THE STORY OF MILK




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[Illustration:

  Well kept creamery with attractive surroundings
]

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                           THE STORY OF MILK

[Illustration]

                                   BY

                          JOHAN D. FREDERIKSEN

       GRADUATE OF THE ROYAL DANISH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AUTHOR
          OF “CHEESE MAKING IN AMERICA” (IN DANISH), “CREAMING
           MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,” ETC., GENERAL MANAGER
               OF CHR. HANSEN’S LABORATORY, MANUFACTURERS
                  OF DAIRY AND MILK-FOOD PREPARATIONS,
                           LITTLE FALLS, N.Y.



                                New York
                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
                                  1919


                          All rights reserved


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                            COPYRIGHT, 1919

                        BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

           Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1919




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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS


                               HISTORICAL

                               CHAPTER I

                                                            PAGE

        PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF         1
        MILK

        Milk Ferments                                          1

        —Pasteurization                                        1

        Dairy Cattle                                           1

        —Milk-Breeds                                           1

        —Beef-Cattle                                           4

        —Food and Water                                        5

        —The Barn                                              9

        —Milking                                              10

        —Test the Cows                                        11

        —Healthy Cows                                         12

        Composition of Milk                                   13

        —Butter-fat                                           13

        —Casein and Albumen                                   14

        —Milk-Sugar                                           14

        —Mineral Matters                                      15

        How to Test Milk                                      15

        —The Babcock Test                                     16

        —Sampling                                             17

        —The Lactometer                                       18

        —Acidity Test                                         19

        Ferments                                              20

        Enzymes                                               21

        —Rennet                                               20

        —Pepsin                                               21

        Bacteria                                              21

        —Lactic Acid Bacilli                                  21

        The Control of Bacteria                               22

        —Cleanliness                                          22

        —Heat                                                 22

        —Cooling                                              22

        —Disinfectants                                        25

        Pasteurization                                        25

        Pure Cultures                                         30

        —Starters                                             32


                               CHAPTER II

        MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS                     35
        Milk Supply                                           35
        —Bovine Tuberculosis                                  35
        —Milk as a Disease Carrier                            36
        —Bacteria Count                                       36
        —Certified Milk                                       36
        —The Sanitary Code                                    38
        —New York State Milk Grading                          38
        —City Delivery                                        39
        —Milk Stations                                        41
        —Skim Milk                                            44
        Cream                                                 44
        —The Separator                                        46
        —Percentage of Butter-fat                             48
        —Standardizing Cream                                  48
        —Pasteurized Cream                                    49
        —Whipped Cream                                        49
        —Emulsified Cream                                     50
        Ice Cream                                             52
        —Freezers                                             52
        —Classification of Ice Cream                          56
        —Ice Cream Recipes                                    56
        Butter                                                69
        —Dairy Butter                                         70
        —Centrifugal Creaming                                 70
        —Co-operative Creameries                              70
        —Ripening the Cream                                   71
        —Coloring                                             74
        —Churning                                             75
        —Working                                              78
        —Salting                                              79
        —Composition                                          79
        —Overrun                                              79
        —Packing                                              79
        —Sweet Butter                                         79
        —Renovated Butter                                     80
        —Oleomargarine                                        80
        —Coco-Butter                                          80
        Buttermilk                                            80
        —Cooling Essential                                    81
        —Commercial Buttermilk                                81
        —Ripening                                             82
        —Breaking up the Curd                                 82
        —Thick Milk                                           82
        —Yoghourt                                             83
        Fermented Milk                                        83
        —Koumis                                               83
        —Kefir                                                85


                              CHAPTER III

        CHEESE                                                86
        Cheddar Cheese                                        89
        The Factory System                                    99
        —Ripening the Milk                                    90
        —Coloring and Setting with Rennet                     92
        —Cutting the Curd                                     94
        —“Cooking”                                            94
        —Matting                                              95
        —Salting                                              97
        —Pressing                                             97
        —Curing                                               97
        —Form, size and packing                               98
        —Cleaning the vats                                   101
        —Yield                                               102
        —Composition                                         102
        —Qualities                                           103
        Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk                    103
        Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm                    104
        Other Types of Hard Cheese                           111
        —Gouda                                               112
        —Edam                                                112
        —Swiss                                               115
        —Roquefort                                           120
        —Parmesan                                            123
        —Caccio Cavallo                                      124
        —Limburger                                           125
        —Brick                                               125
        —Munster                                             126
        Soft Rennet Cheese                                   126
        —Neufchatel                                          126
        —Cream Cheese                                        127
        —Cured Soft Cheese                                   128
        —French Soft Cheese                                  128
        Cottage Cheese                                       129
        —Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet                   132
        Snappy Cheese                                        134
        Club Cheese                                          134
        Whey Cheese                                          134
        Milk-Sugar                                           135
        Casein                                               135
        Milk Powder                                          136
        —Just-Hatmaker Process                               136
        —Eckenberg Process                                   136
        —Merrell-Soule Process                               136
        —Economic Process                                    136
        —Skim-Milk Powder                                    136
        —Whole-Milk Powder                                   136
        Condensed and Evaporated Milk                        137
        Whey                                                 138


                               CHAPTER IV

        MILK AS A FOOD                                       139
        Nutrients                                            139
        —Protein                                             139
        —Fats and Carbohydrates                              139
        —Mineral Matters                                     140
        —Relation                                            140
        —Nutritive Ratio                                     140
        —Calories                                            141
        —Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation                    143
        —“Something Unknown”                                 143
        Care of Milk in the House                            145
        —Keep the Milk Cool                                  145
        —Top-Milk                                            146
        Milk for Infants                                     148
        —Modifying Milk                                      148
        —Recipes for Infant Food                             149
        Milk for Growing Children                            152


                               CHAPTER V

        MILK COOKERY                                         154
        Soups                                                155
        —Cream Soups                                         155
        —Cereal Cream Soups                                  157
        —Milk Chowders                                       158
        —Milk Stews                                          158
        Milk Cereals                                         159
        Luncheon and Supper Dishes                           159
        —Creamed Dishes                                      160
        —Souffles                                            161
        —Cheese Fondu                                        161
        —Milk Toast                                          162
        Cheese Dishes as Meat Substitutes                    162
        Cheese Salads                                        166
        Cottage Cheese                                       167
        Milk Breads and Biscuits                             170
        Desserts                                             172
        Junkets                                              179
        Milk Beverages                                       181
        Miscellaneous Suggestions                            184
        The Thermometer                                      184
        Weights and Measures                                 185

        End Notes                                            187

        Bibliography                                         188


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                              INTRODUCTION


The conception of this “Story of Milk” dates many years back. In his
life-long study of problems connected with dairy farming and milk
industries in two of the world’s greatest dairy countries, Denmark and
the United States, the author has felt the need of a concise handbook
covering this interesting subject. In his forty years of work in the
manufacture and distribution of dairy and milk-food preparations he has
been brought constantly into contact with men and women interested in
the production of milk and has found a persistent demand for a book that
might be consulted by anybody in regard to questions related to these
greatest of all foods, which are, or ought to be, a most important part
of the daily diet of children and adults alike, at all times,
everywhere.

There was a time during the war when, frightened by the soaring of the
price which had remained remarkably low for many years, much too low in
fact compared with the cost of other food, people began to cut down the
consumption of milk to an alarming extent. Even the National Food
Administration for a short time recommended saving in the wrong place,
forgetting that, at the highest figures reached during the temporary
shortage, milk was still one of the cheapest of foods and that it was
absolutely indispensable for growing children and exceedingly beneficial
for men and women who were called upon to exercise their physical and
mental powers as never before. But with men like Dean Russell of the
Wisconsin Agricultural College in the Department and Dr. Graham Lusk of
Cornell University representing the United States on the Inter-Allied
Council of Alimentation, the Food Administration could not long maintain
this mistaken attitude but quickly joined the College authorities and
the representatives of the dairy industry in advocating a liberal use of
milk. And the Department of Agriculture sent out over the country a
large force of demonstrators to show the people how to use milk in
making cottage cheese and many other ways, and Agricultural Colleges,
Farm Bureaus and Home Economics Agents worked hand in hand with
Washington in disseminating the knowledge of handling and utilizing
milk.

A genuine interest has been aroused in our country in the economy and
conservation of food, and in “The Story of Milk” the author hopes to
place at the disposal of the student of Domestic Science a comprehensive
book of reference which may open the eyes of many to the fact that there
is no more interesting subject than “Milk” in connection with the study
of the welfare and physical improvement of humanity, and that milk and
its products should be used to a much greater extent than heretofore.

It would make a long list of references if the author should mention the
sources on which he has drawn for information beyond his own life-long
experience in the dairy and related industries. He desires to express
his sincere appreciation of the kindness and ready response of
institutions and friends to whom he has appealed for photographs and
cuts which have enabled him to illustrate the text so liberally. In the
back of the book will be found a brief bibliography of standard dairy
literature in which students may find material for further information.

Many interesting data and several excellent illustrations have been
obtained from the bulletins and collections of the Department of
Agriculture in Washington and the Dairy Schools at Ithaca, N.Y.,
Madison, Wis., and Ames, Ia.

The Chapter on Milk Cookery was written and classified by the author’s
wife, whose practical experience will make it useful alike to
housekeepers and students of Domestic Science.

                                                      J. D. FREDERIKSEN.

Little Falls, N.Y.,

April, 1919.


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                               HISTORICAL


Milk and its products have been known and used from time immemorial. In
the Bible milk and milk foods are mentioned in some thirty places. In
Gen. 18:8 we read: “... and he (Abraham’s servant) took butter and milk
and set it before them ...”; 1 Sam. 17:28: “And Jesse said unto David,
his son: ... bring these ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand
and look how thy brethren fare....”; Prov. 30:33: “For the churning of
milk bringeth forth butter,” etc.

Though in some of these passages butter is mentioned it is hardly
probably that this product was really made or used at the time under the
climatic conditions in Palestine. More likely it was various kinds of
curd and cheese which the translator called butter. At any rate, the
Hebrews of that far-off day coveted milk and its products among their
most valued foods. From Egyptian, Greek and Roman history it appears
that knowledge of cheese goes back to the most ancient times and that it
was made from the milk of sheep, goats, cows, asses, mares, in fact from
all domestic animals; in the far North, Lapps and Eskimos still make it
from the milk of the reindeer, the Arabs use camel’s milk, Llama cheese
is famous in the Cordilleras and Zebu cheese in Ceylon and India.

Even in ancient times the great food value of dairy products was
recognized. Plinius tells of Zoroaster that for twenty years he lived
exclusively on cheese, and Plutarch calls cheese one of the most
nourishing of foods.

As time went by, the cow excelled all other domestic animals in capacity
for the production of milk and by constant use through centuries for the
one special purpose,—by care in feeding, breeding and selection,—special
breeds of cattle were developed which gave milk in extraordinarily large
quantities.

[Illustration:

  From Maelkeritidende, Copenhagen
]

[Illustration:

  Thomas R. Segelcke, father of scientific dairying in Denmark
]

[Illustration:

  L. B. Arnold, noted dairy expert and writer, of Herkimer County, N.Y.
]

In the cold climate of the northern countries where butter will keep for
a long time it has been made for centuries. The illustration above is
from a mural painting in an old church in Finland. Evidently at the time
when that was built the devil already played havoc with the churn and
even up to the days of our grand-fathers his Satanic Majesty was often
accused of preventing the butter from “coming.”

Not until the middle of the nineteenth century did dairying take its
place among the important industries of the world and science begin to
be applied in its development. Between 1860 and 1870 Thomas R. Segelcke,
the “Father of Scientific Dairying” in Denmark, introduced the
thermometer in churning instead of the rule of thumb and started the
keeping of records in the manufacture of butter. N. J. Fjord started a
series of experiments in the creameries, continued through the next
decades, and which became models for similar work throughout the world,
covering pasteurization, ice houses and cold storage, comparison between
various systems for raising the cream, separators, feeding rations,
etc., and Denmark developed its agriculture and dairy industry to an
enviable position. About the same time Dr. Schatzman applied scientific
methods in cheese making in Switzerland and Jesse Williams started the
first American cheese factory near Rome, N.Y., while L. B. Arnold, X. A.
Willard, Harris Lewis, Harry Burrell and many other progressive dairymen
made Herkimer County cheese famous.

From New York, dairy farming spread rapidly westward through Ohio to
Michigan and Northern Illinois, where butter making was developed around
Elgin, and to Wisconsin, where Governor Hoard preached the gospel of
progress, Babcock invented and gave to the world the famous test that
bears his name and Russell made a specialty of dairy bacteriology.

[Illustration:

  J. H. Monrad, the “Pen and Ink” buttermaker of New York Produce Review
]

[Illustration:

  Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, promotor of progressive methods of
    dairying
]

[Illustration:

  J. A. Ruddick, Dairy Commissioner of Canada
]

J. H. Monrad, Assistant Dairy Commissioner of Illinois, student, writer
and lecturer on dairy subjects, collected and indexed one of the most
complete and valuable libraries of dairy literature found anywhere,
which after his death in 1915 was taken over and installed in special
rooms by Chr. Hansen’s Laboratorium in Copenhagen, where a librarian is
keeping it up to date and it is open to the public.

In Canada, Dairy Commissioners Jas. W. Robertson and J. A. Ruddick, D.
M. McPherson, the “Cheese King,” and others contributed to an enormous
development of the manufacture of high-class cheese, and in New Zealand
and Australia similar progress was made.

Business and science have vied with each other in increasing the output
of dairy products and improving their quality. In the table below,
showing estimates for 1917, some interesting figures are given of the
amount of milk produced in the United States and the uses to which it is
applied.[1]


     _Uses to which milk is put (calculations based on estimates)_

        ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                     Item                 Lbs. of Milk Per Cent
        ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
        Product of 22,768,000 cows at   84,611,350,000       ──
          3,716 lbs. per an.
        Disposition of milk product:             ─────
        1,650,000,000 lbs. of butter    34,663,850,000     41.0
          (at 21 lbs. milk)
        420,000,000 lbs. of cheese (at   4,200,000,000      5.0
          10 lbs. milk)
        975,000,000 lbs. of condensed    2,437,500,000      2.9
          milk (at 2½ lbs. milk)
        210,000,000 gals. of ice cream   3,150,000,000      3.7
          (weighing 6 lbs. to the
          gallon, 10% fat)
        100,000,000 persons; 45% at     36,500,000,000     43.1
          0.7 lb. a day (cities) farms
          with dairy cows, 30%, 1.5
          lbs. per day; other farms
          and small towns, 25%, 1 lb.
          a day, approximately
        17,500,000 calves, whole milk    3,660,000,000      4.3
          (estimated) requirement
                                                 ─────
        Total                           84,611,350,000    100.0


Although the table accounts for all the milk produced, it does not tell
the whole story, since the preparation of a number of products results
in the formation of vast quantities of by-products that are not used to
the fullest advantage for human food.

New York City alone consumes 1,600,000 quarts of milk a day, but even
this enormous quantity means only 0.6 pint per capita. The consuming
public has been slow to realize the value of milk and its products, and
too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that even at the largely
increased cost of all dairy products they are still some of the cheapest
and the most healthful of foods, especially for growing children, and
should be used in much larger quantities.


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                           THE STORY OF MILK




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                           THE STORY OF MILK




                               CHAPTER I

  PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK, MILK FERMENTS,
                             PASTEURIZATION


                              DAIRY CATTLE

[Illustration:

  Holstein
]

A number of typical but widely different breeds of dairy cows have been
developed in various dairy countries, each owing to the soil and the
climatic conditions of its home, as well as to the skill and fancy of
the breeders, its characteristic features, form, color, etc.

[Illustration:

  Herd of pure-bred Holstein cows on a farm in central New York
]

=Milk-Breeds.=—The black and white _Holstein-Friesians_ (which, by the
way, had their home in Holland and not in Holstein) are known for their
large production of not very rich milk, while the _Guernseys_ and
_Jerseys_ give milk exceedingly rich in butter-fat. A good Holstein cow
will give from 7,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk in a year, containing from
3¼% to 4% butter-fat. Some of them produce as much as 20,000 to 30,000
lbs. in a year—nearly 4,000 gallons—just think of it! Jersey cows will
usually not produce as much in quantity as the Holsteins but Jersey milk
often contains 5% or 6% or more butter-fat, and a few of the best have
been known to produce 800 to 900 lbs. of butter in one year, an amount
equal to the cow’s own weight. The red _Danish_ cow is an exceedingly
good and highly bred milk producer which, however, has not been
introduced in the United States, but the Scotch _Ayrshires_ and the
_Brown Swiss_ are other well-known dairy breeds which are in favor with
many American farmers.

[Illustration:

  Guernsey
]

But, alas! too many herds of dairy cattle average less than 5,000 lbs.
of milk per cow per year and do not pay for their feed.

[Illustration:

  Jersey cows
]

[Illustration:

  Red Danish
]

[Illustration:

  Ayrshire
]

[Illustration:

  Shorthorn, beef-strain
]

Many native cows respond, however, to good care and feed and with a
thoroughbred bull a satisfactory herd can readily be built up from
carefully selected native stock. Such continued cross-breeding is more
apt to succeed than attempts to cross two thoroughbred breeds because
the characteristic features in full-blooded animals are so strong as to
invariably predominate in the progeny over the less pronounced forms and
tendencies inherent in native cows. But where two full-blooded animals
are mated and the strong characteristics in each are fighting for
predominance the result is apt to be a poor, ill-proportioned offspring
as the result of atavism.

[Illustration:

  Shorthorn, milk-strain
]

=Beef-Cattle.=—Cattle bred and developed for the purpose of producing
beef rather than milk are called by contrast beef-cattle. As examples of
beef-cows look at the _Shorthorns_ or the _Herefords_ or the _Polled
Angus_ at the next State Fair you visit and notice the square, deep,
smooth body with muscles and fat strongly developed in contrast to the
loosely built, bony milk-cow with its tendency to turn all its food into
milk at the expense of the body. There are, however, also among the
Shorthorns, strains of good milkers, but as a rule these beef-breeds are
not selected for the dairy farm, and “dual purpose” cows are not usually
profitable.

=Food and Water.=—The natural food for the dairy cow in summer is grass,
and where rich, succulent grass and clover grow in abundance, as on the
fertile meadows of Holland and the Channel Islands, or the Swiss Alps,
the highly cultivated Danish farms, the eastern and middle-western
states of America, etc., dairying early reached its highest development.
As the value of milk and its products for human food became more
generally recognized and all-the-year-round production was forced, it
was found necessary to feed the cows heavily in winter too, not only
hay, but also grain and succulent food such as beets and corn-ensilage
(green corn cut, stalks, cobs and all, and packed in a silo), and
science was taken into play to formulate _Balanced Rations_ containing
the proper amounts and proportions of the various nutrients—Protein, Fat
and Carbohydrates. It is not the place here to go deeper into this
problem which has long been a subject for thorough research and
experiments. In fact, more attention has been paid to the feeding of
cattle than to the proper nourishment of human beings, and much of what
we know about the latter has been deducted from experience and study on
the dairy farm, and from laboratory work along that line. In the chapter
on “Milk as a Food” we are taking up food values, etc., in relation to
the feeding of children and men. Suffice it here to say that the same
fundamental principles apply to the feeding of calves and cattle for the
production of milk and beef. And we wish to emphasize the fact that,
with due consideration to the proper proportion between the various
groups of nutrients, it is much more important that the food is
succulent, appetizing and easily digestible than that the ration shall
be accurately balanced.

[Illustration:

  Cutting ensilage and filling the silo
]

This fact, long well known to practical breeders and dairymen, has
recently been confirmed by Dr. E. V. McCullom to whose experiments
further reference is made in the chapter on milk as a food for children.
He shows that there is a very great difference in the quality of Protein
and Fat from various sources and that there is “Something Unknown” in
butter-fat, for instance, which is absent in most other fats and which
is vital for the growth of the child as well as for the proper
nourishment of man. This unknown but essential substance is also found,
in small quantities, in the leaves of certain plants, as in alfalfa,
while it is absent in the grain of the cereals.

[Illustration:

  An abundant crop of alfalfa hay; cut three times during the summer.
    Supplies protein in the ration
]

In modern dairy farming _alfalfa_ is considered an indispensable source
for protein, and corn-ensilage or beets for carbohydrates, while bran,
cottonseed meal or oil cake, malt-sprouts, gluten, distillers’ grain,
etc., may be used to advantage in various combinations.

[Illustration:

  Cows milked with machine
]

Contrary to a general impression one cannot feed fat into the milk. A
large amount of oil cake or other food rich in fat in the daily ration
does not increase the percentage of butter-fat in the milk. Rather, it
depends largely upon the breed and to some extent upon the period of
lactation. Provided the food agrees with her digestion and keeps the cow
in a good, healthy condition, the composition of the milk is not changed
to any appreciable extent by a change in make-up of the food.

It goes without saying that to produce from 20 to 50 lbs. of milk a day
the cow must have an abundance of _fresh, pure water_ to drink and she
should not have access to stagnant water.

=The Barn= must be clean, light and well ventilated and the cows should
be milked with clean hands into a clean pail which is covered as far as
possible so as to prevent dust from falling into the milk, or with one
of the excellent milking machines which are now frequently used in large
dairies. The milk is strained and cooled immediately after milking.

[Illustration:

  Milking machine
]

[Illustration:

  In the partly covered milk-pail dust does not fall as readily as in
    the one entirely open
]

=Milking.=—The cows are usually milked twice a day; occasionally, when
the highest possible yield is desired, as in important tests, three or
four times. The first five days after the birth of the calf the
milk,—the Colostrum so called,—is not normal and should not be used for
human consumption. It may be fed to the calf. The first three to four
months the yield of milk generally is higher than later, when it
gradually drops until after about ten months it stops altogether and the
cow goes “dry” at least for some six weeks before dropping the next
calf. The highest annual yield may be obtained by having the cows “come
in” in the Fall or early Winter and feeding them well all Winter to keep
up an abundant flow of milk. Then, when they come out on pasture in the
Spring,—in the latitude of the Great Lakes about May 15th,—the fresh,
rich feed will stimulate production and give it a fresh start so that
the milk-pail may continue to be filled during the next few months and
the shrinkage of the yield will not occur until the time when the
pastures dry up. The cow will then go dry in the early Fall, when feed
is scarce. Usually, however, the cows are allowed to “come in” in the
Spring and the yield of milk begins to shrink in the late Summer with
little or nothing in the Winter.

[Illustration:

  Milking on a Danish farm
]

=Test the Cows.=—To ascertain if a cow pays for her feed the amount and
the quality of the milk should be tested and computed for the year. If
the milk from each cow cannot be weighed every day it may be done
regularly once a month or preferably oftener. If it is weighed morning
and evening once every ten days it is easy to keep the account by
multiplying the number of pounds by ten and adding the totals for the
year. Occasionally the milk may be subjected to the Babcock Test to
ascertain its richness; three or four times during the period of
lactation is sufficient.

Where farmers do not have time to do the testing themselves they often
combine and hire a young man or woman, trained in an agricultural
college, to go around from farm to farm and do the work. These experts
not only test the yield and the percentage of fat but also weigh and
compute the feed so as to help the farmer make up his rations and
calculate whether each cow pays for her feed or not. The members of
these associations meet and compare notes and a friendly rivalry is
stimulated which may do much toward increasing production. As a matter
of fact, where Cow Test Associations have been introduced, both yield
and quality of the milk have been largely increased.

[Illustration:

  Dr. Bernhard Bang of Copenhagen, Denmark
]

=Healthy Cows= alone can be depended upon to produce sanitary milk. In
many herds of milk-cows tuberculosis is prevalent, and constant
vigilance is necessary to prevent its spread. The _Tuberculin Test_
discovered by Koch is invaluable for the purpose of ascertaining the
presence of tuberculosis. It is not necessary, however, to kill every
infected animal. Only where the lungs or the udder is affected and a
physical examination shows an advanced stage of the disease such radical
means are advisable. When the tuberculin test was first introduced many
valuable herds were wantonly and foolishly killed off because some of
the highly developed dairy cows showed reaction to the test while
worthless scrubs were allowed to live and spread the disease. For only
the intelligent and public-spirited owners of fine herds submitted their
cows to the test, a reaction to which, under ill-advised regulations,
permitted state officials to condemn the infected herds. In Denmark Dr.
Bernhard Bang introduced a system of isolation of the infected animals
which together with _Compulsory Pasteurization_ of the milk from such
cows has proved efficient for the eradication of tuberculosis, and the
_Bang Method_ is now generally recognized as the proper way of handling
the matter.


                       COMPOSITION OF COW’S MILK

             Cow’s milk contains on an average in 100 lbs.:

                87 lbs. of water
                 4 lbs. of butter-fat
                3¼ lbs. of casein and albumin (protein)
                 5 lbs. of milk sugar
                 ¾ lbs. of ash (mineral matter)
                   100 lbs. total.

It consists therefore of 87% water and 13% “solids,” 4 of which are fat
and 9, “solids—not fat.” =Butter-Fat= is found in milk in the form of
minute globules suspended in the liquid. As fat or oil is lighter than
water (has less specific gravity) it naturally floats and the fat
globules therefore soon rise to the top when milk stands at rest,
forming a layer of _cream_ which may be skimmed off from the _milk_. In
chemical composition butter-fat is very nearly the same as other animal
and vegetable fats, but the slight variation may make a lot of
difference in digestibility and palatability as well as in nutritive
value, and it is a mistake to consider Oleomargarine, Butterine,
Nut-Butter and other substitutes for butter “just as good” because a
chemical analysis shows them to contain “almost” the same elements or
compounds. These products may be good and legitimate if sold for what
they are, but should never be allowed to be sold or served for what they
are not, genuine butter.

[Illustration:

  Composition of cow’s milk
]

=Casein and Albumin= are the proteids or nitrogenous matters of the
milk, in chemical composition and in food value much the same as the
protein in beans and peas or in meat, or the white of eggs. Casein is
present in much larger quantity than albumin and is distinguished from
the latter by being precipitated by rennet, which has no effect on
albumin. Casein may also be precipitated by acids, while it required
boiling as well as acidity to throw the albumin out of solution.

=Milk-Sugar= is related to the vegetable sugars, glucose, cane sugar,
etc., and remains in solution in the whey which separates out from the
cheese-curd when milk is curdled with rennet or acids. The whey also
contains the mineral matters or _ash_, which consists largely of
phosphate of lime, of use to the young in building up bones. When whey
is boiled down to a thick syrup and left to stand, the sugar will
crystallize out and may be separated from the liquid, still holding in
solution the mineral matters.

[Illustration:

  Fat globules as they appear under the microscope
]

=Mineral Matters.=—These may be gathered as _ash_ by boiling off the
water from this liquid or from the whole milk and burning the rest, as
all the constituents except the ash belong to what in chemistry is
called organic matter, which disappears in the air by burning.


[Illustration:

  Dr. S. M. Babcock of Madison, Wis.
]

                            HOW TO TEST MILK

Milk may be adulterated or decreased in value either by skimming or by
watering. In either case the percentage of the most valuable
constituent, the butter-fat, is diminished. It is upon this fact that
the most practical test, the Babcock, is based.

[Illustration:

  Babcock test outfit
]

=The Babcock Test.=[2]—By treating a sample of milk with strong
sulphuric acid the butter-fat is liberated as an oil. By subjecting the
mixture to centrifugal force the light butter oil is separated from the
rest of the milk and the percentage can be easily determined.
Centrifugal force had already been used in the Fjord Cream Test, but it
remained for Dr. Babcock to work out the splendid practical and reliable
test which bears his name and in which he has given to the world an
invention of incalculable value.

[Illustration:

  A two-bottle machine
]

=Sampling.=—Whether it is new milk or skim milk or buttermilk or cream
that is to be tested the first thing to observe is to take a _truly
representative sample_. The liquid must be thoroughly mixed by pouring
it several times from one vessel to another, or stirring vigorously.

It may not always be convenient to make a test immediately when the
sample is taken. In the creamery where the milk is paid for according to
its fat contents, samples are taken every day from every patron’s milk
and it would take too much time for the butter maker to test all of
these samples before they would spoil. A preservative, corrosive
sublimate,—poisonous but all right for the purpose,—is therefore added
and all the samples of one farmer’s milk for several days or a whole
week are put together in one glass to be kept and tested at one time.
This is called a composite test and has proven entirely satisfactory.

=The Lactometer= has been used to discover adulterations, depending upon
the difference in specific gravity of the various constituents. The
specific gravity of whole milk is about 1.032 which means that, if a
certain volume of water weighs 1.000 weight units, the same volume of
whole milk weighs 1.032, the same volume of butter-fat weighs, say,
.900, or of cream about 1.000, and of skim milk 1.036 units. If the
Lactometer shows a sample of milk to have a higher specific gravity than
1.032 it may therefore be suspected of having been skimmed. But it will
readily be seen that by removing from whole milk some of the cream and
adding water, the specific gravity can easily be brought back to normal
for whole milk. This test is therefore unreliable and has been discarded
with the advent of the Babcock.

[Illustration:

  The acidemeter
]

=Acidity Test.=[3]—The acidity, or sourness, of milk or cream, which
depends upon the amount of lactic acid developed in it, may be tested by
a liquid normal alkali or by the Farrington Alkaline Tablets, a solution
of which added to sour milk neutralizes the acid. A few drops of an
indicator, Phenolpthalein, added to the milk, turns it pink when all the
acid has been neutralized, and the amount of alkali solution used shows
the percentage of acid in the milk. This is quite important in preparing
“starters” for ripening the cream in butter making or milk in cheese
making, and in the manufacture of “Commercial Buttermilk,” etc.

There are other tests used in scientific dairying as the _Fermentation
Test_ to ascertain the relative purity of milk, the _Casein Test_, etc.,
but the above are those mostly used besides the _Bacterial Count_ which
is mentioned under the chapter on “Milk Supply,” and the _Rennet Test_
described under “Cheese Making.”


                                FERMENTS

Two classes of ferments are of importance in connection with milk: (1)
“unorganized” or chemical ferments, the “enzymes,” and (2) “organized”
ferments such as bacteria and yeast.

                               _Enzymes_

=Rennet.=—Among the unorganized ferments, _Rennet_ or _Rennin_ is highly
important on account of its power of coagulating or curdling milk by
precipitation of the casein. Rennet is extracted from the stomach of the
suckling or milk-fed calf, where it serves in digesting the calf’s food.
It is in the market in the form of a liquid extract as well as a dry
powder compressed into tablets (Rennet Tablets and Junket Tablets). The
characteristics and use of rennet are described under “Cheese Making” in
Chapter III.

=Pepsin= is another enzyme the office of which in the process of
digestion is to dissolve albuminoids. It is not considered identical
with rennet though in an acid solution it will curdle milk. It occurs in
the stomachs of grown animals fed on solid food and is usually produced
from hogs’ stomachs.


                                Bacteria

Everywhere, in the air, in water, in the soil, and clinging to every
object in the world, are minute organisms known under the common names
of _bacteria_ or _microbes_. In contrast to rennet and the other
“unorganized” ferments, bacteria belong to the “organized” class. Some
are harmful, producing putrefaction, dissolution, poisons or disease;
others are beneficial, leading to desirable fermentations and changes;
others again are indifferent, neither good nor bad, but harmless.

As the milk comes from the cow it is almost free from bacteria, but milk
makes an excellent soil for many of these organisms to grow in, and they
soon get in, to multiply with enormous rapidity at any temperature from
60° to 100° F.

=Lactic Acid Bacilli= are bacteria of special importance to the
dairyman, for they convert sugar of milk into lactic acid and produce
various more or less agreeable flavors. They are also powerful
germicides and scavengers, destroying or neutralizing the products of
other bacteria which in the absence of these bacteria and the lactic
acid produced by them would play havoc with the food and produce
putrefaction or disease. Everybody who handles milk knows that pure sour
milk or buttermilk in which lactic acid bacteria abound keeps well for a
long time, free from other fermentations which have no chance to develop
in their presence. It is due to this purifying property that Metchnikoff
recommended Bulgarian sour milk as a health food, asserting that it
prevents harmful fermentations in the digestive channel.


                        The Control of Bacteria

The principal means at our disposal to prevent or control and regulate
bacterial growth are:

_Cleanliness_, _Heat_, _Cold_ and _Disinfectants_.

=Cleanliness.=—Only the most scrupulous cleanliness will prevent
contamination. Hence the necessity of thorough scouring and sterilizing
of all utensils, and the need for fresh air and pure water.

=Heat.=—The prevention of fermentation in milk by heating is called
“sterilization” or “pasteurization” according to the intensity of the
heat and the length of time the milk is subjected to it. Boiling
destroys almost all bacterial life. Some germs require, however,
exposure to a much higher temperature, up to 250° F. (boiling under
pressure), to be entirely eradicated, but for all practical purposes a
thorough boiling is considered sufficient to eliminate all danger of
contamination. Such boiling is usually termed _Sterilization_.

[Illustration:

  Effect of heating milk to various temperatures.
  Published by the Toronto Board of Health
]

=Cooling= checks bacterial growth and but few germs thrive at a
temperature below 50° F. The following table and diagram[4] show how
quickly bacteria multiply in milk at ordinary room temperature, 68° to
70°, which emphasizes the importance of keeping milk cool.


   _Relative growth of bacteria when held at different temperatures_

   ──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────
             │  No. of  │          │          │          │
    Tem. of  │ bacteria │  At end  │At end of │At end of │At end of
      Milk   │ per c.c. │of 6 hrs. │ 12 hrs.  │ 24 hrs.  │ 40 hrs.
             │    at    │          │          │          │
             │beginning │          │          │          │
   ──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────
      °F.    │          │          │          │          │
       50    │    10    │    12    │    15    │    41    │    62
       68    │    10    │    17    │   242    │  61,280  │3,574,990
   ──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────




[Illustration:

  Milk cooler
]

If the milk had contained 1,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter at the
beginning, the part held at 50° F. would have contained 4,100 bacteria
at the end of 24 hours, while that held at 68° F. would have contained
6,128,000. The effect of temperature upon the growth of bacteria is
shown graphically in the cut.

But even _frost does not kill_ the bacteria. If milk which has been kept
sweet or at the desired degree of sourness by cooling is allowed to get
warm again, the bacteria which have been kept dormant will get a fresh
start. For this reason milk and cream for city supply should not only be
cooled strongly, but must be kept thoroughly chilled up to the time they
are used, which means that they should be delivered cool to the
consumer, and kept on ice in the house, never being allowed to warm up
until used.

[Illustration:

  The diagram (after Conn) shows the rapidity with which bacteria
    multiply in milk not properly cooled. A single bacterium (a) in 24
    hours multiplied to 5 (b) in milk kept at 50° F.; (c) represents the
    number that develop from a single bacterium in milk kept 24 hours at
    70° F.
]

=Disinfectants.=—Antiseptics, such as benzoate of soda, formalin,
boracic acid, etc., are not permissible _in_ milk, but _disinfectants_
such as soda, lime, washing powders, etc., should be freely used in
cleaning utensils, bottles, floors and walls where milk is handled, so
as to prevent as far as possible any infection.


                             PASTEURIZATION

[Illustration:

  Louis Pasteur, French scientist and originator of the process of
    pasteurization.
]

Pasteurization depends upon the fact that almost all bacteria, and
especially the disease-producing species, are checked in their growth
and made harmless, if not totally destroyed, by instantaneous exposure
to a temperature of 175° F., or a more or less prolonged exposure to
lower temperature, for instance for 20 minutes to 157° or 30 minutes to
145°. These lower temperatures are recommended in the case of new milk
to be consumed as such, in order not to change its digestibility.
Pasteurizers with “holding devices” are therefore largely taking the
place of the “continuous” sterilizing machines, which allow only
momentary exposure to the highest temperature.

Whatever method is used it is essential that after the heating is
finished the milk should be cooled as quickly as possible to a
temperature sufficiently low to prevent development of the germs that
have not been entirely destroyed by the heat and which, if the milk is
left for any length of time at a temperature favorable for bacterial
life—anywhere between 65° and 110°,—will begin to grow again. Cool the
milk to below 60° and if possible to 50° or 40°.

Sometimes a second pasteurization is practiced, the milk being purposely
allowed to stand at 70° to 80° for 12 to 24 hours after the first
pasteurization for the germs which escaped destruction to develop into
full-grown bacteria. They are then killed by the second heating before
the milk is finally chilled to stop any further growth.

Pasteurization can be done by placing the milk in any tin or enamelled
or glass vessel, set in another vessel containing water (a double
boiler). Heat until the milk has reached the desired temperature, hold
it at that temperature the necessary time, and then place the vessel in
cold running water or in ice water until the milk is thoroughly chilled.
It is not advisable to place the hot milk in the ice box as cooling in
air is too slow. Not until it is thoroughly cooled in water is it safe
to put it in the ice box to _keep_ it cool.

[Illustration:

  N. J. Fjord, Danish investigator
]

In the seventies Prof. N. J. Fjord, in Denmark, applied to milk the
process which had been developed by Louis Pasteur in France to give
keeping quality to wine and beer. A Danish dairy expert, J. Moldenhauer,
now connected with the New York State Department of Agriculture, first
brought the process to this country and used pasteurization in a city
creamery in Kentucky. American experiment stations established the
temperatures and the time of exposure necessary for best results, and no
one has done more for the introduction of pasteurization than the New
York philanthropist, Nathan Straus, who has established pasteurizing
plants and milk distributing stations in many localities, thereby
contributing so largely to the lowering of the death rate among the
children of the poor.

[Illustration:

  The Straus Pasteurizer
]

[Illustration:

  A continuous pasteurizer
]

The following directions are given by the Straus Pasteurized Milk
Laboratories of New York for the pasteurization of milk for babies:

1. Only use fresh, filtered milk, which has been kept cold, and proceed
as follows:

2. Set the bottles, after they have been thoroughly cleaned, into the
tray (a), fill them to the neck, and put on the corks or patent
stoppers.

3. The pot (b) is then placed on a wooden surface (table or floor) and
filled to the three supports (in the pot) with boiling water.

4. Place tray (a), with the filled bottles, into the pot (b), so that
the bottom of the tray rests on the three supports, and put cover (c) on
quickly.

[Illustration:

  Milk cooler
]

5. After the bottles have been warmed up by the steam for five minutes,
remove the cover quickly, turn the tray so that it drops into the water.
The cover is to be put on again immediately. This manipulation is to be
made very quickly, so that as little steam as possible can escape. Thus
it remains for twenty-five minutes.

6. Now take the tray out of the water and cool the bottles with cold
water and ice as quickly as possible, and keep them at this low
temperature till used.

7. Before use, warm the milk—in the bottles—to blood heat. Never pour it
into another vessel.

8. The milk must not be used for children later than twenty-four hours
after pasteurization. Never use remnants.

In a _Continuous Pasteurizer_ a constant stream of milk is fed into the
machine, heated by flowing over a metal surface with steam or hot water
on the opposite side, and cooled by running over a cooler furnished with
a stream of cold water or ice water.


                             PURE CULTURES

[Illustration:

  Professor V. Storch, originator of pure cultures for ripening cream
    and milk
]

Before 1890 it was supposed that the flavor of fine butter depended upon
certain volatile oils and acids peculiar to butter-fat. In the early
nineties Professor V. Storch of the Danish Experiment Station showed,
however, that it was due rather to the products of bacteria and he
isolated the lactic acid bacilli which would produce such exquisite
flavor even when perfectly neutral and tasteless butter-fat was churned
with milk acidified or ripened with a pure culture of these bacilli. In
this country Dr. H. W. Conn of Wesleyan University, Storrs, Conn., did
much to advance the theory and practice of ripening cream with a pure
culture starter.

“Pure cultures” are produced in the bacteriological laboratory by
picking out under the microscope colonies of the desired species of
bacteria, planting them in a sterilized medium and allowing them to grow
under the most favorable conditions and with the exclusion of all other
germs.

[Illustration:

  Streptococcus lacticus (Storch, No. 18)
]

[Illustration:

  Bacterium lactis acidi (from Storch)
]

When such a culture has reached its maximum growth it is transplanted
into a larger quantity of a sterilized medium containing proper
nourishment for the particular organism. In the bacteriological
laboratory, where alone absolute sterility of utensils and medium, and
entire exclusion of foreign infection are possible, the culture may
remain pure while this inoculation and propagation are repeated over and
over again. But when the propagation is carried on in the house or the
dairy, for instance in preparing starters or buttermilk, such absolute
cleanliness is impossible and in the long run infections will creep in
from the air or from the utensils and after a while it becomes necessary
to start with a new “pure culture.” How often such renewal must be
resorted to depends largely upon the surroundings and the care of the
operator. Usually it must be done after a week’s time, although it is
surprising to find milk preparations made by the simplest processes
equal in purity to those prepared with the assistance of bacteriological
science and technique. This is, for instance, the case in Bulgaria,
where the famous Yoghourt sour milk is prepared pure without special
care and in Denmark where the country is fairly permeated with the
lactic acid bacilli used in ripening the cream for the celebrated Danish
butter and where careful buttermakers often maintain their starters for
months or even for years without “renewal.”

[Illustration:

  Typical lactic acid bacteria
  (L. A. Rogers)
]

There are many different varieties of bacteria which convert sugar of
milk into lactic acid, at the same time developing flavors more or less
agreeable and characteristic for the various products. In the
bacteriological laboratory certain species are selected which will
produce the results desired for the particular purpose in view.

=Starters.=—Beginning with a commercial dry culture in the form of a
powder as generally used in the creamery or the cheese factory as well
as for the preparation of commercial buttermilk, or with buttermilk
tablets as used in the ordinary household or the hospital, such culture
is added to a small quantity of thoroughly pasteurized milk. If fresh,
sweet skim milk is available it is preferable to whole milk as the
butter-fat in the latter only interferes with the process; but either
can be used.

Milk for starters should be strongly pasteurized by being kept at a
temperature near the boiling point—at least 180°—for 40 to 60 minutes,
then cooled to the degree at which it is to be set, usually between 65°
and 75°, somewhat higher for the first propagation with the pure culture
than for the subsequent transplantings when the bacteria, more or less
dormant in the dry powder or tablets, have attained full vitality. Some
species of bacteria, as the Bacillus Bulgaricus, require higher
temperatures—90° to 100° or even 110°—than others. The culture having
been thoroughly incorporated in the milk by vigorous and repeated
stirring or shaking, the milk is left at rest in an incubator or a
waterbath or wrapped in paper or cloth in a warm room where an even
temperature can be maintained, until it is curdled, which may take 18 to
24 hours or even longer for the first propagation.

One part of this curdled milk is now added to 5 or 10 parts of fresh
pasteurized milk and set to ripen in the same way as described above,
possibly at a little lower temperature, and this is repeated every day,
thus maintaining the “Mother Starter.” After the second or third
propagation the bulk of each batch is used as a starter in the larger
lot of material to be ripened, be it cream for butter or milk for cheese
or for commercial buttermilk, while a little is taken for maintenance of
the mother starter as described above.

The _amount of starter_ to prepare every day depends upon the amount of
milk or cream to be ripened and the per cent of starter used in same.
For instance, if you have ten gallons of cream to ripen every day in
which you wish to use about 10% or 12% starter, or one gallon, take a
little less than one pint of the first or second propagation for one
gallon of milk; the next day use one pint of this to add to a gallon of
fresh starter milk, and the remaining gallon to add to the ten gallons
of cream, and so on every day.

If you have 4,000 lbs. of milk in the cheese vat to ripen with 2% or 80
lbs. starter, prepare 88 lbs. of mother starter. If, on the other hand,
you wish to make only a quart of buttermilk every day, take, say, two
buttermilk tablets, crush them thoroughly in a spoonful of pasteurized
milk and stir this into a tumblerful of the same milk; let stand till it
is thickened the next day and use a tablespoonful of this thickened milk
in a quart of fresh pasteurized milk which when ripened is your
buttermilk, from which you take out a tablespoonful for starter in the
next batch, and so on. In this case there is no “mother starter” except
that perhaps the first tumblerful prepared with the tablets may be
called so, but afterwards the starter is taken right out of the finished
product every day.

The process may be modified to suit special purposes and local
conditions, but the following precautions should be strictly observed:
(1) to interrupt the ripening immediately by quick and intense cooling
as soon as it has reached the proper point in case the ripened product
is not used at once, and (2) to _keep_ it ice-cold until it is used. If
this is done, it may be kept for two or three days without deterioration
if it is not convenient to make it fresh every day which, however,
should be the rule.


------------------------------------------------------------------------




                               CHAPTER II

                   MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS


In the first chapter the composition of cow’s milk and the nature of its
constituents have been considered, the most important tests for its
richness and purity have been described, and the ferments have been
mentioned which instigate changes for good or for bad, together with the
means at disposal for regulating their activity. To use these means
intelligently in handling milk and its products is the key to the
dairyman’s success.

We shall now briefly consider the various steps that are of importance
in modern dairy industry.


                              MILK SUPPLY

In the first place, the farmer must furnish pure, clean, unadulterated
milk, fresh from the cow and cooled immediately after milking. His cows
must be healthy.

=Bovine Tuberculosis.=—Many milk-cows, for the very reason that they
have been bred with the one purpose in view of turning all their food
into milk and wasting as little as possible in building up the body, are
more or less weak-chested and apt to suffer from tuberculosis. Unless
this disease is so far advanced as to affect the general health of the
cow, or it has spread to the milk organs, the udder and the teats, it is
not so dangerous as has heretofore been supposed. It is now held by the
great majority of physicians that bovine tuberculosis is hardly ever
transmitted to grown persons and seldom to children. Neither is it
hereditary. Nevertheless, wherever it is possible to have the herd
tested with tuberculin, segregating, if not killing, the animals which
show by reaction that they are somewhat tuberculous, it should be done.
Milk from such cows should always be pasteurized.

=Milk as a Disease Carrier.=—A greater danger lies in the fact that,
warm as it comes from the cow, milk is an ideal medium for human disease
germs to grow in, and may thus become a great conveyor of such germs.
For this reason it is of the greatest importance that the milkers are
healthy and clean, that the udders and teats be free from dirt, and the
milk pail covered as far as possible; the barn must be clean, and every
source of infection excluded. This fact also points to the advisability
of pasteurization. On page 23 a chart is shown, published by the Toronto
Board of Health and indicating the temperatures at which various germs
of disease are made harmless.

=Bacterial Count.=—The test for clean milk now mostly used is the
“Bacterial Count,” the number of bacteria—or rather colonies of
bacteria—found in a cubic centimeter of the milk. It would be better if
the nature or quality of the bacteria could be taken into consideration
as well as the quantity, but that being as yet impracticable, the next
best thing is to depend upon the number. Ordinary good milk often
contains hundreds of thousands of bacteria in a cubic centimeter, but
where the greatest cleanliness is observed the number may be less than
1,000.

=Certified Milk= is now sold in many cities which, according to varying
city ordinances, is guaranteed to have less than 10,000 or 20,000 or
30,000 bacteria, as the case may be.

[Illustration:

  Counting the bacteria in a cubic centimeter of milk
]

The cost of producing certified milk places it beyond the reach of the
great majority of consumers. But such care and cleanliness as can be
observed by the farmer and the milkman without extra expense should be
insisted upon, and milk which nevertheless contains a large number of
bacteria can be made safe by pasteurization.

=The Sanitary Code.=—The regulation of the production and delivery of
milk in cities and towns as well as at creameries and cheese factories,
the “Sanitary Code” established by state and municipal health
authorities, has been very effective in improving the quality of the
supply. So enormous have been the improvements in caring for and
handling the products by the large establishments engaged in the
delivery of milk as to make the increase in cost seem trifling compared
with the great benefit to the public health secured by these agencies.

=New York State Milk Grading.=—The New York State Board of Health
prescribes a grading for milk offered for sale, the most important
features of which are as follows:

_Certified._—Must be produced under specially sanitary conditions
approved by a county medical commission.

_Grade A Raw._—Cows must be tuberculin tested and milk must not contain
over 60,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.

_Grade A Pasteurized._—Cows must be subjected to physical examination
and milk must not contain more than 200,000 bacteria before, nor more
than 30,000 after pasteurization.

Other grades permitted under the rules, all subject to inspection and
approval of the authorities, are:

    _Grade B Raw._
    _Grade B Pasteurized._
    _Grade C Raw._
    _Grade C Pasteurized._

Deliveries must be made within a certain time after production or
pasteurization, barns and milk stations are inspected, and altogether
such safeguards are employed as to make the supply exceedingly safe and
reliable.

=City Delivery.=—In villages and small cities the milk supply is still
to a large extent in the hands of farmers who come to town early in the
morning peddling their milk, often at considerable waste of time for
horse and man. Or a number of peddlers go over the same route so that it
takes a dozen wagons to cover a town where three or four could do it.

As long as there was no efficient regulation as to price and quality
such waste was perhaps unavoidable, as competition on the part of the
producers and distributors was the only means of protection for the
consumers. But lately state and municipal control is being exercised to
such an extent as to largely eliminate the danger of poor milk and
exorbitant prices. Further development of organized delivery systems so
much to be desired for sanitary as well as for economical reasons, may
be looked for as soon as normal conditions return after the close of the
war. The delivery of milk is one of the things that in the interest of
public health must be under the strictest official control, and
_co-operation_ between farmers and consumers is the logical system for
elimination of unnecessary expenses of distribution and for prompt and
satisfactory service. Their interests are or should be identical and
both classes are hurt by inefficient and wasteful delivery.

In the large cities there has grown up an industry which largely
monopolizes the milk supply and which until lately was powerful enough
to dictate prices and conditions both for producers and consumers.
Several attempts have been made from time to time by farmers to combine
to regulate prices and dictate the terms to the middlemen. Such attempts
have, however, invariably failed as long as they were built on false
economic principles and prompted by selfish interests only. No farmers’
association can be strong enough to ignore the law of supply and demand,
and it is only quite recently that the _Dairymen’s League_ has succeeded
in influencing the market by taking into consideration the actual cost
of production of milk as worked out by the agricultural colleges, and
fixing the price on a scientific basis. There is one other element
entering into the causes on which the price to the consumers depends,
namely, _Transportation_, and while municipal boards of health are
looking after the sanitary conditions and prevention of adulteration,
State and Federal authorities are stepping in as moderators or
arbitrators to reconcile the interests of the _Producers_, the _Railroad
Companies_, the _Distributors_ and the _Consumers_. The next step in the
development will no doubt be towards full co-operation between producers
and consumers and, to a large extent, elimination of the “middlemen.”

It should not be forgotten, however, that while the much abused
middlemen in time past have been able to dictate terms and prices and
have often abused the privilege; they have at the same time used their
influence and power to improve the milk supply. As the supply of oil and
gasoline has been perfected and cheapened by the all-powerful Standard
Oil Co. as a monopoly crushing all competition, so the “Milk Trust” has
improved the distribution of milk and has built up the magnificent
sanitary plants in which milk is handled, pasteurized, bottled and
distributed in a way that might not have been possible without the
monopoly. It has served a good purpose, but has at the same time
acquired such power that official control has become necessary for the
protection of producers and consumers alike, and the time may be near
when these two classes will combine and take the matter into their own
hands so that the distribution may be done at actual cost.

[Illustration:

  Milk station in the country where milk is received from the farmers to
    be shipped to the city
]

=Milk Stations= are plants erected in dairy sections in the country
either by the city milk supply houses or by co-operating farmers, where
the milk is delivered and handled so as to make it ready for shipment to
the city. As in the creamery and the cheese factory, the milk is
carefully examined and, if it is not sweet and pure, it is rejected and
sent back to the farm. Any impure flavor remains in the cover for some
time and is easily detected by smelling of the cover as soon as it is
removed from the can.

A sample is taken and put aside for the Babcock test and perhaps another
for the Fermentation test. Each farmer’s milk is weighed in the _Weigh
Can_ and run through a cheese-cloth strainer. The further treatment
varies in different plants. The milk may simply be cooled by running it
over a cold water or brine cooler and placing it in shipping cans in the
refrigerator or in ice water until the milk-train comes along to pick up
the cans. Or it may be clarified by running it through a centrifugal
machine, the same as a separator, in which, however, cream and milk are
not separated, but impurities are thrown out by the centrifugal force
and deposited on the wall of the bowl, and the purified milk may then be
pasteurized and bottled before being shipped to the city.

[Illustration:

  Receiving milk at the milk station
]

Arriving in the city in iced cars the milk is taken to one of the
elaborate plants in which it is pasteurized and bottled, if that has not
been done at the country station. The machinery used in these plants is
getting more and more perfect and expensive and leaves little to be
desired as to sanitary requirements and economy in handling.
Pasteurizers, bottling machines, bottle-washing machines, conveyors,
etc., are wonders of ingenuity, and one needs only to see one of these
modern plants to understand that in a large city milk can only be
handled to advantage in expensive establishments.

=Skim Milk= is one of the cheapest of foods and under proper regulations
its sale should not be prohibited. The reason why in times past skim
milk has been discredited and excluded from sale was that, as produced
by the old methods of raising the cream, before the advent of the
separator, it was always more or less old and sour before it was
available and certainly before it could be distributed to consumers.
Under such conditions it was hardly ever fit for human food. But when
produced by the separator and pasteurized and cooled immediately
after—within a few hours after milking, which is entirely feasible—it is
an excellent and nutritious food for adults and even for children over
two years of age. Ripened with a pure culture of lactic acid bacteria,
it makes a healthful, refreshing drink, like buttermilk. Only when it is
allowed to sour without proper care or control does skim milk, as whole
milk does, become unfit for food or drink. On a cold winter morning when
men are going to work (or perhaps are looking for work which they cannot
find), and children are on their way to school, often underfed, a
street-corner wagon or stand where boiling hot, fresh, sweet skim milk
might be distributed at a cent or two a glass would be a blessing in any
city.

[Illustration:

  Pasteurizing and bottling milk in a Borden plant
]


                                 CREAM

When new milk is left at rest the cream will rise to the top and after
12 to 24 hours a cream-line can be seen in the bottle. This cream-line
is sharper and more easily seen in raw milk than in pasteurized milk and
its absence is not always a sure sign of lack of richness or purity of
the milk. By cooling the milk thoroughly so that it will keep, almost
all the cream will be at the top in forty-eight hours and can be skimmed
off. The cream can be used for coffee or on cereals or fruits or
puddings; the skim milk left will still hold ½% or more of butter-fat
and can be used to drink or for cooking.

=The Separator.=—On the farm or in the creamery the cream is no longer
raised by gravity, that is, by letting the milk “set” either in shallow
pans on the kitchen shelf or in deep cans in ice water, but the fresh,
warm milk is run through the separator in a continuous stream.

[Illustration:

  Early conception of the separator
]

It was noticed that the rising of the cream due to the difference in
specific gravity between the butter-fat and the milk-“serum” (the watery
solution of the other constituents) might be greatly hastened by
subjecting the milk to centrifugal force. This physical phenomenon was
taken advantage of in the first conception of the separator where it was
shown that if a pail of milk was whirled around like a stone in a sling
the heavier milk-serum would be thrown towards the bottom of the
separator pail with so much greater force than the lighter cream
(butter-fat mixed with a small part of the serum) that the separation
which would take 48 hours in the milk at rest, could be accomplished in
a few minutes when exposed to centrifugal force. From this early crude
attempt the continuous _bowl-separator_ was developed and still later a
number of divisions in the bowl were designed which increased the
capacity and efficiency of the machine wonderfully. The most successful
separator was designed by Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden and the machines
bearing his name are used all over the world where butter is made. But
there are many other excellent separators on the market.

[Illustration:

  Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden, inventor of the separator bearing his
    name
]

In the machine the milk is separated instantaneously by centrifugal
force and runs out through two tubes, one for cream and the other for
skim milk. A small modern hand machine will take care of from 200 to
1,000 lbs. of milk an hour, and power machines are built to separate
6,000 lbs. or more. By regulating the cream-outlet a heavier or lighter
cream can be produced.

[Illustration:

  Hand separator
]

Suppose we are separating some milk containing 4% butter-fat. If ⅛ of
this milk is separated out as cream and contains all the butter-fat, the
cream will be eight times as rich in butter-fat as the original milk;
32% of the cream will be butter-fat. Such cream is called “32% cream.”
If we take ¼ as cream, we get a cream four times as rich as the milk, a
“16% cream.” So out of 100 lbs. of milk we can take 12½ lbs. (⅛) of 32%
cream, 25 lbs. (¼) of 16% cream, etc.

Although the skim milk is really valuable as a food, it is worth but
little commercially; the cream containing the butter-fat is the
expensive part of the milk, and we must be prepared to pay for the cream
all that the milk would have cost.

=Percentage of Butter-Fat.=—The “richness” of cream or milk and their
value depend upon the amount of butter-fat in them. So cream or milk is
often called “30% cream” or “20% cream” or “4% milk” according as 30% or
20% or 4% of the fluid is butter-fat; 30% cream is quite rich; ordinary
market cream varies between 18% and 40%, though it may fall below 18%,
or it may be sold as a very expensive article as high as 60%. Rich milk
may contain more than 6% of butter-fat and skim milk less than 0.1 of
one per cent. The average for good whole milk is between 3% and 4½%.

For a long time scientists and scientific dairymen were the only ones to
speak of milk and cream in terms of percentage of butter-fat. Now,
however, people are beginning to realize how valuable a part of the milk
the butter-fat is and are paying more attention to the actual percentage
of butter-fat in the cream or milk they use. So it is no longer unusual
to see a dairyman advertise cream of a certain percentage or to hear a
housewife ask for it specifically.

=Standardizing Cream.=—For ice cream or for preparing modified milk for
babies, it is often desirable to dilute rich cream to a certain lower
standard. The following simple steps can be taken to find out how much
milk to add for diluting:

1. From the test—fat-percentage—of the rich cream subtract the test
desired.

2. From the test desired subtract the test of the milk used for
diluting.

3. Divide the first difference by the second, and the result will be the
number of pints (or pounds) of milk to be added for each pint (or pound)
of the rich cream.

For instance, you may want to thin some 30% cream to 10% for making ice
cream. The milk to be added is skim milk. Then:

1. 30 - 10 = 20.

2. 10 - 0 = 10.

3. 20 divided by 10 = 2. So for each pint of rich cream you may add 2
pints of skim milk.

Or you may wish to thin the 30% cream with whole milk, which has 4%
butter-fat. Again:

1. 30 - 10 = 20.

2. 10 - 4 = 6.

3. 20 divided by 6 = 3⅓. So you may add 3⅓ pints of the whole milk to
each pint of the 30% cream and still have a 10% cream.

=Pasteurized Cream= does not look as rich as raw cream, and fresh, sweet
cream appears to be thinner than when it is 24 hours old and slightly
ripened. So it is well, when buying cream, not to judge by appearances.
Demand of the milkman that he furnish you cream of a certain percentage
of butter-fat and see to it that you get what you pay for. If you have
no Babcock tester the milk inspector will test the cream for you.

=Whipped Cream.=—For whipping, cream must be fairly rich, from 24% to
32%, and it must be cold. Fresh, sweet cream does not whip as readily as
that which has been kept for 12 or 24 hours in ice water. There is no
other secret connected with the process. Use a rich cream, suitably
cooled and aged, and with a good beater there can be no trouble in
getting a fine, stiff whipped cream. If the cream is too thin or too
warm it may not become stiff. Sometimes, when it is beaten too long, it
turns into butter and buttermilk.

[Illustration:

  Installation in a Danish creamery.
  From the separator at the right the cream runs through the continuous
    pasteurizer which forces it up over the cooler whence it runs into
    the cream-vat at the left.
  (From Boggild—Maelkeribruget i Danmark)
]

=Emulsified Cream.=—One of the recent additions to the already elaborate
machinery used in the creamery, the milk supply or the ice cream
business, is the _Emulsifier._ To be sure, emulsifiers were used thirty
to forty years ago to mix animal and vegetable fats—oleomargarine oil,
lard and cottonseed oil—into skim milk for “Filled Cheese” or for
Butterine, but lately they are serving new purposes in the milk
industry. By forcing melted butter-fat or oil mixed with water or skim
milk through exceedingly small apertures under high pressure, or
otherwise breaking up the mixture, an emulsion can be formed in which
the fat globules are much finer even than those in natural milk or
cream, and separation can be prevented. The force used in these
emulsifiers may be produced by powerful pumps, or a steam jet, or
centrifugal force under high speed; whichever system is used the
machines answer the same purpose, to produce a permanent emulsion in
which the oil or fat will stay in suspension even after cooling. In some
milk supply plants and ice cream factories all the cream is emulsified
and the system has especially been applied since the advent of the milk
powder. It is now a not infrequent practice to run the new milk through
the separator, make sweet, unsalted butter from the cream, and milk
powder from the skim milk, and to ship or store these products
separately where or until cream is wanted and then bring them together
again by running them through the emulsifier with a suitable amount of
water. At first thought this process would seem impractical and
uneconomical. But it has proven good business because in many cases and
places skim milk powder and butter keep better separately or can be
shipped at long distance to better advantage than new milk or cream or
condensed milk. In ice cream factories business may be dull in cold
weather and cream is perhaps not provided and not available, when
suddenly a hot spell brings orders for large quantities. With a stock of
skim milk powder and butter on hand in the refrigerator, and an
emulsifier to mix these products, cream can be produced on short notice
and there will be no danger of shortage.


                               ICE CREAM

Ice cream has fast become the national dessert served on all festive
occasions, winter and summer. Originally it meant a frozen mixture of
sweetened and flavored milk and cream, but the name has long been
applied to all kinds of frozen delicacies in which cream enters as a
constituent. Not even there has the line been drawn, but gums, gelatine,
cornstarch, eggs and other “fillers” have been substituted or added to
thicken the mixtures and give “body” to “creams,” which have but little
relation to the genuine emulsion of butter-fat from cow’s milk.
Standardization has been attempted by National and State food
authorities with varying success of enforcement. While the application
of the name to a great variety of frozen desserts has no doubt become
legitimate by long usage it may properly be demanded that as an article
of merchandise “ice cream” shall contain at least 8% to 12% butter-fat
and that no ingredients dangerous to health enter into its manufacture.

[Illustration:

  Hand freezer
]

=Freezers.=—The freezing is usually done by contact of the material with
metal cooled on the other side by a “freezing mixture” of salt and ice
which produces temperatures far below the freezing point of water while
air is whipped into the cream by the rapid motion of the beater. A great
variety of excellent freezers of this kind for hand or for power are on
the market which answer the purpose for making ice cream at home or at
the ice cream parlor.

Coarse-grained salt and crushed ice, mixed in the proportion of 1 part
salt to 4 parts of ice, are constantly filled into the space surrounding
the ice cream can, and the brine produced by the melting of the mixture
is gradually drawn off from the tub. In a good freezer the operation
should not take over fifteen minutes. When the cream is frozen to a soft
mush, stop the beater and scrape down the hard particles which may have
accumulated on the sides of the can, add any ingredients which may be
better incorporated at this stage than mixed into the original material,
such as crushed fruit or preserves, and finish the freezing without
carrying it too far.

Remove the beater, stir the cream which should still be soft enough to
handle, and pack in ice with only a little salt. Or the cream may be
transferred from the freezer can to the shipping can and packed in it.
If bricks are wanted the soft cream is packed in molds of the desired
shape and size and buried in the freezing mixture to harden.

In modern ice cream factories _Brine Freezers_ are generally used. In a
_Refrigerator Plant_ intensely low temperatures are produced by the
vaporizing of compressed ammonia or carbonic acid in an ice machine, and
brine circulating in iron pipes is cooled by such medium and may, in
turn, cool the air in the _Cold Storage_ room, or the cream in the
freezer, or pure water in metal boxes for the manufacture of _Artificial
Ice._ It has been attempted to make the brine freezers _continuous_, the
cream mixture being fed into the machine at one end and discharged
frozen at the other. But this system has not so far been successful, and
intermittent or batch freezers are most practical yet both for hand and
for power.

[Illustration:

  Power brine freezer
]

Rich material, frozen in a good machine, whether intermittent or
continuous, will expand from 50% to 100%, and the original material
should not fill the freezer can more than half full.

The manufacture of ice cream has been the subject of study and
experiments for years in the Dairy Department of the Agricultural
College at Ames, Iowa, where Professor M. Mortensen has worked out a
comprehensive classification from which any manufacturer may readily
choose his formulas, modifying them to suit his local conditions and
special problems. The outline kindly furnished the author by Professor
Mortensen is so interesting and instructive as to be well worth copying
substantially in full, leaving out the “Ices” in which no milk or cream
is used and which are therefore not of special interest in connection
with the purpose of this book—the use of more and better milk.

[Illustration:

  Ice cream factory
]


           CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED AT IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION

Considering the work of former writers as well as names used by business
men, the following classification was worked out by the station:


                           I. Plain Ice Creams.
                          II. Nut Ice Creams.
                         III. Fruit Ice Creams.
                          IV. Bisque Ice Creams.
                           V. Parfaits.
                          VI. Mousses.
                         VII. Puddings.
                        VIII. Aufaits.
                          IX. Lactos.


                        Explanation and Formulas

I. _Plain Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar with
or without a natural flavoring.

Formulas are given for making ten gallons of finished ice cream.


_Vanilla Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. sugar
    4 oz. vanilla extract

_Chocolate Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons cream
    10 lbs. sugar
    1½ lbs. bitter chocolate
    4 oz. vanilla extract

_Maple Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    6 lbs. cane sugar
    2 lbs. maple sugar
    2 oz. caramel
    4 oz. vanilla extract

_Caramel Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. sugar
    12 oz. caramel
    4 oz. vanilla extract

_Coffee Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. cane sugar
    Extract from 1 lb. coffee

_Mint Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. cane sugar
    1 pt. concentrated Creme de Menthe syrup
    Few drops green coloring.

II. _Nut Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar and
sound non-rancid nuts.

_Walnut Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. cane sugar
    4 oz. vanilla extract
    4 lbs. of walnut meats.

According to this general formula the following nut ice creams may be
prepared by substituting different kinds of nut meats:

  _Chestnut Ice Cream_
  _Filbert Ice Cream_
  _Hazelnut Ice Cream_
  _Pecan Ice Cream_
  _Peanut Ice Cream_
  _Almond Ice Cream_
  _Pistachio Ice Cream_.

At times pistachio ice cream is made from oil of pistachio instead of
from the nuts. If thus prepared, it will come under the head of plain
ice cream.

III. _Fruit Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and
sound, clean, mature fruits.

_Strawberry Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. sugar
    ½ gallon crushed strawberries.

Employing the same formula the following creams may be made by merely
substituting other fruits and berries for the strawberries. The amount
of sugar may be varied according to the acidity of the fruit.

  _Pineapple Ice Cream_
  _Raspberry Ice Cream_
  _Cherry Ice Cream_
  _Peach Ice Cream_
  _Apricot Ice Cream_
  _Currant Ice Cream_
  _Grape Ice Cream_
  _Cranberry Ice Cream_.

Preparation of _lemon_ and _orange_ ice creams cannot be included under
this general rule. These creams may be prepared as follows:

_Lemon Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    10 lbs. sugar
    2 pts. lemon juice
    1 pt. orange juice

_Orange Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    10 lbs. sugar
    2 qts. orange juice
    ½ pt. lemon juice.

IV. _Bisque Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and
bread products, marshmallows or other confections, with or without other
natural flavoring.

_Macaroon Ice Cream_:

    5 gallons 25% cream
    8 lbs. sugar
    4 oz. vanilla extract
    5 lbs. ground macaroons.

From this formula we can make:

    Grape Nut Ice Cream
    Nabisco Ice Cream
    Sponge Cake Ice Cream
    Marshmallow Ice Cream.

V. _Parfait_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and egg yolks
with or without nuts or fruits and other natural flavoring.

_Walnut Parfait_:

    4 gallons 30% cream
    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
    14 lbs. sugar
    4 oz. vanilla extract
    4 lbs. walnut meats.

From this formula by substituting the nut meats we can make:

    _Filbert Parfait_
    _Almond Parfait_
    _Peanut Parfait_
    _Hazelnut Parfait_, etc.

By substituting the same proportion of fruits as are used for fruit ice
cream, for the vanilla extract and nut meats, fruit parfaits such as
strawberry, raspberry and cherry parfaits and others may be prepared.

_Coffee Parfait_:

    4 gallons 30% cream
    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
    14 lbs. sugar
    Extract from 1 lb. coffee

_Maple Parfait_:

    4 gallons 30% cream
    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
    4 lbs. maple sugar
    10 lbs. cane sugar
    2 oz. caramel paste

_Tutti-Frutti_:

    4 gallons 30% cream
    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
    14 lbs. cane sugar
    4 oz. vanilla extract
    3 lbs. candied cherries
    3 lbs. candied assorted fruit
    3 lbs. pineapple.

VI. _Mousse_ is a frozen whipped cream to which sugar and natural
flavoring have been added.

_Cranberry Mousse_:

    2 gallons 30% cream
    4 lbs. cane sugar
    1 qt. cranberry juice
    ¼ pt. lemon juice.

From the same formula combinations may be made with various other fruit
juices and natural flavors, such as coffee, vanilla, maple, caramel,
pistachio, etc.

_Sultana roll_, as indicated by the name, is made in a round mold. The
center of the mold is filled with tutti-frutti, and the outside with
pistachio mousse.

VII. _Pudding_ is a product made from cream or milk, with sugar, eggs,
nuts and fruits, highly flavored.

_Nesselrode Pudding_:

    3 gallons 30% cream
    10 dozen eggs
    10 lbs. cane sugar
    4 oz. vanilla extract
    6 lbs. candied cherries and assorted fruits
    4 lbs. raisins
    4 lbs. macaroons

_Manhattan Pudding_:

    3 gallons 30% cream
    10 dozen eggs
    12 lbs. sugar
    2 qts. orange juice
    1 pt. lemon juice
    4 lbs. walnut meats
    4 lbs. pecan meats
    4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits

_Plum Pudding_:

    3 gallons 30% cream
    10 dozen eggs
    10 lbs. sugar
    2½ lbs. chocolate
    4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits
    2 lbs. raisins
    2 lbs. figs
    1 lb. walnut meats
    3 teaspoonfuls ground cinnamon
    ½ teaspoonful ground cloves.

VIII. _Aufait_ is a brick cream consisting of layers of one or more
kinds of cream with solid layers of frozen fruits.

Fig aufait may be made from three layers of cream of various flavors
with two layers of whole or sliced figs. It is most satisfactory to
slice the figs lengthwise in halves.

Other aufaits may be made from a variety of preserved fruits and berries
and combined with different creams.

IX. _Lacto_ is a product manufactured from skimmed or whole sour milk,
eggs and sugar, with or without natural flavoring.

Formulas for lactos may be found in Bulletin No. 140 published by the
Ames Station.

As an example, the following mixture will make 5 gallons of

_Cherry Lacto_:

    3 gallons lacto milk
    9 pounds sugar
    12 eggs
    1 quart of cherry juice or concentrated cherry syrup
    1½ pints lemon juice

“Lacto Milk” is the same as described under “Commercial Buttermilk” and
“Thick Milk,” pages 81 and 82.

    The sugar is first dissolved in the lacto milk. The eggs are
    then prepared. The whites and yolks are kept in separate
    containers and each lot is beaten with an egg beater. Both the
    yolks and whites are then added to the milk. The mixture is
    thoroughly stirred and strained through a fine wire gauze. The
    fruit juices are added last. The freezer is now run until it
    turns with difficulty when the paddle is removed. The brine is
    removed and the freezer repacked with ice and salt and left for
    an hour before the contents are served.

    Orange, Mint, Pineapple, Maraschino, Raspberry or Grape Lacto
    may be prepared by substituting any of these flavors for the
    Cherry.

X. _Ices_ are frozen products made from water or sweet skimmed or whole
milk, and sugar, with or without eggs, fruit juices or other natural
flavoring.

Ices may be for convenience divided into _sherbets_, _milk sherbets_,
_frappes_, _punches_ and _souffles_.

_Milk Sherbet_ is an ice made from sweet skimmed or whole milk with egg
albumen, sugar and natural flavoring, frozen to the consistency of ice
cream.

_Pineapple Milk Sherbet_:

    6 gallons milk
    20 lbs. sugar
    Whites of 2 dozen eggs
    1 gallon pineapple pulp
    1 qt. lemon juice.

Milk sherbets of various flavors may be prepared according to above
formula by substituting other flavorings.

The formulas presented above have been given mainly for the purpose of
making clear the difference between the various groups. Numerous other
formulas may be prepared on the same general outline.

                  *       *       *       *       *

Prof. Mortensen’s formulas are mostly made out for ten gallons of ice
cream. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that they
can easily be adapted to any smaller quantities by reducing each of the
ingredients alike. For instance, to make:

_1 gallon of Plain Vanilla Ice Cream_, divide the figures given above by
10 and use:

    2 quarts 25% cream
    ¾ lbs. sugar
    ½ oz. vanilla extract.

To make:

_1 quart of Strawberry Ice Cream_, divide by 40 and use:

    1 pint 25% cream
    3 oz. sugar
    Crushed strawberries to taste.

[Illustration:

  Professor Mortensen, behind the vat at the left, giving a lesson in
    the making of ice cream at Ames
]

It will be noticed that in the formulas worked out at Ames as above,
very rich cream is used,—with a fat contents of 25% or 30%,—which makes
exceedingly rich ice creams and great expansion in freezing. The
ordinary ice cream maker will usually employ cheaper material, mixing
some milk in the cream and standardizing the material to suit his local
trade. Also most housekeepers making ice cream at home will find it
convenient and economical to use a mixture of milk and cream and in
doing so one must not expect so much expansion.

In many places outside of dairy sections cream is scarce and _condensed
milk_ is substituted to a large extent. Lately milk powder has come into
use and _Emulsified Cream_ has become popular. Skim-milk powder and
unsalted butter may be kept in stock and be available at any time, and
by means of an _Emulsifier_ they are united again into a product
identical with the milk or cream from which they were originally
separated.

=Junket Ice Cream.=—By setting a mixture of milk and cream with a
solution of Junket Tablets and allowing it to jelly before freezing, the
body of the cream may be improved so that a material of comparatively
low fat-percentage will make a very good ice cream, rich enough for most
people and especially well suited for invalids and children. Ice-cold
milk or cream is rather hard to digest for a weak or delicate stomach
because the action of the rennet in the digestive juice is imperfect and
slow except at blood-temperature. In Junket Ice Cream, however, such
action takes place before it is eaten and the digestive ferment of the
stomach is relieved of that function. For that reason Junket Ice Cream
is considered healthier than the ordinary frozen products and may be
indulged in freely by children and invalids.

The following are examples of tested Junket Ice Creams:

                           Vanilla Ice Cream

    Dissolve two Junket Tablets in a tablespoonful of cold water,
    heat two quarts of milk and one pint of cream lukewarm in which
    has been dissolved one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of
    vanilla flavor, then add the dissolved Junket Tablet, stir
    quickly for one-half minute and pour into ice cream can, let
    stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with
    ice and salt and freeze.

                          Pistachio Ice Cream

Excerpt from an article by Alice Bradley in “Woman’s Home Companion”

    This is the best ice cream for the money that we know. It may be
    made ready for the freezer early in the morning, and kept in the
    ice box until it is convenient to freeze it. It is quite
    possible to utilize cream that is not perfectly fresh.

    Put in the can of the freezer one pint of milk, one-half cup of
    heavy cream, one-third cup sugar, one teaspoonful vanilla,
    one-half teaspoon of almond extract, a few grains of salt, and
    vegetable color paste to make a delicate green color. Set the
    freezer in a pan of hot water. As soon as the mixture is
    lukewarm, add one Junket Tablet dissolved in one tablespoon cold
    water. Mix thoroughly and let stand until firm. Put in the ice
    box until ready to freeze, then put can in the freezer tub,
    adjust the crank, put in three small measures of ice that has
    been crushed in a heavy bag or shaved fine with an ice shaver,
    cover this evenly with one measure of rock salt, add three
    measures more of ice and one of salt, let stand five minutes and
    then turn the crank of the freezer for about ten minutes, when
    it may be turned a little more rapidly. Continue the turning
    until the mixture is firm.

    Remove the dasher, pack ice cream solidly into the can, surround
    with four measures of ice to one of salt, cover with heavy
    burlap bag or newspaper and keep in a cold place until needed.
    Be sure the opening in the side of the freezer tub is not
    plugged up, so that any surplus of salt water will drain off
    instead of getting into the freezer. It may be necessary to
    repack the freezer if the cream is frozen very long in advance
    of the meal. The cream may be put into a mold, set in the
    fireless cooker kettle, surrounded with ice and salt and left in
    the fireless cooker all day. Peel peaches, cut in thin slices,
    sprinkle with sugar and set in the ice box to chill. To serve,
    place peaches in chilled dessert glasses, cover with ice cream
    and garnish each with a candied cherry.

In the following recipes the cream is added after the junket prepared
from mixtures of milk, sugar and flavors has been partly frozen, a
method which is preferred by many.

                            Coffee Ice Cream

    Make a cup of very strong coffee, add it to two quarts of warm
    milk in which one cup of sugar has been dissolved, taste in
    order to see if the flavor is strong enough, add three dissolved
    Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute, pour into ice
    cream can and let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or
    until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before
    adding one pint of cream, then continue freezing.

                   _Simmons College Peach Ice Cream_

    Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved one
    cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla flavor, add two
    dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute and
    pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen
    minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick
    mush before adding one pint of cream and crushed and sweetened
    peaches, then continue freezing. Save the needed amount of
    peaches to serve on top of ice cream.

Frozen pudding, strawberries, bananas, or pineapple, may be added in
this way when making any Junket Ice Cream.

                            _Orange Sherbet_

    Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved two
    cups of sugar, then add two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir
    quickly for a minute and pour into freezer can, let it stand ten
    or fifteen minutes before packing with ice and salt; freeze to a
    thick mush, then add juice and grated rind of six oranges and
    continue to freeze.

=Raspberry Sherbet= may be made in the same way by substituting for the
juice and rind of oranges one quart of crushed and sweetened
raspberries, and

=Pineapple Sherbet= by substituting two cups of grated and sweetened
pineapple.

                          _Custard Ice Cream_

When cream is scarce many housekeepers substitute a mixture of eggs and
milk. The following is a good standard recipe which can be varied by
using different fruits and flavors the same as in any of the above
combinations.

    1 quart milk
    4 eggs
    2 teaspoons vanilla (more if desired)
    2½ cups sugar
    1 quart cream (or rich milk)

Scald milk, add sugar, then add the well-beaten eggs. Cook until thick,
remove from fire and cool. Be careful not to cook too long or it will
curdle. Then add the cream and vanilla and freeze.


                                 BUTTER

As everybody knows, butter is one of the oldest and most important
products of the dairy industry and since the middle of the nineteenth
century, when science was first applied to it, the art of buttermaking
has gradually been developed to a high degree of perfection, while the
taste for fine butter has grown apace with its manufacture.

Between 1840 and 1850 the large estates in Holstein, then connected with
Denmark, were known for their fine dairies and excellent butter, made in
a practical way without much attention to the reason for the rules that
were gradually worked out.

A class of superior dairymaids was educated on these large farms, many
of whom were hired by progressive farmers on the Danish islands where an
effort was made at that time to introduce better methods of dairying.

The practical handicraft of these imported expert dairymaids was
supplemented and regulated by the scientific work of Professor Segelcke
and his pupils and from the Sixties buttermaking became an art in
Denmark which was subjected to the most searching study and
improvements. Danish butter soon captured the English market where
previously Isigny (from Northern France) and Dutch butter had commanded
the highest prices, and Danish sweet butter put up in sealed tin cans
also became known all over the world as the only butter that would stand
export to the Tropics.

In this country Orange County, N.Y., first produced a high-class article
and, later, Elgin, Ill., became the center that stood for the top of
perfection. Thence the industry soon spread over the middle western
states, largely populated by Scandinavian immigrants many of whom were
skilled buttermakers, educated in the old countries. Even up to this day
it is noticeable that the list of prize winning buttermakers at the
National Dairy Shows and other exhibitions is largely made up of
Scandinavian names. In Minnesota, for instance, as fine butter is now
made as anywhere in the world.

_Dairy Butter._—In the early days of the industry butter was made at
home on the farm. The milk was set in shallow vessels,—in the Holstein
and Danish dairies in wooden tubs 24 inches in diameter placed on the
stone or concrete floor in the milk-vault, a cool cellar partly
underground,—or in tin pans on the pantry shelf. After 36 to 48 hours
the cream was skimmed off with a flat scoop, often both cream and skim
milk being sour.

About 1860 the deep tin can was introduced, set in cold running water
or, where ice was available, in ice water. This was a great improvement
over the shallow setting system. It was now possible to raise most of
the cream in 24 hours leaving not to exceed ½% butter-fat in the skim
milk, and to have both cream and skim milk sweet.

_Centrifugal Creaming._—But the climax of perfection was not reached
until the separator (see under Cream) was invented about 1879 and cream
was raised instantaneously. For a long time it was the object of the
manufacturers to produce _power separators_ of larger and larger
capacity, handling from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk an hour.

=Co-operative Creameries= were established, taking in 20,000 lbs. of
milk and more a day. But in thinly settled sections where the roads were
poor it was expensive to haul the milk a long distance to the creamery
and _hand separators_ were introduced, each farmer skimming his own milk
fresh from the cows and delivering the cream, only, to the creamery.
This system has the advantage of leaving the skim milk on the farm in
the very best condition for the calves and hogs and of saving time and
expenses in transportation. It has the disadvantage that many farmers
can hardly be expected to handle all of these separators as skilfully
and cleanly as the creamery expert can run his one or few machines, and
consequently that the skimming is more or less imperfect—more butter-fat
being left in the skim milk and more impurities in the cream than in the
whole-milk creamery. But in practice the advantages of the hand
separator and cream-gathering system seem to be greater than the
disadvantages and it is rapidly taking the place of the whole-milk
creameries.

_Ripening the Cream._—Butter may be made by churning whole milk, but
usually it is made from cream that has been “ripened” or soured by
standing for about 10 hours at a temperature of from 65° to 75° F.
Modern buttermakers often pasteurize the cream and then add a “starter”
to sour it. By preparing the starter with a pure culture of lactic acid
bacteria one can get the desired acidity and aroma, and exclude
undesirable flavors (as to Pure Cultures and Starters, see under
“Bacteria” and “Commercial Buttermilk”).

[Illustration:

  Sanitary Cream Ripener showing coil swung up into cleaning position
]

The process of ripening requires considerable skill and attention and is
one of the most delicate functions the buttermaker is called upon to
perform. In the first place the cream must be faultless, sweet and pure
before it is set to ripen, so the buttermaker will have full control of
the fermentation. For, if it is already turned or partly fermented, no
skill will avail to bring it back to perfection. But with a first class,
pure cream the operator has it in his power to turn out perfect butter.
In the big western creameries cream is often collected from farms at a
distance of a hundred miles or more and in warm weather such cream is
likely to arrive at the central plant in more or less advanced
condition. It is therefore difficult for the _centralizers_ to make
really first-class butter while the “whole-milk creamery” as well as the
farmer handling his own milk are in position to control the ripening
from the beginning,—starting with pure material and being able to
develop the desired flavor and acidity in the cream.

After adding the starter to the cream it must be kept at a uniform
temperature of 65 to 75° during the ripening process and it must be
watched carefully and occasionally stirred gently until the consistency,
aroma and acidity are as desired. Then it should be cooled quickly to
stop further fermentation and if it is not to be churned at once it
should be kept cold until churning time. Usually it is safer to set the
cream in the morning and hasten the ripening so it will be completed in
the evening rather than to leave it overnight warm. For, if it is
finished in the evening, the cream may be cooled and placed in ice water
overnight and one is sure to have it in good condition for churning in
the morning. But it is quite feasible for the experienced operator to
regulate the process so the cream will not be fully ripened in the
morning until he is on hand to watch it and see that the process does
not go too far. Taste and smell will tell when it is just right, and the
_acid test_ may also be applied to determine when to stop the
fermentation. An acidity of .5% is usually desired. When the condition
is right, chill the cream, cooling it to below 50°—preferably down
towards 40°—and leave it in ice water or in the refrigerator until
churning time; then temper it to the proper temperature for churning.

Even if it is to be churned soon after the ripening is completed it is
best to chill it and then raise the temperature to the point wanted for
churning. This gives a better “grain” and “body” to the butter than if
the ripened cream is just cooled to the churning temperature, and is
especially desirable when the cream has been pasteurized.

[Illustration:

  Branch of the Annatto tree
]

=Coloring.=—When the cream is ready it is poured into the churn and a
little butter color is added. Some people prefer butter very light or
even uncolored, but usually 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of a standard butter
color[5] to 10 gallons of cream will be found right, varying according
to the season and the breed of cows furnishing the milk. The butter-fat
in Guernsey and Jersey milk is naturally highly colored, while that in
Holstein milk is comparatively white. When the cows are on fresh pasture
in the early summer the butter-fat is more highly colored than when they
are on dry food. The amount of coloring to be added to the cream is
regulated to overcome such variations and make the butter of uniform
color all the year round.

[Illustration:

  Adding the butter color
]

=Churning.=—Hundreds of varieties of churns have been constructed from
time to time; 2,000 years ago Pliny described the old dash churn much
the same as still occasionally used on the farm, and the principle
involved in the process has not been changed. The object is to make the
fat globules conglomerate into grains that can be collected and leave as
little butter-fat as possible in the buttermilk.

[Illustration:

  Old Arabian churn made out of the skin of a goat
]

[Illustration:

  Ancient churn
]

[Illustration:

  Danish churn
]

The best temperature for churning varies from 48° to 56° and must be
determined by local conditions and experience. To allow plenty of room
for the cream to shake about, the churn should not be much more than
half full. When the globules of fat suspended in the milk stick together
and form granules as large as good sized pin-heads it is time to stop
the churn and drain off the buttermilk. If the butter fails to “come” in
half an hour or forty minutes it may be because the cream in the churn
is too warm or too cold. A little cold or warm water, as the case may
be, can be added as a simple remedy.

[Illustration:

  Churning room in a large modern creamery
]

Toward the end of the process care must be taken that the churn is
stopped at the right moment, when the butter will separate clear from
the buttermilk. After the buttermilk is drawn off pure cold water is
poured into the churn and the butter granules are rinsed in it. This
water again is drawn off and fresh cold water put in.

[Illustration:

  Butter worker
]

=Working the Butter.=—The butter can now be taken out with a sieve and
worked on the butter-worker, or it may be worked in the churn. “Working”
the butter consists in squeezing out the buttermilk and kneading the
butter into a smooth but not “greasy” mass. If it is too warm and if it
is worked too much, with a sliding motion instead of just pressing, the
butter is apt to become greasy. If there seems to be any danger of
greasiness, it is better to stop and put the butter in a cool place for
a few hours to recover its elasticity. The working can then be finished
safely.

=Salting.=—During this working process salt is added and thoroughly
distributed and worked in. About half an ounce of salt is used for a
pound of butter.

=Composition of Butter.=—When finished, the butter ought not to contain
more than 12% to 15% of water, and there should be at least 80% of
butter-fat. If all the butter-fat originally in the milk could be taken
out in the butter, 100 lbs. of 4% milk should yield 4.88% (4.88 lbs.) of
butter with 82% butter-fat. But a little is lost in the skim milk and
more in the buttermilk, which usually contains ½% fat, so that about 4½
lbs. is all the butter that can be expected from 100 lbs. of milk.

=Overrun.=—Creamery men are much interested in the “Overrun” which means
the increase from the churn over the amount of fat in the milk. For
instance, if a quantity of milk containing 100 lbs. butter-fat as shown
by the Babcock Test produces 114 lbs. of finished butter, the overrun is
14%. The buttermaker who gets the largest overrun by reducing the loss
of butter-fat in the skim milk and the buttermilk to a minimum, keeping
the percentage of water in the butter just below 16%, and yet producing
high scoring butter, is considered most efficient.

=Packing.=—For the market, butter is packed in tubs or stone jars. Or it
is molded in neat one-pound bricks and wrapped in parchment paper.

=Sweet Butter.=—Real “sweet” butter is churned from fresh, sweet,
unsoured cream. But usually the name is given to the _unsalted_ and
_uncolored_ butter that many people relish. Without the salt it does not
keep as well as ordinary butter, and must be eaten quite fresh.
Well-made salted butter will keep for months with ordinary care, and in
cold storage it may be kept a year. But when it comes out of cold
storage it must be used within a few weeks, for butter, like other cold
storage foods, will soon spoil and become rancid when it is exposed to a
higher temperature for any length of time.

=Renovated Butter.=—Butter that has become old and rancid can be
“renovated.” The butter is melted and the butter-oil washed,—aërated in
the renovating plants,—and then churned with fine-flavored sour skim
milk. From the sour skim milk it gets back its old butter flavor. The
granular physical consistency of fresh butter is gained by pouring the
emulsified mixture over cracked ice or into ice water. By the time the
excess of “buttermilk” has been removed by working, and salt has been
mixed in, the renovated butter may be almost as good as fresh creamery
butter.

=Oleomargarine= or =Butterine= is made in much the same way. A mixture
of beef-fat (the soft part of beef-tallow) and lard and cottonseed oil
is churned with sour milk and worked and granulated like renovated
butter. For the better grades, some of the finest creamery butter is
mixed with it, so that the mixture can hardly be distinguished from real
butter.

=Coco-butter=, =Nut-butter=, etc., in great variety, are now also on the
market as substitutes for butter, all prepared in a similar way, but
lacking the vital unknown element that makes genuine butter so superior
to substitutes.


                               BUTTERMILK

If the cream has been carefully ripened, with or without a pure culture
starter, and it has shown the proper sourness when churned, the
buttermilk will be of a pleasing taste and flavor. Its thickness will of
course depend upon the amount of water, if any, added to the cream in
the churn during the buttermaking. If the buttermilk is to be used for
human food care must be taken not to dilute it too much.

=Cooling Essential.=—If buttermilk is left to stand for hours in a warm
room, fermentation goes on and may soon spoil the buttermilk by making
it sloppy or bitter. It should therefore be cooled at once when drawn
from the churn; if kept in ice water it may remain in fine flavor for
several days. Well taken care of it is not only a pleasing and
refreshing drink but eminently healthful. In cooking, too, it can be
used to advantage.

=Commercial Buttermilk= or =Cultured Milk= is simply carefully soured
milk. It can be made at home from fresh milk either whole or skimmed or
partly skimmed. Partially skimmed milk containing from 1% to 2%
butter-fat is plenty rich enough and even better for most purposes than
whole milk. The essential qualities of good buttermilk depend upon the
proper ripening of the cream or milk, the development of a pure “breed”
of healthful bacteria in a clean field free from weeds. Such a
plantation or “culture” may be grown in milk as well as in cream. Its
function is to turn the sugar of milk into lactic acid under the
development of pleasing flavors and whether the butter-fat is removed by
the separator or by churning makes little difference. In natural
buttermilk there is always a little butter-fat—at least ½%—left, mostly
in the form of fine granules, too small to be retained in the butter. If
the same amount of butter-fat is left in skim milk and that is ripened
and churned, the product will be identically the same as natural
buttermilk from ripened cream.

=Ripening.=—For best result the milk should be pasteurized, not
necessarily as thoroughly as for starters, but sufficiently so as to
destroy all obnoxious bacteria and give those introduced through a pure
culture starter a chance to grow. Buttermilk may, however, also be made
from good, clean, unpasteurized milk of good flavor. Whether pasteurized
or not the milk is set to ripen with from 5 to 10% starter at a
temperature of from 65 to 75°. The preparation of starters is described
under “Bacteria” and the ripening of the milk for “buttermilk” is
essentially the same process (see also under _Ripening_ of cream for
butter). When ripened to the desired acidity,—say .5% to .6% by the acid
test,—stop further fermentation by thorough cooling.

=Breaking up the Curd.=—After cooling, the ripened milk may be broken up
fine and if vigorously shaken or “churned” it will remain smooth and
creamy. Otherwise it may separate into curd and whey. If churned long
enough for the butter to form, it becomes absolutely identical with real
buttermilk. But, for all practical purposes, a vigorous shaking for a
few minutes is enough.

=Thick Milk.=—“Thick Milk” as eaten in Scandinavia is made in the same
way as commercial buttermilk, except that the milk—rich whole milk—is
set to ripen in the bowl in which it is to be served. Instead of being
churned or stirred, it is left thick, to be served as a pudding, like
Junket made from sweet milk. The rich layer of cream that forms on top
is excellent. “Thick Milk” is eaten plain with the oatmeal for
breakfast, or as a dessert with grated stale bread and sugar spread over
it.

The uses of buttermilk in making pancakes and for many other culinary
purposes are mentioned in the chapter on “Milk Cookery.”

[Illustration:

  Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, author of “The Prolongation of Life”
]

=Yoghourt= or =Bulgarian Sour Milk= is prepared with a culture of
bacteria originally found in Bulgaria where Metchnikoff, the late
director of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, found people living to
exceptional old age which he ascribed to the fact that their principal
diet is sour milk of very high acidity.

The theory is that a luxurious growth of lactic acid bacilli, acting as
a germicide, destroys other fermentations in the lower intestines. The
bacilli active in Yoghourt require a somewhat higher temperature for
their best growth than the lactic acid bacilli predominant in sour cream
for the finest butter, a fact which must be taken into consideration in
preparing the various products.


                             FERMENTED MILK

In the preparation of Koumis, Kefir and other fermented milks of the
same class, Yeast plays an important part, changing some of the
milk-sugar into the alcohol which is found in these preparations in
quantities up to 2%.

[Illustration:

  Baba Vasilka, 126 years old and her son, Tudor, 101;
  Bulgarian peasants whose principal food has been sour milk all their
    lives
]

=Koumis= was first made from mare’s milk by the Tartars, but is now
prepared in this country from cow’s milk by the addition of sugar and
yeast. As carbonic acid is developed in the process it is quite
effervescent and may be regarded both as a food and a stimulant. It is
sometimes prescribed by physicians in cases when the patient cannot
retain other food.

=Kefir= is a similar preparation originally made in the Caucasus by a
fermentation started by Kefir grains which contain both yeast and
various bacteria. The dry Kefir grains are soaked, first in lukewarm
water, later in lukewarm milk, for several days, until they develop so
much gas as to float on the top. A couple of tablespoonfuls of the
grains are then added to a quart of milk which is left to ferment at 70°
F. under frequent stirring or shaking. When the fermentation is fully
developed the grains are strained off and the milk is bottled and kept
for 1 to 2 days at 60°. The grains may be used at once again in fresh
milk, and when the manufacture is finished they may be dried and kept,
to be used again another time.

[Illustration:

  Kefir grains of natural size; a, b and c dried; d, e and f soaked
    (Orla Jensen, Milk Bacteriology)
]


------------------------------------------------------------------------




                              CHAPTER III

                                 CHEESE


[Illustration:

  Students making cheese in the University cheese factory, Madison, Wis.
]

Most of the following pages on _Cheese_ were published in 1918 as a
separate pamphlet to meet an urgent demand for brief directions along
this line during the Food Conservation campaign. The copy has, however,
been revised and new material has been added with the view of making
this chapter more useful to those who desire to study in detail the
manufacture of various fancy foreign types of cheese such as Edam,
Swiss, Brick, Roquefort, etc., which are now made in this country in
constantly increasing quantities.

For more complete directions in cheese making students are referred to
“A B C in Cheese Making” by J. H. Monrad, and other technical works.

Cheese of a thousand different kinds is made, varying in properties and
appearance from the solid, yet mellow and agreeable Cheddar cheese to
the semi-soft, malodorous Limburger, the delicious, soft Neufchatel and
Cream cheese, or the sweet Myseost of Norway. In India cheese was made
centuries ago; to-day it is produced the world over, in the caves of the
Swiss Alps and in the most modern and scientific American cheese
factories and laboratories. Of these myriad types we can here describe
only a few.

Cheese may be classified into that made with rennet and that made
without. Of cheese made with rennet some is what is called hard, some
soft.

The English and American _Cheddar_—the common _American cheese_—the
_Dutch Gouda_ and _Edam_, the Swiss _Gruyere_, and the Italian
_Parmesan_ are all hard cheese made with rennet. As examples of the soft
varieties may be mentioned the French _Camembert_ and _Brie_, _Cream_
and _Neufchatel_ cheese. In a class by themselves are such cheeses as
the French _Roquefort_, the English _Stilton_, and the Italian
_Gorgonzola_, their peculiar flavors being derived from molds implanted
in the curd.

[Illustration]

When cheese is made without rennet, the milk is allowed to curdle by
natural acidity or it is in some other way made acid. Among the
varieties made by this method the common _Cottage_ cheese is the best
known.

For many years imitations of foreign varieties such as Swiss and
Limburger have been made in Northern New York and Wisconsin. As a result
of the war and the cutting off of foreign cheese imports, the State of
Wisconsin has built up a large business in these fancy varieties. New
types have lately been added, as the _Romano_, _Riggiano_, and
_Myzethra_, which are of Italian and Greek origin. Some of these are
made of whole milk, some of partly-skimmed milk, and others of the
albumin of the whey.

Let us briefly review the characteristic features in the making of the
older types.


                             CHEDDAR CHEESE

For a hundred years or more this famous cheese has been made and
marketed at the village of Cheddar near Bristol, England.

In the middle of the nineteenth century a farmer in that neighborhood,
Joseph Harding of Marksbury Vale, systematized the manufacture and it
was his method that became the model for cheesemaking in America. In
this country it was first made in Herkimer County, N.Y., where Harry
Burrell not only made cheese for the home market, but also exported to
England, and his son, David H. Burrell, at Little Falls later developed
the machinery which became the standard for the American and Canadian
cheese factories.

The factory system by which cheese was made from milk brought together
from several farms, originated near Rome, N.Y., and soon cheesemaking
became an important industry throughout Central and Northern New York
whence it spread into Pennsylvania, Ohio and the West, as well as to
Canada. To-day Wisconsin makes more cheese than all the other states
together and Canada largely supplies England with Cheddar cheese of
excellent quality.

[Illustration:

  Joseph Harding, who systematized the making of Cheddar cheese in
    England
]

[Illustration:

  David H. Burrell,
  who introduced laborsaving machinery and supplies in the cheese
    factories
]

[Illustration:

  Jesse Williams, father of the American factory system
]

                          _The Factory System_

The milk is delivered in the morning by the farmers at the factory and
is weighed and strained through cheese-cloth into the cheese vat. When
it is all in the vat it is warmed to a temperature of 86° F. by letting
steam into the water surrounding the bottom and sides of the jacketed
vat.

[Illustration:

  A measuring glass and an accurate thermometer are indispensable
]

[Illustration:

  The Marschall rennet test
]

=Ripening.=—The milk should be slightly acid, not noticeably sour, yet
sufficiently ripened for the proper fermentation to take place in the
process that follows. The best cheesemakers regulate the ripening by
adding a starter to the sweet milk and allowing the lactic acid bacteria
to multiply in the milk until a _Rennet Test_[6] or _Acid Test_[7] shows
that the desired degree of acidity has been reached. The starter may be
sour whey or preferably prepared from sweet skim milk or whole milk with
a commercial lactic acid culture as described in Chapter I under
_Ferments_ and _Buttermilk_. From 1% to 2% starter is usually
sufficient. An acidity of .18% to .20% or 2½ degrees on the Rennet Test
is usually desired before the rennet is added.

[Illustration:

  Christian D. A. Hansen, inventor of commercial rennet extract
]

[Illustration:

  Blowing up the rennets to dry them
]

=Adding Color and Rennet.=[8]—If the cheese is to be colored, from 1 to
2 ounces of liquid cheese color (Annatto dissolved in an alkali) per
1,000 lbs. of milk is now added and thoroughly mixed into the milk which
is then set with rennet. Three ounces of a standard rennet extract to
1,000 lbs. of milk is usually sufficient. Enough should be used so that
the milk will show beginning coagulation in 10 to 15 minutes and be
ready to cut in 30 to 40 minutes.

The extract should be diluted with ten times as much water and is then
poured into the milk under vigorous stirring so as to be thoroughly
distributed and incorporated in the whole mass.

Owing to the scarcity of the raw material for rennet extract during the
war, pepsin extracted from hogs’ stomachs has been substituted in many
factories and is used either in dry form or as a liquid extract instead
of rennet extract.

With pepsin as the coagulant it is necessary to ripen the milk somewhat
further than if rennet is used, in fact to the danger-point where a
little more acidity is apt to do harm and produce a dry and crumbly
cheese and loss of butter-fat in the whey. Most cheesemakers therefore
prefer rennet when they can get it.

The rennet having been added, the milk is left undisturbed until a firm
curd has been formed. When the curd breaks or splits sharply before the
finger pushed slowly through it, it is ready to be “cut.”

[Illustration:

  Curd knives
]

=Cutting.=—Two sets of curd knives are used, each consisting of a metal
frame in which tinned steel blades are hung, in one vertically and in
the other horizontally. The vertical knife is first carried slowly
through the curd lengthwise and crosswise; the horizontal set of blades
is then moved carefully through the length of the vat. When the cutting
is over, the entire mass should be in cubes about half an inch square.

The whey that begins to separate out should be clear and yellow. Milky
whey is a sign that the butter-fat is escaping in it; the curd has been
broken up too violently. In curdling, the casein encases the butter-fat
and the object of the breaking up of the curd in the vat is to expel the
whey but retain the fat in the cheese.

=“Cooking” the Curd.=—Gentle heat is now applied to raise the
temperature gradually to 98° or 100° in the course of about 30 minutes.
Meanwhile the small pieces of curd are kept floating in the whey by
gentle stirring with a rake and the hands, and are not allowed to pack
at the bottom of the vat. The heating is easily regulated by opening the
steam valve little by little. Through the “cooking” the pieces of curd
shrink to some extent and are hardened so that they will gradually stand
livelier stirring without losing butter-fat. After the cooking the curd
is left for an hour or so in the whey for a slight acidity to develop
and it is then shoved toward the sides of the vat and the whey is
drained off. Here again the “Acid Test” may assist in determining when
the whey should be drawn.

[Illustration:

  Cutting the curd
]

=Cheddaring or Matting.=—After thorough draining, the curd is packed
together in the bottom of the vat or on a “sink” provided with a false
bottom covered with cheese-cloth. After fermenting for 10 or 15 minutes
it is cut into large pieces which are again packed together for further
matting. The exact condition to be attained can be determined only by
experience.

[Illustration:

  “Cheddaring” or “Matting” the curd
]

A simple test, the “Hot Iron Test,” may, however, help the cheesemaker
to judge of this point. A handful of curd squeezed together and touched
to a hot steam pipe or an iron rod heated almost red-hot in the fire
under the boiler, and slowly withdrawn, will leave threads sticking to
the iron. Depending upon the maturity of the curd, the threads will
break at a length of from ½ to 2 inches. Usually fermentation is
considered sufficient when threads 1½ inches long are formed by this
test.

[Illustration:

  Curd mill
]

=Salting.=—The matting is then interrupted by breaking up and salting
the curd. This can be done by hand or by a curd-mill which cuts or
breaks up the curd and permits a thorough mixing in of the salt. Two or
three pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of curd, or the curd from
1,000 lbs. of milk, is the usual ratio.

=Pressing.=—Stirring and cooling the salted curd to about 80° F. makes
it ready for packing into the hoops in which it is to be pressed. The
hoop is usually a cylinder of heavy tin with a “follower” of wood on
which the pressure is applied. Before the curd is put in, the hoop is
lined with cheese-cloth which remains on the cheese, when it is taken
out. The press mostly used in the factory is the continuous pressure
“gang-press” in which a number of cheeses can be pressed at the same
time.

=Curing.=—After 18 hours’ pressure the cheese is taken out of the press
and out of the hoop, weighed and placed on a shelf or table in the
curing room. For the first week or ten days it is kept at a temperature
of about 70°, later the cheese is removed to a cooler room and possibly
placed in cold storage. Usually it is paraffined to prevent too much
drying and cracking of the rind.

[Illustration:

  Filling the curd into the hoops
]

To cure a first-class Cheddar cheese takes from three to six months, but
most of the American cheese is made to cure much more quickly and is
eaten two to four months old. Indeed, it is generally shipped from the
factory eight to ten days old and whatever further curing it gets is in
the warehouse of the commissionman or in the grocery store.

[Illustration:

  The Gang press
]

=Form, Size and Packing.=—The old style American cheese is cylindrical,
about 14 inches in diameter, and varying in depth to weigh between 60
and 80 pounds. Various other forms are now often made, square and long
or in fancy shapes, such as a ball or a pineapple. Aside from such
freaks, which have never become very popular, other deviations from the
large, standard, American Cheddar, are also made to a considerable
extent. People who have visited the beautiful National Dairy Shows held
in turn in Chicago, Springfield, Mass., and Columbus, O., the National
Milk and Dairy Farm Expositions of New York City, the Ontario Provincial
Fair held each year at Toronto, or the annual State Fairs in New York,
Wisconsin, Michigan and other cheesemaking sections will have in mind
first the prominent exhibits of the regular Cheddar, showing a
uniformity in texture, form and taste that is really remarkable. But one
will also admire the variety of other forms. There are the _Flats_ or
_Twins_, packed two in a box and weighing together the same as one
_American_; the _Young Americas_ packed four in a box; the _Longhorns_
of six to eight inches in diameter; others made like a loaf of bread and
creased so that a pound or two may be cut off fairly accurately, etc.

[Illustration:

  Taking the cheese out of the press
]

The _Giant Cheeses_, weighing five to six tons, occasionally exhibited
and cut up at World Fairs and on similar occasions are, like the
pineapple cheese, a curiosity rather than an industrial product.

One of the best forms, in the writer’s opinion, is the small 5-lb.
cheese, proportioned exactly like the large American. This makes a
suitable size for an average family, the members of which have learned
to appreciate a good cheese. If it is made smaller, too much is lost in
the rind; if larger it gets too old before it can be consumed by one
family.

[Illustration:

  Curing room
]

The larger cheeses are usually packed in neat, snug-fitting elm-wood
boxes, with thin “Scale Boards” on the top and bottom of the cheese, the
smaller ones in paraffined pressed pulp or pasteboard boxes.

=Cleaning the Vats and Utensils.=—Like every other place where milk and
its products are handled, the cheese factory must be kept scrupulously
clean. Vats and utensils should be rinsed first with cold or lukewarm
water or whey, then scrubbed with boiling hot water and if necessary
with soda, soap, or washing powder. The surroundings should be kept neat
and attractive, and the cheesemaker must see that the transportation
cans are kept clean by the farmers and the milk delivered in good
condition.

[Illustration:

  Cheese box
]

=Yield.=—The yield is around 10% of the milk. To make a pound of fresh
cheese takes from nine to eleven pounds of milk. In curing, a part of
the weight is lost by evaporation, but this loss is reduced to a minimum
by paraffining.

In some localities an increased yield is obtained by washing the curd
and making it absorb all the water it can hold. The process is not
commendable and while it may sell to some extent, in certain markets
where a soft, fresh cheese is liked, “washed” or “soaked” curd cheese
can never compare favorably in quality with a well-made, firm Cheddar
cheese that is mellowed down by long-time curing to a consistency so it
will fairly melt in your mouth.

=Composition.=—The American cheese contains almost all the casein and
the butter-fat of the milk, besides such portions of the milk-albumin,
milk-sugar, and mineral matter as are held in the water or whey which is
retained in the cheese. In round figures average American cheese
contains equal parts of casein, butter-fat and water, 30 to 35% of each.
In order to protect the honest maker and the consumer and prevent
“soaking” of the curd to an extent that may be considered fraudulent,
the dairy laws of the State of New York limit the contents of water
permissible to 40% and 42% respectively for certain classes of cheese.

=Qualities.=—A good Cheddar cheese should be mellow, yet solid, without
holes, and of an agreeable taste, neither sharp nor bitter. Cheese can
be made of skim milk, but it is hardly palatable. In the fall of the
year, when the average milk is rich in butter-fat, 1% or 2% butter-fat
may be taken from the milk and the resulting partly-skimmed milk will
still make a fairly good cheese, hardly distinguishable from full cream
cheese. Under the laws of the State of New York it must, however, be
marked “Skim Milk Cheese.”

                   Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk

From time to time attempts have been made to make Cheddar cheese from
pasteurized milk. If the milk is heated to 145° only, and held for 30
minutes at such temperature, its property to form a firm curd with
rennet is not destroyed and it will make a fine cheese, but if it is
pasteurized at a higher temperature it will not curdle firmly until it
is ripened or otherwise brought back to the condition required for
satisfactory action of the rennet ferment. Thorough ripening with a pure
culture starter will do it, or an addition of muriatic acid will
accomplish the same in a shorter time, but care must be taken not to use
too much, which would make the cheese dry and crumbly. Dr. J. L. Sammis
and A. T. Bruhn of the Wisconsin Dairy School worked out the problem and
systematized a process which is described in Bulletin 165 of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture and by which it is claimed a first-class
cheese can be made regularly from thoroughly pasteurized milk.

                   Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm

[Illustration:

  American outfit for farm cheese making
]

[Illustration:

  Plain wooden vat and curd mill
]

It takes quite a little experience to make a good Cheddar cheese and,
unless one has the time and opportunity to study it and make it an
every-day practice, it is not as a rule advisable to attempt making
Cheddar cheese in the home from the milk of one or a few cows.

The amateur will usually find it easier to make Neufchatel or Cream or
Cottage cheese for home use or for the home market.

[Illustration:

  Danish kettle and cheese vat
]

If Cheddar cheese is to be made regularly it is best to get an outfit
consisting of a small boiler and a jacketed vat, although cheese may be
made in a plain wooden tub or any other convenient vessel. The double
bottomed vat generally used in American as well as in Danish dairies
facilitates both the heating of the milk before setting and the
“cooking” of the curd in the whey after cutting. Either low pressure
steam, or—better—water heated by steam, is introduced in the space
between the outer, wooden bottom and the inner, tinned steel or copper
bottom. If it is cool the milk should be warmed to 86° F. In the summer
it may be warm enough as it comes in, fresh from the cow. If not, heat
it by steam or by setting it in a “shot-gun” can in another vessel of
hot water, stirring frequently, until the thermometer shows 86°. It may
be well to add a little buttermilk or sour whey from the preceding day,
or a pure culture starter made with Buttermilk Tablets, not to exceed 1%
or 2%.

[Illustration:

  Cutting the curd
]

If it is desired to make colored cheese add a teaspoonful of liquid
cheese color, or ½ cheese color tablet dissolved in warm water, to 100
pounds of milk, more or less according to season and the shade of color
desired in the cheese.

Next add the rennet. Where cheese is made from less than 500 lbs. of
milk Rennet Tablets are handy, one tablet to 80 or 100 lbs. For less
than 50 lbs. of milk, Junket Tablets may be used, one to a gallon.
Dissolve the tablet, or tablets, or fraction of a tablet, as the case
may be, in _cold_ water and stir the solution well into the milk, making
sure of thorough mixing. Let stand covered for half an hour until a firm
curd is formed. Cut or break the curd very carefully with a big knife or
spoon or home-made fork with wires across the prongs, imitating as far
as possible the operation with curd knives in the factory.

[Illustration:

  Taking the temperature of the milk in a shot-gun can
]

[Illustration:

  Curd fork
]

[Illustration:

  Mold or “Hoop”
]

“Cook” the curd as in factory cheesemaking. If steam is not available,
allow the curd to settle and dip off some of the whey which is then
heated and poured back on the curd so as to raise the temperature of the
whole mass about 2 degrees. Repeat this several times, gradually raising
the temperature to 100°, a few degrees at a time.

Keep the curd gently stirred up and floating in the whey and do not
allow it to lie on the bottom of the vat long enough to pack firmly
together, stirring once in a while until by smell and taste (if not also
by acid or hot iron tests) it appears to be sufficiently fermented for
the whey to be drawn, a condition that can only be learned by
experience. This will be about two or three hours from the time the
rennet is added.

[Illustration:

  Diagram of lever press
]

[Illustration:

  Combined screw and lever press
]

Draw the whey and press more out of the curd with the hands. Let the
curd mat and break it up alternately several times; finally crumble and
pulverize it and keep it stirred with the hands, adding salt at the rate
of three to four ounces to the curd from 100 lbs. of milk and continuing
the stirring until the curd is cooled down to below 80°, when it should
be packed into the hoop and put to press. This salting and cooling may
take another hour. The hoop may be made of wood or heavy tin of any size
desired, with a loose follower of wood. The sides and bottom should be
perforated to allow the whey to escape. Or it may be a cylinder without
top or bottom, placed on a corrugated piece of board. Line the hoop with
cheese-cloth before putting in the curd.

[Illustration:

  Upright factory and dairy cheese press
]

For pressing, a home-made lever-press, as outlined in the diagram, may
be made of a plank or bar, one end of which (_C_), is stuck under a
piece of a board nailed on the wall while at the other end a weight
(_K_) is applied which may be moved in and out to regulate the pressure.
The hoop is placed under the plank at the fulcrum (_K__{1}) near the
wall. If a compound lever-press or a screw-press is available it is
better. It is important that the pressure is applied straight so as to
make the cheese even and not one side lower than the other. Begin with
light pressure and increase it gradually every hour until at night the
full pressure is applied. After an hour take the cheese out and turn it
in the hoop, then return it to the press and at night apply full
pressure. The next morning take it out and weigh it and place it on the
shelf to cure in a room of moderate temperature, turning it every day.
After a couple of weeks it may be removed to a cool cellar and rubbed
with grease. In two to three months it should be sufficiently matured
for consumption.


              OTHER TYPES OF HARD CHEESE MADE WITH RENNET

[Illustration:

  A variety of domestic and foreign cheese made at the dairy school of
    the University of Wisconsin
]

In the manufacture of the Dutch Gouda, the Danish Export, and other
similar types, the “cooking” and matting of the curd, characteristic of
the English and American Cheddar, are more or less omitted. Otherwise
the process and the result are not greatly different. They are all
“hard” or solid cheese of the same class, though there are hundreds of
varieties in different localities, each with some peculiarity of its
own.

[Illustration:

  Gouda cheese
]

=Gouda Cheese.=—The _Gouda_, like the _Danish Export_ cheese, is made
from whole or partly-skimmed milk which is set with rennet at 90° F. and
is coagulated, ready for cutting, in fifteen to twenty minutes. The curd
is broken with the “lyre,” so called, a frame on which piano wires are
suspended. The curd is but slightly “cooked” and the whey is drawn while
still sweet. After being pressed with the hands in the vat to squeeze
out the whey the curd, still quite warm, is put into wooden molds and
worked and squeezed in them with the hands for half an hour to eliminate
more whey, when the mold is placed in a regular press for 12 to 18
hours. To salt it the cheese is placed in a strong brine where it
remains for several days. It is then put on the shelf in the curing room
where it is turned and rubbed daily and in four to six weeks it is
marketed. The cheese is about 10 inches in diameter by 4 to 5 inches
high.

[Illustration:

  The Lyre
]

=Edam Cheese.=—The ball-shaped red _Edam_ is also made in Holland by a
similar method to that of the Gouda.

Fresh milk is set at from 90° to 93° F. in summer and up to 97° in
winter,—colored to a rather high yellow with Annatto. Add sufficient
rennet to coagulate the milk in 8 to 15 minutes. Cut curd carefully with
the “lyre” and break with fork into very fine pieces, as small peas.
Leave to settle for 3 to 4 minutes, putting cover on the vat if the
temperature in the room is below 60°. When settled, the curd is gently
pushed into a heap which takes 5 to 6 minutes and the whey is removed
with a dipper. Weight is applied for 5 minutes and the tub or vat is
tipped so the whey will drain off while the curd is held back with the
dipper. This pressing is repeated twice more for 4 and 3 minutes
respectively.

[Illustration:

  Curing room in a Gouda cheese factory
]

The curd should now be elastic and firm and show a temperature, in
winter of at least 83°, in summer at most 90°. If necessary the
temperature is regulated by pouring hot whey (not exceeding 104°) or
cold water over the curd.

The mold is then placed in the vat and two handfuls of curd put in which
is squeezed and worked thoroughly with the hands. More curd is added and
worked in the same way and this is repeated until the mold is full with
a large top on, which is pressed with the hands for 4 or 5 minutes,
turning the cheese 3 or 4 times and opening the drain holes if plugged
up. Some makers sprinkle a teaspoonful of fine salt in the bottom of the
mold, but in warm weather it is better to work in a quarter of an ounce
of salt. This work must be done quickly so the curd will not cool.

[Illustration:

  Mold for Edam cheese
]

When thus formed the cheese is dipped for 1 or 2 minutes in fresh whey
heated to 126° (in winter 131°) and pressed with the hands in the mold
for another 2 minutes when it is carefully wiped off by rolling on a
fine cloth to remove the last drop of whey. The cheese is then wrapped
in a fine cloth, placed in the mold and put to press, in the Spring for
5 to 7 hours, later in the year for 12 hours. The cloth is now removed
and the cheese is put in a larger mold which is placed in a water-tight
salting box provided with a cover and a drain-hole in one end. The first
day a pinch of salt is put on the top of the cheese and the next the
whole cheese is rolled in damp salt, turned and put back in the mold, a
liberal quantity of salt being placed on the top. This is repeated every
day until the cheese from being soft and elastic becomes hard which as a
rule takes 8 to 10 days for a 4 lb. and 12 days for a 10-12 lb. cheese.
Finally the cheese is left a few hours in the brine collected in the
box, washed, wiped and placed on the shelf in the curing room.

The curing room should be light and well ventilated, never above 72° nor
below 45°. Windows must not be opened to admit dry wind or moist air. If
too dry the cheese will crack and if too moist it will be covered with
deleterious yellowish red fungi. The cheese is turned daily the first
month, later every other day or twice a week. When 24 to 30 days old the
cheese is soaked for one hour in water of 68 to 77°, washed with a
brush, dried for 20 to 40 minutes in the sun and returned to the shelf.
This is repeated two weeks later and then the cheese is painted with
linseed oil and left on the shelf until shortly before shipping when it
is scraped with a sharp knife and painted according to the demand of the
particular market for which it is prepared; yellowish with Annatto for
England and Spain, red with Turnsole for other countries. When dry it is
rubbed with a little butter and red color.

=Swiss Cheese.=—The Swiss Gruyere or Emmenthal also belongs to this
class. It is characterized by its form and size, being large, round and
flat, weighing 100 to 140 lbs. or more, and by the large holes which are
wanted in Swiss, but not tolerated in American or Dutch cheese. It was
formerly supposed that first-class Swiss cheese could only be made in
the Alps, but very good imitations have long been made in Northern New
York and in Wisconsin. Besides in the usual large round form, the same
as the genuine imported Emmenthaler, American Swiss or “Switzer” is also
made in _blocks_, six inches square and twenty inches long, weighing 25
to 30 lbs.

Until lately Swiss cheese has been made in the old-fashioned way, the
factory and tools being of the simplest description. The milk was heated
in a copper cauldron hanging on a crane, enabling the cheesemaker to
swing it on or off the fireplace. Nowadays the kettle is usually
jacketed and heated with steam. The round form is still preferred to the
American cheese vat, however, as it adapts itself better to the peculiar
method of handling the curd.

[Illustration:

  Swiss cheese
]

The milk is set with rennet at a temperature of 90° F. in summer and 95°
in winter, sufficient rennet being used to make a firm curd in thirty to
forty minutes. But very little color is added. The curd is cut with a
long, sharp wooden knife, the “cheese sword,” first one way into sheets,
then, as soon as the cuts stand clear, beginning to expel the whey,
crossways, into vertical sticks, two inches square.

[Illustration:

  Scoop
]

[Illustration:

  Cheese sword
]

[Illustration:

  Cutting the curd with the scoop
]

[Illustration:

  Tools for stirring the curd
]

No horizontal knife is used, but a few minutes after the last vertical
cutting the curd is further broken by the “scoop,” a wooden spoon or
ladle about eight inches long, thirteen inches wide, one and one-half
inches deep, and provided with a short handle. Standing at one side of
the kettle, the cheesemaker scoops off a layer from the top and, drawing
the scoop towards himself, drops the pieces of curd close to the side of
the kettle. This movement is repeated, at first slowly, then faster, and
soon the whole mass of curd is moving, the pieces cut off going down
along the side of the kettle and the rest of the sticks sliding upward
along the other side, to be attacked by the scoop as soon as they come
to the top. All the curd having been cut into square pieces, it is
further broken by the stirrer, a stick at the lower end of which a few
cross sticks or wings of brass wire are fixed, the whole mass being kept
in constant motion.

=Cooking the Curd.=—After breaking up the curd to the size of peas or
beans, the stirring is discontinued for about ten minutes, when it is
begun again and the kettle is turned over the fire, or steam is applied,
to heat the curd to 140° under constant stirring which is continued for
45 to 60 minutes after this temperature has been reached. The condition
of the curd is judged by squeezing a handful and noticing its elasticity
and consistency. It is important to stop stirring at the right moment.
More whey is expelled in making Swiss cheese than for Cheddar cheese.

The cooking and agitating having been finished, the mass, which now
consists of grains the size of wheat, is once more stirred up with such
force as to make it form a funnel at the center and it is then left at
rest for five to ten minutes.

The curd, forming a rather solid cake at the bottom of the kettle, is
now lifted out without being broken. One end of a large piece of cloth
is folded around a flexible rod. Bending over the kettle the maker takes
hold of both ends of the rod and gathering the other end of the cloth
between his teeth, pushes the rod down along the farther side of the
kettle, letting it follow the bottom towards himself until the whole
mass of curd is gathered in the cloth, when it is lifted out of the
kettle and placed in the hoop on the press table. The hoop can be
enlarged or diminished to take care of a varying amount of curd which is
put into it in the same solid cake as formed in the kettle without being
broken. Pressure is applied, at first, gently, later heavier and after
half an hour the cheese is taken out, turned and provided with fresh
bandage, put back into press and left till the next day.

[Illustration:

  In Swiss cheese making the curd is lifted out of the vat with a strong
    cloth
]

Curing and Salting.—The cheese is first placed in a curing room above
ground and heated in winter. After a few weeks it is removed to the
cellar. Sometimes three to five cheese are piled one on the top of the
other for a few days with a few handfuls of salt between them. The
salting proper is done by rubbing and brushing dry salt and the brine
formed from same into the cheese,—altogether 4 to 5 lbs. of salt to 100
lbs. of cheese. Every day it is rubbed with a dry rag and the cheese is
turned and salted on the other side until the salt is thoroughly
incorporated.

[Illustration:

  Swiss cheese press
]

The cheese is cured for at least 100 days in the factory and is usually
stored for another three to six months by the dealer before it is ready
for the consumer.

=Roquefort.=—The French _Roquefort_ is inoculated with a mold from stale
bread which spreads through the cheese and produces the peculiar flavor
of this type. It is made from sheep’s milk and was formerly cured in
cool subterranean caverns, but now in elaborate curing houses. In this
country imitation Roquefort is made of cow’s milk and cured in cold
storage.

It should be remembered, however, that sheep’s milk is very rich in fat
and that a rich Roquefort that will compare favorably with the genuine
cannot be made from cow’s milk without an addition of cream if sheep’s
or goat’s milk is not available. In France a small addition of cow’s
milk to the sheep’s milk—not to exceed 10%—is often used.

Around Roquefort a milk ewe produces on an average 135 lbs. of milk a
year, which makes up to 35 lbs. of cheese.

[Illustration:

  Milking the ewes at Roquefort, France (G. Ellbrecht)
]

The milk is set at about 80° with rennet sufficient to coagulate it in
1½ to 2 hours. To cut or break and stir the curd, tools similar to those
used in the manufacture of Dutch cheese are employed and stirring is
continued until the pieces of curd are about the size of peas when the
whey is dipped off and the curd is further broken with the hand and
placed on a cloth to drain. In fifteen minutes it is ready to be put
into the hoops which are either of glazed stoneware or perforated tin, 8
inches in diameter by 4 in. high.

Ground stale, moldy bread is sprinkled in the curd as it is put into the
hoop, at the rate of 1 part of bread to 10,000 parts of curd. This moldy
bread is prepared from 2 parts of wheat flour and 1 part of rye flour
leavened with sour yeast and vinegar and baked hard. The loaf is placed
in a dark, moist cellar to mold. In six weeks it is penetrated with mold
when it is dried at 86° and pulverized, forming the powder used for
inoculation into the cheese-curd.

When the hoops are filled they are placed in large wooden boxes at a
temperature of 65° to 70° for the whey to drain off. The first few days
the cheese is turned three times a day, later once a day, and when five
days old it is brought into the curing room where it remains until it is
firm enough to be shipped to the large cold storage establishments,
where it is taken care of until ready for the general market.

In the “caves” a high degree of moisture, a low temperature—40° to
50°—and pure air are essential conditions.

The cheese is first _salted_ by being rubbed repeatedly with salt on all
sides. The slime forming on the surface is brushed or scraped off so as
not to prevent the admission of air, which is essential to the curing.
In order to further facilitate the penetration with air the cheese is
now _pricked_ with numerous needles by means of a machine and placed on
the shelf in the cave where the proper moisture and temperature are
maintained.

Various fermentations are now developing, one after another, regulated
by scraping, ventilation, etc., until in six to twelve weeks the cheese
is ready for the market and is packed for shipment in paper or in
tinfoil and in wicker baskets or airtight boxes, according to
destination,—for home consumption or for export.

[Illustration:

  Curing room in a Roquefort cheese factory (G. Ellbrecht)
]

=Parmesan Cheese= is an Italian cheese made mostly in the Valley of the
River Po and named from the City of Parma. It is produced from
partly-skimmed milk and is allowed to become hard and dry, being used
grated with macaroni.

The milk is set with rennet at a comparatively high temperature, about
95° F., and when it is firmly curdled it is broken up and stirred rather
vigorously, which makes the curd fine and dry. Color is now
added—powdered _Saffron_—at the rate of 0.5 gram to 100 kg. milk. The
curd is cooked slowly under constant stirring to a temperature up
towards 100° when the whey should be perceptibly acid.

The curd is then allowed to settle in the round kettle and when fairly
firm it is lifted up in a cloth, the same as in Swiss cheesemaking. The
mold is also much the same as the Swiss and the curd is but slightly
pressed. In the course of the day the cheese is turned once or twice and
put into fresh cloth. The next day it is put into the curing room when
it is rubbed with salt. In a few months the cheese is cured and is then
scraped and polished with linseed oil. Sometimes it is kept in storage
two or three years in a dark room at a temperature of 63° F. The
composition averages: 32% water, 21% fat, 41% nitrogenous matters and 6%
ash.

[Illustration:

  Caccio Cavallo
]

=Caccio Cavallo= is made in Southern Italy of a form almost like a
beetroot. The milk is set with rennet at about 95° F. and after the curd
has been broken up the whey is dipped off and heated to boiling when it
is poured back on the curd. The mass is then allowed to ferment eight to
fourteen hours according to the temperature of the air. The quality of
the cheese depends largely on this fermentation. The fermented curd is
cut into pieces and submerged in boiling water and is then kneaded and
formed into the desired shape.

After lying in cold water for two hours and in brine for thirty hours it
is dried and smoked until it attains a fine golden color. It is made in
various sizes, from 5 to 20 pounds, and the yield is said to vary from
10% to 16% of the milk. Caccio Cavallo is eaten on bread as well as with
macaroni and is much relished by the Italians.

=Limburger=, =Brick=, =Munster= and other similar semi-soft cheese of
the proverbial strong flavor, originated in Belgium and Bavaria, but are
now largely made in Northern New York and Wisconsin as well.

For Limburger the milk is not ripened as for Cheddar but is set with
rennet quite sweet at a temperature of about 90°; the curd is cut rather
soft, care being taken, however, not to lose butter-fat. The curd is but
slightly “cooked,” to a temperature not to exceed 96°, and is not salted
in the vat but is dipped out into perforated wooden boxes or molds about
5 inches square and left to drain without pressure. The cheese are
placed edgeways like bricks on shelves and are rubbed with salt and
turned every day until cured. During the curing process moisture exudes
and a fermentation takes place which develops the well-known “Limburger”
flavor. After eight or ten weeks the cheese is packed in paper and
tinfoil and is ready for the market.

=Brick= cheese is something between a Cheddar and a Limburger, of a
milder flavor than either, not as hard as the former but firmer than the
latter.

The milk is slightly ripened and is set with rennet at 86° so as to
coagulate in 20 minutes. The curd is “cooked” to 110° or more and is not
allowed to “mat” as for Cheddar cheese, but is dipped out of the vat
before much acidity has developed, into the molds, which are rectangular
boxes without top or bottom placed on a draining table where the whey
runs off.

The mold is usually 5 inches wide, 8 inches deep and 10 inches long.
When it is filled with curd a follower is put on the top and a slight
weight, a couple of bricks, on the follower. The cheese is turned a few
times and the next day it is taken out of the mold and placed on the
salting table. The salting is done by rubbing the cheese on all sides
with salt which penetrates the curd and draws out moisture. This is
repeated for 3 days and the cheese is then left to cure, being washed
and wiped off every week to prevent molding.

Brick cheese is shipped one or two months old. It is wrapped in paper
and packed twenty in a box.

=Munster Cheese= is very much the same as Brick except for the form, it
being round, molded in a perforated tin hoop instead of the box used for
Limburger and Brick.


                           SOFT RENNET CHEESE

The soft cheese made with rennet may be classified as _fresh_ and
_cured_.

=Neufchatel.=—The fresh soft cheese of the _Neufchatel_ or _Cream
Cheese_ type is easily made and may be produced in any house from a
small quantity of milk. The milk is set at a comparatively low
temperature, usually 72° F., with very little rennet, just enough to
coagulate the milk in about eighteen hours. During that time a slight
acidity develops in the milk. When it is firmly curdled it is carefully
dipped on to cheese-cloth suspended on a frame, or into cotton bags
where it drains overnight.

To make the cheese quickly a starter is sometimes used and more rennet
employed. The milk is heated to 80° F., 25% starter and 7½ c.c. of
rennet extract, or one rennet tablet per hundred pounds of milk, are
added and the milk curdles in about 30 minutes.

After draining for a few hours the curd is gently pressed for a similar
time. When the whey is fairly well expelled, the curd is kneaded or run
through a meat cutter with a little salt, not more than 2½ oz. to 10
lbs. of curd. The outfit and the manipulation is essentially the same as
described under Cottage cheese.

A superior quality is obtained by pasteurizing the milk and if that is
done a pure culture starter should always be used. If the slow setting
method is used a very small amount of starter, say ½%, is sufficient,
but when the quick process is employed 10% to 25% may be added.

[Illustration:

  Molding Neufchatel cheese
]

To give it a good appearance for market, the cheese is molded in little
tin molds very much like a quarter-pound baking powder can with open
ends. The cylindrical roll of cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and
tinfoil and is immediately ready for consumption. In an ice box it will
keep for a week or so. Neufchatel cheese may be made from whole milk or
partly-skimmed milk. The yield is from 10 to 20 lbs. out of 100 lbs. of
milk.

=Cream Cheese= is usually made in the same way. A mixture of cream and
milk containing about 10% butter-fat is used, though sometimes the cream
is not added until the time of salting. The mold is square, 2½” × 1½” ×
2” deep. These soft kinds of cheese are often mixed with chopped
peppers, olives or nuts and make excellent sandwiches.

=Cured Soft Cheese.=—For _Cream_ or _Neufchatel_ cheese, made for
curing, the curd is salted more than for fresh cheese, or the molded
cheese is rolled in salt. For a week or two it is placed in a curing
room on straw mats or the like where it ferments slightly before being
wrapped and packed for shipment.

=French Soft Cheese.=—The many forms of French soft cheese as
represented by the _Brie_, the _Camembert_, etc., are subjected to
special fermentations which give to each its peculiar flavor. Attempts
have been made to use pure cultures of the bacteria active in such
fermentations and so reduce the art of cheesemaking to a more scientific
process. But it has been found that any desired kind of cheese cannot be
made simply by adding a culture of this or that bacterium to pasteurized
milk. Of vastly greater importance for the development of the proper
bacteria and flavor is the handling of the milk and the curd by the
experienced cheesemaker. Inoculation with a pure culture alone does not
make the special cheese wanted.


                       CHEESE MADE WITHOUT RENNET

[Illustration:

  Mono-service jar
]

=Cottage Cheese.=—Of the sour milk types the common _Cottage Cheese_ is
the best known. It is made from skim milk which in a warm room will
curdle when sour, whether rennet and a starter are used or not. The
thick sour milk is heated to anywhere between 100° and 120° and dipped
into bags of cheese-cloth hung up for draining. The next day light
pressure is applied for 12 to 24 hours, when the curd is kneaded,
slightly salted, formed into balls and wrapped in parchment paper or
packed into jars. For this purpose paraffined paper jars are very
practical.

The more the curd is heated in the whey the drier will be the cheese.
Often it is improved by allowing the curd to become rather dry and then
working new milk or a little cream into it, according to the use to
which it is to be put—whether it is for bakers’ stock or for the table.

Simple directions for making Cottage cheese are given in Farmers’
Bulletin 850 and A. I. 17, issued by the United States Department of
Agriculture from which we reprint the following and copy the
accompanying illustrations:

[Illustration:

  Pouring the curdled milk on cloth to drain
]

“One gallon of skim milk will make about 1½ pounds of cheese. If the
milk is sweet it should be placed in a pan and allowed to remain in a
clean warm place at a temperature of about 75° F., until it clabbers.
The clabbered milk should have a clean, sour flavor. Ordinarily this
will take about 30 hours, but when it is desirable to hasten the process
a small quantity of clean-flavored sour milk may be mixed with the sweet
milk.

“As soon as the milk has thickened or firmly clabbered it should be cut
into pieces 2 inches square, after which the curd should be stirred
thoroughly with a spoon. Place the pan of broken curd in a vessel of hot
water so as to raise the temperature to 100° F. Cook at that temperature
for about 30 minutes, during which time stir gently with a spoon for 1
minute at 5-minute intervals.

[Illustration:

  Lifting the cloth back and forth to facilitate draining
]

“At the conclusion of the heating, pour the curd and whey into a small
cheese-cloth bag (a clean salt bag will do nicely) and hang the bag in a
fruit-strainer rack to drain, or the curd may be poured into a colander
or a strainer over which a piece of cheese-cloth has been laid. After 5
or 10 minutes work the curd toward the center with a spoon. Raising and
lowering the ends of the cloth helps to make the whey drain faster. To
complete the draining tie the end of the bag together and hang it up.
Since there is some danger that the curd will become too dry, draining
should stop when the whey ceases to flow in a steady stream.

[Illustration:

  Pressing the curd
]

“The curd is then emptied from the bag and worked with a spoon or a
butter paddle until it becomes fine in grain, smooth, and of the
consistency of mashed potatoes. Sour or sweet cream may be added to
increase the smoothness and palatability and improve the flavor. Then
the cheese is salted according to taste, about one teaspoonful to a
pound of curd.

“Because of the ease with which the cheese can be made it is desirable
to make it often so that it may be eaten fresh, although if it is kept
cold it will not spoil for several days. If the cheese is not to be
eaten promptly it should be stored in an earthenware or glass vessel
rather than in one of tin or wood, and kept in a cold place.”

[Illustration:

  Apparatus needed in making cottage cheese
]

=Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet.=—In the bulletin mentioned a method
is also given for making the cheese with rennet or pepsin. Junket
Tablets make a convenient form of rennet to be used for this purpose.

The advantages claimed for this method are:

1. A finer textured and more uniform cheese.

2. The making requires less time and attention.

3. Losses of fat in the whey are reduced.

The process is the same as described above except that a solution of
_Junket Tablets_ is added to the milk at the rate of one tablet to 100
lbs. of milk. For less milk use a fraction of a tablet, or dissolve one
tablet in ten tablespoonfuls of water and use one spoonful of the
solution for each 10 lbs. of milk.

If a starter is used the rennet solution is added immediately after the
starter is put in; if no starter is used the milk is left for five or
six hours at 80° F. to ripen before adding the rennet. The milk will
curdle overnight.

After draining for thirty minutes on cotton sheeting the ends of the
cloth are tied together and a weight is placed on top to press the curd
gently until the desired consistency is attained.

Salt may be worked in at the rate of 2½ ounces to 10 lbs. of curd. If
desired, add sweet or sour cream at the rate of ½ pint to 10 lbs. of
curd or ¼ pint of cream to the product from 30 lbs. of milk.

It will be seen that Cottage cheese made with rennet is really the same
as Neufchatel cheese, the only difference being in the form and packing
or wrapping of the finished cheese.

=Snappy Cheese.=—By allowing the sour skim milk curd to ferment under
careful regulation, a variety of sharp, snappy, more or less hard cheese
can be made. Though there is no general demand for them, some kinds are
quite popular in their own restricted localities. The Danish _Appetite
cheese_ is only one of the many varieties which have as many names.

=Club Cheese= and similar varieties are made by grinding up old dry
cheese with a little butter and packing the product in jars or other
attractive packages. American, Roquefort, or any other well-known type
may be used as the stock for these cheeses. Everywhere they are
favorites in dining cars and lunch rooms.

[Illustration:

  Milking the goat in Norway
]

=Whey Cheese.=—In Switzerland the so-called _Zieger cheese_ is made from
sour whey, the albumin being coagulated by heat and, with whatever
butter-fat there may be left in the whey, skimmed off the top. In Norway
_Myseost_ (“Ost” is Norwegian for cheese) is made by boiling down whey
almost to dryness. If goat milk is available to mix in, it improves the
cheese. The main substance is sugar of milk and the cheese has a sweet,
syrupy flavor.


                               MILK SUGAR

The by-product, sugar of milk, is produced by acidifying the whey,
heating to boiling and neutralizing with lime until the albumin is
coagulated. It is then filtered out and the clarified liquid is
concentrated in vacuum. From the thick syrup the sugar is allowed to
crystallize out, leaving the salts or mineral matters (milk-ash) in the
remaining liquid. The use of milk-sugar is limited to medicinal purposes
and for modifying milk for infants. The production is therefore not very
extensive.


                                 CASEIN

In a number of creameries casein is produced from skim milk by
precipitating it with an acid and drying and pulverizing the
precipitate. Casein is widely used as a substitute for ivory, in
billiard balls, buttons, etc. It is also used as glue, and as a binder
in paints.


                              MILK POWDER

The production and use of dry milk has increased enormously during the
last few years and the processes of manufacture have been improved
well-nigh to perfection. There are several methods practiced, the most
important being the following:

The _Just-Hatmaker_, in which a large metal drum or cylinder revolves
slowly in a tank of milk. The drum is heated by steam inside and, as it
rolls out of the milk, the metal surface picks up a thin film of milk
which quickly dries and is removed by a scraper.

The _Eckenberg_ process employs vacuum evaporating pans, like those used
for making condensed milk and maple syrup.

The _Merrell-Soule_ Company’s method consists in driving a blast of hot
air into a fine spray of milk, which at once reduces the milk to a fine
powder.

In the “_Economic_” process the milk is dried by hot air the same as in
the Merrell-Soule method, but in dropping through a tower from a height
of some 30 feet the milk meets several blasts of air of different
temperatures. It is claimed that in this way alone rich milk and cream
may be reduced to a powder without injury to, or change of, the original
fat globules.

=Skim Milk Powder.=—Beautiful skim milk powders are now made which
dissolve perfectly in water. Containing, as they do, the extremely
nourishing constituents of the fatless milk in a most palatable form,
they can be used in baking and in many food products to great advantage.

=Whole Milk Powder.=—Until recently dried whole milk was not produced of
good keeping quality as the butter-fat had a tendency to become rancid
before many months. But improvements are constantly being made and milk
powders of every degree of richness bid fair to take the place of fresh
milk on board ships and in other places where milk must be kept a long
time before being used.

In many new food preparations of value, milk powder is filling a
long-felt want. Dissolved in 8 or 9 times as much water, milk powder
makes a liquid almost identical with pasteurized fresh milk.

It has already been mentioned under the chapter on “Cream” and under
“Ice Cream” how skim milk powder and unsalted butter, _emulsified_ in a
suitable amount of water or milk, make an excellent material for ice
cream.


                     CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILK

Milk cannot be boiled down in a common open kettle or steam boiler
without being scorched. Evaporating or condensing is therefore usually
done in a vacuum pan at a low temperature. Condensed to one-third of its
volume and excluded from the air by canning, milk will keep well for
months, and has many uses as a substitute for fresh milk. Often sugar is
added as a preservative, and where sugar would be added anyway, as in
coffee, ice cream, etc., this is unobjectionable.

For purposes where sugar is not wanted, unsweetened condensed or
evaporated milk is on the market, so carefully made that the taste of
the original milk is hardly changed at all by the process. When water is
added in the proportion of two parts of water to one of the evaporated
milk, the fluid obtained excels even that from milk powder in its
resemblance to fresh milk.


                                  WHEY

Whey is a by-product in cheesemaking. Usually it is fed to hogs and
especially together with grain or bran it makes an excellent food for
them. But whey is also prepared for human food. In the hospital or in
the home it serves as a substitute for milk when a mild diet of easily
digested food is temporarily required for a weak stomach. For such
purposes it must not be allowed to become acid as in cheesemaking, but
should be prepared as the chief product from sweet new milk or freshly
separated skim milk. The sweet milk is set with rennet—one Junket
Tablet, dissolved in cold water, to a quart of milk—at a temperature of
90° to 100° F. As soon as a firm curd is formed it is carefully broken
up and transferred to a strainer of cheese-cloth. Unless it is to be
used at once, the whey strained off should be immediately cooled to 50°
or lower. If left at a higher temperature it will soon become sour. A
teaspoonful of limewater to a quart, or a pinch of soda, will help to
keep it sweet. Still, in any event, it should not be kept long, but
prepared fresh when required.


------------------------------------------------------------------------




                               CHAPTER IV

                             MILK AS A FOOD


Milk is first of all the food for the young,—until a certain age the
only food, and a perfect food. It contains but little refuse or waste
and is under favorable conditions almost wholly digestible.


                               NUTRIENTS

All foods contain certain groups of nutrients which may be classified
according to various functions in nutrition and their chemical
composition.

=Protein.=—The protein group of nutrients contains nitrogen and is
necessary for building up the tissues of the body, the muscles and the
tendons which also contain nitrogen. Only by this group can tissues
wasted by constant wear and tear be rebuilt. Proteins are the
flesh-forming group. To some degree the proteins or albuminoids are also
active in producing fat in the body, but the other groups of nutrients,
especially the fats, also contribute.

=Fats and Carbohydrates.=—Another important function of food is to
produce and maintain the animal heat. The main sources of this necessity
are the fats and the carbohydrates, so called because they consist of
the element carbon combined with oxygen and hydrogen, the last two in
the exact proportion in which they are combined in water. All of these
three groups furnish the fuel, so to speak, for the body, but they are
not equal in this respect. Pound for pound, when burned in the body, the
fats yield 2¼ times as much heat as protein or the carbohydrates.

=Mineral Matters.=—Finally there are in all foods the mineral matters, a
group containing a number of salts which are indispensable because they
are constituents of every part of the body. Phosphate of lime, for
instance, makes up one-half of the substance of the bones, and the
sulphates and chlorides of potash and soda, iron, etc., are everywhere
present in smaller quantities. No food in which any of them is lacking
is complete.

=Relation.=—The value of a food depends largely upon the relation of one
group of nutrients to another. Proper nutrition can only be obtained
when a sufficient amount of flesh-forming as well as of heat-producing
nutrients are present, when the “nutritive ratio” is properly balanced
for the particular purpose in view, be it the growth of the child, the
maintenance of the body, the restoration of matter consumed by labor of
body or brain, or the supply of heat to make up for cold surroundings.

=Milk contains all= of these groups of nutrients. The protein is
represented in milk by the casein and albumin, the fats by the
butter-fat, the carbohydrates by milk-sugar, and the mineral matters by
the milk-ash. Human milk contains them in a perfect proportion for
infants, and for all purposes of nutrition cow’s milk may be used to
make up a “balanced ration,” if not alone, then in connection with other
food.

=Nutritive Ratio.=—As we said before, the “nutritive ratio” of a food
means the ratio of its flesh-forming constituents—proteins—to its
heat-producing nutrients—carbohydrates and fats. Cow’s milk, containing
3.25% protein, 4% fat and 5% milk-sugar, has a nutritive ratio of 1 :
4.3, i. e., 1 part of protein to 4.3 parts of heat-giving nutrients,
counting the fat equal to 2¼ of carbohydrates (multiplying the 4% fat by
2¼ makes 9, added to the 5% of sugar, makes 14; 3.25 to 14 equals 1 to
4.3). Skim milk, containing 3.4% protein, 0.2% fat, and 5.1% sugar, has
a ratio of 1 : 1.6 (3.4 : 5.45). Mother’s milk, containing 2% protein,
4% fat, and 6.5% carbohydrates, has a ratio of 1 : 7.75. To substitute
cow’s milk for mother’s, it must therefore be “modified.”

=Calories.=—Another way of comparing various foods than by the nutritive
ratio is by measuring their “fuel value” or energy-producing capacity.
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of
water 1° C., or one pound 4° F., is called a calorie. By extensive
feeding experiments the caloric value of the various nutrient groups has
been estimated as follows:

                Protein at 1820 calories per pound[9]
                Fats    at 4040 calories per pound
                Carbohydrates at 1820 calories per pound

Measured by this rule the fuel value of:


                  Whole milk is    310 calories per
                                   pound

                  Skim milk is     160 calories per
                                   pound

                  Full cream       1885 calories per
                  cheese is        pound

                  Butter is        3410 calories per
                                   pound


Compared with other food, milk, although not suited to act as the sole
food of adults, is one of the best and cheapest articles of diet, and
should be much more extensively used.

The following table, compiled by specialists of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, shows the quantities of various foods needed to supply as
much protein or energy as 1 quart of milk:


      ┌────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┐
      │          Protein           │           Energy           │
      ├────────────────────────────┼────────────────────────────┤
      │1 quart of milk is equal to—│1 quart of milk is equal to—│
      │  7 ounces of sirloin steak │  11.3 ounces of sirloin    │
      │  6 ounces of round steak   │  steak                     │
      │  4.3 eggs                  │  14.9 ounces of round steak│
      │  8.6 ounces of fowl        │  9 eggs                    │
      │                            │  14.5 ounces of fowl       │
      └────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┘


Another method of comparison is shown by the table below, in which the
relative value of certain foods as economical sources of protein is
given:

        ┌────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┐
        │                │  Is as cheap as  │                  │
        │    Milk at—    │sirloin steak at— │   Or eggs at—    │
        ├────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┤
        │7 cents a quart │16.3 cents a pound│17.6 cents a dozen│
        │8 cents a quart │18.6 cents a pound│20.1 cents a dozen│
        │9 cents a quart │21.0 cents a pound│22.6 cents a dozen│
        │10 cents a quart│23.3 cents a pound│25.1 cents a dozen│
        │12 cents a quart│27.9 cents a pound│30.2 cents a dozen│
        │15 cents a quart│34.9 cents a pound│37.7 cents a dozen│
        └────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┘


According to this table, if milk is selling at 10 cents a quart, sirloin
steak must sell as low as 23.3 cents a pound, and eggs at 25.1 cents a
dozen to supply protein at equal cost.


                    _To Supply Energy at Equal Cost_

        ┌────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┐
        │                │  Sirloin steak   │                  │
        │When milk is—   │     must not     │   And eggs not   │
        │                │  be more than—   │    more than—    │
        ├────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┤
        │7 cents a quart │9.9 cents a pound │ 9.3 cents a dozen│
        │8 cents a quart │11.3 cents a pound│10.6 cents a dozen│
        │9 cents a quart │12.8 cents a pound│11.9 cents a dozen│
        │10 cents a quart│14.2 cents a pound│13.2 cents a dozen│
        │12 cents a quart│17.0 cents a pound│15.9 cents a dozen│
        │15 cents a quart│21.3 cents a pound│19.8 cents a dozen│
        └────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┘


=Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation.=—While the contents of protein and
the ratio between digestible protein and fats and carbohydrates on one
hand, and the fuel or energy value on the other, have long been the only
recognized measures for food values, they are admittedly quite
inadequate and insufficient and although they are a great help when used
with discrimination in making up food rations, they are often abused by
persons who do not take their fallacies into consideration.

[Illustration:

  Dr. E. V. McCollum
]

“=Something Unknown.=”—Recent investigations by Dr. F. G. Hopkins, of
Cambridge, England, and Dr. E. V. McCollum, formerly of Wisconsin, now
of the Johns Hopkins University, have proven conclusively that one food
ingredient cannot always be substituted for another with impunity even
though the most searching chemical analysis shows them both alike in
contents and digestibility. There is “Something Unknown” in certain
foods—“Vitamines” some call it—essential especially in promoting the
growth of the young, which our present knowledge of chemistry cannot
explain. In Bulletin No. 17 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station
experiments with the feeding of rats are described which show how
butter-fat could not be replaced in the ration by vegetable fats of
apparently the same composition and digestibility without disastrous
results, and similar conditions have been found in regard to other
foodstuffs, proteins as well as fats. The yolk of eggs and butter-fat
contain this unknown something which is absolutely essential for the
growth of the child and which is missing in most substitutes, especially
in lard and vegetable fats.

[Illustration:

  The rat on the left got five per cent of cottonseed oil and the one on
    the right got instead one and a half per cent of butter-fat,
    otherwise their rations were alike. These results are typical for
    any ration made up of purified foodstuffs with butter-fat in them as
    compared with any fat of plant origin. The plant fats lack an
    unknown something without which growth cannot proceed.
]

The above illustration is from the work of McCollum and Davis at the
Wisconsin Experiment Station.

Realizing the fallacy of the old rules for making up rations for the
feeding of farm animals, Professor Evvard of Iowa is trying the
_reliability_ of the _instincts_ of animals as a guide to the proper
selection of the most favorable combinations and proportions of food
ingredients.[10]

We mention these experiments as a warning against placing too great
reliance on the caloric theory or the relation of nutrients in making up
food rations. We have yet much to learn and the good housewife trying to
cook according to scientific rules will do well not to neglect the
palatability of the food, but to watch the “instinct” which causes the
child or the adult to reject or approve of, and enjoy, the food, which
in most cases is a better guide than calories or protein contents, or
the ration between the various groups of nutrients.


                        CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME

If received fresh and warm from the cow, milk should at once be strained
through absorbent cotton or several thicknesses of cheese-cloth into
wide-mouthed bottles or glass jars and placed in running water or ice
water to cool as quickly as possible. If obtained from the milkman it
may be left in the bottle in which it is received. The practice of
delivering milk “loose,” dipping it from the wagon, should not be
permitted, and is fast being abolished. Public safety demands that it
should be bottled on the farm or in the creamery or milk station under
sanitary conditions.

=Keep the Milk Cool.=—If the milk when delivered at the house is not
cold enough to keep sweet as long as desired, it should, we repeat, be
placed in ice water or cold running water until thoroughly cooled. Even
if the air is cold, in the ice box, for instance, the milk cannot be
cooled quickly enough without water. After it has been cooled in water
it may be put in the ice box. In most ice boxes the temperature is
allowed to rise higher than is generally supposed, and it is better to
keep the milk bottle next to the ice than in the food compartments.

[Illustration:

  A clean ice box
]

Milk and cream easily absorb flavors from the air and should not be kept
in open vessels next to other food. Any housekeeper knows how quickly
milk or cream will be tainted by standing in the same compartment with
onions or muskmelons; if the bottle is not covered, milk may also be
contaminated by other less noticeable but more harmful vapors from
nearby products. Let the milkman furnish you with some extra milk bottle
caps, or cover your milk bottle with an inverted tumbler.

As has been shown in previous chapters, milk is a favorable soil for all
sorts of germs and bacteria to grow in. It must therefore be kept from
contamination with the utmost care, and everything that comes in contact
with it must be scrupulously clean.

=Top-Milk.=—When the milk has been standing at rest three or four hours,
the top-milk will be considerably richer than the rest. If such rich
milk is wanted for any particular purpose it may be poured off, to be
eaten with cereals, berries, etc. In twelve hours most of the cream will
rise and may be skimmed off, although thirty-six or even forty-eight
hours may be required to get all that can be obtained by setting. The
half-skimmed milk left when the top-milk has been removed after 3 to 6
hours’ setting will still contain 2% or more of butter-fat and is very
good for drinking; even the skim milk from which the cream has been
taken after 12 hours’ setting is still an excellent beverage, provided
it is sweet. Perfectly skimmed, almost entirely fatless, milk may be
used in various ways in cooking, to make up for lack of protein in many
other food products. But care must be taken that it is pure and sweet,
or rather, its condition, sweet or sour, must be under the perfect
control of the housekeeper. If a sample of milk will stand scalding or
even boiling without curdling, it is usually fresh and in good condition
for any use. On the other hand, if it curdles by scalding, it is beyond
control and it may or may not make good sour milk, depending on the
bacteria working in it.


                            MILK FOR INFANTS

[Illustration]

Comparing cow’s milk with mother’s milk, it will be seen that the latter
contains less protein, about the same percentage of fat and more
carbohydrates than the former. A comparison may be made from the
following table of average composition in round figures:


 ──────────────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────
               │       │       │       │       │       │       │ Fuel
               │ Water │ Total │Protein│  Fat  │ Milk- │Mineral│ value
               │       │solids │       │       │ sugar │matters│per lb.
 ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────
               │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │Calories
               │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │
 ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────
 Mother’s Milk │  87   │  13   │   2   │   4   │  6.5  │  0.5  │  316
 ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────
 Cow’s Milk    │  87   │  13   │ 3.25  │   4   │   5   │ 0.75  │  312
 ──────────────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────


=Modifying Milk.=—Undiluted cow’s milk is too rich in protein and in
salts for infants and, when fed without modification, must be diluted
with an equal amount of water during the first two or three months. Such
dilution, however, also reduces the percentage of fat, which should
remain the same, and of carbohydrates, which should be increased. In
order to modify or “humanize” cow’s milk so as to make its composition
nearly the same as that of mother’s milk, simple dilution with water is
therefore not sufficient.

There are, however, various other methods which may be used to
advantage. For instance, top-milk from a bottle of fresh milk which has
stood 4 or 6 hours in ice water will contain 6 to 8% of fat. By diluting
this with an equal part of water, the percentage of protein, fat and
mineral matter will be about right, and sugar, either cane-sugar or
milk-sugar, may be added to supply the carbohydrates. Or carefully
prepared sweet whey containing milk-sugar, or barley water, may be added
to the thin cream in place of some of the pure water.

The following recipes have been used with good results:


                        Mrs. Pospyhala’s Recipe

    =Infant Food.=—Warm 1½ quarts of milk to blood heat. Remove from
    fire and add one Junket Tablet dissolved in a spoonful of cold
    water. Let the milk set until it forms a solid mass, then stir
    it up in order to break the curd. Place it back on the fire and
    stir until quite smooth, not allowing it to get any warmer than
    blood heat. It is then ready to strain through two thicknesses
    of cheese-cloth and care must be taken to squeeze well so as to
    obtain as much of the whey as possible, which is very important.
    Add one tablespoonful of sugar to sweeten. Pour into nursing
    bottles, the amount being according to the age of the baby. A
    sufficient number of bottles are prepared for 24 hours’ feeding.
    Care should be taken to keep the milk in a cool place as it will
    sour the same as fresh milk. Every time the baby is fed the milk
    must be warmed by placing the bottle in a pan of water and
    heating to the right temperature.


                         _Mrs. Rorer’s Recipe_

    Where cow’s milk, even when diluted, or partly modified as in
    the home fashion, disagrees with the infant, this mixture may be
    used with good results: heat two quarts of milk to 100° F. Add
    two Junket Tablets dissolved in a tablespoonful of cold water.
    When the milk is congealed and perfectly solid draw through it
    backward and forward an ordinary four-tined silver fork; this
    will separate the curd. Strain through two thicknesses of
    cheese-cloth, saving the whey as this is the part you are to
    use; add a pint of water, a half ounce of sugar of milk, three
    ounces of cream and four ounces of the white of egg. The whites
    may be dropped into a quart fruit jar, a pint of the whey added,
    the top screwed on and the jar thoroughly shaken until the
    whites are well mixed with the whey; then add them to the
    remaining quantity and stand at once in a very cold place. This
    will be given in quantities from two to three ounces in an
    ordinary nursing bottle.


                               _RECIPES_
                  _of the Nathan Straus Laboratories_

Formula by Dr. A. R. Green for 1st to 4th week:—

     ¾ ounces of 16% Cream
     3 ounces of Full Milk
    19 ounces of   Water
    1½ ounces Milk Sugar

This mixture fills 8 bottles—each to contain 3 ounces. Feed 2½ hours
apart.


Formula by Prof. A. Jacobi for 3d to 7th month:—

    18 ounces of Full Milk
    18 ounces of  Barley Water
     1 ounces of  Cane Sugar
    20 grains of Table Salt (less than ¼ teaspoonful)

This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3 hours
apart.


Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 1st to 3d month:—

    1½ ounces of 16% Cream
    3  ounces of Full Milk
    13 ounces of Water
    ½  ounce     Lime Water
    1  ounce     Milk-Sugar

This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 3 ounces. Feed 3 hours
apart.


Formula by Dr. A. F. Hess for 7th to 9th month:—

    22½ ounces of Full Milk
    7½  ounces of Oat or Barley Water
    1½  ounces of Cane Sugar
    30  grains of Table Salt (about ¼ teaspoonful)

This mixture fills 5 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3½ hours
apart.


Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 2d to 6th month:—

    18 ounces of Full Milk
    16½ ounces of Water
    1½ ounces of Limewater
    1½ ounces of Milk Sugar

This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3 hours
apart.


After 9th month:—

Full pasteurized milk, 8 ounces every 4 hours.


When the modified milk can be obtained from a dairy laboratory where it
is prepared with scientific care and accuracy, it is better to use it
than to depend on home-made preparations, and in many cases a doctor’s
prescription may be necessary. Even if the modified cow’s milk is
prepared so as to contain apparently the same proportion of the various
groups of nutrients as mother’s milk, there may still be some essential
difference. For instance, the protein in human milk consists mainly of
albumin, while that of cow’s milk is mostly casein. It is often a
question whether the individual baby can digest the casein without
trouble. A trifle of rennet ferment,—a fraction of a Junket
Tablet,—added to the modified cow’s milk just before feeding may be
beneficial to overcome that defect. A little limewater also is healthful
as it neutralizes any acid that may develop in the mixture. For the
particular needs of the individual baby, a competent doctor should be
asked to prescribe.


                       MILK FOR GROWING CHILDREN

[Illustration]

When the child is big enough to thrive on undiluted, unmodified cow’s
milk, it should not only be allowed, but urged, to continue on a diet in
which this, the best of all foods, is the most essential part. An
excellent form in which to feed milk to the growing child is junket.
Eaten slowly with a spoon as a pudding, it is exposed to the action of
digestion much better than milk swallowed by the glassful in a hurry and
even if it is cold there is no danger of defective rennet action in the
stomach because such action has already taken place.

Doctors still disagree as to the desirability of pasteurizing milk for
young children (see “Pasteurization,” Chapter I), some holding that the
digestibility is affected by the process. The truth is probably that
strong pasteurization at a temperature above 157° and holding the heated
milk unnecessarily long at such high temperature do change the
properties of the milk so as to make it harder to digest, but that the
main difficulty is in the change of diet from raw to pasteurized milk or
vice versa. Let the child get used to the change by making it gradual,
diminishing the amount of one and increasing the amount of the other
from day to day in a week, until the change is completed, and there will
usually be little if any trouble. The secretions of digestive ferments
in the stomach soon adapt themselves to the change in the food. The same
holds good in case of other changes, as, for instance, from whole milk
to more or less fatless milk, with additions of cereals or other partial
substitutes;—it is always advisable to make any change in the child’s
diet gradual.


------------------------------------------------------------------------




                               CHAPTER V

                              MILK COOKERY


Milk should also be used a great deal more than it is by grown persons,
not only as a drink but in the daily cookery. In some homes milk in some
form is a part of every menu and the meals are more delicious,
attractive and nourishing than the ordinary milkless diet, and are also
less expensive, as the milk takes the place of part of the meat. Dr.
Graham Tusk of Cornell University, who represented the United States on
the Interallied Council of Alimentation, says:

    “No family of five should spend any money for meat until three
    quarts of milk have been purchased, and this should be done even
    though the price of milk should go to twenty cents a quart.
    Absolutely nothing in the food line will keep children so
    healthy as their daily supply of milk.”

In cooking with milk it is well to remember:

1. That, although milk is a liquid, it contains a large amount of solid
food and of exceedingly nourishing, palatable and easily digestible
food, much more than many vegetables or fruits. While milk has 13% of
solid matter, water-melon has only 2%, turnips 4%, beets 12%, etc. When
substituting milk for water, you add _nourishment_ to the food and it is
well to keep in mind the ingredients,—the amount of protein, fat, etc.,
added in the form of milk, which may take the place of other similar
ingredients in the combination.

2. That if milk is even but slightly sour, or if some other acid is
added to it,—in the form of fruit, for instance,—it is apt to curdle by
scalding or boiling.

The limits of a single chapter do not allow many recipes to be given,
but a few are furnished under each of the several kinds of milk dishes,
and a clever domestic science pupil or the ordinary good housekeeper and
cook can easily add to these recipes indefinitely, by following out the
simple suggestions offered.

All measurements are level.


                                 SOUPS

=Cream Soups.=—So-called cream soups may be made with or without the
addition of meat stock. For example:

                            =Asparagus Soup=

    3 cups veal or chicken broth
    1 can asparagus
    ¼ cup butter
    ¼ cup flour
    1 qt. scalded milk
    Salt and pepper

Reserve tips of asparagus. Add stalks to cold stock, boil fifteen
minutes, rub through sieve, thicken with butter and flour cooked
together, add milk, tips, salt and pepper. If fresh asparagus is used,
cut one bunch in small pieces, boil in as little water as will cover,
remove tough bits of stalk, add two cups stock and proceed as above.


                         =Cream of Celery Soup=

                    3 cups veal or chicken broth
                    3 cups celery cut in inch pieces
                    4 cups milk
                    Yolks 2 eggs
                    ½ cup cream
                    Salt and pepper

Boil celery in broth till tender. Rub through sieve, add milk, bring to
the boiling point and add egg yolks beaten and diluted with cream.


                             =Spinach Soup=

                          4 cups broth
                          2 qts. spinach
                          3 cups boiling water
                          2 cups milk
                          ¼ cup butter
                          ½ cup flour
                          Salt and pepper

Wash the spinach and cook thirty minutes in boiling water to which ⅛
teaspoon soda has been added. Drain and chop fine. Add stock and butter
and flour cooked together, milk and seasoning.

Cauliflower, mushrooms, lettuce, string beans, onions and other
vegetables may be used for soups in the same way. _In all of these
recipes milk may be substituted for the stock._ The soups will be more
nourishing, many like them better, and they are more easily prepared.

If canned vegetables are used they may be added to the thickened milk,
which should be made in the proportions of one quart of milk to two
tablespoons butter or substitute and two tablespoons flour. One can of
beans, peas, asparagus, or corn, may be added to three pints of
thickened milk.

If fresh vegetables are used, they should be boiled in as little water
as possible and this water added with the vegetables to the hot,
thickened milk. The addition of one-half to one cup of cream to these
soups improves their taste but is not necessary. If the cream is whipped
and added just before serving, the appearance is also much improved. The
vegetables may be pressed through a sieve or not, as preferred. If the
soup is to be served in cups it is better to do this or chop the
vegetables very fine, but if the soup is to be served in soup plates it
looks attractive and is more substantial if the vegetables are cut in
inch pieces and left in the soup.

All cooks are familiar with _cornlet soup_, _tomato_ _bisque_, and
_oyster_ and _clam stews_, the foundation of which is also milk. Plenty
of good recipes for them can be found in any standard cook book.

=Cereal Cream Soups.=—There is another class of soups used much in
Europe but, unfortunately, little known here. They are very nourishing,
easy of preparation, and delicious.

A few recipes will suffice to introduce the housewife to this class of
soups and she can then easily add to the varieties herself. Her family
will enjoy the new dishes for their good taste and their novelty.
Croutons, crackers, zwieback, or toast may be served with any of them.
They should always be prepared in a double boiler.


                              =Rice Soup=

                          1 qt. milk
                          ⅓ cup rice
                          1 tablespoon butter
                          1 tablespoon sugar

Heat the milk in a double boiler, add the rice and cook two hours. Add
sugar and butter. Sprinkle cinnamon on each plate of soup when serving.


                              =Sago Soup=

                          1 qt. milk
                          4 tablespoons sago
                          1 tablespoon butter
                          1 egg yolk
                          2 tablespoons sugar

Heat the milk in a double boiler, add sago and cook one-half hour. Care
must be taken to stir the mixture often when the sago is first added or
it will lump. Add butter and egg yolk beaten with sugar.


                             =Oatmeal Soup=

                          1 cup oat flakes
                          1 pint boiling water
                          2 tablespoons sugar
                          1 pint milk
                          1 tablespoon butter

Add oat flakes to water and boil one-half hour. Add milk and boil
one-half hour, add sugar and butter.


                    =Farina or Cream of Wheat Soup=

                     3 pints milk
                     ½ cup farina or cream of wheat
                     1 tablespoon butter
                     1 tablespoon sugar

Scald milk and add cereal slowly. Cook one hour and add butter and sugar
and a sprinkling of nutmeg.


                            =Milk Chowders=

Chowders are also a very acceptable way of serving milk. For rich
chowders the proportions used are: Two cups of milk or of milk and
water, 1 cup of potatoes cut into small pieces and 1 pound of fish. For
flavoring add an onion fried in two tablespoons of fat tried out from
salt pork. While these proportions make a rich dish, it is possible to
reduce the amount of fish greatly, to leave it out entirely, to use
small portions of left-over fish or some salt codfish which has been
freshened, or to substitute corn for it. Such dishes are palatable and
of reasonably high nutritive value, providing the greater part of the
liquid used is milk.

Similar, but less rich and thick, is:


                              =Milk Stew=

 1 qt. of milk
 1 cupful raw potatoes cut into small pieces
 2 tablespoonfuls of butter or bacon fat
 1 cupful of codfish cut into small pieces or just enough to flavor the
    stew

Soak the fish in lukewarm water until it is soft and the salt removed.
Cook the potatoes in water until tender, drain them, add the milk and
codfish, and bring to the boiling point; add the butter and salt to
taste.

In place of the codfish, fresh fish, clams, oysters, or a little chipped
beef may be used. Or the fish may be omitted and the soup made savory
and palatable by adding a few drops of onion juice, or cheese or a
vegetable cut into small pieces and cooked thoroughly.


                              MILK CEREALS

Most cereals are better cooked in milk than in water and those not
familiar with this method have no idea of the many good dishes which
they can thus easily provide for their families. Cereals so prepared
make an especially good wholesome breakfast or supper for school
children and the writer has never seen an adult, who, on a cold night,
did not enjoy a dish of rice, or corn meal, boiled in milk and served
with cream and sugar for supper. Milk cereals must always be cooked in a
double boiler and the milk must be hot when the cereal is added.

     Rice            1 cup to 3 cups milk, boil 2 hours
     Cornmeal        1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 to 2 hours
     Fine Hominy     1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour
     Cream of Wheat  1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour
     Farina          1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour


=Cream of Wheat or Farina Pudding= is also delicious. It is prepared in
the same way, but ¾ cup of cereal only is added to 1 quart hot milk.
Just before serving, a teaspoonful of vanilla is added, and two beaten
eggs are folded in. It is eaten with cream, or milk, and sugar, or with
maple syrup.


                       LUNCHEON AND SUPPER DISHES

Dishes prepared principally of milk, with the addition of either eggs,
cheese, meat, or vegetables are particularly adapted for luncheon or
supper use. Here again a few standard recipes are given which can be
varied to make any desired number of good, wholesome and delicious
dishes.

=Creamed Dishes.=—The same sauce may be used to cream _cold chicken_,
_lamb_, _veal_, _chipped beef_, and cold boiled or baked _fish_, canned
_salmon_, _lobster_ or _shrimps_, according to the following recipe:


                           =Creamed Chicken=

                2 cups cold cooked chicken cut into dice
                3 tablespoons butter
                3 tablespoons flour
                1½ cups milk
                Salt and pepper

Melt butter and add the flour and milk. Bring to the boiling point and
add diced chicken. Season with salt and pepper.

Many grate a small onion into the sauce before adding the chicken. The
writer does not favor indiscriminate use of onion as it tends to make
all dishes taste alike. It seems better to use sometimes a little celery
or celery salt, sometimes an onion, and again frequently no flavor but
the chicken or meat or fish. One’s cooking is thus more distinctive and
varied.

If the creamed mixture is turned into a baking dish, covered with
buttered bread or cracker crumbs and browned in the oven, the result is
even more pleasing.

Such a sauce flavored with cheese makes a good and very nutritious gravy
to pour over cauliflower and cabbage or to serve with boiled rice or
hominy or poured over toast.


                           CREAMED VEGETABLES

In creaming vegetables the proportion is usually 1 cup of sauce to 2
cups of vegetables. _Potatoes_, _asparagus_, _cauliflower_, _boiled
onions_, _beans_, and _carrots_, _beets_ or _peas_ are all delicious
served in this way.


                          =Eggs and Asparagus=

Cream asparagus. Arrange in a baking dish, alternate layers of the
asparagus and slices of hard boiled eggs. Cover with buttered crumbs and
bake till crumbs are a delicate brown.

=Souffles.=—Souffles are always delightful, and while many consider them
difficult to make they are really very simple and if made correctly are
always to be depended upon. They should, however, be eaten at once when
baked.

_Salmon_, _chicken_, _lamb_, _veal_, _ham_ and _cheese_, and also many
vegetables such as _asparagus_, _cauliflower_ and _peas_ may be prepared
in this way. Elaborate recipes are often given, but the following is
entirely sufficient and always satisfactory:

    2 cups chopped meat or vegetables cut fine
    2 cups thick white sauce
    Yolks of 2 eggs
    Whites of 2 eggs

To the meat or vegetables add white sauce (2 tablespoons butter and 3
tablespoons flour to 1 cup milk) and beaten yolks. Cool and add whites
beaten stiff. Bake 30 minutes in moderate oven. This makes a dish large
enough to serve four or five persons.

A similar dish, Cheese Fondu, is also good, and can stand longer than a
souffle before serving.


                             =Cheese Fondu=

                          2 cups milk
                          2 cups minced cheese
                          1 cup bread crumbs
                          2 eggs beaten

Bake in a hot oven for twenty minutes.

Variations of this dish are made by substituting one cup minced ham for
one cup of the cheese, or by using two cups of ham and omitting the
cheese altogether.


                               MILK TOAST

A very good way to serve milk toast is to toast bread thoroughly and to
pour hot milk over it at the time of serving. In serving milk toast in
this way all the dishes should be kept very hot. A heavy earthenware
pitcher may be used for serving the hot milk, as it retains heat for a
long time.


                          EGGS POACHED IN MILK

Eggs are much better poached in milk than in water. If served on toast
the hot milk may be poured on the egg if a soft toast is desired. If
not, dip the eggs out of the milk with a perforated spoon and lay on the
toast in the usual way, adding salt and butter.


                   CHEESE DISHES AS MEAT SUBSTITUTES

Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential
to a well-balanced meal, and there are many housekeepers who, for one
reason or another, are interested in lessening the amount of meat which
they provide or to substitute some other foods for it.

Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is
rich in the same kinds of nutrients which meat supplies, is a staple
food with which everyone is familiar, and is one which can be used in a
great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for meat, pains should be
taken to serve dishes which are relished by members of the family. A
number of recipes for dishes which are made with cheese follow:


                             =Cheese Soup=

                        1 qt. milk
                        1 onion grated
                        1 blade mace
                        2 tablespoons butter
                        2 tablespoons flour
                        ½ c. grated cheese
                        2 egg yolks
                        1 teaspoon salt
                        ¼ teaspoon white pepper

Scald milk, onion, mace and pepper pod. Melt butter in saucepan, blend
flour with melted butter. Strain milk and seasonings and add gradually
to flour mixture, stirring all the time. Return to double boiler to
cook. When creamy, add the cheese, salt and pepper, stirring until
cheese is melted. Then pour over well-beaten egg yolks, stirring all the
time. Whip until frothing and serve.


                          =Delmonico Potatoes=

Arrange creamed potatoes and grated cheese in alternate layers. Cover
with buttered crumbs and bake till crumbs are brown.


                     =Stuffed Potatoes with Cheese=

Split hot baked potatoes lengthwise and remove contents without injuring
skin of potato. Put potato through ricer or mash, add salt and pepper to
taste and enough hot milk to make of proper consistency. Beat until
light, refill the skin, piling up lightly. Sprinkle thickly with grated
cheese and reheat in oven until cheese is melted and a delicate brown.


                         =Macaroni with Cheese=

                 1 cup macaroni
                 2 qts. boiling salted water
                 2 cups white sauce
                 1 cup grated cheese
                 1 cup buttered bread or cracker crumbs

Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in boiling water until tender.
(If macaroni is put in a wire basket in kettle, it will not stick to the
kettle.) Drain and run cold water through it.

Make sauce:

                          2 tablespoons butter
                          2 tablespoons flour
                          1 teaspoon salt
                          2 cups milk

Add cheese and macaroni. Cover with crumbs and bake until crumbs are
brown.


                        =Rice Baked with Cheese=

                   1 cup rice
                   2 qts. boiling salted water
                   ½ lb. grated cheese
                   Milk
                   Buttered crumbs (bread or cracker)

Add rice to boiling water. When tender drain, cover bottom of buttered
baking dish, sprinkle with grated cheese and a little paprika. Add
alternate layers of rice and cheese until dish is full. Add milk nearly
to fill dish. Cover with crumbs and bake until milk is absorbed and
crumbs are brown.


                   =Cheese Souffle with Bread Crumbs=

                 1 cup scalded milk
                 1 cup soft, stale bread crumbs
                 ¼ lb. mild cheese, cut in small pieces
                 1 tablespoon butter
                 ¼ teaspoon salt
                 2 egg yolks
                 2 egg whites

Mix milk, bread crumbs, cheese, melted butter and salt. Add yolks of
eggs beaten until lemon colored. Cut and fold in whites of eggs beaten
until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake twenty minutes in
a moderate oven.


                            =Cheese Souffle=

                          2 tablespoons butter
                          3  tablespoons flour
                          ½ cup scalded milk
                          ½ teaspoon salt
                          Few grains cayenne
                          ¼ cup grated cheese
                          Yolks of 3 eggs
                          Whites of 3 eggs

Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour and mix well; add scalded
milk gradually and seasonings; cook two minutes. Remove pan to back of
stove and add cheese and well-beaten yolks of eggs. Set pan where
mixture will cool. When cold, add the whites of eggs beaten until stiff
and dry. Turn into a buttered baking dish and bake twenty minutes in a
slow oven. Serve the moment it comes from the oven.


                            =English Monkey=

                   1 cup bread crumbs
                   2 cups milk
                   1 cup grated cheese
                   ½ teaspoon salt
                   ¼ teaspoon white pepper or paprika
                   1 egg
                   1 tablespoon melted butter

Scald milk in double boiler and add bread crumbs to it. Then add grated
cheese, melted butter and seasonings. Cook in double boiler until cheese
is melted; add the slightly-beaten egg gradually. Cook five minutes and
serve on dry toast.


                        =Cheese Omelette No. 1=

                        4 eggs
                        ½ teaspoon salt
                        Few grains pepper
                        4 tablespoons hot water
                        1 tablespoons butter
                        1 cup grated cheese

Beat yolks of eggs thoroughly; add salt, pepper and hot water. Beat
whites till stiff and dry; add cheese and fold into first mixture. Melt
butter in pan, turn in mixture and cook slowly. When well raised and a
delicate brown underneath, place pan in hot oven to cook top. Fold and
turn on hot platter.


                        =Cheese Omelette No. 2=

Make as above, omitting cheese. Make two cups of hot, white sauce; add 1
cup grated cheese, melt and pour around the omelette.


                        =Baked Eggs with Cheese=

                        4 eggs
                        1 cup grated cheese
                        1 cup soft bread crumbs
                        ¼ teaspoon salt
                        Few grains cayenne
                        2 cups white sauce

Break the eggs into a buttered baking dish and cook in hot oven until
they begin to turn white around the edges. Then cover eggs with the
white sauce and over this put the mixture of crumbs, cheese and
seasonings. Brown in very hot oven, so eggs will not be overcooked by
time cheese is brown. If preferred, or for variety, the cheese may be
added to the white sauce and only the seasoned crumbs put on the top.


                             =Boston Roast=

           1 can kidney beans or same amount of cooked beans
           Salt
           ½ lb. grated cheese
           Bread crumbs

Mash beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the cheese and
sufficient bread crumbs to make the mixture stiff enough to be formed
into a roll. Place in buttered baking pan and bake in moderate oven.
Baste frequently with one-half cup hot water, in which one tablespoon
butter is melted. Serve the roast with tomato sauce. If desired, a few
drops of onion juice or a little finely chopped onion may be added to
flavor this dish.


                         =Camouflaged Cabbage=

Remove the heart from a small cabbage, cut or chop the remainder into
half inch pieces, boil in salted water exactly twenty minutes and drain.
For one pint of this cooked cabbage make a sauce of:

    2 tablespoons butter
    2 tablespoons flour
    ½ cup milk
    ½ cup cheese

When thoroughly blended add the cabbage; cover with buttered crumbs and
bake twenty minutes. The result is a good dish for supper or luncheon
and it is well named.


                             CHEESE SALADS


                       =Cheese and Pimento Salad=

Stuff canned pimentos with cream cheese, cut into slices, place on
lettuce leaves and serve with mayonnaise dressing.


                       =Cheese and Celery Salad=

Select celery stalks with deep grooves in them; wash and dry on clean
towel. Mix a small cream cheese with a bit of salt, and ¼ cup finely
chopped nuts (pecans are best). Fill grooves in celery stalk with the
cheese mixture and chill. When ready to serve cut stalks into small
pieces with sharp knife. Serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing.

For a pleasant addition to fruit salad, fill tender celery stalks with
roquefort cheese, and lay one or two on each plate of salad.


                       =Pepper and Cheese Salad=

Remove top and seeds from a sweet green pepper. Scald it with boiling
water, letting it stand in water about ten minutes. Mix soft cream
cheese with chopped nuts, or with tiny cubes of cooked beets and fill
pepper with this mixture; chill well, cut in thin slices with sharp
knife and serve on bed of head lettuce with French dressing.

Apples can also be used (with cheese and nuts) by removing core without
breaking the apple.


                             COTTAGE CHEESE
                 (See also under the chapter on Cheese)

All that has been said of cheese as a valuable food and as a substitute
for meat, applies equally to cottage cheese and it is so easily
prepared, inexpensive and generally relished that it should be used much
more freely than it is.

The following recipes are only a few of the many that might be given,
but the careful cook should evolve other combinations equally
attractive.


                 =Cottage Cheese by Government Method=

                  (From Food Administration Bulletin)

Unit, 1 gallon. For lesser amounts, measurements to be divided
accordingly.

Take 1 gallon of sweet skim milk; add ¾ cup of clean, sour milk and stir
as it is put in. Raise the temperature in hot water to 75 degrees
Fahrenheit, using a dairy thermometer. Remove from heat and place where
it is to remain until set. Add ⅛ of a junket tablet thoroughly dissolved
in a tablespoon of cold water; stir while adding. Cover with cloth and
leave for 12 to 16 hours in even temperature, about 75 degrees
Fahrenheit. At end of this period there should be a slight whey on the
top and when poured out the curd should cleave sharply. Drain through
cotton cloth, not cheese-cloth. When whey has been drained out, work in
1 or 2 teaspoons of salt to the cheese, according to taste; 1½ to 2
pounds of cheese should be obtained from a gallon of milk.

For table use it is advisable to work in 1 or 2 tablespoons of cream to
the pound. For use in cooking, this is not necessary.

One may also make cottage cheese of freshly soured milk by simply
heating it in a double boiler till whey forms, letting it stand an hour
and then turning it into a cheese-cloth bag to drain. To the dry curd
formed add sweet or sour cream and salt to taste. When made in this way
care must be taken that the milk is freshly soured—if it is old it will
have a bitter taste and the cheese will not be good.


                      =Cottage Cheese Sandwiches=

Thin slices of rye, brown or white bread, buttered, with fillings of
cottage cheese in combination with jelly, marmalade, pimentoes, lettuce
or mayonnaise are all good.


                    =Cottage Cheese Club Sandwiches=

Toast slices of bread, cut diamond shape and spread with butter and
cottage cheese or cottage cheese alone and put together with any one of
the following combinations:

Tomato, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing.

Thin slices of ham spread with mustard and lettuce.

Sliced, tart apple, chopped nuts and drops of French dressing.

Sliced orange and mayonnaise.

Sliced Spanish onion, a hot fried egg sprinkled with Worcestershire
sauce.

Thin slices of tomato, bacon, chicken, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing.


                    =Cottage Cheese Salad Dressing=

        ½ cup cottage cheese
        1 tablespoon vinegar
        ½ teaspoon sugar
        ¼ teaspoon salt
        1 cup heavy cream (either sweet or sour) whipped stiff.

Mix in order given. A chopped hard boiled egg improves it.

A similar salad dressing, although containing no cottage cheese, may be
given here also.


                      =Sour Cream Salad Dressing=

                 1 cup sour cream—whipped
                 1 tablespoon vinegar
                 1 tablespoon olive oil
                 ¼ teaspoon salt
                 (1 teaspoon sugar, if desired)
                 2 hard boiled egg yolks finely chopped

Mix in order given.

Either of these is particularly good with green vegetables.

For a fruit salad the eggs should be omitted and double the amount of
sugar used.


                         =Cottage Cheese Salad=

Lettuce, sliced cucumber or green, sweet peppers, cottage cheese formed
in small balls or slices, mayonnaise or French dressing.


                          =Cottage Cheese Pie=

                       1 cup cottage cheese
                       ⅔ cup sugar
                       ⅔ cup milk
                       2 egg yolks, beaten
                       1 tablespoon melted butter
                       Salt
                       ¼ teaspoon vanilla

Mix the ingredients in the order given. Bake the pie in one crust. Cool
it slightly and cover it with meringue made by adding 2 tablespoons of
sugar and ½ teaspoon of vanilla to the beaten white of 2 eggs and brown
it in a slow oven.


                          =Devonshire Dainty=

Serve on individual plates ½ cup cottage cheese to which has been added
2 tablespoonfuls whipped cream (sweet or sour). Over this pour ½ cup
currant jam.

Pass saltines or other dry, unsweetened crackers.


                        MILK BREADS AND BISCUITS


                          =Parker House Rolls=

             2 cups scalded milk (skim)
             3 tablespoons butter
             1 teaspoon salt
             1 yeast cake dissolved in ¼ cup lukewarm water

Dissolve yeast in water, melt butter, combine all ingredients except
flour. Add 3 cups flour gradually, beating vigorously. Let rise till
light; cut down and knead in 2½ cups flour. Cover and allow to rise
until three times original bulk. Roll ½ inch thick. Cut, spread half
with butter and fold over. Put in buttered tins to rise, placing 1 inch
apart. Bake when light in a hot oven 15 to 20 minutes.


                               =Popovers=

                        1 cup flour
                        ¼ teaspoon salt
                        2 eggs
                        ½ teaspoon melted butter
                        1 cup milk

Beat eggs thoroughly. Add gradually, while beating, the milk and flour,
to which salt has been added. Add butter and beat two minutes with Dover
egg beater. Put a half teaspoon of butter in hissing hot iron gem pans.
Fill half with batter and bake thirty minutes in a hot oven. Serve
immediately.


                           =Boston Nut Bread=

                          ½ cup molasses
                          1 teaspoon soda
                          2 cups sour milk
                          2 cups graham flour
                          1 teaspoon salt
                          ½ cup sugar
                          1 cup chopped nuts
                          1½ cups white flour

Mix and sift all the dry ingredients. Add molasses to the milk and
combine this gradually with the dry materials. Add the nuts. Half fill
baking powder cans, with oiled cover, and let stand one-half hour. Bake
three-quarters of an hour in moderate oven.


                          =Sour Milk Biscuit=

                  1 qt. flour
                  1 teaspoon soda
                  1 teaspoon salt
                  1 teaspoon sugar
                  2 tablespoons butter
                  Sour milk to moisten (about 1½ cups)

Sift dry ingredients together, cut in butter with knife, add milk to
make a stiff dough. Roll out thin and bake in hot oven. Serve with honey
or maple syrup.


                             =Gingerbread=

                          4 tablespoons butter
                          ½ cup sugar
                          1 egg
                          ½ cup molasses
                          2 teaspoons cocoa
                          ½ cup sour milk
                          1¾ cups flour
                          ¾ teaspoon soda
                          1 teaspoon ginger
                          1 teaspoon cinnamon
                          ¼ teaspoon salt
                          1 teaspoon allspice

Sift flour and spices, salt and soda together. Mix other ingredients in
the order given and combine mixtures. Bake in moderate oven 30 minutes.


                          =Sour Milk Waffles=

                          1 egg
                          1 cup sour milk
                          1 cup flour
                          1 tablespoon butter
                          1 teaspoon soda
                          ½ teaspoon salt

Beat egg thoroughly, add sour milk, flour and salt. Dissolve soda in ½
tablespoon cold water. Add to mixture. Beat thoroughly. Cook on oiled,
hot waffle iron and serve hot with maple syrup.


                          =Sweet Milk Waffles=

                       2 cups flour
                       3 teaspoons baking powder
                       ½ teaspoon salt
                       1¼ cups milk
                       Yolks 2 eggs
                       Whites 2 eggs
                       2 tablespoons butter

Mix and sift dry ingredients, add milk, beaten yolks, butter and egg
whites beaten stiff.


                       =Buttermilk Griddle Cakes=

                           2 cups buttermilk
                           2 cups flour
                           1 teaspoon soda
                           1 egg beaten

Mix in order given.


                       =Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes=

                     1 egg beaten
                     2 cups milk
                     3 cups flour sifted with
                     3 teaspoons baking powder and
                     ½ teaspoon salt
                     2 tablespoons melted butter

Mix in order given.


                          =Boston Brown Bread=

                        1 cup whole wheat flour
                        2 cups graham flour
                        1 teaspoon soda
                        1 teaspoon salt
                        2 cups sour milk
                        ½ cup molasses

Mix dry ingredients thoroughly. Mix the sour milk and molasses. Stir in
dry ingredients, beating thoroughly. Turn into well buttered pound
baking powder cans. Cover tightly and steam three hours. Take from can
and slice, ½ cup raisins or nuts can be added to the dough mixture, if
desired.


                                DESSERTS

For desserts the number of custards, creams and puddings made with milk
is legion, and they are so well known and can be so easily varied that
only a few stock recipes need be given.


                            =Boiled Custard=

                          2 cups scalded milk
                          Yolks 2 eggs
                          ¼ cup sugar
                          ⅛ teaspoon salt
                          ½ teaspoon vanilla

Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt; stir constantly while adding
gradually hot milk. Cook in double boiler, continue stirring until
mixture thickens and a coating is formed on the spoon; strain
immediately, chill and flavor. If cooked too long the custard will
curdle. Should this happen, by using a Dover egg beater it may be
restored to a smooth consistency, but custard will not be as thick. Eggs
should be beaten slightly for custard that it may be of smooth, thick
consistency. To prevent scum from forming, cover with a perforated tin
or sprinkle with granulated sugar when cooling.


                  =Blanc Mange or Cornstarch Pudding=

                            1 qt. milk
                            ½ cup cornstarch
                            Pinch of salt
                            3 eggs
                            ½ cup sugar

Heat milk to boiling, add cornstarch dissolved in a little cold milk and
a pinch of salt. Boil five minutes, add yolks of eggs beaten with sugar.
Boil 2 minutes longer, remove from fire and beat in the whipped whites
of eggs. Flavor with vanilla or lemon. Serve cold with cream and sugar
or canned peaches or pears.

This is used also as a filling for cream pie, using the beaten whites of
eggs, sweetened for a meringue and browning slightly in oven. Bake the
crust before filling with the cream.


                            =Baked Custard=

                          4 cups scalded milk
                          4 eggs
                          ½ cup sugar
                          ¼ teaspoon salt
                          Few gratings nutmeg

Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt, pour on slowly scalded milk,
strain in buttered mold, set in pan of hot water. Sprinkle with nutmeg
and bake in slow oven until firm, which may be readily determined by
running a silver knife through custard. If knife comes out clean,
custard is done. During baking care must be taken that water surrounding
mold does not reach boiling point or custard will whey. Always bear in
mind that eggs and milk combination must be cooked at a low temperature.
For cup custards allow three eggs to four cups milk; for large molded
custard four or five eggs; if fewer eggs are used, custard is liable to
crack when turned on a serving dish.


                     =Baked Apple, Southern Style=

[Illustration]

                           6 choice apples
                           ½ cup sugar
                           1 qt. milk
                           Salt
                           4 eggs
                           ⅔ cup sugar
                           1 teaspoon vanilla

Pare and core apples that are not too sour to hold their shape when
baked. Put in a pudding dish, sprinkle the half cupful of sugar over and
around them, also filling place where the core was taken out. Put in
oven and bake. Remove from oven and pour around them the milk mixture
made thus: Beat the eggs well, add sugar and beat again, add milk, salt
and vanilla. Bake slowly until a knife-blade will come out clean after
insertion in the custard. Serve hot or cold, with or without whipped
cream. This is an especially good dessert for children.


                            =Coffee Custard=

                          2 cups milk
                          1 cup strong coffee
                          3 eggs
                          ¼ cup sugar
                          ⅛ teaspoon salt
                          ¼ teaspoon vanilla

Beat eggs slightly; add sugar, salt, vanilla, milk and coffee. Strain
into buttered individual molds, set in pan of hot water and bake until
firm.


                           =Caramel Custard=

                          4 cups scalded milk
                          5 eggs
                          ½ teaspoon salt
                          1 teaspoon vanilla
                          ½ cup sugar

Put sugar in omelette pan, stirring constantly over hot part of range
until melted to a syrup of light brown color. Add gradually to milk,
being careful that milk does not bubble up and go over, as is liable on
account of high temperature of sugar. As soon as sugar is melted in
milk, add mixture gradually to eggs slightly beaten, add salt and
flavoring, then strain in buttered mold. Bake as custard. Chill and
serve with caramel sauce.


                             =Rice Pudding=

 1 qt. milk
 ⅓ cup rice
 ½ teaspoon salt
 ⅛ teaspoon ground nutmeg, or cinnamon, or grated rind of ¼ of a lemon

Wash the rice thoroughly, mix the ingredients and bake three hours or
more in a very slow oven, stirring occasionally at first.


                           =Tapioca Custard=

Add to the list of ingredients for boiled custard ¼ cup of pearl
tapioca. Soak the tapioca in water for an hour or two, drain it, and
cook in the milk until it is transparent. Proceed as for boiled custard.


                GENERAL RECIPE FOR CEREAL-MILK PUDDINGS

Bread and rice puddings, made with milk and eggs, are familiar to all
cooks. Made without eggs, the following will be found suggestive:

For a quart of milk allow ⅓ of a cup of any coarse cereal (rice,
cornmeal, cracked wheat, oatmeal or barley); add ⅓ of a cup of brown,
white or maple sugar, syrup, honey or molasses; ½ teaspoon salt; ⅛
teaspoon spice. The flavoring may be omitted when honey or molasses is
used.

The above recipe makes quite a large pudding. It is often convenient to
make a smaller one, and enough for a child’s dinner can be made in the
double boiler, allowing two level or one rounding tablespoon of cereal
to a cup of salted and flavored milk. Cook an hour and sweeten slightly.

These puddings, if made thin, may be poured over stewed prunes or other
cooked fruits, and are a good and economical substitute for the cream or
soft custard usually used for that purpose.

A very old recipe for a baked corn pudding has recently been given to
the author.


                         =Indian Meal Custard=

                 1 pt. sweet milk, when hot add slowly
                 ½ cup cornmeal
                 Pinch salt
                 ½ teaspoon each cinnamon and ginger
                 Sugar to taste
                 1 tablespoon molasses
                 Boil 5 minutes, and add
                 2 beaten eggs
                 1 pt. milk
                 Bake about one-half hour or till set.


                       =Milk and Fruit Mold[11]=

[Illustration:

  Milk and fruit mold
]

                3½ cups hot milk,
                ½ cup cold milk,
                5 tablespoons granulated sugar
                10 tablespoons cornstarch
                2 beaten egg whites
                1 teaspoon almond extract,
                ½ teaspoon salt
                Candied cherries, cut into small pieces

Heat milk in double boiler. Mix cornstarch with cold milk, stir it into
the hot milk, add salt and sugar and cook, stirring occasionally, for 10
minutes. Remove from fire, fold in the beaten whites and add the
flavoring. Rinse mold in cold water, drain, pour in part of the cooked
mixture, add a layer of cherries and continue until mold is filled. Set
on ice to chill. May be served in tall glasses, as illustrated, or
unmolded on a flat serving platter.


                           =Caramel Rice[11]=

                     6 cups milk
                     1 cup rice
                     1¼ cups granulated sugar
                     1 teaspoon salt
                     2 slightly beaten eggs
                     Grated rind of half an orange

Cook rice, salt, the quarter cup of sugar and milk together in a double
boiler until rice is tender. Remove from fire, add grated rind and
beaten eggs and mix well.

Put the cup of sugar in a small saucepan over the fire and stir
constantly until it is a golden brown liquid. Have a mold heating, and
when very hot pour the liquid in it, turning the mold so that all parts
are coated. Turn the rice into the mold and set it in a pan of water in
a hot oven for 20 minutes, having the mold covered the entire time.

Remove from oven, let stand until cold, unmold and serve with the
caramel sauce that is in the mold.


                            =Milk Cream=[11]

                      1½ cups hot milk
                      ½ cup cold milk
                      ⅜ cup granulated sugar
                      3 eggs
                      ½ ounce granulated gelatine
                      1 teaspoon vanilla
                      Pinch of salt

Soak gelatine in the cold milk for 10 minutes. Heat balance of milk in a
double boiler, add salt, sugar and beaten yolks, stirring constantly.
Cook until mixture coats the spoon, remove from fire, add soaked
gelatine and stir until dissolved. Then set aside to cool and when
beginning to thicken add flavoring and mix in lightly the stiffly beaten
whites.

Rinse a mold in cold water, drain, pour in mixture and set in a cold
place until firm. Unmold and serve plain or with thin cream.

[Illustration:

  Milk cream
]


                             =Plain Junket=

Heat a quart of milk until lukewarm, not to exceed 100° F. Remove from
fire; sweeten and flavor to taste, using vanilla or any other desired
flavor. Dissolve one Junket Tablet in cold water and stir the solution
quickly into the lukewarm milk. Pour immediately into individual serving
dishes, sherbet glasses, bowls or the like, and let stand warm until
thickened. When “set” remove to ice box or other cool place without
stirring and let stand until serving time. Serve with or without whipped
cream, a sprinkle of nutmeg, or a few strawberries on the top, etc.

[Illustration:

  Plain junket
]


                           =Chocolate Junket=

Sweeten a quart of milk with half a cup of sugar. Melt one square of
chocolate or two tablespoonfuls of cocoa, add half a cup of the milk and
boil one minute. Remove from fire and add the remainder of the milk,
which must not be boiled, and a teaspoonful of vanilla. Probably the
mixture will be lukewarm, if not, warm until it is. Stir in dissolved
Junket Tablet, pour at once into serving dishes and leave undisturbed
until set. Chill and serve. If whipped cream sweetened and flavored with
vanilla is heaped upon the Chocolate Junket when serving, a most
attractive dessert is obtained, and Chocolate Junket frozen makes a
delicious ice cream.


                            =Coffee Junket=

One-half cup very strong coffee, ½ cup sugar, added to 1¾ pints of
heated milk. Dissolve. Add your Junket Tablet and finish as ordinary
Junket. Serve with cream.

An endless variety of Junkets can be made by varying flavor and color,
by adding fruit or preserves, etc., and in the sick room various
medicines or stimulants, peptone, wine, etc., may conveniently be
administered as an ingredient in the pudding.


                          =“Prepared Junket”=

_Prepared Junket_ in which all the ingredients are found except the milk
is on the market in the form of a powder called “Nesnah.” It is put up
in various flavors and is easily and quickly made when milk is at
disposal.

Heat 1 qt. milk lukewarm, remove from fire, add one package of the
prepared Junket and dissolve quickly and thoroughly by vigorous stirring
for ½ minute only. Pour immediately into individual serving dishes and
let stand in warm room until thoroughly set. Place in ice box until
serving time. Serve with or without plain or whipped cream.


                             MILK BEVERAGES


                                 =Whey=

                        1 qt. fresh milk
                        1 Junket Tablet
                        1 tablespoon cold water

Heat the milk until lukewarm and add the tablet dissolved in the cold
water. Allow it to set in a warm room. Then break up the curd gently and
strain it through two thicknesses of cheese-cloth, being careful to
remove all the casein. Cool at once and serve cold, without or with
sweetening, and flavor as desired.


                              =Lemon Whey=

                          1 qt. hot milk
                          3 tablespoons sugar
                          ½ cup lemon juice

Heat the milk in a double boiler and add the lemon juice. Cook without
stirring until the whey separates. Strain through cheese-cloth and add
the sugar. Serve hot or cold, garnished with small slices of lemon.


                          =Cinnamon and Milk=

                             1 qt. new milk
                             Stick cinnamon
                             Sugar

Boil milk with sufficient cinnamon to flavor as desired. Sweeten and
serve warm or cold.


                              =Rice Milk=

                            1 ounce rice
                            1 pint milk
                            1 saltspoon salt
                            1 teaspoon sugar

Soak the rice twelve hours. Add the scalded milk, salt and sugar. Stir
well and cook one hour; then rub through a fine sieve. Thin with more
hot milk and serve.


                     =Kumyss= (see also Chapter II)

                       ⅙ cake Fleischmann’s yeast
                       1¼ tablespoons sugar
                       1 tablespoon water
                       1 quart milk

Make a thin syrup of the sugar and water and cook one minute. Soften the
yeast in two tablespoons of lukewarm milk. Heat the milk until lukewarm,
add other ingredients and shake. Put in stone, sterile bottles, place in
an upright position for twelve hours, at 70° (kitchen heat); then turn
on side and leave at a temperature of 50° (lower part of ice box). Ready
for use after the first twenty-four hours; often kept several days, but
the longer it is kept the less palatable it is. It should look like
thick, foamy cream.


                            =Egg Milk Shake=

                               1 egg
                               1 cup milk
                               Sugar
                               Vanilla

Break the egg into a large glass and beat well. Add sugar and a couple
of drops of vanilla or a dust of nutmeg and beat again. Fill up glass
with rich milk. This makes a very nourishing drink.


                           =Buttermilk Shake=

                        1 cup buttermilk
                        1 egg
                        Sugar
                        Few drops lemon extract
                        Salt

Break egg into bowl, beat thoroughly with egg beater, add sugar,
flavoring, a tiny pinch of salt and buttermilk. Beat again till light
and foamy. Turn into glass.


                         =Buttermilk Lemonade=

A variation may be made from ordinary buttermilk by the addition of
lemon juice and sugar. “Buttermilk lemonade” usually requires the juice
of three lemons to one quart of buttermilk. The quantity of lemon and
sugar, however, should be varied to suit the taste of the individual.
The beverage is delightful and is especially refreshing on a hot summer
day.

One may also use the juice of two oranges and one lemon to one quart of
buttermilk, instead of the lemons alone.

Many people like the clear buttermilk slightly sweetened with a few
grains of salt added.


                              =Chocolate=

                          1½ squares chocolate
                          4 tablespoons sugar
                          Few grains salt
                          1 cup boiling water
                          3 cups milk
                          ½ teaspoon vanilla

Scald milk. Melt chocolate in small saucepan and gradually add boiling
water. When smooth add to scalded milk, sweeten and add salt and
vanilla. Mill with Dover egg beater, and serve, putting a large teaspoon
of whipped cream on each cup.


                                =Cocoa=

                           ¼ cup cocoa
                           ¼ cup sugar
                           Few grains salt
                           1 cup water
                           3 cups milk
                           ½ teaspoon vanilla

Mix cocoa and sugar, add water and stir into milk already heated in
double boiler. Cook 15 minutes, add vanilla and salt. Serve with whipped
cream. A famous cook known to the writer adds 1 teaspoon cornstarch
dissolved in 1 tablespoon cold water to the cocoa when nearly ready for
the table. It adds to the apparent richness of the beverage.


                       MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS

1. A tablespoonful of milk put in the pan before frying eggs will keep
them tender.

2. Covering cold chicken or other meat with buttermilk will keep it for
twenty-four hours or more, without affecting the meat except to make it
more tender.

3. Custards and ice cream kept too long in warm weather may cause
ptomaine poisoning.

4. Keep milk covered to shut out flavors from other food.

5. Milk warm from the cow should not be kept in a closed receptacle.

6. Danish cooks soak a piece of veal in skim milk overnight before
roasting it, to improve the flavor.

7. Sliced ham covered with milk and baked in a moderate oven for an hour
has delicate flavor and is always tender.


                            THE THERMOMETER

[Illustration:

  Dairy and household thermometers
]

In the United States and Canada as well as in England _Fahrenheit’s_
thermometer is generally used according to which water freezes at 32°
and boils at 212° at ordinary air pressure, leaving 180 degrees between
the freezing and the boiling point. In some countries in Europe
Réaumur’s thermometer is used with 0° for the freezing point and 80° for
boiling. In France and for scientific work in all countries, however,
the Celsius or Centigrade system is employed for measuring heat and
cold, having 0° for freezing and 100° for boiling. As there are 180°
Fahrenheit, 80° Réaumur and 100° Centigrade between freezing and
boiling, the divisions are therefore as 9° F. to 4° R. and 5° C.

To change from degrees of F. above the freezing point to the other
systems deduct 32, divide the remainder by 9 and multiply by 4 or by 5
respectively. To change from C. to F. divide by 5, multiply by 9 and add
32, etc. As the metric system is gradually being introduced everywhere
instead of the old systems for weights and measures, so also is the
Centigrade thermometer being substituted for the others and in cookery
it may soon be used exclusively.


                          WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

    1 pound = 16 ounces = 453.6 grams
    1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams
    1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.2 pounds
    1 gram = 15.43 grains = .035 ounces

    1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 liters
    1 quart = 2 pints =.9464 liters
    1 pint = 16 fluid ounces = .4731 liters
    1 fluid ounce = 8 drams = 29.57 c.c.
    1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters = 1.0567 quarts

    1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.6 kilometer
    1 foot = 12 inches = .3048 meter
    1 kilometer = 1000 meters = .6214 mile
    1 meter = 100 centimeters = 39.37 inches

    1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = .4047 hectare
    1 sq. ft. = 144 sq. inches = 9.29 sq. decimeters
    1 hectare = 10,000 sq. meters = 2.471 acres
    1 square meter = 100 sq. decimeters = 10.764 sq. ft.
    1 bushel = 4 pecks = .3552 hectoliter
    1 hectoliter = 2.8377 bushels

    1 U. S. gallon = 128 ounces = 231 cb. inches
    1 Imperial gallon (English and Canadian) = 160 ounces = 277 cb. in.
    6 U. S. gallons = 5 Imperial gallons

    1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds
    1 gallon of milk weighs 8.6 pounds
    A 40 quart can of milk = 86 pounds


              _Approximate Household Weights and Measures_

    4 saltspoonfuls = 1 teaspoonful
    3 flat teaspoonfuls = 1 heaping teaspoonful
    1 heaping tablespoonful of granulated sugar = nearly 1 ounce
    1 rounded tablespoonful of butter = 1 ounce
    2 ordinary cups of granulated sugar = 1 pound
    3 ordinary cups of wheat flour = 1 pound
    1 pound of granulated sugar = 1 pint

    4 flat teaspoonfuls of liquid = 1 flat tablespoonful = ½ fluid ounce
    4 large tablespoonfuls = 1 ordinary wine glass = 2 fluid ounces
    1 pint = 2 cups or glasses
    1 cup or glass = 8 fluid ounces.


------------------------------------------------------------------------




                               END NOTES


-----

Footnote 1:

  From circular No. 85 of a series of statements prepared under the
  direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, covering the agricultural
  situation for 1918.

Footnote 2:

  _The Babcock Test_ is operated as follows: When the milk has been
  thoroughly mixed and a true sample has been taken the _pipette_ is
  filled to the mark by sucking the milk into it until it stands a
  little above the mark on the stem, then quickly placing a dry finger
  over the end of the pipette and allowing the milk to escape until it
  just reaches the mark. The quantity thus measured off is 17.6 c.c. The
  pipette is then emptied into the _test bottle_ by placing the point in
  the neck and allowing the milk to flow slowly down the inside of the
  neck, taking care not to lose any of the milk. Blow the last drops out
  of the pipette into the bottle.

  The _measuring glass_, holding 17.5 c.c., is filled to the mark with
  _sulphuric acid_ of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83 and this is
  poured into the milk in the test bottle. The acid is a strong poison
  and must be handled with care. Pour it slowly down along the wall of
  the bottle which is held at an angle and turned slowly during the
  operation.

  Now give the bottle a rotary motion to thoroughly mix the milk and the
  acid, shaking vigorously towards the end of the operation so as to be
  sure not to leave any of the acid which is heavier than the milk at
  the bottom of the bottle.

  _Whirling._—The bottles are then placed in the centrifugal machine and
  whirled for five minutes at the proper speed—from 600 to 1200
  revolutions per minute—according to the diameter of the machine and as
  stated in the directions which come with the tester. The mixture of
  milk and acid is hot enough if the whirling is done at once, but if it
  is allowed to cool the bottles should be placed in hot water of 150 to
  170° for about 15 minutes; whirling at full speed for 4 minutes brings
  all the fat to the top.

  Hot water is now added until the bottle is filled almost to the scale
  on the neck and the bottles are again placed in the machine and
  whirled at full speed for one minute. Hot water is then again added
  until the lower end of the fat column is within the scale, preferably
  at the 1% or 2% mark on the neck of the bottle. Whirl once more for
  one or two minutes and then read off the percentage of fat on the
  scale. Each division represents 0.2% fat. The fat column is measured
  from the lower line between the fat and the water to the point where
  the top of the fat column touches the wall of the neck. A pair of
  dividers are handy for measuring the fat column and reading off the
  percentage of fat in the milk. The bottle with contents should be
  warm—about 140°—when the measure is taken.

  For testing skim milk and cream special forms of test bottles are
  used—which are described in the circulars coming with the testers and
  students who desire fuller information are referred to Farrington and
  Woll’s “Testing Milk and its Products,” published by the Mendota Book
  Co., Madison, Wis.

Footnote 3:

  The _Acid Test_ depends upon what in the laboratory is called
  “titration” and makes use of a “burette,” a long, graduated measuring
  tube provided with a pinch-cock. This burette is filled with an alkali
  solution of known strength, usually a “tenth normal” solution of
  caustic soda. A certain amount of the milk to be tested is measured
  off into a glass or a white porcelain cup. As a 17.6 c.c. pipette
  belonging to the Babcock test usually is at hand, that may be used for
  this purpose. A few drops of an _Indicator_ is added to the milk and
  under constant stirring the soda solution is allowed to drip into it
  until suddenly it turns pink. The color will quickly disappear,
  however, and a few more drops of the alkali are added and stirred in
  several times until a faint but distinct pink color remains for some
  time. That indicates that the acid in the milk has been neutralized
  and the amount of the soda solution consumed is then read off on the
  scale on the burette. By dividing the number of c.c. of the soda
  solution used by two, the tenths per cent of lactic acid in the milk
  is found. For example, if it takes 4 c.c. of the soda solution to
  neutralize 17.6 c.c. milk, the acidity is .2%. This depends upon the
  fact that 1 c.c. of a tenth normal soda neutralizes .009 gram of
  lactic acid and that therefore the per cent of acid in the milk is
  equal to .009 multiplied by the number of c.c. of soda solution used,
  divided by the number of c.c. of milk and multiplied by 100.

  If 50 c.c. of milk is taken instead of 17.6 the calculation is changed
  accordingly.

Footnote 4:

  Farmers’ Bulletin No. 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Footnote 5:

  _Butter Color_ is made of the coloring matter of “Annatto” dissolved
  in a refined vegetable (salad) oil. The Annatto tree (Bixa Orelana)
  grows in the tropics and the seed which has a thin coating of this
  beautiful coloring matter comes mostly from the West Indian Islands,
  Jamaica, Porto Rico and Guadeloupe. It is perfectly harmless and is
  used by the natives to flavor and color soup and other foods much as
  we use tomatoes.

Footnote 6:

  The Marschall Rennet Test consists of a graduated cup (a) with a fine
  hole for an outlet in the bottom. One cubic centimeter of a standard
  rennet extract is diluted with water in the glass bottle (c). The cup
  is filled with milk and placed on the corner of the cheese vat, the
  milk being allowed to run through the fine hole in the bottom of the
  cup. The moment the surface of the milk reaches the upper mark of the
  graduation in the cup the diluted rennet extract is added and quickly
  stirred into the milk with the spattle (d).

  When the milk begins to curdle it stops running out. The sweeter the
  milk is the more will run out before coagulation stops it and the mark
  on the scale at which it stops indicates the degree of acidity or
  ripening. The point is to have the milk alike every day and if, for
  instance, the cheesemaker has found that his cheese is best if he adds
  the rennet to the milk in the vat when the test shows 2½, he wants to
  ripen the milk to that degree every day. So, if the test shows 3 or 4,
  it indicates that the milk is not sufficiently ripened and it should
  be allowed to stand warm for a longer time before it is set with
  rennet.

Footnote 7:

  The Acidemeter for making an Acid Test is described in Chapter I.

Footnote 8:

  Rennet (see under “Ferments” in Chapter I) is prepared from the third
  division of the stomach of the suckling or milk-fed calf. Fifty years
  ago cheesemakers used to make their own rennet by soaking salted
  calves’ stomachs in sour whey, and our grandmothers used a piece of a
  dry, salted stomach to make Junket or “Curds and Whey.” About 1868,
  Christian Hansen, of Copenhagen, Denmark, began the preparation of
  Commercial Rennet Extract which soon supplanted the home-made rennet
  in all countries wherever cheese was made. Nowadays rennet in liquid
  or powder or tablet form for cheesemaking, and Junket Tablets for milk
  puddings, are prepared pure and of known strength in laboratories and
  handled by druggists and dealers in dairy supplies.

  The fresh stomachs are saved by the farmers or butchers and are either
  blown up and dried in the air protected from sunlight and rain, or
  split lengthwise and spread out flat and salted on both sides.

  In the laboratory the ferment is extracted by chemicals and a pure,
  clear liquid extract is prepared, of uniform strength and good keeping
  quality. Or the extract is condensed into a powder which again is
  compressed into tablets of great strength.

  The ferment acts best when the milk is lukewarm, but it will do the
  work at temperatures ranging from 50°, or even lower, to 120° F.
  Strongly pasteurized or sterilized milk will not curdle with rennet,
  but milk pasteurized at a low temperature is not changed enough to
  prevent it from making a firm curd. More rennet does not make a firmer
  curd but causes the milk to curdle quicker; less rennet makes the
  process slower. Diluted milk will not curdle firmly, and the failure
  of milk to make a smooth coagulum of the usual consistency and in the
  usual time, the temperature being right and the regular amount of a
  standard rennet being used, is a never-failing proof that something is
  the matter with the milk. It has been changed from its natural
  condition by over-heating in pasteurization or by watering or
  doctoring, or it has not been properly ripened.

Footnote 9:

  W. O. Atwater, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 142.

Footnote 10:

  Dr. E. V. McCollum in “Hoard’s Dairyman.”

Footnote 11:

  Prepared for “The Story of Milk” by A. Louise Andrea.


------------------------------------------------------------------------




                              BIBLIOGRAPHY


Cheese Making; John W. Decker, Columbus, O.

The Milk Question; M. J. Rosenau, Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston.

The Manufacture of Cheese of the Cheddar Type from Pasteurized Milk; J.
    L. Sammis and A. T. Bruhn, Bulletin 165, Bureau of Animal Industry,
    Washington, D. C.

Dairy Laboratory Guide; Charles W. Melick, D. Van Nostrand Company, New
    York City.

Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen; F. W. Woll, John Wiley & Sons, New
    York City.

Testing Milk and Its Products; E. H. Farrington and F. W. Woll, Mendota
    Book Company, Madison, Wis.

Farmers’ Clean Milk Book; Dr. Charles E. North, John Wiley & Sons, New
    York.

Ost og Osteproduktion; G. Ellbrecht, Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen,
    Denmark.

Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology; N. L. Russell, Madison, Wis.

A B C in Butter Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New York.

A B C in Cheese Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New York.

Dairy Chemistry; Henry Droop Richmond, Charles Griffin and Company,
    Ltd., London.

Milk, its Nature and Composition; C. M. Aikman, Adams and Charles Black,
    London.

Milk and Its Products; H. H. Wing, The Macmillan Co., New York.

Principles and Practice of Buttermaking; G. L. McKay and C. Larsen, John
    Wiley & Sons, New York.

Science and Practice of Cheese Making; L. L. Van Slyke and Chas. A.
    Publow, Orange Judd Company, New York.

Agricultural Bacteriology; H. W. Conn, P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.,
    Philadelphia.

Creaming Milk by Centrifugal Force; J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls,
    N.Y.

The Common Sense of the Milk Question; John Spargo, The Macmillan
    Company, New York.

Practical Dairy Husbandry; X. A. Willard, Excelsior Publishing House,
    New York.

Maelkeri Bakteriologi; Orla Jensen, Copenhagen.

Maelkeribruget i Danmark, Bernhard Boggild, Copenhagen.

Mejerivaesenet i Nord-Amerika; J. D. Frederiksen, Copenhagen.

Modern Dairy Guide; Martin H. Meyer, Madison, Wis.

La Laiterie; A. F. Pouriau, Librairie Audot, Lebroc & Cie, Paris.

The Dairying Industry in Canada; J. A. Ruddick, Dept. of Agriculture,
    Ottawa, Canada.

Canadian Dairying; Henry H. Dean, William Briggs, Toronto.

The Business of Dairying; Clarence B. Lane, Orange Judd Co., New York.

Questions and Answers on Buttermaking; Chas. A. Publow, Orange Judd
    Company, New York.

The Prolongation of Life; Elie Metchnikoff, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New
    York.

The Bacillus of Long Life; Loudon M. Douglas, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New
    York.

The Book of Butter; Edward Sewall Guthrie, The Macmillan Co., New York.

The Care and Feeding of Children; L. Emmett Holt, M. D., D. Appleton &
    Co.


                Printed in the United States of America


------------------------------------------------------------------------





The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan
books on kindred subjects.




------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Book of Ice Cream

                           BY WALTER N. FISK

                                                          _Cloth, 12 mo_

This book is intended to aid the student and the commercial manufacturer
in better understanding the principles of making and handling ice cream.
It is not primarily intended as a recipe-book, although many recipes are
included in the text.

The first five chapters consist in a general discussion of the materials
used in the manufacture of ice cream as well as the stabilizers and
fillers and flavoring materials. The next chapter deals with the
classification of ice creams, and here the recipes are given. The
equipment and refrigeration are then explained in a separate chapter,
followed by three chapters devoted to the actual making of ice cream.

The concluding pages are taken up with an analysis of the qualities of
ice cream and of the bacteriology of its manufacture. Such a discussion
should be useful both to the student in the class-room and the
progressive manufacturer.

                  *       *       *       *       *

                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
               Publishers   64-66 Fifth Avenue   New York


------------------------------------------------------------------------


                       THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES

                         EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

Butter

                            BY E. S. GUTHRIE

      Professor in the Dairy Department, New York State College of
                    Agriculture, Cornell University

                  *       *       *       *       *

                                                   _Cloth, 12mo, $1.75._

A practical discussion of the general characteristics of butter, and of
all of the problems connected with its manufacture and marketing,
together with a brief history of the product. Among the topics
considered are the history of butter; composition and food value of
butter; cleansing and care of dairy utensils; care of milk and cream;
cream separation; grading milk and cream and neutralizing acidity;
pasteurization; cream ripening; churning, washing, salting and packing
butter; flavors of butter; storage of butter; marketing; whey butter,
renovated and ladled butter; margarine, and testing.


------------------------------------------------------------------------


The Book of Cheese

                            BY CHARLES THOM

     Mycologist in charge of Microbiological Laboratory, Bureau of
      Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture; formerly
       Investigator in Cheese at Connecticut Agricultural College

                                  AND

                             WALTER W. FISK

         Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry, New York State
              College of Agriculture at Cornell University

                                                   _Cloth, 12mo, $1.90._

An exposition of the processes of making and handling a series of
important varieties of cheese. The kinds considered are those made
commercially in America or widely met in the trade here. The relation of
cheese to milk and to its production and composition has been presented
in so far as required for this purpose.

After a general statement on cheese, the authors consider the following
subjects: The milk in its relation to cheese; Coagulating materials;
Lactic starters; Curd making; Classification of cheese; Cheese with sour
milk flavor; Soft cheeses ripened by mold; Soft cheeses ripened by
bacteria; Semi-hard cheeses; The hard cheeses; Cheddar cheese making;
Composition and yield of cheddar cheese; Cheddar cheese ripening; The
Swiss and Italian groups; Miscellaneous varieties and by-products;
Cheese factory construction, equipment, organization; History and
development of the cheese industry in America; Testing; Marketing;
Cheese in the household.


------------------------------------------------------------------------


A Manual of Milk Products

                         BY W. A. STOCKING, JR.

    Professor of Dairy Bacteriology in the New York State College of
                   Agriculture at Cornell University

                                                    _Cloth, 12mo, $2.50_

This is a very recent addition to the Rural Manual Series under the
editorship of L. H. Bailey. The work is intended to serve as a reference
book covering the entire subject of milk and its products. There are
chapters on The Chemical Composition of Milk, The Factors Which
Influence Its Composition, Physical Properties, The Various Tests Used
in the Study of Milk, The Production and Handling of Milk, Butter
Making, The Cream Supply, Butter Making on the Farm, Cheese Making, and
the Bacteriology of Dairy Products.


Milk and Its Products

                            BY HENRY H. WING
           Professor of Dairy Husbandry in Cornell University

   _New Revised Edition, with new illustrations, cloth, 12mo, $1.60_

The revolution in dairy practice, brought about by the introduction of
the centrifugal cream separator and the Babcock test for fat, by a more
definite knowledge regarding the various fermentations that so greatly
influence milk, and the manufacture of its products, have demanded the
publication of a book that shall give to the dairyman, and particularly
to the dairy student, in simple, concise form, the principles underlying
modern dairy practice. Such has been Professor Wing’s purpose in this
work. This is not a new edition of the author’s very successful volume
published under the same title many years ago; it is, in reality, an
entirely new book, having been wholly reset and enlarged by the addition
of new matter, both text and illustrations. The author’s aim has been at
all times to give the present state of knowledge as supported by the
weight of evidence and the opinions of those whose authority is highest.


------------------------------------------------------------------------




 ● Transcriber’s Notes:
    ○ Footnotes have been gathered and moved to their own section.
    ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
    ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected.
    ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only
      when a predominant form was found in this book.
    ○ Text that was in:
      italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_);
      bold by is enclosed by “equal” signs (=bold=).