shall be
deemed to be complete until such meat or meat food products have been
sealed or inclosed in said can, tin, pot, canvas, or other receptacle
or covering under the supervision of an inspector, and no such meat or
meat food products shall be sold or offered for sale by any person,
firm, or corporation in interstate or foreign commerce under any false
or deceptive name; but established trade name or names which are usual
to such products and which are not false and deceptive and which shall
be approved by the Secretary of Agriculture are permitted.

The Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made, by experts in
sanitation or by other competent inspectors, such inspection of all
slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar
establishments in which cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are slaughtered
and the meat and meat food products thereof are prepared for interstate
or foreign commerce as may be necessary to inform himself concerning
the sanitary conditions of the same, and to prescribe the rules and
regulations of sanitation under which such establishments shall be
maintained; and where the sanitary conditions of any such establishment
are such that the meat or meat food products are rendered unclean,
unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food,
he shall refuse to allow said meat or meat food products to be labeled,
marked, stamped, or tagged as “Inspected and Passed.”

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause an examination and
inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the food
products thereof, slaughtered and prepared in the establishments
hereinbefore described for the purposes of interstate or foreign
commerce to be made during the nighttime as well as during the daytime
when the slaughtering of said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the
preparation of said food products is conducted during the nighttime.

That on and after October first, nineteen hundred and six, no person,
firm, or corporation shall transport or offer for transportation, and
no carrier of interstate or foreign commerce shall transport or receive
for transportation from one State or Territory or the District of
Columbia to any other State or Territory or the District of Columbia,
or to any place under the jurisdiction of the United States, or to
any foreign country, any carcasses or parts thereof, meat, or meat
food products thereof which have not been inspected, examined, and
marked as “Inspected and Passed,” in accordance with the terms of this
act and with the rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary
of Agriculture: _Provided_, That all meat and meat food products on
hand on October first, nineteen hundred and six, at establishments
where inspection has not been maintained, or which have been inspected
under existing law, shall be examined and labeled under such rules and
regulations as the Secretary of Agriculture shall prescribe, and then
shall be allowed to be sold in interstate or foreign commerce.

That no person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee
thereof, shall forge, counterfeit, simulate, or falsely represent,
or shall without proper authority use, fail to use, or detach, or
shall knowingly or wrongfully alter, deface, or destroy, or fail to
deface or destroy, any of the marks, stamps, tags, labels, or other
identification devices provided for in this act, or in and as directed
by the rules and regulations prescribed hereunder by the Secretary of
Agriculture, on any carcasses, parts of carcasses, or the food product,
or containers thereof, subject to the provisions of this act, or any
certificate in relation thereto, authorized or required by this act or
by the said rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture.

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made a careful
inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats intended and offered
for export to foreign countries at such times and places, and in such
manner as he may deem proper, to ascertain whether such cattle, sheep,
swine, and goats are free from disease.

And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized
to give an official certificate clearly stating the condition in which
such cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are found.

And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board cattle,
sheep, swine, or goats for export to a foreign country until the owner
or shipper of such cattle, sheep, swine, or goats has a certificate
from the inspector herein authorized to be appointed, stating that the
said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, are sound and healthy or unless
the Secretary of Agriculture shall have waived the requirement of such
certificate for export to the particular country to which such cattle,
sheep, swine, or goats are to be exported.

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall also cause to be made a careful
inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep,
swine, and goats, the meat of which, fresh, salted, canned, corned,
packed, cured, or otherwise prepared, is intended and offered for
export to any foreign country, at such times and places and in such
manner as he may deem proper.

And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized
to give an official certificate stating the condition in which said
cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, and the meat thereof, are found.

And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board any
fresh, salted, canned, corned, or packed beef, mutton, pork, or goat
meat, being the meat of animals killed after the passage of this act,
or except as hereinbefore provided for export to and sale in a foreign
country from any port in the United States, until the owner or shipper
thereof shall obtain from an inspector appointed under the provisions
of this act a certificate that the said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats
were sound and healthy at the time of inspection, and that their meat
is sound and wholesome, unless the Secretary of Agriculture shall have
waived the requirements of such certificate for the country to which
said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or meats are to be exported.

That the inspectors provided for herein shall be authorized to give
official certificates of the sound and wholesome condition of the
cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, their carcasses and products as
herein described, and one copy of every certificate granted under the
provisions of this act shall be filed in the Department of Agriculture,
another copy shall be delivered to the owner or shipper, and when the
cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or their carcasses and products are
sent abroad, a third copy shall be delivered to the chief officer of
the vessel on which the shipment shall be made.

That no person, firm, or corporation engaged in the interstate
commerce of meat or meat food products shall transport or offer for
transportation, sell, or offer to sell any such meat or meat food
products in any State or Territory or in the District of Columbia or
any place under the jurisdiction of the United States, other than in
the State or Territory or in the District of Columbia or any place
under the jurisdiction of the United States in which the slaughtering,
packing, canning, rendering, or other similar establishment owned,
leased, operated by said firm, person, or corporation is located unless
and until said person, firm, or corporation shall have complied with
all of the provisions of this act.

That any person, firm, or corporation, or any officer or agent of
any such person, firm, or corporation, who shall violate any of the
provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and
shall be punished on conviction thereof by a fine of not exceeding ten
thousand dollars or imprisonment for a period not more than two years,
or by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court.

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall appoint from time to time
inspectors to make examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep,
swine, and goats, the inspection of which is hereby provided for, and
of all carcasses and parts thereof, and of all meats and meat food
products thereof, and of the sanitary conditions of all establishments
in which such meat and meat food products hereinbefore described are
prepared; and said inspectors shall refuse to stamp, mark, tag, or
label any carcass or any part thereof, or meat food product therefrom,
prepared in any establishment hereinbefore mentioned, until the same
shall have actually been inspected and found to be sound, healthful,
wholesome, and fit for human food, and to contain no dyes, chemicals,
preservatives, or ingredients which render such meat food product
unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit for human food; and to have
been prepared under proper sanitary conditions, hereinbefore provided
for; and shall perform such other duties as are provided by this act
and by the rules and regulations to be prescribed by said Secretary
of Agriculture; and said Secretary of Agriculture shall, from time
to time, make such rules and regulations as are necessary for the
efficient execution of the provisions of this act, and all inspections
and examinations made under this act shall be such and made in such
manner as described in the rules and regulations prescribed by said
Secretary of Agriculture not inconsistent with the provisions of this
act.

That any person, firm, or corporation, or any agent or employee of any
person, firm, or corporation, who shall give, pay, or offer, directly,
or indirectly, to any inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector,
or any other officer or employee of the United States authorized to
perform any of the duties prescribed by this act or by the rules and
regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture any money or other thing of
value, with intent to influence said inspector, deputy inspector, chief
inspector, or other officer or employee of the United States in the
discharge of any duty herein provided for, shall be deemed guilty of a
felony and, upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine not
less than five thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and
by imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years; and
any inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or other officer or
employee of the United States authorized to perform any of the duties
prescribed by this act who shall accept any money, gift, or other thing
of value from any person, firm, or corporation, or officers, agents, or
employees thereof, given with intent to influence his official action,
or who shall receive or accept from any person, firm, or corporation
engaged in interstate or foreign commerce, any gift, money, or other
thing of value given with any purpose or intent whatsoever, shall be
deemed guilty of a felony, and shall, upon conviction thereof, be
summarily discharged from office and shall be punished by a fine not
less than one thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars and
by imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years.

That the provisions of this act requiring inspection to be made by
the Secretary of Agriculture shall not apply to animals slaughtered
by any farmer on the farm and sold and transported as interstate or
foreign commerce, nor to retail butchers and retail dealers in meat
and meat food products, supplying their customers: _Provided_, That
if any person shall sell or offer for sale or transportation for
interstate or foreign commerce any meat or meat food products which are
diseased, unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for
human food, knowing that such meat food products are intended for human
consumption, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction
thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars
or by imprisonment for a period of not exceeding one year, or by both
such fine and imprisonment: _Provided, also_, That the Secretary of
Agriculture is authorized to maintain the inspection in this act
provided for at any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing,
rendering, or similar establishment notwithstanding this exception,
and that the persons operating the same may be retail butchers and
retail dealers or farmers; and where the Secretary of Agriculture shall
establish such inspection then the provisions of this act shall apply
notwithstanding this exception.

That there is permanently appropriated, out of any money in the
Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of three million dollars,
for the expenses of the inspection of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats
and the meat and meat food products thereof which enter into interstate
or foreign commerce and for all expenses necessary to carry into effect
the provisions of this act relating to meat inspection, including rent
and the employment of labor in Washington and elsewhere, for each year.
And the Secretary of Agriculture shall, in his annual estimates made to
Congress, submit a statement in detail, showing the number of persons
employed in such inspections and the salary or per diem paid to each,
together with the contingent expenses of such inspectors and where they
have been and are employed.




APPENDIX D.

F. I. D. 1-25.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.


FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 1-25.

INTRODUCTION.

For the information of importers and exporters of food products and
of the public it is advisable to publish more widely than would be
possible by decisions given to individuals or firms the opinions of
this Department rendered by the Secretary under the existing law
relating to the examination of food products before shipment to foreign
countries and to the examination of food products imported into this
country. The following digest shows the principal decisions rendered
to date covering these points, together with circulars and other
printed matter relating thereto. It is proposed hereafter to issue
at convenient intervals similar decisions and opinions which may be
rendered.

  H. W. WILEY,
  _Chief, Bureau of Chemistry_.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

  WASHINGTON, D. C., _June 1, 1905_.


(F. I. D. 1.)

LAWS UNDER WHICH THE FOOD INSPECTION IS CONDUCTED.

To investigate the adulteration of foods, condiments, beverages, and
drugs, when deemed by the Secretary of Agriculture advisable, and to
publish the results of such investigations when thought advisable,
and also the effect of cold storage upon the healthfulness of foods;
to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate the character
of food preservatives, coloring matters, and other substances added
to foods, to determine their relation to digestion and to health,
and to establish the principles which should guide their use; to
enable the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate the character of
the chemical and physical tests which are applied to American food
products in foreign countries, and to inspect before shipment, when
desired by the shippers or owners of these food products, American
food products intended for countries where chemical and physical tests
are required before said food products are allowed to be sold in the
countries mentioned, and for all necessary expenses connected with such
inspection and studies of methods of analysis in foreign countries;
to enable the Secretary of Agriculture, in collaboration with the
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and such other experts
as he may deem necessary, to establish standards of purity for food
products and to determine what are regarded as adulterations therein;
to investigate, in collaboration with the Bureau of Animal Industry,
the chemistry of dairy products and of adulterants used therein, and
of the adulterated products; to determine the composition of process,
renovated, or adulterated and other treated butters, and other chemical
studies relating to dairy products, and to make all analyses of samples
required for the execution of the law regulating the manufacture of
process, renovated, or adulterated butters....

To investigate the adulteration, false labeling, or false branding of
foods, drugs, beverages, condiments, and ingredients of such articles,
when deemed by the Secretary of Agriculture advisable, and report
the result in the bulletins of the Department; and the Secretary of
Agriculture, whenever he has reason to believe that such articles are
being imported from foreign countries which are dangerous to the health
of the people of the United States, or which shall be falsely labeled
or branded either as to their contents or as to the place of their
manufacture or production, shall make a request upon the Secretary of
the Treasury for samples from original packages of such articles for
inspection and analysis, and the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby
authorized to open such original packages and deliver specimens to the
Secretary of Agriculture for the purpose mentioned, giving notice to
the owner or consignee of such articles, who may be present and have
the right to introduce testimony; and the Secretary of the Treasury
shall refuse delivery to the consignee of any such goods which the
Secretary of Agriculture reports to him to have been inspected and
analyzed and found to be dangerous to health or falsely labeled or
branded either as to their contents or as to the place of their
manufacture or production, or which are forbidden entry or to be sold,
or are restricted in sale in the countries in which they are made or
from which they are exported.... (_Sections of appropriations act of
March 3, 1905._)

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled_, That no person or persons,
company or corporation, shall introduce into any State or Territory of
the United States or the District of Columbia from any other State or
Territory of the United States or the District of Columbia, or sell in
the District of Columbia or in any Territory any dairy or food products
which shall be falsely labeled or branded as to the State or Territory
in which they are made, produced, or grown, or cause or procure the
same to be done by others.

SEC. 2. That if any person or persons violate the provisions of this
act, either in person or through another, he shall be guilty of a
misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not less than five
hundred nor more than two thousand dollars; and that the jurisdiction
for the prosecution of said misdemeanor shall be within the district
of the United States court in which it is committed. (_Act of July 1,
1902._)


(F. I. D. 2.)

  OPINIONS OF THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL RELATING TO THE SCOPE AND MEANING OF
  THE ACT OF JULY 1, 1902 (32 STAT., 632), REGULATING THE BRANDING OF
  DAIRY AND FOOD PRODUCTS FOR INTERSTATE COMMERCE.[48]

  [48] Published as an unnumbered circular, Office of the Secretary.

  _August 1, 1903._

In order that a correct understanding might be had as to the scope
of the law relating to the branding of dairy and food products,
the opinion of the Attorney-General was asked concerning certain
features of that act. Samples of labels which were used in commercial
operations were submitted, with the request that an opinion be given
as to whether or not they conformed to the provisions of the law. Two
separate opinions were asked of the Attorney-General in regard to this
law.

First, in the case of a firm, ---- ----, established in one State and
dealing in goods which were grown and manufactured in another State,
the labels, however, bearing the name and address of the firm in its
central place of business, the direct question asked was:

  Is not the label as it stands a distinct statement that the product
  bearing it is manufactured and prepared in (address of the firm
  given)?

One particular object of the law appears to be to prevent the
utilization of the name of localities which have become noted for the
production of a certain food product in connection with other food
products of a similar nature made elsewhere.

The second point on which the opinion of the Attorney-General was asked
was as follows:

  The question which I desire to propose to you now is, whether, under
  the provisions of the two acts referred to (Public--No. 158, approved
  March 3, 1903, regulating the importation of goods, and the act first
  mentioned above) it will be possible to prevent the misbranding of
  foreign products. In other words, would the provisions of Public--No.
  223, referred to first above, apply to any foreign product entering
  into interstate commerce, or do they apply only to articles of food
  of domestic manufacture?

From correspondence conducted with large manufacturing firms, it is
evident that they desire at once to conform to the provisions of these
laws if they can only be distinctly made known. To this end I have
deemed it advisable to publish the decisions of the Attorney-General on
these questions, omitting merely the names of the firms specifically
referred to, for the information of manufacturers, dealers, and
consumers.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.


  DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE,
  _Washington, D. C., June 22, 1903_.

  THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.

SIR: I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 11th
instant, inclosing one addressed to you by the ---- ---- Company, of
Milwaukee, Wis., together with two samples of labels which they have
submitted for your approval, and in which you say:

  These labels do not seem to fall within either class on which you
  passed your opinion of September 20. The goods described by these
  labels purport to be in every respect goods manufactured by the ----
  ---- Company. They say in their letter, however, that they purchase
  all their goods in Iowa.

  The question which I desire to propound particularly in this respect
  is the following: Is not the label of ---- ----, as it stands, a
  distinct statement that the product bearing it is manufactured and
  prepared in Wisconsin?

One of the labels considered in the opinion of September 20 (24
Opin., 125) read: “Packed for ---- ---- Company (Limited), wholesale
grocers, Shreveport, La.” The other omitted the words “Packed for”
and “Wholesale grocers,” and was in these words: “The ---- Brand Lima
Beans, ---- ---- Company (Limited), Shreveport, La.” They were held
not to come within the act of July 1, 1902, c. 1357 (32 Stat., 632),
regulating this subject.

The labels now submitted (which are to be used on canned goods) are
substantially alike in form and character. One bears the words “----
---- Daisy Sugar Corn, ---- ---- Company, Milwaukee, Wis.” In the
other, “Tip Top” takes the place of the word “Daisy.”

Section 1 of the act of July 1, 1902, provides--

  That no person or persons, company or corporation, shall introduce
  into any State or Territory of the United States or the District of
  Columbia from any other State or Territory of the United States or
  the District of Columbia, or sell in the District of Columbia or
  in any Territory any dairy or food products which shall be falsely
  labeled or branded as to the State or Territory in which they are
  made, produced, or grown, or cause or procure the same to be done by
  others.

Section 2 makes a violation of the act a misdemeanor, punishable by a
fine of not less than $500 or more than $2,000.

In the opinion of September 20, after stating that the mere omission
of the place of manufacture can not be said to constitute a violation
of the law and that the name of the wholesale dealer on the label or
brand is not necessarily a representation that he is the producer
or manufacturer of the goods, it was observed: “Of course, if goods
are manufactured or produced in one State, and the wholesale dealer
is a resident of another, and the label or brand is so worded as to
represent the dealer as the producer, there would be a violation of the
law if such commodities were introduced into one state from another.”

The ---- ---- Company, it is stated, purchases all their goods in Iowa.
But the words “---- Daisy Sugar Corn, ---- ---- Company, Milwaukee,
Wis.,” clearly imply that the goods referred to are manufactured or
prepared by that company in Wisconsin. The general public, unfamiliar
with trade practices, would inevitably reach that conclusion. It seems
to me, therefore, that these labels come within the statute as above
construed. To hold otherwise would be to say that nothing short of
direct and positive misrepresentation is inhibited. But that is more
than the rule as to the strict construction of penal statutes can be
said to require. The act in question aims to prevent the false labeling
or branding of food and dairy products entering into interstate
commerce. It does not, however, undertake to say what shall be held
to constitute a false label or brand. Each case must therefore rest
upon its own particular facts. But wherever the natural inference to
be drawn from the form or words of a brand or label is contrary to the
fact as to the State or Territory in which the articles referred to are
made, produced, or grown, the case would seem to be within both the
letter and the spirit of the law.

The papers inclosed are herewith returned as requested.

  Respectfully,
  P. C. KNOX, _Attorney-General_.


  DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE,
  _Washington, D. C., June 18, 1903_.

  The Honorable the SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.

SIR: In your note of June 2, 1903, you transmit to me an excerpt
from the appropriation act of March 3, 1903 (32 Stat., 1157,
1158), authorizing the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate the
adulteration of foods, drugs, and liquors, and forbidding the Secretary
of the Treasury to deliver to the consignee any such goods imported
from a foreign country which the Secretary of Agriculture has “reported
to him to have been inspected and analyzed and found to be dangerous
to health, or which are forbidden to be sold or restricted in sale in
the countries in which they are made or from which they are imported,
or which shall be falsely labeled in any respect in regard to the place
of manufacture or the contents of the package,” and a copy of the act
of July 1, 1902 (32 Stat., 632), in regard to the introduction into any
State or Territory or the District of Columbia of any dairy or food
products which shall have been falsely labeled or branded as to the
State or Territory in which they are made, produced, or grown; and you
ask my opinion, in substance, whether, under the provisions referred
to, you have jurisdiction or power to prevent the false labeling or
branding of such articles imported from foreign countries after they
have passed the custom-house and are delivered to the consignees;
and whether the act last referred to above applies to such articles
imported from foreign countries, or applies only to articles of
domestic production.

In reply to your question, I have the honor to say that, under the
provisions of the act of March 3, 1903, to which you refer, the
jurisdiction and power of your Department, and that of the Treasury
Department, in respect of the matter here considered, end with the
delivery of the imported article from the custom-house to the owner or
consignee, and this provision of the act confers no power to prevent
or punish the false labeling or branding of such imported articles
after such delivery to the owner or consignee. The whole power there
conferred in this respect is to examine such imported articles before
such delivery, and to refuse delivery if found to come within the ban
of the act. Whatever power there may be to prevent or punish the false
labeling or branding of such imported goods after such delivery must be
looked for elsewhere.

If the evils of false labeling of such imported articles have reached
a magnitude requiring Congressional legislation, it would seem almost,
or quite, as important to prevent such false labeling after the
articles have passed the custom-house as before; and it would seem that
Congress, while having the matter directly in hand, has omitted what
would have been very appropriate legislation. But this omission cannot
be supplied by those called upon to interpret or administer the law.

But I think the act of July 1, 1902, may be resorted to for partial
relief from the evil to which you refer. The first section provides:

  That no person ... shall introduce into any State or Territory of the
  United States or the District of Columbia, from any other State or
  Territory of the United States or the District of Columbia, or sell
  in the District of Columbia or in any Territory, any dairy or food
  products which shall be falsely labeled or branded as to the State
  or Territory in which they are made, produced, or grown, or cause or
  procure the same to be done by others.

The second section provides the penalty for violation of the act.

The prohibition is of the introduction into any State or Territory
or the District of Columbia from any other State or Territory or the
District of Columbia, and the sale in said District or any Territory,
of dairy or food products which are “falsely branded or labeled as to
the State or Territory in which they are made, produced, or grown.”

It is important to notice that the prohibition extends to falsely
labeled articles introduced or brought from another State or Territory,
and is not confined to articles which are made, produced, or grown
in some other State or Territory of the United States. If dairy or
food products which are falsely labeled or branded as to the State or
Territory of their origin are introduced or brought into one State or
Territory or the District of Columbia from another State or Territory
or the District of Columbia, or are sold in any Territory or said
District, this is clearly within the prohibition of the act, no matter
whether such articles were of domestic or foreign origin. I repeat
the section does not confine or purport to confine its prohibition to
the introduction of falsely labeled articles made, grown, or produced
in this country, but extends it to all such articles introduced from
another State or Territory which are falsely labeled “as to the State
or Territory in which they are made, produced, or grown.”

But, as I have stated above, the act can give only partial relief.
For it is plain from the context that the words “State or Territory”
refer to a State or Territory of the United States, and can not be
extended to include the wider signification of foreign country. Thus,
if articles of foreign origin are imported into New York, for example,
and thence introduced into another State or Territory with a label or
brand falsely stating their origin as to another foreign country, the
case would not fall within the provisions of the statute. On the other
hand, it is certain that if foreign articles imported into New York
are introduced into another State or Territory with a label or brand
showing them to be of New York make or growth, such articles would be
“falsely labeled or branded as to the State or Territory in which they
are made, produced, or grown,” and such introduction would be within
both the letter and the spirit and purpose of the act.

In this respect Congress can interfere only with interstate trade. It
can prevent the use of false labels of dairy or food products only
when they become objects of commerce between different States or
Territories. Hence, the prohibition is confined to articles introduced
from one State or Territory into another. But this does not imply,
nor is there anything to imply, that the prohibition is confined also
to articles made, produced, or grown in the State or Territory from
which they are introduced, or to articles of domestic origin. It is the
use of false labels on dairy and food products in interstate commerce
which is prohibited. And if it is interstate commerce, it is quite
unimportant whether the articles falsely labeled were of domestic or
foreign origin. If an imported article of foreign origin is labeled as
of domestic origin, the article is “falsely labeled or branded as to
the State or Territory in which it is made, produced, or grown;” and
if such article, thus falsely labeled, is introduced from one State or
Territory into another or the District of Columbia, it is a violation
of the act. Nor does it make any difference in this respect whether the
false label or brand be placed on the article before or after leaving
the custom-house in a case of foreign importation.

If it were required, a familiar rule of construction might be invoked
in support of this interpretation. Statutes should be construed in aid
of their manifest purpose and object. And when it is considered that
the sole purpose of this act is to prevent the use of false labels or
brands of dairy or food products, when articles of interstate commerce,
it is manifest that a construction which limits the prohibition to
domestic articles would defeat rather than aid the purpose of the act.
Indeed, the greater and more prevalent evil in this respect is not
in falsely stating a particular State or Territory as the origin of
a domestic article, but is the labeling of a foreign article as the
product of some particular State or Territory, or vice versâ. This is
the more serious and prevalent evil, and in my opinion is as certainly
forbidden by the act referred to as is the labeling of an article of
one State or Territory as being the product of another.

I am, therefore, of opinion that the act of July 1, 1902, applies not
only to domestic articles, but also to those imported from foreign
countries which are labeled as being of domestic origin.

  Respectfully,
  P. C. KNOX, _Attorney-General_.


(F. I. D. 3.)

NOTICE TO EXPORTERS OF WINES.

A RECENT LAW PASSED BY THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

  _November, 1904._

The Argentine Republic has passed a new law relating to wines, and
especially covering the conditions under which wines are to be imported
into that country from foreign countries. There are many provisions of
the law which should be known to the producers and exporters of wines
from the United States. The full text of the new law of the Argentine
Republic is given below:

  ARTICLE 1. Only those wines obtained by the fermentation of fresh
  grapes, or simply _estacionado_, will be considered as natural wines
  in the Argentine Republic.

  ARTICLE 2. For the purpose of the present law and of its penal
  dispositions the following will not be considered as natural wines:

  1. Those manufactured with dried grapes.

  2. Those manufactured with the cluster (bunch).

  3. Those to which there shall have been added substances which,
  though natural in natural wines, alter the composition of them or
  modify the equilibrium of the substances composing a natural wine.

  4. Red wines containing more than 3.5 percent or less than 2.4
  percent of dry extract, the reducing sugar having been deducted. The
  executive is empowered to authorize a lower limit to the minimum
  below for bottled or dessert wines.

  5. White wines containing less than 1.7 percent of dry extract, the
  reducing sugar having been deducted, with the exception of fine wines
  in bottles.

  6. Mixtures of wines enumerated in the five preceding paragraphs with
  natural wines.

  ARTICLE 3. The following will be considered as lawful œnological
  practices:

  For musts: The addition of saccharose (sugar), of concentrated must,
  of citric, malic, tartaric, and sulfurous acids, pure and neutralized
  by pure potassium and calcium carbonates.

  For wines: The addition of citric, tartaric, malic, tannic, and
  carbonic acids, of potassium and calcium carbonate, of neutral
  potassium tartrate, of sulfites of sodium and calcium, and of pure
  sulfurous anhydrids.

  Pure kaolin and pure albumens and gelatins may be employed in the
  clarification of wines.

  ARTICLE 4. It is absolutely forbidden to add to the wine or to sell
  as such--

  1. Liquids containing foreign coloring matters, glucose from starch,
  mineral acids, saccharin and other artificial edulcorant matters,
  _abrastol_, salicylic acid and others analogous thereto, salts of
  aluminum, strontium, barium, lead, and, in general, all bodies not
  normally existing in the musts of grapes.

  2. Wines containing more than 2 grams of sulfate per liter. A larger
  proportion will not be tolerated except for dessert wines.

  3. Wines containing more than 0.2 percent of sodium chlorid.

  4. Wines containing per liter more than 200 milligrams of sulfurous
  acid and 20 milligrams of free sulfurous anhydrid.

  5. Damaged wines or wines altered in consequence of disease may
  not be sold nor made the object of commerce. These liquids shall
  be distilled under supervision of agents of the Treasury or of the
  national chemical laboratories, and only the alcohols resulting from
  their distillation may be utilized.

  ARTICLE 5. The executive is empowered to augment or modify the
  authorized œnological corrections in conformity with the progress of
  science and the local conditions. He is empowered to add, likewise,
  to those specified in the present law other substances recognized as
  injurious by their quantity or quality.

  ARTICLE 6. The following treatments followed in the preparation of
  fine wines are considered legal:

  1. The mixture of several natural wines produced from different
  classes of grapes or from different harvests.

  2. Limited alcoholization in order to insure the preservation of wine.

  3. The addition of concentrated must and of pure alcohol in order to
  obtain special dessert wines.

  4. The addition of saccharose (sugar), of alcohol, of aromatic and
  bitter substances, in order to obtain wines whose composition is
  similar to vermouth or medicinal wines.

  5. The addition of anhydrous carbonic acid and sugar for the
  preparation of sparkling wines. The alcoholization authorized by the
  present law is for the purpose of insuring the preservation of wine.
  The alcohol employed for this purpose and all other products, the
  usage of which is authorized, must be chemically pure.

  ARTICLE 7. The beverages enumerated in article 2 and all other
  similar beverages shall bear the name of “artificial beverages,”
  whatever be their nature or process of manufacture, with the
  exception of sparkling wines, vermouth, medicinal wines, and cider.

  ARTICLE 8. In case natural wines should contain a proportion of dry
  extract inferior or superior to that indicated in paragraphs 4 and
  5 of article 2, the source of this extract will be determined in
  so far as it concerns the wine of the country by the analysis of
  grapes serving for the manufacture of this wine, and in so far as it
  concerns foreign wines by information based on official analytical
  data and of origin.

  .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .

  ARTICLE 10. Beverages which do not comply with the conditions
  determined by article 1 may not be imported, circulated, or offered
  for sale as natural wines, and must bear upon a part visible to
  the recipient the indication of the classification to which they
  correspond according to article 7 above.

  ARTICLE 11. Foreign wines which shall be imported into the territory
  of Argentine for consumption must be sold in the original casks
  showing their origin, or put in bottles under the supervision of
  Government agents and accompanied by certificates of analysis from
  the country where they have been made. Imported wines containing more
  than 3.5 percent of dry extract free from reducing sugar shall be
  sold under the supervision of Government agents.

  ARTICLE 12. Foreign wines shall be subjected to chemical analysis
  upon their entrance into the country; native wines shall be subjected
  to the same treatment before being delivered for consumption. This
  analysis will be made in the national laboratories established or to
  be established in Buenos Ayres, Rosario, Mendoza, San Juan, Entre
  Rios, Cordoba, Catamarca, Salta, and Tucuman, and in other localities
  where the Government may decide to establish them.

  .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .

  ARTICLE 14. The infractions of the provisions of article 10 of the
  law shall be punishable by the confiscation of the merchandise
  with or without a penalty of 50 centavos per liter or of a month’s
  imprisonment of the offenders for each 1,000 liters of liquid or
  fraction thereof.

  ARTICLE 15. The infractions of the provisions of article 4 shall
  be punished by the destruction of the wines and a fine of 30 paper
  centavos per liter, or five days’ imprisonment for each 1,000 liters
  of liquid or fraction thereof.

  .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .

  ARTICLE 19. The rules and proceedings established by law No. 3884
  will remain in force. From January 1, 1905, foreign wines containing
  more than 3.5 percent dry extract, free of reducing sugar, shall be
  subjected to the provisions of the tariff.

Attention is particularly called to the character of the wines which
will be admitted and the fact that such wines should be accompanied by
an official certificate of composition and also of origin. Under the
authority of Congress the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to
furnish analyses and certificates of food products intended for export
to foreign countries (F. I. D. No. 1).

Under this law exporters who desire analyses of their products to show
that they are in conformity with the laws of the country to which they
are exported may apply to the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department
of Agriculture for such an investigation. The analysis blanks for
making the application, instructions for taking the samples, and form
of affidavit to accompany the samples will be furnished intending
exporters on application. In this connection attention is called to the
fact that often American food products are rejected at foreign ports,
and as a result thereof complaint is made to the State Department
and samples of the rejected foods are furnished for analysis. The
Department of Agriculture always complies with the requests of the
State Department for assistance in adjusting difficulties of this kind.
It is evident, however, that all such difficulties would be avoided by
shippers taking advantage of the provision of the law quoted above, to
secure the proper certification of their products before shipment.


(F. I. D. 4.)

SUGGESTIONS TO IMPORTERS OF FOOD PRODUCTS.[49]

  [49] Circular No. 18, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

  _August 6, 1904._

In order to facilitate the execution of this law [F. I. D. No. 1]
and to avoid any unnecessary delay in the inspection of products
on arrival, the attention of importers is called to the following
suggestions:

1. The inspection of food products includes foods, beverages, and
condiments, and ingredients of such articles.

2. The inspection, under the language of the law, relates to the
following points:

(_a_) To ascertain if the imported products be injurious to health.

(_b_) If they be falsely branded or labeled in regard to the contents
of the packages.

(_c_) If they be falsely branded or labeled as to the place of
manufacture or production.

(_d_) If they be forbidden entry to or be restricted in sale in the
country in which they are made or from which they are exported.

3. A food product, in the absence of contrary judicial interpretation,
will be deemed by the Department of Agriculture to be adulterated--

(_a_) If any valuable ingredient naturally present therein has been
extracted.

(_b_) If a less valuable ingredient has been substituted therefor.

(_c_) If it be colored, powdered, or polished, with intent to deceive,
or to make the article appear of a better quality than it really is.

(_d_) If it be a substitute for or imitation of a genuine article and
offered under the name of that article.

4. Products will be deemed injurious to health in the absence of
contrary judicial determination--

(_a_) If any substance, with the exception of the long-used, well-known
condimental substances, viz., common salt, spices, sugar (sucrose or
saccharose), wood smoke, and vinegar be added thereto for preserving,
coloring, or other purposes, which is injurious to health, either as
determined by actual experimental evidence or in the predominating
opinion of health officers, hygienists, and physiological chemists.

(_b_) If the products be decomposed, filthy, decayed, or in any unfit
condition for human consumption.

5. Products will be considered by the Department as misbranded in the
absence of contrary judicial determination--

(_a_) If any false name or property be assigned thereto in the label,
directly or by implication.

(_b_) If any false statement be contained in the label relating to the
place of manufacture or production of the contents of the package,
directly or by implication.

(_c_) If they be not of the nature, substance, and quality commonly
associated with the name under which they are sold or offered for sale.

6. Food products will also be excluded from entry into the United
States if they be of a character or kind forbidden entry in the country
where they are manufactured or from which they are exported.

7. Food products will also be excluded from the United States if they
are forbidden to be sold or be restricted in sale in the countries in
which they are manufactured or from which they are exported.


ILLUSTRATIONS.

Until further notice, or until the matter shall have been determined by
judicial decisions, or until the permanent standards for the products
mentioned have been established by proclamation, the Department submits
the following illustrations for the guidance of importers, as an index
to the action of the Department in cases where the product hereinafter
mentioned, and like products, are offered for import:

1. _Wine bearing a classed name_, that is, brands of wine of high
grade, recognized by law and by commercial usage, must be true to name;
for instance, a wine bearing the name Chateau Larose must be wine
coming from the vineyard covered by that appellation and no other.
Importers should be ready to furnish certificates, when asked for, of
conformity of the wine to the label used. Stretched wine, that is,
wine containing a part of the original wine, or a similar wine from
a different vineyard, should not be labeled with the name of a true,
classed wine.

2. _Wine containing sulfurous acid_ in amount greater than that first
mentioned below, added as a preservative or for other purposes,
should carry upon the label “Preserved with sulfurous acid,” and the
declaration accompanying it should state approximately the quantity
of sulfurous acid present. The admission of wines containing not more
than 200 milligrams of sulfurous acid per liter, added in the usual
cellar treatment, of which not more than 20 milligrams shall be free
acid, is permissible without notification. Wines containing more than
350 milligrams per liter of sulfurous acid should not be offered for
importation under any conditions.

3. _Sugar wines_ are wines which are made partly by the addition of
sugar to the must or otherwise previous to fermentation, and should
bear upon the label “Sugar wines,” or some similar legend, and the
quantity of sugar employed in their manufacture should be stated in the
declaration before the consul.

4. _Mixed wines_, that is, blended wines, should not bear the name of
the vineyard from which a part of the mixture is made unless the label
plainly indicates that it is a blend or mixture with other wines. If
wine from any other country than that where the mixture is made, or
from which it is exported, be employed, a statement to that effect
should be found upon the label and in the declaration. Wines, sulfured
wines, sugar wines, and mixed wines should not contain over 14 percent,
by volume, of alcohol.

5. _Fortified wines_, that is, wines to which additional alcohol has
been added, under the law of the United States regulating fortification
of wines, should contain no added alcohol except that derived from
the distillation of wine, and the brandy so used should be properly
aged in oak casks in order to be free from injurious compounds such as
fusel oils, etc. Raw brandy made from the lees, pomace, and refuse of
the winery, and containing excessive quantities of fusel oil and other
injurious ingredients, should not be used in the fortification of wines
imported into the United States. Importers are requested to secure such
information from their agents abroad as may enable them to certify
to the character of the brandy used for fortification when any doubt
exists.

6. _Brandy_ (potable brandy) is the distillate from wine, properly aged
by storage in wood to eliminate the greater part of the fusel oils,
etc., which may be present. Brandy should contain not less than 45 nor
more than 55 percent, by volume, of alcohol and not more than 0.25
percent of total solids (extract). The content of fusel oils should not
exceed 0.25 percent. Brandy should not be mixed with alcohol from any
other source than that of distilled wine. The distillate from the lees,
pomace, and refuse of the winery, is not entitled to bear the term
“brandy” in the potable sense. “Cognac” is only admitted as a name in
the case of brandies made in Cognac from wines grown and manufactured
there. No artificial color other than that derived from the wood in
which they are aged is admitted in brandies.

7. _Whisky_ is the distilled product of fermented cereal grains,
properly aged in wood in order to remove the greater part of the
fusel oils, etc., produced during the distillation. Whisky should not
contain less than 45 nor more than 55 percent, by volume, of alcohol
and not more than 0.25 percent of total solids (extract). The content
of fusel oils should not exceed 0.25 percent. No artificial color other
than that derived from the wood in which it is stored is admitted in
whisky. Blended whisky is whisky made of two or more whiskies. Compound
or “rectified” whisky is whisky made with or without the use of some
whisky from neutral, cologne, or silent spirits; that is, pure alcohol,
to which artificial flavoring and coloring matters may be added.
Such whiskies should be plainly branded on the label “Compound” or
“Compounded,” even if containing a percentage of pure whisky.

8. _Beer_ is the fermented product of cereal grains, the starch of
which has been converted into sugar by malt or malting, and to which an
infusion of hops has been added.

9. _Fruit compounds_, such as jams, jellies, marmalades, etc., are
preparations made from pure fruits or fruit juices, with the addition
of sugar. The presence of artificial coloring matter, flavors,
glucose, preservatives, and other added substances is not admitted for
the pure products, and when used the fact should be plainly indicated
in the English language upon the label. These bodies should not bear
the name of any one fruit alone if they are made from mixtures of fruit
or fruit juices.

10. _Sausage_ is the comminuted edible meat of healthy slaughtered
animals, commonly used as food, mixed with salt and condimental
substances. The packages should bear the certificate of an official
inspector as to purity, and if pork, that it is free from trichinæ. The
addition of preservatives should be plainly stated upon the label, and
if these preservatives be deemed injurious to health, such sausages
can not be admitted. Coloring matters when used are under similar
restrictions.

11. _Salad (edible) oils_ shall bear the name of the substance from
which they are made, namely, olive, cottonseed, sesame, peanut, etc.
The designation “salad oil” is not sufficient. If mixtures, this fact
should be plainly stated upon the label, in harmony with the principles
already laid down. The ingredients of a mixed oil should have their
origin (country) named upon the label in order to conform with the
provisions of the law.

12. _Vinegar_ should contain not less than 4 percent of acetic acid.
The kind of vinegar should be named upon the label, namely, cider
vinegar, wine vinegar, malt vinegar, spirit vinegar--meaning vinegar
derived from the acetous fermentation of cider, wine, malt liquors, or
distilled spirits, respectively. Any added coloring or other foreign
matter should be noted upon the label and in the declaration.

13. _Labeling._--If more than one article be present in a food
product, the name of one of the substances alone is not deemed to be a
sufficient label. If peas or beans have a portion of copper, the label
should state that fact. The various natural constituents of a food
product need not be noted, for the presence of the usual condimentary
substances employed in foods, viz., sugar, salt, spices, vinegar, and
wood smoke. The term “sugar” is used in its usual signification, viz.,
sugar made from sugar cane, sugar beets, maple trees, sorghum etc. When
sugars are made by the artificial hydrolysis of starch, by an acid or
salt, that fact should be noted on the label by the term “glucose,” or
starch sugar. “Grape sugar” is not admitted as a correct term for such
products.


GENERAL STATEMENT.

The above specific illustrations indicate the position of the
Department in regard to the general character of food products which
may be imported without question.

The importer will do well to require his agents in foreign countries to
carefully comply with the general principles set forth. In a few words
they may be summarized as follows: Freedom from deleterious substances,
notification of added foreign substances, truthfulness in labeling.

The standards of purity for food products, which have been fixed by
the Secretary of Agriculture in harmony with existing law, are given
in Circular No. 13 of the Secretary’s Office and are applicable to
imported foods, which should conform to these established standards.


(F. I. D. 5.)

PROPOSED REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE LABELING OF IMPORTED FOOD
PRODUCTS.[50]

  [50] Circular No. 21. Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

  _November 17, 1904._

(_a_) ARTIFICIAL COLORING MATTER (ESPECIALLY SULFATE OF COPPER).

The use of sulfate of copper as a coloring matter in certain green
vegetables has become quite prevalent. Sulfate of copper is a substance
which in itself acts as a quick emetic and irritant, and therefore its
presence in food products must be looked upon as undesirable.

  Copper sulfate is irritant or mildly escharotic, and, when in dilute
  solution, stimulant and astringent. At one time it was given in
  _epilepsy_ and other nervous diseases, but at present it is never
  used internally, except for its influence upon the gastro-intestinal
  mucous membrane. In _chronic diarrhea_ with ulceration it is often
  a useful remedy. In doses of 5 grains it acts as a powerful, prompt
  emetic, without causing general depression or much nausea, but it is
  too irritant to be used freely.

  A dose of copper sulfate as an astringent is a quarter of a grain (16
  milligrams); as an emetic, 5 grains (330 milligrams).--(United States
  Dispensatory, 18th edition, p. 468.)

It is claimed by some manufacturers, chemists, and hygienists that
copper sulfate when added to green vegetables, forms compounds which
are harmless to health.

Pending investigations which are now making, all food products colored
with sulfate of copper, or to which sulfate of copper has been added
for any purpose, should contain upon the label a statement in English,
in letters not smaller than long primer caps, as follows: “Colored
with sulfate of copper,” or, if preferred, “Prepared with sulfate of
copper.” A statement of the quantity of copper, if any, which may be
permitted in food products under the provisions of the law is reserved
until further study of the question can be made.

Food products artificially colored with other substances than sulfate
of copper should bear upon the label, in letters of the size described
above, the legend “Artificially colored,” or, if the manufacturer
prefers, the statement “Colored with anilin dye,” or whatever dye-stuff
may be used.


(_b_) GLUCOSE.

Manufactured food products in which glucose (sugar made by hydrolysis
with an acid or otherwise from starch) has been used instead of sugar,
or for other purposes, should bear upon the label in English, in
letters of the size above mentioned, “Prepared with glucose,” or some
statement of similar import. The glucose which is used must be free
from arsenic or other injurious substances.


(_c_) FOODS PREPARED WITH OIL.

In countries where olive oil is the common edible oil the expression on
food products “Prepared with oil” or “Packed in oil” will be construed
to mean olive oil. Where a mixture of oils is used, or another oil than
olive oil, a statement to that effect should be made upon the label.

This regulation in regard to labeling will go in effect on March 16,
1905. Importers are requested to immediately acquaint their agents
in foreign countries with this ruling, in order that the proper
preparation of the labels may be secured.


(F. I. D. 6.)

STYLE OF LABEL REQUIRED FOR IMPORTED FOODS.

[Note size of type.]

PREPARED WITH GLUCOSE.

COLORED WITH SULFATE OF COPPER.

ARTIFICIALLY COLORED.


(F. I. D. 7.)

NOTICE TO EXPORTERS OF DESICCATED FRUITS.

  _August 31, 1904._

The Governments of Prussia and Saxony, in order to unify the practices
of inspectors of desiccated fruits, have issued decrees fixing the
limit of sulfurous acid in desiccated fruits at 0.125 percent.

Exporters of such products from the United States are asked to take
notice of this regulation and to refrain from sending to the countries
named desiccated fruits containing an amount of sulfurous acid in
excess of that mentioned above.

By authority of Congress, the Department of Agriculture will inspect
cargoes of desiccated fruits intended for exportation, free of charge
to exporters who may request such inspection. On application to the
Bureau of Chemistry all necessary blanks will be sent. Exporters are
urged, in order to avoid refusal or confiscation by other countries, to
avail themselves of this opportunity to ascertain, before shipment, the
percentage of sulfurous acid contained in goods intended to be exported.


(F. I. D. 8.)

NOTICE TO IMPORTERS OF LIQUID EGG PRODUCTS.

  _December 14, 1904._

This Department has made examinations of invoices of liquid eggs--yolk
of egg, or white of egg, or the two together--offered for import
into the United States. These food products have been uniformly
found preserved with boric acid or borax, a substance which the
investigations in this Department have shown to be injurious to health.

Notice is hereby given to importers that the Secretary of the Treasury
will be requested to refuse admission of food products of this
character consulated subsequent to December 15, 1904.


(F. I. D. 9.)

NOTICE TO IMPORTERS OF DRIED EGG PRODUCTS.

  _February 24, 1905._

In regard to the importation of egg products in a dry state, preserved
with boric acid or with other preservatives, with the exception of
salt, sugar, vinegar, or wood smoke, further importation will be
regarded as a violation of the provisions of the existing law. Refusal
to admit such importations will not be requested of the Secretary of
the Treasury on invoices consulated prior to January 21, 1905.


(F. I. D. 10.)

TREASURY DECISION ON REFUNDING DUTIES PAID ON CONDEMNED IMPORTATIONS OF
FOOD PRODUCTS.

  _February 20, 1905._

The Secretary of the Treasury has informed the Secretary of
Agriculture, under date of February 17, 1905, in regard to the duties
paid upon imported food products before the inspection thereof has been
completed by the Department of Agriculture, that in case the inspection
is of such a character as to require the reshipment of the products in
question beyond the jurisdiction of the United States, estimated duties
paid under such circumstances will be refunded to the importer when
delivery has been refused and the merchandise has been either destroyed
or exported under the regulations.


(F. I. D. 11.)

SUSPENDING REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE LABELING OF IMPORTED SARDINES AND
OTHER FOOD SUBSTANCES PACKED IN OIL.

  _March 1, 1905._

Referring to Circular No. 21 [F. I. D. No. 5_c_], respecting the
packing of sardines and other food substances in oil, representations
have been made to this Department, officially and otherwise, that in
some countries where fish--namely, sardines--are packed in this way
olive oil is not the common edible oil of the country, and therefore
the regulation would not apply. I have directed that investigations be
made of the character of the oil found in imported packages of sardines
and other fish for the purpose of determining the character of the oil
which has been employed.

Pending the result of these investigations, and in view of the fact
that the packages intended for export to this country were prepared
in many cases prior to the publication of the proposed regulations,
that part of the circular referring to the marking of the packages
respecting the character of the oil employed will be suspended until
the investigations are concluded and until further notice.


(F. I. D. 12.)

ABOLISHING THE RULE TO ADMIT IMPORTATIONS OF FOOD PRODUCTS IN THE CASE
OF FIRST NOTIFICATION.

  _March 1, 1905._

At the beginning of the enforcement of the legislation relating to
the inspection of imported food products, in order to fully acquaint
importers with the provisions of the law before any penalties were
imposed, the inspecting officers were instructed in cases of first
offense, where no purpose or intent to evade the law could be imputed
to the importer, to pass the invoice under inspection, with notice that
this was done without prejudice to future decisions.

The food-inspection law has now been in force since July 1, 1903, and
it is presumed that every importer is acquainted with its existence
and its requirements. Notice is therefore given that on and after
March 16, 1905, the exception which has been made in the case of first
notification will be abolished.


(F. I. D. 13.)

PROVISIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE LIMIT OF SULFUROUS ACID IN IMPORTED WINES.

  _March 1, 1905._

The regulations in regard to the amount of sulfurous acid permissible
in imported wines, as prescribed in Circular No. 18 [F. I. D. No. 4],
were based upon the regulations adopted by the consulting committee of
hygiene of the Seine. Since the publication of these regulations the
quantity of sulfurous acid in wines has been the subject of another
investigation by an official French committee, with the result that
the maximum limit of sulfurous acid in wines in France has been
increased to 400 milligrams of total acid per liter, with a toleration
of 10 percent. Results of the investigations of the French committee
have been communicated to the Department of Agriculture and are
under consideration. Investigations have also been conducted by the
Department of Agriculture relating to the effects of sulfurous acid
upon health and digestion.

Pending the final conclusions which may result from a study of all
these data the provisional limit of sulfurous acid in imported wines
will be established as follows: For dry wines, as defined in the
standards of purity fixed by this Department in Circular No. 13 of the
Secretary’s Office, entitled “Standards of Purity for Food Products,”
200 milligrams of total sulfurous acid per liter; for wines containing
not more than 2 percent of sugar, 250 milligrams per liter; for wines
containing not to exceed 3 percent of sugar, 300 milligrams per liter;
for wines containing over 3 percent of sugar, 350 milligrams of total
sulfurous acid per liter. These provisional standards will be in effect
until further orders.


(F. I. D. 14.)

ANALYSES OF EXPORTS MUST BE MADE BEFORE SHIPMENT, ON SAMPLES TAKEN FROM
ACTUAL CARGO.

  _March 10, 1905._

In the case of an attempt to introduce a condensed beef juice into
Turkey the Turkish Government refused to admit the product “until an
analysis thereof and a report on such analysis, duly certified by the
Government of the United States and by the Turkish consul at New York,
is presented to the Turkish authorities.” Application being made to
the Department of Agriculture, through the Department of State, for
such certified analysis, the blank forms used for such certifications
were supplied, when the following features of the case were developed,
as set forth in a letter from the counsel of the company desiring the
certificate:

  The forms which you inclose relate to a specific shipment of goods to
  any particular country and call for the selection of samples from the
  particular lot of goods set aside for shipment....

  The Turkish authorities evidently do not require that such analysis
  and certificate should be presented in connection with each shipment,
  but only that a general analysis and certificate should be given.
  Upon the presentation of such general certificate permission can
  be obtained for the introduction of such goods without subsequent
  analysis and certificate.

In view of these facts the Department, under date of March 10, 1905,
rendered the following decision:

  I regret that we are not able to adopt the views of the Turkish
  authorities of which you speak, and in harmony therewith make an
  analysis of your product and give a general certificate, as you
  desire. Under the regulations established for carrying out the
  law, to which the Secretary of State called your attention, this
  Department can only make analyses of samples from the actual cargo
  before its shipment.


(F. I. D. 15.)

PLACING PRESERVATIVES IN VINEGAR.

  _April 10, 1905._

Food products which are artificially colored will be admitted
temporarily provided the color contained therein is not injurious to
health. In regard to a preservative in vinegar, in the first place I
can see no possible reason why a preservative should be put in vinegar,
which is itself a preservative. In the second place, not knowing its
character I could base no opinion on its admissibility. If flavoring
matters are placed in vinegar--that is, aromatic substances--there
is no objection whatever to their presence. Preservatives, with the
exception of salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke, are non-condimental,
and therefore can not be excused on the ground that they add any flavor
or taste to the substance.


(F. I. D. 16.)

FALSE LABELING OF VINEGAR.

  _April 21, 1905._

It is held that the term “vinegar” applied to products made in France
and other wine-producing countries where vinegar is made chiefly from
wine should apply only to such goods or to vinegar made from cider.
The analytical data in a given case show that the vinegar in question
is not derived from either of these sources, but is evidently the
product of oxidation of low wines or alcohol. It does not comply with
the standard either for vinegar or wine vinegar on page 14 of Circular
No. 13[51] of the Secretary’s Office. It is evidently a vinegar such as
is described under paragraph 6[52] of the same page and being such a
vinegar should have been so labeled. It is held, therefore, that this
product is falsely labeled.

  [51] 1. _Vinegar_, _cider vinegar_ or _apple vinegar_ is the product
  made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the
  juice of apples, is lævo-rotatory, and contains not less than four
  (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than one and six-tenths (1.6)
  grams of apple solids, and not less than twenty-five hundredths
  (0.25) grams of apple ash in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters.
  The water-soluble ash from one hundred (100) cubic centimeters of
  the vinegar requires not less than thirty (30) cubic centimeters of
  decinormal acid to neutralize the alkalinity and contains not less
  than ten (10) milligrams of phosphoric acid (P₂O₅).

  2. _Wine vinegar_ or _grape vinegar_ is the product made by the
  alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of grapes
  and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters, not less than
  four (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than one and four-tenths
  (1.4) grams of grape solids, and not less than thirteen hundredths
  (0.13) gram of grape ash.

  [52] 6. _Spirit vinegar_, _distilled vinegar_, _grain vinegar_ is the
  product made by the acetous fermentation of dilute distilled alcohol
  and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters, not less than
  four (4) grams of acetic acid.


(F. I. D. 17.)

  LABELS ATTACHED TO WRAPPERS INSTEAD OF PACKAGES; STATEMENTS RELATING
  TO WHOLESOMENESS OF ADDED SUBSTANCE. PASTER LABELS.

  _April 21, 1905._

Our examination showed that these packages of jams were wrapped
with paper, to which was affixed a paster containing the legend
“ARTIFICIALLY COLORED” in large type, followed in small type by the
phrase “With an infinitesimal proportion of absolutely harmless
coloring.” While there can be no legal objection to the additional
phrase, it will be understood that the determination of this point is
especially reserved by law to this Department.

On removing the paper wrappers of the packages the label which appeared
on the outside of the packages was found attached to the stone jars,
but the paster was missing. It is a reasonable construction of the law
to say that the label required should be the permanent and not the
temporary label. In subsequent imports, therefore, of goods of this
kind it is deemed necessary to have the paster attached directly to or
immediately above or below the principal label on the jar itself. The
use of a paster is permitted provided it is as firmly attached as the
original label in such a way as not to be easily removed, and further
that it is applied to goods which are already labeled before March
16, 1905. In goods packed subsequent to this date it will be required
that the part of the label which gives information in regard to added
products shall be made an integral part of the original label.


(F. I. D. 18.)

STATEMENT OF QUANTITY OF ADDED SUBSTANCE IN FOOD PRODUCTS.

LETTER OF IMPORTER.

  _April 21, 1905._

We note certain imported tins containing peas labeled “This tin
contains ³⁄₄ grain of copper as preservative.” Permit us to inquire if
the Department accepts this as correct branding.

In default, would your Department accept “Prepared with the addition of
an infinitesimal amount of sulfate of copper not exceeding ³⁄₄ grain
per tin?”

Pardon us for asking these questions, our reason being that in
thirty-five years’ dealing in so-called greened peas by our senior,
not a single case of injury has ever come to his knowledge, and the
bare statement now required on the tins of “Colored” or “Prepared with
sulfate of copper” would appear to the consumer as a new and hitherto
unused ingredient fraught with possible danger, thus seriously injuring
the commerce in this article and reducing the revenue derived from its
importation.

We beg to assure you that we would not thus appear to insist upon
qualifying the label, if we deemed the article injurious, our personal
consumption, as well as that of numerous friends, supported by the
report of the council of hygiene of Paris in 1889, appearing to us as
absolute proof of the innocuity of vegetables where the chlorophyl is
thus fixed.


DECISION OF DEPARTMENT.

  _April 26, 1905._

When a label with letters of proper size and legibility contains
the statement that it [the food product] is colored with sulfate of
copper we consider that the conditions required by law are fulfilled.
This statement, however, should not be in any way connected with any
other matters. If the importers desire to put additional labels on,
stating “This tin contains ³⁄₄ grain of copper,” we should have no
objections thereto. If, also, they should desire to add to the label
required the phrase, “Prepared with the addition of an infinitesimal
amount of sulfate of copper not exceeding ³⁄₄ grain per tin,” we could
not reasonably object. This descriptive matter, however, should not
be connected with the label required, namely, “COLORED WITH SULPHATE
OF COPPER.” The fact that the people of this country might object to
eating goods thus marked is the strongest argument you could give
showing the justice of the marking. The object of the law was to
prevent deception being practiced upon our people.

If any added supplementary statement is shown to be false by the
results of the analysis it would be considered then as a misbranding,
and treated accordingly.


(F. I. D. 19.)

FALSE BRANDING OF MUSHROOMS.

LETTER OF IMPORTER.

  _April 25, 1905._

We acknowledge receipt of your letter of the 18th advising that a
certain shipment of mushrooms consigned to us ... are misbranded, for
the reason that the tins contain nothing but stems and scraps from the
cannery.

In answer we beg to advise you that the goods in question are not sold
by us as regular mushrooms to the trade. This particular packing is
used by only the hotel and restaurant trade for the purpose of making a
sauce, and on this account are branded “Hotels.” This is the trade-name
given to the character of the goods in question, and it is always
understood that they contain nothing but stems and pieces which are
left over in the packing of the other grades.

Under these conditions we cannot believe that we are importing goods
that are misbranded, and would ask you to kindly release the shipment
in question.


DECISION OF DEPARTMENT.

  _April 29, 1905._

In this connection I desire to state that the understanding of the
trade respecting branding of food products is not one which should
always guide the officials in charge of the pure-food law. The object
of the law is the protection of the consumers particularly and not of
the trade. The addition of the word “Hotel” to the word “Champignons”
in no way describes the character of the product except to those who
are initiated in the secrets of the trade. After all, the consumer is
the one who suffers, as he eats the mushroom sauce, which is not made
of mushrooms at all, and thus the deception is complete, although the
purchaser may understand the character of the goods. It is extremely
doubtful whether under the terms of the law such goods would be
entitled to importation under any name, as they certainly are not to be
considered as edible. They should bear the label “FRAGMENTS AND SCRAPS
FROM MUSHROOM CANNERY,” or “CHAMPIGNONS, PIECES AND STEMS” in order to
be properly described. I am not able to see why the patrons of hotels
and restaurants should be subjected to a deception of this character.
I beg to say, therefore, that your explanation does not satisfy me
respecting the suitability of this invoice for entry.


(F. I. D. 20.)

STATEMENTS ON LABELS REGARDING HEALTH LAWS OF OTHER COUNTRIES.

  _May 17, 1905._

I beg to call your attention to a shipment of beans.... We note after
the legend “COLORED WITH SULFATE OF COPPER” the additional legend
“ACCORDING TO FRENCH HEALTH LAWS.” Inasmuch as the French laws do not
apply to this country, the addition of this phrase is regarded as a
complication of the labeling, having for its object to influence the
consumer respecting the character of the added product. Inasmuch as the
Congress of the United States has placed upon this Department the duty
of deciding upon the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of substances
added to foods, we regard such a label as an attempt to forestall the
judgment which this Department may render in accordance with the act of
Congress above referred to. While in the present instance we would not
consider the addition of the second legend as a cause for rejecting the
articles, your attention is called to the undesirability of any such
statement appearing upon the label, and it is suggested that in the
future it be omitted.

Attention is further called to the fact that in so far as we can
discover by a study of the French laws there are no regulations
therein respecting the addition of sulfate of copper to food products.
In this respect, therefore, the second phrase, “ACCORDING TO FRENCH
HEALTH LAWS,” must be considered as a misstatement. It may be that the
addition of copper is not forbidden by the French law, but we do not
believe it is added under any regulations thereof. It will be decidedly
advisable to omit the phrase.


(F. I. D. 21.)

RELABELING IMPORTED FOOD PRODUCTS AFTER ARRIVAL IN THIS COUNTRY.

  _May 26, 1905._

The purpose of the law in regard to labeling is clear, namely, that the
labels should be properly attached at the time of packing the goods.
Should exceptions be made to this principle and importers be allowed
to relabel goods offered for import after inspection and refusal of
entry, it would be impossible to secure a proper compliance with the
terms of the law. Manufacturers and exporters in other countries and
importers in this country would prefer in these cases to import the
goods as usually labeled and thus, if the invoices were not inspected,
they would enter without delay. If, on the other hand, the invoices
were inspected they would feel that they could then exercise the
privilege of relabeling. A courtesy of this kind to one importer would
necessarily be extended to all, and for this reason a proper compliance
with the purpose of the law would not be secured. The request for
permission to relabel is therefore denied.


(F. I. D. 22.)

ILLEGIBLE OR CONCEALED LEGENDS ON LABELS.

  _May 29, 1905._

There has been presented for the opinion of this Department a label
in brass marked in large letters “CONSERVES ALIMENTAIRES” and which
by ordinary inspection reveals no legend of any kind relating to any
artificial color which has been used in its preparation. By very
careful inspection an almost totally illegible label is found printed
in extremely small letters in this way: The word “artificially” is in
the upper left-hand corner surrounding a circular mark near the margin,
and the word “colored,” similar as to position and letters, is in the
upper right-hand corner.

Printing the legend “Artificially colored” in this way can only be
construed as an attempt to comply with the letter of the law and to
evade its spirit. This Department holds that in so far as the purpose
of labeling is concerned these words are entirely insufficient. As a
result of this decision the packages of goods bearing the label have
been declared to be misbranded.


(F. I. D. 23.)

LABELING OF PRESERVES SWEETENED WITH CANE OR BEET SUGAR AND GLUCOSE.

LETTER OF IMPORTER.

  _June 2, 1905._

With reference to the label on preserved strawberries and other fruits
imported from Germany, etc., we would thank you to advise us whether
you would permit the legend descriptive of the added substance (part of
the original label) to read, for instance:

  PRESERVED STRAWBERRIES
  ARTIFICIALLY COLORED
  PREPARED WITH PURE SUGAR AND GLUCOSE.

The sirup is almost entirely pure sugar, and it would therefore be an
injustice to be compelled to say that it was composed exclusively of
glucose.


DECISION OF DEPARTMENT.

  _June 5, 1905._

When a label with letters of proper size and legibility contains the
statement that the goods are prepared with glucose, or with sugar
and glucose, we consider that the conditions required by law are
fulfilled. Manufacturers may add to the label required a statement of
the percentage of glucose in the goods. If any statement on the label
is shown to be false by the results of the analysis or otherwise, the
package will be considered as misbranded and treated accordingly.


(F. I. D. 24.)

  ADULTERATION OF DOMESTIC FOOD PRODUCTS BY THE ADDITION OF
  PRESERVATIVES, COLORING MATTERS, AND OTHER INGREDIENTS NOT NATURAL TO
  FOODS, NOT REGULATED BY DEPARTMENT.

  _June 14, 1905._

The Department of Agriculture is not authorized by law to make any
regulations concerning the above-mentioned substances in food products
of domestic manufacture and intended for domestic commerce either
within the State where made or for interstate purposes.

For foods intended for export to foreign countries the Department is
authorized to make examinations and certify whether or not the foods
so offered are in harmony with the laws regulating food products in
countries to which the products are to be sent.

In the case of imported foods the decisions and regulations of the
Department are contained in the circulars and regulations issued
herewith.

Numerous inquiries reach this Department respecting the addition to
food products of preservatives, coloring matters, and other ingredients
not natural to foods. This Department has authority of law to fix
standards of purity for food products, and these standards when
completed will cover all the points above mentioned in so far as the
authority of Congress extends. The Department has no authority besides
this to establish regulations or conditions affecting the domestic
manufacture of and commerce in food products containing the ingredients
above mentioned. This power at the present time is exercised, if at
all, solely by the several States. The food standards, in so far as
they have been established, are embodied in Circular No. 13, Office of
the Secretary, which can be had upon application to this Department.


(F. I. D. 25.)

FOOD PRODUCTS OFFERED FOR ENTRY AND AFTERWARD DECLARED TO BE FOR
TECHNICAL PURPOSES.

  _June 21, 1905._

On June 14 this Department was asked to release an invoice of egg
albumen which had been found to be preserved with boric acid, thus
containing a substance prejudicial to health and refused admission on
that ground, on the statement of the importer that the product would
be reserved solely for technical purposes. It is manifest that the
action of this Department should not be based upon any statement of the
importer made subsequent to the sampling of the invoice for examination.

The plain provision of the law requires the inspection of food products
when deemed advisable, and their exclusion in certain circumstances.
When a food product is thus excluded under the regular application of
the law, it can not be released and permitted entry on a subsequent
declaration that it will be reserved for technical purposes only. Any
product which may be used either for technical purposes or for food
will be regarded as a food product, irrespective of any declaration
subsequent to inspection respecting the use to which it is to be put.

The use of a food product for other purposes is incidental, and
should not be construed as exempting food products of that class from
examination in the regular way.


F. I. D. 26.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 26.


LABELING IMPORTED FOOD PRODUCTS.

By reason of representations which were made before this Department
on June 14 by a committee representing the importers of New York,
it is hereby ordered that all cases of inspection of imported food
products to date, where exclusion thereof has been required by reason
of misbranding or false labeling, may be reopened with permission to
relabel, if granted by the Secretary of the Treasury, under supervision
of an official detailed from the Treasury Department for that purpose.
These labels shall be in the form of a paster attached securely to, or
just above or below the principal label, in a manner not to be easily
detached, and bearing a legend showing the contents of the package
not of the nature represented by the principal label, in letters not
smaller in size than long primer capitals of the usual facing, such
labels to be submitted to the proper representative of this Department
and be approved as satisfactory before the release of the invoice.

In order to more clearly set forth the requirements of this Department
as contained in Circulars 18 and 21 of the Bureau of Chemistry (F. I.
D. 4 and 5) and in other publications of the Department, the following
general principles of labeling of food products are to be observed:

  1. A food product should be designated by its usual name, English
  name preferred, and need not bear any further description of its
  components or qualities. Food products which are prepared by
  established processes of refining need not bear upon the label any
  statement respecting the refining process. For illustration, the term
  “flour” is sufficient for the food product known by that name; the
  term “olive oil” is sufficient for the food product known by that
  name. The usual processes of manufacture and refining in these cases
  are not required to be stated.

  2. When any foreign substance is added to a food product other than
  that necessary to its manufacture or refining, the label should bear
  a statement to that effect. For instance, a food product which is
  artificially colored or to which a preservative has been added should
  have these facts appear upon the label. If a substance which itself
  is not a coloring matter be added to a food product for the purpose
  of preserving or intensifying the natural color of the food, the name
  of the substance shall be specifically mentioned, as, for instance,
  when sulfate of copper is used to intensify or preserve the green
  color of food products.

  3. Where a substance which is generally understood to have specific
  qualities in the preparation of a food product is replaced by
  another substance either of a similar nature or entirely different
  thereto but with some of the same qualities, the name of the
  substituted substance should appear upon the label. For instance,
  sugar is the usual sweetening substance in the preparation of
  certain food products. If the sugar is wholly or in part replaced
  by another substance, such as glucose, that fact should appear.
  If the sweetening substance used be saccharin, a substance which
  is not related to sugars at all, the label should indicate such
  substitution. Where olive oil is used in the preparation of foods and
  where it is understood by the term “oil” that olive oil is indicated,
  the substitution of any other edible oil for the olive oil should be
  noted on the label.

  4. Where a substance is made up of fragments or scraps of the
  material usually known by the name upon the label, the name of the
  substance alone will be deemed a misbranding. For instance, if the
  fragments of stems and pieces of mushrooms which remain after the
  canning of the mushrooms themselves be labeled “mushrooms” alone it
  will be deemed misbranding. Such a package should be labeled “pieces
  and stems of mushrooms” or some similar appellation. If the cores and
  peelings of apples be labeled “apples” alone a similar condition is
  presented and the name will be deemed insufficient and misleading.

  5. If any essential or important ingredient of a food product be
  abstracted, and such abstraction is not necessary nor usual in the
  preparation or refining of such food body, the label should plainly
  indicate the ingredient thus removed. For instance, if a portion
  of the butter fat be removed from milk, even if there remain a
  sufficient quantity of butter fat to comply with the standard, such
  an abstraction is to be noted on the label.

  6. A food product which is misbranded in respect to the locality
  or country where it is made, produced, or manufactured, under the
  provisions of the law is misbranded and is not entitled to entry. For
  instance, if the product of one country, as the olive oils of Spain,
  be sent to an Italian port and there bottled and labeled as Italian
  oil, such a label will be deemed to be a misbranding. If wine grown
  in Algeria or Italy be bottled in France as a French wine it will be
  deemed a misbranded product.

  7. If a food product bear a name which is in any way misleading in
  regard to the quality, character, or origin of the product it is a
  misbranding under the law and is a sufficient cause for the exclusion
  of the goods covered by the invoice from entry.

  8. The addition of the ordinary condimental substances to a food
  product, such as sugar, vinegar, salt, spices, and wood smoke, may be
  practiced without any notice to this effect appearing upon the label.

  9. Food products of any given name are to correspond in quality to
  the standards established by authority of Congress for such products,
  and if they vary from this standard a notice to that effect is to
  appear upon the label.

  10. The presentation of properly labeled food products as outlined
  above does not insure their admission. Such products, even when
  properly labeled, may be refused entry because of threatened injury
  to health or because they are of a nature forbidden in the country in
  which they are made or from which they are exported.

  11. The principal label on a food product, that is, the part of
  the label which declares the character of the product, should not
  be connected with any statement relating to the wholesomeness or
  hygienic qualities of the product itself, nor should it contain any
  reference to the laws relating to such products either applying to
  the country where made or to this country. These are questions which
  are reserved especially for the consideration of this Department by
  act of Congress, and any attempt to prejudice the consumer regarding
  the matter should not be connected in any way with the label itself.

  12. The actual form and character of the label are left to the
  judgment of the manufacturer. The regulations require certain notings
  of added substances to be in the English language and of a size and
  distinctness easily legible and occupying a position directly on the
  label and not to the side nor on the margin, nor in any position
  where the label itself could be read without the attention of the
  reader being directed to the name of the added substance or other
  special inscription.

  13. The privilege of relabeling after arrival at a port in this
  country, as hereby extended, shall cease on and after September 1,
  1905, thus giving ample time for all cargoes now afloat to reach our
  ports.

  14. The name of the added substance or of the abstracted substance
  required by the above regulations should appear as nearly as possible
  in connection with the name of the food product upon the original
  label and in a position as conspicuous as that of the food product
  itself and as legible. The size of type required, namely, not smaller
  than long primer capitals, is the minimum size which it is deemed
  would be easily legible to a consumer in looking at a package of
  food products as offered him in ordinary trade. The letters should
  be not less in size nor less distinct in facing than the following
  legend:

  COLORED WITH SULFATE OF COPPER,

  and in all cases this descriptive matter is to be printed in the
  English language, whatever be the language used in naming the food
  products. In all food products packed subsequent to September 1,
  1905, the descriptive matter mentioned in this circular as necessary
  for proper labeling will be required to be a part of the original
  label and not attached as a paster. In food products packed and
  labeled prior to September 1, 1905, the paster above described will
  be admitted upon certificate of this fact until May 1, 1906, after
  which only original labels of correct form are to be admitted as
  sufficient for the purpose of correct labeling.

Previous decisions not in harmony with the present order are hereby
modified in accordance with the above regulations.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _June 22, 1905_.


F. I. D. 27-30.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 27-30.


(F. I. D. 27.)

ADMISSION OF SARDINES BOILED IN PEANUT OIL AND PACKED IN OLIVE OIL.

As a result of the conference held between the Chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry and the manufacturers and packers of sardines in Nantes,
Bordeaux, and Paris, it appears that it is a practice somewhat common
among the packers of sardines to boil the fish in peanut oil previous
to packing. It is claimed by some manufacturers that this process
improves the quality of the fish and also the color, and is a distinct
advantage in the preparation of the fish in packing. Subsequent to the
boiling in peanut oil the fish are so placed as to secure a perfect
drainage, so that all oil which naturally would exude from the fish is
separated therefrom. In this condition they are afterwards packed in
pure olive oil. A small quantity of peanut oil remaining in the fish
diffuses in this way with the olive oil to such an extent that the oil
gives a distinct reaction for peanut oil.

Pending further investigations of this process and its necessity,
inspectors at the different laboratories are permitted to admit
sardines labeled “Packed in Olive Oil” in which a small quantity
of peanut oil is found; provided the invoice be accompanied by a
certificate, approved by the consul, to the effect that the oil used
in packing the sardines was pure olive oil, and that previous to the
packing the sardines had been treated in hot peanut oil as described
above. The regulations, F. I. D. 5 c and F. I. D. 11, are therefore
accordingly modified, permitting the importation of sardines labeled
“Packed in Olive Oil” when the quantity of peanut oil therein is
found not to exceed 5 percent, as nearly as can be determined with a
reasonable toleration for difficulties of analysis, and variation in
duplicates.

This amendment is of a provisional nature and will be in force until
further investigations can be made and until further ordered.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _September 23, 1905_.


(F. I. D. 28.)

MAXIMUM QUANTITY OF SULFUROUS ACID IN WINES.

As a result of a conference between the Chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry and Professor Gayon and other members of the French committee
of œnology and exporters of wines, held at Bordeaux, August 26, 1905,
the following modifications of F. I. D. 13, issued March 1, 1905, are
made:

It was learned from the French expert, Professor Gayon, who is the
principal advisor of the committee of œnology, that steps have already
been taken to prevent the excessive use of sulfur, which, it is
admitted, in years past has been practiced at times in the preparation
of French white wines. The quantities of sulfur which are now permitted
to be burned are prescribed for each kind of wine in order to avoid
any excessive use. It is believed that by these new regulations the
wines which are prepared subsequently to the issue of the regulations
of March 1, referred to above, namely, the wines of the vintage of 1905
and of subsequent vintages, will not contain a quantity of sulfurous
acid in excess of the amounts specified in the regulations of F. I. D.
13. Wines prepared previous to these regulations, however, may still
contain, even in the absence of notable quantities of sugar, more
sulfurous acid than would be permissible under the existing provisional
standards.

With the desire to meet the wishes of the French makers and exporters
who are endeavoring now to diminish the quantity of sulfurous acid
in white wines hereafter made, it is deemed advisable to modify the
provisional regulations slightly to avoid as much as possible any
retroactive intent. It is therefore prescribed, provisionally, in
modification of F. I. D. 13, that wines imported into the United States
from France or other countries, containing not to exceed 350 milligrams
of sulfurous acid, may be admitted without respect to the quantity of
sugar contained therein. There will also be permitted a tolerance of
20 milligrams per liter to cover the difference in different samples
and the variations incident to duplicate analyses. This modification
of F. I. D. 13 will not apply to the wines of the vintage of 1905 nor
to succeeding vintages. To wines of these vintages the provisional
standards provided in F. I. D. 13 will still apply until further orders.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _September 23, 1905_.


(F. I. D. 29.)

COLORING MATTERS IN SYNTHETIC FOODS.

The term synthetic food as herein used is applied to a food product
made of a mixture of various other food products and not of itself
possessed of any of the characteristics of a natural or uncompounded
food. Such food products should bear some special name not indicative
of natural origin, character, or quality. A class of products typifying
such synthetic foods is the product known as candy or confection. It
has been customary to use harmless artificial colors in such foods
in preparing them for consumption. Such colors are not calculated to
deceive or mislead, because the foods themselves do not represent any
natural food product. The regulations of this Department applying to
imported food products require that such products, when artificially
colored, should bear a legend on the label to that effect. This
regulation should be construed to apply only to food products which
of themselves have a natural color and in which the use of artificial
colors would tend to mislead or deceive the purchaser.

Until further orders synthetic food products, as described above, not
having of themselves any natural color nor bearing any name which would
indicate an origin relating to a food product of a definite color, may
contain harmless coloring matter without notice on the label. This
permission is not to be construed, however, in any way which would
permit the use of coloring matter if the product by its name indicates
a special origin. For instance, candies which are sold under the name
of chocolates should not be permitted to carry a color imitating the
natural color of chocolate, and this principle should apply to other
confections bearing names of definite origin. The Department will not
undertake to specify by name the colors which may be used further than
to say that they must be of a harmless character, not injurious to
health, and must comply with the laws and regulations of the countries
from which the food products are imported.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _September 27, 1905_.


(F. I. D. 30.)

THE USE OF PACKAGES MADE OF TIN PLATE, ON WHICH LABELS HAVE BEEN
PRINTED FOR PRESERVED VEGETABLES, ETC., ORDERED AND DELIVERED TO
MANUFACTURERS PRIOR TO SEPTEMBER 1, 1905.

From the investigations lately made by the Chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry, it appears that in a few instances European manufacturers
of preserved vegetables, intended for export to the United States,
had provided a large number of packages made of tin, on which the
labels had been printed previous to the manufacture of the tin cans.
The printed matter can not be erased from the cans, nor can it be
conveniently covered without destroying the artistic appearance of
the packages. These tin cans had been ordered and delivered to the
manufacturers before the publication of F. I. D. 26, requiring the
presence of preservatives, coloring matters, etc., to be indicated upon
the original label and not attached by means of pasters subsequent to
September 1, 1905. In many cases considerable expense has been incurred
by the manufacturers in the purchase of these tin cans with the labels
printed thereon.

Inasmuch as these packages were purchased in good faith and were not
intended to disregard the regulations of the law relating to imported
food products, permission will be given to use them in packing
preserved vegetables for the season of 1906 on the following conditions:

1. That the tin cans in the possession of manufacturers shall have been
ordered and delivered previous to September 1, 1905.

2. That the manufacturer shall make a statement before the consul in
each case of the number of such packages which he had on hand at the
date mentioned.

3. That the manufacturer shall attach a special paster, in a
conspicuous place on the label, in such a way as to make it practically
irremovable, indicating the presence of the preservative, coloring
matter, etc., which may have been used in the preparation of the
contents of the package, by the use of type not smaller than long
primer capitals, as shown in F. I. D. 6, and submit samples thereof to
this Department prior to shipment.

4. That these packages already on hand may be used for the crop of
1906, but not for a longer period.

5. That the importation of these packages into the United States under
the regulations above mentioned shall not continue longer than May 1,
1907.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _September 29, 1905_.


F. I. D. 31.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 31.


LABELS ON DETACHABLE WRAPPERS.

In the examination of certain imported goods to ascertain whether the
requirements of F. I. D. 17, of April 21, 1905, have been complied
with, instances have been found where wrappers on which a part of the
label only is printed are used with packages, and the declarations
required in the principal label (in conformity with the decision
referred to and other decisions) are omitted. Inspectors of imported
food products will be instructed to regard a package as misbranded if
a wrapper is placed over the label attached to the package and the
statements on said wrapper omit any of the declarations required on the
principal label.

An illustration of this ruling is found in the examination of a recent
importation on the principal label of which it is stated that salicylic
acid was used in the preparation of the sample. The package is inclosed
in a wrapper on which is found a part of the label, namely, the name
of the substance together with the name of the manufacturer, but no
statement of the fact that salicylic acid was used in its preparation.
Inasmuch as these packages may be sold without the removal of the
wrapper, the wrappers would not in their present form convey the
necessary information to the purchaser and consumer.

The provisions of this decision will be enforced on and after January
1, 1906.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 14, 1905_.


F. I. D. 32.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 32.


FOODS ENTERED FOR THE PURPOSE OF SALE TO OUTGOING SHIPS.

An importer has made the following statement relating to the labeling
of certain products, namely:

  We should like, however, to point out to you that our trade is one
  by itself, and these goods, and mostly all the other goods that we
  import, are not for consumption in the United States, but are shipped
  by us on board foreign-going vessels. Our business is the ship-supply
  trade, and these importations are brought in to enable us to give
  the same supplies to the different vessels as we are in the habit
  of furnishing in Great Britain. Under the circumstances, therefore,
  we hope if we furnish bonds or give you a guarantee that any goods,
  such as marmalade, imported by us would not be consumed in the United
  States it would enable you to pass the goods as they have been of
  late.

This is a case similar to F. I. D. 25, “Food Products Offered for Entry
and Afterwards Declared to be for Technical Purposes.” The principle
involved is that a declaration respecting the uses to which a food may
be put does not in any way affect its inspection when offered for entry
and delivered to the consignee. If a food product be regularly offered
for importation into the United States the subsequent use to which it
may be put is not a matter which can affect in any way the duties of
the inspecting officers. It is not the duty of these officers to follow
the food into consumption nor to see what becomes of it after it is
delivered to the consignee. The duty of these officers is to see that
the food at the time of inspection conforms to the provisions of the
law, that it has had no injurious substance added to it, that it is
in a state fit for consumption, that it is properly labeled, and that
it is not of a character forbidden sale or restricted in sale in the
country where it is made or from which it is exported. If the foods in
question conform to these provisions of the law, they are permitted to
be delivered to the consignee. The purpose of the consignee in securing
the goods and the disposition which he makes of them after they are
secured do not appear to have any bearing upon the subject of the
inspection itself. In the present case it is declared that the goods
are intended to be sold to outgoing steamships. At the time of sailing
these steamships are subject to the laws of the United States. The
provisioning of these ships is made under the laws of the United States
with articles of food produced in or imported into the United States.

In the enforcement of the law it makes no difference whether the foods
are intended for disposition in this way or for ordinary consumption.
If it is desired to use such foods for transshipment, they could be
entered in bond, never passed through the custom-house, and removed
from bond and reshipped. If the foods are treated in this way, and
thus never brought within the jurisdiction of the United States, this
Department will have no control over them in any way whatever. They
would remain solely under the control of the Treasury Department, and
that Department would see to it that they were reshipped beyond the
jurisdiction of the United States. Even in this case it does not seem,
however, that it would be possible to sell such goods for consumption
on ships carrying the American flag. The application of the importer
for a special ruling, therefore, in such cases is denied.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 30, 1905_.


F. I. D. 33-36.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 33-36.


(F. I. D. 33.)

THE IMPORTATION OF A BEVERAGE UNDER A MISLEADING NAME.

A shipment of food product has been offered for importation labeled
_Raspberry Vinegar_. On notice that it was held for inspection, a
representative of the importer appeared and stated that the substance
was not a vinegar, but a drink, and intended to be used as a beverage.
In this case the material is held to be misbranded, as a vinegar is
never intended for a beverage, but only as a condiment.

Notice is given that after May 1, 1906, importations of this
description, or similar thereto, will not be admitted if misbranded in
the manner mentioned. The name of the article, if descriptive, must
indicate its true character. It is suggested that the term _Raspberry
Beverage_ is a suitable designation. It will be held, however, that
if so labeled it must be a beverage made solely from raspberries or
raspberry juice, and not preserved with any substance unmentioned on
the label, except sugar, vinegar, or spices. Any substance added to
such a product must not be injurious to health nor in violation of the
laws of the country whence it comes.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 16, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 34.)

PRESERVATIVES IN SAUSAGES.

An importer has made the following request:

  About two years ago we had some difficulty with the Department of
  Agriculture on account of an added preservative or acid being found
  in German Frankfurter sausages. Our manufacturer has discontinued
  using any preservative, and we find that the sausages do not keep
  very well without this added preservative. We would ask you to kindly
  let us know if there is any objection to our using salicylic acid,
  boracic acid, benzoic acid, or, in fact, any preservative, if it is
  plainly stated on the label.

Inasmuch as letters of this nature are occasionally received, it
is deemed advisable to make a general statement concerning the
attitude of this Department in matters of this kind. It is neither
practicable nor advisable for the Department to act in the capacity of
scientific adviser to any importer or manufacturer of food products.
The Department should be left free in all cases to decide according to
the existing law the fitness of any food product to be delivered to
the consignee. It can not, therefore, advise in respect of the use of
any preservative or any other added substance further than is done in
the regular decisions published in this series. The addition of any
preservative of any kind to a food product may be objected to for three
reasons.

(1) It may be a case of misbranding when the added body is not
mentioned on the label.

(2) The added substance itself may be deemed to be injurious to
health either as the result of present knowledge or of subsequent
investigations.

(3) The added substance may be forbidden by the laws of the country in
which the foods are made or from which they are exported.

In the case of the German sausage referred to, both boric and salicylic
acids are prohibited by the German laws. Boric acid has been declared
by this Department to be injurious to health. It does not appear that
there is any convincing reason for the use of any preservatives in
sausages except the usual condimental ingredients--salt, vinegar,
spices, and wood smoke.

Until the results of experiments conducted in the Bureau of Chemistry
are declared, small quantities of benzoic acid and benzoates, salicylic
acid and salicylates, sulfurous acid and sulfites and copper sulfate
are permitted in food products when plainly declared upon the label and
when not forbidden by the laws of the countries where the foods are
produced or from which they are exported. With respect to sulfurous
acid in wine, this decision is not intended to supplant the principles
laid down in F. I. D. 28. This permission is given without prejudice
to any future decision of the Department excluding such substances by
reason of excessive quantity or as being prejudicial to health, or for
other legal causes.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 16, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 35.)

MODIFYING IN CERTAIN CASES PROVISIONS IN F. I. D. 12 AND F. I. D. 26.

Experience has shown that in some cases the literal execution of
the provisions of F. I. D. 12, of March 1, 1905, relating to first
notice to importer, and of F. I. D. 26, relating to the date at which
relabeling after arrival in the United States may be permitted, namely,
September 1, 1905, may cause unnecessary annoyance and inconvenience.
It is therefore ordered that these two decisions be modified to permit
in certain cases the importation of an article not labeled strictly in
harmony with the provisions of the food-inspection laws after it is
relabeled in a manner satisfactory to the Department. Such action seems
especially desirable at the smaller ports, where exact information
respecting the requirements of the inspection of foods is not so easily
obtainable.

F. I. D. 26 is also amended so that in certain cases importation after
relabeling will be permitted. It is difficult to state exactly in what
cases these amendments to F. I. D. 12 and F. I. D. 26 will be applied.
In general, it may be said that where a food product is misbranded, but
no substance deleterious to health has been added, and where neither
the importer nor the shipper has had notice of the existence of the
law or of its requirements, permission to relabel may be given. A
similar permission will be extended to all food products already afloat
at the time of receiving the first notice, or which are so advanced
in shipment that they can not be countermanded by cable or otherwise.
Other miscellaneous requests for permission to relabel will be decided
upon the merits of the case presented, and permission to relabel be
granted when it is evident that neither negligence nor indifference is
responsible for the failure to secure a proper branding of the product.
A similar permission will also be granted when it is apparent that the
purpose of the law may thereby be fully accomplished. This action is
not to be taken in case of food products containing added substances
injurious to health or forbidden by the laws of the country from which
the substance comes.

In this connection it is suggested to importers that all orders for
food products in the United States be given subject to the passing
of the inspection at the ports of entry. It will not be considered
a sufficient excuse for the importation of improperly branded or
otherwise objectionable food products to show that they were paid for
before the inspection took place. The law has now been in force long
enough to acquaint foreign exporters with its existence and domestic
importers with its provisions. It is therefore held that paying for
food products before inspection is completed will not be deemed
a sufficient excuse for asking for the relabeling, remarking, or
admission thereof.

There are certain other cases in which relabeling of an importation of
food products may be permitted, but in no case will such a courtesy be
extended where it is evident that either importer or exporter has had
ample opportunity and notice to comply with the provisions of the law.
Such cases include those where evidently honest attempts have been made
to comply with the conditions of the law and where failure has been due
to ignorance of the exact nature of the conditions required, or some
unavoidable cause. These amendments are made to prevent unnecessary
annoyance and hardships, and will not be construed in any way to excuse
a failure to comply with the conditions of the law where it is evident
that these conditions have been fully understood and opportunity
afforded for their application.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 16, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 36.)

SUBSTANCES, ORDINARILY FOOD PRODUCTS, INTENDED FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES.

The question has been raised on several occasions whether food products
which are offered for importation for other purposes than to be used
in foods are subject to the inspections of similar products when
intended for consumption. It has been held (F. I. D. 32) that it is
not the purpose of the law, nor is it possible, to follow the ordinary
food product into consumption in order to determine to what use it is
finally put. The law levying duty on olive oils specifically provides
that when such oil is imported for mechanical purposes it is free from
duty as an edible oil, provided it is in a condition of rancidity or
other state which renders it unfit for consumption as human food. There
is no statute covering a similar condition for other food products. It
seems only reasonable, however, to apply this principle of law to other
food products when it can be done without complicating the question of
the ordinary inspection.

It is therefore held that a substance which ordinarily is considered a
food product, when offered for importation for technical purposes may
be admitted without inspection on the following conditions:

(1) That in the invoice and accompanying declaration it is specifically
stated that the substance in question is to be devoted solely to
technical use.

(2) That the substance be so denatured, either by natural or artificial
means, as to render it unfit for consumption as human food.

This Department reserves the right to determine in any given case
whether or not the denaturing process is of a character which would
render it impracticable to recover the article in a form suitable for
consumption as human food. When substances ordinarily food products are
presented hereafter for import into this country with the invoice and
declaration above mentioned and in the denatured condition specified,
they will not be detained for inspection by this Department longer
than is necessary to ascertain the above facts. A denaturing process
will be held to be valid provided it so changes the taste of the
food product as to make it impossible for it to be consumed for food
purposes, as, for instance, by the addition of an excessive quantity
of common salt or other denaturing agent which would impart a taste of
such a character as to cause it to be rejected by any one attempting to
consume it.

This decision shall not be considered in any way to change the opinion
of this Department with reference to food products offered as such
for importation and afterwards declared to be intended for technical
purposes, as stated in F. I. D. 25, of June 21, 1905.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 18, 1906_.


F. I. D. 37-38.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 37-38.


(F. I. D. 37.)

LABELING OF CHOCOLATES.

The question of the proper marking of plain or bitter chocolates and
sweet chocolates has arisen on several occasions in the inspection of
imported food products, and, after full investigation of all the facts
of the case and the relations of previous decisions thereto, it appears
that the following points are established:

1. Chocolate, plain or bitter, is imported for cooking and not for
directly edible purposes.

2. Sweet chocolates are imported practically as a candy or confection.

This question is covered to a certain extent in F. I. D. 26, section 8,
which reads as follows:

  8. The addition of the ordinary condimental substances to a food
  product, such as sugar, vinegar, salt, spices, and wood smoke, may be
  practiced without any notice to this effect appearing upon the label.

Section 9 limits the application of section 8. It reads as follows:

  9. Food products of any given name are to correspond in quality to
  the standards established by authority of Congress for such products,
  and if they vary from this standard a notice to that effect is to
  appear upon the label.

It appears from the standards adopted by authority of Congress
(Circular No. 13, Office of the Secretary) that chocolate, plain or
bitter, can not have any substances added to it not noted in the
standard and remain a standard product. If, therefore, chocolate, plain
or bitter, have any starch or other substance added thereto for any
purpose whatever, or sugar in insufficient quantities to make it a
sweet chocolate, the addition of these bodies should be indicated by an
appropriate statement on the label.

On the other hand, sweet chocolate, being intended for and plainly
being a confection, would not require a statement to the effect
that sugar had been added or a statement in regard to any of the
other substances mentioned in the standard. If, however, any foreign
substance other than that mentioned in the standard should be added to
a sweet chocolate, a proper statement indicating that fact would be
required upon the label.

This decision is given without prejudice to revision in case it should
become advisable, as a result of experience, to further distinguish
between these two bodies by some appropriate designation.

“Milk chocolate” will be considered as a sweet chocolate to which whole
milk (fresh, evaporated, or desiccated) has been added.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 30, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 38.)

LABELING OF COCOAS.

Cocoas, in the preparation of which alkalis or other substances have
been employed in order to increase the apparent solubility of the
product, should bear on the label a declaration of such treatment.
The phrase “Prepared with Alkali” (or alkalis) or “Manufactured with
Alkali” (or alkalis), or some similar treatment, would be a sufficient
notification. This declaration should also be in keeping with the
provisions of F. I. D. 26. The denomination of such products as
“soluble cocoas” will not answer, since the term “soluble,” as used
in this connection, is, to a certain extent, misleading. The apparent
increased solubility of products treated as above is due rather to the
suspension of the particles than to their solubility. The descriptions
of the manufacture of these products show that potassium carbonate,
sodium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, ammonium carbonate, and ammonium
hydroxid are the principal alkaline salts employed. Tartaric acid is
also at times used to correct any undue alkalinity produced by these
added substances. The subject of the wholesomeness of these added
products is reserved for further consideration.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 30, 1906_.


F. I. D. 39.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.


(F. I. D. 39.)

PRESERVATIVES AND ARTIFICIAL COLORS IN MACARONIS.

Inspection of recent importations of macaroni, noodles, and similar
products has shown that these goods sometimes contain chemical
preservatives, such as fluorids, which are regarded as injurious to
health. A small amount of coloring matter is also frequently added to
macaroni. It appears that Martius yellow is often used for coloring
these products. This substance is held to be injurious to health and is
so classed by the laws of several European countries, especially Italy,
which has decreed that, among other colors, Martius yellow (dinitro
yellow, naphthol yellow, Manchester yellow, saffron yellow, and gold
yellow) must not be used in the preparation of foods. In view of this
fact no importation of macaroni colored with Martius yellow or other
colors forbidden by the Italian law, or preserved with fluorids or
other preservatives injurious to health, will be permitted after June
1, 1906, and all importations of macaroni which contain any permissible
coloring matter must be labeled with the words “Artificially colored,”
in accordance with F. I. D. 26.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _May 1, 1906_.


F. I. D. 40-43.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 40-43.


(F. I. D. 40.)

FILING GUARANTY.

In order that both the Department and the manufacturer may be protected
against fraud it is requested that all guaranties of a general
character filed with the Secretary of Agriculture in harmony with
Regulation 9, Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement of the Food
and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, be acknowledged before a notary or other
official authorized to affix a seal. Attention is called to the fact
that when a general guaranty has been thus filed every package of
articles of food and drugs put up under the guaranty should bear the
legend, “Guaranteed under the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906,” and
also the serial number assigned thereto, if the dealer is to receive
the protection contemplated by the guaranty. No other word should go
upon this legend or accompany it in any way. Particular attention is
called to the fact that nothing should be placed upon the label, or in
any printed matter accompanying it, indicating that the guaranty is
made by the Department of Agriculture. The appearance of the serial
number with the phrase above mentioned upon a label does not exempt it
from inspection nor its guarantor from prosecution in case the article
in question be found in any way to violate the food and drugs act of
June 30, 1906.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 25, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 41.)

APPROVAL OF LABELS.

Numerous requests are referred to this Department for the approval of
labels to be used in connection with articles of food and drugs under
the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906. This act does not authorize
the Secretary of Agriculture nor any agent of the Department to approve
labels. The Department therefore will not give its approval to any
label. Any printed matter upon the label implying that this Department
has approved it will be without warrant. It is believed that with
the law and the regulations before him the manufacturer will have no
difficulty in arranging his label in harmony with the requirements set
forth. If there be questions on which there is doubt respecting the
general character of labels, decisions under the food and drugs act
will be rendered, of a public character and published from time to
time, covering such points.

  Approved:

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 25, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 42.)

MIXING FLOURS.

The following communication has been received respecting the mixing of
flours of different cereals:

  In conformity with the custom of a century or more, the manufacturers
  of rye flour, in order to produce a lighter and more easily worked
  flour, have added a proportion of wheat flour to their rye and
  branded it “Rye Flour.”

  This custom simply conforms to the consumers’ demand for a whiter
  loaf and from every standpoint is a perfectly legitimate operation.

  Under the interpretation of the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906,
  apparent restrictions are placed upon this compounding, and I would
  therefore respectfully ask your ruling upon the following points:

  1. Under this interpretation will it be necessary to add the word
  “compound” to the brands?

  2. Will it be necessary in accordance with this interpretation to
  name in the brand the fact that a wheat admixture has been made, in
  addition to the use of the word “compound,” providing that word is
  necessary?

  3. Referring to paragraph f, Regulation 17, which reads as follows:

  “An article containing more than one food product or active medicinal
  agent is misbranded if named after a single constituent,”

  will it be permissible to still name the rye-wheat admixture “rye
  flour”?

The food and drugs act of June 30, 1906, and the rules and regulations
made thereunder, provide for the proper marking of food product and
penalties for misbranding.

The act also provides that a food product is not misbranded “in
the case of articles labeled, branded, or tagged so as to plainly
indicate that they are compounds, imitations, or blends, and the word
‘compound,’ ‘imitation,’ or ‘blend,’ as the case may be, is plainly
stated on the package in which it is offered for sale.”

Keeping in view these provisions of the law, and rules and regulations
made thereunder, it appears that the mixing of rye flour and wheat
flour is not prohibited by the law provided the package is marked
“compound” or “mixture,” the word standing alone and without
qualification, and also if the label contain the information which
shows that it is properly branded. The mixture may also be denominated
a “blend” if rye flour and wheat flour be regarded as like substances.
It is held that this information in the case mentioned would be a
statement of the ingredients used in making the compound. It is further
held that the use of an ingredient in small quantity simply for the
purpose of naming it in the list of ingredients would be contrary to
the intent of the law, and therefore that the ingredients must be used
in quantities which would justify the appearance of their names upon
the label. The statement made of the constituents used should be of a
character to indicate plainly that the article is a compound, mixture,
or blend.

It is evident from the above explanation that the naming of a mixture
of this kind “rye flour” would be plainly a violation of the law and
the regulations made thereunder.

Attention is called also to the act of Congress approved June 13, 1898,
U. S. Revised Statutes, sections 36 to 49, inclusive, imposing special
taxes under the supervision of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue on
mixed flour.

  Approved:

  W. M. HAYS,
  _Acting Secretary_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _October 30, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 43.)

RELABELING OF GOODS ON HAND.

The following is a type of numerous communications received concerning
the operation of the food law:

  The retail grocers of our city, as well as some of the jobbers, are
  very much concerned over stocks of canned goods and other similar
  goods they might have in stock on January 1, 1907, when the new
  pure-food act goes into effect.

  We are under the impression that where there is nothing deleterious
  to health contained in such goods so held it is not the Department’s
  intention to interfere in any way, shape, or form with them.

  Where these goods are held by retailers in our own city does this
  come within the jurisdiction of the National law, or is it controlled
  only by State laws?

Similar letters have been received relating to drugs, medicines, and
other articles affected by the operation of the law. A general answer
is deemed advisable, which, it is hoped, wilt cover the cases in
question.

Section (_i_) of Regulation 17 provides that--

  The regulation regarding the principal label will not be enforced
  until October 1, 1907, in the case of labels printed and now on
  hand, whenever any statement therein contained which is contrary to
  the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, as to character of contents,
  shall be corrected by a supplemental label, stamp, or paster. All
  other labels now printed and on hand may be used without change until
  October 1, 1907.

It is held that under this regulation labels which contain statements
relating to the name of manufacturer, the place of manufacture,
etc., which are not in harmony with the general meaning of the law
may be used if on hand on the 1st of January, 1907, the day on which
the regulations become effective. Any statement, however, respecting
the character of the contents which is false or misleading should be
corrected as indicated. The correction should secure the obliteration
of the misstatement either by placing the supplemental label or paster
over it or obliterating it in some other way. If the goods contain
artificial color or preservative other than ordinary condimental
substances (salt, sugar, vinegar, wood smoke, spices, and condiments
of all kinds), that fact should appear upon the supplemental stamp or
paster. If any of the words required to be placed upon drugs and foods
in the specific wording of the act do not appear upon the label, such
as alcohol, opium, etc., it is held that the correction must include
the enumeration of these substances, as provided for in Regulations 28
and 29.

If goods that are packed and sealed in a carton which contains the
bottle or other package also sealed and labeled were not in the hands
of the manufacturer after January 1, 1907, but had been already
delivered to the jobber or dealer, it will be held sufficient to mark
the external carton alone, provided the goods are sold only in the
unbroken carton. If the container, however, holds a large number of
separate packages, it will be necessary that each of the separate
packages to be sold as such shall be labeled with the words required
specifically by the act.

It must not be forgotten that Regulation 17, section (_i_), is for
the purpose of avoiding the expense of relabeling articles already
packed and branded at the time the regulations go into effect and which
necessarily could not have been so packed and branded with any intent
to evade the provisions of the law, and it is expected that jobbers and
dealers will do everything in their power to bring the packages now
on hand into as close harmony with the provisions of the act and the
regulations made thereunder as possible.

All articles in the hands of manufacturers, jobbers, and dealers on
the 1st day of January, 1907, which are sold wholly within the State
in which they are found on that date are exempt from the provisions
of the act. Thus the use of the supplemental label, stamp, or paster
is required only on those articles which on or after the 1st day of
January, 1907, enter interstate commerce or are offered for sale in
the District of Columbia and the Territories. It is believed that
the provisions of Regulation 17, section (_i_), can be complied with
without great annoyance and expense. It will be deemed sufficient if
the supplemental pasters and labels are attached at the time the goods
are shipped beyond the State line, that is, they need not necessarily
be attached to such article on the 1st day of January, but at any
time thereafter when prepared for interstate commerce. Thus the labor
of meeting this requirement will be distributed according to the
exigencies of actual trade. On and after October 1, 1907, the label
must be originally properly printed, and no further amendment will be
considered.

  Approved:

  W. M. HAYS,
  _Acting Secretary_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _November 6, 1906_.


  F. I. D. 44-45.                               Issued December 4, 1906.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 44 AND 45.


(F. I. D. 44.)

SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF FOOD-INSPECTION DECISIONS.

From the tenor of many inquiries received in this Department it appears
that many persons suppose that the answers to inquiries addressed to
this Department, either in letters or in published decisions, have
the force and effect of the rules and regulations for the enforcement
of the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906. The following are
illustrations of the inquiries received by this Department:

  Must we stamp all goods as conforming to the drug and food law,
  whether they have alcohol and narcotics therein, or not?

  On a brand of salad oil, which is a winter-strain cottonseed oil, can
  it be sold under the brand of salad oil, or must it state that it is
  cottonseed oil?

It seems highly desirable that an erroneous opinion of this kind
should be corrected. The opinions or decisions of this Department do
not add anything to the rules and regulations nor take anything away
from them. They therefore are not to be considered in the light of
rules and regulations. On the other hand, the decisions and opinions
referred to express the attitude of this Department in relation to
the interpretation of the law and the rules and regulations, and they
are published for the information of the officials of the Department
who may be charged with the execution of the law and especially to
acquaint manufacturers, jobbers, and dealers with the attitude of
this Department in these matters. They are therefore issued more
in an advisory than in a mandatory spirit. It is clear that if the
manufacturers, jobbers, and dealers interpret the rules and regulations
in the same manner as they are interpreted by this Department,
and follow that interpretation in their business transactions, no
prosecution will lie against them. It needs no argument to show that
the Secretary of Agriculture must himself come to a decision in
every case before a prosecution can be initiated, since it is on his
report that the district attorney is to begin a prosecution for the
enforcement of the provisions of the act.

In so far as possible it is advisable that the opinions of this
Department respecting the questions which arise may be published. It
may often occur that the opinion of this Department is not that of the
manufacturer, jobber, or dealer. In this case there is no obligation
resting upon the manufacturer, jobber, or dealer to follow the line of
procedure marked out or indicated by the opinion of this Department.
Each one is entitled to his own opinion and interpretation and to
assume the responsibility of acting in harmony therewith.

It may be proper to add that in reaching opinions and decisions on
these cases the Department keeps constantly in view the two great
purposes of the food and drugs act, namely, to prevent misbranding
and to prohibit adulteration. From the tenor of the correspondence
received at this Department and from the oral hearings which have been
held, it is evident that an overwhelming majority of the manufacturers,
jobbers, and dealers of this country are determined to do their
utmost to conform to the provisions of the act, to support it in every
particular, and to accede to the opinions of this Department respecting
its construction. It is hoped, therefore, that the publication of the
opinions and decisions of the Department will lead to the avoidance
of litigation which might arise due to decisions which may be reached
by this Department indicating violations of the act, violations
which would not have occurred had the opinions and decisions of the
Department been brought to the attention of the offender.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _December 1, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 45.)

BLENDED WHISKIES.

Many letters are received by the Department making inquiries concerning
the proper method of labeling blended whisky. Manufacturers are anxious
to know the construction placed by the Department upon this particular
part of the food and drugs act of June 30, 1906, and to ascertain under
what conditions the words “blended whisky” or “whiskies” may be used.
The following quotation from one of these letters presents a particular
case of a definite character:

  On account of the uncertainty prevailing in our trade at the present
  time as to how to proceed under the pure-food law and regulations
  regarding what will be considered a blend of whiskies, I am taking
  the liberty of expressing to you to-day two samples of whisky made up
  as follows:

  Sample A contains 51 percent of Bourbon whisky and 49 percent of
  neutral spirits. In this sample a small amount of burnt sugar is
  used for coloring, and a small amount of prune juice is used for
  flavoring, neither of which increases the volume to any great extent.

  Sample B contains 51 percent of neutral spirits and 49 percent of
  Bourbon whisky. Burnt sugar is used for coloring, and prune juice
  is used for flavoring, neither of which increases the volume to any
  great extent.

  I have marked these packages “blended whiskies” and want your ruling
  as to whether it is proper to thus brand and label such goods.

  My inquiry is for the purpose of guiding the large manufacturing
  interests in the trade that I represent.

In a subsequent letter from the same writer the following additional
statement is made:

  The reason for wanting your decision or ruling in this matter is just
  this: No house in the trade can afford to put out goods and run the
  risk of seizure and later litigation by the Government on account of
  the odium that would be attached to fighting the food and drugs act.

The question presented is whether neutral spirits may be added to
Bourbon whisky in varying quantities, colored and flavored, and the
resulting mixture be labeled “blended _whiskies_.” To permit the use of
the word “whiskies” in the described mixture is to admit that flavor
and color can be added to neutral spirits and the resulting mixture
be labeled “whisky.” The Department is of opinion that the mixtures
presented can not legally be labeled either “blended whiskies” or
“blended whisky.” The use of the plural of the word “whisky” in the
first case is evidently improper for the reason that there is only one
whisky in the mixture. If neutral spirit, also known as cologne spirit,
silent spirit, or alcohol, be diluted with water to a proper proof for
consumption and artificially colored and artificially flavored, it does
not become a whisky, but a “spurious imitation” thereof, not entirely
unlike that defined in section 3244, Revised Statutes. The mixture of
such an imitation with a genuine article can not be regarded as a
mixture of like substances within the letter and intent of the law.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _December 1, 1906_.


  F. I. D. 46, as amended.                        Issued March 22, 1907.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 46, AS AMENDED.

FICTITIOUS FIRM NAMES.

  F. I. D. 46, ISSUED ON DECEMBER 13, 1906, ON THE SUBJECT OF
  FICTITIOUS FIRM NAMES, IS HEREBY AMENDED TO READ AS FOLLOWS, FOR
  THE PURPOSE OF OBVIATING ANY AMBIGUITY THAT MAY HAVE EXISTED IN THE
  ORIGINAL DECISION. THE AMENDED PORTION IS SET IN ITALICS.

The following extract from a letter is typical of a question frequently
asked:

  In connection with our manufacture of flavoring extracts, we produce
  an article containing a certain percentage of artificial coumarin and
  vanillin. This product has been placed on the market under the name
  of ---- and Company, a fictitious firm, although dealers have always
  understood that it was our product. Is there any objection to our
  continuing to brand the product as manufactured by ---- and Company?

The same question has frequently been asked by importers who state that
they desire to assume the responsibility for particular brands.

It has been held by the Attorney-General (F. I. D. 2) that--

  the words “... Daisy Sugar Corn, ---- ---- Company, Milwaukee, Wis.,”
  clearly imply that the goods referred to are manufactured or prepared
  by that company in Wisconsin. The general public, unfamiliar with
  trade practices, would inevitably reach that conclusion.

Regulation 18 provides that if the name of the manufacturer and the
place of manufacture be given, they must be the true name and the
true place. If would appear, therefore, that the use of a fictitious
name in such a manner that it would be understood to be the name of
the manufacturer would be clearly a violation of Regulation 18. It is
apparent that the provisions of Regulation 18 will not be fulfilled by
the nominal incorporation of a fictitious firm. The regulations require
that goods must be actually manufactured by the firm represented on the
label as the manufacturer.

When a proper name, other than that of the manufacturer, is placed upon
a label it must not be used in the possessive. For instance,

  CHARLES GASTON’S
  OLIVE OIL
  BORDEAUX

can only be properly used on an oil manufactured by Charles Gaston at
Bordeaux. The same is true if the designation

  GASTON’S
  OLIVE OIL
  BORDEAUX

be employed.

On the other hand, the word “Gaston” might be used in an adjective
sense, and not in the possessive case as qualifying the words “olive
oil,” in a manner that would indicate that it represented a brand and
not a manufacturer, as

  GASTON OLIVE OIL.

Or,

  OLIVE OIL, GASTON BRAND.

In such case, however, neither given name nor initials should be
employed. The word “Gaston” should be in the same type as “olive oil”
and in equal prominence, thus forming a part of the label.

_The phrase “Olive Oil, Charles Gaston Brand,” may be used, in which
case the name of the actual manufacturer should appear, in order that
no false indication of the name of the person or firm manufacturing the
product may be given._

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _February 21, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 47.)

FLAVORING EXTRACTS.

The percentage of alcohol is not required to be stated in the case of
extracts sold for the preparation of foods only. It is held, however,
that extracts which are sold or used for any medicinal purpose whatever
should have the percentage of alcohol stated on the label.

Numerous inquiries are received regarding the proper designation of
products made in imitation of flavoring extracts or in imitation of
flavors. Such products include “Imitation vanilla flavor,” which is
made from such products as tonka extract, coumarin, and vanillin, with
or without vanilla extract. They may also include numerous preparations
made from synthetic fruit ethers intended to imitate strawberry,
banana, pineapple, etc. Such products should not be so designated as
to convey the impression that they have any relation to the flavor
prepared from the fruit. Even when it is not practicable to prepare
the flavor directly from the fruit, “imitation” is a better term than
“artificial.”

These imitation products should not be designated by terms which
indicate in any way by similarity of name that they are prepared from
a natural fruit or from a standard flavor. The term “venallos,” for
instance, would not be a proper descriptive name for a preparation
intended to imitate vanilla extract. Such products should either be
designated by their true names, such as “vanilla and vanillin flavor,”
“vanillin and coumarin flavor,” or by such terms as “imitation vanilla
flavor” or “vanilla substitute.”

Articles in the preparation of which such substitutes are employed
should not be labeled as if they were prepared from standard flavors
or from the fruits themselves. For instance, ice cream flavored with
imitation strawberry flavor should not be designated as “strawberry ice
cream.” If sold as strawberry ice cream without a label the product
would appear to be in violation of Regulation 22.

Artificial colors should be declared whenever present.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _December 13, 1906_.


(F. I. D. 48.)

SUBSTANCES USED IN THE PREPARATION OF FOODS.

The following letter was recently received at the Department of
Agriculture:

  We import a preparation of gelatin preserved with sulfurous acid for
  the purpose of fining wine. This gelatin is not used as a food and
  does not remain in the wine, although a small amount of the sulfurous
  acid may be left in the wine. Please inform us if the sale of this
  product is a violation of the food law.

It is held that the products commonly added to foods in their
preparation are properly classed as foods and come within the scope of
the food and drugs act. The Department can not follow a food product
into consumption in order to determine the use to which it is put.
Pending a decision on the wholesomeness of sulfurous acid as provided
in Regulation 15 (_b_), its presence should be declared.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _December 13, 1906_.


  F. I. D. 49-53.                              Issued February 18, 1907.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 49-53.

  49. TIME REQUIRED TO REACH DECISIONS ON DIFFERENT PROBLEMS CONNECTED
  WITH THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, JUNE 30, 1906. 50. IMITATION COFFEE. 51.
  COLORING OF BUTTER AND CHEESE. 52. FORM OF LABEL. 53. FORMULA ON THE
  LABEL OF DRUGS.


(F. I. D. 49.)

TIME REQUIRED TO REACH DECISIONS ON DIFFERENT PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH
THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, JUNE 30, 1906.

Many letters have reached the Department asking for action on very
important questions connected with the food and drugs act which require
much study and time to secure all the facts necessary to the rendering
of a just decision. It is quite impossible to answer all such letters
in detail. The following general statement shows the attitude of the
Department on questions of this kind:

All manufacturers and dealers have copies of the law and regulations
or can secure them and study them carefully. Each manufacturer and
dealer should conduct his business as nearly as possible in harmony
with the law as he interprets it. When each particular problem involved
reaches a solution in this Department, it is hoped it will be found
that the manufacturers and jobbers have come also to a similar decision
in the matter. Public notice will be given of each decision as it is
issued, that the manufacturers and dealers may be informed and be
able at once to place themselves in line with the decisions of the
Department. In this way it is hoped that all injustice will be avoided
in the execution of the law and everyone be given an opportunity to put
himself right and to have due notice of decisions which may be made.

The Department will use every endeavor to reach prompt decisions, but
must take time to collect the facts and subject them to a proper study;
otherwise the decisions would not have the value which should attach to
them in important matters affecting the execution of the law.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 8, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 50.)

IMITATION COFFEE.

A manufacturer writes as follows:

  We beg to ask for your opinion as regards the hyphenated word
  “Cereal-Coffee,” and whether or not we are entitled to its use
  for a cereal substitute for coffee.... In our opinion the term
  “Cereal-Coffee” would come under the so-called trade-name and
  distinctive name.

It is held that since the product mentioned is not a coffee it can not
properly be called by the term mentioned. Regulation 20 (d) provides
that a distinctive name shall give no false indication of character.
The use of the name “cereal-coffee” might be taken to indicate that the
product is coffee or has the properties of coffee, and hence the use
of this term does not comply with the definition of distinctive name.
Even if the product consist in part of coffee, the name would not be
correct. It is suggested that products of this nature be designated as
“imitation coffee,” as provided in Regulation 21 (f). In such case the
word “imitation” should be in uniform type, on uniform background, and
should be given equal prominence with the word “coffee.”

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 18, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 51.)

COLORING OF BUTTER AND CHEESE.

Numerous inquiries, of which the following is an illustration, have
been received by the Department:

  Will you kindly inform me concerning the coloring of butter and
  cheese under the pure-food law? Would it be unlawful to color butter
  and cheese as now practiced?

The coloring of butter is specifically permitted in the law of August
2, 1886 (24 Stat., 209), and the coloring of cheese in the law of June
6, 1896 (29 Stat., 253). It is held by the Department that the food
and drugs act does not repeal the provisions of the acts referred to
above and the addition of harmless color to these substances may be
practiced as therein provided, and that the presence of coloring matter
specifically recognized by acts of Congress as a constituent is not
required to be declared on the label.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 18, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 52.)

FORM OF LABEL.

The following is an extract from a letter recently received.

  We do not understand the requirements of the regulations respecting
  the arrangement of labels; that is, the order in which the various
  features of the label should be arranged.

To meet the requests for the opinion of the Department regarding the
proper arrangement of a label, the following order is suggested:

1. Name of substance or product.

2. In case of foods, words which indicate that the articles are
compounds, mixtures, or blends, and the word “Imitation,” “Compound,”
or “Blend,” as the case may be.

3. Statements designating the quantity or proportion of the ingredients
enumerated in the law, or derivatives and preparations of same,[53]
as mentioned under Regulation 28; also statements of other extraneous
substances whose presence should be declared, such as harmless coloring
matter, or any necessary statement regarding grade or quality.

  [53] Attention is called to the fact that the declaration of alcohol
  and its derivatives is not required in foods.

(The statements specified in paragraphs 1, 2, and 3, should appear
together without any intervening descriptive or explanatory matter.)

4. Name of manufacturer (if given).

5. Place of manufacture (if given, or when required in case of food
mixtures or compounds bearing a distinctive name).

It is stated in Regulation 17 that if the name of the manufacturer and
place of manufacture be given they should appear upon the principal
label. Although the law does not require that the name of the
manufacturer be given, or the place of manufacture, except in case of
food mixtures and compounds having a distinctive name, it is held that
if they are given they must be true, and should be placed with the
required information on the principal label. The arrangement of the
label is the same for both food and drug products and an example of
each is given.

                        _Sample label for food product._
                                +--------------------------------------+
  [Name of product.]            |              KETCHUP.                |
                                |                                      |
  [Declaration required by      |         ARTIFICIALLY COLORED.        |
  paragraphs 2 and 3.]          |                                      |
                                |                                      |
                                | [Descriptive matter, if desired, but |
                                |    preferably at bottom of label.]   |
                                |                                      |
  [Name of manufacturer, if     |            BLANK & CO.,              |
  given.]                       |                                      |
  [Place of manufacture, if     |            PORTLAND, ME.             |
  given.]                       |                                      |
                                |  [Descriptive matter, if desired.]   |
                                +--------------------------------------+

                  _Sample label for drug product._
                               +--------------------------------------+
  [Name of product.]           |             COUGH SYRUP.             |
                               |                                      |
  [Declarations required by    | ALCOHOL, 10 PERCENT.                 |
  paragraphs 2 and 3.]         | MORPHIN, ¹⁄₂ GRAIN PER               |
                               |   OUNCE.                             |
                               | CHLOROFORM, 40 MINIMS                |
                               |   PER OUNCE.                         |
                               |                                      |
                               | [Descriptive matter, if desired, but |
                               |    preferably at bottom of label.]   |
                               |                                      |
  [Name of manufacturer, if    |         JOHN JONES & CO.,            |
  given.]                      |                                      |
  [Place of manufacture, if    |         WASHINGTON, D. C.            |
  given.]                      |                                      |
                               |  [Descriptive matter, if desired.]   |
                               +--------------------------------------+

Any descriptive or explanatory matter that may appear on the principal
label, therefore, should be placed at the bottom of the label, or
between No. 3 and No. 4, and should be clearly separated from other
features of the label by means of a suitable line or space. Statements
regarding the reason for using alcohol, artificial coloring matter,
and other extraneous substances, come under the head of descriptive
or explanatory matter, and should not be interspersed with the
declarations required under Nos. 2 and 3.

The information called for under No. 3 should be so worded as to give
only the required information, as, for example, “alcohol 17 percent”
or “artificially colored.” All numbers used in expressing quantity or
proportion of substances required to be stated (see Regulation 28)
should be expressed in the Arabic notation.

Each substance required to be declared under No. 3 should be printed on
a separate line and in type specified in Regulation 17 (c).

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 18, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 53.)

FORMULA ON THE LABEL OF DRUGS.

Many inquiries are received relative to the necessity of giving the
formula of medicinal remedies on the label. The following is typical:

  I should like to know if it will be necessary for me to state on a
  label the name of the products from which I prepare my proprietary
  medicine in order to conform with the pure food and drugs act. If
  I do this, it will prohibit me from manufacturing and selling a
  remedy which is a secret of my own; and anyone buying it could,
  from the label, tell what ingredients were used in its preparation
  and make his own supply of this medicine. How does the United
  States Government expect to protect those who have secret medicinal
  preparations they wish to sell at a profit? If the Pure Food
  Commission desires, I will send them a sample bottle of my medicine
  for their inspection and approval.

The food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, does not require the formula
of drug products to be given on the label, but requires only that the
quantity or proportion of the ingredients enumerated in the law, and
derivatives and preparation of same (Regulation 28), shall be clearly
set forth on the label or labels of all preparations used for the
treatment or prevention of disease, either internally or externally,
for man or other animals. This includes sample packages as well as
regular trade packages.

The question is also frequently asked whether a medicinal preparation
would be exempt from the operation of the law if the formula were given
on the label. The formula on the label is very desirable, but this
information is not required by the law. The act forbids the use of any
statement, design, or device in connection with any drug product which
is false or misleading in any particular. A defect of this kind would
not be corrected by giving the formula on the label. If the formula is
given, it must be the correct and complete formula. It is held that, in
addition to those substances required by the act to be named, if only a
part of the active medicinal agents used in the manufacture of a drug
product are set forth on the label, such a procedure is misleading and
therefore forbidden by the law. All drug products and their labels must
conform to the act, whether the formula is or is not given on the label.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _January 28, 1907_.


  F. I. D. 54-59.                                 Issued March 23, 1907.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY,

H. W. WILEY, CHIEF OF BUREAU.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 54-59.

  54. DECLARATION OF THE QUANTITY OR PROPORTION OF ALCOHOL PRESENT
  IN DRUG PRODUCTS. 55. METHOD OF STATING QUANTITY OR PROPORTION OF
  PREPARATIONS (CONTAINING OPIUM, MORPHIN, ETC.) USED IN MANUFACTURING
  OTHER PREPARATIONS. 56. NAMES TO BE EMPLOYED IN DECLARING THE
  AMOUNT OF THE INGREDIENTS AS REQUIRED BY THE LAW. 57. PHYSICIANS’
  PRESCRIPTIONS: THE STATUS OF PACKAGES COMPOUNDED ACCORDING TO
  PHYSICIANS’ PRESCRIPTIONS AND ENTERING INTO INTERSTATE COMMERCE.
  58. THE LABELING OF PRODUCTS USED AS FOOD AND DRUGS AS WELL AS FOR
  TECHNICAL AND OTHER PURPOSES. 59. NATIONAL FORMULARY APPENDIX.


(F. I. D. 54.)

DECLARATION OF THE QUANTITY OR PROPORTION OF ALCOHOL PRESENT IN DRUG
PRODUCTS.

The question of stating the percentage of alcohol present in drug
products has caused a multitude of inquiries. The following questions
along this line serve as examples:

  Is it necessary to give the amount of alcohol present in U. S.
  Pharmacopœial or National Formulary products? It seems to me that
  such a requirement is absurd, and not contemplated within the spirit
  of the act. None of them are patent medicines. Will I be compelled to
  tell how much alcohol is present in such goods?

  If we apply for and obtain a serial number, must we in addition to
  putting this number on our labels state the percent of alcohol?

  Will it be necessary to give the percent of alcohol present in such
  products as ether, chloroform, collodion, spirit of nitrous ether,
  and similar preparations?

The law is specific on the subject of declaring the amount of
alcohol present in medicinal agents, as can readily be seen from the
following language: “An article shall also be deemed misbranded ...
if the package fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity
or proportion of any alcohol ... contained therein. No medicinal
preparations are exempt, whether they are made according to formulæ
given in the U. S. Pharmacopœia or National Formulary or formulæ taken
from any other source. The serial number, with or without the guarantee
legend, does not exempt a preparation from this requirement. The law
does not make any statement as to the amount of alcohol that may or may
not be employed. It requires, however, that whatever amount be present
shall be set forth on the label. The percentage of alcohol given on the
label should be the percentage of absolute alcohol by volume contained
in the finished product. The manner in which it should be printed is
shown in F. I. D. 52.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 13, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 55.)

METHOD OF STATING QUANTITY OR PROPORTION OF PREPARATIONS (CONTAINING
OPIUM, MORPHIN, ETC.) USED IN MANUFACTURING OTHER PREPARATIONS.

Many inquiries are received as to the method of stating the quantity
or proportion of preparations (containing opium, morphin, etc.) used
in the manufacture of other preparations. Of these the following are
typical:

  If the label on the bottle were to bear the words “Tincture of
  Opium,” I reason that as this is a definite preparation, constituting
  a preparation of opium, and so definite as to its composition
  that to any intelligent person it expresses definitely all that
  it is desirable to express, the use of this title alone should be
  sufficient. I feel that as a preparation it is distinct from opium,
  and if this particular tincture is used in the manufacture of a
  preparation the mention of it alone should be sufficient.

  Where extract or tincture of cannabis indica, or extract of opium,
  is employed in making other drug products, would it not be complying
  with the law if the use of such articles be clearly indicated on the
  label as prescribed by the law, or is it necessary to give the actual
  amounts of the drugs themselves represented by these preparations?

Names of drug products bearing any of the names of the ingredients
enumerated in the act are construed as representing “preparations”
within the meaning of the act; and if the same are clearly declared
upon the label as required by Regulations 17 and 30, it will not be
necessary to give the actual amount of the primary drugs used or
represented by such article. It is desirable, however, that the word
or words used in the law shall constitute the first part of the name
of the product. For example: “Opium, Tincture of;” “Cannabis Indica,
Extract of,” followed by the amount of tincture or extract used.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 13, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 56.)

NAMES TO BE EMPLOYED IN DECLARING THE AMOUNT OF THE INGREDIENTS AS
REQUIRED BY THE LAW.

Many inquiries are coming to this Department relative to the names
that may be employed in declaring the quantity or proportion of the
ingredients, as required by Congress.

The following are representative:

  The word “alcohol” has received so much unfavorable notoriety during
  the last few years that we hesitate to place it upon our labels.
  Could we not employ some other words in place of it, such as “cologne
  spirits,” “spirits of wine,” “pure grain alcohol,” etc.?

  Would it be satisfactory for us to use “Phenylacetamid,” or the
  following formula, C₆H₅(CH₃CO), for the chemical acetanilid?

  One of our preparations contains trichlorethidene ethyl alcoholate,
  which would undoubtedly under the law be considered a derivative of
  chloral hydrate. Will it be satisfactory for us to use this name on
  our trade packages in giving the amount of this chemical present in
  the product?

  In the manufacture of some of our products we use opium. It would,
  however, be a financial loss to state this fact on the label. Could
  we not say this preparation contains 20 grains of the concentrated
  extract of the _Papaver somniferum_ to the fluid ounce?

  Dover’s powder is mentioned in the regulations as one of the
  preparations of opium. It would seem sufficient at first glance that
  Dover’s powder as a preparation, if mentioned on the label, would be
  all that could be required as to opium.

One of the objects of the law is to inform the consumer of the presence
of certain drugs in medicines, and the above terms do not give the
average person any idea as to the presence or absence of such drugs.
In enumerating the ingredients, the quantity or proportion of which
is required to be given upon the principal label of any medicinal
preparation in which such ingredients may be present, the act uses
only common names, and the permission to use any but such common names
for any ingredients required to be declared upon the label is neither
expressed nor implied in any part of the law.

The term used for acetanilid is “acetanilid” and not phenylacetamid.
No reference is made to the use of the chemical formula in designating
the presence of chemicals. The words “chloral hydrate” appear in the
act, but not the chemical name trichlorethidene glycol. It can readily
be seen that if the act were not closely adhered to in this connection
there would soon be such a confusion and multiplicity of names and
phrases that one of the objects of the act would be defeated.

The names to be employed in stating the quantity or proportion of the
ingredients required by the act to appear on the label of all medicinal
preparations containing same are--

First. Those used in the law for the articles enumerated; example,
“alcohol,” not “spiritus rectificatus.”

Second. In the case of derivatives: (_a_) The name of the parent
substance used in the act should constitute part of the name; example,
“chloral acetone,” not “trichlorethidene dimethyl ketone.” (_b_) The
trade-name, accompanied in parentheses by the name of the parent
substance; example, “dionin (morphin derivative).”

Third. Names of preparations containing the name of some ingredient
used in the act. In such cases the name used in the act should
constitute the first portion of the name of the preparation. (See F. I.
D. 55.)

Fourth. Common names (such as laudanum, Dover’s powder, etc.) of
preparations containing an ingredient enumerated in the law, provided
such name or names are accompanied in parentheses by some such
phrase as “preparation of opium” or “opium preparation,” followed by
the number of minims or grains, as specified in the regulations; for
instance, “laudanum (preparation of opium), 40 minims per ounce.”

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 13, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 57.)

PHYSICIANS’ PRESCRIPTIONS.

THE STATUS OF PACKAGES COMPOUNDED ACCORDING TO PHYSICIANS’
PRESCRIPTIONS AND ENTERING INTO INTERSTATE COMMERCE.

Packages resulting from the compounding of physicians’ prescriptions
under the food and drugs act are the subject of many queries, of which
the following are representative:

  If a druggist compounds a physician’s prescription and sends it into
  an adjoining State, will it be necessary to state upon the label the
  amount of alcohol, morphin, etc., that may be present?

  Supposing a regularly licensed practicing physician has patients
  located in various States of the Union and supplies medicines to
  them through the mails, by express, and otherwise, do such packages
  come under the provisions of the law, and, if so, can the required
  information be given in pen and ink on the label?

  We treat drug addictions on a very gradual tonic treatment reduction
  plan. For instance, if John Doe writes for information as to the
  home treatment for his addiction, I send him a symptom blank which
  contains, among other questions, an inquiry as to the kind of drug
  he uses, how he uses it, the length of time he has used it, etc. In
  addition to giving me a complete history of his case, he states he
  is using 10 grains of sulf. of morphin (each twenty-four hours),
  hypodermically or internally, as the case may be. In prescribing in
  his case I immediately put him on just one-half of the amount he
  reports as his daily allowance, combining same with a bitter tonic.

  It is necessary for the reduction in drug cases to be made without
  the patient’s knowledge. It is, of course, understood by all
  physicians that you can not trust a drug habitué to properly make his
  own reductions, for, as a matter of fact, if he knew to what extent
  I was reducing his daily allowance of opiates, he would imagine the
  reduction too rapid, he would get frightened, and would take to his
  former drug for relief. Treatment prepared in this way I do not
  think would come under the head of a proprietary preparation or a
  patent medicine, as I prescribe the contents of each bottle to meet
  the requirements of each individual patient. All instructions as
  to the conduct of treatment and the use of auxiliary remedies are
  given by letter; consequently there are no printed labels or cartons
  containing any claims concerning the efficacy of this treatment.

  I would be pleased to have you inform me whether in your opinion I
  would be violating the pure-food law in any manner, shape, or form
  should I continue to label my preparations as I am now doing, and in
  having them prepared in ---- and forwarded direct to my patients in
  this and other States.

If a package compounded according to a physician’s prescription be
shipped, sent, or transported from any State or Territory or the
District of Columbia to another State or Territory or the District of
Columbia by a compounder, druggist, physician, or their agents, by
mail, express, freight, or otherwise, the label upon such package is
required to bear the information called for by Congress. If, however,
the patient himself, or a member of his household, or the physician
himself carries such package across a State line, and such package is
not subject to sale, it is held that such package need not be marked
so as to conform with the law, because such a transaction is not
considered one of interstate commerce.

The package may be marked so as to comply with the act by either
stamp, pen and ink, or typewriter, provided all such written matter
is distinctly legible and on the principal label, as prescribed in
Regulation 17.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 13, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 58.)

THE LABELING OF PRODUCTS USED AS FOODS AND DRUGS AS WELL AS FOR
TECHNICAL AND OTHER PURPOSES.

Frequent requests for information relative to the proper labeling
of products bearing the names of foods and drugs, but used also for
technical and other purposes, are received. The following are typical:

  We will kindly ask you to advise us in regard to the new law that
  governs the line of oils. We manufacture a compound product,
  so-called “turpentine,” which contains pure turpentine and a very
  fine petroleum product. It is used in most branches where pure
  turpentine is used, with the exception of medicinal purposes, for
  which we do not sell it.

  We understand that if we were to sell any cottonseed oil so branded
  as to indicate that it was intended to be used as a food, as, for
  example, under the brand “Blank Salad Oil,” it would be necessary
  to observe the requirements of the law referred to; but we are in
  doubt and would be glad to have your opinion as to whether a sale or
  shipment of this oil (for lubricating purposes) under the ordinary
  trade-brand of cottonseed oil, and without anything to indicate that
  it was of a quality suitable for use as a salad oil, would subject us
  to the provisions of the act.

During personal interviews the question of marking chemical reagents
has also been discussed.

Products used in the arts and for technical purposes are not subject
to the food and drugs act. It is, however, a well-recognized fact
that many articles are used indiscriminately for food, medicinal, and
technical purposes. It is also well known that some products employed
for technical purposes are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning
of this act. Inasmuch as it is impossible to follow such products into
consumption in order to determine to what use they are finally put,
it is desirable that an article sold under a name commonly applied to
such article for food, drug, and technical purposes be so labeled as
to avoid possible mistakes. The ordinary name of a pure and normal
product, whether sold for food, drug, technical, or other purposes,
is all that is necessary. Pure cottonseed oil or turpentine may be
sold without any restrictions whatever, whether such article is sold
for food, medicinal, or technical purposes, but it is suggested that
a cottonseed oil intended for lubricating purposes, or a so-called
turpentine consisting of a mixture of turpentine and petroleum oils,
used by the paint trade, be plainly marked so as to indicate that they
are not to be employed for food or medicinal purposes. Such phrases as
the following may be used: “Not for Food Purposes,” “Not for Medicinal
Use,” or for “Technical Purposes Only,” or “For Lubricating Purposes,”
etc.

In order to avoid complication it is suggested that chemical reagents
sold as such be marked with such phrases as the following: “For
Analytical Purposes,” or “Chemical Reagent,” etc.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 13, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 59.)

NATIONAL FORMULARY APPENDIX.

The National Formulary is one of the standards recognized under the
law. The question has been asked a number of times whether the appendix
of this authority would be construed as part and parcel of the book
itself. On page iv of the preface it is distinctly stated that the
formulæ collected in the appendix of the National Formulary are “no
longer designated as ‘N. F.’ preparations.” This shows that these
formulæ are not integral parts of the book under the law, which covers
only those products of the National Formulary recognized as such by
this authority. By this it is understood that if a drug product is
sold under a name contained in the appendix of the National Formulary,
it will not be necessary for such product either to conform to the
standard indicated by the formula or to declare upon the label its
own standard strength, quality, and purity if a different formula is
employed in its manufacture. Such articles are, however, subject to the
law in every other respect, as is the case of other medicinal products
not recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopœia or National Formulary.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 13, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 60.)

MINOR BORDER IMPORTATIONS.

Inquiry has frequently been made regarding the application of
Regulation 33 (requiring a declaration to be attached to the invoice)
to foods and drugs brought into the United States in small quantities
by farmers living near the border. One correspondent says:

  Farmers along the border are in the habit of occasionally bringing
  in, in their own teams, maple sugar in small quantities, also butter
  and like articles of food products of their own raising, and offering
  the same for entry at the different offices on the frontier.... The
  main question is as to whether or not the affidavits and other proof
  required by the pure-food law shall be required in these instances of
  minor importations of this class of articles.

Considering the nature of these importations it is held that Regulation
33 does not apply to them and that they may be imported without the
declaration. Such products are subject to inspection, however, and if
found to be in violation of the law will be excluded.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 25, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 61.)

COCOA BUTTER SUBSTITUTES.

A manufacturer writes:

  We use in the preparation of chocolate sticks a guaranteed pure
  production of cocoanut oil. May this product be sold merely as
  confectionery, and not as chocolate sticks? If not, would it be
  satisfactory for us to mark the product as “Chocolate sticks prepared
  with substitute butter”?

Regulation 22 prohibits the sale, or offer for sale, in interstate or
foreign commerce or in the District of Columbia or in any Territory
of the United States, of a food or drug product which bears no label
whatever if said product be an imitation of or offered for sale under
the name of another article. It would clearly be a violation of the
law to sell an article which was made in imitation of chocolate, even
though it be sold under the general name of a confection. Such an
article should be labeled in such a manner as to correctly represent
its true nature.

Regulation 25 (_a_) provides:

  When a substance of a recognized quality commonly used in the
  preparation of a food or drug product is replaced by another
  substance not injurious or deleterious to health, the name of the
  substituted substance shall appear upon the label.

It is held that cocoa butter is the only fat that can be used in
chocolate. The declaration of foreign fats merely as “substitute
butter” is apparently not sufficient; the nature of the fat employed
should be stated.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 25, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 62.)

GUARANTY ON IMPORTED PRODUCTS.

Many inquiries of the following type have been received by the
Department:

  We will take it as a favor if you will advise us if (since our goods
  are all imported and so must pass the custom-house before being sold)
  the fact of their having passed the customs authorities and the
  Department of Agriculture examination is not in itself a guaranty
  that they conform with the pure-food laws as defined by the act of
  Congress approved June 30, 1906, entitled “An act for preventing the
  manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or
  poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, liquors,” etc.

The Department makes a systematic inspection of imported foods and
drugs when they arrive at the custom-houses; and while such inspection
does not include an examination of samples taken from every package of
the aforesaid articles, it is sufficient to indicate that the article
is suitable to enter the country and be sent into interstate commerce
as long as it retains its identity in the unbroken package. If imported
foods and drugs are taken from the original packages and repacked, they
become subject to inspection as if of domestic origin, and the persons
handling and selling said articles are not immune from prosecution
in the event that a subsequent inspection discloses that all or any
portion of said foods or drugs are adulterated or misbranded according
to the provisions of said statute or the regulations made thereunder.

Only a wholesaler, jobber, manufacturer, or other party residing in the
United States can give a guaranty within the meaning of said act. A
foreign manufacturer or other foreign dealer can not give the guaranty
prescribed in said law, nor can the agent of such foreign manufacturer
or dealer give said guaranty unless such agent be a resident of the
United States and unless he actually sells the goods covered by the
guaranty.

The person who owns and sells imported goods can make a guaranty for
the purpose aforesaid, though the goods may be shipped directly by the
firm of whom the guarantor buys them to the customer of the guarantor.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 25, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 63.)

USE OF THE WORD “COMPOUND” IN NAMES OF DRUG PRODUCTS.

Many inquiries are received concerning the use of the word “compound”
in names of drug products. There seems to be a general impression that
this word can be applied as a corrective to many misbranded products.
The following extracts serve as examples:

  You have on file our formula (active agents--croton oil and cascara),
  and we would ask if it is possible to call the same “castor pill
  compound” and comply with the regulations?

  This liniment has been in use for forty years. The ingredients, each
  separately and collectively, are sanitary and highly curative. The
  one ingredient after which it was named happens to be present in
  the least proportion. Can not the compound be called by the name
  “Compound Sassafras Cream”?

An eminent jurist writes:

  I shall be glad to know the views entertained by your Department
  as to when a druggist has satisfied this act by a label or printed
  matter which he puts on the package or bottle in relation to a
  compound. Take, for example, the product put on the market as
  Cascarin Compound, or Aloin Compound. I am impressed with the fact
  that such label must have added a statement as to what the other
  ingredients of the compound are. This may not mean, and probably does
  not mean, that the formula must be given or the exact proportions,
  but a purchaser has the right to know what is in the compound in
  order to determine for himself, or to receive proper advice, as to
  whether it is safe to be used.

In no case can a preparation be named after an ingredient or drug which
is not present. The word “compound” should not be used in connection
with a name which in itself, or together with representations and
designs accompanying same, would be construed as a form of misbranding
under the act.

It is held that if a mixture of drugs is named after one or more but
not all of the active medicinal constituents (not vehicle) present in
a preparation, the word “compound” can be used in connection with the
name, (_a_) provided the active constituent after which the product
is named is present in an amount at least equal to that of any other
active medicinal agent present. Example: If it is desired Lo make a
mixture consisting of oil of sandalwood, balsam copaiba, and castor
oil, and call this product “Oil of Sandalwood Compound,” the oil of
sandalwood should constitute at least 33¹⁄₃ percent of the entire
mixture. Or (_b_) provided the potent active constituent after which
the product is named is present in sufficient amount to impart the
preponderating medicinal effect. Example: If a product is named after
the active constituent, strychnine, the strychnine or one of its salts
should be present in sufficient amount to produce the preponderating
medicinal effect of the preparation. Or (_c_) provided the complete
quantitative formula, as outlined in the United States Pharmacopœia
and National Formulary, be given on the principal label. A declaration
of the complete quantitative formula, however, does not exempt the
manufacturer or dealer from giving the information required by the act
in the manner prescribed by the regulations. The ounce shall be the
unit. The amounts of the ingredients present (excepting alcohol, which
is to be stated in percent) shall be given in grains or minims, and if
it is desired the metric equivalent may be given in addition.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 23, 1907_.


(F. I. D. 64.)

LABELING OF SARDINES.

Many inquiries have been made of this Department respecting the extent
to which the term “sardine” can be used in food products entering into
foreign or interstate commerce. The question of the proper labeling of
fish of this kind was submitted by the Department to the Department
of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Fisheries. After reviewing the
nomenclature and trade practices the Department of Commerce and Labor
reached the following conclusion:

  Commercially the name sardine has come to signify any small, canned,
  clupeoid fish; and the methods of preparation are so various that
  it is impossible to establish any absolute standard of quality. It
  appears to this Department that the purposes of the pure-food law
  will be carried out and the public fully protected if all sardines
  bear labels showing the place where produced and the nature of the
  ingredients used in preserving or flavoring the fish.

In harmony with the opinion of the experts of the Bureau of Fisheries,
the Department of Agriculture holds that the term “sardine” may be
applied to any small fish described above, and that the name “sardine”
should be accompanied with the name of the country or State in which
the fish are taken and prepared, and with a statement of the nature of
the ingredients used in preserving or flavoring the fish.

It is held that a small fish of the clupeoid family, caught upon or
near the shores of and packed in oil in Norway, or smoked and packed in
oil, is properly labeled with the phrase “Norwegian Sardines in Oil,”
or “Norwegian Smoked Sardines in Oil,” the nature of the oil being
designated. In like manner a small fish of the clupeoid family caught
upon or near the shores of and packed in France may be called “French
Sardines in Oil,” the nature of the oil being specified. Following the
same practice, a fish of the clupeoid family caught on or near the
shores of and packed in the United States may be labeled “American
Sardines Packed in Oil,” or “Maine Sardines Packed in Oil,” or be
given some similar appellation, the nature of the oil being stated. It
is suggested that the name of the particular fish to which the term
sardine is to be applied should also be placed upon the label--for
example, “Pilchard,” “Herring,” etc.

  JAMES WILSON,
  _Secretary of Agriculture_.

WASHINGTON, D. C., _March 29, 1907_.


LIST OF FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS.

F. I. D. 1-39 practically concern imported foods only and were not
issued under the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906.

           { 40. Filing Guaranty.
  F. I. D. { 41. Approval of Labels.
           { 42. Mixing Flours.
           { 43. Relabeling of Goods on Hand.

  F. I. D. { 44. Scope and Purpose of Food Inspection Decisions.
           { 45. Blended Whiskies.

           { 46. Fictitious Firm Names; also F. I. D. 46, as amended.
  F. I. D. { 47. Flavoring Extracts.
           { 48. Substances Used in the Preparation of Foods.

           { 49. Time Required to Reach Decisions on Different Problems
           {     Connected with the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906.
           { 50. Imitation Coffee.
  F. I. D. { 51. Coloring of Butter and Cheese.
           { 52. Form of Label.
           { 53. Formula on the Label of Drugs.

           { 54. Declaration of the Quantity or Proportion of Alcohol
           {     Present in Drug Products.
           { 55. Method of Stating Quantity or Proportion of
           {     Preparations (Containing Opium, Morphin, etc.) Used in
           {     Manufacturing Other Preparations.
           { 56. Names to be Employed in Declaring the Amount of the
           {     Ingredients as Required by the Law.
  F. I. D. { 57. Physicians’ Prescriptions: The Status of Packages
           {     Compounded According to Physicians’ Prescriptions and
           {     Entering into Interstate Commerce.
           { 58. The Labeling of Products Used as Food and Drugs as well
           {     as for Technical and Other Purposes.
           { 59. National Formulary Appendix.

           { 60. Minor Border Importations.
           { 61. Cocoa Butter Substitutes.
  F. I. D. { 62. Guaranty on Imported Products.
           { 63. Use of the Word “Compound” in Names of Drug Products.
           { 64. Labeling of Sardines.




INDEX.


  A.

  Acid in fruits, 369
  Acorn, 413
    oil, 396
  Adulteration, frequency, 57
  Aerating agents, 251
  Alcohol, in confectionery, 485
    industrial, 297, 481
  Alewife, 121
  Allspice, 322
  Almond oil, 396
  Almonds, 414
  Alum residues, character, 253
  Amido bodies, 89
  Anchovy, 122
  Animals, preparation as food, 12
  Anise, 323
  Anona, 343
    preserves, 344
  Appendix A, food standards, 501
      filled cheese, 517
    B, regulations, food and drugs act, 522
      food and drugs act, 533
    C, meat inspection regulations, 538
      meat inspection law, 556
    D, food inspection decisions, 562
  Applebutter, 385
  Apples, 330
    acidity, 330
    adulterations, 330
    composition, 331, 332
    dietetic value, 332
    dried, 335
    evaporated, 335
    length of harvest, 333
    pectose content, 333
    picking and care, 333
    preparation for drying, 334
    storage, 334
    tannin content, 334
    varieties, 330
  Arrowroot, 317
    Bermuda, 318
    Madagascar, 319
    South African, 320
  Artichoke, 274
    composition, 274
    Jerusalem, 283
  Ash, 9
    of tropical fruits, 368
  Asparagus, 275
  Atropin, 448
  Avocado, 344

  B.
  Bacon, canned, 48
    composition of canned, 48, 49
  Baking powders, 251
    alum, 252
    cream of tartar, 252
    phosphate, 252
    residues, 253
  Bananas, 345
    composition, 347
  Barley, 217
    acreage and yield, 217
    composition, 217
    protein, 218
    starch, 218
  Bay leaf, 323
  Bean, 275
    butter, 276
    green, 276
    kidney, 276
    Lima, 276
    string, 276
  Beans, adulteration of canned, 308
    canned, 307, 312
    composition of canned, 307
  Bechi test, 66
  Beechnuts, 415
  Beef, adulteration of potted, 52
    commercial cuts, 17
    composition of canning, 43
      potted, 53
    extract, 79
      names, 80
      nitrogenous bodies, 79
      nutritive properties, 80
    fat crystals, 67
    juice, 81
      composition, 81
      preservatives, 81
      trade-names, 82
    potted, 52
    tea, 84
      composition, 85
  Beefsteak, 21
  Bees, swarming, 488
  Beet sugar, 456
    historical, 457
    manufacture, 461-464
  Beets, 277
  Berkshire pig, analytical data, 29, 30
    percentages of parts, 31, 32
  Biscuits, composition, 258
  Black bass, 122
  Black strap, 481
  Blackberries, 342
  Blood, preparations, 83
  Bluefish, 122
  Bondon cheese, 208
  Bonnyclabber, 181
  Brandied fruit, 385
  Brazil-nut, 415
  Bread, 249
    comparative nutritive properties, 256
    composition, 254, 255
    quantity of ash, 256
      of sugar, 256
    typical, 255
    varieties, 249
  Breakfast foods, 267
    classification, 268
    composition, 268
    value, 271
  Brie, manufacture, 207
  Brook trout, 149
  Brown grease, 71
  Brussels sprouts, 278
  Buckwheat, 219
    acreage, 219
    adulterations, 221
    cakes, 220
    composition, 219
    milling, 219
    starch, 221
  Butcher’s lard, 70
  Butter, 182-187
    adulterated, 186
    affected by food, 186
    coloring, 185
    melting point, 186
    renovated, 186
    salting, 183
    standard, 186
    treatment, 182
  Buttermilk, 181
  Butternut, 416

  C.
  Cabbage, 278
  Cacao butter, 410
    composition, 181
  Cainito, 366
  Cakes, 265
    adulteration, 266
    composition, 266
  Calories, 9
  Camembert, manufacture, 206
  Candy, food value, 483
  Cane sirup, 475
      composition, 476
      geographical distribution, 475
    sugar, manufacture, 465, 466
  Canna edulis, 318
  Canned corn, adulteration, 228
    souring and swelling, 312
  Canning industries, importance, 386-388
  Canning liquid, composition, 47
    principles, 306
    without parboiling, 47
  Cans, character, 311
  Cantaloupe, 284
  Capers, 323
  Capons, 103
  Caraway, 323
  Carcasses, preparation of, 14
  Carp, 123
  Carrot, 279
  Casein, preparations, 215
  Cashew, 348
  Cassia, 323
    buds, 323
  Catfish, 123
  Cauliflower, 279
  Caviar, 145
  Celery, 280
    seed, 323
  Cepe, 445
  Ceylon oil, 411
  Cheddar cheese, manufacture, 204
  Cheese, 190-216
    adulteration and misbranding, 192
    American, 197
    artificial coloring, 192
    bacterial activity, 211
    Cheddar, 203
    chemical changes during ripening, 212-214
    Cheshire, 203
    comparative composition, 199
    cottage, 195
    cream, 201
    curing, 200
    digestibility, 214
    effect of cold storage, 215
    filled, 194
    French varieties, 206
    goats’ milk, 192
    historical, 190
    kinds, 191
    manufacture, 196, 197
    of foreign types, 201
    preservatives, 194
    principal English kinds, 203
    quality of American, 200
    raw materials, 194
    sage, 203
    salting, 199
    Stilton, 203
  Chemical leavening agents, 254
    preservatives, preservation, 37
    terms, explanation, 8
  Cherries, 336
    canned, 370
    maraschino, 371
    varieties, 337
  Chicken, 95
    adulteration, 103
      of potted, 102
    composition of white meat, 101
  Chicken, preserved, 102
  Chickens, artificial feeding, 99
    drawn and undrawn, 100
    fresh killed, 99
    preparation for food, 96
    preparing for market, 99
  Chicks, influence of temperature, 97
    market, 98
  Chicory, 280
    roasted, 280
  Chinese nut, 417
  Chestnut, 416
    composition, 417
  Cinnamon, 323
  Citrus fruits, 348
  Clams, 153
    canned, 156
    chowder, 79
    soup, 79
  Cloves, 323
  Coconut butter, 411
    oil, 411
  Cod, composition, 125
    common, 124
    liver oil, adulteration, 166
    salted and dried, 125
  Codfish, 124
    balls, 126
  Cold storage, effect on meats, 35
  Coloring, artificial, 380
    matter, 55
      indirect, 55
  Colza oil, 407
  Comb honey, 489
  Condimental substance, curing, 35, 36
  Condiments, 322
  Confectionery, 482
    alcohol forbidden, 486
    manufacture, 482
    materials, 482
    mineral colors, 485
    wholesomeness, 484
  Confections, adulteration, 483
  Conger eel, 127
  Consumer, rights of, 14
  Cooking, 3
  Copper, in peas, 313
    tests, 314
  Copra oil, 411
  Coriander, 324
  Corn bread, 232
    canned, 227
    meal, 230
      adulteration, 232
    pudding, 257
  Cottonseed oil, 397
    Bechi test, 66
    extraction with petroleum, 401
    Halphen test, 65
    magnitude of industry, 397
    manufacture, 397, 398
    refining, 399, 400
  Crabs, 155
  Crabs, canned, 156
  Cramming machine, 111
  Cranberry, 281
  Crawfish, 156
  Cream, 175
    standards, 176
  Creatin, 90
  Cress, 281
  Cucumber, 281
  Curd, cutting, 198
    forming, 197
    gathering, 199
    heating, 198
    milling, 199
    separating, 199
  Cured meats, canned, 59
  Cumin seed, 324
  Cuts of beef, 15

  D.
  Deviled meats, potted, 52
  Dewberry, 342
  Dill, 324
  Dried meats, 85
  Duck, 104
    composition, 108
    varieties, 105
      Aylesbury, 105
      Cayuga, 105
      crested white, 105
      East Indian, 105
      gray, 105
      Pekin, 105
      Rover, 105
      white call, 105
      white Muscovy, 105

  E.
  Edam cheese, 210
  Edible oils, uses, 395
    parts, names, 15
  Eels, 126
  Egg plant, 282
    substitutes, 115
  Eggs, 112
    broken, 115
    cold storage, 114
    composition, 113
    dried, 115
    parasites, 116
    poisonous principles, 116
    preservation, 113
  Emmenthaler cheese, manufacture, 207
  Entire wheat flour, 244
  Enzyme action, effect of low temperature, 23
  Ether extract, 9

  F.
  Fat, identification of meats, 25
  Fat products, inedible, 70
    test for adulteration, 51
  Fennel, 324
  Ferments, spontaneous, 250
  Fiber, 9
  Figs, 349
    caprification, 350
    composition, 349
    Smyrna, 349
  Filberts, 418
  Fish, average composition, 151
    canning, 152
    classification, 117, 118
      by composition, 120, 121
    cold storage, 151
    drying and salting, 152
    edible portion, 119
    eggs, composition, 146
    food value, 153
    marketing, 151
    oils, 165
    principal constituents, 119
    products, adulteration, 152
  Flavoring extracts, 326
  Flavors, artificial, 380
  Flesh, edible, 11
  Flounder, summer, 127
  Flour, 242
    adulterations, 247
    age, 248
    bleaching, 247
    commercial value, 244
    composition, 245
    special names, 243
    standards, 248
    substitutes, 248
    varieties, 242
  Fluorids in fish, 151
  Foods, classification, 2, 7
    composition, 6
    condimental, 8
    social functions, 5
  Fowls, slaughtering, 111
  Fresh meat, adulteration of canned, 57
    delivery to consumers, 21
    preservation, 23
  Fruit, brandied, 385
    butter, 385
    definition, 326
    selection, 375
    sirups, 373
      adulteration, 374
      composition, 373
      imitation, 374
  Fruits, acid content, 369
    adulteration of canned, 372
    canned, 370
    characteristics, 327
    composition of ash, 376
    crystallized, 483
    nutritive uses, 328
    sugar content, 369
  Fungi, food value, 454

  G.
  Garlic, 282
  Geese, feeding, 106
  Gelatine, 90
    adulteration, 91
    preparation, 90
    raw materials, 90, 91
  Gervais cheese, 208
  Ginger, 324
  Glucose, 479
    harmful constituents, 485
    used in honey, 493
  Gluten, 241
    flour, 244
    separation, 245
    testing, 246, 247
  Goggle-eye, 135
  Goose, 105
    composition, 108
    varieties, 106
  Gooseberry, 342
  Gorgonzola cheese, 211
  Gourds, 282
  Grape fruit, 351
    composition, 351
  Grapes, 337
    composition, 338
  Graylings, 128
  Graham flour, 243
  Green turtle, 157
    soup, 79
  Gruyère cheese, 210
  Guava, 352
    composition, 352
    preserves, 352

  H.
  Halibut, 128
  Ham and bacon, adulteration of canned, 50
    canned, 48
    composition of canned, 48
  Hake, 128
  Halphen test, 65
  Hazelnut, 419
    oil, 401
  Herring, 129
  Hicaco, 352
  Hickory-nut, 419
  Hogfish, 130
  Honey, adulteration, 493
    ash, 492
    cane sugar adulterant, 494
    comb, 489
    dextrose and levulose, 492
    distribution of industry, 489
    extracted, 490
    glucose, 493
    historical, 486
    hives, 488
    invert sugar content, 494
    polarization, 491
    preparation, 487
  Honey, properties, 491
    strained, 491
    sucrose content, 492
    water content, 491
  Horse mackerel, 130
    meat, canned, 57
      composition, 58
      detection, 58
  Horse-radish, 283
  Huckleberry, 342

  I.
  Incubator, 96, 97
  Indian corn, 222
    acreage and yield, 222
    adulteration of canned, 310
    canned, 308
    comparative digestibility, 257
    composition of canned, 309
    extent of canning industry, 309
    starch, 229
    varieties, 223
  Infants’ foods, 497
    composition, 499, 500
    solid, 498
  Inspection, 13
  Intestines of hogs, disposition, 69
  Introduction, 1
  Invalids’ foods, 497, 498

  J.
  Jams, 375, 376
    adulteration, 378, 379
    composition, 377, 378
    compound, 383
  Jellies, 375, 379
    adulteration, 380
    coloring, 380
    composition, 380, 381
    compound, 383
    manufacture, 381
    preservatives, 382
  Jerusalem artichoke, 283

  K.
  Kale, 283
  Kedzie, farinometer, 246
  Kephir, 179
  Ketchup, colors, 317
    refuse material, 317
    tomato, 316
  Kettle-rendered lard, 68
  Kidney bean, 276
  Koumiss, 179
  Kumquat, 353

  L.
  Lake herring, 130
  Lamb chops, 22
  Lamb, commercial cuts, 19
  Lard, 63
    adulteration, 65
    chemical properties, 75
    color reaction, 73
    commercial classification, 68
    composition, 64
    crystals, 67
    detection of adulterations, 65
    leaf, 64
    melting point, 73
    names of kinds, 64
    oil, 94
      adulteration, 94
    properties, 94
    parts of fat used for making, 63
    physical properties, 73
    properties, 75
      of adulterated, 76
    rendering, 71, 72
    rise of temperature, 73, 74
    steam, 64
    stearin, 71
    summary, 76, 77
  Leaf lard, 68
  Leek, 284
  Lemons, 353
  Lethal dose, 39, 40
  Lettuce, 284
  Limburger cheese, 208
    composition, 209
  Lime, 354
    juice, adulteration, 354
  Loaves, size, 259
    texture, 259
  Lobster, 155
    canned, 156

  M.
  Macaroni, 260
    composition, 260, 263
    domestic, 260
    manufacture, 263
  Mace, 324
  Mackerel, 131
  Maize, 222, 223
    composition, 223
    early varieties, 227
    flour, 230, 231
    proteins, 227
    variation, 227
  Mamey Colorado, 354
    de Santo Domingo, 355
  Mango, 356
  Maple sirup, 472
      ash, 473
      composition, 473
    sugar, 467, 469
  Maranon, 348
  Marjoram, 325
  Marmalade, 382
  Meat broth, composition of ash, 86
  Meat, chemical detection, 24
    composition of fresh and canned, 46
    detection of different kinds, 24
    disposition of fragments, 23
    dried, 25
    extract, active principles, 86
      adulteration, 86
      kinds of preparations, 88, 89
      nitrogenous bases, 88
      relation of price and nutritive value, 87
    food classification, 12
    industry, magnitude, 61
    juice, composition of ash, 86
    microscopic appearance, 24
    odor and taste, 24
    preparation for canning, 40-41
  Meats, 11
    adulterations of comminuted, 54
      deviled, 54
      miscellaneous, 54
      mixed, 54
      potted, 54
    effects of cold storage, 35
    methods of preservation, 34, 35
    pickled, 26
    potted, 51
    summary of data, 92, 93
  Melons, 284
    composition, 285, 286
  Menhaden, 132
  Milk, 169
    average composition, 169
      content of fat, 174
    certified, 171
    character of environment, 170
    comparative composition, 175
    curd test, 176
    pasteurized, 173
    preparation, 171
  Mince meat, 494
    adulteration, 495
    pressed, 495
  Mixed flour, 244
  Mock turtle soup, 79
  Modified milk, composition, 497
  Molasses, 477
    cane, 478
    first, second, and third, 478
    refinery, 479
    sugar-house, 479
  Mulberry, 343
  Mullet, 132
  Muscarine, 447
  Mushroom, cepe, 445
    common, 440
    fairy ring, 443
    fly amanita, 446
    horse, 441
    poisoning, 448
      treatment, 448
    shaggy, 442, 443
  Mushrooms, adulteration, 449
    canned, 449
    composition, 432
    condition of growth, 431
    cultivation in France, 431
    edible types, 440
    food value, 454
    historical, 429
    mycelium, 430
    pieces and stems, 449
    poisonous and edible, 433, 434
    removal of poison, 448
    signs of edible and poisonous, 435-439
    soil, 430
    spawn, 430
    spores, 430
    varieties, 440
  Muskallunge, 133
  Muskmelon, 284
  Mussel, 158
  Mustard, 325
  Mutton, commercial cuts, 19

  N.
  Napoleon, decree relating to beet sugar, 457
  Neat’s foot oil, 94
  Neutral lard, 68
  Nitrogenous bases, 88
  Noodles, 270
  Normal dose, 39, 40
  Nutmeg, 325
  Nuts as a diet, 428

  O.
  Oats, 232
    acreage and yield, 233
    composition, 234
    products, 234
    protein, 234
    ratio of kernel to hull, 233
    starch, 236
  Oatmeal, adulteration, 235
  Oil, cod liver, 166
    salmon, 166
    sardine, 166
  Oils and fats, chemical characteristics, 389, 390
      crystalline characteristics, 391
      melting point, 392
      physical characteristics, 392
      refractive index, 392
      Reichert-Meissl number, 393
      saponification value, 393
      specific gravity, 393
      vegetable, 389
    animal, 165
    distribution, 391
    drying, 391
    terrestrial animal, 93
  Okra, 286
  Oleomargarine, 187
    adulteration, 189
    composition, 190
  Oleomargarine, manufacture, 189
    materials, 188
    production, 190
  Olive kernel oil, 405
  Olive oil, 402
    adulteration, 402, 403
    color, 403
    constituents, 404
    manufacture, 405
  Onion, 286
  Oranges, 357, 358
    seedless, 359
  Oyster, age, 159
    cultivation, 159
    floating, 162, 163
    living, 160
    proportion of shell, 161
    season, 160
    size, 159
    soup, 78
  Oysters, 158-161
    adulteration, 164
    average composition, 164

  P.
  Palm oil, 412
  Paprika, 325
  Parboiling, 41
    effect, 43-45
  Parmesan cheese, 210
  Parsnips, 287
  Pâtés, composition, 54
  Peach preserves, 385
  Peaches, 339
    canned, 371
    cling, 341
    composition, 341
    free, 341
    use, 341
    varieties, 340
  Peanolia, 421
  Peanut butter, 412
    oil, 406
      Renard’s test, 406
    starch, 322
  Peanuts, 420
    localities where grown, 422
  Peas, 287
    adulteration of canned, 313
    canned, 312
    composition of canned, 313
  Pecan-nut, 424
  Pectose, 330
  Pepper, 325
    black, 325
    cayenne, 325
    red, 325
    white, 325
  Permanganate of potash, 448
  Pickerel, 132
  Pieces of edible animals, names, 17
  Pie fillers, 496
  Pie fillers, adulteration, 496
  Pigeon, domesticated, 107
  Pigs, composition, 26, 27
      general conclusions, 33
    weight of parts, 26
  Pig’s-foot grease, 71
  Pike, 132
  Pineapple, 360
    adulteration, 361
    Bahama, 363
    canned, 362
    composition, 363, 364
    Florida, 364
    Porto Rican, 364
    Singapore, 365
  Pine-nuts, 424
  Pistachio, 426
  Plantain meal, 319
  Plums, 341
    varieties, 342
  Pomelo, 351
  Pompano, 134
  Pont L’Evêque cheese, 208
  Popcorn, 225, 227
  Pork, commercial cuts, 19, 20
    important meat product, 33
  Port du Salut cheese, 207
  Porterhouse steak, 16
  Poultry, application of name, 95
    canned, 56
    cold storage, 100
    forced fattening, 109
    importance of animal food, 108
    increase in weight, 110
  Potato starch as food, 322
    manufacture, 296
  Potatoes, 288
    acreage, 289
    ash, 294
    composition, 290, 292, 293
    effect of manure, 295
    for alcohol, 296
    German, 293
    price, 289
    starch, 291
    sugar content, 290
    sweet, 299
    used in spirit manufacture, 297
    white, 294
    yield, 289
  Potted tongue, 56
    adulteration, 56
  Preservatives in meats, 55
    kinds used, 37
  Preserved meats, 34
    standard, 57
  Preserves, 375, 384
  Puff-balls, 444

  Q.
  Quince, 342

  R.
  Radish, 298
  Rape oil, 407
    adulterations, 408
    manufacture, 408
  Raspberry, 343
  Ration, balanced, 5
    definition, 4
  Redeye, 135
  Red snapper, 134
  Reptiles, aquatic, 157
  Rhubarb, 299
  Rice, 236
    acreage and yield, 236
    starch, 236
  Roast beef, 21
    lamb, 22
  Rock bass, 135
  Rolls, 264
    composition, 265
  Romaine lettuce, 284
  Roquefort cheese, 211
  Rye, 237
    acreage and yield, 237
    bread, 239
    composition, 238
    flour, adulteration, 239
    protein, 238

  S.
  Saccharin, in canned corn, 311
    in tomatoes, 314, 316
  Saffron, 326
  Sage, 326
  Sago, 320
  Salmon, 135-138
    Atlantic coast, 137
    blueback, 137
    canned, 137
    Chinook, 136
    Pacific, 136
    Sebago, 138
    sockeye, 137
  Salt rising, 251
  Samples, preparation for analysis, 28
  Sapodilla, 365
  Sapota, 365
  Sardines, 139
    adulteration, 140, 141
    California, 139
    European, 139
    French fisheries, 140
    packed in oil, 140
  Sausage, adulteration of canned, 60
    canned, 59
      composition, 59
  Savory, 326
  Scup, 141
  Scuppernong grape vine, 337
  Semolina, 263
  Sesamé oil, 408
    adulteration, 409
    Baudouin’s test, 409
    plant, 409
  Shad, 141
    roe, 143
      composition, 143
  Sheepshead, 143
  Shrimps, 156
    canned, 157
  Sirup, cane, 475
    maple, 472
    sorghum, 476
  Sirups, adulteration, 480
    general observations, 481
    mixed, 479
  Skimmed milk, 176
  Small quantities, argument, 38, 39
  Smelt, 144
  Sole, 146
  Soluble meats, 82, 83
    composition, 83
  Sorghum sirup, 476
  Soups, 77
    composition, 78
    preparation of stock, 77
  Sour-sop, 343
  Spaghetti, 270
  Spanish mackerel, 144
  Squash, 299
  Star-apple, 366
  Starch, 9
    in sausages, 55
  Starches, adulteration, 322
    as foods, 317
  Steam lard, 68
  Sterilization, 42
  Sterilizing meats, general observations, 62
  Stilton cheese, manufacture, 205
  Storage, length, 22
  Strawberry, 343
  Striped bass, 146
  Sturgeon, 144
  Sugar, 9
    adulteration, 471
    application of name, 455
    as food, 472
    beets, cultivation, 458
      geographic area, 459
      yield, 460
    cane, growth, 465
    corn, 226
    lost in fermentation, 259
    origin, 455
    refining, 469, 470
    world production, 471
  Sunflower oil, 409
  Sulfurous acid, 334
  Sweet basil, 326
    corn, 226
      adulterations, 228
    potatoes, 299, 300
      acreage and yield, 303
      average composition, 303
      changes during storage, 302
      composition, 301, 302
      cultivation, 300
      yield, 301
  Sweet-sop, 344

  T.
  Tamarind, 366
    composition, 367
  Tannin, 334
  Tapioca, 320
    adulteration, 321
  Tautog, 147
  Terrapin, 157
  Tetanus germs, 91, 92
  Thyme, 326
  Tilefish, 147
  Tinning, 42
  Toadstools, 434
  Tomatoes, adulteration of canned, 315
    canned, 314
    composition of canned, 315
  Tongue, adulteration of canned, 50
    canned, 50
  Treacle, 481
  Tropical fruits, ash, 367
  Trout, 147
  Truffles, 450
    adulteration, 453
    cultivation, 451
    geographic distribution, 451
    harvesting, 451, 452
    properties, 453
    varieties, 451
  Tuberculosis, 13
  Turbot, 149
  Turkey, 107
    adulteration of potted, 102
    composition, 108
  Turnip, 304

  V.
  Veal, commercial cuts, 18
  Vegetable, definition, 272
    oils, edible, 393
  Vegetables, canned, 305
    succulent, 274
    value, 273
  Vegetarianism, 93

  W.
  Wall-eyed pike, 134
  Walnuts, 426
    English, 427
    white, 427
  Watermelon, 284, 285
  Weakfish, 149
  Weight, relative of canned and fresh meat, 48
  Wheat, 239
    acreage and yield, 240
    comparative digestibility, 257
    composition, 240
    products, 242
    standards, 241
    starch, 241
  Whey, 179
    composition, 179
  Whitefish, 150
  White grease, 70

  X.
  Xanthin bases, 90

  Y.
  Yam, 304
  Yeast, 250
  Yellow grease, 71




  LIST OF BOOKS
  ON
  ANALYSIS OF FOODS; CHEMICAL
  PRODUCTS; DETECTION OF
  POISONS AND BACTERIA; FOODS
  AND DIET; SANITARY SCIENCE

  PUBLISHED BY
  P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO.
  PHILADELPHIA


  Books Relating to the Analysis of Various Food and Chemical Products,
  the Detection of Poisons, and Bacteria.

Allen. Commercial Organic Analysis.

  New Revised Editions. A Treatise on the Properties, Proximate
  Analytical Examination and Modes of Assaying the Various Organic
  Chemicals and Products employed in the Arts, Manufactures, Medicine,
  etc., with Concise Methods for the Detection and Determination of
  Impurities, Adulterations, and Products of Decomposition, etc.
  Revised and Enlarged. By ALFRED H. ALLEN, F.C.S., Public Analyst
  for the West Riding of Yorkshire; Past President Society of Public
  Analysts of Great Britain.

  VOL. I. Preliminary Examination of Organic Bodies. Alcohols, Neutral
  Alcoholic Derivatives, Ethers, Starch and its Isomers, Sugars, Acid
  Derivatives of Alcohols and Vegetable Acids, etc. Third Edition, with
  numerous additions by the author, and revisions and additions by
  DR. HENRY LEFFMANN, Professor of Chemistry Woman’s Medical College
  of Pennsylvania, and in the Wagner Free Institute of Science,
  Philadelphia; Vice-President (1901) Society of Public Analysts, etc.
  With many useful tables. 557 pages.

  Cloth, $4.50

  VOL. II--PART I. Fixed Oils, Fats, Waxes, Glycerin, Soaps,
  Nitroglycerin, Dynamite and Smokeless Powders, Wool-Fats, Dégras,
  etc. Third Edition, with many useful tables. Revised by DR. HENRY
  LEFFMANN, with numerous additions by the author. 387 pages.

  Cloth, $3.50

  VOL. II--PART II. Hydrocarbons, Mineral Oils, Lubricants, Asphalt,
  Benzene and Naphthalene, Phenols, Creosote, etc. Third Edition,
  Revised by DR. HENRY LEFFMANN, with additions by the author. 330
  pages.

  Cloth, $3.50

  VOL. II--PART III. Acid Derivatives of Phenols, Aromatic Acids,
  Resins, and Essential Oils, etc. Third Edition. 559 pages.

  Cloth, $5.00

  VOL. III--PART I. Tannins, Dyes, Coloring Matters, and Writing
  Inks. Third Edition, Revised, Rewritten, and Enlarged by J. MERRITT
  MATTHEWS, Professor of Chemistry and Dyeing at the Philadelphia
  Textile School; Member American Chemical Society. 589 pages.

  Cloth, $4.50

  VOL. III--PART II. The Amines and Ammonium Bases, Hydrazines and
  Derivatives. Bases from Tar. The Antipyretics, etc. Vegetable
  Alkaloids, Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Kola, Cocaïne, Opium, etc. Second
  Edition. 593 pages.

  Cloth, $4.50

  VOL. III--PART III. Vegetable Alkaloids concluded, Non-Basic
  Vegetable Bitter Principles. Animal Bases, Animal Acids, Cyanogen and
  its Derivatives, etc. Second Edition. 534 pages.

  Cloth, $4.50

  VOL. IV. Proteids and Albuminous Principles. Proteoïds or
  Albuminoïds. Second Edition, with elaborate appendices and a large
  number of useful tables. 584 pages.

  Cloth, $4.50

Autenrieth. The Detection of Poisons and Strong Drugs.

  A Laboratory Guide. Including the Quantitative Estimation of
  Medicinal Principles in Certain Crude Materials. By Dr. WILHELM
  AUTENRIETH, University of Freiburg, Baden. Authorized Translation
  from the Third Enlarged German Edition by WILLIAM H. WARREN, A.M.,
  PH.D. (Harv.), Professor of Chemistry, Medical Department, Washington
  University, St. Louis, Missouri. Illustrated.

  Cloth, $1.50

Conn. Agricultural Bacteriology.

  Including a Study of Bacteria as Relating to Agriculture, with
  Special Reference to the Bacteria in Soil, in the Dairy, in Food
  Products, in Domestic Animals, and in Sewage. By H. W. CONN, PH.D.,
  Professor of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.; Author
  of “Evolution of To-day,” “The Story of Germ Life,” etc. With
  Illustrations.

  Cloth, $2.50

Bacteria in Milk and Its Products.

  Designed for Students of Dairying, Boards of Health, Bacteriologists,
  and all concerned in the Handling of Milk, Butter, and Cheese.
  Illustrated. 12mo.

  Cloth, $1.25

Greenish. Microscopical Examination of Foods and Drugs.

  Being a systematically arranged Course of Practical Instruction in
  the Methods adopted in the Analysis of Foods and Drugs by means of
  the Microscope, including a description of the Structure of the
  more important. Designed for the use of Analysts, Pharmacists, and
  Students training for those Professions. By HENRY G. GREENISH,
  F.I.C., F.L.S., Professor of Pharmaceutics to the Pharmaceutical
  Society of Great Britain. With 168 Illustrations. Octavo.

  Cloth, $3.50

Heusler. The Terpenes.

  By FR. HEUSLER, PH.D., Privatdocent of Chemistry in the University
  at Bonn. Authorized Translation and Revision by F. J. POND, PH.D.,
  Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State College.

  Cloth, $4.00

Leffmann and Beam. Food Analysis. Illustrated.

  Select Methods in Food Analysis. By HENRY LEFFMANN, M.D., Professor
  of Chemistry in the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania and in
  the Wagner Free Institute of Science; Pathological Chemist, Jefferson
  Medical College Hospital, Philadelphia; Vice-President (1901) Society
  Public Analysts, etc.; and WILLIAM BEAM, A.M. Second Edition,
  Revised. With many Tables, 1 Plate, and 54 other Illustrations. 12mo.

  Cloth, $2.50

Leffmann. Examination of Water.

  for Sanitary and Technical Purposes. Fifth Edition. Revised.
  Illustrated. 12mo.

  Cloth, $1.25

Analysis of Milk and Milk Products.

  Arranged to suit the needs of Analytical Chemists, Dairymen, and Milk
  Inspectors. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated. 12mo.

  Cloth, $1.25

Richter’s Organic Chemistry.

  The Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds. Third American Edition,
  Translated from PROF. ANSCHÜTZ’s Eighth German Edition by EDGAR F.
  SMITH, M.A., PH.D., SC.D., Professor of Chemistry, University of
  Pennsylvania. Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated. 12mo. Two volumes.

  Vol. I. Aliphatic Series. 625 pages.                      Cloth, $3.00
  Vol. II. Carbocyclic and Heterocyclic Series. 671 pages.  Cloth, $3.00

Sayre. Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy.

  An Introduction to the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom and the
  Vegetable and Animal Drugs. Comprising the Botanical and Physical
  Characteristics, Source, Constituents, Pharmacopœial Preparations;
  Insects Injurious to Drugs, and Pharmacal Botany. By L. E. SAYRE,
  B.S., PH.M., Dean of the School of Pharmacy and Professor of
  Materia Medica and Pharmacy in the University of Kansas; Member of
  the Committee of Revision of the Eighth (1900) Decennial Revision
  of the U. S. Pharmacopœia, etc. With Sections on Histology and
  Microtechnique by WILLIAM C. STEVENS, Professor of Botany in
  the University of Kansas. Third Edition, Thoroughly Revised and
  containing many new Engravings. With 377 Illustrations, the majority
  of which are from Original Drawings. 8vo.

  Cloth, $5.00

Sutton’s Volumetric Analysis.

  A Systematic Handbook for the Quantitative Estimation of Chemical
  Substances by Measure, Applied to Liquids, Solids, and Gases.
  Adapted to the Requirements of Pure Chemical Research, Pathological
  Chemistry, Pharmacy, Metallurgy, Photography, etc., and for the
  Valuation of Substances Used in Commerce, Agriculture, and the Arts.
  By FRANCIS SUTTON, F.C.S. Ninth Edition, Revised and Improved. With
  121 Illustrations. 8vo.

  Cloth, $5.00

Thresh & Porter. Preservatives in Food and Food Examination.

  By JOHN C. THRESH, M.D., Lecturer on Public Health, London Hospital
  Medical College, and ARTHUR E. PORTER, M.D., Assistant Medical
  Officer of Health and Chief Sanitary Inspector, City of Leeds. 48
  Illustrations. Octavo; xv + 484 pages.

  Cloth, $4.50

United States Pharmacopœia. Eighth Decennial Revision.

  Cloth, $2.50; Sheep, $3.00; Flexible Leather, $3.50; Interleaved,
  Sheep, $4.00; Printed on one side of page only, Sheep, $4.00, or
  unbound, $3.50.


Foods and Diet.

Burnet. Foods and Dietaries.

  A Manual of Clinical Dietetics. By R. W. BURNET, M.D., M.R.C.P.,
  Physician to the Great Northern Central Hospital. With Appendix on
  Predigested Foods and Invalid Cookery. Full Directions as to Hours of
  Taking Nourishment, Quantity, etc. Fourth Edition, Revised.

  Cloth, $1.50

Davis. Dietotherapy: Food in Health and Disease.

  By NATHAN S. DAVIS, JR., A.M., M.D., Professor of Principles and
  Practice of Medicine in Northwestern University Medical School;
  Physician to Mercy Hospital, Chicago, etc. With Tables of Dietaries,
  Relative Value of Foods, etc. Octavo.

  Cloth, $3.00

Dulles. Accidents and Emergencies.

  A Manual of the Treatment of Surgical and Medical Emergencies. By C.
  W. DULLES, M.D., Surgeon to the Rush Hospital, formerly Assistant
  Surgeon 2d Regiment N. G. Pa., etc. Sixth edition, Revised. With
  Illustrations. 12mo.

  Cloth, $1.00

Folsom. Entomology.

  With Special Reference to Its Biological and Economic Aspects. By
  JUSTUS WATSON FOLSOM, SC.D. (Harvard), Instructor in Entomology
  at the University of Illinois. With five plates, one of which is
  Colored, and 300 other Illustrations in the Text. Octavo.

  Cloth, $3.00

Haig. Diet and Food.

  Considered in Relation to Strength and Power of Endurance, Training,
  and Athletics. By ALEXANDER HAIG, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), F.R.C.P.,
  Physician to Metropolitan Hospital, London. Fifth Edition, Revised. 7
  Illustrations.

  Cloth, $1.00


Sanitary Science.

Newman. Bacteriology and the Public Health.

  By GEORGE NEWMAN, M.D., F.R.S.E., D.P.H., Formerly Demonstrator of
  Bacteriology in King’s College, London, etc., Medical Officer of
  Health of the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury; Joint-Author of
  “Bacteriology of Milk.” Third Edition. 31 Full-page Plates and 48
  other Illustrations in the Text. Octavo.

  Cloth, $5.00

Notter. The Theory and Practice of Hygiene. Second Edition.

  A Complete Treatise by J. LANE NOTTER, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., Fellow
  and Member of Council of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain;
  Professor of Hygiene, Army Medical School; Examiner in Hygiene,
  University of Cambridge, etc.; and W. H. HORROCKS, M.D., B.SC.
  (Lond.), Assistant Professor of Hygiene, Army Medical School, Netley.
  Illustrated by 15 Lithographic Plates and 138 other Illustrations,
  and including many Useful Tables. Second Edition, Carefully Revised.
  Octavo. 1085 pages.

  Cloth, $7.00

Parkes and Kenwood. Hygiene and Public Health.

  A Practical Manual. By LOUIS C. PARKES, M.D., D.P.H. (Lond. Univ.),
  Lecturer on Public Health at St. George’s Hospital; Medical Officer
  of Health and Public Analyst, Borough of Chelsea, London, etc.; and
  HENRY KENWOOD, M.B., F.C.S., Assistant Professor of Public Health,
  University College, London, etc. Second Edition, Enlarged and
  Revised. 85 Illustrations. 12mo.

  Cloth, $3.00

Rosenau. Disinfection and Disinfectants.

  A Practical Guide for Sanitarians, Health and Quarantine Officers. By
  M. J. ROSENAU, M.D., Director of the Hygienic Laboratory and Passed
  Assistant Surgeon, U. S. Marine Hospital Service, Washington, D. C.
  Illustrated.

  Cloth, $2.00

  A French translation of this book has been published in Paris.




  Transcriber’s Notes


  Inconsistent, archaic, obsolete and unusual spelling, (deliberate)
  misspelling, hyphenation etc. in English as well as other languages
  have been retained, except as listed below. This includes
  proper names as well as scientific names of plants, animals and
  micro-organisms.

  Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their
  settings, not all elements may display as intended. The larger tables
  may be legible in a wide window or on a wide screen only.

  The differences in structure and wording between the Table of
  Contents and the text have not been standardised. Auto-generated
  tables of contents may therefore differ from the one on pages vii-ix
  in this text.

  Except as listed below, The compositions of foodstuffs and other data
  are given as printed in the source document without further comment,
  but some values seem unlikely. Caution in the use of these values is
  recommended.

  Advertisement “BY THE SAME AUTHOR”: this is the work referred to in
  the text as “the second volume” or “the companion volume”.

  Page 18, “so as to include a considerable of the portion”: The word
  “part” or equivalent is missing.

  Page 120, table Percentages of fat, heading “Containing between 60
  and 70 percent of flesh”: possibly an error for “Containing between
  60 and 50 percent of flesh”.

  Page 176, “Normal milk contains ... and page 179, “Milk contaminated
  by the introduction of dust, ...: either the closing quote mark is
  missing, or the opening quote marks are erroneous.

  Page 186, “butter must contain more than 16 percent water”: as
  printed in the source document, the word “not” is likely to be
  missing.

  Page 198, “the whey being of a higher specific gravity than the
  curd”:as printed in the source document; probably an error for ...
  lower specific gravity....

  Page 203, “Cheddar, double and single, Gloucester”: the second comma
  is probably erroneous.

  Page 513, “one and forty-seven hundred and four ten-thousandths
  (1.4707)”: as printed in the source document.

  Page 547, “after the final inspection of carcasses and parts are
  marked”: as printed in the source document.

  Page 572, “for the presence of the usual condimentary substances”:
  “for” is probably an error for “or” or “nor”.

  Page 607, ““An article shall also be deemed misbranded ...”: the
  source document has no closing quote mark.


  Changes:

  Tables and illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs;
  footnotes have been moved to under the paragraph(s) or table(s) in
  which they are referenced. In some lists and tables the ditto mark
  („) or “Do.” has been replaced with the dittoed text. Some tables
  have been re-arranged or split; tables have been split in such a way
  that they may easily be re-combined.

  Some obvious minor typographical, printing and punctuation errors
  have been corrected silently.

  Page ix: “510-517” changed to “501-517”.

  Page xi (list of plates): plate numbers added; “Arichide” changed to
  “Arachide” (also in plate itself).

  Page 4: “through the cells walls” changed to “through the cell walls”
  as elsewhere.

  Page 14: “any of the meat of flesh foods” changed to “any of the meat
  or flesh foods”.

  Page 49, table: “Prosciutts” changed to “Prosciutto”.

  Page 62: “pluro-pneumonia” changed to “pleuro-pneumonia”.

  Page 81, table: “coaguable” changed to “coagulable”.

  Page 120, first table: “black fish” changed to “blackfish” as
  elsewhere.

  Page 135: “It belongs to the genus Orcorhynchus” changed to “It
  belongs to the genus Oncorhynchus”.

  Page 164, second part of large table: the part of the table on
  this page has been formatted (underlining and indentation) to be
  consistent with the part on page 163.

  Page 276: “to any other part of the world” changed to “in any other
  part of the world”.

  Page 281: “Rorifa nasturtium” changed to “Rorippa nasturtium”.

  Page 287: “than” inserted before “to botanical character”.

  Page 318: “Tous le mois” changed to “Tous les mois”.

  Page 319: “Musa paradisaica” changed to “Musa paradisiaca”.

  Page 325: “Casson” changed to “Cosson”.

  Page 336, table: heading “Percent” deleted from column No. of Samples.

  Page 368 (table): “Caimito” changed to “Cainito”.

  Page 384: “disastase” changed to “diastase” (2×).

  Page 398: “local conditions effecting the seed” changed to “local
  conditions affecting the seed”.

  Page 427: “used for dying homespun cloth” changed to “used for dyeing
  homespun cloth”.

  Page 446: “Nouvel Atlas de Champignon” changed to “Nouvel Atlas de
  Champignons”.

  Page 509: “Capsicum baccattum” changed to “Capsicum baccattum”.

  Page 510: “Roripa armoracia” changed to “Rorippa armoracia”.

  Page 512: “terpeneless oil or orange” changed to “terpeneless oil of
  orange”.

  Page 547: “placed and in the retaining room” changed to “and placed
  in the retaining room”.

  Page 577: “to have the plaster attached” changed to “to have the
  paster attached”.

  Page 608: “Dover’s power is mentioned” changed to “Dover’s powder is
  mentioned”.

  Index: spelling of some entries corrected to agree with the main text
  (e.g., pâté, pompano).