Atoms at the Science Fair
                      EXHIBITING NUCLEAR PROJECTS


    U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION/Division of Technical Information


Each year more students undertake science fair projects, many of which
involve some aspect of nuclear science or technology.

The United States Atomic Energy Commission has prepared this booklet to
help these young exhibitors, their science teachers, project counselors,
and parents.

The booklet suggests also some of the numerous nuclear topics on which
students can base meaningful science projects. It offers all
exhibitors—regardless of age, experience, or project topic—advice on how
to plan, design, and construct successful exhibits. It describes some
rewards awaiting those who win their way to the National Science
Fair-International, including 10 AEC Special Awards offered for the most
outstanding nuclear exhibits.

Detailed advice on conducting science projects is omitted, partly
because several earlier publications deal with the subject, but also
because much of the personal satisfaction gained while doing a science
project stems from the student investigator’s opportunity to exercise
his initiative, imagination, and judgment in solving a problem of his
own choice, in his own way.

We trust this booklet will encourage students to enter science fair
competition, and hope it will help their advisers guide them toward
better projects and more successful exhibits.

                                                  {Edward J. Brunenkant}
                                          Edward J. Brunenkant, Director
                                       Division of Technical Information




                       Atoms at the Science Fair
                      Exhibiting Nuclear Projects


                               by Robert G. LeCompte and Burrell L. Wood




                                CONTENTS


  SCIENCE PROJECTS, EXHIBITS, AND FAIRS                                1
      Science Projects                                                 1
      Project Exhibits                                                 2
      Science Fairs                                                    2
  YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT                                                 4
      Choosing the Topic                                               4
      Where to Get Help                                                8
      Documenting Your Work                                            9
  EXHIBITING YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT                                     11
      Planning the Content of Your Exhibit                            11
      How Exhibits Are Judged                                         12
      Designing Your Exhibit                                          16
      About Color                                                     25
      Completing Your Exhibit                                         27
  COMPETITION AND ITS REWARDS                                         30
  QUO VADIS?                                                          34
  APPENDIX I—NUCLEAR SCIENCE PROJECT IDEAS                            37
  APPENDIX II—NUCLEAR ENERGY-RELATED INVESTIGATIONS AND APPLICATIONS  47
  APPENDIX III—SUGGESTED REFERENCES                                   48
  APPENDIX IV—WORKING WITH RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS        50
  APPENDIX V—SUPPLIERS OF RADIOISOTOPES                               51
  APPENDIX VI—INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR RULES                        52


                 United States Atomic Energy Commission
                   Division of Technical Information

           Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 64-65589
                                  1968

    [Illustration: Interviews help AEC Special Awards judges identify
    the most outstanding nuclear-related exhibits entered in each
    National Science Fair-International. Here, Elizabeth Winstead of
    Jacksonville, Florida, explains her irradiated fruit flies to Dr.
    Paul W. McDaniel, AEC Director of Research and a Special Awards
    judge at the 1963 national fair, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Selected
    as one of the 10 winners, Miss Winstead and her science teacher
    spent a week at the Commission’s Argonne National Laboratory near
    Chicago.]

ROBERT G. LeCOMPTE majored in English (A. B., St. Benedict’s, 1935) and
has worked primarily as a communicator—reporter, house-organ editor and
photographer, military-information officer and instructor,
public-relations consultant, and information and exhibits specialist. He
joined the Atomic Energy Commission’s staff at Albuquerque, New Mexico,
in 1951, transferring in 1957 to the AEC’s Headquarters, where he is
Exhibits and Education Officer in the Division of Technical Information.
His concern with science stems from aviation writing, World War II
service as an Air Force pilot and technical-intelligence officer,
science-news reporting, and requirements for presenting AEC
scientific-technical developments to the lay public. He has been
involved in science fair activities since 1960, when he began the study
which led to establishment of AEC Special Awards for outstanding
nuclear-related exhibits at the National Science Fair-International.

BURRELL L. WOOD is a chemist (A.B. in French and B.S. in Chemistry,
Presbyterian College, 1940; M.S. in Chemistry, University of Georgia,
1942; Ph. D. in Chemistry, University of North Carolina, 1952). In 1953,
while head of the Chemistry Department at Furman University, Dr. Wood
organized a statewide science fair program in South Carolina. He moved
to the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in 1957, and
expanded that state’s program by organizing four regional science fairs.
He joined the staff of Science Service in 1960 and edited _Chemistry_
magazine and “Things of Science” experimental kits. In 1961 he joined
the Atomic Energy Commission’s Headquarters staff and is now Exhibit
Coordinator in the Division of Special Projects. He served at the
National Science Fair-International in 1962 and 1963 as a judge of
nuclear-related exhibits considered for AEC Special Awards.




                       Atoms at the Science Fair
                      Exhibiting Nuclear Projects


               by ROBERT G. LeCOMPTE and BURRELL L. WOOD




                 SCIENCE PROJECTS, EXHIBITS, AND FAIRS


In almost every area of endeavor, we learn best by _doing_. Books and
lectures provide background, but it is by putting theory into practice
that we make knowledge truly our own. To learn a language, we read and
speak it. Our knowledge of mathematics follows practice at problem
solving, and so it is with science.


Science Projects

In conducting a good science project, we work in much the same manner as
professional scientists. Like them, we observe, experiment, investigate,
speculate, and check the validity of our speculations with more
experiments, all in order to learn something. If our work is good,
others may learn from it too, but only if we present it adequately.

Better understanding of an area of science is the least that we can gain
from doing a science project. At their best, science projects foster
habits of effective planning, attention to detail, careful work, and
high performance standards that will serve us well throughout our lives.
Moreover, there is always the promise that the project will open the
door to a satisfying career.


Project Exhibits

More and more, scientists are called upon to share their work not only
with other scientists but also with legislators, administrators,
sociologists, artists—all kinds of people in all kinds of professions.
To follow this lead, student scientists also must tell other people
about their science projects.

When executed properly, exhibits are an effective way to do this.
Exhibits which combine interesting visual materials with well-written
messages can communicate much in very limited time and space. Good
exhibits can speak clearly to a great variety of viewers. Those already
generally familiar with the subject may absorb the entire message, but
even the uninitiated will find something of interest.


Science Fairs

Fairs have been popular throughout history. Generally they have been
occasions to display work or feats of which people are proud. Often they
have stimulated progress and the exchange of goods and ideas.

Early in this century some teachers encouraged their students to
undertake individual science projects, then exhibit them before their
classmates and fellow students. Between the two World Wars some
individual school systems developed citywide science fairs to show the
most outstanding of these exhibits from each school. The science fair
movement gained momentum rapidly after World War II, and in 1950 the
First National Science Fair was held in Philadelphia, drawing exhibitors
from 13 affiliated area fairs.

Today the national event draws exhibitors from more than 200 affiliated
state and regional fairs. Recent entry of competitors from several other
countries has produced its new title—National Science Fair-International
(NSFI). It is the “Olympic Games” for science fair exhibitors, conducted
by Science Clubs of America, an activity of Science Service, 1719 N
Street N. W., Washington, D. C.

    [Illustration: _The growing international flavor of the national
    science fair is exemplified in contestants like Anders S. Brahme,
    Sweden’s entrant at Albuquerque in 1963, and the first non-U. S.
    student to achieve Atomic Energy Commission Special Awards
    recognition. He was one of 10 alternates to the 10 winners and is
    shown receiving a Certificate of Achievement from Harry S. Traynor,
    AEC Assistant General Manager._]

Usually state and regional science fairs are limited, like the national
event, to the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades, but occasionally they have a
division for junior high school entrants. In school districts where
junior high schools hold fairs, the district fair frequently includes
both senior high and junior high divisions. Some elementary schools
conduct science fairs for their 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students. In
both the elementary and junior high school divisions, exhibitors usually
compete against entrants of their own grade level, for example, 5th
graders against 5th graders, and 9th graders against 9th graders. In the
senior division each entrant competes against all others. Although the
overall quality of exhibits at local fairs is rarely up to that of
regional, state, and national fairs, the local events are possibly the
most valuable educational tools because they are viewed by so large a
“grass-roots” audience of classmates, parents, teachers, and other local
citizens.

In science fairs—as in athletics or music—top prizes are seldom won by
first-time competitors. Almost all national fair exhibitors have
participated in science fairs at various levels for a year or more
before winning their way into the national event. Both experience in
science projects and practice in display techniques are required to
develop outstanding exhibits. Since this is true, the time to start the
science project which will form the basis for your exhibit is now!




                          YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT


Choosing the Topic

Since you will necessarily spend considerable thought, time, physical
effort, and (sometimes) money on your project, pick a topic from which
you can expect to learn something. If you can avoid the temptation to
pick one with which you are already familiar, you will probably get more
out of it. Your project should be an adventure, not merely a drill!

On the other hand your science project need not be in utterly unexplored
areas; to be successful you need not come up with data and conclusions
which will confound professional scientists who have spent their lives
in similar work. You are a student and a hobbyist, not yet a
professional research scientist. Primarily your project should advance
your personal knowledge, and your abilities to observe, speculate,
hypothesize, experiment, deduce, and conclude.

You should choose a project which you can expect to follow to a
successful conclusion, but which is enough above your current knowledge
to make you “stretch” your abilities.

But it is important not to bite off more than you can chew. The project
should not demand so much time that you neglect other responsibilities.
However, you need not pass up an interesting topic because covering all
of it would consume too much time. Instead, zero in on just those
aspects which interest you most.

    [Illustration: _Sophomore Eileen O’Brien of New Dorp High School,
    Staten Island, New York, displayed this nuclear-related exhibit at
    the 13th NSFI at Seattle in 1962, but did not win any AEC
    recognition._]

    [Illustration: _At the 14th NSFI at Albuquerque in 1963, junior
    Eileen O’Brien returned with a new and better exhibit of a related
    but more advanced project..._]

    [Illustration: _... and found herself an AEC Special Awards winner
    invited, with her science teacher, to spend a week at Argonne
    National Laboratory._]

    [Illustration: _At the 15th NSFI at Baltimore in 1964, senior Eileen
    O’Brien qualified again as an AEC Special Awards winner by
    exhibiting a more advanced project, but one still related to her
    earlier ones._
                                                Courtesy Science Service]

You may be able to select a project which will be of continuing interest
in later years. For example, a 9th-grade general-science student might
begin by making an _overall survey_ of a topic to discover what is
already known about it and what remains to be discovered. As a
10th-grade biology student, he might investigate _biological_ aspects of
his topic, and then follow with investigations of _chemical_ and
_physical_ aspects of it while studying 11th grade chemistry and 12th
grade physics. Some outstanding science fair exhibits have resulted from
such progressive development of a single project which the exhibitors
undertook first in junior high school.

Whenever you ask a question about some aspect of nature you have a
possible project topic. “How does a chicken hatch?” “What is the best
way to treat a burn?” “How could nuclear energy be used in space
travel?” You need only examine the questions that occur to you every day
to find dozens of topics on which to base projects.

You might identify promising topics by reviewing the table of contents
in your science text, noting chapters or topics of particular interest.
Or you may find it helpful to consult the references listed in the
appendix to this booklet. If you are interested in a project related to
atomic energy, the appendix lists also many nuclear topics and research
areas.

It is probably wise to select several potential project topics, do a
little reading on each of them, and then pick one. Before reaching a
decision, discuss them with your teachers and parents. Your science
teacher can help you pick a topic that will relate closely to classroom
work, and may be able to suggest interesting approaches you haven’t
considered. By talking your project topic over with your parents and
advisers you can make sure that you will have the time, working space,
moral support, and financial resources needed to complete it
successfully.

    [Illustration: _After failing as sophomores to qualify for AEC
    Special Awards at Seattle, both these Texans came back as juniors to
    win at Albuquerque with better exhibits of similar, but more refined
    projects. James L. Ash (below) is from Dallas, and Michael A.
    Haralson (above) is from Abilene._]

    [Illustration: James L. Ash]

At the outset, the exhibit possibilities of your chosen project may not
be clearly apparent. You cannot predict exactly what procedures you will
follow nor what conclusions you will draw. As you proceed, you will
probably uncover many facts which you will want to tell people about. If
you choose a good topic, work carefully and accurately, and cover the
topic fully, you will produce a successful project which can form the
basis for a good exhibit.


Where to Get Help

One mark of a truly educated individual is his willingness to discuss
his problems with others and profit by their advice and help. One of the
most important things that you can learn while doing a project is how
and where to obtain information and assistance.

Your _science teacher_ may be an excellent source. If he cannot provide
specialized help himself probably he can direct you to those who can.

Your _school librarian_ can point out specialized references such as
scientific encyclopedias and “reserved” reference books. Scientific
magazines and journals have good “survey articles” on recent
developments. Don’t overlook the public, college, and special technical
libraries near you. Also, academies of science, technical societies, and
science laboratories may have libraries or publications you can use.

It is to be hoped that your topic is one on which some expert local
counseling will be available—from your science teacher or one of your
parents, your family physician or the local pharmacist, your
agricultural extension agent, or scientific and engineering personnel of
a nearby manufacturing plant, defense installation, research laboratory,
or college.

Select a _project adviser_ and try to enlist his cooperation. Explain
your choice of topic to him and how you plan to develop it. (If you have
already done background reading you may find him more receptive and more
helpful.) You may need to consult him on several different occasions.
You will probably want him to check you project plan to make sure that
you have not left out an important step, or included some potential
pitfall. Also, you may want him to review the final written report in
which you summarize your work and findings.

However, your project must rest upon work done by you. It is permissible
to obtain assistance from others, but never to the extent that you are
standing on the sidelines watching someone else do your work. Keep your
interviews brief and approach each conference with a clear idea of what
you are seeking and why, and always only after you have already done as
much as possible—whether by way of reading or project work—to find the
answer on your own. By doing this you will gain valuable habits of
self-reliance, and added stature in your adviser’s eyes.

_Special equipment and materials_ may be obtained or borrowed through
laboratories. College laboratories assist sometimes. Some industrial
organizations may have surplus equipment and materials that they are
willing to lend or donate.


Documenting Your Work

Project Notebook Every scientist worth his salt keeps detailed notes on
each project on which he works. You should do likewise. This notebook,
which could as well be a set of file cards, contains a running,
day-by-day account of everything that concerns the project—observations,
speculations, experiments, materials, expenses, procedures, data and
observations, hypotheses, checks for validity, conclusions, and
conjectures. From such notebooks comes the information for the
scientist’s formal report, or “paper”, by which he advises his employers
and colleagues of the progress of his work.

Since the notebook contains everything pertaining to your project, it
may become disarranged, no matter how well you organize it in the
beginning. If so, don’t worry—just keep it up to date.

Project Report But there should be nothing haphazard about the final
report on your project. In some science fairs, this report is displayed
in the exhibit and considered in the judging. Even where not required,
the project report belongs with your exhibit.

After writing your report you will find that much of your exhibit
planning—and even some of the text which will appear in your exhibit—is
already accomplished.

If you are doing your project as a classroom assignment, your teacher
may specify the manner in which your report is to be organized.
Otherwise, you can follow a format such as this:

  1. TITLE. Keep it short. If accuracy requires more than a few words,
  consider using a very brief main title and a more definitive subtitle.

  2. ABSTRACT. This is a very brief condensation of the entire report
  summarizing the objectives of the project, what you did, and the
  conclusions you came to.

  3. INTRODUCTION. Describe your topic and give some background
  information such as relevant work done by others. Summarize your
  purpose, scope, and method of investigation. State the questions or
  hypotheses your examined. Include the most significant findings of
  your investigations.

  4. MATERIALS AND METHODS. Describe in detail the materials, equipment,
  methods, experiments, controls, unforeseen difficulties and remedies.

  5. OBSERVATIONS AND DATA. Describe your observations. Include some of
  your observational data here as an example. You may wish to put the
  bulk of it in an appendix.

  6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Give the main conclusions your observations
  tend to prove or deny. (Disproval of your initial hypothesis may be as
  important as proof of it!) Include the evidence developed for each
  main conclusion and any exceptions, or for opposing theories. Offer
  possible explanations. Compare your results and interpretations with
  those of other workers in the same field.

  7. NEW QUESTIONS, POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE PROJECTS, IF ANY.

  8. APPENDIX. Give more detailed and supplementary information, often
  including graphs, tables, photographs, and drawings.

  9. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Keep it brief, listing only those books and
  periodicals which you actually used to provide background information.

  10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. Both prudence and the best traditions of science
  require that you acknowledge all help which you receive. Usually
  student scientists do not produce laboratory work of professional
  quality, nor do student exhibitors match the skill of commercial
  designers and fabricators. Consequently, when judges encounter very
  exceptional unacknowledged work, they may reasonably wonder if the
  exhibitor received some professional help. And if on part, they
  speculate, on how much more? Result: they might be tempted to
  disqualify the exhibit entirely, whereas if you had acknowledged
  frankly—“Professor James Smith, Alpha University, for loan of four
  color transparencies”, or “My father, who devised the lighting
  system”—you might lose a point or two on their scorecards, but remain
  in competition.

Your project notebook and your formal project report are important
components of your exhibit to follow. If both are completed first, you
will find planning the rest of your exhibit a much simpler task.




                    EXHIBITING YOUR SCIENCE PROJECT


Planning the Content of Your Exhibit

Try to organize your exhibit content so that it will be meaningful to
viewers who know less about it than you do. The following outline may be
followed, but is not the only one possible. Don’t be afraid to let the
unusual aspects of your project influence the organization of its
exhibit.

Title The same title you chose for your project report may be an
acceptable exhibit title. It should be brief and as nontechnical as
possible. A subtitle may explain or amplify the main title.

The Summary Message (or Statement of the Problem) Give the viewer a
capsule explanation of the project and its significance. You may use a
simplified version of your abstract, eliminating information and
language which is not meaningful to the average viewer. Keep it simple.

Hypotheses and Conclusions List these briefly in a manner understandable
to the average viewer. (Those interested in details can find them in
your notebook and project report.)

Method and Scope of Investigation Hit only the high points, but
emphasize instances where you feel you displayed unusual imagination,
ingenuity, or resourcefulness.

Observations and Data Both are important, but in an exhibit too many
data can be dull. Select only those which are essential to the capsule
story of your project.

Photographs and Illustrations Review the foregoing elements to see where
pictures will tell your story as well as (or better than) words. List
all photographs you have already taken of your project, ones you can
still obtain, and drawings which will illustrate or help narrate your
story. Don’t be selective yet. Later, when you are designing your
exhibit layout, space limitations will force you to choose.

Equipment and Specimens These also help narrate your story. Select
objects and apparatus which will provide viewers a good grasp of your
project work. Have you hit upon a low-cost substitute for expensive
laboratory equipment? Do some of your specimens present clearly visible
evidence of points you want to make? Are any of the experimental results
or specimens particularly unusual, spectacular, or beautiful? List them
for possible use.

Handout Brochure An important but frequently overlooked exhibit
component is the “handout brochure” to be distributed to interested
viewers. Even a single mimeographed page can supply more written
information than should be displayed in the limited space of the
exhibit. It can provide serious viewers a condensed version of the
project report. The brochure provides all viewers a reference when they
discuss the science fair and your exhibit with others. Consider the
handout brochure while planning your exhibit’s contents because it can
contain data and graphs which might otherwise clutter and confuse your
exhibit proper.


How Exhibits Are Judged

Rules for the judging of exhibits vary, but most science fairs stick
fairly closely to the criteria and point values used by the National
Science Fair-International, which are:

  I. Creative Ability                                    Total 30 points

  How much of the work appears to show originality of approach or
  handling? Judge that which appears to you to be original regardless of
  the expense of purchased or borrowed equipment. Give weight to
  ingenious uses of materials, if present. Consider collections creative
  if they seem to serve a purpose.

  II. Scientific Thought                                 Total 30 points

  Does the exhibit disclose organized procedures? Is there a planned
  system, classification, accurate observation, or controlled
  experiment? Does exhibit show a verification of laws, or a cause and
  effect, or present by models or other methods a better understanding
  of scientific facts or theories? Give weight to probable amount of
  real study and effort which is represented in the exhibit. Guard
  against discounting for what might have been added, included, or
  improved.

  III. Thoroughness                                      Total 10 points

  Score here for how completely the story is told. It is not essential
  that step-by-step elucidation of construction details be given in
  working models.

  IV. Skill                                              Total 10 points

  Is the workmanship good? Under normal working conditions, is the
  exhibit likely to demand frequent repairs? In collections, how skilled
  is the handling, preparation, mounting or other treatment?

  V. Clarity                                             Total 10 points

  In your opinion, will the average person understand what is being
  displayed? Are guide marks, labels, and descriptions spelled
  correctly, and neatly yet briefly presented? Is there sensible
  progression of the attention of the spectator across or through the
  exhibit?

  VI. Dramatic Value                                     Total 10 points

  Is this exhibit more attractive than others in the same field? Do not
  be influenced by “cute” things, lights, buttons, switches, cranks, or
  other gadgets which contribute nothing to the exhibit.

Such rules leave much to the individual discretion of the judges,
particularly regarding the distinction between the science project
itself and the exhibit. Be sure to study your local rules and judging
criteria carefully. Since usually 60 points pertain to creativity and
sound scientific thought, a large part of your score depends on the
original excellence of your science project. The remaining 40 points
apply to the manner in which you develop your exhibit of that project.

    [Illustration: _AEC Special Award competition is judged by a
    “blue-ribbon” panel composed of people who head research and
    development programs at AEC offices and laboratories throughout the
    United States. At the 14th NSFI at Albuquerque, these judges spent
    the morning identifying eligible exhibits, “huddled” late in the
    afternoon to select semifinal choices, and then in the evening
    talked with each semifinalist before making the final choice of
    winners and alternates._]

Judges study criteria and point values before evaluating exhibits.
Although your exhibit should speak for itself, at many fairs the judges
chat with each exhibitor to determine how well he understands his
project area. Be prepared to present details concisely and clearly, but
avoid lengthy explanations unless asked.


Designing Your Exhibit

After you have finished your project, documented your work in a project
report, planned and listed what must go into the exhibit, and
familiarized yourself with the ground rules under which you will
compete, you are ready to design your exhibit. The sections which follow
suggest guidelines and construction hints on exhibit structure; ways of
presenting information (text, photographs, transparencies, line
drawings, captions, models, specimens, laboratory equipment, etc.);
layout and location of exhibit items, exhibit materials, color, and
lighting.


                               STRUCTURE

_Size._ National Science Fair-International rules limit exhibit size to
48 inches wide and 30 inches deep. The structure may rest on the floor,
on its own supports, or on a table (normally about 30 inches high)
supplied by the fair. Even if local rules permit more space, you may
find it desirable to build to NSFI rules so your structure will be
eligible at all fairs.

The overall height of your exhibit is limited by practical
considerations to about 7 feet, since the passing viewer’s eye
encompasses most easily the area between 30 and 90 inches above the
floor and the view of someone standing near is even more limited.
Tabletop structures 48 inches or less in height work out nicely, and can
conserve materials.

_Shape._ With few exceptions, science fair exhibitors can explain their
projects adequately within structures similar to those shown in Figures
1 and 2. Such tabletop “booth” exhibits have these common features: (a)
a large back wall which can be used for the introductory message, for
featured illustrations or specimens, or for important conclusions; (b)
two smaller side walls, angled outward for easier viewing, which can
contain supplementary text and illustrations; and (c) horizontal display
space at table height to hold specimens, apparatus, project notebook and
project report, handout brochures, etc. Some exhibitors fit this space
with a slanted- or stepped-shelf unit. If the back and side walls are
fastened to such a base the structure is stronger.

    [Illustration: _These two basic structures are designed for
    simplicity, flexibility, economy of materials, and repeated use in
    successive years of science fair competition. Both meet NSFI rules
    on maximum dimensions. The structure shown in Figure 1 is easiest to
    build. The one in Figure 2 is a modified Figure 1 designed to
    accommodate an outsize object which must rest on the floor._]

    [Illustration: Figure 1]

    [Illustration: Figure 2]

Many variations are possible. Very tall objects might be handled by the
self-supporting structure shown in Figure 2. Some exhibitors extend back
and side walls to the floor, but this requires more panel material and
tempts the exhibitor to mount text and illustrations below the level of
easy viewing.

The title board can be functional as well as attractive, as in Figure 1.
It puts your main title where it can be seen easily and it conserves
wall space. It can brace the side walls and serve to shield lights.

_Materials._ Attractive exhibit structures can be built from artboard
and similar paper products, so for one-time-only elementary school
exhibits you may not wish to invest in more permanent materials. But if
you look forward to other projects, exhibits, and fairs, you will be
wise to consider materials which will hold up in repeated use. Even
though most fairs do not permit you to compete in successive years with
the same exhibit material, seldom do they require you to build a new
structure each year to hold your changing displays.

“Masonite” and similar wood-fiber particle boards are relatively
inexpensive, take paint and adhesives well, are fairly light, and in
thicknesses of more than ⅛ inch and lengths of less than 48 inches are
sufficiently rigid when supported by adjoining panels. They are
available with rows of holes pre-drilled to accommodate a multiplicity
of “pegboard” hanger devices. If you hope to use your basic structure
for other exhibits, pegboard allows you flexibility in rearranging
three-dimensional exhibit items. Also, the holes facilitate wiring down
display items that might be dislodged by careless viewers or filched by
thoughtless souvenir hunters.

One standard 4-by-8 foot sheet of hardboard or plywood will suffice for
the typical tabletop structure if you divide it as shown in Figure 3.

Plywood and untempered hardboard should be sealed with a primer coat
before finish painting. If you seal the reverse side of the panels also,
they warp less. For finish coats, the enamel now available in aerosol
spray cans will save you some brush work. Always apply spray paints in
several light coats while the surface is horizontal, to avoid unsightly
“runs”.

For bracing, framing, and other woodwork, white pine is strong, light,
easy to work, and unlikely to warp if seasoned properly.

Hinges, washers, bolts, nails, or screws which will be painted may be of
uncoated steel. Otherwise, you may find brass, stainless steel,
aluminum, or chrome-plated steel better.

If your exhibit proves to be a winner, you may need to erect and
dismantle it at several fairs. A little ingenuity and foresight in the
selection of removable-pin hinges, wing-nut bolt assemblies, and the
like, may save a lot of time later and help keep your exhibit structure
in good condition.

    [Illustration: Figure 3]

  CUTTING 4′ × 8′ PLYWOOD OR HARD BOARD FOR MAXIMUM ECONOMY
    BACK WALL PANEL 34″ × 48″
    TITLE BOARD OR “HEADER”
      6″
    SIDE WALL PANELS (2 ea.) 28″ × 48″
  OVERHEAD PLAN OF TYPICAL SCIENCE FAIR EXHIBIT STRUCTURE
    BACK WALL PANEL
    SIDE WALL PANEL
    SIDE WALL PANEL
    BASE UNIT
    30″ (allowable)
    LIGHT BEHIND HEADER
    48″ (allowable)
  SIDE PLAN OF SAME STRUCTURE
    CONCEALED LIGHT
    HEADER
    BACK PANEL
    SIDE PANELS
    ELECTRICAL OUTLET BOX
    BASE UNIT
    TABLE

_Lighting and Wiring._ Fluorescent lighting is bulky and hard to conceal
in the average science fair exhibit. Incandescent showcase lamps work
well, take up less space, and are less expensive. If you need shielded
light, consider inexpensive clip-on bed lamps.

Most fairs have rigid rules on electrical wiring and you should study
them and those of the National Science Fair-International. If you will
install a fused entry-outlet box on your back wall or base unit, as
shown in Figure 3, you can run all fixture cords to that one location.
Most fairs provide power cords reaching to the exhibitor’s electrical
inlet, but don’t depend on it. Procure 25 to 50 feet of heavy-duty
extension cord and keep it handy, just in case.


                         PRESENTING INFORMATION

After determining the shape and size of your structure, you can decide
how best to present the information needed to explain your project. Some
exhibitors prefer to build their structure first, so that they may try
out different arrangements of illustrations and three-dimensional items
on the finished display space. Or, you can measure off your back wall,
side walls, and interior base areas, and then “try out” the size and
placement of your display items on matching-size sheets of tracing
paper.

There are many good ways to present the same information. Exhibit design
is an art with some established principles but with few fixed rules.
Here are some guidelines which may help you.

_Preliminary Sketches._ Make sketches of all possible layout ideas and
study each for clarity of content and visual effect.

_Text._ Keep all text to a minimum number of words. Viewers come to see
an exhibit, not to read it! A good illustration, specimen, or a graphic
representation (see Figure 4) can save many words. Where text is needed,
letter it clearly and large enough for easy reading. But avoid
unnecessarily large or garish lettering—titles and text should only
explain your exhibit, never dominate it!

    [Illustration: Figure 4]

_Text Placement._ Some exhibitors place captions uniformly over or under
all illustrations, but text blocks placed at the side may communicate as
clearly, and help prevent visual monotony (see Figure 5).

_Points of Emphasis._ If you use a series of illustrations or specimens
to tell a running story, consider enlarging or featuring one of the most
significant items so it can serve as the focal point of the series, as
in Figure 5.

_Large Photos._ Unless your photographs can be viewed in detail without
stooping and squinting, either have them enlarged or discard them.

_Color Photos._ Color photos are expensive, but just one or two will add
interest to a large group of black-and-white prints.

_Charts and Graphs._ If your exhibit contains charts and graphs, keep
them simple. Avoid line charts if several curves must cross and recross.
Logarithmic charts, scatter diagrams, and similar ratio charts are
confusing to the average viewer. Caption and explain charts and graphs
adequately. Simple pie, bar, and representational charts, as shown in
Figure 6, can be particularly meaningful. Often the use of colors will
make the various factors more discernible.

    [Illustration: Figure 5]

_White Space._ Next to content, the exhibitor’s most valuable tool is
“white space”—those unoccupied areas of his display panels. Crowded,
busy panels on which materials and text fill every inch of space are a
hallmark of the amateur. Worse, they defeat their purpose, for viewers
usually take one hurried glance, decide that understanding so cluttered
an exhibit would be a chore, and move on to simpler displays. (As a rule
of thumb, approximately 40% of your available display space should be
occupied by absolutely nothing!)

_Organization._ Just as you organize words into sentences and
paragraphs, your exhibit elements (textual and visual) should be
organized into groups and subgroups. (See Figures 1 and 2.) Here again
the “feature” technique may be employed. For example, if you are
displaying several similar specimens you may emphasize the most unusual
one by placing it on a raised or differently-colored background as shown
in Figure 7.

    [Illustration: Figure 6]

    [Illustration: Figure 7]

_Apparatus._ Amateur exhibitors sometimes get carried away with
enthusiasm for large arrays of mechanical apparatus which are both
unnecessary and confusing. If your project involved development of a
unique piece of equipment, consider whether you can display it alone,
without the entire assembly into which it fits. Sometimes this can be
done by displaying the featured part alongside a drawing or photograph
of the complete assembly, as in Figure 4. Again, keep details to a
minimum; leave them in the project report.

_Mechanical movement._ Usually motion in a science fair exhibit is
called for only when there is a clear need for it. Thus it is logical to
use a turntable to revolve different fluorescing mineral specimens under
“black light”, or to present successive radioactive ore specimens to a
Geiger-counter probe. But to use such a turntable to present a series of
photographs would probably be unnecessarily contrived. Usually you may
spend your efforts better on sound content, clean design, and clear text
than on mechanical gimmicks.

_Pushbuttons and Such._ Few audience-participation devices in science
fair exhibits merit the effort, money, and space expended on them. But
if you do display equipment for viewers to operate, make certain it can
be operated safely and dependably even when you are absent (as during
the judging). Nothing frustrates an exhibit viewer more than a
pushbutton that doesn’t work!

_Demonstrations._ These can be informative and interesting, and you may
want to include one. But since you cannot be on hand to demonstrate at
all times, design your exhibit to “stand alone” without the
demonstration. And when you are absent, you may avoid unsatisfied viewer
curiosity either by removing the idle demonstration equipment, or by
posting a “Next demonstration at ____ o’clock” sign.

_Living Things._ Plants or animals which have been employed in the
science project can often be displayed to lend interest and meaning to
the exhibit. But since the science fair follows the project, interim
growth and aging may alter living specimens so that at fair time they
are considerably less meaningful or attractive than at the peak of your
project. Also, if you compete in several fairs, you may find
transportation and special care of your living specimens difficult and
onerous. If you do plan to exhibit living specimens, familiarize
yourself with local and national fair regulations governing their use,
make sure that animals can be housed attractively and comfortably, and
protect both animals and plants from inquisitive fingers. Then be
selective and employ the minimum needed to make your point in the
exhibit.


About Color

Properly employed, color is functional as well as aesthetically
pleasing. You may find the following suggestions helpful in deciding
which colors to employ in your exhibit, and where.

In a space as small as your science fair exhibit, one or two basic
colors, plus black and white, should suffice. Use your color in a few
large blocks, not in many small patches. Different basic colors can be
used to define different main areas of emphasis; then different shades
of the basic colors can be used to define subareas.

Life-science project exhibits can rely most safely on pastel shades
running heavily to greens and yellows, while physical-science projects
are portrayed frequently against more intense colors. In either case,
avoid violent contrasts and “paintpot” variety. Your exhibit should
convey an air of handsome restraint, not flippant prettiness or carnival
gaudiness. Your colors should attract and enhance, not shock or confuse!

    [Illustration: Figure 8

    _Far too frequently science fair judges are asked to evaluate very
    poor exhibits of what may have been very worthwhile science
    projects. Some of the more common mistakes they encounter have been
    included by our artist in the sketch above. Now that you have read
    our advice on designing science fair exhibits, how many shortcomings
    can you identify? (Answers below.)_

    _Answers: Structure extends too high and too low for easy viewing,
    and width exceeds dimensions usually allowed. The main title is too
    long. Two words are misspelled. The best display space is wasted on
    ordinary objects which contribute little new understanding to topic
    exhibited. There are too many photographs which are too small and
    poorly positioned for viewing. Specimen boxes positioned on the
    floor as an afterthought where few viewers will attempt to inspect
    them. Endless text provides details of little or no interest to the
    average viewer. More text on introductory topic (“Catching Bugs”)
    than on the exhibit topic. No logical progression from the original
    problem and hypothesis through experimentation and observation to
    conclusions. There is no project notebook, report, or handout
    brochure. No thought has been given to lighting. No points of
    emphasis in either text or illustrations. White space has not been
    exploited._]

  A STEP-BY-STEP ACOUNT OF HOW I MOUNT MY BUGS
    CATCHING BUGS
    MOUNTING BUGS
      SCIZZORS
      TWEEZERS
      PIN
      COTTON
      NET
      CHLOROFORM
  SOME OF MY BUGS

Where desired, visibility and impact of illustrations and specimens can
be increased by mounting them against contrasting background colors.
Avoid the amateurish impulse to always tape or paint a border around
illustrations, specimens, and blocks of type. Placed properly against a
contrasting background, these provide their own best border.

The final test of color is how it looks in actual use, so experiment
with your color schemes before making a final choice. And if you have
any doubts, invite the reactions of your family and friends and also the
advice of your art teacher.


Completing Your Exhibit

Before mounting your exhibit elements on the structure permanently, lay
them out temporarily. (You will probably want to move them around
several times to get the best position.) You can then pencil in your
title, text, and caption blocks in actual size. Use separate sheets of
paper for each, and try out various locations around the materials they
explain.

Use of too many letter styles will detract from the attractiveness of
your exhibit. Headings can be all in capital letters, and subheads in
smaller “caps”, or in initial caps and “lower case” letters. Statements
and other text should use caps and lower case. Do not use all caps for a
paragraph of descriptive material—a mass of capitals is harder to read.

Before completing the lettering, you should try out your layout and text
on classmates, family, and perhaps your English teacher. Science fair
exhibits should be understandable to intelligent laymen as well as to
trained specialists. Technical jargon, pompous adjectives, and stilted
sentence structure are not scientific. In scientific writing, as in any
good writing, the simple, direct approach is usually best. Try to use
short sentences, familiar words, and a minimum of technical terms and
formulae.

Are your present photographs too small? You can experiment with
desirable sizes of photos by clipping from old magazines any
illustrations that appear about the right size, and trying them on your
layout. You can then have your photos enlarged to the ideal sizes that
you find most pleasing. Matte-finish photo prints are preferable since
glossy prints produce “glare”. Before mounting photographs, trim off the
white border, which detracts from the impact of your pictures and the
simple unity of your exhibit.

When fully satisfied with your layout, begin the final lettering of your
text. For hand-lettering, sketch with a soft pencil first, using a ruler
and eraser freely. A lettering guide, borrowed from your school’s
graphic arts department, will prove very helpful. Unless you are
experienced you can save yourself trouble by not lettering directly upon
the background. Instead, letter each copy block on a separate piece of
art paper which can be glued into position later. Have a friend or
teacher double-check your lettering for typographical errors.

With illustrations and copy blocks complete and trimmed to size, you are
ready to start mounting. For paper products use “rubber cement”,
obtainable at stationery stores. Coat both surfaces completely, but do
not press them together until each is dry. To avoid air bubbles, first
separate the coated surfaces with a “slip sheet” of waxed paper or
aluminum foil, which can be slipped out when the materials are
positioned exactly. Then press into place with a soft cloth or rubber
roller. (Excess cement will rub off when dry, without damage.) Also
consider using double-coated adhesive tape for mounting. It is
obtainable at art-supply stores.

Assemble your structure, mount your lighting fixtures, and plug them in.
Install whatever equipment needs to be displayed. Put your project
notebook, project report, and handout brochure in place. Your science
fair exhibit is finished and you are ready to compete!

    [Illustration: _Typical arrival day activities at the 14th National
    Science Fair-International, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1963._]




                      COMPETITION AND ITS REWARDS


Some of you can look forward to enjoying within the next several years a
thrilling experience.

Some morning in May you will bid your parents farewell, walk up the
steps of an airliner, and touch down a few hours later in a distant
city. For the next five days you will be caught up in the excitement and
fascination of the National Science Fair-International!

The full impact of your nation’s science fair hits you the morning you
set up your exhibit in the auditorium. You knew that you had a good
exhibit when you entered the district fair back home in March. (Since
this is your second year of serious competition, and you have improved
both your science project and your exhibit, you weren’t too surprised to
win there.) But regional and statewide competition is even tougher, so
you were holding your breath until they finally called your name!

Now here you are, and as you appraise the 400 other exhibits going up
besides yours, you realize this is the “big league”. These guys and gals
are really good. But some of your awe evaporates as you talk with your
neighbors, and while you help the pretty blonde with the guppies
position her heavy aquaria. Win or not, this is going to be fun!

And so it is—during the tension of the judging the next day, when you
show your exhibit to the public the day after that, and throughout the
tours of research laboratories and industrial processing plants that
follow. In conversations with the judges, in the varied social contacts
with more than 400 fellow exhibitors from the United States and several
foreign countries, you get a fresh look at the rewards of serious
scientific endeavor. One evening you listen enthralled by the startling
concept being explained by one of the “big men” in science. You’ve seen
his name and picture in newspapers, textbooks, and technical journals,
and there he stands, talking seriously to you and your fellow
exhibitors. As he explains a problem that has puzzled you, you begin to
see science as a community of kindred minds where every serious
truth-seeker is welcome, where there is no rank other than that bestowed
on active intellects, sound procedures, and reasoned, honest
conclusions.

All too soon, the week is almost over. At the Awards Banquet they are
calling the names of the winners and you sit unsurprised when the early
prizes pass you by. You’ve studied those winning exhibits, and you must
acknowledge that they have the edge on yours—one because of the very
unusual hypothesis posed and proved, the other because of the masterful
clarity with which it explains the area of investigation.

But next they name the winners of special awards, presented by the
American Chemical Society, The American Institute of Biological
Sciences, the military departments, and similar organizations, for
outstanding exhibits related to the programs of the sponsors. And here
you are on the stage, having your photograph taken with the nine other
winners of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission’s Special Awards!

After the banquet, the AEC representative explains to you that the AEC
Special Award includes considerably more than the Certificate of
Achievement you have just received.

First, a duplicate certificate will be sent to your principal for
display among the school trophies. Then, in August you and your science
teacher will fly to Chicago for a week as exciting and rewarding as the
one you have just completed. You will be guests of the AEC’s Argonne
National Laboratory—an outstanding center for nuclear research. Your
group will spend several days behind the scenes in Argonne’s
laboratories. You will visit outstanding research facilities and science
museums in downtown Chicago. Best of all, you will have an opportunity
to discuss your interests and career plans with members of the Argonne
staff—men and women who are doing professional research in the same
areas that interest you.

What are the costs of such an experience? Only the attention you pay to
your science instruction; the thought and care you devote to a project
related to nuclear science; and the clarity and ingenuity with which you
explain that project to your classmates, teachers, and the general
public through your science fair exhibit.

    [Illustration: _First Atomic Energy Commission Special Awards
    winners, selected at the 13th NSFI at Seattle, photographed during
    their Nuclear Research Orientation Week at the AEC’s Argonne
    National Laboratory near Chicago in August 1962. High point of the
    week, winners report, is the opportunity—pictured here—to talk
    face-to-face with Argonne scientists who are working in areas of
    research of particular interest to each student visitor._
                                    Courtesy Argonne National Laboratory]

    [Illustration: continued]

    [Illustration: _1963 AEC Special Awards winners and their science
    teachers spent their Nuclear Research Orientation Week at Argonne
    National Laboratory. Top photograph is of Elizabeth Winstead of
    Jacksonville, Florida, whose prize-winning exhibit at Albuquerque is
    pictured on the cover. The photograph below hers is of William E.
    Murray, Jr., of Bethesda, Maryland, who was also an AEC Special
    Awards winner at Seattle in 1962._
                                    Courtesy Argonne National Laboratory]




                               QUO VADIS?


Or “where do you go from here?”

First, resolve now to enter science fair competition this year. You may
not win, but at least you will have started, and you will gain some of
the experience needed for victory in later years.

Next, choose a science project topic, and discuss your choice with your
science teacher, science club adviser, or hobby counselor. Especially if
this is your first attempt, choose a topic which can be investigated
with materials and equipment available to you at school or at home, and
which can be finished by mid-February. Also, allocate definite
times—particularly on weekends and holidays—when you will work on your
project. (Remember that exams and term papers will probably keep you
very busy in late January and early February.)

Third, execute your project, keeping careful notes and consulting your
project counselor from time to time. Then draft your Project Report,
discuss it with your counselor, revise and edit it as necessary, and get
it typed in final form. Also verify the date your local science fair
opens.

Fourth, plan your exhibit content, design and build your exhibit
structure, select your exhibit components and draft your text, and make
trial layouts until you arrive at the best possible design, including
color. Prepare your color backgrounds, letter your text, and install
text, components, and lighting. Get your handout brochure mimeographed.

Fifth, enter local science fair competition. If you don’t win, find out
why by comparing your project and your exhibit with the winners’, and by
discussing it with your parents, classmates, teachers, judges, and
viewers. If you do win, attempt to understand what made your exhibit
better than the others.

Finally, continue reading and thinking about your basic project topic,
so that next year you will know whether you want to continue to work on
the same topic or to shift your interest to another field.

Above all, have fun, and


                               GOOD LUCK!




                               APPENDIX I
                     NUCLEAR SCIENCE PROJECT IDEAS


The following projects related to nuclear science were exhibited at the
National Science Fair-International from 1950 through 1963.


General and Theoretical Topics

  The Review and Future of the Atom
  Simplified Nuclear Physics
  Approach to the Study of Nuclear Physics
  Elementary Particles—an Investigation of the Fundamental Components of
              Matter and Energy
  Odd Nucleon Effect
  A Study of Binding Energies and Nuclear Reactions
  The Integrated Theory of Atomic Structure Through Inductive and
              Deductive Reasoning
  Tools of Nuclear Physics
  E = MC²—Energy Equals Mass Multiplied by the Speed of Light Squared
  Downfall of Parity
  How to Measure the Charge of the Electron
  How Atoms Are Constructed
  Formation of Heavy Nuclear Particles
  Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
  Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
  Third Electrons in Transition-Metal Complexes
  Probability in Electron Position
  Stability of Radioactive Equilibria
  The Electron: Measurement of Its Charge and Mass
  Experimental Study of Nuclear Structure
  Fourth State of Matter
  Project-Observation Satellite
  Creation of Antimatter
  Energy Loss of Beta Particles in Lead and Aluminum
  Stochastic-Radioactive-Equilibria Models
  Cosmology
  Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction
  Electron Chemistry
  Plasma-Ion Engine
  Plasma Production by Gaseous Ionization
  Finite Calculus and Particle Physics
  Two Applications of the Plasma Discharge
  Increasing the Efficiency of a Plasma Jet Suitable for Space
              Propulsion
  Prediction of Elements 99-118
  Exact Evaluation of the Charge of the Electron
  Three-Dimensional Periodic Chart of Atoms
  Atom Mobiles
  Weight of an Atom
  Determination of the Charge of an Electron Using the Millikan-Stokes
              Effects
  Atomic-Particles Detection and Analysis
  Electron-Charge Determination by Oil-Drop Method
  The Mineral That May Shape Our Destiny: Uranium
  A Machine to Show Radioactive Materials
  The Making of Active Metals
  The Extraction of Uranium from Carnotite
  The Chemistry of Thorium


Special Apparatus Topics

  Construction and Operations of Wilson Cloud Chamber
  Geiger-Müller Counter: Theory and Construction
  Experiments with a Homemade Geiger Counter
  An Experimental High-Voltage Geiger Counter
  Design and Construction of a Scintillation Counter
  The Construction and Theory of Radiation Detectors for Radioactive
              Experiments
  The Underlying Principles of Accelerators for Positively Charged
              Particles
  Electronic-Equipment Construction and Applications to Nuclear Theory
              and Techniques
  A Germanium Linear Accelerator
  Proton Accelerator
  Construction of a One-Half Million Electron-Volt Proton Cyclotron
  Construction of Apparatus for Accelerating and Detecting High-Energy
              Beta Radiation
  Betatron
  A Continuous Cloud Chamber
  Van de Graaff Generator
  The Mass-Energy Problem of Particle Accelerators
  Mass Spectrograph for Determining the Mass of Atoms
  A Liquid-Scintillation Spectrometer for Counting Natural Carbon-14
              Samples
  Proton Linear Accelerator
  Magnetic Thermonuclear Chamber
  Atom Smasher and Ionic-Drive Reaction Motor
  Expansion Cloud Chamber for Observation of Tracks of Alpha Particles
  Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer
  High-Voltage Particle Acceleration
  Linear Accelerator
  Van de Graaff Generator Designed for an Accelerating Tube
  Wilson Cloud Chamber
  Low Energy Linear Accelerator
  Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance and Spectrometry
  Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment
  Theory, Design, and Construction of a 10½-inch Cyclotron
  Carbon-14 Counter
  Proton-Free Precession Magnetometry
  The Bubble Chamber
  Electron Accelerator
  Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance
  Beta Synchrotron
  Electrostatic Particle Accelerator with Van de Graaff Generator Power
              Supply
  The Cyclotron
  Linear Alpha-Particle Accelerator
  The Plasma Jet
  Beta-Ray Spectrometer
  Freon-13 B1 Bubble Chamber
  Wilson Liquid-Piston Cloud Chamber
  Expansion-Type Cloud Chamber
  Nuclear-Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer
  Linear-Subatomic-Particle Accelerator
  Experimental Linear Accelerator
  New Design in Microwave Techniques Used in Electron Acceleration
  Application of Relativity to the Phenomena of a Diffusion Cloud
              Chamber
  0.5-Mev Electron Accelerator
  Radio-Frequency Plasma Torch
  Design, Construction, and Operation of a 3-inch Freon Bubble Chamber
  Experiments in Plasma Physics
  Studies with a 500,000-volt Electron Accelerator
  An Experimental Plasma Generator
  The Plasma Torch
  Using Nuclear Emulsions to Track Ionizing Particles
  Experimental Study of Nuclear Structure
  Emission Studies of a Nitrogen Plasma
  A Combination 3-Mev Neutron Source and Medium-energy X-ray Source
  Van de Graaff Electron Accelerator
  Cosmic Rays Studied with a Counter-controlled Cloud Chamber
  Radio-Frequency Plasma Generator
  Plasma Acceleration
  Investigation of High-Temperature Plasma Techniques Necessary for a
              Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction
  Atom Smasher—An Electrostatic Particle Accelerator
  Design, Construction, and Use of a 0.5-Mev Linear Particle Accelerator
              in Study of Short DeBroglie Wavelengths by
              Crystal-Diffraction Method
  Production of Plasma by a High-Frequency Magnetic Field


Radiation Topics

  A Cosmic Ray
  Beta- and Gamma-Ray Analysis
  Calculating the Angle of Deflection for Beta-Ray Under Normal
              Atmospheric Conditions in Magnetic Fields of Differing
              Intensities
  Effects of Absorption and Geometry on Beta Count Rate
  Detection and Recording of Cosmic Radiation
  A Study of Alpha Particles by Means of the Continuous Cloud Chamber
  Visual Detection of Alpha Particles
  Detection of Subatomic Particles
  A Survey of Background Radiation Made with a Geiger Counter
  ⁵¹Ne as a Radiation Detector
  Detection of Atomic Radiation
  Methods of Measuring Radioactivity
  Preliminary Study of the Effect of Radiation from some Common
              Radioactive Materials on Photographic Film
  Carnotite and Radioactivity
  Study and Analysis of a Sample of Radioactive Sand from the Atomic
              Explosion at Alamogordo
  The Use of Ion Exchangers in the Disposal of Radioactive Wastes
  Radiation Effects on Fruit Flies
  Effects of Radiation on _Drosophila melanogaster_
  Investigating Radioactive Minerals with Thick-Emulsion Photography
  Actions of Gamma Radiation on the Offspring of Irradiated Female
              Guppies
  Influence of Beta-Particle Bombardment upon the Embryonic Development
              of the Chick
  Autoradiographs of Brain Tumors
  A Radiation Detector
  A Study of Cosmic Rays
  Effects of Atomic Radiation on Rats
  Atomic Radiation and the Geiger Counter
  Atomic Radishes
  Effects of X-Ray Radiation on Plants and Animals
  Radiation Demonstration
  Nuclear Radiations
  Radiation Sterilization
  X-Ray, Light’s Cousin
  Effects of Ionizing Radiations on Plants and Animals
  Roentgen Rays and the Construction of an X-Ray Machine
  Visual and Aural Detection of Cosmic and Atomic Radiation
  Radioautography
  Experimentation with Ionizing Radiation
  Radiation Hazard?
  Phosphorus Uptake by Autoradiography
  Demonstration of Rutherford’s Method of Separating Alpha, Beta, and
              Gamma Radiation
  Radiation—Effects and Possible Protection
  Tired Blood—Production of Anemia by Radioactivity
  Techniques of Autoradiography
  Cosmic Radiation and Life
  Radiation in Plant Breeding
  Experiments with Induced-Radioactivity Apparatus
  Effects of Radiation on the Blood in White Rats
  Radioautographic Study of Tryptophan Metabolism in the Rat
  The Effects of Beta Rays from ³²P on the Tissues on White Rabbits
  Radioactivity Around Us
  Effects of Radiation on Mice
  Experiment, Design, and Application of Solid Propellant Rockets to
              Radiation Studies of the Upper Atmosphere
  Comparative Study of Radiation
  Alpha and Beta Rays (Photographs)
  A Laboratory-Scale Neutron Irradiator
  Colchicine vs. Radiation
  Mutations in German Millet Induced by Gamma Radiation
  Cosmic Radiation
  Cloud Chamber Study of Alpha and Beta Radiation
  Effects of Radiation on Chick Embryos
  The Protection of Cystamine and AET on X-Irradiated Mice
  The Effects of X Ray on the Blood of Guinea Pigs
  Measurement of Radioactivity in Milk
  Chemical Modification of Radiation Effects
  The Absorption of Alpha Particles in Air and Other Cases
  Mass Absorption of Beta Radiation
  The Danger of Radioactive Contamination of Kelp
  Carnotite Radiation on Reproduction and Mortality Rates of _Daphnia
              magna_
  Mutations Produced by the Irradiation of German Millet Seeds
  Spectrometer Analysis of Beta Emitters
  The Effects of Total-Body X-ray Radiation on the Hematopoietic System
              of the Guinea Pig
  Energies of Nuclear Radiations
  An Analysis of Tracks Formed by Atomic Particles in a Diffusion Cloud
              Chamber
  Effects of X-Ray Radiation on the Bacteria _Serratia marcescens_
  Effects of Prenatal Radiation on Postnatal Learning Behavior of Mice
  Color Changes in Gemstones by Radiation and Heat Induction
  Studies in Effects of the Protection from Ionizing Radiations
  Temperature Variation and Effects of Radiation on Reproduction and
              Mortality
  Effects of Irradiated Neoplasmic Extracts on Carcinoma in Cottontail
              Rabbits
  Determining Locus of Irradiated Mutant Drosophila “b1-pt-rd”
  Effects of Radiation on Bacteria
  Effects of Total-Body Irradiation on Longevity of Tissue Homografts in
              Rabbits
  Radiation—Why Be Concerned?
  Radiation Effects on Drosophila
  Effect of X rays on Drosophila
  Effect of Irradiation on Black Shank Fungus
  Comparative Determination of Radioactivity in Rowan County Soils
  Lethal and Mutagenic Effects of Radiation on Penicillium
  The Teratogenetic Effects of X ray on Hamsters
  Protection from Total-Body Irradiation
  Effects of Ionizing Radiation from a ⁶⁰Co Source on Ascorbic-Acid
              Concentration in _Raphanus sativus_
  Drugs vs. Radiation
  Radiation Effects on Selected Botanical Specimens
  Energy Loss of Beta Particles in Lead and Aluminum
  Radioactive Uptake of ³²P in Animals and Subsequent-Recovery Period
  Effects of X rays on Living Cells
  Radiation Effect on Chick Embryos
  Dietary Defense Against Radiation
  Irradiation Effects on Gene Mutations in Drosophila
  A Study in Radioactivity
  Bacteria Protection from Radiation
  Damaging Effects of Radiation
  Effect of X-irradiation on Titration of Influenza Virus
  Effect of Vitamin-K1 Analogue on Coagulation Time of
              Cobalt-60-irradiated Mice
  Effect of Gamma Radiation on Regeneration Rate of Planaria
  Spirogyra and Cobalt-60
  Effects of Blood Serum from Irradiated Guinea Pigs on Tissue Cultures
  Chemical Protection from Radiation in Planaria
  Induced Mutations in Drosophila
  Effects of Gamma Rays on Yeast and Aspergillus
  Radiation-Protective Effects of RNA
  Radiation, Hematology, and Biochemical Study of Molt-Control Hormones
              of Crayfish, and Possible Importance to Man
  Radiation and Mutations
  Aromatics Possibly Help Determine Plant Radiosensitivity
  Bone Marrow Transplantation and Recovery
  Mutation in Tomato Plants Produced by Gamma-Ray Radiation
  Dietary Control of Ionizing Radiation
  Effects of Cooling on Radiation Damage to Living Cells
  Rate of Regeneration of Eyespots in Planaria
  Effects of Radiation on Transmission of Nerve Impulses
  Irradiation of Amino Acids


Radioisotopes Topics

  Use of Radioactive Salts in Plant and Animal Nutrition Studies
  The Radioactive Isotopes: Its Uses in Medical Research and Treatment
  Chemical Activity of Deuterium as Compared with Hydrogen
  Radioisotopes in Medicine
  Pinpointing the Past with Carbon-14
  Algae Uptake of ³²P
  Radioiodine and Construction of a Geiger-Mueller Counter
  Radioiodine in Guppies
  Uses of Radioisotopes
  Radioisotopes
  Chelation of a Radioactive Isotope in Rats
  The Role for Radioactive Testosterone on Hematopoieses
  Phosphorus-32 Tracer Studies Conducted with the Coleus Plant
  Tracing the Organ Uptake of Radioisotopes in Animal Tissue
  Carbon-14 in Photosynthesis
  Transfer of Radioactive Elements on Succeeding Generations
  Corrosion and Adsorption Studies Using Radiochemical Techniques
  The Radioactive Elements—Separation, Detection, and Properties
  Experiments with Radioisotopes
  Translocation of Radioactive Phosphorus
  Assimilation of Radioactive Isotopes in Fish
  Use of ³²P by Plants
  Comparative Studies of Isotope Utilization in Tomato Plants
  Detection of Strontium-90 in Backbones of Fish from Areas of the
              United States
  The Circulation of Iodine (¹³¹I) in the Parabiotic Rat
  Radioactive Zinc and Zinc-Chelates in the Hormone Metabolism of
              Plant-Tissue Culture
  Effect of Dietary Calcium on Deposition of Calcium-45 and Strontium-90
  Autoradiographical Evidences of Cytological-Radioisotope Deposition
  Tracing the Development of a Chick Embryo with ³²P
  Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers
  Beware! Strontium-90 Everywhere
  Plant Research with Radioactive Phosphorus
  The Kettleman Hills Formation (Carbon-14 Dating)
  Radiobiologic Investigations of Contractile Activity and ATP-induced
              Pinocytosis _in vitro_
  Determination of the Half-life of ⁶⁵Zn
  Atomic Farming
  Nutrient Passage Through Plant Grafts as Tested with Radioisotopes
  Study of the Period of DNS Synthesis Using Tritiated Thymidine
  Absorption of Radioactive Iodine by Molds and Bacteria
  Radioisotopes as Tracers
  Translocation of ³²P in Plants


Nuclear-Change Topics

  Demonstration of Chain Reaction
  A Study of Chain Reactions
  The Theory and Construction of an Inexpensive Neutron Source of
              Moderate Strength
  A Study of the Reaction ₅B¹⁰(n,a)₃Li⁷ with the Aid of Nuclear Research
              Plates
  How Fission and Fusion Take Place
  Uranium Fission and Isotope Production
  From Uranium to Energy
  Atomic Transmutation
  Atomic Disintegration
  Conversion of Atomic Power to Electric Power
  Interactions Between Subatomic Particles
  A General Study of Atomic Energy: Its Fundamentals and Its Uses
  Atomic Power Plant
  Construction of an Atomic Reactor
  Atomic Power for Space Travel
  Atomic Weapons
  Model of Atomic Power Plant
  Bikini Bomb-Explosion Model
  Destruction by the Atom Bomb
  Demonstrated Principles of Nuclear Physics
  The Sun—Our Chief Source of Energy
  Uranium—Radioactivity and Fission
  Atomic Power—The Servant of Man
  Power from the Sun
  The Process of Nuclear Fission
  Fusion—Source of Solar Energy
  Electricity from Atomic Power
  Effects of Thermal Neutrons on Mammalian Systems
  Fusion
  Nuclear-Powered Electric Generator
  Particle Characteristics and Reactions
  Fusion Theory of the Universe
  Project Fusion
  The Magnetic-Mirror Machine
  Plasmatron
  The Heating and Confinement of a Thermodynamically Stable Plasma
  Controlled Thermonuclear Reaction
  The Stability of Radioactive Equilibria
  Determination of the Half-life of ⁶⁰Zn
  Subatomic Particle Research
  Nuclear Disintegration and Density
  The Theory of the Plasma Torch




                              APPENDIX II
         NUCLEAR ENERGY-RELATED INVESTIGATIONS AND APPLICATIONS


Listed below are a number of areas in which nuclear knowledge or atomic
energy products may be used to achieve investigative, developmental, or
engineering data and results which would have been unattainable a few
years ago. Science fair exhibits may be based on projects in which these
nuclear “tools” are employed to help solve problems of a non-nuclear
nature. Such exhibits receive consideration for AEC Special Awards at
the National Science Fair-International.


Biology

Biosynthesis of Compounds; Plant Genetics; Plant Metabolism; Plant
Nutrition; Effects of Soil Density and Water Content; Disease Control;
Pollination Agents; Crop Improvement; Photosynthesis; Ecological Cycles;
Pest Control; Action of Pesticides; Ecology of Wildlife; Dispersion of
Pesticides; Nutrition of Domestic Animals; Milk Production; Mammalian
Aging; Animal Physiology; Genetic Chemistry.


Medicine

Blood and Water Volume Studies; Cardiac Output; Blood Flow; Measurement
of Physiological Functions; Location of Appetite Control Centers;
Formation of Blood Cells; Metabolic Processes; Cancer Study; Leukemia
Study; Antibody Therapy; Study of the Central Nervous System; Vitamin
Studies; Behavior of Viruses.


Chemistry

Reaction Mechanisms; Catalysis; Exchange; Kinetics; Corrosion; Dilution;
Diffusion; Mineral Flotation; Detergent Action; Mirror Formation; Metal
Plating; Analysis.


Physics

Standard Length Measurements; Film Thickness; Nuclear Structure; Vapor
Pressures; Elementary Particles.


Geology

Sedimentation; Ocean Currents; Underground-Water Resources and Movement;
Geological Dating.


Industry

Thickness Gauging; Process Control; Inspections for Defects; Volume
Gauging; Leak Detection; Sterilization; Electron Printing; Flow-rate
Gauging; Tool-wear Gauging; Dye-migration Measurement; Oil-well
Acidizing Control; Lubricant Studies; Cleansing Efficiencies;
Measurement of Oxygen in Metals; Food Preservation; Power Sources;
Self-luminous Light Sources.




                              APPENDIX III
                          SUGGESTED REFERENCES


The following is a partial listing of publications on science projects,
science fairs, and atomic energy. Many of these publications also
contain bibliographies which readers may use to multiply their source of
knowledge.


Science and Science Projects

_Science Projects Handbook_, Shirley Moore (Ed.), Ballantine Books,
      Inc., New York, 1960, 254 pp., $0.50.

_Ideas for Science Projects_, V. Showalter and I. Slesnick, National
      Science Teachers Association, Washington, D. C., 1962, 53 pp.,
      $1.00.

_Wonderful World of Science_, Shirley Moore and Judy Viorst, Science
      Service, 1719 N Street N. W., Washington, D. C., 1961, 246 pp.,
      $0.50.

_How To Do an Experiment_, Philip Goldstein, Harcourt, Brace and World,
      Inc., New York, 1957, 260 pp., $2.60.

_Science News Letter_, published every week by Science Service, 1719 N
      Street N. W., Washington, D. C., single copies, $0.15; $5.50 per
      year.

_Scientific American_, published every month by Scientific American,
      Inc., 415 Madison Avenue, New York, single copies $0.60; $7.00 per
      year.


Science Projects and Science Fairs

_Project Ideas for Young Scientists_, John Taylor, Phoebe Knipling, and
      Falconer Smith, Joint Board on Science Education, Washington, D.
      C., 1962, 173 pp., $1.25.

_Ideas for Science Fair Projects_, Ronald Benrey and other winners of
      the National Science Fair-International, Fawcett Publications,
      Inc., Greenwich, Connecticut, 1962, 144 pp., $0.75.

_Science Fair Projects_, Science and Mechanics Publishing Company,
      Chicago, Illinois, 1962, 162 pp., $0.75.

_Your Science Fair_, Arden Welte, James Diamond, and Alfred Friedl,
      Burgess Publishing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1959, 103 pp.,
      $2.75.

_Scientific Exhibits_, Thomas Hull and Tom Jones, Charles C. Thomas,
      Publisher, Springfield, Illinois, 1961, 126 pp., $6.50.


Atomic Energy and Nuclear Science Experiments and Projects

_Sourcebook on Atomic Energy_, Samuel Glasstone, D. Van Nostrand
      Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1958, 641 pp., $4.40.

_Annual Report to Congress of the Atomic Energy Commission_, available
      from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing
      Office, Washington, D. C. (January 1964), 512 pp., $1.75.

_Fundamental Nuclear Energy Research_ (annual report), available from
      the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
      Washington, D. C. (December 1963), 412 pp., $2.50.

_Atomic Energy_ (including experiments), Irene Jaworski and Alexander
      Joseph, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., New York, 1961, 218 pp.,
      $4.95.

_Laboratory Experiments with Radioisotopes for High School Science
      Demonstrations_, Samuel Schenberg, available from the
      Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
      Washington, D. C., 1958, 59 pp., $0.35.

_Teaching with Radioisotopes_, U. S. Government Printing Office, out of
      print but possibly available in school libraries or science
      departments.

_Experiments with Radioactivity_, National Science Teachers Association,
      Washington, D. C., 1957, 20 pp., $0.50.

_Atomic Energy_, Boy Scouts of America Merit Badge Series, available
      from Official Boy Scout Distributors (at local retail stores) or
      from Boy Scouts of America, National Supply Service, New
      Brunswick, New Jersey 08903.

_Scientific Instruments You Can Make_, Helen M. Davis, Science Service,
      1719 N Street N. W., Washington, D. C., 1959, 253 pp., $2.00.

_Experiments with Atomics_, Nelson Beeler and Franklin Branley, Thomas
      Y. Crowell Company, New York, 1954, 160 pp., $2.50.

_Atomic Experiments for Boys_, Raymond F. Yates, Harper and Row
      Publishers, Inc., New York, 1952, 132 pp., $2.50.

_Atomic Energy and Civil Defense_ (Price List 84) a listing of related
      publications available from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S.
      Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., free.


Preparation of Scientific and Technical Reports

_How to Write Scientific and Technical Papers_, Sam F. Trelease,
      Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, Maryland, 1958, 185 pp.,
      $3.25.

_Writing Useful Reports_, Robert E. Tuttle and C. A. Brown,
      Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., New York, 1956, 635 pp., $4.75.

_Technical Reporting_, Joseph N. Ulman, Jr., and J. R. Gould, Holt,
      Rinehart & Winston, Inc., New York, 1959, 289 pp., regular edition
      $6.75; textbook edition $5.00.

_Report Writers’ Handbook_, Charles E. Van Hagan, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
      Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961, 276 pp., regular edition
      $9.35; textbook edition $7.00.




                              APPENDIX IV
            WORKING WITH RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS


No scientist worth his title ever exposes himself needlessly to any
potential hazards which confront him in his investigations. Thoughtful
student scientists also will avoid any unnecessary exposure to ionizing
radiation, particularly since bad habits acquired while doing student
projects may be difficult to overcome later.

Before undertaking experiments with radioactivity, consult your science
teacher or project counselor. Any materials to be irradiated should be
processed with professional equipment by persons trained and authorized
to operate it. Use of radioisotopes, even in quantities exempt from
license requirements, usually involves special laboratory facilities,
techniques, and instruments, as well as the isotope itself. Make certain
that all these will be available to you before you embark on your
project.

If possible, conduct all work with radioisotopes under the supervision
of a trained, experienced isotope technician. At the very least,
familiarize yourself with the specialized handling techniques required
(see _Experiments with Radioactivity_ or _Laboratory Experiments with
Radioisotopes for High School Science Demonstrations_, listed in
Appendix III). Then follow them to the letter!




                               APPENDIX V
                       SUPPLIERS OF RADIOISOTOPES


Your science teacher or project counselor may know of a nearby
laboratory from which you can obtain the radioisotopes required for your
investigation. If you wish to write direct to a commercial source, some
of the suppliers of application-exempt quantities are:

  Atomic Corporation of America
  14725 Arminta Street
  Panorama City, California

  Abbott Laboratories
  Box 1008
  Oak Ridge, Tennessee

  Bio-Rad Laboratories
  32nd & Griffin Avenue
  Richmond, California

  Nuclear Consultants Corporation
  9842 Manchester Road
  St. Louis 19, Missouri

  U. S. Nuclear Corporation
  801 N. Lake Street
  Box 2022
  Burbank, California

  Nuclear-Chicago Corporation
  333 East Howard Avenue at Nuclear Drive
  Des Plaines, Illinois

  New England Nuclear Corporation
  575 Albany Street
  Boston, Massachusetts

  Union Carbide Nuclear Company
  Oak Ridge National Laboratory
  Isotope Sales Department
  P. O. Box X
  Oak Ridge, Tennessee

  ChemTrac Corporation
  130 Alewife Brook Pkwy.
  Cambridge 40, Massachusetts

  Nuclear Consultants, Inc.
  33-61 Crescent Street
  Long Island City 6, New York




                              APPENDIX VI
                    INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR RULES


  _Finalists who enter the ISF must follow these rules without
  exception._

The following code refers to the ISF rules listed below:

  S—School Fairs (recommended)
  R—Regional Fairs (recommended)
  I—ISF (required)


S-R-I

Categories established for grouping and judging science projects at the
ISF are:

  Botany
  Zoology
  Medicine and Health
  Biochemistry
  Chemistry
  Pure Physics
  Applied Physics and Engineering
  Mathematics and Computers
  Earth and Space Sciences

  Entries in any of these categories, if nuclear-related, will be
  considered for AEC Special Awards at the International Science Fair.


S-R-I

Project exhibit size is limited to 30 inches deep (front to back), 48
inches wide (side to side), and 12 feet high (floor to top). Any project
exceeding these dimensions is oversize and does not qualify for entrance
in the ISF.


R-I

Each exhibitor must assemble his or her exhibit without major outside
help, except for transportation and unpacking.


S-R-I

A typed abstract of the project, using not more than 250 words, is
required and must be displayed with the project.


S-R-I

Anything which could be hazardous to public display is prohibited. This
includes:

Live poisonous animals may not be displayed.

No dangerous chemical substances such as caustics, acids, highly
combustible solids, fluids or gases may be displayed. If such materials
are required, inert substitutes should be used.

No open flames are permitted.

Any project producing temperatures exceeding 100°C must be adequately
insulated from its surroundings.

Highly flammable display materials are prohibited.

Tanks which have contained combustible gases must be purged with carbon
dioxide. No combustible fuel may be displayed.

High voltage equipment such as large vacuum tubes or dangerous
ray-generating devices must be shielded and safety checked by a
qualified inspector. Students should be cautioned in advance about the
dangers of experimenting with such equipment and their work carefully
supervised.


S-R-I

No live, warm-blooded animals may be displayed at the ISF. Projects
involving the use of such animals may display photographs, drawings,
charts or graphs to illustrate the conditions, developments, and results
of the investigations. This eliminates the needless shipping, housing,
care, harm, discomfort or loss of animals.


S-R-I

During judging the exhibit area is closed to all except judges and
authorized personnel. Exhibitors may be present only at a specified time
during which they are to remain at their exhibits.


S-R-I

All exhibitors must be interviewed at their projects by at least one
judge. The purpose of all interviews is to determine the exhibitors’
familiarity with the project, the science involved, and to give the
student an opportunity to meet the judges, react to questions and to
discuss their work with a recognized leader. Care must be taken to allow
a reasonable interview time within the time limits allotted for judging.


I

Not more than two students, male or female, may be certified as
finalists to the ISF from an affiliated science fair. They must be
students in 10th, 11th or 12th year classes in a public, private or
parochial school.


I

A student who will have reached age 21 on or before May 1, preceding the
ISF is not eligible to participate as a finalist in the ISF.


I

A student may enter only one project and it must be his own work. Group
projects involving two or more students give experience to beginners and
are acceptable in S or R fairs but may not be entered in the ISF.


I

The identical repetition of previous year’s project is not permitted.
However, a student may again exhibit work on a continuing problem
provided the work demonstrates considerable progress when compared with
the previous year.


I

Finalists must be accompanied to the ISF by an official adult escort
designated and/or sponsored by the regional fair. Responsibility and
liability for entry in the ISF rests with the affiliated fair
organization which finances the entry, provides transportation for the
finalists and their projects, and living expenses during ISF.


I

Students planning to enter exhibits in the ISF which contain materials
that may be regulated by a quarantine should first consult with a
Federal or State plant pest control or animal health inspector, a county
agricultural agent, or write to the Director, Plant Pest Control
Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Federal Center Building,
Hyattsville, Maryland 20782.


S-R-I Regulations for Experiments With Animals

_This guide was prepared and approved by the National Society for
Medical Research, the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (National
Research Council), and the American Association for Laboratory Animal
Science (1968)._

1. The basic aims of scientific studies involving animals are to achieve
an understanding of life and to advance our knowledge of life processes.
Such studies lead to respect for life.

2. Insects, other invertebrates and protozoa are materials of choice for
many experiments. They offer opportunities for exploration of biological
principles and extension of established ones. Their wide variety and the
feasibility of using larger numbers than is usually possible with
vertebrates makes them especially suitable for illustrating principles.

3. A qualified adult supervisor must assume primary responsibility for
the purposes and conditions of any experiment that involves living
animals.

4. No experiment should be undertaken that involves anesthetic drugs,
surgical procedures, pathogenic organisms, toxicological products,
carcinogens, or ionizing radiation unless a trained life scientist,
physician, dentist or veterinarian directly supervises the experiment.

5. Any experiment must be performed with the animal under appropriate
anesthesia if pain is involved.

6. The comfort of the animal used in any study shall be a prime concern
of the student investigator. Gentle handling, proper feeding, and
provision of appropriate sanitary quarters shall be strictly observed.
Any experiment in nutritional deficiency may proceed only to the point
where symptoms of the deficiency appear. Appropriate measures shall then
be taken to correct the deficiency, if such action is feasible, the
animal(s) shall be killed by a humane method.


This booklet is one of the “Understanding the Atom” Series. Comments are
invited on this booklet and others in the series; please send them to
the Division of Technical Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Washington, D. C. 20545.

Published as part of the ABC’s educational assistance program, the
series includes these titles:

  _Accelerators_
  _Animals in Atomic Research_
  _Atomic Fuel_
  _Atomic Power Safety_
  _Atoms at the Science Fair_
  _Atoms in Agriculture_
  _Atoms, Nature, and Man_
  _Books on Atomic Energy for Adults and Children_
  _Careers in Atomic Energy_
  _Computers_
  _Controlled Nuclear Fusion_
  _Cryogenics, The Uncommon Cold_
  _Direct Conversion of Energy_
  _Fallout From Nuclear Tests_
  _Food Preservation by Irradiation_
  _Genetic Effects of Radiation_
  _Index to the UAS Series_
  _Lasers_
  _Microstructure of Matter_
  _Neutron Activation Analysis_
  _Nondestructive Testing_
  _Nuclear Clocks_
  _Nuclear Energy for Desalting_
  _Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping_
  _Nuclear Power Plants_
  _Nuclear Propulsion for Space_
  _Nuclear Reactors_
  _Nuclear Terms, A Brief Glossary_
  _Our Atomic World_
  _Plowshare_
  _Plutonium_
  _Power from Radioisotopes_
  _Power Reactors in Small Packages_
  _Radioactive Wastes_
  _Radioisotopes and Life Processes_
  _Radioisotopes in Industry_
  _Radioisotopes in Medicine_
  _Rare Earths_
  _Research Reactors_
  _SNAP, Nuclear Space Reactors_
  _Sources of Nuclear Fuel_
  _Space Radiation_
  _Spectroscopy_
  _Synthetic Transuranium Elements_
  _The Atom and the Ocean_
  _The Chemistry of the Noble Gases_
  _The Elusive Neutrino_
  _The First Reactor_
  _The Natural Radiation Environment_
  _Whole Body Counters_
  _Your Body and Radiation_

A single copy of any one booklet, or of no more than three different
booklets, may be obtained free by writing to:

            USAEC, P. O. BOX 62, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE 37830

Complete sets of the series are available to school and public
librarians, and to teachers who can make them available for reference or
for use by groups. Requests should be made on school or library
letterheads and indicate the proposed use.

Students and teachers who need other material on specific aspects of
nuclear science, or references to other reading material, may also write
to the Oak Ridge address. Requests should state the topic of interest
exactly, and the use intended.

In all requests, include “Zip Code” in return address.


                Printed in the United States of America
USAEC Division of Technical Information Extension, Oak Ridge, Tennessee




                          Transcriber’s Notes


—Silently corrected a few typos.

—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
  is public-domain in the country of publication.

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
  _underscores_.